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diff --git a/old/51133-0.txt b/old/51133-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f4fe0db..0000000 --- a/old/51133-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,38814 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Use the Popular Science Library; -History of Science; General Index, by Garrett P. Serviss and Arthur Selwyn-Brown - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: How to Use the Popular Science Library; History of Science; General Index - -Author: Garrett P. Serviss - Arthur Selwyn-Brown - -Release Date: February 6, 2016 [EBook #51133] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO USE POPULAR SCIENCE LIBRARY *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, Juliet Sutherland and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -[Illustration: - - Copyright, Ewing Galloway] - -[Illustration: _The Majestic, Largest Steamship in the World_] - - - - - POPULAR SCIENCE LIBRARY - - - EDITOR-IN-CHIEF - - GARRETT P. SERVISS - - AUTHORS - - WILLIAM J. MILLER - HIPPOLYTE GRUENER - A. RUSSELL BOND - D. W. HERING - LOOMIS HAVEMEYER - ERNEST G. MARTIN - ARTHUR SELWYN-BROWN - ROBERT CHENAULT GIVLER - ERNEST INGERSOLL - WILFRED MASON BARTON - WILLIAM B. SCOTT - ERNEST J. STREUBEL - NORMAN TAYLOR - DAVID TODD - CHARLES FITZHUGH TALMAN - ROBIN BEACH - - ARRANGED IN SIXTEEN VOLUMES - WITH A HISTORY OF SCIENCE, GLOSSARIES - AND A GENERAL INDEX - - _ILLUSTRATED_ - - [Illustration] - - VOLUME SIXTEEN - - P. F. COLLIER & SON COMPANY - - NEW YORK - - Copyright 1922 - - BY P. F. COLLIER & SON COMPANY - - MANUFACTURED IN U. S. A. - HOW TO USE THE POPULAR - SCIENCE LIBRARY - - BY - - GARRETT P. SERVISS - - HISTORY OF SCIENCE - - BY - - ARTHUR SELWYN-BROWN - - GENERAL INDEX - - [Illustration] - - P. F. COLLIER & SON COMPANY - NEW YORK - - - - -PREFACE - - -The final or Index volume of the Popular Science Library not only -increases the value of this great set, but actually multiplies it. -Volume XVI is in three parts: First, the editor, Garrett Serviss, in -"How to Use the Popular Science Library," describes the way the reader -may enjoy and profit most from its store of scientific knowledge -in connection with his everyday experiences. Then follows Arthur -Selwyn-Brown's "History of Science," an excellent foundation for the -study of man's achievements in his struggle to understand and turn to -his own use the forces of nature. Here is a concise record of progress -from the earliest times until now--discoveries and inventions past, -present, and about to come. - -The third part of Volume XVI occupies nearly half the book. It is the -General Index, which is as complete and as practical as it is possible -for an index to be. Here, then, we have sixteen volumes on science, -every work agreeable to read, every work complete in itself, and all of -them, including the Index, prepared by specialists, each of whom has -already gained distinction in the field he covers. The Index binds the -collection into a consistent whole, making every bit of knowledge in -the sixteen books available to reader or student without delay. - -The style employed in the Index is a standard for such material. Volume -numbers are represented by the Roman numerals, i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi, -vii, viii, ix, x, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, xvi. Pages are indicated by -figures. All topics and subtopics are arranged alphabetically. - -When you read or study the Popular Science Library, keep the Index -volume at hand whenever it is convenient. It will add greatly to your -interest and give you a depth of insight into these matters if you can -compare one author's opinions and descriptions with those of another. -If you are consulting the Library as a reference collection for -information on particular topics, the Index will give you volume and -page for every bit of text on the subject you are considering. - -The Popular Science Library is unique in the number and standing of -its authors and in the care that has been taken to make it the easiest -as well as the most engrossing of all scientific collections for the -reader or student to use. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - HOW TO USE THE POPULAR SCIENCE LIBRARY. BY GARRETT P. SERVISS 9 - - HISTORY OF SCIENCE 39-198 - - - CHAPTER - - I. HISTORY OF SCIENCE 39 - - II. PRIMITIVE MAN AND EARLY CIVILIZATIONS 46 - - III. PRE-BABYLONIAN SCIENCE 56 - - IV. EGYPTIAN SCIENCE 64 - - V. FOUNDING OF SYSTEMATIC SCIENCE IN GREECE 76 - - VI. GOLDEN AGE OF GREEK SCIENCES 86 - - VII. THE ROMAN AND MIDDLE AGES 97 - - VIII. SCIENCE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 106 - - IX. PRELUDE TO MODERN SCIENCE--THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 117 - - X. PHYSICAL SCIENCES IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 129 - - XI. THE NATURAL SCIENCES 139 - - XII. ORGANIC EVOLUTION, VARIATION, AND HEREDITY 149 - - XIII. CHEMICAL AND BOTANICAL THEORIES 159 - - XIV. GEOLOGY, METALLURGY, AND METEOROLOGY 168 - - XV. MEDICINE AND PHARMACY 178 - - XVI. ELECTRICITY AND RADIOACTIVITIES 188 - - XVII. SCIENCE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 195 - - GENERAL INDEX 199-384 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - THE MAJESTIC, LARGEST STEAMSHIP IN THE WORLD _Frontispiece_ - - FACING PAGE - - EOHIPPUS--FROM WHICH THE MODERN HORSE DEVELOPED 16 - - ORNITHOLESTES--A PREHISTORIC ANIMAL OF AMERICA 17 - - HUNTSMAN, HORSE, AND HUNTING DOG OF LONG AGO--FROM - AN ANCIENT CRETAN FRESCO 17 - - PREHISTORIC PAINTINGS--AN EXHIBITION OF COPIES - FROM THE CAVERN AT ALTAMIRA, SPAIN 24 - - SABER-TOOTHED TIGER THAT ONCE ROAMED OVER NORTH - AMERICA 25 - - GUTENBERG'S PRINTING PRESSES--MODELS ON EXHIBITION 32 - - BENJAMIN FRANKLIN'S PRINTING PRESS 33 - - MODEL OF THE "SANTA MARIA," THE FLAGSHIP OF - COLUMBUS 48 - - CURTISS NAVY RACER, THE AIRPLANE THAT WON THE - PULITZER RACE OF 1921 49 - - U. S. ARMY DIRIGIBLE ON A TRANSCONTINENTAL FLIGHT 49 - - ELECTRIC MOTOR OF 1834 64 - - TURNING LATHE OF 1843 64 - - EDISON PHONOGRAPH OF 1878 65 - - WHITNEY'S COTTON GIN 65 - - DE WITT CLINTON TRAIN OF 1831 BESIDE A MODERN - LOCOMOTIVE 80 - - LOCOMOTIVE OF THE 1870 PERIOD 81 - - "JOHN BULL," A LOCOMOTIVE BROUGHT FROM ENGLAND - IN 1831 81 - - WEATHER AND ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS ON THE - ROOF OF GREENWICH OBSERVATORY, ENGLAND 112 - - MOORING TOWER FOR AIRSHIPS, WITH THE "R-24" - FASTENED HEAD ON 113 - - HOSPITAL ROOM IN WHICH INFECTED ARTICLES ARE - STERILIZED 160 - - MODERN OPERATING ROOM IN PARIS, FITTED WITH A - GLASS DOME AND RADIO MICROPHONES FOR OBSERVING - STUDENTS AND DOCTORS 161 - - EDOUARD BELIN AND THE TELAUTOGRAPH, WHICH TRANSMITS - PICTURES BY WIRE 176 - - LEE DE FOREST, INVENTOR OF THE OSCILLATING AUDION 177 - - AUTOMOBILE WITH RADIO EQUIPMENT FOR LISTENING IN - EN TOUR 177 - - GIFTS FOR TUTANKHAMEN BROUGHT BY ONE OF HIS - VICEROYS 192 - - TUTANKHAMEN'S TOMB--BRINGING UP THE HATHOR - COUCH 193 - - QUEEN NEFERTITI, MOTHER-IN-LAW OF TUTANKHAMEN - AND WIFE OF AHKNATON 193 - - - - -HOW TO USE THE POPULAR SCIENCE LIBRARY - - -This series of books is written for all the people and not for -specialists only, though it is the work of specialists who know how to -explain their subjects clearly and interestingly, without unnecessary -technicalities and with keen appreciation of the popular and constantly -increasing desire for scientific knowledge. - -The supreme importance of science in the wonderful age in which our lot -has been cast was demonstrated with overwhelming force of conviction by -the events of the World War. If, as certain persons assert, science may -be accused of having rendered war more destructive and terrible, yet, -on the other hand, no one can deny that it was science that saved the -world from sliding backward into an age of despotism. - -The true importance of science for everybody arises from its rapidly -increasing service in the development of human industry in all its -forms, for industry is the mother of democracy. - -Said Gabriel Lippman, the French physicist, inventor of color -photography, who died in the summer of 1921: "For thousands of years -science progressed by groping and feeling its way, and coincidentally -industry got slowly on by guesswork; but within the last century -science has developed more than during all preceding time, while -industry has sprung upon its feet and begun to march with the strides -of a giant." - -Notwithstanding its immense importance and the vast extent and -complication of its application in modern times, science is not -really difficult for any person of ordinary school education and of -good natural intelligence to comprehend, provided it is presented -in a clear, plain, common sense manner, in popular language with -illustrations drawn from everyday life and experience. The much -talked-of methods of science are, after all, nothing more than the -methods of common sense, applied with systematic care by minds -disciplined to a high degree of efficiency. And, in fact, the only -practical difference between the mind of a trained scientist and that -of any other intelligent person is that the scientist has acquired a -way or habit of looking at and thinking about things and events, which -enables him to get at their inmost nature and meaning more swiftly and -accurately than he could do if he went to work in a haphazard manner -as, in truth, his forerunners of the earlier centuries were obliged -to do. The pioneer must always work by rule of thumb, but when he has -exploited his field he knows better ways. - -Each branch of science has its own particular methods, but it is -not necessary for the average reader to study these special methods -in order to become able to grasp the facts and principles that have -been developed by them. The results are all thrown into a common -store--or should be if science is to attain its utmost usefulness to -humanity--and from the common store the great public, the people at -large, should be enabled freely to draw. The object of this series of -books is to form such a store of science for the people. - -It may encourage those who look with some degree of timidity upon the -task of trying to understand the great discoveries and achievements -of modern science to know that even the ablest scientists, leaders in -their own particular branches, do not pretend, or attempt, to grasp the -special methods or the technicalities of any division of science except -that one in which their own work is done. They stand, with regard to -other branches, practically on the same footing with the unscientific -reader, having over him only such possible advantages as their special -training in clear thinking and in the intense application of the mental -powers may give them. - -Besides, science is really the most interesting thing in the -world--outside of men and women--and _they_ would be less interesting, -even to themselves, if science had not transformed their lives as well -as their surroundings. If one of Voltaire's favorite messengers from -some other, wiser world had visited our earth a few hundred years ago, -or even only one hundred, and should now repeat his call, he would be -amazed, and no doubt delighted, by the changes in every feature of life -and society which he would find that science had brought about, as if -by magic, during the interval between his visits. He would be likely to -exclaim: "Some great teacher and trainer from a more enlightened part -of the universe must have been here since I saw this world before. What -a marvelous new spirit he has imparted to these creatures. Through him -they have become more masterful and more like sons of God." - -See if you can find a single detail of your daily life that is not -affected by science, or upon which science does not throw new light. It -is fascinating to trace out the scientific relations of the simplest -things that surround us, or the most ordinary occurrences and incidents. - -Start with your first awakening in the morning, and you will perceive -that there is not a thing that you see, or that in any way attracts -your attention, that is not touched and illuminated by science, and -often in the most unexpected and delightful ways. It is by considering -these things that one may best perceive how to use the volumes of this -little library. As you open your eyes in the morning you see a bright -glow through the window curtain, then you know that the sun has risen. - -But stop a moment. What does that mean--"the sun has risen"? The -sun has not "risen" at all. But, one of the greatest facts of the -science of astronomy is illustrated before your eyes--a fact that it -took mankind thousands of years to find out. You are standing in the -astronomer's shoes now, if you choose to wear them. This is a part -of his field of science. It took him a long time to convince the -world that the "rising" of the sun in the east next morning after -its "setting" in the west really means that the globular earth has -turned half way over during the night. If this seems simple to you -now, it seemed very hard to comprehend to our remote ancestors, who, -though reasoning men like ourselves, had not learned as much about the -relativity of motion as we now know, though even we may be puzzled by -some of the consequences that Einstein has drawn from it. And a hundred -other things that astronomy has discovered about the sun and the other -suns, called stars, and the other worlds, called planets, immediately -rush to your mind, and you turn to the volume on astronomy to read -about them. - -But this is only a beginning of the string of everyday incidents -that are rendered curiously interesting as soon as their scientific -relations and meanings become evident to you. Science is right at your -elbow to raise questions and to answer them the moment you step out of -bed, and your mind begins to work. - -As you throw open the window to see what kind of a day it is going to -be, whether fair, or cloudy, or rainy, cool or warm, you draw your -conclusions from the appearance of sky and air, but in doing that -you are entering another field covered by another branch of science -and included in our little library--meteorology, or the realm of the -air--and you may be sure that the correctness of the conclusions that -you draw from the aspect of the clouds and the feeling of the air will -be greatly increased, not only in certainty, but also in interest, -if you read what the students of this subject have learned about the -laws and the mysteries of the rains, clouds, cyclones, barometric -pressures, great winds and genial breezes, great storms and little -storms; in short, the whole wonderful science of the atmosphere, that -invisible, yet powerful kingdom of the air, which we are just beginning -to annex to our world of activities without regard to what its natural -occupants, the birds, think of such an invasion. - -Now you leave the window to begin making your morning ablutions. You -turn on a faucet and take a drink, or plunge hands and face into the -refreshing liquid, so cool, lively, and invigorating. But a bird or -any four-footed animal may find just as keen physical enjoyment in the -touch and taste of the water as you do. You, however, because you are -a thinking being, possess a source of enjoyment from the touch and -appearance of the water that is not open to those humbler creatures, -and that source of enjoyment springs from the principles and facts of -another branch of science which the mere sight of the running water may -call to mind if you have caught the spirit of these books--the science -of chemistry, whose early history is filled with that irresistible -kind of romance that pertains to the search for Eldorado, or the -strivings of the human spirit after the powers of magic; for the realm -of chemistry was once a kind of semi-scientific dreamland, wherein the -"alchemists" delved at the same time for the "philosopher's stone" -which was to turn base metal into gold, and for the wand of the -magician which would give to its possessor the boundless gratifications -of a Faust. Water is no mystery to the lower animals, but it is a great -mystery even yet to the highest ones--ourselves--because we have been -enabled to analyze it. You cannot look at it pouring from the faucet, -and sparkling into bubbles, without recalling the fact that it is -composed of two invisible, silent gases, and that chemistry tells us -not only how to make the water disappear by taking those gases apart, -but also how to form new water by making the two gases combine. The -mystery is--why should this be so? It is a captivating question, and -the business of the book on chemistry is to give you all possible light -on the solution of that question, and others of a like nature. You -will find, too, that the very latest chemistry has, strangely enough, -discovered a sort of justification for the extravagant expectations of -the ancient alchemists, by finding a way in which one substance may -actually change, or be changed, into another, different substance--one -"element" taking the form of another "element"--and also by getting -clues to the existence of marvelous locked-up energies in matter, the -release of which would give man control over powers that could properly -be called "magical." - -After finishing your toilet, with all the suggestions and remembrances -of chemical science that it has produced, you start to quicken the -circulation of your blood by catching up a pair of dumb-bells, or -Indian clubs, or by pulling elastic cords, or banging a leather ball -with your fists, as if you meant to go in for the championship of -the world. Now, what taught you the value of such exercises? You are -still on the ground of science, and you are practically demonstrating -the principles of another of its branches--the science of health, or -hygiene, which is a part of the subject of medicine, taken in its -broadest signification, for, as the volume on that subject will assure -you, the greatest service that this science can render to mankind is -in teaching us the laws of our physical existence, and indicating, -directly or indirectly, how all the functions of the body may be kept -in the best working order by proper attention and exercise. You will -find such things pointed out in the several sciences that deal with the -body, such as physiology and medicine. - -While you are making the leather ball strike the ceiling with -resounding whacks, your dog, excited by the inspiring noise, bursts -into the room, and interrupts your exercise with his enthusiastic -morning greetings, expressed as energetically by his wagging tail as -by his joyous barks and licks, all anticipatory of a lively morning -run. He brings immediately into your mind the thought of still another -division of science--zoölogy--to which you will devote many pleasant -half-hours of reading, for it is full of most entertaining matter, as -well as of matter calculated to awaken profound and useful thought -concerning the relations of the many different members of the animal -world to one another, and especially to their head and chief, man, to -whom the supervision of the whole was, according to the Bible story, -originally committed. Familiar as your dog may be to you, there are a -hundred particulars of his family relationships, his descent from wild -ancestors, etc., which can only become known to you through the studies -that have been devoted to the science of zoölogy by curious-minded -investigators from the times of Aristotle and Pliny down to our own -day, when we have seen an ex-President of the United States wandering -adventurously through some of the remotest portions of the inhabited -globe, seeking fresh knowledge of, and personal acquaintance with, the -rarer kinds of wild animals, and hunting down in their native wilds -great beasts which the Cæsars used to admire from the security of the -imperial seat, high above the bloody sands of the Roman arenas. And -this modern ruler, after having laid down the political power intrusted -to him by fellow citizens, found no occupation so attractive as that of -adding something to the growing stores of science. - -[Illustration: - - Painting, Chas. R. Knight. (American Museum of Natural History) - -THE LITTLE EOHIPPUS. FROM WHICH THE MODERN HORSE DEVELOPED] - -[Illustration: ORNITHOLESTES--PREHISTORIC ANIMAL OF AMERICA] - -[Illustration: - - Photo, Metropolitan Museum - -HUNTSMAN. HORSE AND HUNTING DOG OF LONG AGO - -From an ancient Cretan fresco] - -Next, your stomach, awakened to its wants and needs by the restored -circulation resulting from your lively exercises, reminds you of what -will be at the same time a pleasure and a means of sustained strength -for body and mind, your breakfast. Breakfast properly comes under -the supervision of the science of physiology. It is also suggestive -of mechanics and physics, since it has to do with the stoking of the -furnace that keeps the bodily engine up to its work. Here you are face -to face with a branch of science which you could no more safely neglect -than an engineer or a fireman could neglect to learn the elements and -principles underlying his critically important occupation. One of the -first sciences to be systematically developed was that of man's body, -including its structure, or anatomy, and its functioning, or internal -action, physiology. You will find that correct ideas on these subjects -were slow in being developed, yet even in the most ancient times men -were shrewd and wise enough to understand the importance of knowing -something about their own bodies, in order to be able to take proper -care of them, and to deal with wounds and sickness. - -It was an old saying that "the proper study of mankind is man." But -that is a study which has two main branches. The first covers the -subjects of physiology, anatomy, medicine, etc., while the second -relates to that even more intimate part of ourselves which has ever -been a fascinating mystery, and which we call the mind, or sometimes -the soul. This is the theme of the science of psychology, whose name -comes from that delicate, inscrutable spirit, _Psyche_, the Soul, -which plays like a flitting sunbeam through the magical atmosphere of -Greek mythology. Now, this subtle and exquisite science, often more -poetic and mystic than scientific in its original character, presents -itself in its more sober and practical dress to you as soon as, having -finished your breakfast and prepared your bodily energies for the day's -work, you begin to meditate on the problems of the day opening before -you. - -When you went to bed, perhaps your mind was agitated by some important -matter of business through whose intricacies you could not clearly -see your way. You turned and tossed on your pillow, and stated and -restated the facts and arguments and lines of reasoning, but all the -while they became more obscure and entangled until at last, in sheer -exhaustion, you fell into a troubled sleep. But this morning, to your -immense surprise and gratification, without any effort on your part, -and while you are occupied with other things--putting on your clothes, -hitting the ball, playing with the dog, eating your bacon and eggs, or -what not--suddenly the elusive clue or solution, so vainly sought the -night before, presents itself plain before you. In an instant, in the -twinkling of an eye, the troublesome problem is solved, as easily and -naturally as water runs down hill, and you are provoked at yourself for -having been so dull and stupid as not to see it all before. But not so -fast! You were stupid, to be sure, but it was not your mind's fault as -you are now disposed to think, but the trouble lay in your physical -fatigue. You were driving your brain too long without refreshment, and -it became like an engine whose oil cups are empty. It could not receive -and report the impressions of thought. - -Now this kind of experience comes many times to many men and women, -and it is the purpose of the book on psychology in this series to -make everybody acquainted with the laws of the working of our minds -through our brains. Yet, how many of those who are frequently puzzled -by such things are aware that there is a branch of science, one of -the most captivatingly interesting of all, devoted especially to this -subject? By studying the volume on psychology you will get light on -just such things as so greatly puzzled you, and haunted you, before the -solution of your problem unexpectedly rose up, as it were, and stood -plain before you on the breakfast table, after having for twenty-four -hours resisted your utmost efforts to master it, or even to get an -effective hold upon it. It is unnecessary to speak of the immense -importance to all human beings of a knowledge of the laws governing the -manifestations of the mind, by taking advantage of which they may get -the most out of themselves with the least loss of time and expenditure -of effort. - -Let us keep on further along the wonderful road of science on which -your feet begin almost unknowingly to tread from the moment of your -awakening, and which they follow, often just as unconsciously, until -you fall asleep at the close of another day; while, as we have just -seen, even when we are asleep our minds are not altogether inactive, -and may even secretly disentangle the puzzles of the day while our -tired brains are restoring themselves with slumber. Perhaps you live -in the suburbs of a city, or far from the business center, and have to -take a considerable journey from your house to your place of work or -business. Maybe you go by automobile, or by street car, or by a trolley -route, or take a commuters' train. In any event, whether you drive your -own car, or ride in one drawn by a motor or a locomotive engine, you -are brought face to face with the science of physics, including, of -course, not only mechanics, but also, in our own day, electricity and -magnetism. If you glance at a steam locomotive, puffing and blowing, -and then at a smooth, silent electric motor drawing a long train, and -then at a swift automobile winding and turning with serpentine agility -through crowds of slow horse-drawn vehicles--in all cases your memory -must recall the long, hard road by which these things were brought -about, and you must be lacking in intelligent curiosity if you do not -resolve to know for yourself, not only the history of these triumphs of -human invention, but the principles of action upon which they depend. -If you have a car, it would be a good thing to drive it yourself and -learn to take care of its machinery yourself, for thus you would go far -toward mastering the elementary principles of the science of mechanics, -which has done more than all other things combined to transform the -face of the world we live in. You cannot, of course, acquire all -this knowledge by practical experience, but by putting together what -you observe with what you read in the volumes devoted to mechanics, -physics, chemistry, electricity, etc., you will find that every day is -a school day for you in which you have learned something new, useful, -and interesting, and something, moreover, which every wide-awake -person in this wide-awake age ought necessarily to know, and can know -by pursuing such a course as that just suggested. Your morning's ride -to work will be transformed into a delightful intellectual experience -if you prepare yourself by a little daily reading to understand the -construction and manner of working of all the machines, engines, and -mechanisms presented on every side to your inspection. - -But machinery is not everything in life. Suppose that as you ride -along your eye is caught by the great beauty of the flower gardens -by the roadside, their blossoms bright in the morning sunshine and -sparkling with the yet undried dew, as if sprinkled with diamonds. -Perhaps your attention may never before have happened to be called -so strongly to these objects, and possibly you have hitherto remained -almost unacquainted with the names and peculiarities of some of the -most common plants and flowers. But this morning, for some accidental -reason, which may have a psychological origin, you are particularly -charmed with the brilliant sight, and you resolve that you will be no -longer ignorant of what could, manifestly, give you so much pleasure, -besides being of unquestionable usefulness. When you return home you -will take up the volume on botany, and it may lead you into a realm of -mental delight previously unknown to you. - -If it is the springtime, you may be interested by the sight of a tall, -graceful tree, as lofty as a pine, and as straight in trunk, with many -exquisite blossoms hanging from the pendulous stems on its great limbs, -fifty or more feet above the ground, as if it were a flower garden in -the air for the special delectation of the birds. Having never heard of -a flowering tree outside the tropics, you feel a keen desire to know -what this one is, and thus a way of introduction, founded on keen, -personal interest, is opened for you to the science of botany. And -few persons can take a ride, or a walk, anywhere in city or country -or park, without having attention attracted by some unknown flower or -plant, or tree, and without becoming aware how much pleasure is lost, -and how much useful knowledge missed, by lack of the easily acquired -knowledge of these things, which anybody can have by giving to it -only that amount of time which would otherwise be wasted almost as -completely as if the eyes were kept closed and the mind dismissed from -its home in the brain. More mysterious, and not less fascinating than -flowers and trees, are the birds and insects that flit by on their own -errands. To explain them you have the volume on zoölogy, the science of -animal life. Botany and zoölogy together go far to revolutionize the -ordinary man's ideas about the attractiveness of outdoor life. - -For the cultivator of the soil, whether farmer, gardener, or fruit -grower, botany, of course, is the queen of sciences--though he may not -safely remain ignorant of the others mentioned, which form a brilliant -court for his queen. In no direction has science lately proved itself -so indispensable as in the application of botanical knowledge to the -improvement of agricultural operations of all kinds. In France, always -one of the richest of lands in this respect, the government has since -the war made special provisions for placing instruction in botany and -plant physiology, and the results of all advances in the science of -the vegetable kingdom, before the pupils of the primary as well as -those of the secondary and higher schools. Botanical reading and study -are encouraged in every possible way. One of the most significant -propositions for the extension of this educational reform consists in -the suggestion that the schools in the country districts give much more -attention to the various branches of botanical knowledge than the city -schools do, for the purpose not only of supplying instruction that will -be of fundamental practical use to the young people who grow up on -the land and are to make its cultivation their life's occupation, but -also of stimulating a love of the country for itself, its scenes, its -atmosphere, its society, its amusements, and its simple, beautiful, and -healthful ways of life. - -As your train, or car, rushes through a rock cut where the roadway -has been carried, without change of level or grade, through the -round back of a hill, you may happen to see on the side walls of the -excavation curious striations, or cross checkings, of the rock surface, -or alternate strata, or layers, of varying color and texture; some -composed of smooth-faced stone, of a dark, uniform color, and others -of coarse granular masses of variegated hue, some of whose particles -flash like microscopic mirrors in the glancing sunlight that grazes -the top of the cut. Here, then, you are plunged into the wonder -world of the geologist and the mineralogist, the subject of one of -the most interesting of our volumes. That man must indeed be dull of -intellect who does not feel a thrill of interest at the sight of these -signs and inscriptions, written by the ancient hand of nature in the -rocks, and telling, in language far more easily decipherable than the -hieroglyphics of Egypt, the story of the gradual growth of this round -planet on whose surface we are confined, like flies or ants, as it -rotates and revolves in empty space, circling with us around a star, -ninety-three million miles away, called the sun, which saw the birth of -our world and has ever since kept it warmed and lighted with its rays. - -In those layers of rock in the railway cut you see the leaves of the -book of geology, infinitely older than the oldest scripture from man's -hands, and relating things that occurred in those far-off nights and -mornings of time that flitted over the globe ages before the human -stem had set off from the trunk of terrestrial life. These geologic -pages speak of occurrences in the building of the world that happened -millions of years ago, and millions of years apart, though they have -left marks and vestiges that the eye can discern as easily as if they -had been the work of yesterday. No observant person can ride twenty -miles through the country, especially in a hilly region, without having -the fundamental facts of geology continually before him, and all that -he needs in order to comprehend these things is a little preparatory -reading, accompanied and followed by intelligent thought and -observation. Anybody to whom all rocks look alike, and all hills the -same, needs a little awakening of the mind. He is one of the persons -had in view when this series was conceived and written, and he has no -occasion to feel in the slightest degree offended by such a statement, -for the simple fact that probably ninety-nine one-hundredths of his -fellow citizens, and they among the best in the community, are just -as unfamiliar with the plainest facts of geology as he is. Geology is -not a difficult science to master in its main outlines, and there are -few more fascinating when once its drift is caught. Even the beginner -in the reading of the volume on geology, by seizing such chances of -observation as every ride or walk affords, may in a very short time -acquire the ability to read the history of a landscape from its face, -to recognize the work of the glaciers in the great Age of Ice, to -see where ancient streams flowed, or where molten rock has gushed up -through the surface layers of the earth's crust, and even to recognize -on sight some of the fossils, which are under everybody's feet in some -parts of the country, and which still retain the forms of animals some -of which were among the primal inhabitants of the earth, whose lines -have died out, while others, though their individual lives expired tens -or hundreds of millions of years ago, bear in their fossilized forms a -close resemblance to modern relatives and descendants whose generations -still flourish in the living world in this twentieth century of man's -latest historic era. - -Presently, turning from the attractions of the outdoor world, which -seem just as entrancing the hundredth time you look upon them as they -did the first time, particularly if you have cultivated the habit not -merely of noticing but of thinking and reading about them, you take -up the morning newspaper, in which most of your companions of the car -are already deeply buried, and amid the political news, the personal -gossip, the inevitable exploitation of the deeds of criminals, the -foreign intelligence, and the social gossip that falls under your eyes, -your attention is caught (this is an actual happening of not long ago) -by the headline: "John Daniel, the orang-utan, is dead." This sounds -odd. There has been no animal's obituary in the papers since Barnum -lost his biggest elephant, and bequeathed its skeleton to science. You -read further and find an interview with a professor about the human -relationships, or apparent relationships, of the anthropoid apes, of -whom "John Daniel" would probably have been the acknowledged king if -his relatives of the woods could have understood the regard in which -he was held by his white-skinned and clothes-wearing jailers. You -will probably cut out that paragraph and put it aside for further -consideration, remembering that there are at least three volumes in -your Popular Science set at home, that on zoölogy, that on geology, -and that on anthropology, in which there will be an abundance of -interesting and authoritative matter bearing on this most important -subject--for important you will consider it now that the death of a -kind of caricature of humanity in the zoölogical garden that had so -long amused the children as well as their elders with its humanlike -motions, habits, looks, and pranks, has suddenly brought the whole -question up among the news of the day, affording you a new light on -a matter which you had hitherto thought to belong exclusively to the -field of the professors of zoölogy and their students. Hereafter you -will disposed to take a broader view of all these things, and will be -in a better position to understand and enjoy the discussions of learned -scientists when they are interviewed by newspaper men on subjects of -this kind. The inquiring spirit of the time requires this concession -even if in your private opinion there is no real relationship between -men and apes. And, without regard to any such questions, you will find -the volume on anthropology immensely interesting and informing. - -Finally, as your morning's trip comes to an end, your attention is -recalled from the natural to the mechanical sciences. You descend -from your car or train, to go to your office. Your now fully awakened -mind, alert to all the scientific relations of everything about you, -can no longer keep from dwelling upon the underlying meanings of this -marvelous display of realized human dreams. With the speed of the wind -you are carried deep under the city's pavements, inclosed in a little -flying parlor, in the midst of an artificial subterranean daylight, -far beyond the reach of the solar rays, emulating the self-luminous -creatures of the deep sea bottom; or you go shooting past the window of -third, fourth, and fifth stories, or even above the levels of roofs, -and you cannot but reflect and marvel that electricity does it all; -electricity, that strange imp with blue star eyes no bigger than pin -points, and a child's crown of little crinkling, piercing rays, which -seemed so amusing when you were at school in the old days of frictional -electric machines, when it was a great joke to give the cat a shock -and see her flee with a squall, her hair standing on end in spite -of herself. But now electricity has become a giant of unrivaled and -terrific power, spurning the heavy-limbed Brobdingnag, steam, from its -swift path, and fast making the world all its own--except its master, -man, who is still, however, half afraid of his new and all-capable -servant. - -[Illustration: EXHIBITION OF COPIES OF PREHISTORIC PAINTINGS FROM THE -CAVERNS AT ALTAMIRA, SPAIN] - -[Illustration: - - Painting by Chas. R. Knight. Photo, American Museum of Natural History - -THE SABER-TOOTHED TIGER THAT ROAMED OVER NORTH AMERICA IN PREHISTORIC -TIMES] - -This modern genie of limitless power, conjured out of his deceptive -bottle, can do the smallest as well as the greatest things for you. -When, upon reaching your office, you telephone to your wife that Mr. -Blank will be home to dinner with you, you cannot form the slightest -idea of how the miracle of distant speech is accomplished unless you -are either an electrician yourself, or have read intelligently upon the -subject of the applications of electricity to the motivation of all -kinds of machinery, a subject to which an entire volume is devoted in -our series. It would be a kind of shame and reproach to an intelligent -man to be ignorant of the way his telephone works, and of the simple -scientific principle on which it is constructed. If telephones, and -such things, were products of nature and grew on trees, we might be -excusable for not knowing exactly their secret; but being made by men, -with the same limitations as those that circumscribe us all, we ought -at least to understand them. - -Thus, by a simple review of the series of common happenings that arrive -every day to everybody, we perceive how intimately and indissolubly -the various branches of science treated of in this compact library of -science, are linked with all that we do, including our most unconscious -acts and our most habitual subjects of thought. We have taken for -illustration the morning history of a person supposed to live amid -urban or suburban surroundings. Equally illuminating would be that -of an inhabitant of a village or a rural district, and even more -suggestive in many respects. The dweller in the country is brought -into closer association with the infinitely changing aspects of nature -than the city dweller enjoys. The simplest incident in the life of a -person living on a farm may be the beginning of a thread of connection -leading, like the clue of a labyrinth, into the heart of some of the -most marvelous departments of science, and resulting in a mental -revolution for the fortunate person who follows out the clue under -such guidance as these volumes afford. The writer has remembered from -boyhood the indelible impression made upon his mind by the finding of -an Indian arrowhead in a recently ploughed field. The shapeliness of -the beautifully chipped piece of flint, almost as translucent at the -edges as horn, the delicate tapering point which, as if by miracle, -had remained unbroken probably since colonial times, the two curious -little "ears" carefully formed on each side of the flat triangular base -to facilitate attachment to the head of the arrow, and the thought, -suggested by older persons, that this weapon might actually have -been used in some midnight attack on a white settlement, made more -terrifying by the frightful Mohawk war whoop and the display of the -reeking scalps of human victims in the glare of burning stockade and -cabins--all these things bred a keen desire to learn the particulars -of the history of the red warriors of the Five Nations, the "Romans of -the New World," and also to know something about the life and customs -of this strange, savage race of mankind which continued to live in an -"age of stone" on a continent that had never known civilization. No -volume like that on the history and development of man in this series -existed at that time; but if such a book had existed and had fallen -into the hands of the finder of the arrowhead, it would surely have -fascinated him more than "Robinson Crusoe" did, because a boy can -distinguish as readily as a grown person the superior interest of the -true over the pretended, provided that the true possesses the real -elements of romance. - -So, too, the writer remembers having an interest in mineralogy awakened -in his mind, never to be obliterated, by the sight of another plowed -field, in the southern skirts of the Adirondack Mountains, whose -freshly turned furrows glittered in the sunshine with thickly scattered -quartz crystals, some of the larger and more perfect of which blazed -across, the whole breadth of the field, like huge diamonds, and made -the heart of the finder beat with an excitement akin to that of the -discoverer of a Koh-i-noor. There were also some very curious "stone -buttons" which one could break out with a hammer from slate rocks -along the Schoharie Creek, and which, when cracked open, were found -to be composed of pyrites that resembled pure silver--and sometimes -gold--freshly broken. Now, things of this sort are always attracting -the attention and awakening the curiosity of children living in the -country, but the real pleasure and instruction that they might afford -are usually missed because of the lack in the family library of -popularly written books on the natural sciences--a lack that we are -trying to supply. - -For city children and their elders, whose eyes are constantly greeted, -not by hills, creeks, ponds, rivers, woods, and fields, but by -sky-aspiring buildings, railroads elevated on stilts, multiple-decked -suspension bridges, electric power houses, tunnels that form a -second city underground, and the thousand marvels and splendors of -electric illumination at night, the volumes on physics, mechanics, -and electricity and magnetism have a more immediate interest and -value. What the children learn about these things in school is far -from sufficient to satisfy their curiosity. They need books at home to -guide their inquiries as well as to answer them. Only by that means can -the diffusion of scientific knowledge, and the popularization of the -scientific method of getting at the truth and the meaning of things -be thoroughly effected. Science, as its history plainly demonstrates, -progresses most rapidly only when a great number of minds have been -led to concentrate their powers upon its problems. Great genius, it is -true, rides over obstacles; yet consider how much further its energies -might have carried it if the obstacles had been more or less completely -removed in advance. Many a young man has been led to a brilliant -career, to the great advantage of his country and his time, as a result -of the interest awakened in him by the clear statements of a popularly -written book on some branch of science. - -One of the difficulties that persons unfamiliar with certain branches -of science encounter in reading about them arises from the excessive -use of technical terms, the lack of simple illustrative examples, and -also, sometimes, a lack of sympathetic appreciation of the reader's -difficulties. It has been a special object of this series to avoid this -trouble. Ordinary textbooks are prepared for students in school and are -intended to be supplemented by the personal instruction and guidance of -a teacher, standing at the pupil's elbow, or readily approachable. But -the reader who wishes to inform himself upon some progressive branch -of science after his school days are over needs to have the teacher -included in the book itself. - -Then, too, there are many persons who have no comprehension of the -great and gratifying power that a knowledge of some of the elementary -principles and formulas of science bestows upon anybody who may take -the little trouble necessary to master them, a trouble that does not -imply a long course of scientific study. The "man in the street," if he -possesses these easy-working keys to knowledge, can verify for himself -some of the calculations of scientists which, if he did not know how -they were done, would always remain for him in the category of the -mysterious achievements of genius. - -To illustrate, let us take a simple example--that of the Newtonian law -of falling bodies. Many persons would assume on the face of it that -there was nothing in this law that could have a particular interest -for them. But let us see. You will find in the volume on physics that -the law is stated thus: S = ½gt², i. e., "S equals one-half of the -product of g multiplied by t squared." As you look at it you would, -perhaps, as soon think of picking up a complicated tool and trying -to use it for some ordinary purpose. Nevertheless, let us try. "S" -in the formula means the space or distance traversed by the falling -body, "g" means the velocity that the force of gravity imparts in each -successive second to the body, and "t" means the time elapsed during -the fall. What the formula tells us, then, is that if we observe the -time during which the body is falling, and then square the number of -seconds involved (multiply the number by itself), multiply this square -by "g," which is represented practically everywhere on the face of the -earth by the number 32, and finally divide the whole by 2, we shall -have the distance that the body fell. This distance will be in feet, -since the number 32, representing "g," is in feet. Now, it might be a -matter of life and death, or at any rate of mental discomfort against -quietude of mind, to have that rule in memory and to be able to apply -it. For instance, you are on your vacation and stopping in a strange -hotel, where they have put you in the top story. On looking out of the -window you are dismayed at finding no fire escape, or other appliance -of safety, so that your only resource in case of fire would be to make -a rope out of the bedclothes and let yourself down with it. But, how -far is it to the ground? How long should the rope be? Are there sheets -enough on your bed to furnish it? The little formula about falling -bodies will answer the question for you in five minutes. First, you let -some small solid object drop from the window, and note by your watch, -or by counting seconds, which everybody ought to teach himself to do, -how long it takes to reach the ground. You repeat the experiment two or -three times to make sure. Say the time comes out three seconds. Very -well, now apply the rule: The square of 3 is 9, and 9 multiplied by 32 -gives 288, and dividing by 2 you have 144 feet for the height! It is to -be feared that your bedclothes rope would not be long enough; you had -better send to the office for something to supplement it. But if the -time of fall should be only 2 seconds, which is more likely, except in -skyscraper hotels, then the calculation would give you 64 feet for the -height, which you might manage with the aid of the bedclothes. - -[Illustration: MODELS OF GUTENBERG'S PRINTING PRESSES - -The models show three stages of development, the first of them at the -right] - -[Illustration: BENJAMIN FRANKLIN'S PRINTING PRESS - -The original is now in the National Museum at Washington] - -This is only a single example among many that could be given to show -the usefulness and interest of many of the formulas of science which -the ordinary reader looks upon as beyond the reach of any person -whose occupation leads him another way. But cases of equal simplicity -could be found in connection with the subjects of electricity and -magnetism, chemistry, medicine, physiology, etc. Sometimes it happens -that a technical word contains its own definition and explanation in -a nutshell. A striking instance of this will be found in astronomy, -in the word "light-year." The meaning of this word stands forth on -its face--it evidently expresses the distance that light travels in -the course of one year. Now, since it is known by means of direct -measurement that light goes at the rate of 186,300 miles per second, -manifestly a light-year must be equivalent to an enormous number -of miles. In fact that number, roundly stated, is no less than -5,860,000,000,000. But to what marvelous regions of thought such a term -opens the way! Yonder star is 2,000 light-years distant from the earth; -then its light-waves now entering your eyes left it when Julius Cæsar -was conquering Gaul, and have been speeding on their way to the earth -ever since! Another star is found to be 5,000 light-years distant; then -the light by which you now see it started from the star when Abraham -set out from Ur of the Chaldees to settle in the Holy Land, and has -not found a resting place anywhere in boundless space until just now -when its tiny waves break and expire on the retina of your eye! Such -treasures of knowledge and tonics to thought are scattered all through -the volumes of this set, the purpose of whose publishers, editors, -and writers has been to accumulate such things in small compass and -in crystal clearness, for the use not only of those who, after their -school days are over, still wish to keep abreast of the progress of -science in all its branches--as everyone should strive to do in this -most scientific of all ages--but also for those who have hitherto not -had the time, or the opportunity, or perhaps even the desire, to make -themselves at home in the house of science. - -It may be well to add a few words on the interrelation of the different -subjects treated in the various volumes of the series. This will -suggest to the reader himself the best order in which to take up the -reading of the books. Naturally he will desire to obtain both a clear -general view of the whole field of science, and also more detailed -acquaintance with its special parts, the amount of detail depending -upon his particular interest in a subject. For the first purpose the -preferable way would be to run first over the brief account that -follows in this volume, of the history and development of science -in general, and then to take up the simpler and more easily grasped -branches. - -But it should be firmly kept in mind that, fundamentally, science is -one, having in all its branches but one aim and object, viz., the -ascertainment and demonstration of the exact truth of things as far -as human capacities are able to reveal and comprehend such truth, -and also but one method of procedure, which is the method of common -sense trained to the utmost attainable exactitude in observation and -the greatest possible clearness and precision of reasoning. Science -properly so-called confines itself to things that are subject to -observation by the senses and to verification by repeated observation -and experiment, while its reasonings and predictions are based entirely -upon the unvarying sequence of the phenomena of nature, as they display -themselves before us. - -Science is just as one and inseparable as life, or as an organic being, -and its divisions no more imply lack of unity than do the various -organs and limbs of an animal, or a tree, or the different structural -parts of a building. Astronomy is not entirely independent of geology, -nor geology of botany, nor botany of chemistry, nor any of these of -physics, nor physics of electricity and magnetism, nor the last of -physiology and medicine. Accordingly the question where to begin in -studying science is not one that can be answered in the same way for -everybody. But the spirit is the same in all the branches. - -Perhaps the best general indication of the order in which a person who -has no predilection for any one branch of science should take up the -various parts is afforded by their historic development. This was a -result of the natural reaction of man's mind to its surroundings. The -things nearest to him, and most immediately important, first attracted -his attention. The broadest division would be into the science of -things on the earth's surface; the science of things above the earth, -in the air and the sky; and the science of things within the earth, -concealed from immediate view. - -If we take these in their order they naturally subdivide themselves as -follows: - - -1--THINGS ON THE EARTH--EXPLAINED BY - - (a) Anthropology, the Science of Man and His Ancestors, treating of - his nature, origin, development, division into races and tribes, - society, industry, etc. - - (b) Zoölogy, the Science of Animal Life, treating of the "lower - animals," and of animal life in general as distinguished from the - kingdom of the plants, although the related science of biology - deals with both plants and animals, its special subject being the - phenomena of life in its widest sense. - - (c) Botany, the Science of Plant Life. - - (d) Geography, combined with Physiography, the Science of the Face, - or Superficies, of the Earth, dealing with lands and seas, rivers - and mountains, political divisions, etc. This is covered in our - series by the volume on Physiography. - - (e) In this compartment several branches of science may be grouped, - since they are all the product of study of things encountered on - the earth's surface. They are: - -_Physics_, the Science of the Forces of Nature, dealing with the laws -of the inanimate world around us, including the phenomena relating to -solid, liquid, and gaseous bodies and substances. - -_Chemistry_, the Science of Matter and Its Changes, dealing with the -atoms and their constituents, and with the combinations of atoms into -molecules to form the various chemical elements, etc. - -_Electricity_ and _Magnetism_, the Science of Power, fundamentally -underlying all other branches, and through its investigation of the -nature of the constituents of atoms--the electrons--going deeper into -the constitution of things than chemistry itself. In fact this science, -in some respects, blends with chemistry, although it is quite separate -when it deals with the mechanical developments of electromagnetism. - -_Medicine_, the Science of Health, _Physiology_, the Science of the -Body, _Psychology_, the Science of Human Behavior, _Mechanics_, the -Science of Machinery, etc., also naturally fall into this category of -Things on the Earth. - - -2--THINGS ABOVE THE EARTH--EXPLAINED BY - - (a) Astronomy, the Science of the Heavenly Bodies. - - (b) Meteorology, the Science of the Atmosphere, rains, winds, - storms, fair and foul weather, the changes of the seasons, and - essentially related to the new and fast developing art of aerial - navigation. - - -3--THINGS WITHIN THE EARTH--EXPLAINED BY - - (a) Geology, the Science of the Earth's Crust, or shell; which also - deals with the various stratifications of the rocks, superposed - one above another, and containing in the shape of fossils, and - other marks, a wonderful record of the character and development - of the living forms that have inhabited the earth during the long - ages of the past. Of course some of the phenomena dealt with by - geology are manifest on the earth's surface, and others, like - volcanoes and earthquakes, hot springs and geysers, are partly - subterranean and concealed from sight and partly evident by their - effects on the surface. - - (b) Closely associated with Geology are Mineralogy, the Science - of the Constitution and Structure of Rocks and of Mineral and - Metallic substances; Vulcanology, the Science of Volcanoes, and - of earth disturbances in general; and the Science of Mining, - which has several branches, and forms the basis of enormous - industrial developments. - -It is manifest, as before said, that the reader must be his own best -judge as to the precise order in which to take up the perusal of -the volumes in which this immense mass of scientific knowledge is -presented. But, where there is no predisposition to choose one subject -rather than another, or where there is a desire to follow, as nearly as -may be, the natural line of development of human knowledge, it would -be well to take first, after the history, the volume on astronomy, a -science that from the beginning has had a peculiar power to awaken -intellectual curiosity; then that on anthropology; then the various -so-called "natural history" subjects, leaving the mechanical and the -more technical subjects for the last. - -Or, the reader might first take up the subjects of personal importance -to every human being--Medicine, the Science of Health; Physiology, the -Science of the Human Body; Psychology, the Science of the Mind--every -one of which is essential to the proper care and preservation of life; -and afterward study the other branches in the order already suggested. - -[Illustration: ~Garrett P. Serviss~] - - - - -CHAPTER I - -HISTORY OF SCIENCE - - -The romantic history of science shows how the discoveries of the -greatest human minds, slowly operating since the remotest times, have -made possible our present-day civilization. Few studies are worthy of -greater attention; no other department of knowledge affords more real -pleasure. Whoever clearly understands the history of science possesses -intellectual advantages over those who are ignorant of the causes -that have led to the establishment of the basic principles of our -modern industrial arts and applied sciences. Standards of comparison -are furnished by the history of science which illuminate many of the -wonders of to-day, develop alertness of mind, and afford a never-ending -train of suggestions for thought. - -The term science means knowledge. It was derived from the language -of the Romans. It is well to have a clear idea of the meaning of the -word. Everyone knows that it has to do with certain kinds of knowledge; -few know the particular kinds it embraces. It does not mean the mere -knowledge of a single fact. It does not mean a knowledge of something -which has to be done. Long before science was born, our early ancestors -observed many isolated physical, philosophical, and religious facts. -They knew that day followed night, that the stars moved, that every day -the sun progressed over the arch of the heavens. Such facts did not -constitute science. - -What we know as science began when man commenced to compare one fact -with another, to classify phenomena, and to arrange his knowledge -systematically. Order, method, system, are basic principles of science. -The best description would, therefore, appear to be systematized -knowledge of any kind which had been gained and verified by exact -observation and correct thinking. The whole field of human knowledge is -now methodically formulated and arranged into rational systems. Modern -science may, therefore, be said to embrace all our exact knowledge. Its -province is enormous; its subdivisions are limitless. - -Science takes no account of knowledge which is not exact. Many people -acquire valuable information which they profitably use in business, but -which they are unable to communicate or describe to others because they -do not actually understand it. - -Farmers and flower growers often possess important practical knowledge -of facts which are embraced by the principles of the sciences of -agriculture, botany, and biology. But their practical knowledge is -not true science. It is rather like an artist's intuitive impulse. It -is not the result of scientific analysis, and there is no tangible, -communicable residuum. - -There could be no science if men did not discover principles of -knowledge which can be communicated to, and made available for use -by others. Scientific knowledge must be stripped of all traces of -emotionalism and personal convictions. True science is, therefore, -depersonalized knowledge. - -The history of science shows how our exact knowledge has been developed -along irregular paths but with progressive advances. There have been -long periods during which little apparent progress was accomplished, -which have been succeeded by others made memorable by brilliant -discoveries. - -We must constantly bear in mind that many of the truths generally -accepted to-day were doubtful or novel theories at some previous -period. The history of science shows the enormous mental effort -expended in testing and developing what now appear to us as commonplace -truths. - -Basic principles like those of algebra, geometry, and the planetary -motions were tested during several thousand years before they were -finally accepted as true. - -The human intellect at the dawn of history was similar to what it is -to-day. But it was not exercised as we exercise ours because it did -not have adequate materials and opportunities. For the same reason -science made slower progress in early times than it does now. Progress -is cumulative. Each advance helps that which follows. The functions of -a scientist are to struggle against individual views, and to provide an -explanation of phenomena which may be accepted as true by other minds. -Ascertained facts must be classified and then sequence and significance -recognized from an unbiased viewpoint. - -The history of science is the written record of countless experiments, -theories, and experiences of mankind which have been submitted to the -tests of scientific methods. - -While it is true that science embraces all knowledge its real scope is -limited to knowledge which is reducible to laws and can be embodied in -systems. The human mind unites all knowledge by a single thread, but -we have to chart and map it into larger and smaller divisions which we -define by the methods, basic concepts, and plans used in developing -them. - -We may now see how it is that the boundaries of any science are -merely approximate. The general grouping of the sciences is likewise -approximate. The first large group includes the abstract, or formal, -sciences such as mathematics and logic. The other great group comprises -the concrete sciences dealing with phenomena as contrasted with formal -relationships. Chemistry, biology, physics, psychology, and sociology -belong to the concrete group. - -At the beginning of history man is discovered observing the great -phenomena of Nature and struggling to learn their laws and to explain -them. Religion is both emotional and intellectual, and through these -qualities it attracted primitive man while he was attempting to gather -light on the riddles of the world. It was through religion that science -was born. - -Recent researches into primitive beliefs have shown in a surprising -manner the psychological unity of man. In all parts of the world, in -all periods of history, and under all conditions, the minds of men, in -their natural reactions against the basic factors of existence, operate -in similar ways. There is a remarkable resemblance in the mental -processes of men. The laws of thought appear to work automatically -in all men. The minds of prehistoric people worked like those of men -to-day. The impressions of the senses appear to be interpreted in -similar ways by all peoples. Here is the explanation of the numerous -resemblances we find in national histories, national folk lore, and -national religions. They differ much in innumerable details, but -possess many resemblances in their great fundamental conceptions. -Normal man has always been religious. Mankind has always assumed -definite attitudes toward the universe and this has resulted in the -universality of religion. - -Early men the world over appear to have been as eager to learn the keys -to the riddles of the universe as was the boy Longfellow sang about in -the following stanzas: - - Nature, the old nurse, took - The child upon her knee, - Saying: "Here is a story-book - Thy Father has written for thee." - - "Come wander with me," she said, - "Into regions yet untrod; - And read what is still unread - In the manuscripts of God." - - And he wandered away and away - With Nature, the dear old nurse, - Who sang to him night and day - The rhymes of the universe. - - And whenever the way seemed long, - Or his heart began to fail, - She would sing a more wonderful song, - Or tell a more marvelous tale. - -Modern science has developed from this instinctive human desire to read -Nature's story-book and understand her marvelous tales. - -Early struggles of mankind taught that human behavior must be regulated -in accordance with rigid moral laws. This promoted the primitive social -processes which were early concerned with religious beliefs as well -as with magic and medicine. Two of the earliest beliefs universally -accepted were that we possess souls and that our personality persists -after death. These basic principles of faith have caused extremely -beneficial results to follow in the development of knowledge. - -Some of the American Indians and other primitive peoples of to-day -still live in the belief that the heavenly bodies, the sky, sea, and -earth, as well as plants, animals, and men, all belong to a vast -system of all-conscious and interrelated life, in which the degrees of -relationship are distinguished by the degrees of resemblance. - -Religious beliefs were developed from struggles to conceive the -inconceivable and discover the infinite. Religions led to studies of -mysteries and ceremonies and rites. Magic developed and this also -had its customs, dogmas, and rites. The difference between magic and -religion was that the magician was consulted by his personal friends, -whereas the holders of religious beliefs had a common bond uniting -them in one strict form of worship. Magic was not systematized, while -religion was a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to -sacred things, and chiefly to the regulation of moral concepts and -conduct. - -The intimate association of religion, magic, necromancy, and science -continued until the early Greek era. There were many temples erected -in Greece and dedicated to Æsculapius, the god of medicine. Cures were -believed to be effected through the valuable offerings made to the god -by patients and their friends. It was thought that the ways to health -would be indicated to them by the god through dreams. - -Recent investigations of the representative ceremonial rites of the -aboriginal peoples of Australasia and of North and South America -have yielded a remarkably rich fund of information on the causes and -conditions which operated in prehistoric eras in developing the mental, -moral, and physical sciences. - -Some of the most romantic stories ever developed by the human intellect -are to be found in recent scientific works dealing with the history and -principles of the tribal customs, ceremonies, and religious rites of -primitive peoples. The early chapters in the history of man's mental -development and the evolution of science from distant origins in mystic -forces, through magic and necromancy to religion and philosophy, must -give abundant pleasure to all thoughtful persons by showing how it -came that the high state of civilization now attained was brought -about by slow processes, operating through immense periods of time and -blossoming only during the past two or three thousand years. A study -of these stories cannot fail to show how intimately science has been -associated with religion, why every normal individual is essentially -religious, and why the continuation of our civilization, and the -very existence of the human race, are absolutely contingent upon the -recognition of the moral laws, in the future as in the past. The -history of science establishes the fact that moral sanctions, which -require religious ceremonies to keep them vital, are the essential -bases of human progress. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -PRIMITIVE MAN AND EARLY CIVILIZATIONS - - -The development of scientific history has not followed a uniform -course. Progress has been rhythmic. There has been always a reaction -coming in the steps of brilliant discoveries. Periods of feverish -experimental activities have been succeeded by others during which -little apparent progress was made. - -Such dull intervals seem to have been necessary for developing, -formulating, classifying, and testing the innumerable details and -inferences that the discoveries of the active periods produced. - -While mankind in general has contributed to the total of our -intellectual treasures, some races have been more active in this way -than others. For this reason it is advisable to briefly survey the more -recent discoveries about the ancestors of existing peoples. - -Indo-Malaysia, parts of central Asia, and the valleys of the Tigris and -Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia are variously credited with having been -the cradle of the human race. It should be understood, however, that we -are only permitted to speak authoritatively of existing races, because -the land forms of the earth have undergone such remarkable changes -that we can know little definitely about the earlier periods of human -history. For the purposes of the history of science, while bearing in -mind these qualifying suggestions, we may accept the statement that -man's ancestors originated in proximity to India. - -It was around the waters of the Persian Gulf that the earliest known -civilizations arose. The people who founded them came from central -Asia. They had reached a considerable degree of culture, which suggests -that they themselves came from earlier centers of civilization. - -The study of prehistoric antiquity is termed archæology. Its principal -periods have been divided, for convenience, into the Stone, Bronze, and -Iron Ages. Each of these is distinguished by the substances used for -tools. In the Stone Age men used stone spearheads, arrows, and knives, -whereas in the Iron Age similar things were made of iron or copper. - -The science of mankind is known as Anthropology. It deals with the -innumerable steps in the evolution of mankind from remote periods, and -with the primitive development of the arts, sciences, and religion. Yet -it is one of the youngest of the sciences. - -One of its essential teachings is that heredity and racial -predispositions play, and always have played, more important parts -in man's evolution, and in the development of civilization, than -environment and education. - -Hereditary tendencies, such as the religious, moral, and æsthetic -instincts have been indispensable in preserving and developing all the -races of mankind. - -Moral discipline has been the chief factor in self-control, and -therefore in civilization. It is because the moral sense has -proved so beneficial to the human race, and is the most powerful of -our instinctive desires, that mankind always has been and must be -religious. It controls man's knowledge, desires, and will, and has -dominated the race since our early ancestors began to think. - -When we recognize this fact we can readily see that anything which -tends to oppose the moral or ethical sanctions, or detract from -religious beliefs, is injurious to civilization and human progress. The -histories of religion, ethics, and æsthetics plainly develop the rôles -which have been played by moral self-discipline in the protection and -development of mankind, as well as of knowledge and science. - -The moral control of individuals acts also upon society generally, -and upon whole racial and national groups. The ethical ideals assist -each individual mind to realize its own end and at the same time tend -to influence the tribal and social mind to attain a common end. This -great moral, instinctive force, which has played such an immensely -valuable part in developing civilization and science, is known as the -human social and national conscience. It acts both individually and -collectively. - -European races have been divided into classes corresponding to the -prevailing cephalic indices. The longheads are grouped as the Nordic, -or Baltic, subspecies, because they were formerly numerous around -the Baltic countries. People of this group are distinguished by tall -statures, fair skin and hair, good physique, and light colored eyes. -These peoples include the Scandinavians, Anglo-Saxon, and certain -important Teutonic groups, as well as Asiatic peoples who are known as -the Aryans. - -[Illustration: - - Copyright, Ewing Galloway - -MODEL OF THE SAILING VESSEL "SANTA MARIA," THE FLAGSHIP OF COLUMBUS] - -[Illustration: CURTISS NAVY RACER, THE AIRPLANE THAT WON THE PULITZER -RACE OF 1921] - -[Illustration: U. S. ARMY DIRIGIBLE ON A TRANSCONTINENTAL FLIGHT] - -The most important rôles in the development of modern civilization, -art, industry, and science have been played by representatives of the -Nordics. - -The Iberian, or Mediterranean, subspecies, ranks next in importance. -The peoples of this great racial division originally occupied the -countries between the northern Atlantic coast of Africa and the -confines of the areas of the Nordics around the northern provinces of -France. They spread down the Mediterranean and over large areas in -Asia. Their skulls are long, but differ from those of the Nordics in -their absolute size. Their stature is lower, and weaker than that of -the Nordics, while their hair, eyes, and skin are dark or black. The -Welsh, the Moors, and the early Greeks are chiefly classed with the -Mediterranean group. The Carthaginians, Phœnicians, Egyptians, and -Etrurians were members of it. - -The roundheads comprise the Alpine subspecies. This is the strongest -numerical group to-day. It is characterized by small round heads, short -bodies, dark hair, and dark eyes. It is of Asiatic origin and includes -the Slavs, modern Greeks, Italians, Germans, Austrians, Swiss, the -pre-Nordic Irish, French, and Belgians. The first Alpine invasion of -Europe began about 10,000 B. C. There were many subsequent ones through -the plateaus of Asia Minor, the Balkans, and valley of the Danube. They -reached England about 1800 B. C., and formed small colonies in Ireland, -the descendants of which now call themselves Celts and are clearly -distinguished by the characteristic Alpine indices. This race is now -so well acclimatized in Europe that most of its Asiatic traces have -been lost, and its round skulls and dark eyes and hair are the only -reminders of its Mongolian origin. - -Members of each of these three great racial groups of mankind have -throughout the ages contributed to the development of the sciences and -arts. The Nordics began to appear in European history as agricultural -tribes, speaking Aryan languages, like Celtic and Welsh, who swept -down from the north and pushed the earlier settlers back through their -irresistible arms, which were made of bronze and later of iron. The -earlier settlers were still furnished with arms and implements of the -Stone Age. - -There was a much older intellectual people than the Nordics settled in -Europe. The people of this race, about whom we have learned through -recent archæological researches, are known as the Cro-Magnons. They -lived between 25,000 and 10,000 B. C. Their skulls were distinguished -from those of the Nordics by their pronounced cheek-bones and broad -faces. Their culture, as their favorable cephalic index would suggest, -was of a high character. Numerous drawings and art works of theirs, -which have been preserved, place them among the world's superior -peoples. - -Soon after the settlement of the Cro-Magnons in Europe, and their -intermarriage with the earlier settlers, their physical development -and stature began to decline. They were finally absorbed and destroyed -by the inferior peoples among whom they dwelled. Their disappearance, -like that of the ancient Greeks, who appear to have been the most -intellectual people the world ever produced, shows how the upward -development of human physical and intellectual qualities is constantly -injured by the contacts of superior and inferior races. - -The scientific discoveries made prior to the Iron Age, or about 2000 -B. C., were not numerous. The struggle for life was so intense that -few had opportunity for contemplation and philosophic reflection. It -was subsequent to the discovery of the basic principles of metallurgy, -in the Iron Age, that science began rapidly to advance. The benefits -bestowed upon mankind by the employment of metals reduced the sharpness -of life's struggles, permitted and instigated reflection, and provided -means for experimentation. - -Modern history begins with the peoples of Mesopotamia. There were -cultured peoples east of the Tigris and Euphrates, in Persia, India, -Mongolia, Tartary, and China before the founding of Babylon. But we are -more instructed about the Babylonians and Assyrians than about earlier -Asiatic races. - -The Babylonians and Assyrians appear to have originated in central -Asia and to have migrated to Arabia about 10,000 B. C., and perhaps -earlier. They were well settled in Arabia before the Egyptian pyramids -and other Semitic memorials were planned. They brought with them from -the farthest Orient many important contributions to civilization and -culture, and developed many others. - -These were religious, philosophical and keen commercial peoples. -They shaped the organization of modern religions. The Babylonians -reduced the world of gods to a single system with classifications -distinguishing between major and minor deities, and between those of -heavenly, or stellar, and earthly habitats, and those of time and -space. They developed many religious myths of the Creation, the -Flood, Paradise, and others which were subsequently embraced by other -religions. - -Both the Babylonians and Assyrians composed beautiful hymns, prayers, -parables, and religious tales, and had numerous elaborate religious -customs, rituals, ceremonies, and festivals conducted by priests, nuns, -and acolytes. - -Anu, or Anum, the God of Heaven, was the principal Babylonian deity, -while Ashur was the leading god of the Assyrians. - -Religious studies and rites occupied a large portion of the time -of these peoples and, consequently, their temples, monasteries, -schools, and other religious buildings were large and numerous. -Their architecture was elaborately artistic. This was one of their -incentives to scientific invention. They made important discoveries in -all the basic physical sciences, like chemistry, physics, metallurgy, -and mathematics, to enable them to improve their buildings and to -embellish them with paintings, pictorial tiles, and fancy metals and -textiles. They had excellent professional men, artists, jurists, -bankers, contractors, and scientists. They were fond of literature and -founded extensive libraries. Music and musical instruments were very -popular with them. Their cuneiform writings, as disclosed by numerous -beautiful stone and porcelain tablets which have come down to us, were -excellently done. - -The fragments of literature, laws, and religious policies that we are -acquainted with indicate that the numerous Babylonian and Assyrian -settlements in each great empire possessed social and political -conditions similar to those of our days. Science and art were then -sufficiently advanced to enable these ancient people to live as -agreeable, moral, and legally secure lives as those of any subsequent -peoples. - -The Chinese appear to have been making similar progress to that of -the Babylonians about the same period. It would seem that both these -peoples were in contact with a similar but earlier cultured race in -central Asia. Although the early Chinese were a religious people, they -appear to have been more philosophical than the Babylonians. This -enabled them to make further progress in the abstract sciences. In -subsequent years they made rapid strides in the physical sciences, as -will be shown later. - -The Egyptians came into prominence toward the end of the Babylonian -and Assyrian empires, and for many centuries played a great rôle in -developing civilization. The numerous benefits which they bestowed -upon the world by their researches in science and art are not fully -appreciated. - -Early history pictures two great Asiatic races struggling for supremacy -in India. They were the Aryans, a fair-skinned people, and the -Dravidians, a colored people. The Aryans succeeded in displacing the -Dravidians in the great plains, upon which they settled and developed -large cities, important world commerce, and contributed great art works -and scientific and philosophical discoveries to the world's stores. The -Dravidians retired to the hill country, where their representatives -still live. - -The minds of the various Indian peoples have always been strongly -philosophical. This led them to the development of numerous religious -sects and philosophical systems, and they made important mathematical -discoveries. While the scientific bent of the ancient Greeks was of a -concrete nature, which tended toward geometrical proofs for scientific -problems, that of the ancient peoples of India was toward numerical -symbolism and arithmetical proofs. We find that when the Greeks were -developing geometry the Indians were contributing to arithmetic and -algebra. - -The Chinese closely resembled the ancient Indians in the philosophical -tendency of their minds; but, owing perhaps to the different conditions -under which they lived, they were more concrete in their ideas. They -also made progress in mathematics and developed medicine, chemistry, -metallurgy, and many of the sciences which were applied to commercial -and industrial uses. The progress made in mathematics in China was -transmitted to Egypt, and therefore to Europe, through India. Among -early Chinese discoveries in mathematics were methods of solving -numerical equations and the development of magic squares and circles, -which gave a great stimulus to studies in geometry and astronomy. - -The Arabs, Greeks, and Romans took up the discoveries of the Asiatic -peoples, and the Egyptians enlarged them and passed them forward to -us. The Arabs solved cubic equations by geometrical means, perfected -the basic principles of trigonometry, and made great advances in -mathematics, physics, chemistry, and astronomy. - -A survey of the early history of science indicates that from the -remotest period man was engaged in grappling with the great principle -of causation. Progress was necessarily slow at first on account of the -scarcity of tested data. Then it became more rapid. Soon after the -founding of the great city of Babylon we find that the Babylonians were -possessed of enough knowledge of the arts and sciences to enable them -to become world traders and great industrial undertakers. They built -many cities and lived highly civilized lives. The history of modern -science may very properly be dated from the building of Babylon. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -PRE-BABYLONIAN SCIENCE - - -The transcending wonders of the phenomena of the heavenly bodies -attracted the attention of primitive man at an early period of his -intellectual development. The succession of day and night, the phases -of the moon, comets, meteorites, the eclipses of sun and moon, the -recurrence of the seasons were observed and recorded. In this way, -through long uncivilized times, many scientific facts were noticed and -handed down by tradition, and probably were among the first scientific -data collected. We have no means of determining when the primitive -science of astronomy became systematized, although there are reasons -for believing that it was roughly outlined at a remote date. - -There was a tradition among the Babylonian priests that their -astronomical observations and records went back to a period of more -than 400,000 years. This statement was believed by the people of -antiquity, and was made to Alexander the Great during his Indian -campaign. - -Astronomy appears to have been developed into an organized system by -the primitive peoples of central Asia. It was carried to China, India, -and Arabia by learned travelers. There were government astronomers in -China before the year 3000 B. C., and history records that two of these -officials, named Ho and Hi, were beheaded in the year 2159 B. C. for -being careless in their work and failing to issue a timely prediction -of a solar eclipse. - -Chinese history also relates that the Emperor, in 2857 B. C., issued -an edict recommending the study of astronomy. From these and other -historical references we learn that nearly 5,000 years ago astronomical -science was not only well developed, but that its educational value was -recognized. - -While attention was being given to the study of astronomy in China, -this science was independently developed in India. The astronomers -of India invented a different system from that of the Chinese, and -compiled numerous astronomical tables which were published and widely -used as far back as 3102 B. C. - -These early astronomical studies resulted in the division of time -practically as we know it to-day. The Babylonians had a week of seven -days. The days bore names of the planets and were divided into hours -and minutes. Days were combined into months and years. The Babylonian -and Chaldean astronomers, like those of China and India, were important -men and were credited with great learning. - -The Babylonian month began on the evening when a new moon was first -observed. An adjustment was made necessary between the months, owing -to the fact that the actual lunar interval is about twenty-nine and -a fraction days. Numerous astrological observations were made with -the view of obtaining data to facilitate the monthly adjustments. The -taking of these observations was made easier by maps of the heavens -which were recorded on baked clay tablets and prisms. Similar maps of -the world, with positions fixed by astronomical observations, were -likewise made in Babylonian times. - -The usefulness of astronomical observations and predictions led to the -belief that they could be employed with advantage for wider purposes. -The astrologers endeavored to deduce omens and forecast horoscopes. -In order to facilitate their calculations, the astrologers invented -calculating and time-dividing machines. Tablets from the royal library -at Nineveh indicate that Chaldean astrologers possessed mechanisms -which divided the hours of the day by mechanical means. These were -forerunners of modern clocks and timepieces. - -These early scientists represented the earth as a vast circular plain, -intersected by high mountain ranges and surrounded by a large river, -with other mountain chains which lost themselves in an infinite ocean. -The heavenly vault was believed to be supported by the highest peaks -of the outlying mountains. It was owing to the peculiar nature of this -cosmogony that the pre-Babylonians and Babylonians were unable to -develop a satisfactory mechanical view of the world. The world had to -wait for an adequate mechanical theory before general knowledge could -be advanced, so that men like Newton and Laplace could correct the -errors of early theories and furnish a sound working hypothesis. - -The advancement of science requires methodical observations and the -use of the highest powers of the imagination. It is thinking in -picture-like figures that supplies primitive reasoning. While pure -reasoning deals with abstract, verbal images, the more concrete -picture-thinking deals with object-images. The differences between -thinkers and dreamers is chiefly in the way their minds act. But even -thinkers are supplied with thought material by the elementary mental -operation of picture-thought, dreams, or dream-thinking. Science needs -the active use of the imagination to anticipate experience and suggest -the issues of a process in course of action. Most great inventions, -and probably all primitive inventions, were stimulated by imagination. -But the imagination, unless skillfully directed, is liable to numerous -errors. That is why in all ages there has been much error in connection -with knowledge. There could, however, be little or no progress without -imaginative work. It is only within very recent years that the modern -sciences have been stripped of much absurd matter derived from crude -imaginative work. When we bear this in mind, we have the key to the -part played by ancient myths, magic, and ceremonies in developing -civilization. - -The term magic is derived from the Persian term for priest. The magi, -or priests of Zoroaster, their religion, learning, and occult practices -had important world-wide effects just before the Babylonian era. Magic -is a pioneer of religion, philosophy, and science. - -Medicine was benefited, in some ways, by the priests seeking means for -dealing with the work of the spirits of evil. Chemistry and metallurgy -were also advanced, and new realms of knowledge were opened even by -magicians. - -The magic of the Babylonians survived their empire. It was handed over -to the Egyptians and contemporary peoples, and was in turn passed -down to the magicians and alchemists of the Middle Ages, and to the -dramatists, poets, and novelists of all ages. - -The accumulation of scientific facts was greatly facilitated by the -improvements made by the Babylonians in the manufacture of earthenware -tablets, scrolls, and prisms. Beautifully drawn cuneiform picture signs -recorded on these all the knowledge of the day. These stonelike records -were filed away in many monasteries and libraries. Subsequently, -letters were invented, alphabets were formed, and writing displaced the -hieroglyphic symbols. - -The invention of alphabets made reading easier. This resulted in giving -an impetus to education which has had cumulative effects right down -through the ages. - -We are now in a position to realize why scientific discoveries were -made very slowly, and at long intervals apart, in early times. Facts -had to be accumulated, studied, grouped, and compared. Accounts of -these studies had to be pictured and stored away for future use. Only -exceptionally learned men did this. But when alphabets were invented -and education increased, numerous minds became active and there was -a great extension of thought, experimentation, and philosophical -contemplation. This was followed by the establishment of new religious -houses, schools, and philosophical academies, at all of which the -ablest men of the day emulated the scholars in formulating theories and -making inventions. - -Soon after the perfecting of cuneiform writing in Babylon, characters -were devised for representing numbers. A vertical, arrowlike wedge -represented the figure 1, while a horizontal wedge stood for 10. -A vertical and horizontal wedge, placed together, signified 100. -Other arrangements of these characters meant that they were to be -multiplied, subtracted, divided, or added together. In this simple -manner all kinds of arithmetical results could be recorded. - -The Babylonian mathematicians were familiar with decimals, integers, -and fractions, and their tables and records of astronomical and -engineering calculations reveal a remarkably high degree of -mathematical ability, indicating that peoples who preceded us by -several thousands of years were familiar with the more important -calculations requisite in trade and industry as well as for -astrological computations. - -Babylon was a great world metropolis. It occupied a position similar -to that occupied by London to-day. Its merchants were engaged in -world-wide commercial operations which needed good systems of -bookkeeping and accountancy. These, in turn, presupposed a highly -developed arithmetical system. Practically all the arithmetical -calculations used in commerce to-day were employed by them. Their -accountants, like those of China to-day, used the abacus, or -calculating machine. - -A lucid illustration of the accuracy of ancient calculations, the -efficiency of their reports, and the confidence with which they -executed intellectual duties is afforded by the following translation -of a Babylonian astronomer's official report: - -"To the King, my lord, thy faithful servant, Mar-Istar. - - "... On the first day, as the new moon's day of the month of - Thammuz declined, the moon again became visible over the planet - Mercury, as I previously had predicted that it would to my master - the King. My calculations were accurate." - -The records of Babylon furnish us with a wealth of documents of this -character. - -The numerous peoples of India have always been divided into castes. -This has resulted in the pioneering work in science falling to -the priests. However, the principal priests were among the most -intellectual men of each generation and, as they traveled in search -of instruction, India was always in contact with the progress made in -China, central Asia, and Babylonia. These great centers of ancient -learning progressed together. - -The Indians were able mathematicians and discovered and developed at an -early period what is now known as "Arabic notation." In this work they -were assisted by the Babylonians. - -The Indians, like the Chinese and Babylonians, solved problems in -interest, discounts, partnership, the summation of arithmetical and -geometrical series, and determined number changes in combinations and -permutations with ease. They were also proficient in algebra, the -extraction of the roots of numbers, various classes of equations, and -the principles of trigonometry. - -The Chinese have always been good mathematicians. It is probably due -to this fact that they have at all times been such able traders and -bankers. - -We are not so familiar with the works of Chinese mathematicians in -pre-Babylonian times as we are with the Indian; but the references of -contemporary writers indicate that the Chinese scientists were as able -and active as their contemporaries. - -We have remarked the high degree of perfection which was attained in -the Babylonian era by scholars in science and mathematics. Similar -perfection was attained in art, industry, law, and medicine. The -wonderful law work that has come down to us under the name of the code -of Hammurabi indicates not only the extensive progress which had been -made in law, but incidentally through its references the progress of -agriculture, industry, commerce, and business. - -Many references in the Hammurabic code, written about 2300 B. C., -show that the medical profession had attained considerable advance -in Babylon. Surgeons were daring operators. They commonly performed -operations for cataract. Many of the common major operations now -performed by surgeons were also done by the ancients. They were experts -at setting fractured bones. The physicians made effective use of drugs. -Many drugs employed to-day were known to them. - -The discoveries of the early oriental nations were collected and -developed in Babylon. The entire fields of science, mathematics, -geometry, agriculture, astronomy, philosophy, and art were focused in -Babylon and handed down to the Egyptians and the Greeks. Much credit -that is given to ancient Greece should be shared also by Babylon. -It was from Babylon that Greece obtained the principles of its -civilization, arts and sciences. Even Greek architecture and sculpture -were originally derived from Babylon. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -EGYPTIAN SCIENCE - - -The early civilization in Egypt developed in the ancient cities of -Thebes and Memphis. Authorities on the dawn of history in Egypt are -unable to definitely account for the origins of the various peoples -who have ruled the land. One school contends that the early negroid -inhabitants originated in Africa. Another school opposes this view and -suggests an Asiatic origin. Each of these schools can marshal facts to -sustain its contentions. The truth is that Africa was inhabited at such -an early period that we are unable to fully trace back the movements of -its races. - -Man was divided into species and subspecies at a very remote period. -The dominant peoples in each country, in each era, were the successful -contestants in long conflicts for supremacy. Many races have vanished -without leaving any traces beyond reversional strains which still -come to the surface at times in families living to-day. The laws of -evolution, only recently deciphered, are the sole means we possess for -learning about many of the long-perished species of men. - -A few races, too weak to ever gain supremacy and themselves to occupy -districts, or countries, have survived by dwelling among stronger -races. The Ainus, in Japan, and the Jews in Asia and Europe, are -well-known examples. - -[Illustration: MODEL OF AN EARLY ELECTRIC MOTOR - -The original was invented by M. H. Jacobi in 1834 and was used in 1838 -to propel a boat on the Neva at St. Petersburg.] - -[Illustration: MODEL OF AN EARLY TURNING LATHE - -This mechanism was invented by Thomas Blanchard in 1843. He also -invented a lathe for turning gun barrels.] - -[Illustration: - - Copyright, Underwood & Underwood - -AN EDISON PHONOGRAPH OF 1878 - -The sound record was made on a sheet of tin foil vibrated by the voice.] - -[Illustration: WHITNEY'S COTTON GIN - -This device, invented in 1793, revolutionized the cotton and cotton -manufacturing industries.] - -Egypt, owing to its remarkable geographical situation between Asia, -Europe, and the vast continent of Africa, has been a great highway for -race migrations. Many peoples have lived and ruled there and passed -on before incoming tides of new and more vigorous peoples. Each race, -undoubtedly, during its residence in Egypt contributed to the general -fund of Egyptian knowledge and customs and assisted in the development -of science. - -The tombs of Thebes have given us bodies of ancient Egyptians of more -than six thousand years ago. At that time the people were characterized -by the Grecian type of profile. They resembled the contemporary -active peoples in India and Arabia and did not differ much from the -Egyptians of our day. The incoming streams of people who settled in the -Nile valley, both Asiatic and negroid, changed the appearance of the -Egyptians at different times by intermarriage, but when their vigor -waned and they were crowded out by other peoples, the Egyptians assumed -their regular Semitic characteristics. - -Egyptian history really begins with the old kingdom dynasties, about -ten thousand years ago. The tombs of Abydos have furnished material -for accounts of this early period. There were eight powerful kings in -the first dynasty and all of them contributed to the advancement of -civilization. Abydos, and later Memphis, were their principal cities. -They ruled in great luxury and were patrons of the arts and sciences. -The art works, sculptures, and carvings in ivory and ebony of this era -speak in eloquent terms of the taste and high mental powers of the -people. Modern museums are well supplied with relics of those times, -which illustrate the degree of civilization attained by the Egyptians -at the beginning of their history better than any written account. - -The early Egyptians adopted the sciences, arts and customs of the -Babylonians. With these as a basis the priests and learned men -experimented and made many independent researches and discoveries. - -The pyramids, erected near Cairo 3000 B. C., indicate the high degree -of culture which the early Egyptians had attained. These renowned -monuments to the kings were scientifically designed and constructed to -exist for all time. In order to contribute to their usefulness, they -were planned so as to exhibit correct geometrical forms and indicate -the cardinal points of the compass and the positions of certain -astronomical bodies. The details of their construction disclosed much -mathematical, geometrical and physical knowledge, and their actual -building called for not only an all-around mechanical skill but a -high degree of engineering ability. They were constructed of various -materials. Some large granite blocks were used in the outside walls -and these were brought from the upper Nile. They were towed down the -river on barges and were lifted into the positions in which they are -found to-day. Various mortars and mortar mixtures were employed in -binding the brickwork and masonry. These called for a good knowledge -of chemistry and physics. The arches and sloping walls of some of the -larger pyramids show how well the architects and engineers of the day -knew their professions. With similar means in their possession, the -best professional men of the present day would find it difficult to get -such splendid results. - -In the past few years, lapidaries and gem-workers have learned to cut -stones and gems with steel disk-wheels, the cutting edges of which are -furnished with carborundum or emery powder or insets of diamonds. The -pyramid builders knew this method of sawing and cutting stones. They -actually employed bronze saws set with diamonds to cut the huge blocks -of granite, syenite, diorite, and basalt used in the construction of -the pyramids. They also set the cutting ends of their rock drills with -diamonds, and bored rocks as we do to-day with diamond core drills. -The art of making these tools was afterward lost. Only within the -past half-century have mechanical rock saws and diamond drills been -reinvented. This brilliantly indicates the inventive ability of the -engineers at the dawn of Egypt's history. The builders of the splendid -monument of Rameses II in the Memnonium, at Thebes, which weighs 887 -long tons, transported the huge stone by land from the quarries at -E'Sooan, a distance of 138 miles. Such tasks appear never to have -deterred early Egyptian engineers and architects. They were so sure -of their ability to carry their great operations to satisfactory -completion that they never hesitated in agreeing to the severest -penalties for nonfulfillment of contract. Their cranes, levers, wedges, -rock drills, pumps, air blowers and compressors, and building tools all -showed how well mastered was their knowledge. - -Their quarrying methods were similar to those used in the best practice -to-day. When huge blocks and slabs of stone were needed the required -dimensions were marked on the rock and channeled out. Metal wedges -were forced into the channels and struck at once by a large number of -hammers. The constant vibration, in time, broke off the stone with -clean-cut surfaces. When these were to be carved into statuary or -ornamental shapes it was often done at the quarries, so as to reduce -transportation difficulties. Water transportation was used when -possible. When the stone had to be moved over the desert sands it was -lifted by cranes and set on sleds drawn by men or animals, or driven -forward by levers, just as heavy steel machinery is moved by modern -engineers. - -The principle of the siphon was known to the Egyptians at an early -period. It was employed daily in many homes for supplying water and for -drawing off wine from barrels and tanks into domestic utensils. Its -principal use, however, was in civil engineering works. Siphons were -constructed on a large scale for furnishing water to villages, draining -land for farming, and for irrigation purposes. They were built, in many -known instances, for carrying large quantities of water, in high lifts, -over hills. - -Herodotus tells us that the science of geometry was discovered by the -Egyptians as a result of the necessity for making annual surveys of the -farming lands in the Nile valley. - -When geometry was established as a practical science, land and -astronomical surveying were simplified and many branches of mathematics -were enlarged. The science of marine surveying was also developed and -this led to a great improvement in map-making and in geography, in -which the Egyptians became famous. - -The skill attained by the Egyptians in land surveying required accurate -surveying instruments. These were invented at an early period. The -Greeks claim the invention of the theodolite and similar instruments, -but Egyptian history shows that gnomons, surveying compasses, and -levels were used by Egyptian surveyors long before the Greeks began to -study the learning of Egypt. - -Astronomical science made great progress in Egypt. The theory -attributing to the sun the central place in our planetary system, -now called the Copernican theory, was known and used in Egypt. They -were familiar with the obliquity of the ecliptic, and knew that the -Milky Way was an aggregation of numerous stars of various sizes. They -understood that moonlight is simply the reflected light of the sun. The -movements of comets, the positions of the principal stars and stellar -constellations and other astronomical phenomena were studied and -charted on astronomical maps or recorded and forecasted in astronomical -tables. - -The discoveries made by the Greek scientists naturally stimulated -philosophical thought, which in turn reacted upon scientific -experimentation and led to a broadening of the scope of general -research work. We are dependent upon the pictorial records of early -Egyptian times for descriptions of the instruments and machinery -employed and these are not always clear. They indicate, however, that -the Egyptians quickly learned the sciences developed by the Babylonians -and other Oriental peoples and improved them. Their knowledge of -astronomy, mathematics, geometry, chemistry, physics, medicine, and -agriculture was extensive. The priests and learned men taught the -pure sciences and constantly experimented; the engineers, architects, -surveyors, and mechanics applied the sciences to the arts. - -In one of the records of an early dynasty the father of a student -sailing up the Nile to begin his studies in one of the leading -scientific schools gave this advice: "Put thy heart into learning and -love knowledge like a mother, for there is nothing that is so precious -as learning." - -The Mesopotamian peoples, as we saw in the last chapter, considered -the stars and principal heavenly bodies as deities. The Egyptians -did not do this, although they looked upon the heavens as the abode -of all pious souls. Their astronomical knowledge at the time of the -establishment of the New Empire at Thebes, about the year 1320 B. C., -was remarkably extensive. - -The Egyptians divided time in accordance with the course of the sun -into periods of 365¼ days, and these were divided in accordance with -the course of the moon into periods of about 29½ days. Thus the basis -of the system of years and months used by us was perfectly understood -by the Egyptians. - -The science of medicine was developed at a very early period in -Egyptian history. The various divisions of physicians, surgeons, -pharmaceutists, veterinarians, and dentists organized by the -Babylonians were retained by the Egyptians. Many names of distinguished -practitioners have been handed down. Nevertheless, their anatomical -knowledge remained poor, and there were many superstitious practices -connected with medicine. The various medical manuals which have been -preserved show that the Egyptian physicians studied diagnosis with -modern thoroughness. They were aware that an exact knowledge of each -disease, obtainable only by a complete study of the symptoms, was -necessary before a correct treatment could be prescribed. When the -magic and the superstitious dressings are abstracted from Egyptian -medical works and prescriptions, we find that the broad principles were -sound and efficient. They were developed along lines similar to those -of modern times. - -Mathematics attracted much attention in Egypt. The learning of Oriental -countries on this subject was readily absorbed by the Egyptians. The -Greek historians were so surprised at the efficiency of the Egyptians -in this branch of knowledge that they almost unanimously asserted that -the mathematical sciences originated in Egypt. - -The pyramid base lines run in the direction of the four points of the -compass, and were determined by correct astronomical methods. The -astronomers and surveyors were skilled in trigonometry. Fractions were -known to the Egyptians, who were taught in the schools of Babylon. The -modern x, representing an unknown factor, was known to the Egyptians -under the name of "hau." - -Quadratic equations were employed by them. The problem of finding x and -y, when x² + y² = 100 and x:y = 1:¾, one of the earliest problems of -this character known, was found in a papyrus at Kahun. The problem was -stated as follows: "A given surface of, say, 100 units of area, shall -be represented as the sum of two squares, whose sides are to each other -as 1:¾." - -The papyrus gave the working out of the solution. Many similar -problems are given in mathematical works and papyri. They show the -proficiency in mathematics that Egyptian scientists had attained at a -remote period. But their methods of expressing mathematical problems -were crude and, consequently, involved much tedious labor in finding -solutions. There can be little doubt that if effective mathematical -symbols had been devised the abstract sciences would have made even -greater progress than they did in early Egypt. When we study the -complicated solutions of algebraic problems made by the Egyptians, -owing to the lack of simple symbols, we can appreciate how greatly -modern mathematical science is benefited by the devices now employed -for expressing quantities, variations, and operations. - -The Egyptians were expert in applying the discoveries of science to -the arts. The Nile made their country potentially rich in agriculture, -and they devoted much attention to inventing such things as single and -double plows, rakes, and other agricultural machines, many of which -were drawn by oxen, donkeys, and other animals. Reaping was done with -sickles and scythes. Not only was irrigation understood and widely -practiced, but the importance of fertilization was recognized. - -The farmers understood the preservation of meat, vegetables, and -foodstuffs generally, by drying or pickling. They also brewed beer and -made wines, vegetable and seed oils, and alcohol. The selection of -breeding animals and the principles of variation were understood and -employed for developing particular breeds of cattle and farm stocks. - -The papyrus reed grew luxuriantly in Egypt and this resulted in the -discovery of paper making, weaving, thread making and many textile -methods. These industries led to the invention of looms, rope and twine -twisting appliances, flax weaving and other machinery. The linens and -cloths made by these machines have never been excelled. - -Dyeing was developed with the textile industries. As the skies of Egypt -are bright, the people in all ages have had a fondness for brilliant -colors. The call for bright textile colors led to a considerable -development in the chemistry of dyes and dyeing. Vegetable and mineral -dyes were used. Dyes were not always applied to the whole pieces of -goods, but stenciling and other methods of patterning were used. The -highly organized artistic skill of the people demanded art-designed -textiles and the manufacturers responded with beautiful and rich -materials. - -The fur and feather industries became important at an early period. The -Egyptians were fond of beautiful ornamental skins like those of the -panther or gazelle. Such skins were manufactured into numerous domestic -articles, made into clothing or used as rugs, mats, and seat coverings. - -Skins not valuable for art purposes were sent to the tanners to be -converted into various kinds of leather. Tanning was highly developed, -and the tanners turned out leathers which are to-day admired for -their excellence. The tanners carried on their industries by chemical -processes similar to those in use to-day. - -The scarcity of wood in Egypt led to the invention of various -substitutes. One common substitute was a kind of _papier mâché_. This -was manufactured out of linen, wood or vegetable pulp and various -kinds of paste. When it was used for art work the molded forms were -covered with lacquer or various kinds of stucco. Very beautiful objects -were manufactured from these substances, which indicate that the -artists possessed a wide practical knowledge of physical and chemical -principles. - -Chemical knowledge was also well shown in their manufacture of glass. -They excelled in this industry. All kinds of glass were made and -decorated by staining and glazing. The glassmakers were able to -imitate precious stones in glass and their glass-bead and enamel work -has never been excelled. Some modern chemists express the opinion that -glass making was carried to a greater degree of perfection in Egypt -than any modern nation has attained. - -Egyptian porcelains were also finely executed. These were enameled, -stained, and decorated in numerous ways. The colors, glazes, and art -mediums employed by the artists in pottery and porcelain necessitated -a wide chemical knowledge. Some of the pigments employed both in -glass and porcelain ornamentation were made from metals. Their use -required a knowledge of metallurgy. Metals like lead, nickel, manganese -required fluxing and refining before they could be secured in a state -sufficiently pure to be used as bases for colors. Not only did the -artists know the value of many metallic oxides, but they understood how -to secure the tints resulting from blending different oxides, and by -acting upon metals with acids, just as they acted upon vegetable and -metallic dyes with acids to get rare tones in linen dyeing. - -Mordants were employed in dyeing cloths and these were acted upon by -acids and alkalies to produce various colors. We are dependent upon the -relics which have been preserved for our knowledge of the chemical and -physical learning of the Egyptians. No chemical books of theirs have -come down to us, and inferences must be drawn from the results seen. - -In carrying out metallurgical operations, the Egyptians employed small -blast furnaces and melting pots. Air was compressed by bellows and -conducted into molten substances by pipes. - -The methods of metal working, melting, rolling, forging, soldering, -annealing, and chasing were similar to common methods in use in modern -times. - -The Egyptians were a practical people. They made wonderful progress -in the industrial arts and learned enough of scientific principles -to enable them to deal with much success with the mechanical, -agricultural, astronomical, medicinal, and chemical problems -encountered. But, like the Babylonians, Assyrians and other Oriental -peoples, the Egyptians did not systematize their sciences. Their -investigations were always carried out with practical objects in -view, and when the objects were attained the experiments ceased. They -never discovered a true scientific method. That was left to be done -by another people who were long students of Egyptian science and who, -taking all the learning of Egypt, worked out from it, as a basis, the -principal sciences as we have them to-day. The Greeks took the torch of -scientific progress from the Egyptians, organized learning, and passed -it on to the Romans and other peoples in sound, effective and augmented -forms. - -The Greeks idealized and systematized scientific principles, whereas -the Egyptians and earlier peoples rested content with the results they -could obtain by their practical efforts. We will find that, throughout -the history of science, progress has always been made by similar -reactions between peoples possessing the one a practical, the other a -philosophical genius. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -FOUNDING OF SYSTEMATIC SCIENCE IN GREECE - - -The world is indebted to the Greeks as much for science as for art and -literature. The idealistic spirit of ancient Greece invested scientists -as well as poets, artists, and thinkers generally. But the Greek -scientists were students in the great schools of Egypt and brought -much of their knowledge from that country. The greatest contributions -made by Greece were in the nature of methods and analysis. They were -led to these by the tendencies of the Greek mind to abstract thought -and philosophical investigations. They soon recognized that science -is knowledge gained by certain methods of abstraction. Data had to -be systematically collected, digested, classified, and impartially -studied. The results of such studies had to be assembled and expressed -in the most useful forms. Progress had to be made by the trial and -error method and the results of experiments tested by synthesis as well -as analysis; by induction as well as deduction. - -The Ionian philosophers were the first to break away from the -mythological traditions surrounding the principles of Egyptian and -Asiatic science. Thales of Miletus about the year 580 B. C. taught -that there is an essence, force, or soul in all things. This universal -principle of activity is superhuman. Seeking to find of what the -world is made, he arrived at the idea that water, or moisture, is the -basic element. All matter, he said, is water in various forms and -combinations. Here we see scientific knowledge sought with a definite -aim and with unity of purpose. None of the earlier peoples had ever -attempted to approach knowledge in this logical and fruitful manner. - -When the learned Babylonians were asked what the earth was they simply -said: "When the world was created, Marduk, the sun god, took Tiamat, or -Chaos, and divided her. The sky was formed above and the earth below." -And the Egyptians answered the question in a similar way by saying: -"When the world was created, Shu tore the goddess Nuit from the arms of -Keb, and now she hangs above him and he is the earth." - -It was this kind of statement that Thales cast aside. He sought for -more concrete definitions. Customary beliefs were not acceptable to -him; his knowledge must be based on reason. Here we see the dawn -of a new scientific spirit and the beginning of a new method of -investigating knowledge. The world was introduced to a new field of -intellectual activities. - -The theory of Thales was studied by other Greek philosophers. But -Anaximander, a friend of Thales, rejected it, and in its place -suggested that there is one eternal, indestructible substance which -constitutes the basis of matter. This was not water but an infinite -eternal motion. Water is subjected to extremes of temperature. Under -such conditions nothing could have been stable enough to constitute -matter. A primary substance must be free from warring or antagonistic -elements. - -The world arose, said Anaximander, through the evolution of a substance -subjected to temperature changes which developed from the eternal, -boundless, basic element. A sphere of flame arose from this, as from -an explosion, and assumed a rounded form with concentric divisions. As -these rings became detached, the sun, moon, stars, and other heavenly -bodies and the earth were formed. Aristotle tells us that, according -to Anaximander's theory, the terrestrial region was at first moist; -and, as the moisture was dried up by the sun, the portion that was -evaporated produced the winds and the turnings of the sun and moon, the -remaining portion becoming the sea. In time the sea, Anaximander held, -would dry up. The heat, or fire, of the world would burn the whole of -the cold moist element. Then the world would become a mixture of heat -and cold like the boundless, primary element surrounding it, and by -which it would be absorbed. - -This theory of matter and the evolution of the world marks a notable -advance over any previous scientific theory. It was well developed by -numerous teachers of the Milesian philosophical school and has played a -great rôle in intellectual history. - -The daring nature of some of Anaximander's explanations of earthly -organisms may be realized from a sketch of his views on the evolution -of animals. He taught that living creatures arose from the moist -element as it was evaporated by the sun. Man at first resembled a fish. -All animals were developed in the moisture wrapped in a protecting -cover or bark. As they advanced in age, they came out into a drier -atmosphere and discarded their protective coats. Man was not an -original creation, but resulted from the fusion of other species. -Anaximander's reason for this statement was that the period of infancy -of the human being is so long that had he been born that way originally -he could not have survived. There must have been a slow development -from ancient ancestors. This may be regarded as an anticipation of -the Darwinian theory. Thus man's thoughts in succeeding ages have a -rhythmic swing. - -Anaximenes rejected some of Anaximander's ideas and furnished new -ones to take their places. He was not so daring a thinker as his -predecessor, and his theory of the world was not as interesting as -Anaximander's. Many of his teachings, however, are accepted as sound -to-day. - -Anaximenes contended that the basic element was not boundless, but -determinate. Innumerable substances are derivable from it and, just as -our soul, like an atmosphere, holds us together, so do breath and air -encompass the whole world. Air is always in motion, otherwise so many -changes could not be made by it. It differs in various substances in -virtue of its rarefaction and condensation. - -The perpetual changes taking place in the world owing to the -instability of matter were emphasized by Heraclitus. He taught that -there is nothing immutable in the world process excepting the law or -principle which governs it. - -Cosmological speculations were not the only ones attracting the -attention of the Greek scientists. Pythagoras, for example, founded a -philosophical college devoted to mathematical studies which resulted -in the development of arithmetic to points beyond the requirements of -commerce. He made arithmetic the basis of a profound philosophical -system. - -Pythagoras studied science in Egypt and first became familiar with -Egyptian and Babylonian mathematics and geometry. He also studied -the Milesian cosmological philosophy. On his return to Greece from -his foreign studies he sought to discover a principle of homogeneity -in the universe more acceptable than any suggested by the earlier -philosophers. He had noticed numerous relationships between numbers -and natural phenomena, and believed that the true basis of philosophy -was to be found in numbers. In seeking data to sustain this thesis, he -discovered harmonic progression. His experiments showed that when harp -strings of equal length were stretched by weights having the proportion -of ½:⅔:¾, they produced harmonic intervals of an octave, a fifth and -a fourth apart. Since he saw that harmony of sounds depended upon -proportion he concluded that order and beauty in the world originate -in numbers. There are seven intervals in a musical scale, and seven -planets sweeping the heavens. Seven must, therefore, be a basic number. -This suggested to him his ideas regarding the harmony of the spheres. - -Pythagoras and his students found that the sum of a series of odd -numbers from 1 to 2n+1 was always a complete square. When even numbers -are added to the above series we get 2, 6, 12, 20, etc., in which every -member can be broken into two factors differing from each other by -unity. Thus 6 = 2.3, 12 = 3.4, 20 = 4.5, etc. Such numbers were called -heteromecic. Numbers like n(n+1)⁄₂ were called triangular. A large -number of other arithmetical relations were found and given distinctive -names. The Pythagoreans were also familiar with the principles of -arithmetical, geometrical, harmonic, and musical proportion. - -[Illustration: DE WITT CLINTON TRAIN OF 1831 BESIDE A MODERN -LOCOMOTIVE] - -[Illustration: LOCOMOTIVE OF THE 1870 PERIOD STILL IN USE IN THE OZARKS] - -[Illustration: "JOHN BULL," A LOCOMOTIVE BROUGHT FROM ENGLAND AND PUT -INTO SERVICE IN AMERICA IN 1831] - -Pythagoras made similar advances in geometry. He believed that each -arithmetical fact had an analogue in geometry, and each geometrical -fact a counterpart in arithmetic. He devised a rule by which integral -numbers could be found so that the sum of the squares of two of them -equaled the square of the third. He also developed the theory of -irrational quantities. The first incommensurable ratio discovered is -said to have been that of the side of a square to its diagonal which is -1:√2̅. - -Euclid (300 B. C.) developed this theory in the tenth book of his -geometry as still used. - -Pythagoras not only placed mathematics on a solid scientific basis, he -also established the fact that the physical phenomena of the world are -governed by mathematical laws. - -Little progress appears to have been made in astronomy by the Greeks in -the time of Pythagoras. The Milesians and the associates of Pythagoras -advanced numerous theories, but none of these was better than some -of the Egyptian ideas. Hicetas, and others of this period, believed -that the sun, moon, stars, and all other bodies in the heavens were -stationary and that only the earth moved. The great turning movement -of the earth around its axis produced the illusion that it was the -heavenly bodies which were moving while the earth remained stationary. - -The astronomical theories of Pythagoras, Hicetas, and Philolaus, all -affirmed that the universe is composed of the elements earth, air, -fire, and water, the whole mass being of spherical shape with the earth -at the center and all having life or motion. These early theories, -2,000 years later, did service by aiding to secure acceptance for the -Copernican theory. The Pythagorean ideas that the universe is one -grand harmonious system, and that thought instead of sense is the sole -criterion of truth, have exercised important influence on intellectual -speculation throughout the ages. - -In order to collect data for testing their theories in the physical and -mathematical sciences, the Greeks invented many physical appliances. -The monochord, employed in determining the relationships of vibrating -harmonic strings is one of the first mechanisms used in practical -physics that we have definite information about. An anvil, metal and -glass disks, and bell-shaped cylinders were employed in studying the -movements of sound waves. - -Alcmæon (508 B. C.) was one of the earliest of the Greek anatomists. He -was a disciple of Pythagoras and employed the logical research methods -of his teacher in the investigation of medical problems. Although -the Egyptians had developed medical science to a considerable extent -and had taught the Greeks, their methods were not based upon sound -principles. The result was that the more analytically minded Greeks -could not accept certain Egyptian ideas. The Egyptian anatomical -teachings were particularly crude, and Alcmæon began to investigate -that science. His discoveries, both in anatomy and physiology, were -very great. He outlined the functions of the principal organs of the -body, discovered the optic nerve, the difference between the arterial -and nervous systems, the Eustachian tube, the two divisions of the -brain, the nerves connecting the brain with the organs of sense and -with the spinal column. These advances placed the medical sciences -on a logical basis similar to that of the physical, mathematical, and -astronomical sciences. This first great anatomist and physiologist -invented the practice of anatomical dissection and surgical -exploration, and advanced the practice of medicine to a higher degree -of usefulness. - -After the Greeks had satisfied themselves that they possessed a -cosmological theory which answered the demands of reason they turned -their investigations to the question of how matter was changed into -its innumerable forms. Empedocles had taught that when the primary -elements, earth, air, fire, and water, were mixed in variable -proportions they yielded different kinds of matter. Leucippus, -Democritus, Anaxagoras, and others studied the subject more carefully -and developed a novel theory. When matter is divided as far as possible -do the ratios of the constituents remain the same? This problem -attracted their attention. They also asked themselves whether there was -not a simpler conception to explain the basic state of matter. When -they began their inquiries, the qualities of matter were believed to -reflect their essences. For example, the sweetness of honey and the -color of the sky were real things which should be studied in themselves -apart from honey and the sky. Democritus thought, however, that such -changes of color as the sky undergoes at dawn and sunset would not -take place if the colors were real elementary things. While meditating -on this the thought arose in their mind: "If we assume matter to be -composed of an infinite number of minutest particles or atoms, could we -not explain the changes in matter by changes in atomic quantities and -orders?" This line of thought resulted in the development of the atomic -theory and the origin of the philosophic school of the atomists. - -According to Leucippus some of the atoms darting about in the universe -collide and thus give rise to new substances. He also believed that -the atoms followed whirling or circular paths and that such rotary -motions drew in neighboring atoms, and that as these movements -continued indefinitely within the atoms the constituents were being -constantly rearranged, the lighter elements being grouped around the -periphery; the heavier ones around the center. These changes were due -to pressure and impact. These conceptions about atoms were carried -into cosmological discussions and it was taught that there are various -worlds and planets within the boundless universe, each one moving -freely according to physical laws, unless fractured by collision with -another. - -Zeno challenged these doctrines because of the importance attached to -the whirling motion. He attempted to show that such atomic motions -are impossible. His proofs of the impossibility of atomic motion were -designed with the object of sustaining his own theory of an ultimate -principle of unity. His mental trend was toward negation. Whenever his -rival Parmenides argued affirmatively regarding a scientific principle, -Zeno would invariably maintain the negative side of the question. - -Zeno's first proof of the impossibility of motion referred to the -impossibility of passing through a fixed space. He showed that by -dividing a line into an infinite number of parts an infinite number of -points would be obtained and these permitted no beginning of motion. - -His second proof tried to show the impossibility of passing through -space having movable boundaries. The story of Achilles and the -tortoise illustrates this. A pursuer in a race at every interval must -reach a point from which the pursued starts simultaneously. But the -latter is always in advance. - -The third, or "resting arrow," argument showed that a moving arrow -is at every instant in some one point of its track. Its movement at -such instant is then equal to zero. Its track is a group of zeros. No -magnitude could be framed from these. - -Zeno also anticipated much later philosophical discussions, like -Einstein's, relating to the relativity of motion. He took for an -example a moving wagon. Its movement would appear different to -observers on other moving bodies going in various directions. They -would see changes in rates of speed as well as in direction. - -Protagoras, at a subsequent date, developed this idea of relativity and -showed that things are as they appear to each individual at the moment -they are perceived. He summarized his teaching in the aphorism: Man is -the measure of all things. - -The Skeptics, 200 years later, developed the Protagorean theory of -relativity, and by a series of arguments attempted to prove that -perceptions change not only with the different species of animate -beings, but with many conditions and circumstances. It was also shown -that not only man's perceptions are subject to changes, but also his -opinions following from his perceptions. Another school taught that to -every opinion the opposite can be opposed with equally good reasons. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -GOLDEN AGE OF GREEK SCIENCES - - -Science had made a great advance as a result of the researches and -theories of the atomists. A consistent mechanical theory of matter and -the universe had been set forth. Science and philosophy were stripped -of many of the old superstitions that had clung to them. The leading -theories invented were based on logical principles. While these changes -were being worked out, numerous inventions of scientific instruments -and apparatus were made and systematic methods of studying science were -organized. These furnished the means for still greater progress. - -The apparent completeness of the mechanical theory of the universe -satisfied the inquiring intellect. The excitement caused by the -scientific discussions and discoveries from the time of Heraclitus -subsided. But after a short intervening period, when public attention -had been largely centered on practical affairs, there was a reaction -against science. When scientific principles were quoted a tendency -was shown to question their validity and usefulness. This resulted in -inquiries into the sources of knowledge and conduct and ushered in a -new intellectual era that is now known as the Humanistic period which, -beginning about 450 B. C., extended to 400 B. C. - -The Sophists, who were teachers of rhetoric and were accustomed to -studying the phrasing of verbal statements, became active in searching -for the foundations of thought. - -The Protagorean theory of knowledge was based on Empedocles's doctrine -that the inner atoms advance to meet the outer ones. Perception is -the resultant product of these atoms when they collide. They believed -that this perception is something else than the perceiving subject -and is also something different from the object giving birth to the -perception. It is conditioned by both, but has a distinct existence. -The doctrine of the subjectivity of sense perception was developed -in explanation of this psychological problem. From this it followed -that knowledge must be strictly personal and could be true only under -conditions existing at the instant of perception. These limitations -caused Protagoras to advance his theory of relativity, which teaches -that man is the measure of all things. Facts are what appear to each -individual to be statements of truth. Isocrates, Plato, Aristotle, and -Socrates were the leaders of this intellectual movement. - -Socrates developed the Pythagorean theory of intelligible forms. The -specific qualities of the senses belong to the realm of perception. -When these are withdrawn from an object of thought there remains only -the form or idea. Therefore it is evident that pure, intelligible -forms constitute the essences of things. The early scientists, such -as Democritus, thought, perhaps, in terms of atom forms. Socrates, -Plato, and later teachers looked upon forms as conceptions of similar -logical elements. Knowledge, in the view of Democritus, was essentially -rationalistic. Plato considered knowledge as having ethical and -æsthetic purposes within itself. - -Each of these types of rationalism stimulated Greek thought and -resulted in a strong impulse to philosophical and scientific -investigation. They prepared the outlook for Aristotle. - -Science had been hampered by the confusion raised by the discussions -relating to forms. Aristotle realized that proper progress in logic, -physics, and ethics, the leading sciences of his time, could not be -made unless the essential nature of science were kept in view. He saw -that knowledge of the forms of correct thinking can be understood -only by keeping in view the object of thought and this requires -definite ideas of the general relations of knowledge and its objects. -The study of general relationships led to the study of particular or -special relations. The connection of general with particular ideas -was unfolded, and Aristotle saw that conceiving, understanding, and -proving result from the deduction of particular from universal, or -general, ideas. Therefore science consists in deriving or deducing -facts acquired through perception from their general grounds or -phenomena. The logical form of the syllogism naturally suggested itself -to Aristotle when engaged with these thoughts and the invention of the -syllogism was one of the most brilliant contributions to knowledge made -by the Greeks. - -The logical results of the invention of syllogistic forms suggested -a solution of the problem of true reality which Aristotle showed was -the essence that unfolds in phenomena themselves. This led to fruitful -scientific results. Plato and his contemporaries unified mathematics, -formulated the definitions logically, and demonstrated correct methods -of criticism and proof. A point was shown to be the boundary of a -line; while a line is the boundary of a surface, and a surface the -boundary of a solid. This concrete definition of scientific elements -progressed through the use of analytic methods, by proceeding from the -known to the unknown, and led to the discovery of tests for scientific -assumptions and of synthetic proof. None of the earlier philosophers -possessed anything like the progressive tools Aristotle placed in the -hands of scientists. Their use quickly led to a general review of -knowledge and a great increase in the number of sciences. - -The textbook on geometry compiled by Euclid, still used in many -schools, gives us a good picture of the state of scientific methods -in his time. Euclid, like Aristotle, Plato, Socrates and others, was -a great systematizer. He collected the geometrical proofs of his -mathematical predecessors, selected those which were logically correct -and simple, and raised on a few axioms, or first principles, a great -geometrical system. - -Archimedes published textbooks on spherical and cylindrical geometry. -He proved that the surface of a sphere is equal to four times a great -circle. He showed the properties of spherical segments and methods for -calculating surface areas and other parts of spherical forms. - -This great scientist also developed mechanics and physics. He -investigated the lever and demonstrated the principle upon which its -power is based. He then studied hydrostatics and hydraulics, and -discovered the theory of specific gravity and invented methods for -determining it. - -Apollonius began publishing scientific textbooks about forty years -after Archimedes. His masterpiece was his textbook on conic sections. - -The work done by Archimedes on the quadrature of curvilinear figures -resulted, centuries later, in the discovery of the infinitesimal -calculus, while the theory of conic sections published by Apollonius -led to theories for the solution of problems relating to geometrical -curves of all degrees. They placed the geometry of measurements and the -geometry of forms and positions on strictly scientific bases. - -Hipparchus applied the new mathematical and geometrical discoveries to -astronomy. He found a method for representing the observed motions of -the sun, moon, and planets by assumed uniform circular motions. His -theory of the sun's motion assumed that the earth was not the center -of the sun's orbit. He drew a line through the earth and the real -center of the orbit and found where the sun's distance is least and -where greatest. He then compiled a large set of solar tables giving -the position of the sun among the stars at any time. He next turned -his attention to the movements of the moon and prepared tables for -determining eclipses. - -Then the various planets were studied and their mean motions were -calculated and recorded. The stars were mapped and catalogued. He -described the apparent movements of 1,080 stars and comparing his -observations and calculations with those of Aristyllus and Timocharis, -made 150 years previously. He also discovered the precession of the -equinoxes. - -The astronomical calculations of Hipparchus led to a great improvement -in trigonometrical methods. By using chords, as we use sines, and -assuming the heavens to be a plane surface, he fixed the positions of -stars (and similarly geographical points) by the intersections of lines -of latitude and longitude. - -A planosphere, an instrument for representing the mechanism of the -heavens, was among the many scientific inventions of Hipparchus. - -While Hipparchus was engaged upon problems in astronomical physics, -Hero, a professor of science at Alexandria, was working out numerous -problems relating to matter and devising machines for practically -applying the teachings of mechanical science. Ctesibius, assisted -perhaps by his pupil Hero, made a large number of valuable engineering -inventions. He was an authority on hydraulics and pneumatics. He -devised improved siphons, a pneumatic organ, a force pump, a vacuum -pump, a hot-air motor, and other machines. - -His studies regarding the physics of gases led him to adopt a molecular -theory of matter. He believed that there are vacua existing between the -innumerable particles which constitute matter in all its states and -forms. - -Ctesibius improved surveying instruments. His dioptra, an instrument -corresponding to a theodolite, was a plane table set on a tripod, -furnished with compass points and two sights. The plane was adjusted -by screws and a water level. This instrument was used by engineers for -leveling, laying out irrigation works and farm lands, sinking shafts -for mining and prospecting purposes, and for tunneling. A cyclometer -for measuring angles of dip and elevation of rock beds and mountains -was also used with this instrument. - -The Greeks owed much of their knowledge of hydrostatics, mechanics, -pneumatics, and physics generally to Ctesibius. He was not only a -great inventor and lecturer, but also a writer of valuable textbooks -dealing with physical and mechanical sciences. - -Hero edited a number of editions of the textbooks of Ctesibius, and is -credited with inventing some of the theories and machines discussed. -He, too, published numerous scientific books. - -Hero's work in trigonometry was important. He described a formula -for estimating the area of a triangle which still bears his name. He -defined spherical triangles and arranged methods for determining the -volumes of irregular solids by measuring the water displaced by them. - -The steam turbine is the best known of Hero's machines. Scholars read -much about his wonderful musical instruments operated automatically -by pneumatic means resembling the mechanisms of player-pianos, and -particularly about his mechanical toy mimicking a number of singing -birds. A group of birds were made alternately to sing and to whistle. -The mechanism consisted of air tubes operating various kinds of -whistles. A running stream was made to operate an air compressor. -The air from the compressor tank operated the various movements of -the birds and supplied air for blowing the whistles. The numerous -mechanisms of this character which Hero and his master made indicate -that they were as much at home in making pneumatic and similar -mechanical toys as is any expert to-day. They not only knew the -scientific principles, but had the engineering and mechanical ability -to design them and make them work. - -Hero's fire engine is not as well known as his steam engine. It was a -remarkable invention, however. It was worked by levers and force pumps -and resembled the engines still employed by fire companies in some -remote rural districts. - -Not the least interesting machine described by Hero was his slot -machine for dispensing wine and other liquids. This machine consisted -of a cylindrical container with a slot hole on top through which coins -were dropped. Beneath this there was a lever with a receptacle for the -dropped coin. The weight of a falling coin depressed one arm of the -lever and raised the other, which opened a valve and allowed the liquid -to escape. When the lever arm had moved a certain distance, the coin -slipped off and the valve was automatically closed. - -Hero's steam turbine was a crude model. Steam was generated in a boiler -and conducted through pipes so as to play upon revolving globes or -wheel vanes. This machine was invented to operate mechanical toys. It -was not until nearly 2,000 years later that it occurred to an inventor -that steam could be used to operate more important mechanism than toys. - -The next great name in science is that of Claudius Ptolemy, an Egyptian -astronomer, who lived in Alexandria about 139 A. D. He brought out -new editions of the mathematical works of Hipparchus, and published a -number of scientific books of his own. His principal work, known as the -Grammar of Mathematics, formed the basis of all astronomical studies -down to the time of Copernicus, about 1500 A. D. - -The earth formed the center of the universe, according to Ptolemy's -theory. The sun and planets, he thought, revolved around the earth. - -We obtain our minutes and seconds from Ptolemy's great work. He divided -the circle with 360 degrees and its diameter into 120 divisions. Each -division of the circumference he divided into sixty parts. The Latin -names for these parts were _partes minutæ primæ_ and _secundæ_, or the -first small divisions and the second small divisions. - -The Greek scientists were so interested in logical analysis that -they constantly investigated the fundamental facts upon which their -teachings were based. They made provisional hypotheses, deduced -mathematical consequences, and compared these with the results of -observation and experiments. When Hipparchus found that his planetary -theories did not meet his tests, he decided to make as many new -observations as possible and collect astronomical data to be used at -a later period by other scientists. He realized that, while he knew -the old theories were incorrect, there was not enough data at hand to -enable better theories to be established. He therefore deliberately -labored to provide data for posterity. - -Ptolemy's treatise on geography was an encyclopedia of places, names, -and descriptions. In this work he located over 5,000 places between -India and Morocco, giving their latitude and longitude. - -Ptolemy's textbooks on sound and optics were long celebrated. The -work on optics contained valuable chapters on refraction, a subject -he had done much to develop. These works contained some of the finest -collections of experimental data illustrating the best scientific -methods used in antiquity. - -The next great mathematicians and physicists are Pappus and Diophantus. -The former lived about 300 A. D. He was the author of textbooks on -mathematics and astronomy. Some of these have been preserved and are of -great value in exhibiting the status of Greek science at that time. - -The arithmetical textbook of Diophantus, which is extant, is remarkable -as being the first to contain a complete exposition of algebra and the -use of algebraic symbols and methods. Euclid solved quadratic equations -geometrically and Hero solved them algebraically, although without -using symbols. But in Diophantus's arithmetic quadratics are solved -by the use of algebraic symbols. After several centuries, when the -Euclidean geometry was in the ascendant, and many problems which were -suited to arithmetical and algebraic methods of analysis were solved by -geometrical and trigonometrical means, Diophantus succeeded in renewing -interest in arithmetic and mathematics generally. - -Political changes and other intellectual interests soon after the time -of Diophantus turned men's thoughts in other directions and no great -scientists were afterward developed by the Greeks. - -While the physicists were making their discoveries, medical men were -studying anatomy, biology, and materia medica. Medical science in the -time of Diophantus had a status, with a theory and practice, closely -resembling those of to-day. - -Hippocrates of Cos (460 B. C.), was the greatest leader of Greek -medical science. He cast superstition aside and based his researches -and practice upon the same principles of inductive philosophy that had -proved so valuable in other sciences. He established hospitals for -the nursing of the sick, and had attendants note the symptoms and the -histories of the cases. In this way a number of casebooks were made. -He wrote a work on Public Health. His operations in trepanning were -more heroic than would be undertaken by good surgeons to-day. These are -described in his book on Injuries of the Head. Many of his works are -extant and furnish very interesting and valuable pictures of the state -of medical science in Greece. - -During the several centuries in which the Greeks placed science and all -the leading departments of knowledge upon firm bases, stripped of the -sentimental and traditional trappings which had come down from remote -times, changes of a political nature were causing the immigration of -foreign peoples to Greece. The importance of preserving racial purity -was not recognized. The result was that the original Greeks, who were -of the long-headed type, were forced to give way to the hordes of -inferior peoples coming in from Asia. These new, round-headed people -were not original thinkers, and were unable to advance science and the -arts as the Greeks had done. They were, to a large extent, even unable -to appreciate the wonderful treasures of knowledge bestowed upon them -by the cultured people they had displaced. - -The Egyptians and Babylonians advanced knowledge for practical purposes -and when these were served they showed no desire to explore further. -But the analytical mind of the Greek called for knowledge of basic laws -and first principles. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -THE ROMAN AND MIDDLE AGES - - -The Romans succeeded to Greek culture; but they were a business people. -They exhibited smaller intellectual capacity than the Greeks for -analytical thinking. This precluded them from advancing the sciences. -The Romans attained great eminence in oratory, history, art, and -literature. They probably equaled the Greeks in music. They never -produced any great thinkers like Aristarchus, Hipparchus, Euclid, -Ptolemy, Archimedes, Democritus, Hippocrates, Plato, Aristotle, and -others referred to in the preceding chapters. - -What the Romans lacked in intellect they made up in energy. They -became good soldiers and sailors, good politicians, able architects, -engineers, and farmers. This explains how they became so powerful -politically. They were the most practical people in a practical world. -Instead of bequeathing us great scientific masterpieces like the -Greeks, they have left us miles of useful roads, waterways, walls, -fortresses, bridges, buildings, and statuary. Remains of these objects -occur throughout Europe and northern Africa, showing that Roman -engineering practice has been as universally useful as Roman law and -political practices. The great scientific discoveries of the world have -been made by only a few peoples. Those nations which have possessed -the scientific temperament have not always been productive. Great -inventions and discoveries appear to be made in response to national -needs and are preceded by long periods during which the preparatory -work is being done. The great men of science being active generalizes, -need the cooperation of many lesser scientists to collect data and -observations upon which general theories may be built. This appears -to be the explanation of the irregular periods of great scientific -activity. - -Julius Cæsar, great in many departments of human endeavor, carried -through two important scientific reforms. He caused the rectification -of the calendar. In the year 47 B. C. there was an accumulated error -of nearly 85 days in the calendar. This was corrected and the year was -made to consist of 365 days, with an additional day every four years. -Cæsar's calendar is still in use. - -His other reform, which was not completed until the reign of Augustus, -was a scientific survey of the Roman empire. This conferred great -benefits not only upon Rome, but upon the world. Geography, commerce, -and industry were enlarged, many practical scientists were trained, and -the various data and maps which had to be collected and drawn resulted -in many improvements in statistical methods and in surveying and -astronomical computations. - -An early contribution to science by Rome was the textbook on -Architecture by Vitruvius. This great work became the standard guide to -building until the changed conditions in the Middle Ages called for new -architectural methods. - -The works on natural philosophy by Lucretius, the geography of Strabo, -the books on natural history by Pliny, and the encyclopedic medical -works of Galen were successive contributions. These chiefly aimed -at developing the teachings of the great Greek scientists for the -practical use of the Romans. - -Roman history shows that all branches of the learned professions were -popular and Roman professional men were very competent. None, however, -stands out as a great discoverer. The names just above recorded are -those of the chief lights of Roman science, and they simply reflect the -practical nature of the Roman intellect. The best the Romans did was to -preserve Greek science, test it extensively by practical applications -throughout their vast empire, and hand it on to succeeding nations. - -Philosophical thought in the declining years of Greece turned to -theosophical speculations, and finally to ethics and theology. Much -interest was evinced by the Romans in ethics, æsthetics, and theology. -A new religion, destined to exert profound influences on intellectual -developments, gradually attracted the attention of thinkers. The Romans -were fascinated by the monotheism of Christianity and the doctrines of -a future life and good will and love. There grew out of the critical -attacks on this new theology a powerful scholastic philosophy aiming -at the exposition, systematization, and demonstration of the principal -Christian doctrines. - -Aurelius Augustinus, a native of Africa (353-430 A. D.), championed -the opinion that knowledge of God and self was the proper kind to -study. The sciences have only value in illuminating the power of -God. Intelligence is necessary to comprehend what we believe; faith -is required to believe what we comprehend. As the highest good, or -moral ideal, is transcendent, Christians cannot realize it, so human -perfection should consist in the love of God and bearing good will to -others. - -The conditions brought about by this turn of thought were not favorable -for scientific development. The world had to wait until the scholastic -philosophy lost itself in metaphysical discussions. Then Roger Bacon -(1214-1294) released science and mathematics from the chains which had -so long confined them. - -While European thought was occupied in discussing scholastic -philosophy, the Arabs and Moors were carrying on the practice of the -sciences. The Moors in Spain published many valuable textbooks and -developed new principles in architecture and medicine. Their Giralda -observatory in Seville was the first astronomical building erected in -Europe, and their university in Cordova remained for a long period the -leading professional school. - -The universities of Paris, Salerno, Oxford, and Cambridge, and the law -school at Bologna, were founded in the eleventh and twelfth centuries -and have continued to hold up the torch of science until our time. - -Roger Bacon, an English Franciscan monk, was a graduate of the -University of Paris. He was a brilliant student of physical and -mathematical sciences. Pope Clement IV invited him to write a textbook -of science. Bacon did this in 1266. He became a professor in Oxford -University in 1268. His _Opus Majus_ (1267) summarized ancient and -current philosophy and science and included the researches of the -Moors. This great book reasserted the fact that science must be based -upon experiments and that the astronomical and physical sciences must -rest upon geometry and mathematics. Bacon's clear recognition of the -value of experimental methods and logical exposition mark him as the -greatest intellectual force of his century. - -The errors in the calendar were estimated and corrected by Bacon. -He criticized the astronomical principles of Ptolemy, which were -still generally accepted. His experiments in physics led him to make -important discoveries in optics. He improved lenses and apparently made -microscopes and telescopes. He proposed a lunar theory in accounting -for the movements of the tides. - -Roger Bacon made so many accurate comments on physical phenomena and so -accurately forecasted recent mechanical inventions that his book, which -was so far in advance of his time that it was unintelligible and caused -him to be charged with witchcraft, still astonishes its readers. - -Lenses were used for spectacles in Asia in the remotest times, but -there are reasons for believing that Bacon was the first to prescribe -them on scientific principles for the correction of defective vision. -He also appears to have appreciated the value of gunpowder as an -explosive agent and had it introduced into Europe from Morocco. Being -misunderstood, Bacon founded no school and left no students. - -Nicole Oresme, Bishop of Normandy (1323-1382), used fractional powers -in mathematics and developed a notation. About the same period, Thomas -Bradwardine, Archbishop of Canterbury, wrote on star polygons, and -other Englishmen, like Boethius and Bath, wrote new textbooks on -astronomy and mathematics. They started a school of trigonometry in -England that made great improvements in that branch of science. - -Between 1200 and 1400 A. D. the magnetic compass was improved and used -at sea, clocks were improved and made popular, improvements were made -in weaving, printing was invented, textbooks were written on many -subjects, and education began to spread in Europe. All these factors -prepared the way for a great industrial and scientific awakening. - -Nicholas de Cusa (1401-1464), Bishop of Brixen, published books on -mathematics and suggested that the earth's movements indicate a diurnal -rotation. - -The way was now paved for a new theory of planetary motions. Nicolaus -Copernicus (1473-1543) a Pole, developed the astronomical system -bearing his name, as a result of suggestions gained by studying the -works of the Greek astronomer Hicetas, and Plutarch's Lives of Greek -Scientists. His great work was entitled "De Revolutionibus Orbium -Celestium, or the Movements of Heavenly Bodies," which treated the sun -as the center of the planetary system. - -Weather forecasting was improved by Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), and many -fine astronomical observations were made by him. He greatly improved -astronomical instruments and built and splendidly equipped a great -observatory in Uraniborg, Denmark. Numerous important observations were -made there. - -John Kepler, the discoverer of the ellipticity of the planetary orbits -and the laws of their movements, was a student under Brahe, and -continued his master's researches. His observations on the movements -of the planet Mars led to his discovery that the planets travel in -ellipses and not in circles. Besides his numerous works on astronomy -he wrote valuable books on optics and other scientific subjects. - -Galileo (1564-1642) took up the work of Tycho Brahe and Kepler and -carried it forward to new triumphs. He made the first telescope ever -used for astronomical observation, and with it was able to discern -that the Milky Way was composed of aggregations of innumerable stars; -that the surface of the moon was covered with plains and mountains, -that there were four moons revolving around the planet Jupiter, that -the planet Venus showed phases like those of the moon as she moved -around her orbit, and that there were black spots, at times, upon the -sun, which revealed its rotation on its axis. Galileo did equally -fundamental work in developing the laws of motion, and the principles -of mechanism and physics. - -The development of modern mathematics began with three intellectual -feats--the invention of the Arabic notation, of decimal fractions, -and of logarithms. The notation was derived by the Arabs from India -about 700 A. D. They had used numerals long before, but the old system -was crude like the systems employed by the Egyptians and Greeks. The -Textbook on Mathematics by Mohammed ibn Musa, published at Bagdad about -825 A. D., contained the first notable exposition of modern numerals. -This important work gave rise to many more Arabic treatises, some of -which showed improved methods. - -Decimal fractions were used by the early peoples of central Asia and -were transmitted by them to the Babylonians. Their system was based, -apparently, upon a sexagesimal scale. Simon Stevin (1548-1620), a -Belgian, made great improvements in decimals. He adopted the plan of -William Buckley, of England, and other mathematicians, and made the -base 100,000, instead of 60. - -John Napier (1550-1617), a Scottish nobleman, invented logarithms. The -story of this great mathematician's work is one of the most interesting -in the history of science. Napier's first table of logarithms was -published in 1614. Henry Briggs (1556-1631), professor at Oxford, made -suggestions for the improvement of the tables, and persuaded Napier -to make the base 10, as is now done in tables of common logarithms. -Briggs published tables in 1624 containing the logarithms to 14 places -of decimals for the numbers between 1 and 20,000 and from 90,000 to -100,000. Adrian Vlacq (1600-1667), a Dutchman, computed the logarithms -of the numbers running from 20,000 to 90,000, and thus completed -the whole series of logarithms between 1 and 100,000. Edmund Gunter -(1581-1626), of London, calculated the logarithmic sines and tangents -of angles for every minute to seven places. He invented the terms -cosine and cotangent and used them in a work published in 1620. - -Another Englishman, William Oughtred (1574-1660), wrote textbooks on -mathematics, and invented numerous mathematical symbols which are now -in general use, as well as rectilinear and circular slide rules. - -Bonaventura Cavalieri (1598-1647) made many improvements in -mathematical formulæ and expounded a new method of indivisibles which -solved some of the difficult astronomical problems raised by Kepler, -and enabled Torricelli, Viviani, de Roberval, and others to solve -abstruse problems relating to all types of curved figures. - -Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665), one of the greatest of French -mathematicians, developed rules for calculating maxima and minima. His -functions in this type of equation closely approached those of the -differential calculus. The calculus was developed from Fermat's work by -Lagrange, Laplace, Fourier, and other Frenchmen. - -Pascal and Fermat developed the theory of probability. Pascal worked -out many useful methods for dealing with curves. - -The intense mathematical activity in England and France resulting from -the stimulation given by the invention of Napier, prepared the way for -the discovery of the infinitesimal calculus by Newton and Leibnitz. - -Newton was born in England the same year that Galileo died in Italy. -His greatest work is presented in his celebrated "Principia," or -"Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy," in which the law of -gravitation, the laws of motion, and the mathematical principles of -mechanics are developed. The "Principia" was published in 1687, and it -has ever since been regarded as the corner stone of mathematical and -physical science. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -SCIENCE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY - - -The wonderful advances made in the mathematical, physical, and -astronomical sciences, and the invention of many new scientific -instruments, together with the publication of improved textbooks and -scientific tables, like those mentioned in the preceding chapter, -stimulated interest in other fields of science at the beginning of the -seventeenth century. - -Medicine, which failed to advance with the astronomical and physical -sciences, began to improve. The Moors had established great medical -schools in Spain, but their teachings were based upon the principles -enunciated by Hippocrates and the Greek schools. - -Modern medicine was started upon a firm basis by John Harvey -(1578-1657). Hippocrates taught that the blood was one of the principal -parts of the body--one of the four great "humors." Its movements, -however, had never been investigated until Harvey began to study the -functions of the arterial system by the dissection of animals. The -arteries had been considered as merely air tubes. This was due to the -fact that they were studied only in post-mortem examinations when they -were empty. The anatomists of the sixteenth century failed to grasp -their importance. - -Harvey, who was a penetrating observer, had studied in several -continental universities as well as in England, and having an original -mind he determined to test the medical theories which he had been -taught. His discoveries of the functions of the heart, the arteries, -and the veins were epochal. He did his work so well and made such -simple, yet telling, demonstrations that he had less difficulty than -his predecessors in getting his teachings accepted. He was soon -recognized as the peer of Hippocrates and Galen. - -Harvey died without actually seeing the blood coursing from the -arteries into the veins, but four years after his death Marcello -Malpighi (1628-1694) exhibited microscopically the passage of blood -corpuscles through the minute vessels in the lung of a turtle, on their -way from the heart through the arteries into the veins and returning to -the heart. The blood circulation was demonstrated at a subsequent date -by applying a microscope to the web of a frog's foot. With low-powered -lenses a good view is obtainable in this manner. - -Many other important discoveries were made by Harvey, particularly -in embryology. He demonstrated that the embryo chicken is formed by -gradual development and processes of differentiation and not, as had -previously been believed, from a minute perfect chicken. - -Microbes were discovered in 1683 by Antonius von Leeuwenhoek -(1632-1723), when he was examining some scrapings from his teeth. He -saw for the first time the long and short rods of bacilli and bacteria, -the spirillum and the micrococci. He tried means for destroying them -and met with a fair degree of success with a gargle composed of a -mixture of vinegar and hot coffee. This experiment was one of the early -anticipations of antiseptic surgery, which was invented by Lister in -the nineteenth century. - -A French surgeon, Ambroise Paré (1517-1590) was a pioneer in the -treatment of wounds. The old method was to use boiling oil. He found -that by simply cleaning and bandaging wounds he could get better and -quicker results than with hot oil, which was a very painful treatment. -Paré used ligaments in stopping hemorrhages, improved the surgery in -harelip and hernia operations and for suprapubic lithotomy. He learned -the principles of these operations from Peter Franco (1505-1570), an -itinerant surgeon, who had much skill in operations for kidney and -bladder troubles. - -Franz de la Boë (1614-1672), a professor in the university of Leyden, -who is best known under the name of Sylvius, the discoverer of the -brain fissure of Sylvius, founded a new school of chemical medicine. -Van Helmont suggested to him the possibility of the stomach being -the seat of many common disorders. When this was investigated, many -experiments were made with new medicines. The success of these -experiments led to a great reform in medical practice. Thomas Willis -(1622-1675), an English physician, completed the development of the -treatments suggested by Van Helmont and Sylvius as a result of their -studies of the works of Harvey. - -Another great English medical genius arose to establish the practice -of medicine on a scientific basis. Thomas Sydenham (1624-1689) founded -a school of medicine in accordance with these three principles: (1) -Accurate descriptions of the courses of diseases, (2) following a -fixed method of treatment in each disease, (3) searching for specific -remedies for each diseased condition. - -The results of these teachings were very pronounced. Before Sydenham's -time, the only drug used in medicine was an extract of cinchona. The -Dutchmen above named and Sydenham discovered many active medicinal -substances. Sydenham's principal discovery in materia medica was that -of the properties of laudanum. - -William Gilbert, court physician to Queen Elizabeth of England, -while Galileo and Stevin were developing the laws of gravitation and -hydrodynamics, undertook the investigation of the laws of terrestrial -magnetism and chemistry. His researches in chemistry were extensive and -valuable. His fame, however, was perpetuated by his study of magnetism -and electricity. He found that the earth is a vast magnet with north -and south poles. His remarkable textbook on magnetism covered many of -the fundamental facts known to-day. He noted the distinction between -magnetism and electricity, described electrical charges, the principles -of conductivity and methods for magnetizing iron. Galileo wrote of him: -"I extremely admire and envy this author." - -The mercurial barometer and its laws were discovered by Evangelista -Torricelli (1608-1647) a student of Galileo. By means of his barometer, -Torricelli was able to make great advances in knowledge relating to -the physics of the air and to gas pressures, and he investigated the -principles of hydraulics. The microscope, telescope, sextant and other -instruments were greatly improved by him, and his mathematical work -ranks only second to his contributions to experimental science. - -The Torricellian tube, used as a barometer, was a means of creating a -vacuum, which was formed at the top of the column of mercury. Pascal, -the French mathematician, took up the study of the physics of the -vacuum and published an important work on his own experiments. These -and other experiments made by European scientists prepared the ground -for, and suggested, the investigations of gases and vacua by Boyle, -Mariotte, and others which finally resulted in the invention of the -steam engine and many other modern machines. - -Robert Boyle (1627-1691) published at Oxford in 1660 a book which -distinguished between chemical compounds and chemical mixtures. He -adopted the use of the term gas, which was first proposed by Van -Helmont, and made some valuable studies on the physics of boiling and -freezing. The oxidation of metals, the results of calcination, and -of the fusing of metals and alloys, calculation of the atmospheric -pressure, a study of colors as affected by light rays, and -investigations in electricity were among the scientific works carried -out by this great experimenter. But his fame rests mainly upon the -results of his researches on gases. - -Boyle began life as an alchemist and died a well-trained chemist. - -Edme Mariotte, a French contemporary of Boyle's, carried out similar -experiments and assisted in formulating the physical laws of gases -bearing the names of Boyle and Mariotte. - -A German physicist, Otto von Guericke (1602-1686), also followed up -Boyle's work and invented a new form of air pump. He also carried on -important experiments in electricity. - -Gilbert, Harvey, Van Helmont, Torricelli, Boyle, Mariotte, and other -similar pioneers in scientific methods not only invented numerous -valuable instruments and wrote suggestive textbooks, but advanced -scientific learning and the love of it by their delightful accounts of -their experiments. - -Modern education started with these men. Before this period there -had been a sterile age in which the fundamental purpose of education -was only to teach men how to protect the soul and to serve God. -This humanistic principle, however, failed to advance knowledge of -the laws of nature, and the researches of the scientists gradually -caused a strong reaction against it. This in turn resulted in further -advances being made, not only in the sciences, but in all departments -of learning. The way was paved for the era of naturalism, developed -by Hobbes, Locke, Descartes, Voltaire, Kant, Rousseau, and others. -Naturalism aimed at explaining all phenomena in the simplest terms, and -correlating all things by universal principles. It has received a great -impetus in modern times from the Darwinian theory of evolution. - -The great scientific discoveries of the sixteenth and seventeenth -centuries had other important educational effects. They led -to professional specialization and the founding of scientific -institutions, schools, and universities. The Lyncean Society of -Scientists was founded in Italy in Galileo's time. It subsequently -became, in 1657, the Accademia del Cimento. - -The Royal Society of England was organized about 1645 and chartered in -1662. It did much valuable scientific work from its inception. It has -assisted the foremost scientists in their work, directed scientific -researches, and financed the printing of scientific records and the -carrying out of foreign expeditions. Nearly all the leading countries -in the world have formed institutions with similar aims. - -The chemical discoveries of Boyle attracted widespread attention -and led to investigations started with the view of discovering the -constitution of matter. Hermann Boerhaave (1668-1738) of Leyden, took -up the study of organic chemistry. Stephen Hales (1677-1761) did -similar work in England. Both of these chemists invented valuable -laboratory processes and instruments. Hales improved the pneumatic -trough used for collecting gases. - -Scientists were now furnished with the telescope, compass, sextant, -microscope, barometer, thermometer, air pump, manometer, and other -instruments so that cellular structures of plants, animals, and -insects, the microbes and bacteria, the animalculæ found in water and -in the sea, as well as the phenomena of the air, sky, and earth crust -could now be studied by trained observers. The invention of these -instruments caused workers to specialize more and more, and completely -severed science from philosophy, of which it had been an appendage -since the earliest times. - -The microscopical investigations of Malpighi, Kircher, Leeuwenhoek, -Grew, and Hooke opened up an immense field for research. They developed -microscopical chemistry and anatomy, and changed the prevailing ideas -regarding animal and vegetable tissues. The sciences of mineralogy, -botany and entomology were benefited and the medical sciences were -practically revolutionized. The first publications of the Royal Society -show the widespread attention microscopical and telescopic studies were -then receiving. - -[Illustration: - - Copyright, Keystone View Co. - -WEATHER AND ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS ON THE ROOF OF GREENWICH -OBSERVATORY, ENGLAND] - -[Illustration: - -Courtesy "Aeronautics," London - -A MOORING TOWER FOR AIRSHIPS, WITH THE R-24 FASTENED HEAD ON] - -Francis Bacon (1561-1626), René Descartes (1596-1650) and Gottfried -Leibnitz (1646-1716), in England, France, and Germany, respectively, -lent powerful aid to the advance of science at this time. - -Bacon's great learning enabled him effectively to describe scientific -methods and to direct scientific criticism. He attracted general -attention to scientific methods based on inductive processes. - -Descartes, seeing that the world's best intellects had long been -exercised with philosophy and metaphysics, without discovering anything -with certainty, resolved to accept no beliefs upon the authority of -any name or reputation. He would reach his own conclusions based upon -the scrupulous examination of data. He hoped to solve the mysteries -of nature by the aid of mathematics and geometry, and developed the -Cartesian philosophy. - -The mathematical works of Descartes are now better known than his -general scientific ideas. He published in 1637 his "Discourses on -Method" and on Geometry. In the last-named work, suggestions are given -for the development of analytic methods. It has been said of his -formulæ that they are even cleverer than himself. The general use of -his analytic methods by other mathematicians resulted in the solution -of many scientific problems that had been handed down for centuries as -insoluble. - -Descartes also advanced algebra. The application of the doctrine of -curved lines to algebra greatly enlarged the scope of its usefulness. -In making these innovations, Descartes introduced the methods and -symbols of modern exponential notation. The English mathematician -Wallis was also an important agent in the development of mathematical -notation. He based his work on the Greek notation and that of Nicolas -Chuquet (1484), J. Bürgi, Thomas Harriot (1631), Johann Hudde (1659), -and others. Descartes was familiar with the writings of these scholars -and, undoubtedly, was influenced by them. - -Roberval, Fermat, and Pascal were contemporary mathematicians in France -and left great names in the history of the mathematical sciences. They -all made contributions which permanently enriched mathematics and made -further progress in other sciences possible. - -The geographical sciences now began to attract attention. The new -scientific instruments made it possible to collect data in all parts of -the world that was needed in unraveling scientific mysteries. - -William Dampier (1653-1715) was one of the pioneers in scientific -voyages of discovery. In voyages to the Orient and Australasia he -collected much important data on zoölogy, botany, meteorology, the -winds, tides, currents, and on fish and sea life. His book on winds -became the first great standard work on meteorology. - -The doctrine of spontaneous generation had long held sway in Europe. -The Greeks entertained it and it was accepted as true in the time of -Martin Luther. Francesco Redi (1626-1697), an Italian biologist, showed -that when the flesh of dead animals is protected it remains fresh. -The Abbé Spallanzani (1729-1799) carried Redi's theory further and -showed that microbes and bacteria do not develop in concoctions which -have been boiled and sealed. Here we note the beginning of antiseptic -science. - -Under the leadership of Bacon in England, Calvin in France, Luther -in Germany, and Knox in Scotland, European thought was being stirred -up while the great discoveries just related were being made. Just -as Boyle's chemical discoveries caused the divorcing of chemistry -from alchemy, and the naturalistic philosophy of the times led to -the specialization of scientists and the breaking off of philosophy -from science, so the intellectual awakening aroused by Bacon and his -contemporaries led to the suppression of belief in witchcraft and to -revolutionary ideas in religion and ethics. - -Locke endeavored to base a "rational Christianity" on the ground of -experience. Until his times, theology was tangled up with a maze of -physical problems which dismayed even such intellects as those of -Newton, Hume, and Locke. - -Newton's researches were chiefly based upon mathematical and -astronomical problems. While a student at Cambridge in 1660, he studied -the works of Descartes, Kepler, Van Schooten, Barrow, and particularly -those of the Greek and British mathematicians. The works of J. Wallis -were very valuable to him. The "Arithmetic of Affinities" of Wallis -drew his attention to astronomical problems and thus led to his great -triumphs later on. - -Newton's "Principia" has already been referred to as being one of the -greatest works of the intellect ever produced. - -The result of Newton's meditation upon the nature of the central -force that keeps the planets in their courses was that he furnished a -mathematical basis for Kepler's laws by proving that if the planets -describe elliptical orbits about the sun, the force acting toward the -sun, keeping them in revolution, must vary inversely as the square of -the distance. On the revolution of the moon around the earth he found a -practical confirmation of this law of gravitational attraction. He then -took up the study of motion in general and showed that every particle -of matter attracts every other particle in accordance with the same -principle of inverse squares. - -Botanical gardens were established in Padua in 1545, and not long after -in Pisa, Leyden, Paris, and London. Much attention was devoted to -medicinal plants, and numerous herbal books were published. Malpighi, -Grew, and Camerarius (1665-1721) published works on botany and plant -morphology. Ray and Linnæus (1707-1778) studied the classification of -plants and compiled textbooks of descriptive botany. - -Buffon (1707-1788) published his famous "Natural History of Animals" -which did for zoölogy what the works of Linnæus did for botany. - -Looking backward, we can now see that all scientific knowledge has -been gained by the trial and error method and cumulative analyses of -a multitude of observations. Progress is not made uniformly but in a -recurrent, cyclic manner. Reactions follow advances, but in the end all -goes forward. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -PRELUDE TO MODERN SCIENCE--THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY - - -When the eighteenth century opened science had begun to make men think, -and the works of the great scientists had changed the trend of thought -on all sides. Liberty of conscience, of worship, and of opportunity -were demanded, as well as representative government, economic freedom, -and individual equality before the law. Men wanted to be free agents. -The philosophical writings of Berkeley, Locke, Hume, Spinoza, Voltaire, -Rousseau, and others supplemented the books of the scientists and -promoted rational thinking. Syllogistic reasoning displaced the -practice of accepting beliefs upon authority. This change in public -thought reacted most favorably upon science. - -Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716) conceived matter as a plurality -of simple forces. Many kinds of matter, he said, exist. There is no -single natural force, but an infinite number. Each force is represented -by some individual substance. Force is indivisible, immaterial, and -unextended. Simple forces he called essential forms, units, atoms, or -monads. The monads are not mathematical points, nor physical points. -Real points are metaphysical. In other words, Leibnitz created a -philosophy of eternal force atoms. - -The Greeks were taught by Leucippus, Empedocles and Anaxagoras that -matter is formed of atoms. Space is infinite; atoms are indivisible. -Atoms are in a continuous state of activity. Atoms constitute worlds -and planets. Falling through space they give rise to eddying motions -by mutual impact. Many philosophers rejected these views. Throughout -the ages, however, they were learned by students and when Leibnitz -advanced his new atomic theory, the world was ready to consider it. -The Leibnitzian monads were like Plato's ideas--eternal purposes. -Aristotle held that monads are absolute, indivisible beings. Leibnitz -suggested that each monad is in process of evolution and realizes its -nature through inner necessity. It is not determined from without. Each -form of matter existed in germ in an embryo. Nothing in a monad can be -lost, and future stages are predetermined in the earlier stages. Each -monad is charged with the past and big with the future. The biologists -at this period generally accepted this incasement theory. Caspar F. -Wolff suggested, in 1759, that there is an epigenesis or a progressive -evolution and differentiation of organs from a homogeneous primitive -germ. This view did not meet with approval until Darwin published his -great discoveries in the middle of the last century. - -The history of the atomic theories furnishes a clear illustration of -the long period of preparation that great scientific ideas must pass -through before they are united by a generalizing genius of exceptional -capacity and launched in the form of a new theory. - -Modern mathematical science grew out of the analytical geometry -of Descartes. He showed that the true method for the discovery of -scientific facts was to accept nothing as true which was clearly not -recognizable as true. All assumptions should be proved. Each difficulty -should be separately studied. No intermediate steps should be skipped, -and details should be methodically enumerated. Thoughts must be guided -in an orderly manner, beginning with the simplest characteristics of -an object and proceeding in a logical sequence to the most complicated -aspects of each subject. Descartes carried out his own rules in -his work. His improvements in the differential calculus, and those -in the integral calculus made by Cavalieri, and in the calculus -of probabilities by Pascal and Fermat, furnished scientists with -instruments capable of solving almost every physical problem met with -in their investigations. - -One of the first results of the new analytical methods was the -establishment of the science of optics. - -Newton demonstrated that white light is composed of rays of various -colors, and that the color reflected by any object is due to the -ability of the object to reflect certain rays while absorbing the rest. -The Dutch physicist, Huygens, championed the undulatory or wave theory -of light. Refraction was explained by both Newton and Huygens, and the -latter, while studying the double refraction of crystals of Iceland -spar, discovered the phenomena of polarization. - -Boyle's chemical discoveries led to much research in chemistry. Black, -Bergman and Van Helmont investigated the properties of carbonic acid -gas. - -Joseph Black treated limestone with acid and collected the gas evolved -in a Hales pneumatic trough. He weighed the gas and the remainder of -the limestone, finding that what the limestone lost was equivalent to -the weight of the gas. He then reversed the process and succeeded in -making chalk from a solution of lime. This simple experiment paved the -way for chemical analysis and syntheses which have added profoundly to -our knowledge of the composition of matter. - -Bergman tested Black's gas with litmus and found it gave an acid -reaction and in 1779 Lavoisier demonstrated that it consisted of carbon -and oxygen. - -Priestley and Cavendish, both English chemists, then took up this -study. Cavendish treated iron, tin, zinc, and other metals with -sulphuric acid and discovered a new gas which he termed hydrogen. - -Rutherford discovered nitrogen in 1772 and Priestley isolated nitric -oxide, and in 1774 discovered oxygen. In the course of his experiment -Priestley also discovered ammonia, sulphur dioxide and other chemicals. - -His greatest achievements, however, were the isolation and recognition -of oxygen, and the discovery of the composition of water. Following up -these discoveries, he noted that the air is not a simple elementary -substance, but a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen with several impure -gases. The work of this great chemist became as fruitful in the -chemical field as that of Newton in physics, astronomy, and mathematics. - -Carl Wilhelm Scheele, a Swede, carried out many experiments which -resulted in the discovery of tartaric acid, the decomposition of silver -chloride by light, magnesium nitrate, magnesia, microcosmic salt, and -sulphureted hydrogen, chlorine, hydrofluoric, and other inorganic -acids. He also discovered the following organic acids: lactic, gallic, -pyrogallic, oxalic, citric, malic, mucic and uric. He isolated -glycerin and sugar of milk and determined the nature of hydrocyanic -acid, borax, plumbago, Prussian blue, and other chemicals. He invented -many new chemical and laboratory processes. Scheele was an apothecary's -assistant and lived in poverty. But although his experiments were -conducted under disadvantageous circumstances his discoveries ranked -him as the greatest chemist of his time and one of the greatest -chemical experimenters of all time. - -Cavendish established the proportions of the constituents of air, -demonstrated the nature of water and its volumetric composition. The -character of the experiments conducted by Cavendish, his elegant -methods of weighing, measuring and calculating have caused him to -be looked upon as the founder of systematic chemistry. He was more -scientific in his methods than the brilliant Lavoisier, and much more -learned and philosophical than the practical Scheele. - -While the chemists were making these great advances there were -important developments in physical science. Benjamin Franklin -(1706-1790), the first American scientist to acquire world-wide -fame, announced that lightning was an electrical phenomenon. In -1752 he showed by his famous kite experiments that atmospheric and -machine-generated electric charges are of a like nature. - -Franklin suggested to Cavendish certain electrical experiments with -a view to studying the electric force between two charges. These -experiments led Cavendish to the discovery of the law of electric -attraction between charged bodies. Franklin subsequently discovered the -law of conservation of an electric charge. - -Charles Augustin Coulomb (1736-1806) rendered great service to -electrical experimentation. He resurveyed the experiments of Cavendish, -Priestley, and other pioneer electricians, and established a theory of -molecular magnetization which provided a working formula to explain -electrical currents and magnetic fields. - -Simeon Denis Poisson (1781-1840) discovered the law of induced -magnetism which bears his name. - -Luigi Galvani (1737-1798) observed that the limbs of a frog are -convulsed whenever they are connected up through the nerves and muscles -with a metallic arc formed from more than one metal. He thought the -convulsions were due to a peculiar fluid which he called galvanism, or -animal electricity. - -Another Italian, Alessandro Volta (1745-1827) discovered and explained -the theory of the voltaic pile. - -Nicholson and Carlisle discovered frictional electricity while William -Cruickshank showed that a voltaic current decomposes solutions of -metallic salts. William Hyde Wollaston used Cruickshank's discovery -to prove that frictional and voltaic electric currents are identical. -Humphry Davy (1778-1829) in 1807 established a new voltaic theory -which combined the chemical and contact theories previously held, and -showed that electrical and chemical attractions are produced by similar -causes. Chemical affinity he found to be an essentially electrical -phenomenon. - -Francis Hawksbee, in 1705, communicated to the Royal Society a -monograph which showed that when common air is passed over mercury in -a well-exhausted receiver an electric light is produced. This was -the first demonstration of the availability of electricity for the -production of light. - -Dufay (1699-1739) described positive and negative electric currents. - -Watson determined, for the Royal Society, the velocity of an electric -current and found it practically instantaneous. - -These, and numerous lesser, discoveries did for electricity what -the chemical discoveries of Priestley, Cavendish, Scheele, Boyle, -Lavoisier, and others had done for chemistry. - -The numerous voyages of discovery in the eighteenth century helped to -develop the geographical sciences. Special expeditions were fitted out -for the acquirement of geographical knowledge without any thought of -trading profits. The Jesuits carried out a valuable survey of China and -Mongolia early in the century. A Danish scientific expedition studied -Arabia, the results of which were published by Niebuhr in 1772. James -Bruce visited Abyssinia with the view of solving the ancient problem -of the source of the Nile. Mungo Park studied the course of the Niger. -Captain James Cook led a scientific expedition to Tahiti with the -object of making astronomical observations. This resulted in one of -the greatest and most valuable voyages of discovery in history. Cook -determined the westernmost point of America in 1778 and his accounts -of Bering Sea and Alaska revived interest in the Polar seas, which -resulted in numerous Arctic and Antarctic expeditions yielding rich -scientific returns. - -The Hudson's Bay Company sent out many investigators to determine the -characteristics and resources of Arctic America. The Russians did the -same for their own northern lands. - -These activities of geographical investigators led to improved methods -of navigation, nautical surveying, sounding and shipbuilding, besides -supplying an enormous amount of scientific data. - -The British naval authorities pointed out to King Charles II the need -for correct nautical tables. Flamsteed, one of the leading astronomers -of the day, was appointed Astronomer Royal in 1675, with the definite -object of producing a new catalogue of star positions, tide tables, and -other nautical data. He immediately founded the Greenwich observatory, -which has supplied the world with data for the navigator. - -Bradley, a successor of Flamsteed at Greenwich, made many important -astronomical discoveries while carrying on the star maps. He discovered -the aberration of light and the mutation of the earth's axis. - -Locaille studied the parallax of the sun and made numerous stellar -observations at the Cape of Good Hope in 1751. He located the positions -of 10,000 stars in the southern hemisphere. - -Measurements were made in Peru, Lapland, and elsewhere to discover -data regarding the earth's curvature. Pendulum observations to detect -variations of gravity were made in many countries. Maskelyne, the -astronomer royal, made observations on the transit of Venus at St. -Helena in 1761. On this expedition he perfected the method of finding -longitude at sea by lunar distances. - -Sir William Herschel discovered the planet Uranus in 1781, and -subsequently found its satellites. Many star groups, double stars and -nebulæ were discovered by him and he found that the solar system is -traveling through space in the direction of a point in or near the -constellation of Hercules. - -Greenwich observatory was publishing at the end of the eighteenth -century the Nautical Almanac, and annual reports on star and -meteorological observations as well as important astronomical -monographs. Similar publications were founded in the next century in -France, Germany, and Italy. - -The discoveries in mathematics during the eighteenth century included -the differential, integral, and other forms of the calculus, -differential equations, and various formulæ for dynamics, mechanics, -and physical and astronomical calculations. Euler, Lagrange, Laplace, -D'Alembert, and Carnot were prominent mathematical investigators. - -Heat in earlier times had been regarded as an imponderable substance -called caloric which was supposed to be emitted by hot and absorbed -by cold bodies. Thus the expansion of mercury was explained by the -addition of caloric and not by the increase of distance between -the molecules. Francis Bacon and the Scotch chemist Black did the -preliminary work which enabled Count Rumford finally to establish -the true theory of heat. Watt and Newcomen were attracted by these -studies and reduced their theories to practice in the steam engine. -Black described specific and latent heat and invented, and used, the -calorimeter bearing his name. - -Hall invented an achromatic lens for telescopes in 1733, and Dollond, -another English optician, improved achromatic lenses and made, in 1758, -achromatic telescope objectives. The lenses were primarily designed -for astronomical telescopes, but they were also applied to microscopes -and other scientific instruments, resulting in improvements in our -knowledge of light. - -The voyages of discovery, in this century, encouraged study of zoölogy -and natural history subjects generally, including mineralogy and -geology. - -Hooke, Ray, and Woodward made collections of rocks and fossils in -England and advanced hypotheses to explain their origins. Lazzaro -Moro suggested that fossils must have been deposited in rocks when -they were being formed. He also distinguished rock formations by the -characteristic fossils found in them. Hutton and Smith then made -scientific studies of English rocks, fossils, and earth sculpture, and -prepared the materials for the subsequent brilliant discoveries of -Lyell. - -The first governmental school of mines was established in Freiberg, -Saxony, in 1775. This institution, and others which were afterward -established in different countries, led to an intensive study of the -geological and metallurgical sciences, which eventuated in great -advances during the nineteenth century. - -Aristotle and Theophrastus in early times, Gesner in the sixteenth -century, Ray, Grew, Malpighi and Willughby in the seventeenth century, -had been the writers of the principal textbooks on zoölogy. Buffon -(1707-1785) and Linnæus (1707-1778) were the founders of modern natural -history in the eighteenth century. Buffon described species, while -Linnæus classified them. Linnæus named _Homo sapiens_ as a distinct -species in the order of primates which includes apes, lemurs, and bats, -and fixed man's place in nature. - -The medical sciences were revolutionized by the researches of -Edward Jenner. He applied the scientific methods of the chemists, -mathematicians, and astronomers to medicine and through accurate -observation, skillful experimentation, careful generalization, and -thorough verification, founded preventive medicine. His discovery of -vaccination as a preventive for smallpox, communicated to the Royal -Society in a very interesting paper in 1798, was the pioneer of the -many brilliant advances of our day. - -The Freiberg School of Mines, the Woolwich Observatory, the School -of Civil Engineering in Paris (1747), the Universities of Göttingen -(1737), Bonn (1777), Brussels (1781), Yale (1701) and Princeton (1746) -were founded in this century. - -Modern industrialism began in the final part of this century. -The invention of the steam engine by Watt resulted in giving the -greatest impulse to material civilization the world ever experienced. -This invention was the direct result of the experimental work of -Boyle, Newton, Black, Cavendish, Davy, Priestley, and Lavoisier. It -illustrates how the scientific discoveries of one generation furnish -the data for the advancement of knowledge by the next generation and -how a single invention may change the whole aspect of life, giving -employment for vast numbers of people, developing settlement in foreign -lands, starting new industries, and extending the fields of commerce. -The history of the development of the steam engine from the results of -a few basic physical researches by British scientists forms one of the -grandest stories in the history of science. - -The new aspect assumed by the world as a result of the great scientific -discoveries and the increases in industry and commerce which followed -them seemed strange to the people who were unused to rapid progress. -There was a disturbed feeling akin to fear abroad while the new ideas -were being popularized and disseminated throughout the world. The -movement in favor of enlightenment was strongest in France because of -the social, political, and religious oppression of the people. It ended -in the French Revolution, which strengthened the respect for reason and -human rights throughout the world. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -PHYSICAL SCIENCES IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY - - -During the nineteenth century, the path of scientific discovery might -almost be represented by a vertical line. Never before was such -rapid and marvelous progress made. The releasing of the mind from -the oppressive restrictions of earlier conservative ages liberated -the intellectual energies of mankind. A new idealistic philosophy -supplanted that of an earlier period and universal attention was given -to science and material things. Amidst these changes social science was -devolved, and, with it, the study of psychology. - -But it was the physical sciences which most felt the stimulus of the -new rationalistic spirit. - -The relationships between physical magnitudes are established by -measurements. When these are accurately ascertained, questions -regarding their variable functions can be solved by mathematical -principles. Physics is thus linked with mathematics through -measurements. The more science advances, the greater is the accuracy -needed in physical measurements. The strictness and clearness of -experimentation which has been attained in physics has given birth to a -science of measurement, which has its own instruments, rules, methods, -and formulæ. - -Measurement of length is one of the bases of physics. It is a relative -operation carried out by comparing the length of one body with that of -another. Standards of length are preserved by a Bureau of Weights and -Measures in most countries. Delambre, a French authority on the decimal -system of measures, taught at the beginning of the nineteenth century -that magnitudes as small as the hundredth of a millimeter are incapable -of observation. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures now -guarantees to determine two or three ten-thousandths of a millimeter. -So much has the science of measurement progressed in a century. - -The undulations of light rays are used for determining standard -lengths. Michelson and Benoit measured a standard length of ten -centimeters, in 1894, in terms of the wave lengths of the red, green, -and blue radiations of cadmium, and then in terms of the French -standard meter. These experiments yielded very accurate results. - -The measurement of mass is another important base of physics. Mass is -the quantity of matter in a body and the action which gravity exerts -on mass is called weight. Weight does not depend entirely upon mass, -but also upon the position of the body weighed, because when the -body is weighed in one place and reweighed in another, there will be -a difference in the force of gravity due to change of latitude and -of altitude. National standards of mass have been made of alloys of -iridium and platinum. - -Many remarkable measurements of time, temperature, and physical -constants were carried out during the century. - -High and low temperature charts were completed, showing temperatures in -the air, the earth, and the sea. Instruments and methods were devised -for measuring any temperature whether of high furnace gases or low -freezing mixtures. - -The measuring units of mass, length, time, and temperature are -fundamental, others like velocity, acceleration, power, and area are -referred to them. For that reason the latter are called derived units. -Many of these are important and call for accurate determinations. - -One of the first achievements of the century was the establishment of -the doctrine of the conservation of energy. - -Francis Bacon had suggested that motion is a phenomenon of heat, and -Newton had divined the principle of the conservation of energy, but -it was Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, who discovered the nature of -friction and made the first estimate of the mechanical equivalent of -heat. Sir Humphry Davy showed that two pieces of ice could be melted by -simply rubbing them together, in a vacuum. But he failed to draw the -great inference that this experiment warranted. - -If he had observed that the heat could not have been supplied by the -ice because ice is an absorber of heat, he would have anticipated the -great work done by James P. Joule, an English physicist, who published -the results of many experiments carried out by him prior to 1843. His -task was to find the exact mechanical equivalent of heat. - -His best results were secured by dropping a mass of lead from a -measured height and using the energy generated during the descent to -operate a revolving paddle in a dish of measured water. Delicate -thermometers recorded the increase of temperature in the water and -showed that the descent of 424 grams of lead through a distance of one -meter, or one gram of lead through 424 meters, generated sufficient -heat to raise one gram of water one degree centigrade (1° C.). - -Otherwise expressed, a fall of 772 lbs. of lead through a distance of -1 foot, or 1 lb. of lead through 772 feet, raises the temperature of 1 -lb. of water one degree Fahrenheit (1° F.). These 772 foot-pounds, or -424 gram-meters, represent the mechanical equivalent of heat upon which -so many important theories have been based. But Joule's equivalent -was determined for common air temperatures whereas the specific heat -of water increases with the temperature so that the value of the -equivalent rises with increased temperatures. Osborne Reynolds, in -1897, found the mean equivalent for temperatures between the freezing -and boiling points to be 777 foot-pounds. - -The discovery of Joule's equivalent established a relationship between -motion or mechanical work performed and the amount of heat generated -when work is completely expanded in friction. The same relationships -continue good when the work is transformed by indirect means as by -generating electric currents or expanding gases. The multitude of -elegant experiments used to confirm the truth of Joule's law showed -that heat is not a substance, or calorie, but a purely mechanical -effect. This great discovery of the relation of friction and heat -lies at the basis of electricity, molecular physics, and chemistry, -and is the source of the formulæ used by engineers in designing power -machinery. The internal combustion engine is largely a result of the -discovery of Joule's equivalent and the physical theories derived from -it. - -This great discovery caused a new theory of matter to be developed. -Dalton had suggested, when applying the atomic theory to chemistry, -that when two elements combine to form a third substance, it is -probable that one atom of one element joins itself to one atom of the -other, unless some exceptional condition exists. When water is formed -by bringing oxygen and hydrogen together, he supposed that one atom -of oxygen combined with one atom of hydrogen. Gay-Lussac subsequently -proved that not only does one volume of oxygen combine with two volumes -of hydrogen (not one as Dalton believed) in the production of water, -but that nitric and carbonic acid gases combine with ammonia gas in the -ratio of 1:1 or 1:2. He also demonstrated that one volume of nitrogen -united with three of hydrogen form ammonia, and that carbonic oxide -burning in a mass of oxygen consumes half its volume of oxygen. He -concluded from these and other facts that gases always combine together -in simple proportions by volume and that the apparent contraction of -volume they show on combining bears a similar simple relationship to -the volume of one or more of the gases. - -Avogadro, working on Gay-Lussac's experimental data, suggested that -the number of integral molecules in any gas is always the same for -equal volumes, or is always proportional to the volumes. He also -suggested that equal volumes of different gases at the same pressure -and temperature contain the same number of molecules. Experiments -on alcohol made by Williamson raised doubts as to the validity of -Avogadro's hypotheses when applied to chemical combinations. These -doubts were cleared in 1860, when the new chemical atomic weights and -formulæ were introduced into English textbooks. - -The molecular theory of matter derived from these experiments supposes -that all visible forms of matter are aggregations of simpler and -smaller chemical elements. Mendeléeff and Newlands showed that the -physical and chemical properties of the elements are functions of their -atomic weights. - -Investigations of radioactivity and the observations based upon the -passage of electric currents through gases have recently modified our -views with respect to the atomic theory, but these points will be dealt -with in the chapter dealing with radiation. - -Questions regarding the eventual loss of energy in matter are best -studied in gases. A considerable number of important investigations -are now being carried on in Europe with the view of tracing the -interchanges of molecular energies in gas molecules. Maxwell and other -investigators found long ago that the motion of molecules cannot go on -perpetually. The energy of motion will in time be frittered away by -friction, air resistance, collisions with other molecules, vibrations -set up by collisions, and other molecular movements. It has been found -that the energy which is dissipated by air resistance is transformed -into energy in the air. That which is lost by collisions is converted -into internal vibrations within each molecule. The question now arises -as to what effects are exerted on a gas. It involves the effects of the -communicated internal molecular vibrations and their transference of -energy to the surrounding medium. What is known as the Quantum dynamic -theory has been proposed to account for this phenomena. Quantum -dynamics appear to be distinct from the Newtonian. - -Carnot and Clausius discovered that the motive power of heat is -independent of the agents brought into play for its realization. The -motive power of a waterfall depends, for example, on its height and -on the quantity of water falling within a given time. Clausius stated -the Carnot idea in mechanical terms by saying: That in a series of -transformations, in which the final is identical with the initial -stage, it is impossible for heat to pass from a colder to a warmer body -unless some other accessory phenomenon occurs at the same time. A heat -motor, which, after a series of transformations, returns to its initial -state, can only supply work, or power, if there exist two sources of -heat, and if a certain quantity of heat is given to one of the sources -which can never be the hotter of the two. The output of a reversible -machine working between two given temperatures is greater than that -of any nonreversible engine, and it is the same for all reversible -machines working between these two temperatures. - -Clausius showed that this principle conduces to the definition of an -absolute scale of temperature and there is another factor assisting -in restoring physical equilibrium which he termed entropy. It is a -variable which, like pressure or volume, serves concurrently with -another variable to define the state of a body. - -These discoveries of Carnot and Clausius showed the impossibility of -finding a source of perpetual motion and helped to solve many of the -difficulties in securing efficiency from internal combustion engines. -Industrial, as well as scientific results of immense importance have -developed from these principles. - -Theories on the compressible fluids and elastic equilibrium were -developed as the result of work done between 1875 and 1896 by J. -W. Gibbs, Helmholtz, Duhem, and others on internal thermodynamic -potentials. These theories have proved of incalculable value in -elucidating electrical and radiation phenomena. - -Another discovery of Gibbs, made in 1876, has also had brilliant -results. It is known as the Phase Law. The homogeneous substances -into which a material system is divided is called a phase. Carbonate -of lime, lime, and carbonic acid gas are the three phases of a system -which comprises Iceland spar partially dissociated into lime and -carbonic acid gas. The number of phases, combined with the number of -independent bodies entering into the reactions, fixes the general form -of the law of equilibrium of the system. This discovery of Gibbs has -resulted in greatly extending the field of physics. It is of importance -in molecular and atomic investigations, in osmosis, electrolysis, and -in most questions dealing with thermodynamics. - -Light is generally defined as the sense impression received by the eye. -It was formerly believed that it was caused by streams of corpuscles -emitted by the source of light. This was known as the emission theory. -Early in the nineteenth century, the undulatory displaced the emission -theory. According to this, light is a transverse vibratory motion -extended longitudinally through the ether. - -The experiments of Faraday, Maxwell, Fresnel, Hamilton, Green, and -others suggested that the undulatory theory required for its validity a -new medium different from the atmospheric air and from every substance -known to man. Just as the results of investigations into reflection, -refraction, diffraction, and polarization showed that the old -corpuscular theory of light was untenable, so these experiments seemed -to cast doubt upon both the undulatory and emission theories. - -Fresnel, when studying problems in polarization, noticed that a theory -of light proposed by Hooke appeared to be true. Hooke asserted that -light vibrations are not longitudinal but transverse. - -Fresnel found by his experiments that the idea of longitudinal -vibrations acting along the line of propagation in the direction of -the rays would not explain the polarization changes in light. They -suggested that there was a transverse movement perpendicular to the -ray. When Fresnel's researches were published, physicists realized -that if the transverse direction of luminous vibrations was denied -the undulatory movement of light would also be denied. Now transverse -vibrations cannot exist in any medium resembling a fluid, because it -is characteristic of fluids that, so long as the volume continues -constant, its different parts can be displaced without the appearance -of any reaction. This necessitates the assumption that light needs a -solid body for its transmission and Lord Kelvin asserted that this body -must be a solid more rigid than steel. - -When the vibratory theory was accepted, it became necessary to -investigate the nature of the ether and to determine its characteristic -properties. Neumann, MacCullagh, Green, and Stokes then developed an -elastic solid theory of the ether. - -The experiments of Lord Rayleigh, Lorentz, Drude, Larmor, and others -suggested that light is identical with electromagnetic disturbances -and, consequently, is an electrical phenomenon. - -Some of the finest developments in physics during the nineteenth -century were in the realm of electricity. They resulted in an enormous -extension of the use of electricity in industry and commerce and led to -the investigation of radioactivities of various kinds and these in turn -are developing investigations of a most brilliant character. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -THE NATURAL SCIENCES - - -Manifestations of animal life are everywhere visible. They may be -seen on mountain peaks, in desert plains, and by the seashores. Even -the bleak arctic ice fields have their faunas. This extraordinary -distribution of life has attracted attention since the dawn of history. -Primitive man, by his often beautiful cave drawings, indicated that he -studied intimately the wild life surrounding him. The basic facts of -natural history were studied by the early peoples of the Near East. -The Greeks prepared many books on natural history and anticipated -modern evolutionary theories. The natural sciences, however, made -slow progress until toward the end of the eighteenth century when -Linnæus and Buffon began their great works. When the nineteenth century -opened, the broader fields of nature were segregated, classified, -and described. Linnæus took broad views regarding the principles of -classification based upon general structure, and his work was enlarged -and improved by Cuvier. - -Buffon contributed suggestions regarding the probable mutability of -species with respect to changes in environment, and improved on the -old Greek evolutionary ideas by formulating a definite theory of the -causes of mutability. He was an important agent in promoting the modern -theories of evolution in zoölogy and botany, which have done more than -anything else to augment our knowledge of terrestrial life. - -The numerous scientific exploring expeditions in the eighteenth and -nineteenth centuries collected an enormous amount of data regarding -animals and animal life. Early in the nineteenth century this data -was worked up and classified. It soon became apparent that the range -of any given species of animal is strictly limited. A new science, -that of the geographical distribution of life, was developed. This has -been very fruitful in defining the true home areas of all species of -animals, insects, birds, and fish, and locating their principal paths -of migration. - -The world has been divided into about a dozen terrestrial life -regions, subregions and transitional regions. These have been mapped -and described. The work of Dr. A. R. Wallace, in 1876, showed the -comparative importance and extent of these life zones and their -variable richness in zoölogical forms, the relationships of the species -in different zones, and their degrees of isolation. The descriptions of -these great geographical zones fill many interesting volumes and cover -all the important forms of existing life. - -The naturalists who studied particular zones, or classes of animals, -frequently did extraordinary work. The bird studies in North America, -recorded in a series of wonderful paintings by Audubon, and the studies -of Fürbringer and other naturalists, are comparable with Wallace's -great book on the Geographical Distribution of Animals, published in -1876. - -The morphological researches of Parker, Huxley, Quatrefages, Owen, and -others revolutionized many of the subdivisions of natural history and -led to important discoveries in biology. - -The effects of climate upon the development, migration, and decline -of species and upon the extension and upbuilding of civilization have -been minutely studied. Kropotkin showed that climatic changes in -Asia drove the hordes of native tribes into Europe at early periods. -They were forced to migrate on account of droughts leading to a food -shortage. Many historical events have been shaped by climatic factors. -Just as men who inhabit dry districts are usually nomads on account of -their need of seeking new food supplies, so animals and insects are -forced to migrate for a similar reason. The life changes wrought by -disease epidemics under climatic influences have also been studied and -have shed much light upon the origin and development of many organs -and upon the habits of animals. Some of the chief inferences arising -from investigations on the effects of climatic variations on life are -that certain types of climate favor the development of certain animal -species; certain climates have prevailed in historical times in centers -where civilization flourished greatly. Therefore it may be presumed -that definite climatic conditions are required for the specific -development of each type of species and for each kind of civilization. -Just as history shows that one of the many conditions of human progress -has changed repeatedly from century to century on account of variations -in climatic factors, so these stimuli have, from the earliest times, -swayed and modified all classes of organic life. Climate serves -to develop, retard, or extinguish animal characteristics, habits, -and development. The study of the rôle of climate in modifying -living conditions has disclosed data which throws much light on the -philosophical problems surrounding organic life, its laws and progress. - -The voyage of the _Beagle_ in 1831, for a scientific cruise to South -America, with Charles Darwin aboard as naturalist; that of the Ross -Antarctic expedition in 1839, with Sir W. J. Hooker as botanist; that -of the _Rattlesnake_ for Australia and the South Seas in 1846, with -T. H. Huxley as surgeon, resulted in the assembling of scientific -data in natural history fields which, when classified and developed, -revolutionized the natural sciences. - -The work of the _Challenger_, in 1872, and many other memorable British -scientific expeditions augmented and confirmed the data collected in -the earlier explorations. - -Harvey's explanation of the movement of the blood by the pumping -pulsations of the heart quickened interest in biology. Mayer and -Helmholtz, when chemists, had succeeded in artificially making urea -and sugar and investigated living organisms from the viewpoint of -mechanisms operated on the principle of the conservation of energy. -They traced the manifold functions of the body to chemical and thermal -energies developed by the destruction of food. - -These valuable discoveries were augmented by Schleiden and Schwann, -showing that all organisms are built up of living cells. The offices -performed within cells by colloids and solutions, and in the nerves by -electric movements, were traced. - -Investigations into the most minute forms of animal life also furnished -startling results. Schwann found, in 1838, that fermenting yeast -consists of living vegetable cells, and that organic putrefaction -is caused by the activities of such cells. Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) -demonstrated that the presence of bacteria in any animal is always -due to the entrance of bacteria and microbes from the outside, or by -means favoring the abnormal increase of existing germs. He also showed -by experiments that diseases like chicken cholera, phylloxera, or the -silkworm disease are caused by particular microbes. These discoveries -led to the tracing of many common diseases to their special living -germs. - -While these impressive additions to scientific knowledge were being -made, other naturalists were studying the instinctive emotional and -intelligent behavior and psychology of animals, both singly and in -herds. Animals and insects were found to display signs of intelligence, -sometimes of a high order; to live socially, in many cases; and to play -and court with emotional attributes. Throughout the animal kingdom, -until man is reached, animals are guided in their activities by self -and racial preservation. - -Play was found to be a fruitful factor in animal education, even in -minute insects. The behavior of any animal does not stand alone, but -is related to that of others. Animals which hunt, or are hunted, -combatants, rivals, mates, and enemies, react upon one another. - -Entomology, the science of insects, has been extensively systematized. -Practically every phenomenon relating to the insect metamorphosis has -been disclosed. The works of Binet, Lubbock, Fabre, and many others -have illuminated the psychology of insect life. The charming writings -of J. H. Fabre on the life of a fly, on the mason bees, the hunting -wasps, the life of a caterpillar, of a grasshopper, of the sacred -beetles and other insects, are as thrilling and instructive as any -masterpiece of romantic writing. What could be more interesting than -Fabre's account of his observations on the glowworm, when he discovered -that its luminescence is due to oxidation by air forces through a -special lightning tube, and that it occurs in males as well as females -and in the eggs and grubs likewise? He shows that the glowworm's -life, from start to finish, is one carnival of light. The females are -living lighthouses which brilliantly illumine the wild thyme and other -flowering plants they haunt on dark nights, making miniature fairylands -in country districts. - -Studies in the growth and form of living bodies have opened up many -interesting problems in physical biology. The cell and tissue, shell -and bone, leaf and flower are various portions of matter, the particles -of which are moved, molded, conformed, or shaped in obedience to -the laws of physics. Forms like those of the lovely wing scales of -butterflies, of lace flies, or the spiral shells of the foraminifera -are natural diagrams of the results of physical forces. Biologists not -only study the nature of the motions of living organisms as animal -kinetics, but also the conformation of the organism itself, whose -permanence or equilibrium is explained by the interaction or balance of -forces leading to static conditions. - -The dynamics of cell formation and cell division and their karyokinetic -figure drawings are the result of numerous complex physical force -struggles brought about by chemical and physiological reactions. -Studies of these have shown that the spermatozoön, nucleus, -chromosomes, or the germ plasms, which develop organic life, can never -act alone. They must be started by other forces which make them seats -of energy. - -The experiments of George Rainey on the elementary formation of the -skeletons of small animals, of Carpenter upon the formation of shells, -and those of Professor Harting on the same subjects, have shown how -lime solutions acting in conjunction with gelatinous substances, or -membranes, build up the numerous geometric shapes of the frames of -so many kinds of primitive organisms, and the scales of fish or the -extraordinarily beautiful markings and sculpture of shells. - -The application of the Cartesian coordinates to the outline of -organisms, skulls, bones, and organs of animals has opened up a new -field of mathematics--biological research which has yielded many -results confirming theories based on other data and supplying facts -of great interest that may at any time result in the establishment of -important generalizations. - -The fact of beauty in animate nature is so pronounced, and man's -contemplative delight in beautiful things is so natural that -investigations have been made into the æsthetic emotions of other -animals. A vast array of facts has been collected which leaves no -doubt of the universal appreciation of beauty. The lovely colors -of shells, butterflies and birds, the extraordinary beauty of the -designs of the frames of the Foraminifera, radiolarians and sponges, -the graceful logarithmic spirals of horns and flower and leaf buds, -and the charming flowing lines in the shape of the race horse and -gazelle, these elements of organic beauty which emphasize and enhance -the forms of animals, all contribute to the general embellishment of -nature. The combinations of beauty of form, color, and movements in -parrots, humming birds, the fish inhabiting coral reefs, butterflies, -and orchids, are always perfect. We likewise find that in all parts -of the globe, and in each life zone, organic beauty conforms to that -of the landscape and the heavens. The biological significance of this -universality of beauty in the organic world will be dealt with in the -following chapter. - -The fishes of the seas, rivers, streams, and lakes have been studied, -classified, and described as completely as the insects of the air, the -field, the soil, and those parasitic upon other organisms. - -The surveys of the Atlantic have brought to light many types of -fish which inhabit only the deepest parts of the ocean. These fish -are modified in most extraordinary ways to fit their surroundings. -Owing to the darkness of their living zones, they are provided with -luminescent appendages which are practically similar to the firefly's -and glowworm's electric generators. The lights are formed, as in the -insects, by the oxidation of material exuded by the fish. - -There are more than 180 families of fishes recorded. Each family -contains an average of twenty genera and each genus about five species. -The known species of fish are, therefore, between 19,000 and 20,000. -The Danish naturalist Hensen found 278,795,000,000 fecundated fish eggs -per square mile in the summer waters of the Skagerrack. The waters of -the seas from the Arctic to the Antarctic limits are full of fish eggs -as well as those of shellfish and sea organisms generally. This shows -that organic life is as abundant in the sea as anywhere on land. - -Just as temperature and salinity are the chief agents of oceanic -circulation and current movements, so they are the leading factors in -promoting the organic life of the sea. - -The vast heterogeneous mixtures of living creatures, comprising -vegetable and animal organisms, larvæ, and eggs of fish and animals, -which are swept hither and thither by the sea tides are called -plankton. This term means the living dust or emulsion of the sea. - -It has been shown that vegetable plankton is composed of bacteria -and adult microscopic algæ, largely of the Diatomaceæ, Peridinaceæ, -Cyanophyceæ, and other primary groups. - -The animal plankton comprises a mass of microscopic creatures belonging -to the Protozoa, Radiolaria, and Globeriginæ. There are also immense -numbers of tiny, invisible crustaceans like the Copepoda, and eggs and -spores of all kinds of fish and algæ. These organisms are so dense in -certain sea areas that their particular colorations are reflected in -the water. The Red Sea, for example, is colored by a reddish algæ; the -Baltic and ocean areas near Greenland are colored green by swarms of -algæ, and certain tropical seas are often brilliantly colored in the -same manner. - -Plankton furnishes fish with nutriment. The study of the movements -of plankton, at seasonal intervals, has led to the discovery of -the causes, extent, and results of the migration of the principal -commercial fishes. These researches are so valuable that most large -nations support marine biological stations and ships to regularly -make observations. The Norwegian naturalist Särs, Sir John Murray, -the Prince of Monaco, and others have furnished accounts of the life -histories, feeding grounds, metamorphoses and migrations of many -fishes, and have shown how the inhabitants of the plankton masses -live upon themselves or produce nitrifying or denitrifying bacteria, -chemicals, and mineral substances like lime, phosphates, and horny -membranous material. - -The development of biology and embryology, and the peculiar habits -and color schemes of certain fish, insects, birds, and animals led to -inquiries about design in nature, the causes of the development of -species, and the instincts and habits of animals. Erasmus, Darwin, -Buffon, Cuvier, and others began these studies, but it was Charles -Darwin (1809-1882), who by the publication of his "Origin of Species" -in 1859, first furnished many of the keys to the riddles of organic -life. The next chapter will show what has developed from his labors. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -ORGANIC EVOLUTION, VARIATION, AND HEREDITY - - -Science developed when primitive man began pondering over the problems -of the creation. He sought the causes of life, of the development of -life forms, and the authorship or origin of the uniformity and apparent -design in nature. It is, therefore, probable that what we now study as -the science of organic evolution is one of the oldest of the sciences. -As the ages have rolled on, the origin of life has been explained in -turn by theories of: (1) eternity of present conditions; (2) miraculous -creation; (3) catastrophism with (a) increases by immigration (b) -increases by successive creations; and, finally, by (4) organic -evolution. - -The term organic evolution means the forming of new combinations of the -elements of organisms. It does not mean the arising of an animal or -plant out of nothing--a new creation. That idea was exploded long ago. -The science which Darwin started surveys the whole course of natural -history in terms of four dimensions--length, breadth, depth, and -duration. This was the plan which led Darwin to his great discoveries. -While studying the minor changes taking place in common animals and -plants, and looking over the broad vistas of nature back to the -remotest times, he saw how each year countless weak and ill-adapted -plants, insects, and animals were killed off. When he reflected that -this process has been going on throughout all time, the idea flashed -into his mind that it is through this testing ordeal that adaptability -of surviving organisms is derived. - -One of the grandest conceptions of the human mind is that the -apparently complex, inharmonic system of nature has developed from a -simple beginning on a cooled globe from a jellylike cell. - -The theory of the permanence of species was generally held by -biologists before publication of Darwin's first great book. Darwin said -that no naturalist of his time doubted the accuracy of the theory of -the eternity of existing conditions and they refused to listen to his -views regarding the mutability of species. - -Darwin put forth the theory of organic evolution by natural selection -and the survival of the fittest. The great beauty of this theory -lies in its simplicity and its appeal to agencies which we can see -in full operation every day and night. The skillful manner in which -Darwin marshaled data to substantiate his theory quickly converted -the scientific world, and led to revolutionary changes in the general -tendencies of knowledge, and in practically all fields of human -activity. - -Darwin's terse statement of his conception was: "As many more -individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive, and as -consequently there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it -follows that any being, if it vary in any manner profitable to itself, -under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have -a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the -strong principle of inheritance any selected variety will tend to -propagate its new and modified form." ("Origin of Species," Intro.) - -This statement of the doctrine of the survival of the fittest, -suggesting a glimpse at the great pageant of nature from the remotest -times, shows how the organisms existing at this moment are the -descendants of the victors in the world's greatest battles. The -struggles for life, always keen and persistent, shared in by every -individual organism, both animal and vegetable, are the instigators -of all progress in the natural world. They are nature's means for the -attainment of beauty, usefulness, and perfection. - -The Darwinian theory was based upon the observed facts that members -of any given species are not alike, while their offspring may differ -in numerous ways from their parents. The data furnished by zoölogy, -botany, physiology, and other sciences supply overwhelming evidence -that the present species of animals and plants have arisen through the -modification from various causes of many pre-existing species. The -organisms with which we are familiar owe their characteristics to the -accumulation of a long series of changes similar to those that we may -see that they are still undergoing. - -The methods pursued in studying variation in species, and its -important accompaniment, heredity, consists in comparison, statistical -examinations, cultural experiments, and crossbreeding. - -Evolution is the process of differentiation accompanying the operations -of nature. All the great naturalists before Darwin's time noted -facts indicating this universal differentiation, but it required the -particularly wide sweep of Darwin's mind to phrase and demonstrate it. - -The law of origin by evolution, as Herbert Spencer showed, is not -confined to the method of bringing into existence new species of -animals and plants. The stars, planets, the geological strata and earth -contours and forms, human institutions, social customs, and practically -everything in nature are obedient to it. - -Much research work in evolution has been done since Darwin stated his -theory, but the basic principle of the survival of the fittest remains -untouched by criticism. Some of his views respecting minor details of -selection and the effects of various factors have been modified or -enlarged, and many new evolutionary forces have been discovered. It has -also been found that a single cause is usually followed by more than -one effect. - -Weissmann has drawn attention to the importance of adaptations. Most -organic beings are usually closely fitted for the conditions under -which their lives are spent. - -The principal parts of every animal and plant, and all the points in -which one species differs from a nearly related species, have been -shown to have arisen on account of their usefulness to the creatures -possessing them. As natural selection is always progressive, it follows -that no adaptation is ever perfect. There is always progress from the -useful to the more useful--a continual striving for greater beauty of -form and color and higher efficiency. - -Works on evolution furnish an abundance of interesting evidence showing -how adaptation works. A single instance may be cited here. - -One of the Mexican yucca plants common in our Southern States is -pollinated by a moth of the Pronuba family. This moth is adapted for -its work by several special organs including a special ovipositor -and peculiar maxillary tentacles which are not found in other moths. -The female moth collects pollen with these tentacles from several -yucca flowers, rolls it into a ball and kneads it into a pellet. -When the pellet is ready the moth seeks an unvisited flower and, -after depositing a few of her own eggs in the ovary, she climbs the -style and forces the pollen pellet into the stigma. This is the way -the yucca is pollinated and fertilized. Two important purposes are -served by this arrangement: a species of plant and a species of moth, -together with those dependent upon them, are enabled to survive by this -moth's activities. There are many known cases of similar cooperative -adaptation to living conditions. - -Quetelet, in 1845, followed by Francis Goltin and Karl Pearson, have -applied statistical methods in dealing with evolutionary problems, -and a new science called biometry has been developed. This science -has yielded much important data regarding the effects of inherited -characteristics. - -The studies of variations in plants by mutations, made by the Dutch -botanist De Vries, have opened up wide fields of study regarding -the causes of variation. He has shown that increased bulk or better -coloration may result from improved nutrition and more light, and that -such improved characteristics may be inherited. - -A law of ancestral heredity has been worked out for men by -biometricians, and this has been confirmed by the experiments of -Professor Johannsen, of Copenhagen, on self-fertilizing beans, and by -Jennings on protozoa. This hypothesis suggests that every ancestor -of a particular man or woman contributes its quota to the heritable -qualities displayed by that individual. The average amount of -resemblance between an individual and any of his particular ancestors -is capable of being numerically expressed. - -The experiments and conclusions of Gregor Mendel (1822-1882) tend -to oppose the law of ancestral heredity, but it is believed that -any exceptional cases may be explained by the operation of special -conditions. - -Karl Pearson has shown by the analyses of numerous statistical records -of Englishmen that by artificial selection any selected characteristic, -such as facial contour or stature, can be changed within a few -generations. But when the character has been changed about 90 per -cent within a short time another method must be employed, because the -original one then becomes less efficient. - -Individuals in any given population who differ in size from the mean -of the population give rise to offspring which differs from that mean -value in the same direction but to a smaller extent. The same law -applies to the color of the hair or to intelligence or constitution. -Selection will always produce a change in the average character of a -population taken as a whole. But selection within a pure line, or one -which shows only normal variability about a mean or type value, does -not produce marked changes. - -The usual selection within any particular population consists in the -partial separation of extreme types. - -The personal characteristics of any ancestor do not influence his -descendants. Only the typical characteristics are handed down. - -These and many other facts developed by investigations in biometry -should be of value in regulating immigration, so as to guard against -degenerative influences, and they have greatly increased the efficiency -of farming by showing how to improve farm stocks and crops so as to -yield larger returns. Farmers have been more ready than politicians to -avail of their advantages. We note how the speed of racing and trotting -horses, and the milking capacity of cows, have been improved by the -past century, but we are doing little to reform national health and -efficiency. - -Mutation is the name given to the process of origination of a new -species or character accomplished by a single step or by a series of -steps. - -Bateson, in 1894, showed that symmetry is a characteristic common -to all organisms. This may affect the whole or parts of an organ. -Major symmetry involves the whole organism and minor symmetry only -an organ or part. There are meristic variations, involving the -symmetrical pattern, and substantive variations involving changes in -the constitution or substance of the organism. Red-flowering plants, -for example, may yield offspring bearing white flowers. Substantive -variations are often discontinuous, or accidental, and are infrequent. - -Organic bodies are built up of a number of cells. The living material -of cells is protoplasm formed out of many elements, of which carbon, -oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulphur are the more important. New -cells arise from bipartition of existing cells. Therefore by following -back the history of any animal or plant we will arrive at a stage -when its ancestors had only one cell. Every animal or plant which is -propagated sexually actually starts as a cell and develops through its -main evolutionary changes in the embryonic state. Cells are liable to -all the evolutionary changes that the organism as a whole is subject to. - -Studies of embryology have shown that the fusion of biparental -reproductive cells results in the formation of a complete new -individual which, at the time of the fusing of the two conjugating -cells, called gametes, or germ cells, inherits the characteristics of -each parent and its ancestors. - -The determination of the sex of the cell, plant, or animal, depends -upon the presence of extra male or female sex-chromosomes, or -sex-determinant fibers of the cell nucleus. Certain animals and plants -transmit male characteristics to the female descendants, while the -female transmits her characteristics to the male descendants. There are -many variations of this kind. These strange movements in heredity are -explained by the laws governing chromosomes and idio-chromosomes and -elementary cells. - -According to the germ plasm theory of inheritance, the separate parts -of living organisms are assumed to be represented by separate material -particles in the germ cells. In the Mendelian theory each cell is -assumed to contain a large number of _ids_, or complete sets of sex -determinants, half the total being derived from each parent. This -permits the germ cells to contain a certain number of ids from each -parent. - -Studies of these subjects show that the great harmonies of the natural -world are manifested in form, number, pattern, and color, which we find -to be basically simple and, when studied systematically, they appear -quite clearly, so as to be capable of being described and expressed as -laws. - -The study of the agencies under social control which may improve, or -impair, the racial qualities of future generations, either physically, -socially, or mentally, is called the science of eugenics. This new -science is another outgrowth of the revolution in intellectual -development originating with the publication of Darwin's theory. Sir -Francis Galton was the pioneer worker, and he has been followed by -Pearson, Yule, Lombroso (1836-1909), and others. - -Eugenic studies, confirmed by those of genetics and biometry, show -that the human race, which is the masterpiece of Nature's evolutionary -processes, is capable of much further development through the careful -guiding of the very forces used in evolving man to his present state. -Man can be improved by selection and education to greater beauty, -clearer intellect, larger stature, sounder character, and better -physique. The measure of what man has done is a good criterion of what -he is capable of doing under the guidance and encouragement of science. - -Genetics, the study of the hereditary phenomena of organisms, is -based upon the law of inheritance discovered by Mendel in 1865. This -law relates to the inheritance of certain definite characters called -allelomorphs. These characters are found to group themselves in pairs -which exhibit more or less antagonistic qualities. A knowledge of -these characteristics is necessary to conduct selective breeding -experiments scientifically. It is found that when two similar germ -cells, each bearing the same new combination of allelomorphs, meet -in fertilization, they result in the development of a new zygotic -combination of a pure type which breeds true. This accounts for the -establishment of new species. When, on the other hand, the coupling -is unequal, or only partial, there will be irregularities in the -characters of the offspring and no new species is likely to develop. -Immense value is attached to this law by naturalists working in all -fields. The three new sciences of eugenics, genetics, and biometry have -prepared the way for a regeneration of humanity through breeding in the -desirable and breeding out the undesirable. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -CHEMICAL AND BOTANICAL THEORIES - - -The World War served to demonstrate the degree of perfection which -has been attained in chemistry. The wonderful high explosives used, -the poisonous gases, the lubricating and motor oils and a multitude -of valuable chemicals employed for military and naval purposes, many -of which were developed at short notice, showed the modern chemist's -command of his science. Yet chemistry is a new science. Practically -it began with Robert Boyle, in England, in 1661. Boyle conducted -experiments on the rarefaction of air and the nature of gases, and in -his book, "The Sceptical Chemist," he made this remarkable statement: -"I am apt to think that men will never be able to explain the phenomena -of nature, while they endeavor to deduce them only from the presence -and proportions of such or such ingredients, and consider such -ingredients or elements as bodies in a state of rest; whereas, indeed, -the greatest part of the affections of matter, and consequently of the -phenomena of nature, seem to depend upon the motion and contrivance of -the small parts of bodies." - -Thus Boyle anticipated the chemical theories of matter developed in the -nineteenth century. - -Lavoisier, about 1777, advancing from the quantitative study of one -chemical change to another was able to describe many processes, and -to distinguish between an element and a compound. He cast aside all -the alchemical formulæ and expressed the results of his experiments in -fractions and proportions. - -J. B. Richter between 1791 and 1802 made a series of experiments by -which he secured the weights of various bases neutralized by constant -weights of several acids, and the weights of several acids neutralized -by constant weights of several bases. He found that the composition of -chemical compounds is constant, as had been assumed by Lavoisier and -Boyle. - -Dalton described the atomic constitution of gases in 1808, and sketched -the law of multiple proportions in chemical combinations and described -binary, ternary and quaternary combinations. - -Prussic acid was investigated by Gay-Lussac in 1815, when he isolated -cyanogen and found that although it is a compound it plays the part -of an element with hydrogen and the metals. Berzelius also found that -ammonium possessed all the properties of an alkali metal. - -Ten years after the above discoveries were made, Faraday prepared a -compound of carbon and hydrogen from liquefied coal gas which led to -the general study of isomerism and the great discoveries of the organic -radicals with their important combinations. - -When isomeric combinations were studied by Jacob Berzelius (1779-1848), -he was led to devise a means of expressing organic reactions. He wrote -to Wöhler and Liebig a letter outlining his new method in which he -said: "From the moment when one has learned to recognize with certainty -the existence of ternary atoms of the first order which enter compounds -after the manner of simple substances, it will be a great relief in -the expression of the language of formulæ to denote each radical by its -own symbol, whereby the idea of composition it is desired to express -will be placed clearly before the eye of the reader." - -[Illustration: - - Photo, Fifth Avenue Hospital - -ROOM IN WHICH INFECTED ARTICLES ARE STERILIZED] - -[Illustration: MODERN OPERATING ROOM IN A PARIS HOSPITAL. IT IS FITTED -WITH A GLASS DOME AND RADIO MICROPHONES FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AND -DOCTORS WHO WISH TO WATCH THE OPERATIONS AND HEAR DISTINCTLY THE -COMMENTS OF THE SURGEONS] - -An example of this method of expressing reactions was given in the case -of the action of chlorine on benzoic acid. He wrote B₂O for benzoic -acid, B₂CL₂ for chlorbenzol and B₂ + NH₂ for benzamide. With certain -simple improvements made subsequently by Gmelin, the method devised by -Berzelius was generally adopted and is in use to-day. - -The numerous investigations now being made with the object of -discovering the various combinations of the elements led to many -improvements in chemical analyses. When we read Berzelius' accounts of -his analyses they seem to have been written only yesterday. He and his -contemporaries developed analytical and synthetic methods to almost the -efficiency that we see to-day. - -We also owe to Berzelius a table of the elements showing their -electrical qualities, an electrochemical theory, identifying chemical -affinity with electric attraction, and a new nomenclature, besides a -vast amount of descriptive chemistry. - -The discovery of the specific heats of various solid elements by -Dulong and Petit in 1819, and Mitscherlich's finding of the isomorphic -phenomena in 1818, resulted in the publication of a new atomic weight -table in 1826 by Berzelius. - -The experiments made in isomorphism by Mitscherlich led him to discover -dimorphism and study crystallography. He used his knowledge of crystal -measurement extensively and developed synthetic chemistry and the laws -of crystallization. - -Thompson, Prout, and Wollaston were working on problems in England -similar to those examined in Sweden by Berzelius and Mitscherlich. - -Molecules were discriminated from atoms in 1826 by Jean Baptiste Dumas -and Faraday discovered his law of electrochemical action in 1834. - -Organic chemistry originated in Manchester, England, when Dalton -read his paper before the Manchester Philosophic Society in 1803 on -the theory of atomic weights. This paper led Gay-Lussac, Thenard, -Berthollet, de Saussure and others to study organic analyses as devised -by Dalton. Gay-Lussac and Thenard greatly improved Dalton's methods -and in 1824, as shown by Chevreul's work on fats and greases, organic -analyses had been brought to high perfection. - -The phenomena of substitution in hydrocarbon compounds like the -petroleum oils were studied by Laurent who proposed a theory of basic -nuclei. C₁₀H₈ being the nucleus of the naphthalene group and C₂H₄ that -of the ethylene group, derived nuclei can be obtained from these by -substitution and hydrogen and other elements acting on derived nuclei -from numerous hydrocarbon series. - -The homology of the hydrocarbons was discovered by Gerhardt in 1844 -while he was investigating the alcohols. Wurtz's work on the ammonia -compounds, Williamson's on the ethers, Hoffmann's on anilines, Graham's -and Liebig's on the citrates, and Frankland's, Kolbe's and Kekulé's -work on other compounds raised organic chemistry to such a high plane -that industrial chemists were able to use their theoretical conclusions -and build a great number of important industries upon organic -principles. - -Lothar Meyer, in 1868, and Mendeléeff, in 1869, published atomic -weights showing improvements in the theories of valency and the -interrelationship of atomic weights. Mendeléeff was able to predict -from the vacant positions in his table the discovery of important new -elements. A number of these elements have since been discovered. - -The aniline dye industries have grown out of the discoveries of many -chemists. The basic work was done by Faraday, Laurent, and Runge, who -isolated valuable hydrocarbons from coal gas tar. Hoffmann discovered -aniline and Perkin obtained mauve in 1856 by the oxidation of aniline -with chromic acid. It was this and subsequent discoveries by Perkin -which gave the greatest impetus to synthetic dyes. The solubility of -a dye was improved by increasing its acidity (sulphonation) or by -increasing its alkalinity (alkylation). Similar dyes are now made by -the same methods from many common aromatic substances. - -The chemistry of explosives was developed by Van Helmont, Debus, -Bunsen, Abel, Nobel, and, others. Fulminates were used for detonators -by Ure in 1831, picrates were employed as explosives by Fontaine and -Abel; nitrocellulose (guncotton) discovered by Braconnot in 1832 and -used as an explosive by Schönbein in 1846, and nitroglycerine was -produced by Sobrero in 1847. Smokeless powders made from guncotton, -dynamite, and gelatine were introduced by Nobel in 1890. - -Pasteur showed, in 1848, that when the double sodium ammonium racemate -was crystallized, two kinds of crystals separated from the solution. -When one set of crystals was dissolved in water the solution rotated -a beam of polarized light to the left, while the aqueous solution -of the other crystals rotated the light to the right. These crystals -thus revealed their geometrical properties with perfect light while in -solution in water. Pasteur noted that optical activity of this kind is -the expression of some form of molecular asymmetry. - -Le Bel in 1874 also pointed out that optical activity is an expression -of the asymmetry of the chemical molecule and showed that all carbon -compounds which are optically active contain a carbon atom combined -with four different atoms, or groups. Van't Hoff showed in 1875 that -there were definite relations between the arrangements of tetrahedral -carbon atoms and polarization phenomena and established the theory of -such atoms. - -Willard Gibbs, of Yale, discovered what is known as the phase rule, -which shows, by thermodynamic methods, how the conditions of chemical -equilibria can be systematically grouped. - -Van't Hoff, Pfeffer, and others noticed that when two solutions are -brought together, if one is more concentrated than the other, diffusion -begins in the concentrated and extends to the weaker solution. This -shows a talent force in concentrated solutions which is now known as -osmotic pressure. Van't Hoff and Arrhenius showed that for comparable -concentrations the osmotic pressure of a solution is exactly equal to -the pressure of a gas. These discoveries led to a brilliant series of -investigations into electrolytic chemistry. - -The theory of electrolytic dissociation advanced by Ostwald shows that -the molecules of electrolytes in aqueous solutions are broken down into -electrically charged parts called ions. In very dilute solutions the -dissociation of strong acids, bases, and salts is practically complete -as was suggested by Williamson in 1851. - -Catalysis, or reaction brought about by agents which do not enter into -the chemical changes, was discovered by Berzelius. Ostwald investigated -and developed catalytic reactions which are now extensively employed -in industry, particularly in refining oils and in the fixation of -nitrogen. Hot platinum, for example, is used to act catalytically in -causing sulphur dioxide and oxygen to combine and form the basis of -sulphuric acid, sulphur trioxide. - -One of the most important applications of catalysis to industry is the -Haber process for securing nitrogen from the air. When air and hydrogen -are compressed and heated to a high temperature in the presence of a -catalyzer such as metallic uranium or iron carbide, the nitrogen and -hydrogen combine and form ammonia. - -The experiments of Sir William Crookes on vacuum tubes subjected to -electrical impulses led the way to the discovery of radioactivity, and -investigations of radium have revolutionized our conceptions of the -nature and properties of matter. - -The discovery of helium, argon, the niton emanation from radium and -other elements by Ramsay, Collie, Soddy, and others will be referred to -later. - -Carl Linnæus, who is called the father of modern botany, established -the genera and species of plants upon philosophical principles. He -established a binomial nomenclature and formulated modern descriptive -methods. Thus he prepared the way for the systematic works of De -Jussieu and De Candolle. - -De Candolle, in 1819, published a new method of classification based -upon morphological characters. He defined and illustrated the -doctrine of the symmetry of plant organs and asserted that a natural -classification must be based on a plan of symmetry. - -The relationships between the endosperm and embryo were shown in 1810 -by Robert Brown in his monograph on the Australian Proteaceæ. The -morphological nature of seed reserves was described by him. He also -discovered the functions of the cell nucleus and founded cytology. -He showed that the oscillation of minute particles in the fluids of -plants when viewed under high microscopic powers, known as the Brownian -movement, is due to purely physical causes. - -Schultze, Unger, and others, working on suggestions previously made by -Knight, Robert Brown, and Hooke, discovered the rôle of protoplasm in -plant cells. Alexander Braun and De Bary correlated the movements of -protoplasm with the locomotory movements of free zoögonidia and the -amœboid movements of Mycetozoa. These investigations directed research -to further studies of the structure and constitution of protoplasm and -helped develop the cellular theory. - -The Algæ were studied and classified by Naegeli, Unger, Von Mohl, -Haustein, and others in 1847-1850. - -The vascular cryptogams were studied by Hofmeister. He found that the -alternation of a sexual with an asexual generation is common to all -plants of the mosses, vascular cryptogams, and gymnosperms, as well as -among angiosperms. - -Hofmeister's work led to appreciation of the fact that a natural system -of plant classification must be based, not on balancing the values of -the morphological parts of fruits and flowers, but on the anatomy of -the real and concealed reproductive organs. - -Fossil botany, or paleophytology, was founded, in 1828, by Adolphe -Brongniart. Witham, Goeppert, Unger, Corda, and others helped to -advance this science. - -The publication of Darwin's "Origin of Species" in 1859 found the -various botanical sciences already well worked out by numerous -capable experts. A huge amount of data and descriptive matter had -been assembled and botany, like the other sciences, was ready to be -quickened by the Darwinian theories. - -The idea of a progressive evolution in plants had been suspected by -many botanists, but the genius of Darwin developed it. Living plants -were pictured as a multitude of units competing for food, light, air, -and room for growth, and struggling against unfavorable environments. -The classification of tissues was begun, and the phenomena of -absorption of water and salts, the ascent of sap, the absorption of -minerals and nitrogen, and metabolism and growth were elucidated. -Investigations were made into the nature and functions of chlorophyll -and other plant substances. These studies resulted in suggesting means -for improving crops by artificial selection, as shown in the work of -Luther Burbank. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -GEOLOGY, METALLURGY, AND METEOROLOGY - - -Geology is essentially a nineteenth century product. Fossils, minerals, -rocks, and rock strata had attracted more or less attention from the -earliest times. The Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans had books dealing -with such subjects, and Greek philosophers, like Aristotle, lectured -upon them. But it was only in the last century that geology was placed -upon a scientific basis and began to make progress. The reformation -was begun by Cuvier's work on paleontology, the chemical and physical -discoveries of the eighteenth century, and the works of Hooke, Boyle, -Buffon, Linnæus, and others. The special technique required in -geographical research could not be developed until the biological, -anatomical, botanical, and physical sciences had been established on a -scientific plane. That is why geology remained for so many centuries -undeveloped, and then rapidly advanced during the nineteenth century. -Its preparation was long and involved, while its fruition was rapid and -brilliant. - -William Smith (1769-1839), called the father of English geology, was -a mining surveyor engaged in making colliery and farm surveys in -Oxfordshire and the west of England. His professional work led him -to study the coal outcrops, and in 1793 he mapped the inclined coal -deposits in Somersetshire. The numerous rock strata accompanying -the coal beds contained fossils which he found could be used to -identify the beds in that field with others in northern counties. -He published an account of this manner of using type fossils for -identifying fossiliferous rock formations in 1799, and in 1815 issued -his geological map of England, Wales, and southern Scotland. This map -showed the advantages that scientific geology and mineralogy offered -to industry and caused scientists all over Europe to study geological -phenomena and make sketch maps of local geology. - -A work on paleontology, dealing with the fossils of the Old Red -Sandstone deposits, published in England by Hugh Miller (1802-1856), -which had an enormous popularity and has been described as the most -fascinating book ever written on a geological subject, followed Smith's -"Strata Identified by Organized Fossils." A large amount of mapping -resulted from the issuing of these two works. These maps called for -detailed descriptions, and these in turn resulted in the accumulation -of many interesting data which, when collected, and systematized, led -to many important discoveries. - -While these authors were preparing their books, Werner, De Luc, -De Saussure, Lamarck, and others were working out paleontological -problems, Romé de l'Isle, Brongniart, Haüy, d'Aubuisson, and others -were building up the science of mineralogy. - -"The Theory of the Earth," of Dr. James Hutton (1726-1797), was -published in 1785, and in an enlarged form in 1795. This book described -the metamorphoses of sand into sandstones, quartzites, schists, and -other rock formations; the work of floods and lava floods; the -sculpturing powers of streams, rains, and winds, etc. He indicated the -effects of the alternate sinking and raising of strata through earth -shrinkings and volcanic phenomena, and taught that purely physical -causes can be found for every geological effect. - -Playfair's "Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth" -augmented the teachings of Hutton's book, while works by Jameson, -Kirwan, Boué, Sir James Hall, Daubrée, St. Claire-Deville, Buckland, -Sedgwick, Bakewell, Breislak, Maclure, and others rapidly appeared -sustaining the Huttonian, or the Wernerean theories of geological -deposition. - -The work of James Sowerby (1757-1822), entitled "The Mineral -Conchology of Great Britain" and that of James de Carle Sowerby -(1781-1871), published between 1812 and 1845, marked the establishment -of paleontology as a science. Both father and son were well-trained -naturalists and artists, and, like William Smith, reproduced the -fossils and their containing rocks to scale and in natural colors. -These works greatly simplified the labors of field geologists in -identifying rock strata and type fossils. - -In Germany geology was worked out by Baron von Schlotheim (1764-1882), -Goldfuss (1782-1848), and Count Munster (1776-1844). Brocchi -(1772-1826) described Italian fossil strata. - -The "Geological Classification of Rocks," of MacCulloch, marked -the separation of petrology as a science from descriptive geology. -MacCulloch noted that the ancient granites and granite schists are -among the oldest rock forms. - -Von Humboldt, Murchison, Lyell, De la Beche, Von Buch, Elie de -Beaumont, Holley, Geikie, Bonney, Wollaston, Scrope and Daubeny -were among the pioneer geologists in Europe, while James Dwight Dana -(1818-1895), E. S. Dana, Conrad, Hitchcock, Warren, Lesley, Fremont, -and others published descriptive geological accounts in the United -States. - -References to the geology and minerals of New Mexico were made in -Humboldt's "New Spain." Greenhow's work on Oregon and California, -published in 1845, and Lewis and Clark's reports added much to our -knowledge of American topography and geology. These reports were -followed by those of Stanton, Clarence King, Hague, Emmons, Custer, -Powell, Davis, Gilbert, Agassiz, and others which dealt with various -phases of American geology, paleontology, glaciation, and mineralogy, -and prepared the way for the publication of the valuable works of Dana, -Williams, Iddings, Washington, Pirsson, Clarke, Grabau, Brush, and -others. - -The treatment of geological problems from the viewpoint of present -causes was begun after the publication of Lyell's "Principles of -Geology" (1830-1833). Earlier geologists were aware of the fact that -many of the rock formations had been derived from other consolidation -of sand and mud beds and by other actions which may be studied in -operation to-day. But the systematic manner in which Lyell treated the -whole field of geology made such an impression upon geologists that the -publication of his great work marked a new era in the science. De la -Beche, Buckland, Geikie, Bonney, and other geologists in England; Dana, -and a number of scientists in the United States Geological Survey, in -America; Vogt and Naumann, in Germany; Studer in Switzerland; Stopanni, -in Italy, and many specialists in other countries took up the work of -Lyell, and at present practically every important geological factor is -known and the effects of its operations have been described. - -The succession of life in geological periods is studied under -paleontology. This science developed at the same time as systematic -and descriptive geology. Many great naturalists have contributed to -it. Agassiz, Hall, Dawson, Walcott, Marsh, and others in the United -States and Canada; Owen, Prestwich, and others in England; and numerous -writers in Europe have published valuable monographs on various phases -of fossil and strata-graphical geology. - -Paleontology, by fixing the succession of animal and vegetable eras, -has served as a basis for measuring time, revealing the antiquity -of man and of the principal mammals, as well as showing changes in -climate, and in land and sea areas. - -The application of geology to many industries called forth another -branch of the science known as economic geology. This deals with -the origin and geographical distribution of the useful minerals, -the derivation of underground waters and petroleum, and the changes -undergone by soils. - -The first important impetus to economic geology was given by the -publication of Whitney's "Metallic Wealth of the United States" in -1854, Von Cotta's work on ore deposits in 1859, and the economic -references in the textbooks of the leading European and American -geologists. The recent work of Bonney, Groddeck, De Launay, Phillips, -Prosepny, Van Hise, Emmons, Le Conte, Lindgren, and others has greatly -advanced the interest and usefulness of the science. - -These writers carried out an extended series of investigations on the -depth temperature and physical and chemical condition of the earth's -crust. Chemical analyses of rocks and soils were made and the changes -wrought by physical and chemical forces were noted. On these were -based theories as to the formation of rocks, soils, minerals, and ore -deposits. The erosive properties of soil water were found to be limited -to a depth not exceeding 20,000 feet, although hydrostatic water bodies -are rarely found as low as half that distance, the rise in temperature -precluding their existence. The work of these men revealed the part -played by vulcanism in rock changes, and the effects produced through -hot solutions and magmatic intrusions. - -Various systems of classification of minerals and ore deposits were -developed. Richard Beck's, "The Nature of Ore Deposits" (1900), and -Lindgren's "Mineral Deposits" (1919), are works which have contributed -to the systematizing of economic geology from the mineral standpoint, -and the establishment of epochs of metal generation. - -The ore deposits of the United States have been described in the -monographs of the United States Geological Survey, and by Kemp, Spurr, -Grabau and other writers. - -This branch of geology emphasizes the strong tendency to concentration -shown by mineral elements. All climatic forces are found to aid this -work. Underground waters, both flowing and stationary, are powerful -assistants. - -Other phases of economic geology have been developed in studies of -subterranean waters, microscopical petrology and mineralogy, the -chemical analyses of rocks, etc. Among the leaders in this work have -been Pirsson, Emmons, Iddings, Washington, Van Hise, Clarke, and others. - -The enormous metallurgical industries of to-day are all dependent upon -scientific principles chiefly discovered and applied in the nineteenth -century. - -Metallurgists in the previous century knew that by adding certain -metals to molten steel it could be hardened. A method of this kind was -published by Réaumur in 1722. Tool points, he showed, could be hardened -if the steel when red hot was forced into solid tin, lead, copper, -silver or gold, thus producing an alloy stronger and harder than the -pure steel. - -A series of calorimetric researches on metallic alloys, carried on by -Bergman, led to the discovery that steel differs from iron merely in -the carbon contents. Clouet, in 1798, followed this by an experiment in -which he melted up a little crucible iron with a diamond and obtained -a mass of steel. This created a sensation and led to many other -experiments on the metallurgy of cast and wrought iron and steel. - -Thomas Young, in 1802-7, studied the mechanical properties of iron and -steel and developed the theory of the modulus of elasticity. A patent -was issued to the Rev. Robert Stirling, in 1817, for a regenerative -iron smelting furnace. The next year Samuel Baldwin Rogers substituted -iron bottoms for sand bottoms in puddling furnaces. Faraday and Stodart -produced the first alloy of nickel and steel in 1820, and in 1822 -Faraday showed that there is a fundamental chemical difference between -hard and soft steel. - -The first patent for a hot blast for iron furnaces was granted to James -Beaumont Neilson in 1828. All these discoveries led to important -improvements in iron making. - -The steam hammer was patented by Nasmyth in 1842, and between 1843 and -1848 Thomas Andrews conducted valuable investigations into the heat of -combination. - -The ground was now prepared for one of the greatest of metallurgical -inventions--the conversion of pig iron into steel by an air blast in a -Bessemer converter. This invention not only vastly extended the use of -steel, but drew attention to the valuable oxidizing effects of a hot -air blast and in that way induced many important improvements in the -metallurgy of copper, lead, and zinc. - -Siemens, Whitworth, Bell, Graham, Percy, Richards, Martin, Thomas, -Holley, Hewitt, Fritz, Howe, Jones, and others made further important -improvements in the metallurgy of iron and steel in the United States -and Europe. - -One of the early American iron smelters was built by Governor Keith, -in 1726, in New Castle County, Delaware. A rolling mill and forge were -subsequently built at Wilmington. The first American smelted iron was -shipped to England from smelters in Maryland and Virginia in 1718. The -Bessemer steel process was introduced into the United States by Abram -Hewitt at the Troy smelter, New York, in 1865. From these beginnings -the iron industries of the United States have grown so that they now -produce more than two-fifths of the world's annual supplies. - -The alloys of iron and steel have now attained importance and a new -science known as metallography has developed. Professor Arnold, of -Sheffield, Sherard Cowper-Coles, Roberts-Austen, Sorby, Tschermak, -Tschernoff, Wüst, and Ziegler have been active promoters of this branch -of metallurgy, and a closely related one dealing with the effects of -the heat treatment of metals. - -Developments in the iron industries led to others in the metallurgy of -copper, lead, and zinc. - -The application of the blast furnace to copper, lead, and zinc smelting -was chiefly made in America. One of the early furnaces was built in -Leadville, Colorado, in 1877. From that time, pyritic smelting has been -chiefly developed by American metallurgists. The metallurgy of lead, -copper, and zinc has reached a similar high plane to that attained by -iron and steel. - -The metallurgy of gold and silver began to improve after the -discovery of the Californian deposits in 1848. The stamper battery -and amalgamation processes were improved; when sulphide ores were -encountered, chlorination processes were developed. Subsequently, in -response to demand for a cheaper chemical solvent for low-grade ores, -the cyanide and bromide processes were devised. - -The application of the electric furnace to metallurgy greatly increased -the scope of metallurgists' methods. - -Pichon, in 1853, described a small arc furnace with which he was -experimenting, and in 1878 Sir William Siemens built a furnace for -reducing iron ores. Moissan made numerous tests of furnaces and -smelting methods in the nineties and did much to develop commercial -electric smelting. Faure, Cowles, Borchers, De Chalmont, Girod, -Heroult, and others invented furnaces, smelting methods, and -metallurgical processes. The aluminum, carborundum, acetylene, and -other important industries are developments from the electrometallurgy -of iron and copper. Zinc, copper, nickel, silver, gold, and platinum -plating and the electrodepositing of copper in the form of tubes by the -Elmore process are dependent upon the principles of electrometallurgy -as is the electrorefining of metals. - -[Illustration: - - Copyright, Keystone View Co. - -EDOUARD BELIN AND THE TELAUTOGRAPH, WHICH TRANSMITS PICTURES BY WIRE] - -[Illustration: LEE DE FOREST, INVENTOR OF THE OSCILLATING AUDION] - -[Illustration: AUTOMOBILE WITH RADIO EQUIPMENT FOR LISTENING IN EN -TOUR] - -The physical phenomena of the earth's atmosphere are studied under the -science of meteorology. - -The art of weather forecasting is as old almost as mankind, but only in -recent years has it been placed upon a sound basis. - -Torricelli, in 1643, invented the barometer; Boyle, in 1685, -developed it and applied it to measuring gas pressures. The chemists -of the eighteenth century, Boyle, Black, Rutherford, Priestley, -Scheele, Lavoisier, and Cavendish, all studied the chemistry of the -atmosphere. Franklin, in 1749, raised thermometers by kites to measure -temperatures. Balloon ascents were made by Jefferies and Blanchard, -in 1784, for atmospheric observations. Soundings of the upper air by -balloons, kites, and other apparatus have been conducted since the -closing years of the nineteenth century. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -MEDICINE AND PHARMACY - - -Medicine was in a state of transition at the beginning of the -nineteenth century. The great scientific discoveries of the eighteenth -century had carried people away to such an extent that they showed a -tendency to exaggerate their bearings upon medicine. The result was a -wild diffusion of extravagant speculation and unsubstantial hypotheses. - -One of the leading physicians of the eighteenth century, who wielded -broad influence throughout Europe, was Herman Boerhaave (1668-1738). -His work, entitled "Aphorismi," published in Leyden, 1709, was -immensely popular. It was translated into all the European and several -Asiatic languages. His reputation now depends upon his chemical -discoveries and his medical teachings. - -One of the most brilliant students of Boerhaave's medical school was -Albrecht von Haller (1708-77). Haller published many medical works and -monographs. His "Elements of Human Physiology," (1759-66) is the best -known. The function of bile in the digestion of fats, the demonstration -of Glisson's hypothesis that irritability in an excised muscle is -a specific property of all living tissues, and several theories -explaining the heart's activities, were among his best contributions to -medical science. - -The discovery of the existence of lacteal and lymphatic vessels in -birds, reptiles, and fish brought William Hewson into prominence and -secured him membership in the Royal Society. He published his monograph -on the coagulation of the blood in 1771. - -William Cumberland Cruikshank (1745-1800) investigated the surgery of -the nerves, the functioning of the Fallopian tubes, the physiology of -absorption. - -The electrical discoveries of Galvani, Volta, Benjamin Franklin, Henly -and others caused much experimenting with the electric current in the -treatment of muscular diseases. - -The Monros, father, son and grandson, by their wonderful teaching -abilities, caused the medical teaching center of Europe to be -transferred from Leyden to Edinburgh in 1720. These men, and many of -their students, did brilliant work in all branches of medicine. - -The medical school which they so established in Edinburgh University -still maintains its great reputation. - -The best anatomists of the eighteenth century were Cheselden, Pott, -the Monros, the Hunters, Desault, and Scarpa. Their work was largely -topographical. Surgical anatomy started with the writings of Joseph -Lieutaud (1703-1780), Albinus, Eisenmann, Soemmering, Mascagni, -Sandifort, and Caldani. - -The anatomical textbooks in use in the year 1800 gave general accounts -of the body's structure and included current theories of the functions -of organs and their relationships to injuries and disease. More than -half of the chapters were occupied with morbid anatomy and the recital -of cases. The anatomy of the tissues and finer structures was neglected -because the microscopes of the period were little better than simple -lenses. - -Physiology was studied by all medical students, but the science was so -badly developed that it never stood alone. For many years it formed a -part of studies in anatomy. Early in the nineteenth century it began -to expand, and in 1846 physiology was taught as a separate subject for -the first time at Guy's hospital, London, by Sir William Gull. Before -that it was taught by the professors of midwifery. It was the great -developments made in chemistry and physics, referred to in previous -chapters, that pushed physiology to the front as an important branch of -medical science. - -Denman's "Introduction to the Practice of Midwifery," the work of the -greatest living authority at the time of its publication in 1805, shows -that gynecology hardly existed at that time. - -Anesthetics and antiseptics, together with the systematic employment of -abdominal and bimanual palpation, all were revolutionary discoveries of -the nineteenth century, unknown when Denman presided over the obstetric -department of the Middlesex Hospital. - -When the nineteenth century opened, medical men were unaware of the -value of auscultation and percussion. They were familiar with the -symptoms of fevers and with diseases of the heart and chest, but they -had no means of determining differences between them. Textbooks of that -time show that the now common forms of heart disease were known only -from post-mortem inspections. But they distinctly state that physicians -were unable to determine, in case of changes in stricture of the -heart's valves, what part was affected. The seat of disease in heart -and chest troubles could not be located. - -Parasitology was no better advanced. Books published as late as 1810 -indicated that parasites, like hydatids, threadworms, etc., were very -puzzling phenomena to the physician. - -The status of surgery throughout the eighteenth century was very low. -The best work was done in France and Holland, until Cheselden, the -Hunters, the Monros, and Abernethy established their schools in England -and Scotland. German medical practitioners were barbers until after -the army authorities formed the Medico-Chirurgical Pépinière in Berlin -in 1785. There were several good medical schools in the United States -in 1800 including those of the King's College, New York, and of the -Harvard, Dartmouth, and Philadelphia Colleges, and the University of -Pennsylvania. There were also numerous medical societies. European -medical and surgical textbooks were used like those of Cheselden, -Monro, Haller, Boerhaave and Sydenham. Medical practice was on the -same plane in America as in Europe. There were many patent remedies -used, but the authorities recognized the importance of regulating the -practice of medicine. Regulation acts were passed in New York City in -1760, New Jersey in 1772, and a general quarantine act was enacted by -Congress in 1799. - -The modernization of medicine was brought about to a large extent -by the publication of the "Conservation of Energy" by Helmholtz, in -1847, and Darwin's "Origin of Species," in 1859. These books cleared -away completely the myths and legends which had surrounded medicine -at earlier periods, and taught medical students the strict need of -proceeding entirely upon scientific grounds precisely as chemists, -physicists, engineers, and others were already doing with wonderful -success. Darwin's biological teachings appealed very strongly to -medical men and influenced all their activities. - -Virchow's "Cellular Pathology," published in 1858, Huxley's textbooks -on "Physiology" (1866) and on "Vertebrate and Invertebrate Anatomy" -(1871-77) Haeckel's "General Morphology" (1866), and numerous medical -encyclopedias and textbooks on practice and special diseases were the -result of the new scientific spirit. New medical associations were -formed and these promoted discussions, the reporting of observations, -and the publication of innumerable monographs. Medical journals and -magazines of a high character did fine educational work. - -The investigations on fermentation and putrefaction made in France -by Pasteur caused Joseph Lister, professor of surgery at Glasgow -University, to reflect upon the great mortality witnessed daily in the -hospitals from pyæmia, erysipelas, tetanus, septicemia, gangrene, and -other similar diseases. He observed that in spite of his great care -to maintain scrupulous cleanliness in treating wounds, 45 per cent of -his surgical cases were mortal. Pasteur's dictum that putrefaction is -a micro-organic phenomenon, caused Lister to experiment with the view -of preventing the development of microorganisms in wounds. Beginning -with weak solutions of zinc chloride and zinc sulphite, he accidentally -tried carbolic acid, securing surprising results, and two years -later, in 1867, he published his monograph on antiseptic surgery which -instantly became world-famous. Lister, instead of being carried away -by the celebrity he attained, turned his attention to the scientific -development of his important discovery. He investigated lactic-acid -fermentation, the relation of bacteria to flesh inflammations and to -the best methods of treating wounds antiseptically. - -Lister, however, was not the first to employ antiseptics in the -treatment of wounds, and his great contribution to medical practice was -due to the systematic manner in which he experimented. He was not a -brilliant surgeon, but a deliberate and careful one whose chief desire -was to have the patient recover. His whole surgical career was guided -by this principle which proved so successful that before his death -the whole medical profession saluted him as master, and when he died, -rejoiced that his remains were entombed in Westminster Abbey. - -Theodor Billroth was one of Lister's greatest disciples. He introduced -Lister's methods into continental surgery and through their use -improved the treatment of wounds and opened up new fields in the -surgery of the alimentary tract. He was the first to make a resection -of the esophagus and pylorus and to excise the larynx. - -Mikulicz-Rodecki, a Pole, was Billroth's chief assistant. He was also -a pioneer in Lister's practice. Specializing on the surgery of the -alimentary organs, he promoted antiseptic methods and introduced the -modern modes of exploring the esophagus and stomach. He was also a -master in the treatment of diseases of the mouth. - -Felix Guyon applied Lister's system to surgical treatment of the -genitourinary ailments, and became a leader in this class of surgery. -Bernard Naunyn, a well-known German writer on surgery, became a leading -authority on diabetes and diseases of the liver and pancreas. Jean -Martin Charcot made the Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, the greatest -of the world's neurological clinics. He was also a great authority -on diseases of the biliary passages and kidneys. Sir James Paget, -Sir Jonathan Hutchinson, Sir William Gull, Jenner, Wilks, Spencer -Wells, and Clifford Allbutt, besides doing much by their writings -to advance the practice of medicine, all closely allied themselves -with large hospitals, giving as much attention to the hospitals as to -the treatment of disease. Modern hospitals are largely due to their -pioneering work. - -Louis Pasteur's studies in fermentation led to the discovery of -lactic-acid bacteria and this was the starting point for a number of -revolutionary discoveries in bacterial diseases. Infectious diseases -were placed in new categories by his work. - -The etiology of traumatic infectious diseases was advanced by the -researches of Robert Koch (1843-1910). His work in discovering the -cholera vibrio, the microorganisms of Oriental ophthalmia and his -researches on the nature and treatment of tuberculosis, made his name -known everywhere. His isolation of the tuberculosis germ in 1882, -and that of Asiatic cholera in 1884, were leading steps toward the -discovery of a great number of disease germs. - -Fevers, like typhus, typhoid, yellow fever, and malaria, a few -generations ago, took a great annual toll of lives. The work of -the men mentioned above, Lister, Pasteur, Koch, and the French -physiologist, Claude Bernard, gave medical men the means of curbing the -ravages of these diseases so that to-day they are incidental annoyances -rather than human scourges. - -The germ of typhoid fever was discovered in 1880 by Eberth. The cocci -of pneumonia were isolated by Frankel in 1886. - -Modern surgery has been greatly facilitated by the employment of -numerous anesthetics, chemicals which possess the power of inducing -local or general insensibility. Soporific drugs have been used in -surgical operations since the remotest antiquity, but modern practices -in the employment of anesthetics followed the discoveries of Faraday in -1818. He described the properties of nitrous oxide, or ether and other -gases in that year and suggested their use in medicine. - -John Godman (1822), James Jackson (1833), and Drs. Wood and Bache -(1834) were among American medical men who made use of Faraday's -suggestions. Dr. Horace Wells, a dentist at Hartford, Connecticut, -used ether in 1844. Two years later W. T. Morton, a dentist in Boston, -employed it successfully. Chloroform was described as a useful -anesthetic by Dr. Flourens, of Paris, in 1847, the year in which Sir -James Simpson introduced ether as an anesthetic in obstetric practice. - -Mesmer introduced hypnosis into medical practice about 1777, and in -1784 Benjamin Franklin reported favorably on the medical value of what -he called magnetic sleep. Alexandre Bertrand, about 1831, described the -nature of hypnosis and in 1841 James Braid employed it in his English -medical practice. The employment of hypnosis has not become general, -although it is recognized that in certain nervous troubles there is a -field for it. - -Among other American medical men who advanced their science in the past -were James Marion Sims (1813-1883) and Thomas Emmet, who acquired wide -fame for successful methods of operating in obstetric diseases. William -Beaumont (1785-1853) investigated the offices of the gastric juice and -devised treatment for digestive troubles. John Shaw Billings served his -profession by compiling, with the assistance of Robert Fletcher, an -Index Catalogue of the Surgeon General's library, Washington. - -Pharmacology is as old as medicine. The medicinal qualities of herbs, -roots, and gums were known to primitive man. There have been herbalists -and druggists in all important communities at all times. Scientific -pharmacology, however, is just as new as modern medicine. Cordus -published a pharmacopœia, which listed drugs in use in 1535. Since -that time many such works have appeared. The second of the Monros of -Edinburgh University Medical School, Magendie, and Claude Bernard -placed pharmacy upon a scientific basis. They followed scientific -methods used by Fontana in Florence in 1765 in studying the effects -of snake poisons. Pareira's "Elements of Materia Medica" was the -leading textbook in 1842. This work gave very brief accounts of the -physiological effects of drugs. The physiological values were not -properly appreciated until about twenty years later. - -Drugs are now scientifically classified and prepared, the full -resources of science being used in their manufacture. American -chemists have invented machinery and methods of preparing new drugs. -Citrate of magnesia was invented by Henry Blair, of Philadelphia. Many -other valuable remedies came from his laboratory, including sirup of -phosphates. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -ELECTRICITY AND RADIOACTIVITIES - - -Among the most marvelous scientific developments of the nineteenth -century those in the electrical field claim universal attention. It was -only as recently as 1844 that Morse introduced electric telegraphy. The -telephone was introduced by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 and Edison -built one of his early dynamos in 1878 and in 1879 made his first high -resistance incandescent lamp for parallel operation. The first Edison -power and lighting station was opened at 257 Pearl Street, New York -City, in 1882. - -Although electrical phenomena were understood in a general way -thousands of years ago, they were not studied and applied to practical -purposes until the sixteenth century when William Gilbert carried out -his classical experiments in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The Leyden -jar was discovered in the early half of the eighteenth century. From -experiments carried out with these jars a great number of important -inventions were derived and our knowledge of electricity was for many -years dependent upon researches of this kind. Benjamin Franklin in -experimenting with the Leyden jar found that its electrical discharges -were similar to those of lightning and he subsequently discovered that -the inner part of the jar, when charged with a frictional current, was -positively electrical while the outer portion was negative. - -The voltaic pile was invented in 1796 as a result of Galvani's -experiments in physiological electricity and Sir Humphry Davy exhibited -the first practical electrical lamp before the Royal Society in 1809. -The dynamo was, in substance, invented by Faraday, and described by -him before the Royal Society in 1831. This was, perhaps, the greatest -of all electrical triumphs because it gave engineers a practical means -of generating and using electrical currents of any desired dimensions. -Bunsen in 1840 devised a means for making carbon rods for arc lamps, -and Edison made practical carbon incandescent lamp filaments in 1879. -Faraday's invention promoted all of these lighting discoveries. - -The engine-driven electric dynamo was made a practical machine in 1870 -and thenceforward became the source of power of a great multitude of -secondary machines, such as electric street cars, marine engines, power -plants, and forging hammers. - -A new and profitable field was opened for the use of electricity by -the invention of the electric furnace. Sir Humphry Davy produced -his electric arc in 1808 and was greatly impressed with its fusing -properties. He melted many metals with the arc and found that it fused -platinum just as easily as an ordinary tallow candle melts beeswax. -The electric furnace, which is now extensively used in chemical and -metallurgical works, is simply a large electric arc provided with means -for containing the heat. Furnaces lined with carbon are now heated to -over 4,000 degrees centigrade. - -When the electrical manufacture of aluminum on a large scale was -started at Niagara, Dr. Edward Acheson, who was impressed by the -industrial needs of cheap abrasives, accidentally discovered that by -heating a piece of porcelain to a high temperature in an electric -furnace and bringing it in contact with pure carbon, the carbon was -rendered very hard. In 1891 he carried on experiments with high -currents and a mixture of ground coke and sand. He found a method of -fusing these so that the oxygen of the sand passed off with carbon -in the form of carbonic acid gas, and the reduced metallic silicon -combined with an equal atomic weight of carbon and produced a new body -which he named carborundum. The success met with in making carborundum -led to the devising of a method of manufacturing artificial graphite in -the electric furnace. A soft, non-coalescing graphite was made in 1906. -This is extensively used in lubricating heavy machinery. - -Dr. Acheson produced the first chemically pure artificial carbon in his -electric furnace in 1911. By using pressure during consolidation this -carbon may eventually be converted into diamonds. - -Another valuable product of the electric furnace, acetylene gas, was -discovered in Dublin by Edmund Davy in 1836. Subsequently numerous -chemists discovered means for making carbides. T. Sterry Hunt, an -American chemist, observed in 1886 that oxides of the alkaline metals -and of calcium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, and boron could be -reduced in the electric furnace in the presence of carbon and could be -alloyed with other metals. He also found that silicon and acetylene -could be made that way. - -T. L. Wilson, a Canadian engineer, in attempting to make aluminum -bronze in an electric furnace, devised an experiment for reducing lime -with carbon. He found that this produced calcium carbide and secured a -patent for the invention in 1892. Variations of this process are now -used for manufacturing nitrogen and nitrates from atmospheric nitrogen. - -Wireless developments have resulted from the work of many separate -investigators. K. A. Steenheil in 1838 used the earth return in live -telegraphy and suggested the possibility of wireless telegraphy. -Joseph Henry produced the first high-frequency oscillations in America -in 1840. Lord Kelvin in 1853 enunciated the mathematical principles -governing uncoupled electrical oscillatory circuits. Joseph Heyworth -patented a wireless telegraphic process in 1862. Clark Maxwell in 1867 -predicted the existence of electromagnetic radiations and these were -demonstrated by Hertz in 1887. Hughes discovered the phenomena of the -coherer and Branby used Hughes's coherer for wireless wave detection -in 1892. A. E. Dolbear secured United States patents for a system of -wireless telegraphy using aerials in 1886. Sir Oliver Lodge described -his wireless system before the Royal Society in 1894 and in the same -year Popoff issued descriptions of his wireless system. - -Wireless telegraphy became commercially practicable in 1897 when G. -Marconi secured the promotion of the Wireless Telegraph and Signal -Company in England. Marconi succeeded in turning to commercial account -a long series of brilliant discoveries in electricity, and this success -has led to numerous kindred discoveries. De Forest's three-electrode -thermionic detector, known as an Audion, invented in 1907 and improved -in 1911 by Lieben and Reiss, in 1913 by Meisser and in 1914 by -Langmuir, opened up great possibilities for sound transmission by -wireless telephony. - -The electric deposition and refining of metals have been referred to -in previous chapters. Many industries are based upon these. Niepce -produced commercially successful photographs in 1838. Earlier, in -1824, he had etched plates for printing and in that year published his -photo-engraving of Cardinal d'Amboise. Fox Talbot patented a mixture -of gelatine and bichromate of potash to take the place of the bitumen -used by Niepce as a plate coating. Gillot found in 1872 that Fox -Talbot's method of making intaglio plates could also be used for making -relief blocks. In 1885-1886, F. E. Ives sealed two single-line screws -together and made a new fine cross-line screen, which resulted in the -development of the half-tone process. Ives at this time also developed -the three-color photo-engraving process. - -Photography and photo-engraving are so widely used and are so -intimately connected with our civilization that few people now realize -that the great industries based upon them are the results of a few -scientific discoveries of a couple of American and European scientists -made only a generation or two ago. - -[Illustration: GIFTS FOR TUTANKHAMEN BROUGHT BY HUY, VICEROY OF -ETHIOPIA. THE MAN IN THE GAY COSTUME, AT THE RIGHT, MAY BE A PHŒNICIAN. -(EGYPTIAN PAINTING)] - -[Illustration: TUTANKHAMEN'S TOMB--BRINGING UP THE HATHOR COUCH. THE -COW WAS SACRED TO ISIS OR HATHOR OF WHOM THE HORNS WITH THE MOON DISK -WERE EMBLEMS] - -[Illustration: QUEEN NEFERTITI, MOTHER-IN-LAW OF TUTANKHAMEN - -This wonderful work of an unknown Egyptian sculptor represents the -wife of Ahknaton, the "heretic" king of Egypt (originally Amenhotep or -Amenophis IV). The original is now in the Berlin Museum.] - -Chemists had long recognized the fact that certain chemicals like -preparations of zinc, fluorine, and phosphorus were phosphorescent. It -was found early in the eighties that Welsbach gas mantles, when placed -on a photographic plate and exposed in a dark room for two weeks, -made a fine picture. Invisible rays in the mantle imprint its image. -Röntgen, in 1895, discovered what are now known as the X-rays. This -discovery was the result of experiments begun in 1859 by Plucker to -ascertain the cause of fluorescence in light glass, and Sir William -Crookes, between 1879 and 1885, carried out beautiful experiments on -fluorescence. These were the immediate pioneers of the discovery of the -cathode rays and the other great radio discoveries of recent years. -Crookes, remembering Faraday's suggestions concerning a fourth state of -matter, expressed the opinion, in 1885, that the matter constituting -cathode rays is neither solid, gaseous, or liquid, but in a fourth -state which transcends the gaseous condition. Perren found in 1895 that -the rays carried electrically negative charges and Sir J. J. Thomson -noticed that their velocities are appreciably less than the speed of -light. Owing, however, to their great momentum, hardly anything can -long endure their impacts. They fuse platinum and make diamonds buckle -up into coke. - -Electrons, which constitute the cathode rays, were originally studied -in Crookes vacuum tubes, though they are now found to pervade the -universe. - -Larmor in 1897 proposed an electronic theory of magnetism. - -Henri Becquerel was the first to discover radioactivity. He made -radiographs from uranium salts in 1896. M. and Madame Curie undertook -the investigation of uranium and found that among the minerals -occurring in pitchblende, or uranium ore, bismuth and barium showed -radioactive properties, whereas when these metals are found in their -ordinary ores they are not radioactive. This discovery led to the -finding of two new metals, polonium and radium. Radium is now obtained -by fractional distillation of solutions obtained from American and -Australian pitchblende. - -Helium, one of the lightest substances known, was discovered in 1895 -by Sir William Ramsay, and liquefied, at a temperature 3 degrees above -absolute zero, or -270 degrees centigrade, by Onnes in 1908. Helium -appears to be one of the ultimate products of the disintegration of all -radioactive elements. - -Some of the most interesting discoveries about radioactivity are very -recent. Radium prepared from uranium in 1915 was found in 1919 to have -increased proportionately to the square of the time interval. The -amount of radium in some preparations was found to have increased ten -times in four years. The old idea of the constant fluxation of matter -was thus shown to have been based upon a scientific truth. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -SCIENCE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY - - -It is obvious that we are now in a great period of transition. -Scientific discoveries came so quickly at the end of the last century -that a recasting and readjusting of scientific conceptions had to be -undertaken. This process was in progress when the World War began. The -world-wide disturbance led to temporary scientific infertility except -in such directions as served the purposes of war. But therein science -became allied more closely than ever before with certain branches of -industry, and the cooperation thus established has been recognized in -all civilized countries as of the utmost value to the future progress -of mankind. - -The philosophic thought of each era generally develops in harmony -with social and intellectual conditions. The philosophical doctrines -of the leading writers may, therefore, be taken as representative -of the spirit of their age. When Darwin in the middle of the last -century published his doctrines of evolution, of the struggle for -existence and the influences of living conditions upon survival of -species, philosophy turned away from the utilitarianism and tolerance -of Hamilton, Hume, and Mill and the positivism of the French to -the synthetic evolutionism of Herbert Spencer. One of the basic -teachings of Spencer was the relativity of knowledge. The process of -thinking involves relation, difference, and likeness. This is merely -relationing. Therefore no thought can ever express more than relations. -The primary act of thought through which we discover likeness and -difference underlies all our knowledge. - -A reaction against this new empiricism began in 1898, when William -James published his "Philosophical Conceptions and Practical Results." -This work popularized the philosophy of pragmatism which denies the -absoluteness or ultimateness of the traditional antithesis between -theory and practice and relies for its justification upon the fact -that everything which we think about, and do, must first be willed. -Reality consists in pure experience quite independent of thought. -Bergson developed this philosophy of practicalism further and taught -that knowledge of reality comes through intuition and that life is -merely intuitive knowledge. Intuition, is deeper than scientific reason -because it feels, and links us with, the eternal processes of nature. - -Philosophic thought is now temporarily influenced by the revival of -an old principle known as the principle of relativity. The popular -name for this is the Einstein theory, because in 1905 Albert Einstein, -working on some theories developed by Lorentz and Fitzgerald, published -his first principle of relativity which suggested that the velocity of -light is constant, however the position of an observer may vary and -that space and time are variable. In 1917 Einstein enlarged this idea -in order to include all the laws of nature. - -Space and time are treated as just mental concepts. They lack the -concreteness of matter, but they compose the framing of the universe -and give it form and continuity. Consequently we see so much of -them that we attribute reality to them. The theory of relativity -suggests that time is not continuous. There is no identity of instants -at different places. The present instant really does not extend -beyond this immediate point. At other points there are instants -older, younger, and contemporaneous with this instant. They are, -however, quite distinct from this one. In order for an instant to be -simultaneous it would be necessary that it should occur at the same -point. - -An object or event gains its substance and form from activities of our -minds. Any meaning or significance that an object or event has is also -derived from our minds. The reality of the universe is an activity, or -series of activities, which are manifested in life and mind. - -The relativity of space is illustrated by an example given by Professor -Henri Poincaré. Assume that I meet you in Wall Street, New York, and -say, "I will meet you here again at this time to-morrow." You promise -to do so. But you could not keep such a promise except with regard to -position on the surface of the earth, because between now and to-morrow -the earth will have moved over an enormous distance carrying Wall -Street and a great mass of other things with it. The sun also will have -moved away the stars, carrying the earth with it. - -Another interesting mental picture is drawn by Professor Herbert -Wildon Carr to illustrate the philosophical meaning of the principle -of relativity. Suppose that on a very frosty morning we were to see a -watery vapor in the air we breathe condense into a little cloud and -after floating around a while gradually disappear and become reabsorbed -in the atmosphere. Assume that at the moment of this reabsorption we -should undergo an instantaneous transformation of all our proportions -so that our new dimensions become infinitesimal in comparison with our -former state. Do you think that we would recognize the fact that we had -changed? The theory of relativity declares that we would not know what -had happened, because with the alteration in proportions the ratios -would remain constant. The change would express itself in the new -dimensions of objects around us. The little globules of water composing -the little cloud would now appear like stars and planets occupying -immense areas in distant spaces, far apart from each other, and all -undergoing a slow age-long evolution. Such a change would be signalized -as a new time and a new space. - -Yet the principle of relativity does not appear to our physical senses -to represent a truth of nature. It is noteworthy that the principle -of relativity is usually invoked when conditions are unstable, when -thought is confused, and when a period of readjustment is in progress. -Thus the Einstein theory may be representative of present-day -harmonies, but yet may prove, in the future, to have been merely a -passing philosophic mood. - -Bagehot, a shrewd observer, writing in 1868 about the changes wrought -by Darwin's evolutionary theory, said: "There is scarcely a department -of science or art which is the same, or at all the same, as it was -fifty years ago. A new world of inventions has grown up around us which -we cannot help seeing; a new world of ideas is in the air, and affects -us though we do not see it." Those were very true words more than half -a century ago, yet they serve to describe present conditions! - - - - -GENERAL INDEX - - - A, vowel sound, record of, iv, 234 - - Aard-vark, xii, 281-2 - - Abacus, or calculating machines, xv, 183-4, xvi, 61 - - Abalones, xii, 71 - - Abbe, Prof. Cleveland, i, 216-17 - - Abbot, Dr., solar studies, ii, 171, 186-7 - - Abdomen, blood circulation in, ix, 196, 197; - methods of examination, x, 147, 371; - muscles of, ix, 77 - - Abdominal Organs, control of circulation of, ix, 215, 216, 217, 220; - development of, in black and white races, xv, 50; - mesentery support of, ix, 59; - smooth muscles in, 160-1 - - Aberration of Light, ii, 91-2 - - Abert, Lake, Oregon, xiv, 203 - - Abnormal Complexes, x, 355-6 - - Absaroka Range, xiv, 104-5, 226 - - Abscesses, cause (germs) of, x, 195, 198, 221; - cure of neurasthenic, 58-9 - - Absinthe, source, xiii, 266 - - Absolute, technical meaning, iv, 381 - - Absolute Magnitude (stars), ii, 317; - Adams' method of determining, 124, 153; - spectral type and, 115, 317; - used in measuring star distances, 318, 330 - - Absolute Maximum & Minimum (meteorology), i, 204, 365 - - Absolute Scale (thermometry), i, 73, iv, 141, viii, 107-8 - - Absolute Units, iv, 64, 69, 70 - - Absolute Zero, i, 73, iv, 141, v, 347-8, viii, 107-8; - molecular condition at, iv, 142-3, viii, 108; - nearest approach, i, 32, iv, 173, xvi, 194; - of outer space, vi, 270 - - Absorption Lines, ii, 111-12 (see Fraunhofer Lines, Spectrum) - - Abstract Ideas, difficulty of attention to, xi, 228, 233-4; - expression of, in primitive language, xv, 144-150 - - Abul Wefa, Arab astronomer, ii, 38 - - Acceleration, definition & measurement, iv, 57, 381; - force in relation to 59-61, 63-4, 71-2; - of gravity, 65 - - Accidents, from electricity, x, 254; - from fatigue, xi, 274; - prevention of, vii, 32-3, xi, 365 - - Accidents (geological), xiv, 188 - - Accommodation, of vision, ix, 110-11, 113; - muscles of, 161, 162 - - Accumulators, storage batteries, iv, 300 - - Accumulators, water-pressure, v, 106 - - Accuracy, habit and, xi, 253; - indifferent types of men, 156, 157, 158-9 - - Acetic Acid, vi, 111, viii, 220; - solubility, 112; - in vinegar, 218, 249, 293 - - Acetylene Gas, discovery, xvi, 190; - formation, vii, 312; - in steel making, 321; - luminosity of flame, viii, 60; - preparation & uses, 231 - - Achenes, xiii, 58-9, 344, 345 - - Acheson, Dr. Edward G., vii, 300-1, 309-10, xvi, 189-90 - - Acheulean Implements, xv, 105, 107 - - Achromatic Lenses, iv, 373; - invention, xvi, 125-6 - - Achromatic Refractors, ii, 100-1, 103 - - Acidosis, x, 280 - - Acids, viii, 19-20, 114-15, 373; - action on saccharides, 226, 228; - amino, 230 (see Amino Acids); - bases and, 115; - defined by ionization theory, 122; - electrolytes, 125; - formation, 20, 39, 118, 373; - formation in body, x, 280-1; - hydrogen prepared from, viii, 32-3, 102; - ionization in solution, 119-25, 300-1; - manufacture of, 275-6; - molecular structure, 218; - molecular structure & physical state, 298; - nomenclature, viii, 98; - organic, 52, 219-21; - oxygen in, 34; - salts formed from, 72, 83, 114, 373; - vegetable, 222-3, 336, 349; - volumetric analysis of, 292-3 - - Acid Salts, viii, 116 - - Acne, causes of, x, 201, 311 - - Aconite, xiii, 252 - - Acorns, xiii, 193; - dispersal by squirrels, 55-6, 340; - survival rate, xv, 21 - - Acoustic Clouds, i, 190 - - Acoustics, atmospheric, i, 186-96; - of auditoriums, iv, 239 - (see also Sound) - - Acquaintanceships, selection of, xi, 257, 380-1 - - Acquired Characters, inheritance of, ix, 325-7, x, 230 - - Acquired Tastes, xi, 72-3 - - Actinic Rays, iv, 365-6, 381, vii, 250, 361 - - Actinolite, iii, 321-2 - - Action & Reaction, iv, 33-4, v, 143; - Newton's law, ii, 66, iv, 69 - - Activity, food needs dependent on, ix, 295, 296, 297; - mind as, xi, 12, 13, 236; - temperature effects on, i, 323-4 - - Activity (mechanics), iv, 80 - - Adaptations, of eardrum to sound, xi, 100; - of eye to colors, 95; - of nose to odors, 80-1; - of skin to pressures, 111; - of tongue to tastes, 72; - to warmth and cold, 113 - - Adaptation to Environment, xv, 16; - by animals, 16-18; - by man, 3, 25, 26, 28, 31, 36; - by plants, xiii, 11, 12, 28-31, 89-90, 149-50, 346, 355-83, xv, 16, - 18-19; - between insects & plants, xiii, 144, xvi, 152-3; - mental efforts at, x, 361-2; - natural selection and, xv, 24-5; - principle never perfect, xvi, 152-3 - (see also Environment, Environmental Variation) - - Adder's Tongue Fern, xiii, 159 - - Adding Machines, v, 326-7 - - Addison, Thomas, x, 106, 112 - - Adenoids, ix, 104, 224, x, 341-2; - as infection foci, 220 - - Adenoid Tissue, ix, 223, 224 - - Ader, C., v, 231 - - Adiabatic Changes, iv, 158-9, 381 - - Adipose Tissues, ix, 298 - - Adirondack Mountains, age, iii, 191; - club mosses in, xiii, 305; - erratic bowlders in, iii, 70; - fault blocks in, 89; - fault lines and streams, xiv, 128; - granite formation, iii, 112; - Grenville strata, 165, 167; - ice age survivals, xiii, 321; - iron district, iii, 359; - lakes, how formed, 145; - lightning effects, 24; - Ordovician strata eroded, iii, 186; - quartz & slate formations, xvi, 29 - - Adjutant Bird, xii, 255 - - Admiration, sentiment of, xi, 146-7 - - Adolescence, mental conditions of, x, 236-7 - - Adrenalin, ix, 171-2, 209, 219, xi, 137, 138, 273 - - Adrenals, ix, 170-1; - Addison's disease of, x, 112-13; - functions, xi, 60, 137; - shock effects, 59 - - Adriatic Sea, bora, i, 133; - coasts of, xiv, 252-3, 263; - filling in by deltas, 53; - Karst district, 150 - - Adsorption, viii, 316, 373 - - Adulteration of Food, viii, 370-1 - - Adults, basal metabolism in, x, 271; - growth in, ix, 287, 288-9; - heart rate in, x, 334; - protein needs of, ix, 281-3 - - Advance Metal, resistance, vi, 77 - - Advertising, psychology of, xi, 343-9; - sign & display, vii, 339-43; - tied images in, xi, 221; - weather considerations, i, 255-6 - - Ægean Sea, volcanoes, xiv, 317, 319 - - Æolian Tones i, 195 - - Aerial Echoes, i, 190, 193 - - Aerial Roots, xiii, 20-2; - of fig tree, (illus.), 48 - - Aerials, iv, 314, vii, 261; - Dolbear's patent, xvi, 191; - in aeroplane sets, vii, 282 - (see also Antennæ) - - Aeroclinoscope, i, 282, 365 - - Aerology, i, 18-19, 20-3, 89, 365-6 - - Aeronautical Meteorology, i, 284-305 - - Aeronautics, accidents & safety questions, i, 49-50; - accidents in World War, x, 246; - aneroid barometer importance in, iv, 124; - fog in, i, 94, 95, 300-2; - history & future, 39-51; - Langley's work in, iv, 43-4; - pilot balloons in, i, 22; - therapeutic possibilities, 51; - weather importance, 284-6; - wind & air currents, 126, 130, 289-300 - (see also Aeroplanes, Balloons) - - Aeroplanes, altitudes attained, i, 22, 46; - altitude effects, 303; - astronomical use, ii, 208, 212, 225-6, 382; - Brocken specters seen from, i, 185; - engine efficiency, v, 170; - gyroscopic stabilizing, 343-4; - helicopter, i, 42; - history & development, 40-1, iv, 43-4, v, 230-3, 382, 383-4; - landings, i, 42, 45, 294 (fig.) 302; - mail service, 44-5, vii, 76; - meteorological uses, i, 22; - passenger, 41-2, 43-5, 50; - photographic mapping by, 45-8; - principles, i, 286-305, v, 233-8; - propellers (tractors) of, iv, 34; - radiotelephony and, vii, 282-3; - rise or "taking off" of, iv, 43; - safety question, i, 49-50; - stereograms from, xi, 180-1; - uses, present & future, i, 41-2, 43-9; - war uses, v, 107, 372-3, 375; - wind effects, i, 285-6, 289-300; - wireless directing, vii, 283; - World War, i, 185, 308, 312, vii, 283, x, 246 - (see also Aeronautics, Aviators) - - Æsculapius, x, 16, 17; - temples of, 17, xvi, 44 - - Æsthetic Arts, development of, xv, 297-324 - - Æsthetic Instinct, xvi, 47, 48 - - Æther of Space, vi, 118-20; - constitution, vii, 368; - elastic solid theory, xvi, 137; - universal presence of, iv, 180-1 - - Æther Waves, various kinds, vi, 119, 269, vii, 249, 250, 259-61, 371 - - Aetius, medieval writer, x, 31 - - Ætna (see Etna) - - Affection, emotion of, xi, 147; - importance, 129; - seat of, ix, 200 - - Africa, animals of (carnivora), xii, 339, 342, 344, 345, 348, 352-3, - 355, 356-7, 359, 360, 365; - animals,(herbivora) xii, 302, 303, 304-5, 308, 310, 320-1, 327-8, 329; - anteaters of, 281; - antiquity of man in, xvi, 64; - bats of, xii, 370; - birds of, 249, 260, 266, 267; - "bush" lands of, xiv, 378-9, 380; - coasts & islands, 251-2, 263; - coasts contrasted, xii, 40, xiv, 305; - coffee production in, xiii, 233; - crocodiles, xii, 199-200; - drainage system, xiv, 190; - dust haze, west coast, i, 55; - elephant-trapping in, xv, 225; - exploration of, xiv, 196-7; - forests of, 366, 368-9, 382; - fishes of, xii, 151, 154, 160, 166; - former submergences, iii, 216, 235; - geographical features & results, xv, 136; - Gold Coast, death rate on, 50; - grasslands in south, xiv, 384; - health conditions, 197, 223-4; - lemurs of, xii, 374, 375; - lizards, 208; - monkeys & apes, 379, 380, 383; - palm oil, importance to, xiii, 11; - plains of, xiv, 217-18; - plateau of interior, 196, 221, 222; - rivers, broken courses, 155; - rivers, navigability of, 196; - rock weathering in central, 78; - rodents of, xii, 288, 289-90; - rubber production, xiii, 248; - salt lakes, viii, 139; - short races of, xv, 38-9; - sleeping sickness in, x, 167-70; - smallpox superstition of natives, 285-6; - snakes of, xii, 214, 226, 227-8, 231-2; - timber supplies, xiv, 382; - vegetables originating in, xiii, 222-7; - volcanoes & lava fields, xiv, 317; - yellow fever on coasts, x, 160 - (see also East, North, South, West Africa) - - African Savages, body decoration of, xv, 256, 257-8; - debtors, treatment of, 370; - language changes, 155; - rule of fathers among, 367 - (see also Bushmen) - - African Sleeping Sickness, x, 167-70, 199, xiv, 197, 223, 357; - chemotherapy in, x, 381; - Koch's work on, 150, 169 - - After-Images, xi, 90-2, 220; - of sun (green flash), i, 171 - - After-Summers, i, 362, 366 - - Agassiz, Lake, iii, 144, xiv, 201; - plain of, 215-16 - - Agassiz, Louis, discoverer of Ice Age, iii, 236; - on fish scales, xii, 134; - on snapping turtles, 188 - - Agate, iii, 337 - - Age, chronological & physical, ix, 214; - effect on disease, x, 236-7; - growth in relation to, ix, 288-9 - - Agonic Lines, iv, 246, 247 - - Agoutis, xii, 289 - - Agramonte, Dr. Aristide, x, 160, 200 - - Agricultural Chemistry, viii, 334-47 - (see also Fertilizers, Nitrogen, Potash, Soils) - - Agricultural Implements & Machinery, v, 239-50, xv, 235-6; - Egyptian, xvi, 72; - electricity in, vii, 230 - - Agricultural Meteorology, i, 245-60 - - Agricultural Stage, xv, 187, 199-203; - polygamy in, 288; - rulers in, 367 - - Agriculture, ancient centers of, xiii, 221; - beginnings of, 209-10, xv, 200-2; - civilization and, 128; - fundamental importance, xiv, 218; - grasslands and, 383; - plains most favorable to, 218-19; - possibilities, by what determined, 64; - summer rain importance, 352 - - Ailerons, i, 289, 299, v, 238, 343 - - Air, amount consumed by breathing, ix, 256; - ancient ideas, xvi, 79; - as balloon ballast, v, 226; - boiling point of, iv, 173; - buoyant power of, 107, 108; - burning of, in gas, viii, 55, 56; - burning, in gasoline engines, v, 156-7; - "change of" (vertical), i, 51; - closeness or stuffiness of, (see Ventilation); - combustion and, i, 10; - composition, 9-16, vii, 321, viii, 66-8, ix, 254, 268; - composition, discovery of, xvi, 120, 121; - compressed (see Compressed Air); - compressibility, v, 126; - cooling power, i, 318, 319-21; - critical temperature & pressure, iv, 172, 173; - decay in relation to, xiii, 312-13; - density of, iv, 113, 198; - drying power, i, 77, 323; - dryness & dampness, viii, 67, xiv, 353-4; - elasticity of, iv, 198, v, 126; - electrical conductivity, i, 144-5, iv, 259, 265; - expansion by heat, 151; - frozen, v, 345; - health benefits of special types of, x, 241; - heat conductivity, iv, 178, 179; - ionization, i, 142-4, 146, 150; - life without, (see Anaërobic); - liquefaction of, iv, 171, 172; - (see Liquid Air); - moisture capacity, xiv, 352-4 - (see also Humidity); - molecular velocity in, iv, 133; - necessity to life, ii, 244, 245; - necessity to plants, xiii, 102, 109; - physics of, historical development, iv, 28-30; - popular & scientific conceptions, i, 9-10; - pressure of, iv, 132 - (see also Atmospheric Pressure); - purifying by ozone, i, 15, vii, 354; - purity tests, i, 321-2; - resistance due to inertia, v, 234; - resistance effects on aeroplanes, i, 286-9, iv, 43, v, 235-6; - resistance to falling bodies, iv, 42, 97; - resistance to projectiles, v, 369; - saturated, i, 14, viii, 67; - shimmering of, i, 174, iv, 328, 329; - in soil, xiii, 92; - solubility in water, viii, 111; - sound transmission by, i, 186, iv, 195, 198-9, 201, ix, 98-9; - specific heat of, iv, 161; - specific heat ratio, 156; - surfeit of, bodily effects, 31; - ventilation of, (see Ventilation); - vibrations of, 215; - warming of, by sunshine, 182; - warming of, by freezing water, 161; - weight of, 107, 116, 124, v, 221-2, 230; - weight, discovery of, iv, 29, 114-16; - weight of heated, v, 223 - (see also Atmosphere) - - Air Bladder, xii, 135-6, 164-5 - - Air Brakes, iv, 129, 200, v, 130-3, 380, 381; - on electric cars, vii, 185-6 - - Air Columns, resonance of, iv, 226-31; - vibrations of, 215 - - Air Compressors, i, 26-7, iv, 128, v, 89-93, 127-8 - - Air-cooled Engines, v, 160-1 - - Air Currents in aeronautics, i, 293-300; - pilot balloons to discover, 21-2 - - Air Cushioning, v, 133-5 - - Air Holes, i, 298-9, 374, v, 224 - - Air Jets, v, 135-6 - - Airlifts, iv, 130, v, 114-15 - - Air Locks, v, 118-19, 124 - - Air Pumps, iv, 126-7 - - Airships, in forest service, i, 49; - future landing places, 43; - future uses in transportation, 42-3; - high altitude effects, 303; - history of development, 40-1; - possibilities of, iv, 107-8 - (see also Dirigible Balloons, Zeppelins) - - Air Springs, v, 126-38 - - Air Waves, i, 294 (fig.), 298 - - Akeley, Carl E., v, 136 - - Alabama, aluminum production, iii, 369; - chalk deposits, 216; - coal beds, 199; - iron production, 358-9; - soil of, xiv, 218 - - Alabaster, iii, 331, 332, viii, 149 - - Alaska, animals of, xii, 318, 319, 320, 337; - auks of, 265; - blackfish of, 163; - coal fields, iii, 348; - coast changes, earthquake of 1899, 97, xiv, 34, 114, 334-5; - coast formations, iii, 57; - fiord coasts, xiv, 258, 259; - glaciers, iii, 59, 60, 62, xiv, 55, 60; - gold production, iii, 366, 367; - ice age in, 239 - - Albania, story of unchangeableness, v, 251 - - Albategnius, ii, 38 - - Albatross, xii, 251-2 - - Albe, E. Fournier d', v, 332 - - Albucasius of El-Zahra, x, 32 - - Albumens (see Proteins) - - Albuminuria, x, 345-6 - - Alcmæon, Greek anatomist, xvi, 82-3 - - Alcohol, (ethyl or grain), viii, 212, 213-14; - boiling point, iv, 168; - cooling by, 174; - conversion to acetic acid, viii, 218; - denatured, 250; - flame of, 60; - formula of, 218; - freezing point of water lowered by, 299-300; - frozen, v, 345; - frozen in liquid air, i, 31; - future motor fuel, viii, 209; - manufacture, 250; - per cent in distilled beverages, 250; - physiological effects, ix, 94, 214, 244, 248-9, 320-1; - production by fermentation, viii, 213-14, 248-50, ix, 248, x, 138; - solvent properties, viii, 217; - specific gravity of, iv, 112; - (see also Alcohols) - - Alcoholic Drinks, viii, 249-50; - arterial elasticity impaired by, ix, 214; - food value, viii, 366, ix, 248-9; - in tropics, xv, 126-7; - stomach absorption increased by, ix, 244; - warmth produced by, 94, 320-1 - - Alcoholic Fermentation, viii, 248-9; - in body, ix, 248-9; - Pasteur's studies, x, 138 - - Alcoholometer, iv, 113 - - Alcohols, viii, 212-14, 373; - boiling points, 299; - double & triple, 215; - in esters, 221; - molecular complexity & physical state, 298; - in plants, 349; - relation to ethers, aldehydes & acids, 216-18, 219; - solubility, 37, 112 - - Aldebaran, angular diameter, ii, 151; - Arabic name, 39; - chemical composition, 114-15; - color, 297; - gaseous state, 382 - - Aldehydes, viii, 218, 219, 373; - in sugars, 225 - - Alder Flies, xii, 106 - - Alder Trees, xiii, 193, 271-2 - - Aleutian Islands, blue foxes of, xii, 344; - former connections, xiii, 351; - volcanic nature, iii, 106, 139, xiv, 315, 316 - - Alexander of Tralles, x, 31, 59 - - Alexanderson Generators, vii, 274-5, 290-1 - - Alexines, of blood, x, 210-11 - - Alfalfa, fertilization, xiii, 138-9; - in pea family, 198; - nitrogen fixation by, xiv, 66 - - Alfonsine Tables, ii, 39, 44 - - Alfred the Great, language of, xv, 156; - navy of, xiv, 261 - - Algæ, xiii, 72-3; - classification work, xvi, 166; - curious "showers" of, i, 358-9; - fossils of, xiii, 303, 304 (illus.); - found in hot springs, ii, 249, xiii, 299; - in sea, xii, 16-7, xvi, 147; - number of species, xiii, 323; - oldest of plants, 303-4; - reign of, 314, 323 - - Algeria, animals of, xii, 326, 359; - dust storms, i, 54; - record temperature, 209; - snowfalls, 210 - - Algol, actual magnitude, ii, 321-2; - secondary minimum, 328; - type of variables, 325-6 - - Algonquin Lake, iii, 149-50 - - Alimentary Canal, ix, 233 (fig.); - foci of infection in, x, 220; - in infants, ix, 346; - operation of muscles, xi, 37-8, 69; - protection against germs, x, 202; - sterile at birth, 201; - X-ray examinations of, 373 - - Alimentary Disorders, x, 319-38 - - Aliphatic, defined, viii, 373 - - Alkali Industries, viii, 276-8 - - Alkali Metals, viii, 132-47 - - Alkalis, defined, viii, 373; - deposits, 139; - volumetric analysis, 292 - - Alkaloids, viii, 240 - - Allbutt, Clifford, xvi, 184; - Osler and, x, 151; - quoted, 35 - - Allegheny Plateau, xiv, 221; - coal of, iii, 346-7; - origin of present relief, 231-2 - - Allelomorphs, xvi, 157 - - Allergy, x, 216-7 - - Alligators, xii, 182, 196-8; - savage methods of luring, xv, 222 - - Allotropic Forms, viii, 43, 87, 373 - - Alloys, viii, 272-3; - aluminum, iii, 369-70; - antimony in, viii, 169; - copper, 164; - electrolytic refinement, vii, 319-21; - melting point of, iv, 161-2 - - Alluvial Cones, iii, 33 - - Alluvial Soils, xiv, 63, 70-1 - - Almanacs, ancient Greek & Roman, i, 67-8; - Arabic word, ii, 39; - weather predictions in, 243-4 - (see also Nautical Almanacs) - - Alpenglow, i, 168, 366 - - Alphabet, invention & development of, xv, 175-6, xvi, 60 - - Alpha Centauri, magnitude, motion and type, ii, 319; - parallax and distance, 312, 313, 314-15 - - Alpha Lyræ, drift of sun toward, ii, 18, 306; - parallax, 312 - - Alpha Rays, i, 143, viii, 185 - - Alpine Glaciers, iii, 60, 62-3 - - Alpine Racial Group, xvi, 49-50 - - Alps Mountains, Alpenglow, i, 168; - Arctic species in, xiv, 365-6, 377; - chamois of, xii, 325; - foehn wall, i, 105; - forming of present, iii, 236, xiv, 233; - Glacial Epoch, lakes from, iii, 146, xiv, 200; - glaciers and snow line, iii, 59, 60, 62, 240, xiv, 55; - goats of, xii, 326; - hanging valleys and electric plants, xiv, 57; - historical and economic importance, 240-2, 243, 244, 245, xv, 137-8; - intense folding of, xiv, 36, 230; - lakes, iii, 143-46; - marine deposits, 235; - massif of, xiv, 234; - Napoleon's passage of, 244; - passes of, 58, 240-1; - population and industries, 241-2; - railways and tunnels, 240-1; - rainfall effects, 355; - rivers of, 167; - rock destruction by frost, 76; - snowfall measurement, i, 118; - solar heat at Davos, 210; - thickness of strata in, xiv, 229; - winds, i, 131-2, 133; - youthfulness of, xiv, 96 - - Alsace, potash deposits, viii, 279, xiv, 67-8, 209 - - Altamira, Spain, cave pictures, iii, 305, xv, 114, 116, 118, 298 - - Alternating Currents, iv, 307, vi, 153, 154-5, vii, 361; - ammeters for, vii, 166, 169-72; - carbon arcs on, 208-9; - circuit breakers for, 37-8, 40-1; - condensers' effects, vi, 304-5; - conversion to direct, 330-48; - cycles, 153, 154-5; - inductance, 166-7, 169 (see Inductance); - lag and lead phases, vi, 167-9, 171-4, vii, 362; - lighting and magnetic effects, vi, 155-7; - measurement of power, 165-9, 172; - Ohm's Law for, 164-5, 170; - sonic waves and, v, 108; - transmission of power by, vi, 159-60, 195-6; - uses, common and special, 152; - use in electric furnaces, vii, 305-6; - use in electrotherapy, 236-7, 244, 248-9; - use in traction, vi, 161-3, vii, 186, 196; - use in wireless, iv, 315, vi, 163; - voltage changed, 159-60 (see Transformers); - voltmeters for, vii, 154-5, 161-5; - wattmeters for, 172, 173, 177 - - Alternating Current Generators, iv, 307 - (see also Alternators) - - Alternating Current Motors, vi, 240-63 - - Alternation of Generations, xiii, 160, xvi, 166 - - Alternators, construction, types, and uses, vi, 157-9, 196-216; - operation in power plants, 357, 374; - ratings, 192-4; - synchronizing action, 383-4; - voltages attained, 159; - wireless, vii, 290-1 - - Altimeter, i, 72, 366 - - Altitude, barometric measurement of, iv, 124; - barometric pressure and, i, 23, 72, 171, 303; - climatic effects, xiv, 220, 223, 364-6; - potential variations with, i, 144-5; - pressure table, iv, 124; - rock weathering in relation to, xiv, 40; - sound and, i, 186-8; - temperature and, 19, 20, 303 - - Alto-Cumulus Clouds, i, 100, 101, 103, 298 - - Alto-Stratus Clouds, i, 100-3 - - Alum, Alums, viii, 312-13; - in water filtering, 320 - - Aluminum, Aluminium, affinity strength, viii, 128; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - chemical activity, 149, 155; - compounds, unstable, 137, 257; - density of, iv, 113; - electrical conductivity, 283; - electrolytic reduction, vii, 320, viii, 271, 284; - gold plating of, vii, 319; - in heavy metal group, viii, 126-7; - melting point and heat, iv, 162, viii, 384; - occurrence, 19, 129, 148, 154, 198; - percentage in earth's crust, iii, 308, viii, 192; - production and uses, iii, 369-70, viii, 154-5; - salts astringent, 116; - sound velocity in, iv, 201; - specific gravity, viii, 384; - test for, 287, 288-9 - - Aluminum Arresters, vii, 17, 50 - - Aluminum Wire, vi, 80, vii, 23 - - Amalgam, defined, viii, 373 - - Amalgamation, defined, vi, 132; - in electric cells, 132, 139; - in gold and silver extraction, viii, 131, 270 - - Amaryllis Family, xiii, 188 - - Amatus Lusitanus, x, 58 - - Amazon River, arapaima fish of, xii, 154; - arrau turtle of, 193-4; - Black caiman of, 198; - electric eel of, 160; - forests and swamps, xiii, 360; - jaguars of, xii, 362; - length and volume, xiv, 189; - poison of natives on, xv, 228; - tributaries, connections, xiv, 187; - water boas of, xii, 216; - water lily of, xiii, 359-60 - - Amazon Stone, iii, 328 - - Amber, in varnishes, viii, 265; - insect remains found in, iii, 16, 280; - magnetism of, iv, 256, vi, 11, 12 - - Ambergris, xii, 299 - - Ambrose Channel, dredging of, v, 257-8; - sediment in, xiv, 269; - wireless pilot system, vii, 284-5 - - America, antiquity of man in, xiv, 149; - compass needle directions in, iv, 246; - discovery and settlement of, xiv, 309-11; - discovery of, effect on botany, x, 45; - first hospital in, 81; - plants restricted to, xiii, 320; - vegetables and fruits originating in, 222-7 - (see North and South America) - - American Buildings, dryness and heat in, i, 322-3, xiv, 353 - - American Colonies, Appalachian barrier, xiv, 191, 194, 242, 243, 249; - first hospital, x, 81; - independence results, 107; - medicine in, 81, 104; - ordeals practiced in, xv, 373; - westward growth by rivers, xiv, 193-4 - - American Indians (see Indians) - - American System (Manufactures), v, 48-56, 213-14 - - Amethyst, iii, 337; - oriental, 327 - - Amides, viii, 373; - acid, 230 - - Amines, viii, 210, 214, 215, 373 - - Amino, defined, viii, 374 - - Amino Acids, chemistry of, viii, 230, 309-10; - physiological origin and use, ix, 279-84, 287-8, x, 204, 277, 278, 279; - proteins compose of, viii, 230, 351, 352 - - Amino Compounds, viii, 236-7 - - Amino Derivatives, viii, 210, 214, 215 - - Ammeters, iv, 279-80, vii, 165-72, 361; - automobile, 121; - galvanometers as, 179; - hot-wire, 163-4 - - Ammonia, viii, 68-70; - amines from, 215; - atmospheric, i, 11, 13, ix, 269; - boiling and freezing points, iv, 173; - critical temperature and pressure, 173; - density of, 113; - discovery, xvi, 120; - Gay-Lussac's studies, 133; - in explosives, viii, 74, 75, 253; - in fertilizers, 147, 253; - in ice-making, v, 357, 358, 380, viii, 69, 70; - in nitrogen cycle, 73; - in sweat, ix, 276; - metal test, viii, 288-9; - name, 98; - production, natural and artificial, i, 13, 35, 36, 153, viii, 46, 47, - 68, 74, 75, 252, 253, 276, 278, xvi, 165; - production and disposition in body, ix, 284-5, x, 279-80; - refrigeration by, iv, 174, 187-8, viii, 69-70; - solubility, 111 - - Ammonia Water, viii, 68, 147 - - Ammonites, iii, 275, xii, 75 - - Ammonium, viii, 93, 147; - test for, 287, 289 - - Ammonium Compounds, viii, 147; - carbonate, 137; - hydroxide, 70, 121, 147, 288; - nitrite, 121; - salts, 147, 280; - sulphide, 289 - - Amorphous, defined, viii, 374 - - Ampère, A. M., vi, 20-1; - current unit named for, iv, 278; - rule of magnetic deflection, 275 - - Ampere, electric current unit, iv, 278, 284, vi, 69, 70, vii, 361 - (see also Electric Currents, Ohm's Law) - - Ampere-turns, iv, 288, vii, 362 - - Amphibians, iii, 285, xii, 167-81; - age of, iii, 20; - first appearance of, xv, 71; - in oceanic islands, xiv, 278; - relations to fishes and reptiles, iii, 284, 286, xii, 165, 183 - - Amphibole, iii, 321-3 - - Amphitheatres, mountain, iii, 66 - - Amphoteric, meaning, viii, 352 - - Amundsen, Capt., aeroplanes of, i, 46 - - Amyl Acetate, viii, 221 - - Amyl Alcohol, viii, 210, 214, 249 - - Amylases, viii, 357, x, 326 - - Amyloid, viii, 255 - - Anacondas, (boas), xii, 216 - - Anadromous Fishes, xii, 155 - - Anaërobic Bacteria, in peat production, xiii, 313; - in sewage treatment, viii, 328 - - Analytical Chemistry, viii, 285-95 - - Analyzers, crystal, iv, 354 - - Anamnesis, x, 370 - - Anaphylaxis, x, 212-15, 223 - - Anatomy, Chinese systems of, x, 13; - development of science of, 24, 30, 41-2, 44-5, 49, 51-2, 81, 116, 117, - xvi, 82-3, 179-80 - - Anaxagoras, on origin of earth, ii, 366-7; - theory of matter, xvi, 83, 118 - - Anaximander, theory of universe, ii, 367, xvi, 77-8 - - Anaximenes, theory of universe, ii, 366-7, xvi, 79 - - Andes Lightning, i, 149 - - Andes Mountains, glaciers of, xiv, 54; - impassability, 250; - lightning, i, 149; - mineral wealth, xiv, 237; - rivers, 167; - snow pinnacles, i, 116-17; - upraised in Cretaceous Period, iii, 219; - volcanoes, xiv, 315; - youthfulness of, 96, 235 - - Andrews, Thomas, i, 29, xvi, 175 - - Andromeda, nebula in, ii, 135-6, 136-7, 357, 361; - new stars in nebula, 332-3 - - Anel, Dominique, x, 90-1 - - Anemia, x, 337; - blood transfusion in, 338; - cause and effects, xi, 370-1; - of adolescence, x, 237; - pernicious, discovery of, 112 - - Anemograms, i, 295, 366 - - Anemometers, i, 83-4, 366; - for gusts, 295 - - Aneroid Barometer, i, 71, 72, 366, iv, 123-4, 381 - - Anesthetics, discovery and use in surgery, x, 123-5, 148, xvi, 180, 185; - effect on impulses, xi, 20; - Hindu use of, x, 13; - medieval, 41 - - Aneurisms, x, 28 note; - formation and rupture of, 336; - treatment of, 28, 91-2 - - Angel Fish, xii, 164 - - Anger, xi, 139, 141; - basic causes of, ix, 153, 166; - expression of, by monkeys, xv, 64; - in various sentiments, xi, 146, 148, 149, 150; - pain and, 120; - physical accompaniments of, ix, 240-1; - self-forgetfulness in, xi, 134 - - Angiosperms, xiii, 175-9; - alternation of generations in, xvi, 166; - first appearance and spread, iii, 256-7, xiii, 317-18 - - Anglers, (fish) eyes of, xii, 138; - "lure" of, 133 - - Angleworms, xii, 51-3; - power of distinguishing light, ix, 105 - - Anglo-Saxon Language, xv, 156-7 - - Anglo-Saxons, in Nordic group, xvi, 48; - use of tea, xiii, 229 - - Angular Diameters of Stars, ii, 150-1; - measurement of, 322-3 - - Anhydride, defined, viii, 374 - - Aniline, viii, 52, 237 - - Aniline Dyes, xvi, 163; - fluorescence of, iv, 379 - - Animalculæ, (see Unicellular Animals) - - Animal Electricity, vi, 16, 17, 19, 23, 64 - (see also Electric Fishes) - - Animal Fats, viii, 246 (see Fats) - - Animal Kingdom, classification, iii, 259-60, xii, 25-9; - how distinguished, viii, 349, xii, 14, 15, xiii, 13, 14; - relations to vegetable, viii, 334 - - Animal Protein, ix, 279, 280 - (see also Proteins) - - Animals, xii, 270; - activities of, ix, 20-1; - adaptation to environment, v, 16-18, 24, xvi, 152; - admiration unfelt by, xi, 146; - æsthetic emotions, xvi, 145-6; - anaphylaxis in, x, 212, 213, 214; - appendix uses in, xv, 56; - appetite in, ix, 88; - arctic, in mountains, xiv, 376-7; - artificial heat use by, ix, 308, xv, 229-30; - body heat regulation in, ix, 307, 308, 311; - brain in, xv, 62-3; - cannibalism in, ix, 280-1; - care of skin and coverings by, x, 310; - care of young, xv, 275-6; - carnivorous, xii, 332-65; - cell structure, 25; - chemistry of body and nutrition, viii, 348-70; - chromosomes in different species, ix, 46; - classification, xii, 25-9; - climatic influences, xvi, 141; - climatic limitations, xiv, 363-64; - cold-blooded (see Cold-blooded Animals); - communication means, xv, 140-1; - courtship of, 274-5; - differences of protoplasm in, ix, 278-9; - direction perception by, 117; - differences of complexity in, 48-50; - diseases of, x, 206; - distribution facilitated by land arrangement, xiv, 21; - domestication of, xv, 197-8; - ear movements in, ix, 82, 117; - educability of, xv, 66; - embryological development, 54-5; - evolution, Anaximander on, xvi, 78-9; - experience, profiting by, ix, 139, 152, xv, 66; - expressions of emotions by, 63-5; - face and brain case in, 43; - fear in various, xi, 136; - fear and anger effects, ix, 166; - flesh of, as food, 24, 284-6, xv, 333-4; - foods of, viii, 349, 350, ix, 24, 29, 30; - food procuring by, 18-20, 73-4; - geological history, iii, 12, 259, 306; - grasping ability of, ix, 67, 68, 82; - growth of, on what dependent, 287-9; - hair erection in, 161, 166; - heredity in, x, 231-2; - hoofed, xii, 300-31; - hunger and thirst senses in, ix, 87; - hunting and trapping of, xv, 222-7, 227-8; - hypertrophy of heart in, x, 331-2; - imagination in, xi, 224; - imitation in, xv, 66; - impulses instinctive, 273; - instincts of, 65-6; - land (see Land Animals); - later than plants, xiii, 298; - Latin names, xii, 28-9; - leadership among, xv, 361; - light and darkness effects on, x, 253; - locomotion, v, 215, ix, 73-4; - luminous, i, 346-7; - man's lessons from, xv, 206, 208, 220; - man's relation to, 53, 68; - marine (see Marine Animals); - "moral standards" applied to, xii, 351; - mutation in, ix, 342; - nitrogen uses, viii, 73; - of continental islands, xiv, 271; - of oceanic islands, 277-8; - oldest known remains, iii, 238, (Pl. 13); - physiology of, remarks on, ix, 305; - plants and interrelations, viii, 334, 335, 347, 349, 350, xiii, 82; - power development in, ix, 15, 16, 17, 18; - protective devices, xv, 16-18; - qualities, studies of, xvi, 143; - rate of increase, xv, 19-21; - reason in, xi, 243-4, xv, 67-8; - reflex actions in, 65; - regulatory mechanism in, x, 249-50; - reproduction from cells, 228, xvi, 155-6; - salts in body fluids, ix, 175-6; - seasonal phenomena, i, 254, 256; - seed dispersal by, xiii, 55, 58, 340, 343; - sense of sight in, ix, 105; - sense of smell in, 96-7, xi, 82; - sex relations among, xv, 274, 276-7; - smelling motions in, ix, 82-3; - struggle for existence among, xv, 21-2; - tool-using by, v, 9-11, x, 67-8; - touch sense in, 91; - unicellular, (see Unicellular Animals); - useful, xii, 324-31; - variation in, xv, 22-3 (see Variation); - vitamine needs and stores, x, 256-60; - warm and cold blooded, ix, 305; - water scarcity effects, 37-8; - wild, xii, 332-65; - young, metabolism in, ix, 38-9 - - Animal Starch, viii, 350 - - Animal Worship, xv, 333-4, 340-1 - - Animists, Animist Theory, x, 84-5 - - Anion, defined, iv, 381 - - Annuals (plants), xiv, 367; - garden species, xiii, 289, 297; - life of, 53, 152; - roots of, 15, 16 - - Anoa, of Celebes, xii, 330 - - Anode, defined, iv, 317, 381, vii, 251, 362; - first defined by Faraday, vi, 23 - - Antarctica, blizzards of, i, 133; - coal deposits, 199; - extent and elevation, xiv, 20, 22, 26; - former connection with S. America, 290; - glaciers of, 55; - island or continent, 23; - plateau, 222; - penguins of, xii, 251; - rainlessness, i, 109; - uninhabitability, xiv, 21; - winds of, i, 128-9 - - Antarctic Ice Sheet, iii, 62, 237 - - Antarctic Ocean, current of, xiv, 299, 305; - extent of, 22-3; - sea elephant of, xii, 335; - whales of, 298 - - Antares, angular diameter, ii, 151, 322-3; - color, 297; - former name, 302; - gaseous state, 382; - type III star, 115 - - Anteaters, xii, 281-3; - banded, 274; - scales of, xv, 220-1; - spiny, xii, 272-3 - - Antecedent Rivers, xiv, 164-70, 174 - - Antelopes, xii, 326-8; - fear in, xi, 136; - hunting of, with cheetah, xii, 365; - pronghorn, 322-3 - - Antennæ, of insects, xii, 100-1 - - Antennæ (wireless), iv, 314, vii, 261; - construction, 264-5; - effective resistance, 298; - fundamental wave-lengths, 266, 294; - of receiving stations, 267; - types, 295-6 - - Antenna Circuit, vii, 263-7; - energy dissipation, 297-8; - inductance and capacitance, 294-5, 296-7; - radiation, on what dependent, 298 - - Anthelion, i, 366; - oblique arcs of, 378 - - Antheridia, xiii, 158, 159, 161 - - Anthers, of flowers, xiii, 45, 118, 119 - - Anthracene, viii, 240, 253 - - Anthracite Coal, iii, 344; - beds in U. S., 347-8; - constituents, 345, viii, 44; - graphitic, iii, 345; - lessening supply, 346; - loss of heat with, v, 155 - (see also Hard Coal) - - Anthrax, Koch's studies of, x, 149; - Pasteur's work on, 140-2 - - Anthropoid Apes, xii, 381-4; - primates, 373; - susceptibility to human diseases, x, 206 - - ANTHROPOLOGY, Volume xv, defined, xv, 10, 11, 15, xvi, 36, 47; - daily interest, 26, 29 - - Antibodies, x, 205, 216 - - Anticathode, defined, iv, 381 - - Antichlor, viii, 140 - - Anticline, defined, iii, 377; - illustrated, 85, 128 (Plate 7), xiv, 95 - - Anticrepuscular Rays, i, 169, 366 - - Anticyclones, i, 134-5, 366, xiv, 349, 350; - Siberian, i, 218 - - Antigens, x, 205, 217 - - Antimony, affinity strength, viii, 128; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - expansion on solidifying, iv, 150; - fusibility, viii, 384; - ores, 198, 270; - specific gravity, 384; - tests, 287-8; - uses in industry, 169; - use of, in medicine, x, 12, 50, 169 - - Antinodal Current, vii, 297 - - Antinori, Luigi, i, 213 - - Antiseptics, viii, 332-3; - Carrel-Dakin solutions, x, 181-3, 382; - discovery, 40, 145-6, xvi, 180, 182-3 - - Antiseptic Surgery, x, 146-7; - history of development of, 40, 55, 145-6, 381-2, xvi, 108, 114, 182-4; - in World War, x, 181-3, 381-2 - - Antitoxins, x, 218, 296-8; - of diphtheria, 197, 212, 213-14, 218, 296-8; - of tetanus, 218, 299 - - Antitrade Winds, i, 366, xiv, 348 - - Anti-twilight Arch, i, 167, 366 - - Antlers, xii, 316, 317, 319 - - Ant Lions, xii, 106 - - Antony, Mark, speech on Cæsar, xi, 331 - - Ants, aphids of, xii, 101; - appearance in Triassic, 104; - nest repairing by larvæ, v, 10; - numbers in tropics, xii, 282; - "showers" of, i, 357; - social habits, xii, 124, 125, 126; - underground rooms of, xv, 266 - - Antwerp bombardment, audibility, i, 191; - harbor of, xiv, 270 - - Antyllus, x, 28 - - Anuria, x, 344-5 - - Aorta, ix, 196, 201 (fig.), x, 334; - elasticity of, ix, 210; - ligation of, x, 129-30 - - Aoudad, xii, 326 - - Apatite, iii, 323, viii, 193 - - Apes, anthropoid, xii, 381-4; - black of Celebes, 379; - brain of, xv, 62, 90-1; - embryological development, 54-5; - imitation in, 66; - manlike, iii, 301-3, xv, 88-95; - man's relation to, xv, 56-7; - nostrils of, xii, 376, xv, 46; - physical comparison of, with man, iii, 301, (fig.), xv, 57-62; - reasoning power, 67-8; - sex relations among, 277-8; - skull capacity, xv, 89; - skull shape, 42-3; - tigers and, xii, 362; - tool-using by, v, 9; - working methods, xv, 58 - - Aphids, xii, 118; - ants and, 101 - - Aphis Lions, xii, 106 - - Aphrodite (sea mouse), xii, 54 - - Apian, Peter, ii, 41; - comet of, 85 - - Aplysia, xii, 68 - - Apollonius of Perga, ii, 31, xvi, 90 - - Appalachia, iii, 195, 205, 210 - - Appalachian Mountains, antiquity of, xiv, 96, 235; - Catskill formation, iii, 195; - coal beds, iii, 346-7, 204, xiv, 237; - folding intensity, iii, 86, xiv, 36, 230; - forests, xiv, 372; - former elk of, xii, 317; - geological history, iii, 130, 132-4, 135-6, 140, 191, 205-7, 210, 219, - xiv, 97-8, 168-9, 228-9, 235-6; - "grain" of, xiv, 99; - historical rôle, 191, 194, 242-3, 249; - igneous formations absent, 228, 230, 234; - iron deposits, iii, 358-9; - length and breadth, xiv, 36-7, 227; - limestone soils, iii, 27; - marble production, 371; - metallic ores of, xiv, 237; - non-marine deposits in trough, iii, 209-10, 214; - petroleum fields, 350; - plateau west of, xiv, 221; - present relief, origin, iii, 231-2; - ridges and valleys, 36, 137, 233-4, xiv, 94, 97-8, 234, 236; - rivers across, iii, 36, 137, 233, xiv, 166-7, 168-9, 180-2; - site formerly submerged, iii, 12, 130, 168, 181, 184, 187, 194-5, 197, - 198; - springs, thermal and mineral, 128, xiv, 143; - strata, thickness and composition, iii, 132, 180, xiv, 228-9; - strata of various periods, iii, 184, 187, 195-6, 203; - stream capture in, xiv, 180-2; - thrust faults, iii, 90; - typical range, xiv, 226; - wind and water gaps, iii, 39, xiv, 58, 98, 169 - - Appalachian Revolution, iii, 205, 208, 210 - - Appalachian System, xiv, 227 - - Appalachian Valley, xiv, 167 - - Appendicitis, asepsis in, x, 147; - cause of, 224 - - Appendix, ix, 233 (fig.); - as infection center, x, 220; - in man and animals, xv, 56 - - Appetite, ix, 87-8, 299; - exercise effects, x, 303-4 - - Apples, acids of, viii, 223; - development of, xiii, 54; - food value, viii, 365, ix, 250-1, 299, x, 268 - - Apple Tree, family, xiii, 197-8; - origin, 224; - petal arrangement, 190 - - Apteryx, xii, 249 - - Aquamarine, iii, 325 - - Aqua Regia, viii, 174 - - Aquatic Animals, mental inertness of, xii, 140, - (see also Crustaceans, Mollusks, Naids, Polyps) - - Aquatic Plants, first on earth, xiii, 300, 301, 303; - fertilization, 123, 149-52; - fossils, 303; - in lakes, xiv, 210 - - Arabia, animals of, xii, 249, 327, 342, 344, 359; - Danish scientific expedition, xvi, 123; - plains of, xiv, 217; - source of coffee, xiii, 231, 283 - - Arabian Horses, xii, 307 - - Arabian Language, xv, 162; - words from, in English, 161 - - Arabic Numerals, xv, 184, xvi, 62, 103 - - Arabs astronomy of, ii, 11, 36-9, 302, xvi, 100; - bananas known to, xiii, 216; - mathematical advances, ii, 12, xvi, 54, 103; - medical science of, x, 31-3, 36, 37-8, 39, 40, 100; - sciences of, xvi, 54, 100; - sugar introduced by, xiii, 215 - - Arago, discovery of magnetism of rotation, vi, 21; - lightning studies, i, 146 - - Aral, Sea of, depression of, xiv, 203; - shallowness and salinity, 206-7; - size of, 204 - - Arapaima Fish, xii, 154 - - Arara Cockatoo, v, 9-10 - - Arcadian Range, xiv, 227 - - Arcathagus, x, 25 - - Arc Furnaces, vii, 303 - - Arc Generators, vii, 291 - - Archæopteryx, xii, 239-41 - - Archegonia, xiii, 158, 159, 161 - - Archeozoic Era, iii, 164-75; - life in, 262, 263, 265, xv, 71 - - Archeozoic Rocks, iii, 164-74; - graphite found in, 249-50; - iron ores in, 358 - - Arches, false and true, xv, 268-9; - weak in earthquakes, xiv, 342 - - Archimedes, iv, 25, 26; - mathematical and other work, xvi, 89, 90; - principle of, iv, 30, 102-5, 107; - screw of, 26-7 (fig.) - - Arc Lamp, Arc Light, iv, 310-11, 352, vi, 279, 280-3; - Bunsen's carbon rods, xvi, 189; - compared with sun, ii, 169; - Davy's experiment with, vi, 19; - direct and alternating currents on, vi, 332, vii, 208-9; - graphite electrodes, vii, 300, 308 - - Arc Process, i, 36, vii, 323-4 - - Arcs of Lowitz, i, 366 - - Arctic Archipelago, xiv, 20 - - Arctic Current, xiv, 304-5 - - Arctic Ocean, copepods of, xii, 84; - depths, xiv, 22; - enclosed character, 22, 290, 299 - - Arctic Plants, in mountains, xiii, 321, xiv, 365-6, 376-7 - - Arctic Regions, conditions of life in, xv, 123-4; - forests of Coal Age, xiii, 307; - frozen soil of, xiv, 75; - growing season in, 375; - plant conditions in, 365; - seals of, xii, 335; - skin canoes of, xv, 264; - snow line in, 72-3; - wolves of, xii, 340-1; - winds, i, 127, 128 - (see also Polar Regions) - - Arcturus, angular diameter, ii, 151; - decreasing distance, 120; - displacement lines in spectrum, 119; - gaseous state, 382; - origin of name, 302; - parallax, 316; - "solar" star, 115 - - Arequipa Observatory, ii, 145-6 - - Arethusa (plant), xiii, 186 (fig.) - - Argentina, ancient sloths of, xii, 283; - hail rods, i, 343; - pampas of, (see Pampas); - stock-raising, xiv, 384; - weather service, i, 228-9 (note), ii, 186-7; - wheat cultivation, xiii, 211 - - Argon, discovery and character, i, 10, 11, 12, viii, 67, 181, 309; - electric lamp filler, i, 33; - periodic classification, viii, 182-3; - symbol and atomic weight, 383 - - Argonauts, (shellfish), xii, 77-8 - - Argonne Forest, xiv, 91 - - Arid Regions, alkali deposits, viii, 139; - dust whirls, i, 60; - mineral matter in waters, viii, 196; - plants of, xv, 18-9; - rainfall of, i, 109, 112; - rock weathering in, xiv, 41-2, 51-2, 77-9, 124; - soils of, 68-9, 383 - (see also Deserts) - - Aristarchus of Samos, ii, 10, 27-8 - - Aristillus, ii, 28-9, 31 - - Aristocracy, changing ideas of, xv, 377 - - Aristocratic Type, xiii, 356 - - Aristotle, association principles, xi, 197-8; - authority in Middle Ages, ii, 33, 42; - conception of cosmos, ii, 367; - lectures on fossils, etc., xvi, 168; - medical work of, x, 23, 27, 74; - meteorological treatise, i, 67; - monad theory, xvi, 118; - on falling bodies, ii, 53; - on knowledge and perceptions, xvi, 87; - on Mars, ii, 227; - on origin of earth, xvi, 78; - on shooting stars, ii, 283; - scientific methods, xvi, 88-9; - syllogism invention, 88; - zoölogical work, 126 - - Arizona, arid topography, xiv, 42; - cactus plants, xiii, 28, 106-7; - chapparal of, xiv, 379; - cliff lines of, 88; - climate of plateau, 222; - copper mines, iii, 360; - faults at Bisbee, 90; - forests of, xiv, 220-1, 373-4; - Gila monster of, xii, 204, 207; - mesas, xiv, 82; - sunniest state, i, 86; - timber limits, xiv, 373; - volcanic fields of, 102, 315, 317, 318 - - Arkansas, aluminum production, iii, 369; - hot springs of, xiv, 143, 144; - malaria campaign in, x, 173-4 - - Arkwright, Richard, v, 274, 376 - - Armadillos, xii, 282, 283-4; - scales of, xv, 220 - - Armature Reaction, vi, 190, vii, 145-6 - - Armatures of Dynamos, iv, 307, vi, 176, vii, 362; - of direct current generators, vi, 178, 179-86; - of alternators, 196, 197-8, 202, 205, 207, 210, 212-13 - - Armatures of Magnets, iv, 250, vi, 30 (fig.), vii, 362; - uses of, iv, 291-2 - - Armatures of Motors, vi, 223, 224-5, 235-6 - - Armies, crowd psychology in, xi, 326-7; - fatigue in retreat, 275 - - Armor, development of, xv, 220-1 - - Armored Cable Wiring, vii, 61-2, 362 - - Armor Fishes, iii, 281, 282, 284 - - Armorican Range, xiv, 96, 235 - - Armor Plate, making of, v, 323, 382 - - Arms, arteries of, ix, 196-7; - bones of, 67-8, (fig.), 77, (fig.); - bones, growth of, 58; - equal length of, 169-70; - freedom of movement of, 66; - grasping organs, 82; - length as yard measure, iv, 45; - length in man and apes, xv, 57, 59; - muscles of, ix, 76-7 - - Arnold of Villanova, x, 41 - - Aromatic Hydrocarbons, viii, 232-6, 374 - - Arrack, from coco palm, xv, 125; - Indian, xiii, 213 - - Arrhenius, on Martian life, ii, 248 on osmotic pressure, xvi, 164; - theory of life, xii, 9 - - Arrows, development, and use of, xv, 213-16; - Indian, 196 (fig.) - - Arsenic, affinity strength, viii, 128; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - in copper ore, vii, 320; - ores of, viii, 198, 270; - properties, 169; - specific gravity, 384; - tests for, 201, 287, 288 - - Art, primitive types of, xv, 110-21; - science and, iv, 9 - - Arterial Blood, ix, 260, 263, 264 - - Arterial Pressure, ix, 213-14, x, 334 - - Arteries, ix, 191, 196-7, x, 334; - bleeding from, discovery of, 39; - caliber changes in small, ix, 215; - connection with veins, 192-3 (fig.), 197; - elasticity of, 59, 210-12, 213-14; - former ideas of, x, 62, 63, 65, xvi, 106; - hardening of, x, 334-6; - ligating of, 56, 96; - "man as old as," ix, 214, x, 335; - passage of blood along, ix, 211-12; - systole and diastole of, x, 62, 63-4, 65 - - Artesian Wells, iii, 118-19, xiv, 138; - constancy of, 152; - of North Dakota, 12, 139; - warm water from, 144 - - Arthropods, iii, 260, 263, 264, 276-80, xii, 81, 126 - - Arthur's Seat, Scotland, xiv, 112 - - Artichokes, xiii, 206, 222 - - Artificial Ice, production, v, 349-50, 354-8, viii, 69, 70 - - Artificial Light, colors in, ix, 115; - gains from, iv, 51 - - Artificial Limbs, x, 190 - - Artillery, armor versus, v, 368; - distance audible, i, 188-9 - (see also Guns, Projectiles) - - Artillery Plant, xiii, 56 - - Arts, æsthetic, origin and development, xv, 296-325 - - Arts of Life, xv, 205-72 - - Arum, fertilization of wild, xiii, 153 - - Arum Family, xiii, 188; - flower arrangement, 52 - - Aryan Languages, xv, 161, 162, 163 - - Aryans, in Nordic group, xvi, 48; - of India, 53; - rule of fathers among, xv, 367 - - Asbestos, iii, 338 - - Ascension Island, xiv, 289 - - Ascidians, xii, 19, 20, 129 - - Asclepiades, x, 25-6 - - Asepsis, in surgery, x, 14, 134, 146-8; - Lister on, 144-5 - - Ash, viii, 374; - handling in power plants, vi, 356; - of coal, viii, 44, 45; - of plants, xiv, 65-6; - volcanic, 324 - - Ash Trees, for gardens, xiii, 271-2; - leaves, 36-7; - seed dispersal, 58, 343 - - Asia, animals of, xii, (herbivora), 302, 305, 313, 314, 317, 320, 327; - animals (carnivorous), 336, 339, 344, 345, 352, 356, 357, 365; - birds of, 263; - climate changes, results, iii, 75, xiv, 361-2, xvi, 141; - climate of eastern, xiv, 345; - crocodiles of, xii, 201; - drainage system, xiv, 190, 195-6; - earthquake belts, 331-2; - eastern coast, 248-64; - faulted topography of eastern, 124-5; - food plant regions, xiii, 221; - forests, xiv, 369-77; - formerly united with America, xii, 313, xiii, 351, xiv, 30; - geological history, iii, 216, 235-6; - grasslands and deserts, xiv, 381; - monsoon countries, conditions in, 359-60; - plains, 217; - plants common with America, xiii, 351; - plateaus and mountains, xiv, 217-22; - rodents of, xii, 287-9; - rubber production, xiii, 248; - salt lakes, viii, 139; - snails of, xii, 69; - snakes of, 218, 226, 229, 231, 232; - terrestrial leeches, 55-6; - trees of eastern, xiv, 377; - vegetables and fruits originating in, xiii, 222-7; - volcanic fields, xiv, 316-18; - wind types, i, 131, 134, 136 - - Asia, Central (see Central Asia) - - Asia Minor, climate changes in, xiv, 361-2; - plateau of, 222 - - Asiatic Volcanic Belt, xiv, 316 - - Asparagus, effects on urine, ix, 274-5; - green food, 27; - origin, xiii, 222; - stem of, 30 - - Asps, xii, 230 - - Assam Earthquake, iii, 98, xiv, 334 - - Asses, xii, 308 - - Association of Ideas, ix, 150-1, xi, 197-207; - in language, ix, 151-2; - memory and, 149-50; - in imagination, xi, 219-20, 209, 212, 216-17; - necessary to attention, 232-3, 234; - normal and abnormal complexes, x, 355 - - Assyria, civilization conditions, xv, 127; - art of, 301; - cuneiform writing, 175 (fig.); - history and civilization, xvi, 51-3; - skin rafts of, xv, 264; - sun-worship and astrology, ii, 20-1 - - Assyrian Language, xv, 162 - - Asteroids, discovery, ii, 254-7; - in solar system, 163-4; - life on, 248; - origin, 258, 371, 373, 374; - photographic study, 131-2; - size, shapes, and orbits, 162, 257-8 - - Asthma, bronchial, ix, 162, x, 223; - from adenoids, 342 - - Astigmatism, ix, 113-14, xi, 85 - - Astonishment, and fear, xi, 131 - - Astraphobia, i, 330-66 - - Astrolabes, ii, 11, 29, 34, 46-7, 93 - - Astrology, astronomy and, ii, 9, 20; - history in various countries, ii, 20-1, 23, 37, xvi, 58; - medical progress and, x, 14 - - Astronomical Instruments, Bessel on, ii, 93; - development of, 10, 11, 12-13, 13-14, 16, 161 - - Astronomical Photography, ii, 125-38; - in corona studies, 221-2, 225; - in parallax work, 314; - in nebular studies, 358; - telescopes used in, iv, 372-3 - - Astronomy, daily interest of, xvi, 12; - defined, 37; - exact science, x, 368; - history of, ii, 9-92, iv, 19, xvi, 56-8, 61, 69, 70, 81-2, 90-1, 100, - 101, 102, 103, 124-5; - mathematical and descriptive, ii, 15, 16; - meteorology and, i, 7; - new and old, ii, 113-14; - personal measurements in, xi, 155-6; - spherical, ii, 29 - - Astronomy Today, Volume ii - - Athletes, "form" in, ix, 159 - - Athletic Contests, value to spectators, xi, 139-40 - - Atlantic Cables, laying of first, vi, 24; - Telegraph Plateau and, xiv, 288 - - Atlantic Coast, shoal-water belt, xiv, 25, 285 - - Atlantic Coastal Plain, xiv, 213-14; - artesian wells in, iii, 119; - forests, xiii, 371, xiv, 372-3; - geological history, iii, 212-13, 216, 221, 231; - soils and agriculture of, xiv, 218-19 - - Atlantic Drainage System, xiv, 189-90 - - Atlantic Ocean, airship flights across, iv, 107, v, 228-30, 233; - birds of, xii, 251, 252, 253; - climates on opposite coasts, xiv, 345, 346-7; - clipper's time across, v, 188; - conformation of floor, xiv, 288-90; - coral reefs in, 264; - depths, iii, 51; - extent of, xiv, 22; - first steamship, v, 192-3, 378; - herring fisheries, xii, 156; - oceanic islands of, xiv, 277; - salt in, viii, 139; - temperature of water, xiv, 14, 297; - trade winds, i, 127, 130; - tree corals of, xii, 43; - unchanged for ages, iii, 55; - weather charts, i, 276; - wireless weather reports, 280 - (see also North Atlantic) - - Atlantic Seaboard, rainfall, i, 112; - super-electric zone, vi, 384 - - Atlantic Type of Coasts, xiv, 247, 249-50 - - Atlantic Volcanic Belt, xiv, 316 - - Atmometers, i, 88-9, 366 - - Atmosphere, anatomy of, i, 9-23; - circulation (winds and storms), 123-40, xiv, 347-51; - composition (gases), 9-16, viii, 66-8, 152; - dense, effects of, iv, 31-2; - density decrease upward, i, 16, 17, 171, 173, 303, iv, 108, 124, ix, - 267-8, xiv, 354; - density irregularities, optical effects, i, 171-2; - disease germs in, 325-6; - dust and smoke in, 52-65, 325, vii, 216-17, ix, 269; - effect on colors of stars, ii, 296; - effect on meteors, 283, 285, 290; - effect on sunlight and colors, i, 165-6, 167-71; - electrification, 144, 145, 146, 150, vii, 207, 212-13, 216-17; - heat absorption by, iv, 194; - heating of, by sun, i, 123; - heat retention by, ii, 244, 382, iv, 183-4; - height, i, 16-18, ii, 244, iv, 116; - highway, i, 39-51; - layers (see Stratosphere, Troposphere); - light of, 164; - magnifying of, by telescopes, ii, 98, 140, 141; - meteorology, science of, i, 7; - nitrogen fixation from (see Nitrogen Fixation); - oxygen in upper, ix, 267-8; - radioactive emanations in, i, 143; - resources in, 24-38; - theories of origin, iii, 160, 163; - topographical work of, xiv, 62-79; - weight, i, 23, ii, 279, v, 222-30 - (see also Air) - - Atmosphere (unit of pressure), iv, 121, 123, 381, viii, 107 - - Atmospheric Acoustics, i, 186-96 - - Atmospheric Electricity, i, 141-63, vii, 201-19, 362; - in climatology, i, 211; - physiological effects, 330 - - Atmospheric Engine, Newcomen's, v, 144 - - Atmospheric Optics, i, 164-85, iv, 327-9 - - Atmospheric Pressure, amount and direction, i, 23, ii, 244, iv, 116-23, - v, 222, viii, 107; - amount at different elevations, iv, 124; - body regulation to, x, 250; - boiling point and, iv, 170, viii, 303; - discovery of, iv, 114-16, 132, v, 112; - early experiments with, iv, 29-30; - equalization in ear, ix, 102; - isobars, i, 125-26; - life in relation to, ii, 245-48, xi, 53; - measurement, i, 70-2, iv, 120, 121, 123, 124; - physiological effect of changes, i, 303, 327-9; - stratosphere in relation to, 20; - unit of, iv, 121, 123, 381, viii, 107; - variations with temperature, iv, 121-3, 124-5; - weather and, i, 70, 237-8, 241-2 - (see also Pressure Areas); - winds in relation to, 124, 125-6, 127-9, 134-5; - work done by, 25, v, 112-15, 137-8 - - Atmospheric Refraction, i, 167-74, 380, iv, 327-30; - early studies of, ii, 32, 41 - - Atolls, xii, 41 - - Atomic Energy, ii, 384, v, 181, viii, 186-7 - - Atomic Numbers, viii, 183, 309 - - Atomic Theory, history and deductions, viii, 110; - in Greek philosophy, xvi, 83-4, 87, 118; - Leibnitz's, 117-18 - - Atomic Volume, determination, viii, 307 - - Atomic Weights, viii, 92, 383; - chemical calculations by, 96; - classification of elements by, viii, 177-83, 189, xvi, 163; - determination of, viii, 306-7; - hydrogen basis, 33; - introduction, xvi, 134; - physical state and, viii, 297-8; - properties dependent on, xvi, 134; - radioactivity and, viii, 184, 185-6, 188; - regular increase in similar elements, 132, 176, 179; - specific gravity and, 313; - specific heat and, 308-9; - table, vii, 384, viii, 383 - - Atomists, school of, xvi, 84-6 - - Atoms, viii, 25-7; - asymmetric, 309-10; - chromophor groups, 258; - defined, iv, 21, vi, 110-11, viii, 374; - vii, 362, disintegration, 185-7, 188; - dissociated, in ball lightning, vii, 214-15; - electrification, vi, 122-3; - energy of (see Atomic Energy); - Greek theory, xvi, 118; - laws involving, viii, 110; - Leibnitz on, xvi, 118; - magnetic fields of, vi, 117; - motion within, viii, 309-10; - of body, Epicurean theory, x, 26; - size, vi, 112-13, 115; - stability, vii, 215; - structure of, iv, 23, 55, vi, 113-15, 120-1, viii, 187-9, 307; - unchangeableness, 175-6 - - Attention, xi, 228-36; - habit and, 253-5; - methods of arousing, in advertising, 344-8; - ordinary meaning, 40 - - Attraction, scientific meaning, vii, 362, iv, 96 - - Audibility, distances and variations, i, 187-92; - vibration limits of, iv, 204, ix, 99 - - Audion, iv, 315-16, vi, 339 (fig.), vii, 279, xvi, 191-2 - (see also - Vacuum Tube) - - Auditoriums, acoustic qualities, iv, 239; - cooling system, 188; - echoes in, 238 - - Auditory Nerve, ix, 101 (fig.), 142, xi, 30, 102; - internal and external stimulations, iv, 203 - - Auenbrugger, Leopold, x, 98-9, 110 - - Augite, iii, 336 - - Augustinus, Aurelius, xvi, 99-100 - - Auks, xii, 264-5 - - Aurelians, xii, 116 - - Aureoles, i, 184, 370 - - Aurignac Cave, iii, 305 - - Aurignacian Implements, xv, 100, 105, 108-9 - - Aurochs, xii, 331 - - Aurora, i, 158-62, 367; - altitude, 17; - magnetic disturbances with, vi, 40; - ozone from discharges, i, 16; - sun-spots and, ii, 176, 186 - - Ausable Chasm, iii, 44, 243, xiv, 128, 131 - - Auscultation, x, 108-10, 371 - - Australia, animals of, xii, 204, 249, 272, 274-5, 276-7, 278-80, 285; - barramundi fish of, 154; - barrier reef of, xii, 41, xiv, 263; - big trees, xiii, 26; - black swan of, xii, 259; - "bush" of, xiv, 378-9, 380; - bushmen, iii, 304; - climate, xiv, 358; - coasts, coral reefs on, xii, 40, 41; - desert sounds, i, 196; - former connections, xii, 277; - glacial and coal deposits, iii, 203-4; - grasslands, xiii, 373; - island or continent, xiv, 23; - ladybirds and scales, xv, 22; - landlocked area, xiv, 190, 222; - mining production, iii, 362, 365, 368, 370; - monsoons, i, 131; - mountains in Permian Period, iii, 205; - parrots of, xii, 266; - pearl fisheries of, 62; - plateau and plains, xiv, 218-22; - rabbit pest in, xv, 20; - ria coasts of, 257; - rivers and drainage of, xiv, 197; - sheep raising, 384; - snakes of, xii, 214-29; - temperate forests, xiii, 372; - timber supplies of, xiv, 382; - weather effects on history, i, 324; - wheat cultivation, xiii, 211; - wild rice, 214 - - Australians, xv, 193-5; - avenging of death by, 368; - beards, 38; - bird-catching by, 224; - boats of, 262; - body scarring by, 257-8; - boomerang of, 194, 208; - chieftains, 364; - color, 37; - cooking methods, 195, 233; - dances and music, 313-14; - digging sticks of, 235; - dogs used in hunting, 223; - dramatic ceremonies and plays, 306, 308-9; - duck hunting by, 222; - ideas of white men, 334; - message sticks, 166-7; - parrying stick of, 221; - sand drawings, 296; - songs of, 319-21; - spear-throwers of, 212 (fig.); - use of toes by, 61 - - Austria, beet sugar production, xiii, 216; - forests of, xiv, 238, 382; - Italy and, xiv, 244-5, 253; - Lake Dwellers of, xiii, 210; - loess deposits, xiv, 72; - Serbia and, 306 - - Autogenous Vaccines, x, 218 - - Auto-intoxication, ix, 249-52, x, 255, xi, 370; - in mothers, ix, 343-4 - - Automatic Heat Regulators, vii, 87-8 - - Automatic Regulation, vi, 101-2, vii, 362-3; - of motors, vi, 218, 224-9, 232 - - Automatic Telegraphy, vii, 112-13 - - Automatic Telephones, vi, 87, vii, 92-3, 106-7 - - Automobile Industry, v, 213-14, 383; - machine-tools and, 55-6, 214, 383 - - Automobiles, American, v, 213-14; - benzene fuels, viii, 235-6; - carburetors, vii, 124-8; - clutches, 143; - clutches, magnetic, vi, 104; - crank shafts, vii, 130-1; - cylinders, 130-1; - cylinder test, 128; - electric systems, 120-50; - engines, v, 156-61; - engine operation, vii, 123-33; - frost around exhaust, v, 128; - freezing of radiators, prevention, viii, 299; - future fuels, 209; - generator output regulation, vii, 144-50; - high and low speed air mixtures, 126-7; - history of development, v, 207, 212-13, 377, 383; - horns, iv, 240-1; - ignition system, vii, 130-41, 243; - ignition test, 128; - ignorance of drivers, 122-3; - lighting systems, 122, 135, 141-2; - limitations on use, i, 41-2; - lubrication, vii, 300; - magnesium parts, viii, 127-49; - magnetos, vii, 135, 139-41; - motion pictures of, iv, 349; - mufflers, v, 165; - Owen's magnetic, vi, 104; - power source, ix, 15, 74; - present attitude toward, vii, 299; - racing cars, v, 214; - roads and, 214-15; - springs air-cushioned, 134; - starters, vi, 99, 238-9, vii, 120, 127, 135, 142-3; - steel alloys used in, xiv, 238; - steering-gear, v, 38; - storage battery care, vii, 121, 127, 144; - tires, v, 133-4, 204; - tires burst by heat, iv, 151; - unit systems, vii, 135-6; - voltmeters, 163 - - Autonomic Nervous System, xi, 134-5, 137 - - Autophytes, xiii, 96-7 - - Autosuggestion, xi, 305-10; - in hypnotism, 311-20; - in salesmanship, 336-41; - in sleep, 287-8; - positive, 278 - - Autotransformers, vi, 327-8, 337 (fig.); - in wireless systems, vii, 266-91 - - Autumn, frosts, i, 258; - leaves in, xiii, 79, 175; - rate of advance (U. S.), i, 256 - - Aviators, altitude effects, i, 303; - complete rainbow seen by, 175; - fog effects, 300-1; - heights attained by, ix, 267-8; - sense of balance, v, 343; - sixth sense, i, 292; - training of, x, 242; - visibility obstacles, i, 303; - weather service for, 206, 227, 230, 231, 233, 286, 304-5 - - Avicenna, x, 32-3; - arterial bleeding unknown to, 39; - books burned by Paracelsus, 47; - translation of, 38; - views of fossils, iii, 14 - - Avitaminoses, x, 264 - - Avocations, importance of, xi, 375-6 - - Avogadro's Hypothesis, viii, 108-9, xvi, 133 - - Awe, sentiment of, xi, 147 - - Axolotl, xii, 173 - - Axons, of nerves, ix, 123-4, 125, 126, xi, 19 - - Aye-Ayes, xii, 374 - - Azaleas, xiii, 202, 203 (fig.), 289 - - Azores, xiv, 276, 289; - ocean depths near, 289; - rediscovery of, 309; - volcanic activity in, 316 - - Azores Plateau, xiv, 288 - - Aztecs, civilization, in temperate climate, xv, 123; - kings' oath, 366; - picture writing of, 169-78 (fig.); - tobacco use among, xiii, 257 - - Azurite, iii, 323 - - - Baal, Phœnician sun-god, ii, 20 - - Babakotos, xii, 375 - - Baboons, xii, 379-81; - primates, 373 - - Babylon, wind-blown sand over, iii, 75; - world metropolis, xvi, 61 - - Babylonian Language, xv, 162 - - Babylonians, astronomy of, ii, 19-21, xvi, 56, 57-8, 61-2; - cuneiform writing, xv, 174, 175 (fig.), xvi, 60; - debt of Greeks and Egyptians to, 63, 66, 69, 70, 71; - Hammurabic code, 63; - history and civilization, 51-3, 55, 62-3; - idea of cosmos, 77; - magic of, 59; - mathematics, 61, 62, 103; - medicine of, x, 14, 15; - science, remarks on, xiv, 96 - - Babyroussa, xii, 310 - - Bacilli, x, 195; - of various diseases, 149, 165-6, 292, 295, 296, 298-9 - - Backstays of Sun, i, 169, 367 - - Bacon, calories in, ix, 299 - - Bacon, Francis, evolution known to, x, 136; - Harvey's small esteem for, 66; - influence on his times, 67; - on brontides, i, 196; - on knowledge, xi, 10; - scientific work, xvi, 113, 115, 125, 131 - - Bacon, Roger, xvi, 100-1 - - Bacteria, anærobic, xiii, 312-13; - atmospheric electricity and, i, 330; - breeding of, true, x, 195; - classification of, 195; - destruction by disinfectants, viii, 332-3; - destruction in blood, x, 209-11; - disease-making (see Disease Germs); - fermentation by, ix, 248; - flowerless plants, xiii, 13; - food of, ix, 27, 248; - in air, i, 61; - Chicago standards, viii, 332; - in body, x, 201-2, 204; - in intestines, ix, 247-9; - in sea, xii, 16; - Leeuwenhoek's studies, xvi, 107-8; - low temperature effects, i, 32; - luminous, 346, 349, xii, 20; - nitrogen fixation by, i, 35, viii, 340, 345, 346, x, 193-4, xiii, 98, - xiv, 66; - number of species, xiii, 323; - origin of, xii, 12; - Pasteur's studies, xvi, 143; - preserving foods against, viii, 372; - sewage treatment by, 325, 327-9; - single-celled, xiii, 166; - size, i, 61, xiii, 63; - soil, xii, 15; - ultramicroscopic, x, 200; - useful forms of, 193-4 - - Bacteriemia, x, 220 - - Bacteriology, x, 194; - foundations of, 143, 196 - - Badgers, xii, 347-8 - - Bad Lands, iii, 139-40, 230, xiv, 62, 81-2 - - Bagehot, quoted, xvi, 198 - - Baglivi, x, 76, 77-8, 155 - - Bag-pipes, xv, 317 - - Baguio, Philippines, rainstorm at, 1, 110 - - Baguios, i, 136, 367 - - Bahamas, hurricane grass of, xiii, 344; - sisal production, 240; - wild fig tree, 18 - - Baikal, Lake, depth of, xiv, 204; - in rift valley, 123 - - Bailey's Beads, ii, 87 - - Baking Powders, viii, 136-7, 223 - - Baking Soda, viii, 135-6, 146, 278 - - Balance, sense of (see Equilibrium Sense) - - Balanced Forces, v, 183-6 - - Balance Levers, v, 63-4 (fig.) 65 - - Balance Spring, invention, v, 65 - - Balance Wheels, v, 68-9, 71-2 - - Baldness, ancient treatment of, x, 12; - hats and, 309 - - Balearic Basin, xiv, 291 - - Balfour, Francis, x, 131 - - Ball-bearings, iv, 93, v, 206 - - Ballistic Wind, i, 313-67 - - Ball Lightning, i, 149-52, vii, 205-6, 213-15; - as ignis fatuus, i, 347 - - Ballon-sonde, i, 21, 367 - - Balloons, iv, 107-8, v, 219-30; - aerological uses and kinds, i, 18, 19, 20-2, 89, xvi, 177; - dirigible (see Dirigible Balloons), heights attained, i, 18, 22, 303, - v, 225; - hydrogen in, iv, 108, viii, 33; - sounds heard, i, 188; - why they rise, 286, v, 221-2 - - Baltic Provinces, coasts of, xiv, 247 - - Baltic Racial Group, xvi, 48-9 - - Baltic Sea, development of trade of, xiv, 308; - formation of, 287; - green color, xvi, 147; - salt in, viii, 139, xiv, 296 - - Baltimore, harbor of, xiv, 268 - - Bamboo, in grass family, xiii, 179, 181; - rapid growth, 358; - stem, 26, 183; - tropical wood, xiv, 383 - - Banana, xiii, 216-18; - calories in, ix, 299; - flavor and odor, to what due, viii, 221; - food value, 365, x, 266-8; - in tropical forests, xiv, 368 - - Banana Oil, viii, 214, 221, 251 - - Bandai-san, eruption of, xiv, 324 - - Banks, oceanic, xiv, 286 - - Banyan Tree, xiii, 16 (illus.), 21 - - Bar, pressure unit, i, 70, 367 - - Barbados, overpopulation of, xiv, 282 - - Barbed Fruits, xiii, 58 - - Barbers, as surgeons, x, 35, 41, 54, 105, xvi, 181 - - Barberry Bush, xiii, 128-30 - - Barisal Guns, i, 195, 367 - - Barite, iii, 323; - gangue mineral, viii, 199 - - Barium, viii, 148; - affinity strength, 128; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - flame color, 301; - fluorescence of, vii, 254; - specific gravity, viii, 384; - test for, 287-89 - - Barium Chloride, viii, 290, 301 - - Bark Lice, xii, 112 - - Barker, Dr., quoted, x, 375-6 - - Barley, composition and value, viii, 364; - malt from, 249; - ripening time, xiv, 365; - source, 382; - vitamines in, x, 262 - - Bar Magnets, iv, 242-3, 250, vi, 30-4 - - Barnacles, xii, 82, 84-5 - - Barns, electricity for, vii, 227-8; - lightning rods on, i, 156 - - Barocyclonometer, i, 280, 367 - - Barographs, i, 71-2, 367 - - Barometers, i, 70-2, 367, iv, 119-24; - Torricelli's development of, i, 68, iv, 29, 30, 114, xvi, 109, 177 - - Barometer Wells, i, 354, 367 - - Barometric Gradient, i, 126, 373 - - Barometric Pressure (see Atmospheric Pressure) - - Barometric Tendency, i, 71-2, 367 - - Barotaxis, xi, 53, 61 - - Barramunda, xii, 154, 165-6 - - Barrel Gears, v, 27-8 - - Barrier Reefs, xii, 40-1, xiv, 263 - - Barton, Prof. W. M., author Medicine, Volume x - - Bars, vibration rate of, iv, 223-4 - - Basal Metabolism (see Basic Metabolism) - - Basaltic Lava, defined, iii, 377; - in Grand Canyon, 177; - jointing in, xiv, 129-30; - soils from, iii, 28 - - Basalt Rock, magnetized by lightning, i, 152-3 - - Base, Bases (chemistry), viii, 374; - defined by ionization theory, 122; - electrolytes, 125; - formation and character, 20, 39, 115, 117-18; - ionization in solution, 119-25, 300-1; - litmus effect, 114; - production, 276 - - Baseball, pitching of curves, iv, 67-9 - - Baseball Games, crowd psychology at, xi, 327; - value to spectators, 139-40 - - Baseball Players, sensory type, xi, 156 - - Base Level of Erosion, defined, iii, 30, 377, xiv, 40; - form of rivers at, 49; - of waves, 254 - - Base Plugs, vi, 276-7, vii, 72 - - Basic Metabolism, ix, 37, 78, x, 271; - daily amount in calories, ix, 296, x, 271; - disease effects on, ix, 302-4, x, 272; - heat production by, ix, 307; - of obese persons, x, 274; - protein stimulation of, ix, 301-2; - protoplasmic wastage by, 282-3; - temperature and water effects, 37-8 - - Basilar Membrane, of ear, iv, 203 - - Basin Ranges, formation of, xiv, 117 - - Basins, ocean, xiv, 286 - - Basket Fish, xii, 49 - - Baskets, Indian, xv, 248 - - Basques, isolation of, xv, 130 - - Bathrooms, lighting of, vii, 71-2 - - Baths, Bathing, ix, 313, 321-2, x, 311-12; - need of, after exercise, x, 304; - therapeutic uses, 311, 383; - warm for insomnia, xi, 289-90 - (see also Cold Baths, Hot Baths) - - Bats, xii, 369-72; - in oceanic islands, xiv, 277 - - Batteries, electric (see Electric Batteries) - - Battles, crowd psychology in, xi, 326-7; - rain from, i, 336-8 - - Battleships, electrical applications (U. S. N.), vii, 325-35; - gun-training on, v, 104; - importance, vii, 325-6; - radio directing of, 284; - wireless telephony and, 281-3 - - Bauxite, iii, 369; - in basic refractories, vii, 307 - - Bayberry Bush, xiii, 191, 341 - - Bayliss, hormones discovery, x, 320; - secretin discovery, 325; - quoted, xi, 198-9 - - Bays, in irregular coasts, xiv, 252; - of ria coasts, 257 - - Beach, Alfred E., v, 138 - - Beach, Prof. Robin, author Electricity, Vols. vi, vii - - Beaches, amphipods of, xii, 85; - features of, xiv, 246; - formation of, iii, 58, 81; - plants of, xiii, 381-2; - raised, iii, 81, xiv, 209; - rapid development of, iii, 58 - - Beach Fleas, xii, 81-5 - - Beach Walls, xiv, 246 - - Beachworms, xii, 54 - - Beaded Lightning, i, 149 - - "Beagle," voyage of, x, 134-5, xiv, 142 - - Beam Balance, iv, 101-2 - - Beam Warpers, v, 280 - - Beans, as food, viii, 365, ix, 34, 36, 299, x, 262-79; - food-obtaining devices, xiii, 97; - leaves, 36-7, 113; - movement of tendrils, 111; - in pea family, 198; - origin, 222; - petals, 47; - seeds, 56; - seed-leaves, 176 - - Beards, as race character, xv, 38 - - Bears, xii, 336-8; - canine teeth in, 333; - first cave-dwellers, xv, 206; - in Great Britain, xiv, 273 - - Beasts of Prey, xii, 332-65 - - Beats (sound), iv, 219-20, vii, 279 - - Beaufort Scale, i, 84, 367 - - Beaumont, William, ix, 240, x, 121, xvi, 186 - - Beauty, universal appreciation of, xvi, 145-6 - - Beaverdam Creek, iii, 38-9 - - Beaver-dam Lakes, iii, 157 - - Beavers, xii, 295-6; - first lumberers, xv, 206 - - Beckel Process, v, 287-8 - - Becquerel, Henri, xvi, 193 - - Bedbugs, xii, 114; - ancient, 104 - - Bedded Rock (see Sedimentary Rock) - - Bedford Limestone, iii, 371-2 - - Bedrooms, air of, xi, 285; - furnishings and sleep, xi, 290; - lighting of, vi, 275-6, vii, 71 - - Beds, right, for sleep, xi, 290 - - Beebread, xiii, 124 - - Beech Forests, carbon used by, i, 14; - of Chile, xiv, 371; - of Denmark, xv, 86-7; - water requirements of, xiv, 377-8 - - Beech Trees, family, xiii, 193; - in landscaping, 271-2; - leaf-bud protection, 34; - of U. S., 368, xiv, 372 - - Beef, calories in, ix, 299; - proteins in, 279; - vitamines in, x, 262 - - Beef Extracts, value, viii, 362 - - Bees, xii, 125-6; - appearance in Tertiary, 104; - jaws and maxillæ in, 100; - plant visitors, xiii, 123-4, 126-7, 128-30, 137-9 - - Beeswax, viii, 221-45; - melting requirements, iv, 162 - - Beetles, xii, 121-4; - appearance of, 104 - - Beets, antiscurvy vitamines in, x, 266; - origin and antiquity, xiii, 222; - sugar storage in, ix, 27-8; - swelled roots, xiii, 19 - (see also Sugar Beet) - - Beet Sugar, viii, 226-7, 242, xiii, 216; - compared with glucose, ix, 230 - - Beginners' Luck, xi, 253 - - Begonias, coloring of leaves, xii, 42; - reproduction, 165-6 - - Beheaded Streams, xiv, 182-3 - - Behel, Jacob, v, 248 - - Belgians, in Alpine group, xvi, 49 - - Belgium, fossils found in, iii, 292; - German invasion, reasons, xiv, 91-2; - low elevation, 247; - mistpoeffers, i, 195; - tobacco consumption, xiii, 256; - topography of, xiv, 86 (map), 90-1; - zinc production, iii, 364 - - Bell, Alexander Graham, telephone invention, vii, 92, xvi, 188 - - Bell, Charles, x, 117 - - Bell, John, x, 129 - - Bell, Rev. Patrick, v, 246 - - Bell-crank Levers, v, 24-5 - - Belle Isle Strait, proposed damming, i, 345 - - Bells, vibrations of, iv, 221-2 - - Bell Telephone System, vii, 92; - automatic telephones, 106 - - Benedictine Order, medical work of, x, 36 - - Benguella Current, xiv, 305 - - Ben Nevis, rime growth, i, 122; - St. Elmo's Fire, 158 - - Benz, Karl, v, 213 - - Benzaldehyde, viii, 239 - - Benzene, viii, 51, 234-5, 374; - derivatives, 236; - from coal tar, 253; - freezing and melting points, iv, 163-4 - - Benzene Hydrocarbons, viii, 206, 232-6; - derivatives, 236-40; - products, 52, 241, 258 - - Benzene Ring, viii, 233, 234, 240 - - Benzine, viii, 234-5 - - Benzoic Acid, viii, 236, 239, 372 - - Benzol, viii, 234-5 - - Benzyl Alcohol, viii, 239 - - Benzyl Bromide, viii, 263 - - Berea Sandstone, iii, 372 - - Berengario of Carpi, x, 52, 60 - - Bergman, chemist, xvi, 119, 120, 174 - - Bergshrund, iii, 66 - - Bergson, philosophy of, xvi, 196 - - Beriberi, ix, 35-6, x, 257-9, 264; - cause of, viii, 369; - racial susceptibility to, xv, 50-1 - - Bering Sea, seal breeding in, xii, 334 - - Bering Strait, xiv, 22 - - Berkshire Hills, formation, iii, 188, 190 - - Berlin, sewage disposal, viii, 327 - - Berliner, Emile, gramophone, v, 328-9, 382; - transmitter, 381 - - Bermudas, climate of, xiv, 370-1; - coral reefs of, xii, 40 - - Bernard, Claude, x, 127-8, xvi, 185-6 - - Berries, xiii, 54; - poison in wayside, 252 - - Berson, balloon ascension, i, 18, v, 225 - - Bertrand, Alexandre, xvi, 185-6 - - Beryl, iii, 324-5 - - Berzelius, Jacob, xvi, 160-1, 165; - on fermentation, x, 138 - - Bessel, dismissal from Greenwich, xi, 156; - instruments and methods, ii, 16, 55; - on genius and instruments, 93; - prediction of, 124; - study of stellar parallaxes, 311-12, 313 - - Bessemer Converter, v, 319, 320, 322, 380, viii, 159; - invention, xvi, 175 - - Bessemer Steel, ore for, iii, 356 - - Besson, Dr. Louis, i, 181; - nephoscope, 86, 85 (fig.) - - Beta Aurigæ, ii, 123 - - Beta Rays, i, 143, viii, 185 - - Betelgeuse, angular diameter, ii, 151, 322-3; - chemical study of, 114; - color, 297; - name, 39 - - Betel Nut, xiii, 254-5 - - Bevel Gears, v, 30-1; - primitive, 27-8 - - Beverages from various plants, xiii, 213, 219, 227-35 - - Bharal, xii, 326 - - Bianchini, ii, 99, 227 - - Bias, psychological effects, xi, 103, 208-9, 216 - - Biberthal, Switzerland, xiv, 186 - - Bible, account of man in, xv, 69; - Anglo-Saxon passage from, 157; - emotions depicted in, xi, 131; - "Great Sea" of, xiv, 358; - rice and sugar not mentioned, xiii, 214-15; - weather proverbs, i, 67 - (see also New and Old Testaments) - - Bicarbonate of Soda, medical uses of, x, 12, 322 - - Biceps, ix, 76-7 (fig.) - - Bichat, x, 117 - - Bicycle Pump, i, 26-7 - - Bicycle Races, energy expenditure in, ix, 297 - - Bicycles, equilibrium maintenance on, iv, 62; - gyroscopic action, v, 343; - pedal invention, 380; - riding of, ix, 155-6, 158-9 - - Biela's Comet, ii, 280, 286 - - Biennials (plants), roots of, xiii, 16, 18 - - Bifocal Lenses, ix, 112; - invented by Franklin, x, 104 - - Big Creek Power Plant, v, 79, 81 - - Bigelow, Henry J., x, 125 - - Big Horn Sheep, xii, 326 - - Bigourdan, astronomer, ii, 358-9 - - Big Trees, Californian, age and size, xiii, 26; - branches, 86; - climatic changes seen in rings, i, 199, 200, xiv, 362; - former wide distribution, iii, 256, xiii, 352 - (see also Sequoias) - - Bihar, India, hailstorm, i, 120 - - Bile, ix, 237, 243, 275-6, x, 325-6, 329-30 - - Biliousness, x, 330 - - Billfish, xii, 152 - - Billings, John Shaw, xvi, 186 - - Billroth, Theodor, xvi, 183 - - Binary Stars, ii, 122-4, 334-5; - distance, 319-20; - orbit eccentricity, 377; - origin, 378-9; - periods, 319; - relation to Galaxy, 327; - variability, 326-7 - (see also Double Stars) - - Binding Machines, v, 247-8 - - Binoculars, principle of, xi, 180 - - Binomial Nomenclature, x, 84 - - Binturongs, xii, 353 - - Biochemistry, viii, 205, 348 - - Bioclimatic Law, i, 256, 367-8 - - Biology, defined, xvi, 36, 42; - history of development, 118, 142, 144-58; - medicine and, x, 369; - modern, due to Darwin, 134-6; - remarks on science of, 368 - - Biometry, science of, xvi, 153-8 - - Biot, balloon flights, i, 18; - meteor studies, ii, 284-5 - - Biotite, iii, 334 - - Birch Trees, antiquity of species, xiii, 324-5; - family, 193; - fertilization, 148; - in landscaping, 271-2; - seed dispersal, 343; - in U. S., 368, xiv, 372 - - Bird-catching, by Australians, xv, 224 - - Bird-catching Spiders, xii, 97 - - Birds, xii, 239-69; - anatomy of, 239, 247-8; - appearance in eocene, xv, 71; - care of young by, 275-6; - carinate, xii, 250; - colors of, 245-6; - courtships of, xv, 274-5; - embryological resemblances, 54; - evolution, iii, 286, 295-7, xii, 195, 239-43; - eyes of, xi, 98; - fear in, 136; - feathers of, xii, 243-7; - flower fertilization by, xiii, 123; - food of, ix, 24; - game, xii, 261-3; - heart of, x, 332; - infectious diseases of, 206; - luminous, i, 346-7; - man's lessons from, xv, 206; - migrations, cause, xiii, 55; - monogamy of, xv, 276-7; - oil-secreting organ of, x, 310; - orders of, xii, 249; - passerine, 268-9; - phosphorus in excrement, xiv, 68; - protective coloration in, xv, 17; - ratite, xii, 243-49; - ribs of, 184; - seed dispersal by, xiii, 55, 58, 59, 340-3; - sense of smell, xi, 78; - singing of, iv, 209; - singing organs, xii, 248-9; - sleeping habits, xi, 287; - teaching of young to fly, xv, 66, 275-6; - temperature regulation in, ix, 306, 307, 308; - used in hunting and fishing, xv, 223-4; - various groups, xii, 264-7; - warm-bloodedness of, ix, 305; - water, xii, 250-9 - - Birds of Paradise, courtships of, xv, 275; - plumes of, xii, 244 - - Birds of Prey, xii, 260-1 - - Birmingham Iron Region, iii, 358-9 - - Birs River, Jura Mountains, xiv, 94 - - Birth, ix, 344; - body conditions and development at, 345-52; - bones at, 58; - freedom from germs at, x, 201; - heart rate at, 334, ix, 347; - muscle cells at, 48, 348; - skull capacity at, xv, 40; - temperature changes at, xi, 36-7; - weight at, ix, 31 - - Births, male and female, ix, 340 - - Biscay, Bay of, depths, xiv, 289; - sand destruction in, iii, 75 - - Bishop's Ring, i, 58, 183, 368 - - Bismarck, skull capacity, xv, 40 - - Bismuth, affinity strength, viii, 128; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - expansion on solidifying, iv, 150; - in Rose's fusible metal, 162; - melting point, viii, 384; - melting point, pressure effects on, iv, 163; - occurrence, viii, 131; - specific gravity, 384; - tests for, 287-8 - - Bisons, xii, 329-30; - formerly in Europe, xv, 76; - pictured in Cro-Magnon art, 114-18 (fig.) - - Bitter, taste of, ix, 95, xi, 70, 71, 72 - - Bitterns, xii, 254-5 - - Bituminous Coal, beds in U.S., iii, 200-1, 346-7, 348; - elements, 345; - per cent carbon in, viii, - (see also Soft Coal) - - Bituminous Strata, origin, iii, 249-50 - - Bivalves, xii, 58, 63 - - Black (color), absorption of light by, iv, 364, x, 309; - produced by interference of lights, iv, 377-8; - sensation of, ix, 115 - - Black, Joseph, chemical work, xvi, 119-20, 125, 177; - discovery of respiration physiology, x, 88-9 - - Black Beetles, xii, 107 - - Blackberry, aggregate fruit, xiii, 55; - in rose family, 197; - origin, 224; - running, 28 - - Blackbirds, xii, 269 - - Black Death, x, 163-4 - - "Black Earth," of Russia, xiv, 217 - - Blackfish, xii, 297 - - Black Forest, Germany, xiv, 238-9; - geology of, 87 (map), 90, 117, 128 - - Black Hills, xiv, 93, 227; - core of, 111; - former forests of, 373; - mineral springs of, 145 - - Black Hole of Calcutta, i, 321, ix, 268, x, 238 - - Black Lead, iii, 331, viii, 43 (see Graphite) - - Black Lightning, i, 148 - - Black Powder, viii, 144-5, 260 - - Black Race, xv, 32; - brain and skull capacity, 41; - disease immunity and susceptibility, 48-9, 50-1; - facial angle in, 45; - fitted to tropics, 50; - jaw angle, 44; - nose index and nostril shape, 46; - peoples, 37; - separate origin theory, 69, 70; - skull shape, 42; - type characters of, 35 - - Black Sea, hanging valleys on shore of, xiv, 58; - importance of ports, 267; - salinity of, 296, viii, 139; - sturgeons of, xii, 152 - - Blacksnakes, xii, 218-19, 229 - - Blair, Henry, xvi, 187 - - Blanc, Mount, observatory on, ii, 142-9; - "resurrection," i, 168; - sound intensity on, 186 - - Blankets, warmth of, iv, 178 - - Blast Furnaces, v, 317-18; - air blast of, viii, 158; - ancient Egyptian, xvi, 74; - carbon uses, viii, 157; - cooling of air for, v, 347; - development of modern, 315-16, xvi, 174, 175, 176; - oxygen in, i, 33; - potash from dust, viii, 279 - - Blasting, v, 261-2; - explosives for, viii, 260; - with compressed air, i, 27; - with water, v, 100 - - Blasting Powders, viii, 137-8 - - Bleaching, chemistry of, viii, 86; - chlorine, 85-6; - hydrogen peroxide, 41, 86; - ozone, vii, 354; - sulphur dioxide, viii, 78, 146; - of wool, 256 - - Bleaching Powder, viii, 86-7, 146, 153, 274 - - Bleeders, Bleeding Sickness, ix, 181; - transmission of, x, 234 - - Bleeding, from arteries and veins, x, 39; - leeches used for, xii, 55; - stopping of, ix, 179-81 - - Blended Inheritance, ix, 334, x, 230-1; - in animal and plant breeding, ix, 337 - - Blériot, flight of, i, 43 - - Blight, cause of, xiii, 71 - - Blind, optophone reading for, v, 332, 334-5, 384; - space perception by, xi, 168-9 - - Blindness, black seen in, ix, 116; - cause, xi, 96-7; - from brain disease, ix, 146; - from cataract, 112 - - Blind Spot, xi, 87-9 - - Blish, Commander, v, 367-8 - - Blizzards, i, 133-4, 368; - device against, 345 - - Block and Tackle, v, 34-5 - - Block Mountains, iii, 138-9, xiv, 117, 226 - - Block Signal Systems, v, 211, vii, 355-9 - - Block Tin, viii, 161 - - Blood, absorption of digested food by, ix, 226, 243-6; - adrenalin effects, 171-2, xi, 137-8; - aeration of, by lungs, x, 62, 331; - amount in circulation, 337; - anemia, 337; - arterial, ix, 260, 263, 264; - carbon dioxide in, 190, 262-3; - effects, 264-7, x, 339; - carbon monoxide effects, viii, 50-1; - circulation of (see Circulation of the Blood); - clotting of, ix, 180, x, 88, 337; - coagulation after emotion, xi, 138-9; - coloring matter related to Chlorophyll, xii, 14; - color of, in relation to oxygen, ix, 259-61; - composition, 173-90; - control of vital processes by changes in, 168-72; - conveyer system, 191, 225; - corpuscle-forming tissues, growth of, 287; - distribution efficiency, x, 238-9; - emergency emotion effects, ix, 166, 171, 293, xi, 136-7; - fats in, ix, 289; - flow, how controlled, 215-16, 219-21; - functions, summarized, 50-1, x, 331-7; - germ destruction by white corpuscles, 197, 209-11; - in embryo, ix, 343; - interchange with tissue, fluids, 51 (fig.), 191, 193-5, 221-2; - iron and salts in, uses, viii, 354; - liver action on, x, 329; - maternal influences through, ix, 343-4; - mountain-sickness effects, i, 328; - neutrality or alkalinity of, x, 280-1; - oxygen supply and transportation, ix, 182-3, 198-9, 253-62, x, 338-9; - platelets of, ix, 188-9; - proteins of, 176-7, 194-5, 262-3; - rate of passage through heart, 210, 211, 212; - red corpuscles, 181-4 (see Red Corpuscles); - renewal of, 173; - sensations, effect on, xi, 68; - sleep effects, 283-5, 289; - soul in, Greek idea of, xv, 330; - sugar in, regulation and excess, ix, 290-3, x, 329, 330; - sugar increase in excitement, xi, 138; - temperature, v, 348-9; - temperature rise, effects, ix, 169, 315-16; - transfusion of, x, 337-8; - venous, ix, 263-4; - waste removal by and from, 271-6; - water absorption and supply, 247; - white corpuscles, 182 (fig.), 184-8 - (see also White Corpuscles) - - Blood-destroying Germ, x, 221 - - Blood Heat, i, 319 - - Blood Pressure, ix, 213-20, x, 334-6; - color effects, xi, 63, 96; - in sleep, 283-4 - - Blood Rains, i, 358 - - Blood Suckers, x, 91 - - Blood Vessels, ix, 191-3, 196-8; - classes and disorders of, x, 334-6; - climatic effects on efficiency, 238-9; - control of caliber of, ix, 161, 168, 215-16, 219-20, 311; - functions of, 50-1; - injuries, how mended, 180 - - Blooms, iron and steel, v, 317, 322 - - Blowers, electric, vii, 86 - - Blow Guns, xv, 216-17 (fig.) - - Blowing Wells, i, 353-5, 368 - - Blowout, magnetic, vii, 37-9 - - Blue, complementary color of, iv, 367; - in birds' feathers, xii, 245; - in interior decoration, vi, 274; - of sky, i, 165, penetration of ocean by, xii, 22; - wave length of, iv, 365 - - Blueberries, xiii, 202, 224 - - "Blue Coal," v, 174 - - Blue Columbine, xiii, 126-8 - - Blue-grass Region, xiv, 68 - - Blue Grotto of Capri, iii, 81 - - Blue Gum Trees, xiii, 26, 94, 350; - leaves of, 106; - swamp draining by, xiv, 379 - (see also Eucalyptus) - - Blue Ridge Mountains, metamorphism in, xiv, 234 - - Bluffs, formation of, xiv, 84 - - Blunderbuss, v, 361 - - Boa Constrictor, xii, 215 - - Boas, family of, xii, 213, 215-16 - - Boats, evolution of, xv, 261-3; - propulsion of, 265 - - Bobcats, xii, 364-5 - - Bode's Law, ii, 254-5 - - Bodies, of matter, defined, iv, 12, 381 - - Body, anatomy and physiology of, ix; - care of against fatigue, xi, 279-80; - care of, instruction in, x, 282-5; - changes in, untransmitted, ix, 326; - chemical composition, viii, 348, 349, 353, 354-5; - construction features and units, ix, 12, 13; - dissection of, x, 30, 41-2, 45, 81; - efficiency of, viii, 367, ix, 306, x, 238-9; - electrical conductivity, iv, 259; - electricity effects, vii, 246-9, xi, 117; - emergency responses of, ix, 166-7, 171-2, 209, 220, 221, 293; - exercise effects, x, 303-4; - fatigue conditions, xi, 270-4; - fatigue results on resistance, x, 248; - food needs and utilization, (see Food); - functional disorders, x, 318-65; - functional regulation, 346-7, 352-3; - functions, chemical explanation of, xvi, 142; - functions, close connection of, xi, 31; - growth of (see Growth); - hair on, xv, 38; - hardening processes, x, 240; - infection portals, 198, 201-2; - kinetic system, xi, 57, 60-1; - living and nonliving parts, ix, 12, 13, 31; - machine parts suggested by, v, 20; - mechanisms of, 248; - metabolism (see Metabolism); - mind and, relations, xi, 13, 14, 61, 369-75; - motions, different kinds, ix, 82-3; - mutilations among savages, xv, 257-60; - painting of, 255-6; - poisonous effluvia of, ix, 269-70; - positions of, in relation to health, x, 241-2 - (see also Postures); - pressures, xi, 53; - pressure of atmosphere on, i, 23; - proper clothing of, x, 306-10; - regulation to environment, 249-51; - reproduction from cells, ix, 324-5, 332-3; - resistance to disease germs, 177-9, 185-6, x, 203-12, 240, 248, 289, - 292; - salt requirements, ix, 174; - seat of life in, 11, 12, 17; - shame of, xv, 254-5; - temperature, v, 348-9, ix, 306-7, 312, x, 250-1, 306; - temperature after hard work, ix, 317; - temperature equality, advantages of, 78-9; - temperature in different scales, iv, 137 (fig.); - temperature in fever, ix, 317-19; - temperature regulation, i, 316-17, 320-1, 322, v, 348-9, viii, 331, - ix, 169, 305-23, x, 310; - temperature rise from excitement, xi, 140; - temperature rise in dense atmosphere, iv, 31; - tissues (see Tissues); - unstable chemical organization, xi, 134; - wastage and repair of, ix, 278-86; - waste elimination in tropics and cold climates, xv, 49, 50; - water functions in, viii, 355-6, wonders of, vi, 272; - X-ray effects, vii, 250 - (see also particular parts and functions) - - Body Cells, ix, 13, 41-3, xi, 15, 17, 49; - development of, ix, 43-8, 324-5, 332-3; - different kinds, 13, 39, 42-3, 277, 329; - living and nonliving, 12-17; - maintenance and growth, 34-6, 38-9, 189, 278-84, 287-9; - metabolism of (see Cell Metabolism); - oxygen needs and supply, 182, 199, 253, 254, 260; - power development in, 16, 17, 22, 36, 40; - salt needs, 174; - size of, 12; - sugar and fat supplies, 289-91; - supply and renewal system, 49-52, 193-5, 221-2, 262, 271; - supporting tissue, 71-2; - waste of, in starvation, 298; - X-ray effects on, vii, 253 - (see also Muscle Cells, Nerve Cells, Germ Cells, etc.) - - Body Fluids, ix, 50-1, 173-90; - in connective tissues, 59; - sugar in, 290, 291 - (see also Blood, Tissue Fluids) - - Boë, Francis de la, x, 69, 70, xvi, 108 - - Boerhaave, Hermann, x, 76-7, 87, xvi, 112, 178 - - Boer War, kopjes in, xiv, 82 - - Boethius, xvi, 101 - - Bog Iron Ore, iii, 13, viii, 156 - - Bog Mosses, xiii, 68-9 - - Bogoslof Islands, xiv, 319 - - Bog Plants, xiii, 104, 381-2 - - Bogs, formed from filling lakes, xiv, 210-12 - - Bohemian Glass, viii, 281 - - Boiler Explosions, caused by electrolytic corrosion, vi, 64-6; - due to scale, xiv, 147; - violence, v, 140 - - Boilers, Steam, v, 139-42; - boiling point of water in, viii, 303; - hard water in, 151-2, 323, xiv, 147; - heat loss, v, 155; - pressure in, iv, 119, 170 - - Boiling, of foods, xv, 233; - of liquids, iv, 167-75 - - Boiling Point, iv, 168; - chemical composition and, viii, 298, 301; - in various thermometers, i, 73, iv, 136, 137, 141, viii, 27; - of various substances, iv, 173; - pressure effects on, 168, 169-70, v, 354, viii, 303-5 - - Boils, causes of, ix, 186, 187, x, 195, 201, 311 - - Bolivia, Chilean control of, xiv, 306 - - Bologna, University of, xvi, 100; - medical school of, x, 38 - - Bolometers, iv, 301, vii, 363; - in corona studies, ii, 212, 225 - - Bombay Duck, xii, 163 - - Bombing Machines, v, 233 - - Bombs, aerial, v, 372-3 - - Bombs, volcanic, xiv, 323 - - Bond, Dr. A. R., author Mechanics, Vol. v - - Bonds (chemistry), defined, viii, 374 - - Bone Black, viii, 47 - - Bone Fertilizers, viii, 153, 280, 343 - - Bones, of body, ix, 59, 71; - cartilage beginnings of, 58; - condition of, in infants, 345-6; - food needed for, 33; - formation, structure, and growth, 54-7, 58; - inflammations of, x, 224; - lime salts in, ix, 57; - red marrow of, 183; - used in hearing, iv, 204; - X-ray pictures of, iv, 320, vii, 253-4, 255 - - Bonneville, Lake, iii, 153 - - Books, ancient making of, xv, 178-9; - printing and binding of, v, 306 - - Book Scorpions, xii, 90 - - Boomerangs, xv, 194, 208; - principle of, iv, 42 - - Bora Winds, i, 133, 368 - - Boracic Acid, viii, 89, 90, 372 - - Borates, preparation, viii, 117; - test, 290 - - Borax, composition, viii, 141; - deposits, 89, 90, 197, 275; - uses, 89, 141, 146, 333, 372 - - Boredom, in work, xi, 275-6, 277-8, 280 - - Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso, x, 70, 71-2, 83 - - Boric Acid, natural sources, viii, 90, 118; - preservative, 89, 333, 372; - solid, 114 - - Boring Machines, v, 44, 376 - - Boring, deep, xiv, 11, 12 - (see also Wells) - - Borneo, continental island, xiv, 274; - coconut gathering in, xii, 378; - orang-utan of, 381; - rhinoceros of, 306; - sun bear, 337; - tattooing in, xv, 259; - tribal morality in, 374 - - Boron, viii, 19, 89, 90; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - in silicates, 193 - - Bosphorus, importance to Russia, xiv, 267 - - Boston, drumlins near, xiv, 60; - harbor of, 269; - sewage disposal, viii, 326; - water supply, 317, xiv, 140 - - Boston Ivy, xiii, 28 - - BOTANY, Volume xiii - - Botany, xvi, 36; - binomial nomenclature in, x, 84; - daily interest, xvi, 20-2; - discovery of America, effects, x, 45; - history of development, xvi, 112, 116, 165-7; - public education in (France), 22 - - Bothnia, Gulf of, salinity, xiv, 296 - - Bow-and-Arrow, evolution of, xv, 213-15; - fish-shooting with, 227; - stringed instruments developed from, 317-18 - - Bowditch, Henry Pickering, x, 131 - - Bowels, care of, x, 316-17; - "yearning of," xi, 64, 131, 160 (see Intestines) - - Bowfin, xii, 152; - nests of, 154 - - Bowlder Clay, iii, 67, xiv, 59 - - Bowlders, glacial, iii, 70, 237, 352 (pl. 20), xiv, 69, 70 - - Boyle, Robert, air pressure experiments, iv, 29, 125; - chemical work, xvi, 110, 111, 112, 115, 119, 177; - "Sceptical Chemist," quoted, 159 - - Boyle's Law, iv, 125-6, 133, 143, 156, viii, 106-7 - - Boys, education of, xi, 266-7; - food consumption by, viii, 367 - - Brachiopods, iii, 259, 263, 270-2, xii, 47-8; - deep sea 23; - illustration, iii, 256 (Pl. 14) - - Bracken Fern, xiii, 350 - - Bracts, xiii, 43, 45, 206 - - Bradley, James, astronomical work, ii, 90-2, xvi, 124 - - Brahe, Tycho (see Tycho Brahe) - - Braided Goods, v, 276-7 - - Brain, ix, 131, 144-7, xi, 15-32, 60; - areas for different functions, xv, 89-90; - as seat of life, ix, 11, 14, 17; - association fibers, xi, 200; - association region of, ix, 151; - auditory area, xi, 108; - blood supply of, ix, 197, 216-17; - cells of, 14; - changes caused by shock xi, 59; - condition of, at birth, ix, 351; - connections in nervous system, 142-4, 147-51; - convolutions of, xv, 62-3; - delayed nervous impulses in, ix, 140, 141-2, 145, 146-7; - diseases, results of, 146; - emotional processes in, 154, 200; - gray matter of, xv, 63; - in dreams, xi, 301; - in sleep, ix, 218, xi, 285, 286, 287, 289; - inflammation of, cause, x, 224; - insensitive to pain, xi, 118; - intellectual processes, ix, 147-53, 154; - magnetism effects, vii, 247; - mental incapacity from defects, xi, 13; - motor area, ix, 147; - of insects, xii, 103; - of men and lower animals, compared, xv, 62-3, 96; - of primitive men, iii, 302-3, 304, xv, 89-91, 96; - various animals of past, iii, 289, 290, 292, 298, 299; - overuse effects, xi, 288-9; - protection of, in infants ix, 345; - Sherrington on, xi, 12; - skull capacity in relation to, xv, 41; - stomach and, relations, xi, 370; - storehouse of past environment, 58; - tissues unaffected in starvation, ix, 298; - visual area, xi, 96-7; - waste of energy of, 377; - weight in man and apes, xv, 62; - weight in various men and races, 39-41; - wounds of, early treatment, x, 55, 56 - (see also Brain Stem, Cerebellum, Cerebrum) - - Brain Case, ix, 61; - face and, xv, 43, 62 - - Brain Power, development of, in man, xv, 190-1; - racial expressions and, 39, 63-4 - - Brain Stem, ix, 144-5, 146 (fig.); - vital process centers of, 167-9, 257, 315 - - Brain Work, energy consumed by, viii, 367; - fatigue from, ix, 138, x, 247 - - Brain Workers, ailments, xi, 371; - attractive foods for, ix, 242; - exercise needs, x, 304 - - Brakes, air (see Air Brakes); - electromagnetic, vi, 92, 94; - friction, iv, 93-4; - regenerative, vii, 200 - - Bramah, Joseph, hydraulic press, v, 98-9, 376; - planer, 377 - - Bran, in diet, x, vitamines in, 261, 266 - - Branches of Trees, as leaves, xiii, 378, 379; - why clear of ground, 86 - - Brandes, H. W., i, 215 - - Brasher, Philip, v, 124-5 - - Brass, alloy of copper, viii, 156, 164, 273; - electrical conductivity, iv, 283; - electric welding of, 312; - expansion and contraction of, 145-6, v, 72 - - Brave West Winds, i, 128, 368 - - Brazil, bushmaster snake of, xii, 234; - butterfly orchid of, xiii, 145; - coasts, xiv, 257; - coffee production, xiii, 232, 233; - coral reefs on coast, xiv, 305; - forests, xiii, 365, xiv, 366; - frogs of, xii, 178, 179; - glacial and coal deposits, iii, 203, 204; - interior unexplored, xiv, 26, 250; - jaguarundi of, xii, 364; - lizards of, 208; - matamata of, 193; - public health scholarships, x, 172; - rubber production, xiii, 246-7, 248; - shirt tree of, xv, 256; - soil depths, iii, 26; - tea cultivation, xiii, 228; - wolf of, vii, 342; - yellow fever in, x, 163 - - Brazilian Basin, xiv, 289 - - Brazilian Current, xiv, 304 - - Brazil Nut, source, xiii, 266 - - Bread, chemistry of, viii, 368-9; - digestion of, x, 326; - food value of, viii, 364, ix, 34-5, 299, x, 267, 268, 269, 273; - rising of, due to bacteria, 194; - yeast action in, ix, 248 - - Breadfruit, origin, xiii, 224 - - Breadfruit Trees, xv, 124 - - Breakwaters, pneumatic, v, 125; - strength of, xiv, 300, 301 - - Breath, holding of, ix, 256-7, 266; - holding of, in infants, 348; - shortness of, in heart failure, x, 340-1; - smell of, ix, 97; - soul in, savage idea of, xv, 330 - - Breathing, action and control of, ix, 256-8, 263-6, x, 339; - body heat regulation by, 251; - color effects on, xi, 96; - deep, value of, ix, 259; - deep, sensations from, 266-7; - how learned, xi, 36-7; - in fatigue, 272; - in sleep, 283; - muscles of, in voice production, ix, 83; - of insects, xii, 103; - periodic, x, 339-40; - quickened by exercise, 303; - rate of, in infants, ix, 347-8; - rib cage movements in, 65; - through mouth, effects, x, 341-2 - (see also Respiration) - - Breeding (animal and plant), blended inheritance and pure breeds, ix, - 337; - in ancient Egypt, xvi, 72; - in captivity, xv, 197; - selective, ix, 327, xvi, 157-8 - - Brennan, Louis, v, 342 - - Brenner Pass, xiv, 240-1 - - Bretonneau, Pierre, x, 106, 110 - - Brewing, chemistry of, viii, 249 - - Bricks, invention of, xv, 268; - making of, in Egypt, 267 (fig.) - - Bridges, steel, electrolysis in, vi, 64, 66; - strains on, v, 194; - sympathetic vibration of, iv, 225 - - Briggs, Henry, xvi, 104 - - Bright's Disease, x, 112, 225, 335, 340-1, 345, 346 - - Bristol Channel, tides of, xiv, 293 - - British Columbia, fjord coasts, xiv, 258; - no volcanoes or earthquakes in, 315, 331 - - British Gum, viii, 243 - - British Meteorological Office, i, 222; - aeronautical service, 230, 286; - forecasts, 241; - in World War, 310 - - British System of Units, iv, 46, 69-70, 79, 80 - - British Thermal Unit, iv, 154, v, 350-1; - erg and calorie equivalents, vii, 382 - - Brittle-stars, xii, 23, 49 - - Broadway, N. Y., display lighting vii, 340-1 - - Broca, Paul, x, 130 - - Brocken Specter, i, 184, 185, 382 - - Bromine, a halogen, viii, 18, 84; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - manufacture, 274; - properties and uses, 84-5, 86, 181, 297-8, 333; - test, 290 - - Bronchial Tubes, as infection center, x, 220, 224; - defence against germs, 202; - subdivisions of, ix, 255 - - Bronchitis, causes, x, 253, 295 - - Brongniart, Adolphe, 167, 169 - - Brontides, i, 195-6, 368 - - Brontosaurus, xii, 195 - - Brooklyn, water supply of, xiv, 140 - - Brooklyn Bridge, completion, v, 382; - corrosion of, vi, 66 - - Brooks Comet, ii, 134, 275, 286 - - Brook Trout, xii, 159 - - Broths, viii, 362, 369 - - Brounov, Prof. P., i, 249 - - Brown, John, medical work of, x, 89-90 - - Brown, Robert, xvi, 166 - - Brownian Movements, viii, 314, xvi, 166 - - Browning John M., v, 363, 366-7 - - Browning Machine Gun, v, 366-7, 384 - - Brown Paper, making of, v, 294; - source, xiii, 240 - - Brown Race, xv, 32; - diseases of, 51; - peoples of, 37; - separate origin theory, 70 - - Bruce, James, xvi, 123 - - Bruce Telescope, ii, 136, 302 - - Brush Discharge, vii, 10-11, 363 - - Brushes, dynamo, vi, 178, vii, 363 - - Brussels Sprouts, xiii, 197, 222; - mutant nature, 333-4 - - Buansuah, xii, 345 - - Bubonic Plague, x, 163-7; - native immunity to, xiv, 357; - Paré and, x, 153; - prevention of, 171; - spread by lice, 311 - - Buckwheat, xiii, 56; - family, 194; - flower, 46; - food, viii, 364; - life of, xiii, 53 - - Budapest, deep drilling, iii, 120-1 - - Buddhism, development of, xv, 199; - Nirvana of, 334 - - Buds, never on roots, xiii, 22, 23, 29; - of perennials, 53 - - Buenos Aires, harbor of, xiv, 270 - - Buffalo, N. Y., electric power system, vi, 377-8 - - Buffalo Bugs, xii, 123 - - Buffalo Dance, xv, 305-6 - - Buffaloes, xii, 328-9; - of Great Plains, xiv, 383 - - Buffalo Grass, xiii, 374 - - Buffalo Hot Springs, xiv, 145 - - Buffon, founder of modern natural history, xvi, 128; - lightning experiments, vi, 15; - "Natural History," xvi, 116; - on evolution of species, 139-40, 148 - - Bugles, sounding of, iv, 231 - - Bugs, xii, 110-14; - jaws and maxillæ in, 100 - - Buildings, development of, xv, 266-72; - dryness of air in American, i, 322, 323; - earthquake construction, xiv, 342, 343; - electric wiring, vii, 55-65; - weathering effects, iii, 22, 24 - - Building Stones, iii, 370-2 - - Bulgaria, long life of peasants, xiii, 172 - - Bull Durham Sign, Broadway, vii, 341 - - Bullets, form and flight, v, 362, 365 - - Bullfrogs, xii, 180-1 - - Bumps, in aeronautics, i, 293, 298, 368 - - Bunch Grass, xiv, 380 - - Bunsen, carbon arc, xvi, 189; - chemical work, 163; - solution of spectrum lines, ii, 112 - - Bunsen Burner, viii, 60-1 - - Buoyancy, law of, iv, 103-4, 105; - of air, 107, 108 - - Burbank, Luther, xvi, 167 - - Burdock, seed dispersal, xiii, 58 - - Burette, viii, 294, 295 (fig.) - - Burma, elephant of, xii, 302; - rivers of, xiv, 195-6; - viper of, xii, 230 - - Burning Oils, viii, 209 - - Burns, of body tissues, x, 252; - from X-rays, vii, 250, x, 254 - - Burrels, xii, 326 - - Burs, chestnut and beech, xiii, 193; - seed dispersal by, 343 - - Bus Bars, vi, 358-9 - - Bushland, xiv, 378-9, 380, 381 - - Bushmen (African), xv, 133-5; - art of, 119 (fig.), 120-1, 298-300; - civilization at collection stage, 196; - hair of, 38; - height of, 39; - ostrich-hunting of, 212, 222; - use of baboons, in water searching, xii, 380 - - Bushmen (Australian), iii, 304 - - Bushnell, David, v, 197 - - Butane, derivatives, viii, 210 - - Butcher's Broom Plant, xiii, 29-30 - - Butte Mining District, iii, 361, 368 - - Butter, calory value, ix, 299, x, 269, 273; - composition, viii, 364; - digestion of, x, 326; - made by electricity, vii, 226, 227, 228; - pure food, ix, 300; - substitutes for, viii, 363, 364, x, 262, 267, 268; - vitamines in, 259, 261, 267 - - Buttercup Family, xiii, 196 - - Buttercups, double, xiii, 51; - petal arrangement, 190 - - Butter Fat, viii, 245, 246, 364; - in milk, 363; - vitamines in, 369 - - Butterflies, xii, 114-18; - antennæ of, 101; - earliest appearance, iii, 279, xii, 104; - evolution of, xii, 106-7; - jaws and maxillæ in, 100; - number of species in N. Y., 99, origin of name, xv, 157; - plant fertilization by, xiii, 123-4, 133-5, 142-3 - - Butterfly Orchid, xiii, 145 - - Buttes, made by erosion, iii, 140 - - Buttonball Tree, xiii, 343-4 - - Buttonhole Machine, invention, v, 382 - - Butyric Acid, viii, 220, 248 - - Buys Ballot's Law, i, 125, 134 - - Buzzards, xii, 261 - - Buzzards Bay, oysters of, xii, 61; - tidal race at, xiv, 294 - - Byron, skull capacity, xv, 40 - - Byssus, xii, 64 - - - Cabbage, calories in, ix, 299; - in mustard family, xiii, 197; - origin and antiquity, 222; - sport plant, 333-4; - vitamines in, x, 261, 262 - - Cabbage Bug, xii, 114 - - Cables (ocean), breaks in, xiv, 284; - laying of, 283, (See also Atlantic Cables) - - Cables, underground, vii, 12-13, 27 - - Cabot, John, birth and training, xiv, 310 - - Cacao, xiii, 234, 235 - - Cachalot, xii, 298-9 - - Cactus, characteristics of, xiii, 378, xv, 19; - leafless forms, xiii, 15; - leaves of, 378, xiv, 378; - prickly pear, xiii, 29 (fig.); - regions of dominance, 355; - stems of, 31; - water-storage by, 28, 106, 379 - - Cactus Family, xiii, 200; - restricted area, 320 - - Caddis Flies, xii, 106 - - Cadmium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383; - test for, 287, 288 - - Cæsar, Julius, scientific reforms, xvi, 98 - - Cæsarian Section, ancient practice of, x, 14, 27 - - Cæsium, chemical properties, viii, 128, 132, 133, 383; - spectrum, 302 - - Caffeine, composition, viii, 230; - polyuria induced by, x, 344 - - Caffre, xii, 355 - - Caimans, xii, 198 - - "Cain," picture, xv, 69 - - Caissons (pneumatic), iv, 30-2, v, 116-21; - pressure in, i, 329, iv, 129 - - Cake Urchins, xii, 50 - - Caladium, leaves of, xiii, 79 - - Calamus, of India, xiii, 361 - - Calamus Root, xiii, 188, 255 - - Calcite, iii, 325-6; - gangue mineral, viii, 199; - light polarization by, iii, 319, iv, 354 - - Calcium, viii, 148-9; - affinities, 31-2, 101-2, 128; - atomic weight and - symbol, 383; - compounds, 130, 138, 149-53, 195; - compounds in hard water, 318, 322-4; - electrolytic production, vii, 320-1; - fusibility, viii, 384; - in body tissues, 354; - in earth's crust, iii, 308, viii, 19, 129, 192, 195, 196; - in light metal group, 17, 127; - plant needs of, viii, 337, 341, 344; - specific gravity, 384; - test for, 287, 289 - - Calcium Carbide, viii, 153; - acetylene prepared from, 231; - in nitrogen fixation, 74, i, 36; - production and uses, vii, 312, xvi, 191 - - Calcium Carbonate, viii, 151-2; - composition, 117; - deposits of, 195; - lime from, 149, 150; - in soil sweetening, 150, 347; - in water, 40, 151, 322. (See also Limestone) - - Calcium Chloride, viii, 152-3, 322-3; - mixture with snow, iv, 175 - - Calcium Group, viii, 148-53; - spectra, 302 - - Calcium Hydroxide, viii, 150, 347 - - Calcium Light, compared with sun's, ii, 169 - - Calcium Oxide, viii, 149-51. (See Lime) - - Calcium Pentasulphide, viii, 333 - - Calcium Phosphate, viii, 89, 153, 279-80, 354 - - Calcium Stearate, viii, 143, 323 - - Calcium Sulphate, viii, 117, 149, 153; - in water, 40, 322-3 - - Calcium Sulphite, viii, 153, 372 - - Calcium Tungstate, color in X-rays, iv, 378 - - Calc Spar, iii, 325 - - Calculations, mathematical, development of, xv, 181-4, xvi, 61 - - Caldwell, Kansas, region, iii, 34 - - Calendar, Babylonian, xvi, 57-8; - Bacon's work, 101; - clothing in relation to, x, 309; - Egyptian, xvi, 70; - reforms of Cæsar, 98 - - Calibration, vii, 158, 363; - of condensers, 293-4 - - California, aerial fish patrol, i, 48; - Big Trees (see Big Trees); - borax deposits, viii, 89-90; - climate, xiv, 348-9, 358; - climatic changes in, 361, 362; - cretaceous deposits, iii, 216; - crustal movements in southern, 81-2, 225; - earthquakes and volcanoes, xiv, 331; - forests and trees, 374; - geese of, xii, 258; - gold production, iii, 226, 365, 367; - hot springs, xiv, 143; - live oaks of, 370; - lemon trees of, xv, 22; - mercury production, iii, 370; - ocean waves used for power, v, 174; - oil fields, iii, 350; - rainfall, i, 112; - raisin-drying industry, v, 257; - record temperature, 209; - redwood forests, fog drip, 351; - "road-runners" of, xii, 265; - sea elephant of, 335; - sea lions, 334; - southern, xiv, 42; - "Sunshine State," 86; - tin production, iii, 368; - valley of, xiv, 215 - - Callao, harbor of, xiv, 265 - - Callina of Spain, i, 96, 368 - - Calms of Cancer and Capricorn, i, 129, 368 - - Calomel, viii, 170 - - Caloric, iv, 47, 154, xvi, 125 - - Calories, definition and value, iv, 154, 312, vii, 369, viii, 361, 374, - ix, 295, x, 269; - electrical equivalents, vii, 382; - food requirements in, ix, 296-7; - in various foods, viii, 361, 366-7, ix, 299, x, 269; - major, viii, 361; - mechanical equivalent, ix, 295; - use of, in rating food values, iv, 48 - - Calorimeter, viii, 360-1, x, 269 - - Calumet Copper Mine, heat increase in, xiv, 12 - - Calyx, xiii, 44, 45; - absent in some plants, 46, 182; - incorporated in fruits, 54 - - Camber, of aeroplanes, i, 288 - - Cambium, xiii, 24, 26, 177 (fig.) - - Cambrian Period, iii, 181-4, 377; - animals of, 263, 267, 268, 272, 273, 277; - climate, 184-5; - first life in, xv, 71; - fossils from, iii, 174; - metamorphism of rocks in, 189 - - Cambridge University, founding of, xvi, 100 - - Cambyses, burial of army of, iii, 73 - - Camels, xii, 313-15; - hoofs of, iii, 300; - trypanosome in, x, 168 - - Camera, iv, 339-40, ix, 106-9; - Langley on the, ii, 221; - power to pierce water, i, 47 - - Camphor, viii, 240, 252; - in celluloid, 255; - smell, xi, 80; - source, xiii, 255, 263 - - Cams, v. 39-40 - - Canada, animals of, xii, 287, 318, 320, 336, 348, 350, 351, 365; - Atlantic ports closed by ice, xiv, 267; - forests of, 371, 372; - French colonization of, 191; - geology, iii, 165, 167, 219, 231-2; - Glacial Epoch effects, xiv, 56, 61-2, 170; - Indian summer, i, 361; - lakes of, xiv, 200; - mining products, iii, 360, 365, 368, 376; - plains of, xiv, 217; - plutonic formations, 111; - rainfall of, 360; - tobacco production, xiii, 258 - - Canadian Rockies, formations in, xiv, 229; - glaciers of, 55 - - Canals, lift locks, v, 103 - - Canaries Current, xiv, 304 - - Canary Islands, xiv, 252, 289; - dragon tree of, xiii, 183-4 - - Cancer, cause, nature, and treatment, x, 119-20, 382, 383-4; - early knowledge of, 39, 41; - racial immunity and susceptibility to, xv, 48-9, 50, 51; - spread and cure by surgery, ix, 255 - - Candle, Candlepower, iv, 351-2; - compared with sun, ii, 169 - - Candles, blowing out of, viii, 57; - burning of, in caissons, iv, 31; - flame of, viii, 58, 59; - materials of, 247 - - Candy, boiling point, viii, 299; - dextrin in, 243; - glucose uses, 225 - - Cane Sugar, xiii, 83, 214-15; - chemical properties, occurrence, and use, viii, 226-7; - extraction and refining, 242; - fermentation, 225, 227; - large molecules, 356; - making of, by plant, 335; - solutions, freezing point, 299; - sweetness of, ix, 230; - testing of, by polarized light, iv, 356 - - Canned foods, vitamines lacking in, x, 262, 263, 266, 267-8 - - Cannel Coal, iii, 344, viii, 202 - - Cannibalism, remarks on, ix, 280-1 - - Cannon, Dr., medical work, x, 295, 327; - quoted, xi, 137-9 - - Canoes, primitive, xv, 262-4; - propulsion of, iv, 33-4 - - Canopus, gaseous state, ii, 382; - parallax and distance, 316 - - Canvas Buckets, use of, v, 350 - - Canyons, depth dependent on altitude, xiv, 159; - occurrence in dry climates, 51-2 - (see also particular canyons under river names) - - Caoutchouc, xiii, 245; - chemistry and manufacture, viii, 257-8 (see Rubber) - - Capacity, electrical, iv, 267-8, viii, 363; - in overhead transmission, 104, 105; - in oscillating circuits, 286-7, 289; - measurement in oscillating circuits, 294-5, 296-7; - unit of, iv, 284, vii, 368 - - Cape Nome, Alaska, iii, 57 - - Capella, binary star, ii, 123; - color, 297; - solar star, 115 - - Cape of Good Hope, climate of, xiv, 358; - discovery of, 309 - - Cape Town, oak trees at, xiv, 370 - - Cape Verde Islands, xiv, 252, 289; - ocean deeps around, 289 - - Capillaries, ix, 54, 192-5; - in circulatory system, x, 63, 334; - oxygen diffusion through, ix, 260; - passage of blood through, 210, 212, 214, 215; - unknown to Galen & Harvey, x, 63 - - Capillarity, of soil water, viii, 37, xiii, 92-3 - - Capri, level changes at, iii, 81 - - Caproic Acid, viii, 220 - - Capsules, plant, xiii, 56, 69 - - Capuchin Monkeys, xii, 377-8 - - Capybaras, xii, 289 - - Caracels, xii, 356 - - Caraway Seed, xiii, 201, 265 - - Carbohydrate Industries, viii, 241-4 - - Carbohydrates, viii, 223-9, 374-5; - body fuels, xi, 271, 278; - daily consumption, viii, 366-7; - digestion and utilization of, 356, 357, 358-9; - food requirements and values, 361, 362, x, 268, 269, 271; - formation by plants, viii, 219, 335, 349, 350, xiii, 81; - storing of, in body, x, 272; - structure and hydrolysis, viii, 217-18; - use of by animals and vegetables, 246, 348, 349, 350 - - Carbolic Acid, viii, 238, 253, 333; - as antiseptic, x, 145 - - Carbon, viii, 18, 42-52; - affinity for oxygen, 12, 102; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - chemical energy, 186-7; - colors due to, 258; - combustion of, 12-13, 308, ix, 26, 190; - diamonds and graphite pure, iii, 328, 331, viii, 42, 43; - electrical conductivity, iv, 283; - electric positiveness, vi, 59, 61; - ignition of, viii, 53; - in body, elimination, 353; - loss in fatigue, xi, 271; - in hydrocarbons, viii, 205-7, 233, 234; - in iron, v, 316-17, 319, 320-1, viii, 157, 158; - in iron preparation, 157; - in neutral refractories, vii, 307; - in organic matter, viii, 42, 64, 204, 336-7; - in proteins, 351; - in steel, 159, 160; - luminosity of flame due to, 59-60; - melting point, iv, 162; - necessity of, to life, ii, 242-3; - percentages in coal series, iii, 345; - plant uses of, viii, 49, 340-1, xiii, 14, 80, xiv, 64-5; - potential energy in, iv, 82; - production of pure, xvi, 190 - - Carbonaceous Matter, in soils, viii, 340 - - Carbonaceous Strata, iii, 249-50 - - Carbonated Beverages, viii, 43, 50 - - Carbonated Waters, natural, xiv, 142, 146 - - Carbonate Group, viii, 93 - - Carbonate of Lime, ancient layers of, iii, 250, 251; - animal shells and skeletons of, 259, 266, 267, 268, 270; - hard water due to, 126; - limestone composed of, 25, 308; - in sandstone, 27 - (see also Calcite, Calcium Carbonate, Limestone) - - Carbonates, formation of, viii, 49; - in blood, x, 280; - metal compounds, viii, 130, 147, 198; - metal extraction from, 131, 271; - test of, 290 - - Carbon Compounds, viii, 42, 48-52, 61; - optical activity, xvi, 164 - - Carbon Cycle, viii, 49-50, 325-6, 334-5, 349-50 - - Carbon Dioxide, viii, 42, 48-50; - atmospheric, i, 10, 11, 13-14, 25, 322, viii, 48, 49, 67-8, 152, ix, - 26, 254; - body production and elimination, ix, 190, 248, 253-4, 262-7, 268, x, - 270, 280, 281, 338, 339; - boiling and freezing points, iv, 173; - critical temperature and pressure, 172, 173; - fatigue product, xi, 270-2; - in - blood, ix, 263, 264-7, x, 331, 339; - in blood, loss in mountain sickness, i, 328; - in Carbon cycle, viii, 334, 350; - in limestone, 42, 49, 152; - in minerals, 201; - in water, 40, 111; - leavening agent, 50, 136, 137; - plant uses of, 219, 335, 347, 349, ix, 26-7, xiii, 80-1, 82, xiv, 65; - product of combustion and decay, viii, 12-13, 26, 45, 61, ix, 26, 190; - produced by fermentation, 248; - production, commercial, viii, 48, 276; - rock disintegration by, 194-5; - thrown off by lungs, 353; - vitiation of air by, 331, 332, ix, 268, x, 238 - (see also Carbonic Acid) - - Carbon Disulphide, combustion of, viii, 61; - light refraction by, iv, 331; - refrigeration by, 174 - - Carbonic Acid, viii, 48-9, 101, 115; - atmospheric content affected by light, x, 253; - chemical action on rocks, iii, 24, 25, 27, viii, 194; - critical temperature and pressure, iv, 172; - early studies, xvi, 119-20; - elimination in sleep, xi, 283; - formation in body, x, 280; - heat absorption by, iii, 248; - in ground waters, xiv, 142, 146; - in sea water, iii, 54; - in sodium compounds, viii, 134-6; - in urea, 230, x, 279, viii, 61; - light refraction by, iv, 331; - refrigeration by, 174 - - Carboniferous Period, iii, 197; - animals of, xv, 71; - landscape of, xiii, 320; - length and antiquity, 314, 322; - plants of, 307-11, 315-17 - - Carbon Monoxide, viii, 50-1, 157 - - Carbon Tetrachloride, vi, 101, viii, 212 - - Carborundum, chemical composition, 90; - discovery, manufacture, and uses, vii, 300, 301, 309-11, xvi, 190; - refractory, vii, 308, 311; - in wireless detectors, 269 - - Carboxyl Group, viii, 220, 375 - - Carbuncles, cause of, x, 195, 311 - - Carburetors, vii, 124-8; - mixtures in, v, 156 - - Caribbean Sea, hurricane reports, i, 282, 309 - - Caribe (fish), xii, 159-60 - - Caribou, xii, 320; - horns of, 316 - - Carlsbad, Bohemia, xiv, 145, 152 - - Carlyle, dyspepsia of, xi, 369; - on work, 276; - on shame and clothing, x, 306 - - "Carnegie," magnetic survey ship, i, 193, vi, 39 - - Carnelian, iii, 337 - - Carnivorous Animals, xii, 332-65 - (see also Flesh-eating Animals) - - Carnot, mathematician, xvi, 125; - on heat, 135 - - Carolina Parakeet, xii, 266 - - Carolina Poplar, as index plant, i, 255 - - Carps, xii, 161 - - Carrel, antiseptic methods, x, 146, 181-3, 382 - - Carrel-Dakin Solutions, x, 181-3, 382 - - Carrion Crow, xii, 260 - - Carroll, Dr. James, x, 160, 161, 200 - - Carrots, flowers of, xiii, 49; - origin, 222; - swelled roots, 19; - taproot of, 17 (fig.); - vitamines in, x, 262, 266, 268; - wild, xiii, 353-4 - - Carthage, and Rome, xiv, 307; - destruction of fleet before, xv, 232 - - Carthaginians, elephants of, xii, 302; - in Iberian group, xvi, 49 - - Cartilage, ix, 57-8; - making of, 54; - rib connections made of, 71; - skeletons of, xii, 142 - - Cartridges, explosion of, v, 157; - hydraulic, 100; - lampblack, i, 33; - modern, v, 362, viii, 145, xv, 218 - - Cartright, power loom, v, 376-7, xv, 246 - - Cascade Mountains, cirques of, iii, 66; - Columbia river canyon, 39, xiv, 165-6; - former volcanic activity, iii, 226; - geology of, 106, 139, 213-14, 226, 227; - glaciers of, 60; - lakes, 143; - precipitation on opposite sides of, xiv, 355; - snowfall, i, 119; - volcanic cones of, xiv, 100-1, 225, 315 - - Casein of Milk, food value, x, 259, 278 - - Caspian Sea, area and depth, iii, 154, xiv, 204; - commercial importance, 212; - formation of basin, iii, 154, xiv, 203, 205; - monsoons, i, 131; - salinity, iii, 154-5, viii, 139, xiv, 206-7 - - Cassini, Domenico, astronomical work, ii, 13, 59, 85, 133, 227-8; - telescopes, 59, 99 - - Cassiopeia distortion from sun's motion, ii, 306; - new star in, 331 - - Cassiterite, iii, 326, 369 - - Cassowaries, xii, 243, 249 - - Castillo, Grotto of, xv, 100 (fig.); - picture from, 112 - - Castings, of different metals, iv, 150 - - Cast Iron, v, 316, 319, 320-2, viii, 157, 158 - - Catalan Forge, v, 315; - air compression for, 89 - - Catalpa Trees, xiii, 271-2 - - Catalyzers, viii, 102-3, 375; - discovery, xvi, 165; - effect on speed of reactions, viii, 310, 311; - enzymes as, 103, 357; - various applications, i, 36-7, viii, 81, 82, 86, 174, xvi, 165 - - Cataphoretic Medication, vii, 247-8 - - Cataract, of eyes, ix, 112, 116, x, 41; - ancient operations for, 27 - - Catarrh, germ of, x, 221 - - Catastrophism, xvi, 149 - - Cat Briers, xiii, 188 - - Caterpillars, xii, 115-16, 117 (fig.), 118, 119; - "rains" of, i, 356-7 - - Caterpillar Tractors, v, 216-18, 383 - - Catapults, xv, 219 - - Cat Family, xii, 354-65 - - Catfishes, xii, 161-2 - - Cathode, defined, iv, 317, 382, vii, 251, 363 - - Cathode Rays, iv, 317-18, x, 184; - discovery and nature, xvi, 193; - fluorescence from, iv, 380 - - Cathode Stream, vii, 252 - - Cation, defined, iv, 382 - - Catkin-bearing Trees, fertilization of, xiii, 148 - - Catkins, xiii, 190, 192, 193-4 - - Catnip, flowers of, xiii, 205 - - Cats, xii, 354-56; - body heat, conservation of, ix, 307; - embryological resemblance to dog, xv, 54; - hair erection in, ix, 161, 164; - instincts of, xi, 48 - - Catskill Aqueduct, v, 262, 263-5 - - Catskill Formation, iii, 195 - - Catskill Mountains, formation, iii, 139, xiv, 179, 225; - New York water supply from, xiv, 140; - section of, iii, 138 (fig.); - stream piracy in, xiv, 179-80 - - Cat-tails, xiii, 59, 181, 187 - - Cattle, domestic, origin of, xii, 330; - elastic cord in neck, ix, 59; - hornless, breeding of, 327; - salt consumed by, viii, 140; - surra disease of, x, 168; - tetanus germ in, 298-9; - tick diseases of, xii, 98; - ungulates, 300; - young of, ix, 346 - - Cattle Family, xii, 324-31 - - Cattle-raising, on grasslands, xiv, 383-4 - - Cattle-Raising Stage, xv, 187, 196-9 - - Caucasus Mountains, iii, 236; - Ice Age in, 240; - recent formations, xiv, 235 - - Cauliflower, a modified bud, xiii, 41; - in mustard family, 197; - origin, 222; - sport plant, 333-4 - - Caustics, x, 255 - - Caustic Soda, viii, 278 - - Cauterization, batteries used, vii, 242; - former use of, x, 38, 55, 56 - - Cavalieri, Bonaventura, xvi, 104, 119 - - Cave Bear, xiv, 149; - cave pictures of, xv, 110 (fig.); - relics of, 79, 82, 100 (fig.) - - Cave Fishes, eyes of, xii, 138 - - Cave Lions, xii, 359 - - Cave Men, xv, 76-84, 88-102; - art of, 148-9, xv, 110-20, 298, 299, 300; - clothing of, 257; - life of, 188-91; - tools and weapons, 102-10 - - Cavendish, Henry, chemical work, xvi, 120, 121, 177; - electrical work, vi, 16, 17, xvi, 121; - experiment to prove gravitation, iv, 98; - hydrogen discovery, results, x, 89 - - Cavendish Experiment, ii, 68 - - Caves, Caverns, formation in limestone, iii, 127, viii, 151, xiv, 147-8; - importance in history of man, 148-9, xv, 266; - primitive life in, 80-1, 82-3; - wind-eroded, iii, 73 - - Caviar, acquired taste for, xi, 72; - sources of, xii, 151, 152 - - Cavies, xii, 289 - - Cavitation, v, 235-6 - - Cayuga, Lake, xiv, 203 - - Cazorla, Spain, hailstorm, i, 119 - - Ceiling, of aeroplanes, i, 303 - - Celebes, xiv, 274; - animals of, xii, 310, 330, 379 - - Celery, blanching of, xiii, 76; - calories in, ix, 299; - family, xiii, 200-1; - origin and antiquity, 222 - - Celestial Equator, ii, 70 - - Cell Metabolism, ix, 37-40; - oxygen requirements, 182, 199, 253, 254, 260; - part of cell engaged in, 42-3; - sugar and fat supplies, 289; - supply system, 49-52 - (see also Metabolism, Basic Metabolism, Functional Metabolism) - - Cells (electric) see Electric Cells - - Cells (organic), basis of life, ix, 12, x, 119, xii, 10, 14, 25, xiii, - 74, xv, 16, xvi, 142; - dynamics of, xvi, 144-5; - growth by division of, ix, 43-8, xiii, 166-7; - living and nonliving, ix, 12-17; - maintenance and growth, 34-6; - metabolism of (see Cell Metabolism); - motions of, ix, 73-4; - of plants, viii, 337, 338, 352, ix, 26; - reproduction from, 43, 324-5, 332-3, x, 228, 232, xiii, 166-7, xv, 54, - xvi, 155-6, 157-8; - size of, ix, 49; - substance of, (protoplasm), 13 - (see also Body Cell) - - Celluloid, composition of, viii, 255 - - Cellulose, viii, 223, 227-8, 229, 254-6, ix, 30; - as food, 30; - industrial uses, viii, 229, 241, 254-6, 261; - in plants, iii, 344, viii, 49, 223, 335, 348, 349, ix, 30; - in wood composition, iii, 345, viii, 44, xiv, 65 - - Celsius, thermometer of, iv, 136 - - Celsus, A. Cornelius, x, 27, 43; - on sleeping sickness in Rome, 301; - rediscovery of "De Re Medicina," 44 - - Celtic Languages, xv, 162 - - Celts, of Ireland, xvi, 49 - - Cement, chemistry of, viii, 280; - manufacture, iii, 373-4 - - Cement Floors, in factories, xi, 361-2 - - Cement Gun, v, 136 - - Cementite, viii, 160, 273 - - Cement Plants, potash from dust, viii, 279; - smoke precipitation, vii, 347-8 - - Cenozoic Era, iii, 20, 377; - animals of, 284, 293, 295, 298-301; - birds developed in, 297; - divisions and surviving species, xv, 71; - in North America, iii, 221-48; - plants in, 256, 257-8 - - Centaurus, "coal sack," ii, 352; - star cluster, 336-7 - - Center of Gravity, iv, 99-101; - tendency of wheels to turn on, v, 150 - - Centers of Action, i, 218, 241-2, 368; - Iceland area, 361 - - Centigrade Thermometer, i, 73, iv, 136, 137, viii, 27; - comparison with other scales, iv, 137, 141, viii, 27, 384 - - Centimeter-gram-second System, iv, 46 (see Metric System) - - Centipedes, xii, 87-8 - - Central America, animals of, xii, 198, 208, 276, 289, 349; - coasts, coral reefs on, 40; - rainfall and rivers, xiv, 135, 195; - volcanoes of, 315, 316, 325-6, 338 - - Central Asia, antelopes of, xii, 327; - climatic changes, results of, iii, 75, xiv, 361, 362; - cradle of human race, xvi, 46; - desert basins, xiv, 215, 217, 355; - flowers of, xiii, 202; - horses of, xii, 306-7; - manual of, 356; - marriage custom of, xv, 282; - migrations from, xiv, 362; - oases of, 150-1; - plains of, 215; - rock weathering in deserts, 79; - rodents of, xii, 294; - salt lakes of, xiv, 199 - - Central Nervous System, ix, 129-32; - at birth, 348-9; - connections with glands and smooth muscles, 159-60, 162-3; - in the chordata, xii, 128; - preferred pathways of, ix, 134 - - Central Park Obelisk, iii, 23, xiv, 78-9 - - Central Sun Hypothesis, ii, 305 - - Centrifugal Force, iv, 71-5; - of earth's rotation, ii, 69, iv, 74-5, 101 - - Centrifugal Pumps, vi, 363 - - Centrifugal Railroads, iv, 74 - - Centripetal Force, iv, 72-3 - - Century Plants, single flowering, xiii, 43, 53; - sisal from, 240-1; - water-storage by, 41 - - Cephalopods, iii, 20, 260, 273-6, xii, 58, 74-80 - - Ceraunographs, i, 163, 368 - - Cereal Dusts, i, 63 - - Cereals, best grown in grasslands, xiii, 373; - evolution, iii, 257; - food value, viii, 364; - fruits for seed dispersal, xiii, 56, 182; - phosphate requirements, xiv, 67; - vitamines in, x, 260, 262 - - Cerebellum, ix, 144 (fig.), 145, 146 (fig.), xi, 28, 31; - locomotion control through, ix, 156, 158, 167 - - Cerebrospinal Fluid, xi, 29 - - Cerebrospinal Meningitis, antiserum treatment, x, 218; - germ of, 216 - - Cerebrum, ix, 144, 145-7, xi, 28, 29, 31-2; - at birth, ix, 351; - auditory area, xi, 108; - locomotion action of, ix, 157, 158; - seat of thought processes, 167; - visual area, xi, 86 - - Ceres (planet), discovery, ii, 255 - - Cerium, atomic weight and symbol, viii, 383 - - Ceylon, animals of, xii, 201, 302, 328; - chocolate production, xiii, 234; - cinnamon production, 263, 264; - coco palm of, xv, 125; - leeches of, xii, 56; - pearl fisheries of, 62; - polyandry in, xv, 286; - quinine production, xiii, 251; - tea cultivation, 228, 224 (illus.) - - Chagres River, xiv, 195 - - Chahas, xii, 256-7 - - Chain Pump, iv, 26 - - Chain Reflex, xi, 39; - in habit formation, 250-1 - - Chain Structure, viii, 233, 375 - - Chalcedony, iii, 337 - - Chalcocite, iii, 326, 360, 361 - - Chalcopyrite, iii, 326, 360, 361 - - Chaldean Eclipse Cycle (see Saros) - - Chaldeans, astronomy of, ii, 9, xvi, 57, 58 - - Chalk, iii, 377; - deposits of, 216-18, 266 - - "Challenger," voyages of, xiv, 283, xvi, 142 - - Chambered Nautilus, iii, 273-5, xii, 76, 77 (fig.) - - Chamberlens, obstetricians, x, 79-80 - - Chameleons, xii, 204, 207-8, 208-10 - - Chamois, xii, 325 - - Champlain, Lake, formation, iii, 155 - - Champlain Sea, iii, 150, 151 - - Change, Albanian story of, v, 251; - attention attracted by, xi, 229, 344; - Cardinal Newman on, xiii, 325-6; - Heraclitus on, xvi, 79; - in earth's features, xiv, 28-30; - need of outside influence, viii, 113; - physical and chemical, 14-15 - - Channels, aerial mapping, i, 47; - dredging of, v, 257-8 - - Chaparral, xiv, 379 - - Characters, Characteristics, inheritance laws, ix, 333-8, x, 230-2, - 233-4, xiii, 332, xvi, 154, 156, 157-8; - inherited and environmental, x, 228-9; - racial, xv, 36-52 - (see also Acquired Characters, Heredity) - - Charades, xv, 169 - - Charcoal, viii, 44; - combustion of, 12-13; - glow of burning, 57; - heat from, 186; - heat resistance, vii, 308; - in gas masks, viii, 47-8, 263, 264; - in gunpowder, 145 - - Charcot, Jean Martin, x, 360, xvi, 184 - - Charges, Charged Bodies (Electricity), iv, 256-67, vi, 284-302, - vii, 363; - chemical production of, iv, 271-2; - discharge of, 262, 264-5, 267, 269, vii, 209, 366; - discovery of laws, xvi, 121; - electrical condition, i, 142; - electricity on surface, iv, 282; - induced, 260, vii, 370; - leakage, 371; - measurements and units, iv, 260-1 - (see also Electrification, Ionization) - - Charlemagne, clock of, v, 62; - Vikings and, xiv, 261 - - Charles II, founder of Greenwich Observatory, ii, 83, xvi, 124 - - Charles's Law, iv, 140, viii, 107-8 - - Charleston (S. C.) Earthquake, iii, 95, 97-8 - - Charleston (W. Va.) region, iii, 34 - - Charts, marine, i, 271-6; - meteorological, 206-8; - phenological, 254; - synchronous and synoptic, 214-15 - - Chautauqua, Lake, origin, iii, 145-6 - - Chaucer, "Doctor" of, x, 41; - language of, xv, 156 - - Chauliac, Guy de, x, 39, 40-1 - - Checkered Adder, xii, 222 - - Cheese, calories in, ix, 299; - composition and value, viii, 363; - manufacture of, xiii, 71 - - Cheeta, xii, 365 - - Chellean Implements, xv, 105, 106-7 - - Chemical Affinity, viii, 12; - electrical nature, xvi, 122; - electromotive series, viii, 127-9; - intensity measured by heat, 308, 360; - of metals for nonmetals, 20; - source of energy, 267, 268 - - Chemical Changes, nature of, viii, 9-15, 188; - signs of, 100-1 - - Chemical Compounds (see Compounds) - - Chemical Elements (see Elements) - - Chemical Energy, viii, 12, 186-7, 267, 268; - electricity from, 167-8 - - Chemical Equations, viii, 13, 94-6, 376 - - Chemical Industries, viii, 241-84 - - Chemical Reactions, viii, 99-105; - defined, 381; - equations of, 94-6; - equilibrium, 103-5, 190-1; - heat of, 308; - reversibility, 21, 101; - of solutions, 36, 37, 119-25, 311; - speed of, 310-11; - types, 20-1 - - Chemical Warfare, viii, 262-4, x, 186-8 - - Chemical Warfare Service, x, 187-8; - device, viii, 233 - - CHEMISTRY, Volume viii - - Chemistry, beginnings of modern, viii, 34; - concrete science, xvi, 42; - daily interest of, 13-15; - defined, viii, 11, xvi, 36; - difficulties of study, viii, 10-11; - exact, positive science, x, 368; - former realm, xvi, 14; - historical development, 54, 59, 73-4, 109, 110, 112, 115, 119-21, - 133-4, 159-65; - medicine and, x, 81, 369; - nomenclature, viii, 97-8; - subjects dealt with in, iv, 12; - ultimate identity of organic and inorganic, x, 69 - - Chemosynthetic Organisms, xii, 15 - - Chemotaxis, xi, 50-1, 59, 61 - - Chemotherapy, x, 381 - - Cherbourg, breakwater at, xiv, 301; - wave power at, 300 - - Cherrapunji, Assam, rainfall at, i, 111-12 - - Cherries, drupes, xiii, 54; - origin and remarks, 224-5 - - Cherry Trees, xiii, 271-2; - lenticels on, 26 - - Chert, formation of, iii, 13 - - Chesapeake Bay, aerial fish patrol, i, 48; - drowned valley formation, xiv, 40, 255-6; - ducks of, xii, 257; - oysters of, 61; - ria coast, xiv, 257; - wave erosion in, iii, 56 - - Cheselden, William, x, 92, 123 - - Chest, diseases, studies of, x, 110, 112; - examination methods, 98-9, 108-9, 371, 373; - fixation of, 304-5 - - Chestnut Trees, family of, xiii, 193; - in American forests, xiv, 373 - - Chevrotains, xii, 313 - - Chewing, act of, ix, 82; - importance of, 227-8, 229, 230 - - Cheyne-Stokes Respiration, x, 340 - - Chiasmodus, xii, 24 - - Chicago, growth due to railways, xiv, 219; - level changes at, iii, 82; - sewage of, viii, 326; - terminals, electrification, vi, 162; - underground trolleys, vii, 12; - ventilation standards, viii, 332 - - Chicago Fire, dust from, i, 56 - - Chicago, Lake, iii, 148, 149 - - Chickadees, xii, 268 - - Chicken Cholera, inoculation for, x, 141-2, 208 - - Chicken Pox, immunity to, x, 207 - - Childbirth, among savages, xv, 278 - - Child Labor, factory system and, x, 244; - laws, remarks on, vii, 33 - - Children, adenoids in, ix, 224, x, 341-2; - artistic impulse in, xv, 296; - basal metabolism in, x, 271; - bones of, ix, 56, 57; - care in development of, 352; - care of, by state, xv, 290-1; - choice importance to, xi, 266-7; - clothes for, x, 308; - cold baths for young, 312; - convulsions in, ix, 133-4; - cretinism in, x, 349-50; - darkness effects on, 253; - dreams of, xi, 293; - ear troubles in, ix, 104; - education and environment importance, 344, 352; - exhaustion in, xi, 273; - foods for, ix, 33-4, 242, 295, x, 314-15; - grasping reflex, importance, xi, 43; - growth period, ix, 47-8; - habit acquisition, xi, 247, 249; - habit of evacuation in, ix, 252; - heart rate in, x, 334; - house-breaking, xi, 251-2; - imitation in, xv, 66-7; - language of, 142-3, 153; - malnutrition causes, ix, 228; - objection to sour tastes, 95; - relationships under polyandry, xv, 286, 294; - resemblance to parents (see Heredity); - savage attitude towards, 135, 195, 198; - skull growth in, 40; - soaps desirable for, x, 311; - suggestibility, xi, 307; - teeth, care of, ix, 228, x, 312-16; - transmission of nonhereditary characters to, ix, 343-4; - walking of, on what dependent, 351 - - Chile, Bolivia and, xiv, 306; - climate of, 358, 371; - coasts, 258, 265; - deserts of northern, xiii, 377; - nitrate fields, i, 34, 35, viii, 64, 72, 197, 280, xiv, 66; - temperate forests, xiii, 372 - - Chilled Iron, v, 241 - - Chilling, of body, x, 252-3, 306, 311; - effects, ix, 323 - - Chimborazo, Mount, formation, xiv, 225; - observatory site, ii, 149-50 - - Chimpanzees, xii, 383-4; - brain of, xv, 62 (fig.), 96; - expression of passion by, 65; - hand and foot in, 58-60; - mandible of, 94; - reasoning power in, 67-8; - skeleton compared to man's, 59 - - China, agriculture in north and south, xiv, 72-3; - ancient civilization, x, 13, xv, 123, 127; - beriberi in, ix, 35; - bubonic plague in, x, 165; - Cambrian deposits, iii, 184; - coal, in, 345; - coasts, xiv, 248, 251, 257; - corn growing, xiii, 212; - David's deer, xii, 316; - dust whirls, i, 60; - famines, xiv, 73; - fault-blocks of north, 125; - fishing with cormorants, xv, 223-4; - ginkgo tree, xiii, 315; - goral of, xii, 325; - gunpowder invention, v, 361; - hookworm in, x, 174; - influence on West, xiv, 357; - Jesuit survey, xvi, 123; - loess formations, i, 53-4, iii, 74, xiv, 63, 72-5; - medical education and Rockefeller Fund, x, 172; - medicine of ancient, 13; - meteorological service, i, 223; - mountain valley conditions, xv, 131; - opium and, xiii, 253; - plains and mountains, xiv, 217; - population distribution, 219; - rice-growing, xiii, 213, 214; - rivers of, xiv, 196; - shark's fins as food in, xii, 147; - smallpox inoculation in, x, 100, 207; - storm signals, i, 283; - sugar in, xiii, 215; - tea in, 227, 228; - temple orientation, ii, 26; - trees of, xiv, 377; - wheat in, xiii, 210 - (see also Chinese) - - China (pottery), viii, 283 - - China Clay, iii, 333 - - Chinch Bug, xii, 114 - - Chinchillas, xii, 289 - - Chinese, ancestor worship of, xv, 341; - ancient agriculture, xiii, 210; - ancient civilization, x, 13, xvi, 53, 54, 62; - ancient knowledge of cloves, xiii, 262; - ancient knowledge of lodestone, iv, 52, vi, 28; - calculating machines, xv, 183, xvi, 61; - finger nails of, xv, 260; - ideas of future life, 336; - ideas of eclipses, ii, 209; - in tropics, xiv, 356; - opium use, xiii, 253; - paper invention, v, 290; - prepotency in crosses, x, 230; - printing invention, v, 300-1, xv, 179; - use of feet by, 61; - veneration for writing among, 164; - well-water boiling, xiv, 140; - women, feet of, xv, 254-5, 260, 261 (fig.); - women, hairdressing of, 261 - - Chinese Astronomy, ii, 21-2, 331, xvi, 56-7 - - Chinese Language, xv, 170-1 - - Chinese Writing, xv, 169-72 - - Chinooks, i, 133, 369 - - Chipmunks, xii, 293-4 - - Chitin, xii, 39, 69 - - Chitons, xii, 58, 67 - - Chloramin, x, 181, 183 - - Chloramine T., x, 382 - - Chloride of Lime, viii, 333 - - Chlorides, halogen derivatives, viii, 210; - metal occurrence in, 130, 198 - - Chlorine, viii, 18, 22, 84-5, 181, 297-8; - as antiseptic, 333; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - bleaching by, vii, 354, viii, 86, 146, 256, 274; - gold reaction with, 174; - in body tissues, 354; - in silicates, viii, 193; - manufacture and uses, 274, 284; - molecular speed, 24; - obtained from salt, 138, 140, 275; - plant uses, 337, 341; - solubility, in water, 111; - tests, for, 286, 287, 290; - use in chemical warfare, 262-3, x, 186; - water disinfection by, viii, 86, 274, 319, 321 - - Chlorine Derivatives, viii, 210, 211-12, 231 - - Chlorite, iii, 326-7 - - Chloroform, viii, 52, 212; - as anesthetic, x, 125 - - Chlorophyll, ix, 26, 27, xii, 11-12, 14, xiii, 79-80, 81, 84; - absent in saprophytes, 99, 100; - action in plants, viii, 335 - - Chocolate, calories in, ix, 299; - history and production, xiii, 233-5 - - Choice, power and importance, xi, 260-3, 265-7; - power of, in muscular responses, ix, 95, 121, 140 - - Choke Coils, vii, 17, 50 - - Cholera, discovery of germ of, x, 149, xvi, 184; - former ideas of, x, 286; - from water pollution, viii, 318; - germ of, x, 195; - immunity to, 207; - inoculation against, 208; - racial susceptibility to, xv, 50, 51 - - Choleric Temperament, xi, 153 - - Cholesterin, ix, 275 - - Chordates, xii, 127-9; - coelom in, 27 - - Chords, major and minor, xi, 106-8 - - Chorea, epidemic of, in Europe, x, 60; - rheumatism and, 224; - Sydenham on, 74 - - Christianity, Locke's "rational," xvi, 115; - Roman and medieval development, 99-100 - - Christian Science, attitude toward pain, xi, 116; - source of power, 306 - - Christmas Trees, electric lighting, vii, 342 - - Chromatic Aberration, ii, 99-100 - - Chromatin, ix, 41, 42, 44-7, 328 - - Chrome Yellow, viii, 162 - - Chromium, viii, 154; - affinity strength, 128; - alloys of, 273; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - extraction from ores, 271; - specific gravity, 384; - test for, 287, 288-9; - use and occurrence, xiv, 238 - - Chromophor Group, viii, 258, 259 - - Chromosomes, ix, 46; - arrangement in pairs, 329, 330; - heredity controlled by, 328-41, x, 232-3; - human varieties, 233; - likeness in all cells, ix, 329; - number of, 46, 329, 339; - origin of energies, xvi, 145; - sex, ix, 339, x, 234, xvi, 156; - splitting of, in cell division, ix, 45 (fig.), 46-7, 332, 333 - - Chronic Diseases, wasting process of, x, 214 - - Chronometers, v, 65-7; - regulation to temperature changes, iv, 148 - - Chrysolite, iii, 334 - - Church, Prof. J. E., i, 118 - - Chyme, x, 325, 326 - - Cicadas, xii, 112 - - Cider, making of, viii, 249; - turning to vinegar, 218 - - Cigarette-smoking, dust particles from, i, 62 - - Cilia, of bronchial tubes, x, 202; - of simple animals, ix, 73-4 - - Cinchona, use of, in medicine, x, 154-5, xvi, 109 - - Cinchona Plantations, xiii, 251-2 - - Cincinnati, early growth, xiv, 219; - water supplies, viii, 318, 322 - - Cinder Cone, eruption, iii, 226 - - Cinder Cones, xiv, 100, 102 - - Cinematograph, in astronomy, i, 162, ii, 212 - - Cinnabar, iii, 327, 370 - - Cinnamon, xiii. 263-5 - - Circles, appearance of circumscribed, xi, 186; - divisions invented by Ptolemy, xvi, 94; - regarded as perfect curves, ii, 34, 49 - - Circuit Breakers, vi, 101-3, vii, 36, 37-48 - - Circuits, Electrical, kinds defined, vii, 364; - overloading of, vi, 9, 72; - primary and secondary, 9, 308; - proportioning of partial, iv, 300-1; - protection against overloaded, vii, 34-50 - - Circular Mils, iv, 282-3, 382 - - Circular Reflex, xi, 42; - in habit formation, 252-3 - - Circulation of Blood, ix, 195-200, 51 (diagram), x, 331, 337; - discovery, ix, 192, x, 61, 63-6, 69, xvi, 106-7; - discovery prepared by Vesalius, x, 51, 52; - efficiency, climatic effects on, x, 238-9; - former ideas of, 62-3, 65-6 - - Circumcision, among early Jews, x, 15; - untransmitted, 230 - - Circumzenithal Arc, i, 178, 180, 181, 369 - - Circues, iii, 66, xiv, 58 - - Cirro-Cumulus Clouds, i, 100, 103, 298 - - Cirro-Stratus Clouds, i, 99-100, 103, 179 - - Cirrus Clouds, i, 97, 99, 103, 179; - false, 102, 104, 372 - - Cirrus Haze, i, 100 - - Cities, aeroplanes to relieve congestion, i, 41-2; - climate, 333; - dependence on farms, vii, 221; - importance of lighting, vi, 279-80; - sewage disposal, viii, 324-9; - sites, favorable to, xiv, 219; - snow removal, i, 117, xiv, 140-1; - transportation facilities, vii, 198; - water supplies and purification, viii, 317-24; - white ways of, vii, 339-41 - - Citric Acid, viii, 222, 223; - formed by plants, 336; - solubility, 112 - - Citrus fruits, acids of, viii, 223 - - Civet (oil), xii, 353 - - Civets, xii, 351, 352-3, 354 - - Civilization, American, xv, 12, 131-2, 203; - arts and sciences in, iv, 9, 10; - climate and, xiv, 344, 357-62, xv, 31, 123-7, 383, xvi, 141; - clothing, shelter, and fire in, ix, 308-9, xv, 229; - conditions necessary to, 127-32; - development of, 3-4, 13-14, 28-31, 187-204; - dominant human impulses in, 185, 383; - earliest seats, xvi, 47; - evolution in, xv, 382, 383-4; - foresight and, 383; - geographic factors, xiv, 10, 31, xv, 122-3, 128-39; - government and, - 380; - historic and prehistoric periods, xv, 167, 322; - influence of environment on, 122-39; - labor and, 125-6; - measured by timepieces, v, 57; - medicine and, x, 31; - moral laws and, xvi, 45, 47-8; - natural laws and, xv, 47-8, 382-3; - specialization in, 131-2, 203; - stages of, 187-204; - struggle to establish high associations, xi, 204; - transportation and, v, 18; - various machines and, 300 - (see also Progress) - - Civilized Races, facial angle in, xv, 45; - feet of, 60-1; - jaws in, 43; - monogamy of, 289, 290, 295; - natural selection in, 47-8 - - Civil War, Appalachian mountaineers in, xiv, 243; - captive balloons in, v, 225; - improvement of weapons in, 362, 380; - medical service in, x, 180; - scurvy in, 265; - Selfridge's periscope, v, 200; - Virginia weather, i, 308, 338; - western rivers in, xiv, 194 - - Clams, xii, 58-60, 66-7; - shells of, iii, 272 - - Clam Shell Cove, Staffa, xiv, 130 - - Clans, formation of, xv, 362-3 - - Clarinet, iv, 234 - - Clark, Alvan, telescopes, ii, 106, 109, 143 - - Clarksburg, W. Va., deep well at, iii, 120 - - Clausius, xvi, 135 - - Clavichord, xv, 318 - - Claw Hammers, v, 25 - - Clay, composition and properties, viii, 90, 282; - composition, origin and uses, iii, 25, 372-3; - elasticity of, iv, 36; - imperviousness to water, xiv, 137; - in soils, iii, 27-8; - red, on sea bottom, 54; - residue of primary rock, viii, 195; - rock formed from, iii, 13 (see Shale) - - Clay Worm, xii, 54 - - Cleanliness, bathing for, ix, 313; - health and, x, 311; - in war against tuberculosis, 290; - ventilation factor, ix, 270 - - Cleansing, action of soap in, viii, 141-2; - chemicals used in, 135, 141, 146, 147, 208-9 - - Cleavage, of crystals, iii, 318, viii, 202; - of various minerals, iii, 321-41 - - Cleistogamous Flowers, xiii, 120 - - Clematis, as index plant, i, 255; - family of, xiii, 196 - - "Clermont," steamboat, v, 192, 377 - - Cleveland, Ohio, water supply system, v, 260-1; - water supplies and typhoid rate, viii, 322 - - Cliffs, formed by faulting, iii, 87-8, xiv, 38; - in inclined strata, xiv, 84-5, 88; - loess, iii, 74; - of jointed rocks, xiv, 133; - sea, 251; - undercut by wind, iii, 73 - - Climate, Climates, i, 197-211; - altitude effects, xiv, 220, 223; - carbon dioxide effects, viii, 49; - changes of, i, 199-202, xiv, 29-30, 360-2, xv, 72, 73, 74; - changes affecting drainage systems, xiv, 188; - changes, artificial, i, 345; - changes, extinction of races by, xv, 99; - changes in relation to plant distribution, xiii, 320, 321; - civilization, and, xiv, 344, 357-62, xv, 123-7, 383; - classification, i, 208; - data and statistics, 202-8, 214; - definitions, 199; - determining elements of, xiv, 344-56; - earth's internal heat and, 13; - effects, historical and biological, xvi, 141-2; - forest and prairie types, xiii, 348-9; - forest effects on, xiv, 379; - Gulf Stream effects, viii, 37; - hot, unhealthfulness of, x, 251; - human effects of, i, 316, 323-4, 327, 331; - human efficiency and, xiv, 357; - of past ages, iii, 172-4, 178, 184-5, 202, 203, 204, 220, 241, 246-8, - xiii, 307-8, xv, 72, 73, 74, 76; - of plateaus, xiv, 222-4; - plant societies determined by, xiii, 381-2; - rugged, effects on circulation, x, 238-9; - therapeutic value of, 383; - topographical effects of, xiv, 41-2, 51-2, 124; - vegetation determined by, 363-79, 380-1; - zones of, (see Zones) - - Climatic Charts, i, 206-8, 212-13 - - Climatography, i, 208, 369 - - Climatology, in therapeutics, x, 383; - present state, i, 211, 369 - - Climbing Plants, xiii, 27, 65; - in tropical forests, xiv, 368 - - Climographs, i, 324, 369 - - Clinton Iron Deposits, iii, 358 - - Clione, xii, 19 - - Clippers, old Atlantic, v, 188 - - Clocks, balance wheels of, v, 68; - Chaldean, xvi, 58; - electric regulation, v, 74; - first conceived in cathedral, 109; - historical development, 58-65; - Jerome's standardized, 50-1; - pendulum escapement, 73-4 - - Closed Circuits, defined, vii, 364 - - Cloth, making of, v, 268-83 - (see also Weaving) - - Clothes, Clothing, body heat regulation by, v, 348, ix, 308-9, 311-12; - civilization in relation to, ix, 308-9; - colds in relation to, x, 240, 253; - "habit" in, xi, 247; - hygiene of, x, 306-10; - infants, ix, 351-2; - origin and purposes of, x, 306, xv, 252-5; - primitive, v, 14, xv, 256-7; - touch sensations of, ix, 92; - warmth dependent on air insulation, iv, 178; - working, xi, 279, 362 - - Clothes-driers, centrifugal, iv, 73 - - Clotting of Blood, ix, 180, 189 - - Cloud Banners, i, 104-5, 369 - - Cloudberry, spread, xiii, 342 - - Cloudbursts, i, 109, 110, 111, 369, vii, 218; - destruction effected by, xiv, 41 - - Cloud Caps, i, 104-5, 369 - - Cloudiness, measurement, i, 85 - - Clouds, i, 90-105; - aviation in, 300-2; - Brocken specters in, 185; - earth heat retention by, iv, 183, 184; - electrical discharges, vii, 18, 207-10, 213; - electrification, i, 150, 151, vii, 206, 207, 217; - electrification of earth by, iv, 269, 270; - formation and kinds, i, 90-105; - formation, cause of rapid, viii, 304; - formed by forest fires, i, 333; - heights, 17-18, 103-4; - light diffraction by, 183, 185; - noctilucent, 17-18, 58, 377; - none in stratosphere, 20; - observation at weather stations, 85-6; - paintings of, 105; - pictures, where obtainable, 103; - self-luminous, 149; - snow and rain without, 119; - thunderstorm, vii, 217 - - Clouet, steel experiment, xvi, 174 - - Cloven-footed Animals, xii, 310 - - Clover, fertilization, xiii, 138; - nitrogen fixation, by, viii, 74, xiv, 66; - sleeping of leaves, xiii, 113 - - Clover Seed, method of gathering, v, 240 - - Cloves, Clove Trees, xiii, 262-3 - - Club Mosses, fixity and variation, xiii, 326, 327; - history, 305-6, 307, 314, 317, 323; - number of species, 323; - present and former species, iii, 254, xiii, 306, 308 - - Clutches, automobile, vii, 143; - electromagnetic, vi, 104 - - Cnidus, School, of, x, 22-3 - - Coagulation, by cooking, viii, 368; - of colloids, 315; - of proteins, 352 - - Coal, "Blue," v, 174; - carbon dioxide from, amount, i, 13; - conversion to electric power, vi, 216; - deposits in mountains, xiv, 237; - deposits in U. S., iii, 345-8; - excavating by machine, v, 262; - formation, iii, 198-201, 253-4, 343-5, viii, 44-5, xiii, 10, 68, - 311-13; - handling in power plants, v, 353-4, 357; - heat measurement, viii, 360-1; - heat value, iv, 193; - importance, iii, 343, 345-8; - kinds, 344; - not a mineral, 307; - Permian deposits, 204; - specific gravity of, iv, 112; - supply, use, and waste, iii, 346, v, 171-2, vi, 352, viii, 283; - water power and, xiv, 191; - "white," v, 76; - work value, how estimated, iv, 189-90, 193-4 - - Coal Age, iii, 202; - insects of 279; - landscape of, 272 (Pl. 15); - length and antiquity, xiii, 314; - plants, iii, 253-4, xiii, 307-11, 315-16 - (see also Pennsylvanian Period) - - Coal Dust, as engine fuel, v, 156, 212; - explosions, i, 63 - - Coal Gas, in balloons, v, 223; - liquefaction of, iv, 171 - - Coal Gas Engines, v, 155 - - Coal Mines, compressed air uses, i, 26 - (see also Mines) - - Coal Series, iii, 344-5; - carbonization in, viii, 44 - - Coal Tar, production and products, viii, 252-4; - saving of, 47 - - Coal Tar Hydrocarbons, as motor fuels, viii, 209 - - Coastal Plains, xiv, 213-14, 215 - - Coast Range Mountains, geology of, iii, 89, 94-6, 130, 224, xiv, 127-8, - 229 - - Coast Range Revolution, iii, 224 - - Coasts, xiv, 246-71; - Atlantic and Pacific types, 247-50; - compound, 254, 264; - cycles of development, 254-5; - economic importance, 264-5; - emerged, iii, 56-7, xiv, 253, 262-3; - hanging valleys on, 57-8; - historical effects of, 249-50; - neutral, 248, 254, 263-4; - photographic mapping, i, 47-8; - regular and irregular, iii, 56-7, xiv, 250-3, 255; - submerged, iii, 57, xiv, 253, 255-62; - wave destruction of, iii, 55-8, xiv, 44-7, 216, 301-3 - - Coatzacoalcos, harbor of, xiv, 266 - - Cobalt, viii, 154; - affinity strength, 128; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - classification place, 178, 183; - magnetic susceptibility, iv, 251; - ores, viii, 198, 270; - specific gravity, 384; - test for, 287, 289 - - Coblenz, Roman name, xiv, 89 - - Cobras, xii, 226-9; - mongooses and, 352 - - Cocaine, an alkaloid, viii, 240; - history and uses, xiii, 254-5; - taste sensations reduced by, xi, 72 - - Cocci, (bacteria), x, 195 - - Cochineal, source, xii, 112 - - Cockatoos, xii, 266; - Arara, v, 9-10 - - Cocklebur, xiii, 57 (fig.), 343 - - Cockroaches, xii, 107; - ancient, iii, 279, xii, 104 - - Cocoa, xiii, 235; - American origin, xiv, 382; - source, 383; - polyuria induced by, x, 344 - - Cocoa Butter, viii, 246 - - Coco de Mer, xiii, 60, 154 - - Coconino Forest, xiv, 373-4, 378 - - Coconut Oil, ix, 28, xv, 125 - - Coconut Palm, xiii, 219-20, 244, xv, 125; - chatties, intoxication from, xii, 371; - on coral islands, 42; - fossil found in France, xiii, 319; - seed dispersal by, 59, 346 - - Coconuts, character, uses, and production, xiii, 219-20; - double, of Seychelles Islands, 60; - gathering of, by monkeys, xii, 378; - source and uses, xv, 125; - unaffected by sea water, xii, 42 - - Cocoons, xii, 118 - - Coction, x, 21, 40 - - Cod (fish), xii, 163-4; - eggs of, 141 - - Cod Liver Oil, vitamines in, x, 261 - - Coefficient of Expansion, iv, 145, vi, 265 - - Coelenterates, iii, 259, 266-7, xii, 26, 33-43 - - Coelom, xii, 27, 48 - - Coeur d'Alene Mining District, iii, 362-3, 368 - - Coffee, history and production, xiii, 231-3; - insomnia from drinking of, ix, 219; - polyuria induced by, 274-5, x, 344 - - Cog Wheels, v, 29; - screw and, iv, 92, 93 (fig.) - - Coils, electromagnetic, vi, 92, 93, 98-9; - form-wound, 202, 223; - induction, vii, 364; - primary and secondary, iv, 304, 383, vi, 308, vii, 364; - resistance, 364 - - Coins, chemical analysis of, viii, 286, 291; - copper alloys in, 164, 171; - gold and silver, making of, iv, 150 - - Coke, discovery, v, 315-16; - manufacture and use, viii, 46-7, 252 - - Col (meteorology), i, 238, 369 - - Cold, body regulation to, x, 250; - clothing as protection against, 306; - comparative degree of, v, 345; - physiological effects of, ix, 37, 78-9, 319-20, x, 239, 252-3, 271; - "production" of, v, 345-7; - sensation of, ix, 93-4, 319-21, xi, 109, 112-13, 114; - skin defense against, 113 - - Cold Air Machines, v, 352-3 - - Cold Baths, ix, 313, 321-2, x, 240, 253, 312, 383 - - Cold-Blooded Animals, ix, 305; - diseases of, x, 206; - heart of, ix, 84; - temperature changes and, 78-9, 306-7, x, 250 - - Colds, air during epidemics of, viii, 332; - catching of, ix, 322-3, x, 239, 252-3, 306; - diseases from, 253; - ears affected by, ix, 103; - from uncleanliness, x, 311; - head, 341; - infectiousness, i, 326; - susceptibility of men and women to, x, 240; - taste sensations in, xi, 73 - - Cold Storage, iv, 187-8, viii, 371; - effect on vitamines, x, 263; - electrical, vii, 229-30 - (see also Refrigeration) - - Cold Sweat, xi, 131, 132 - - Cold Waves, i, 370; - prediction of, 239 - - Coleus, xiii, 42, 79, 205 - - Collectors, electrical, i, 144, 370 - - Collection Stage, xv, 187, 188-91 - - College Students, study habits, xi, 212, 289 - - Collodion, making of, viii, 255 - - Colloids, viii, 314-16, 375; - origin of life from, xii, 11-12; - relation of water to, viii, 355-6 - - Colonnaded Spectrum, ii, 115 - - Color--Colors, chemistry of, viii, 85-6, 258, 259, 312; - complementary, iv, 366-7, xi, 91-4; - contrast, ix, 95; - determined by vibration rate, 114, 115; - distance effects, xi, 182; - flame, viii, 301; - heat absorption by, x, 309; - hue, tint, and saturation, xi, 90; - illusions of, in different lights, iv, 323, 324, 370, 379-80; - induction of, xi, 94-5; - in interior decoration, vi, 273, 274-5; - memory, xi, 220-1; - mineral identification by, viii, 201-2; - mixtures, iv, 369, xi, 92-3; - neutralization, 91-3; - of glass, viii, 282; - of objects, iv, 364, xvi, 119; - of pigments, iv, 369-70; - perception and sensation of, 360-1, 364-5, 366, vi, 282, ix, 114-17, - xi, 89-90, 91-2, 95-6; - physical effects, 63, 96; - primary, iv, 366, xi, 90; - psychological effects, vi, 273, 274-5; - racial classification by, xv, 32-34, 36-7; - rainbow, i, 175, ix, 115; - spectrum, iv, 357-9; - sunrise and sunset, i, 166, 167-8; - temperatures for different, iv, 361; - wave lengths of, 359, 360, 365, xi, 90; - white light, (see White Light) - - Colorado, arid topography of, xiv, 42; - glaciers of, 54; - Jurassic strata of, xii, 165; - mining products, iii, 362, 363, 364, 366 - - Colorado Plateau, iii, 140, 229-30 - - Colorado River, navigability, xiv, 195; - Salton Sink and, iii, 156-7, xiv, 205; - superimposed character, 173; - water supply of, 182 - (see also Grand Canyon of the Colorado) - - Color Blindness, ix, 116, xi, 93; - inheritance of, ix, 340-1, x, 234; - in men and women, ix, 340-1 - - Colored Hearing, xi, 222 - - Color-Index of Stars, ii, 297-8 - - Color Photography, iv, 368-9 - - Color Printing, iv, 370-1; - in newspapers, v, 304 - - Color Vision, iv, 364-5; - inheritance of, ix, 340; - limits of, iv, 360-1; - theory of, x, 96 - (see also Colors) - - Colt Gun, v, 363-4 - - Columbia Plateau, iii, 105, 181, 227-8, xiv, 104, 164, 170, 172, 188 - - Columbia River, xiv, 174-5; - canyon of, iii, 39, 226, 228, xiv, 165-6; - navigability, 195; - salmon of, xii, 157 - - Columbine, fertilization, xiii, 126-8; - flowers, 196 - - Columbium, atomic weight and symbol, viii, 383 - - Columbus, compass troubles of, iv, 52-3, vi, 27; - debt to early scientists, ii, 12, 13, 40; - discovery of America, xiv, 309; - Genoese birth, 310; - in Sargasso Sea, xiii, 73; - on rubber balls in Haiti, 245; - potatoes found by, 218, 219; - syphilis introduced by sailors of, x, 60; - tobacco-using seen by, xiii, 256; - trade winds on voyage, i, 128-9 - - Columnar Structure, iii, 111, 212 - - Combustion, iv, 138; - chemistry of, viii, 11-13, 53-63, 100; - heat of, 308; - oxygen and, i, 10; - oxygen and, viii, 35-6, 61; - power developed by, ix, 15-16 - - Comets, ii, 273-82; - asteroids and, 258; - dangers to earth, 279-80; - disintegration, 286-7, 288; - families related to planets, 270-1; - first scientific studies, 40, 41, 57; - former ideas, 83-4, 85; - habitability, ii, 250-1; - in relation to solar system, 164; - Newton's views, 85; - orbits discovered, 85; - orbits and meteor streams, 287; - photographic study, 134; - Seneca on, 85; - solar corona and, 224; - various particular, 280-1, 286 - (see also Halley's Comet) - - Commensalism, xii, 32 - - Commerce, ocean, development of, xiv, 305-11 - - Commercial Meteorology, i, 261-70 - - Common Salt, composition and properties, iii, 332, vi, 109-10, 111, - viii, 84; - deposits, iii, 332, 374-5, viii, 139-40, 196, xiv, 141; - deposits from atmosphere, i, 59-60; - in body fluids, ix, 174, 175; - in diet, x, 256; - in ground water, xiv, 142; - in protoplasm, ix, 32; - in sea and inland waters, iii, 51-2, 152-3, 154-5, 332, 374, viii, - 138-9, 195-6, xiv, 206, 295-7; - mixture with ice, temperature resulting, iv, 175; - physical and chemical divisions, 21; - plants and, xiv, 364; - production, iii, 374, 375, viii, 140, 275; - refining of, for table, xiv, 296; - size of molecules, vi, 112; - taste of, xi, 70, 71, 72; - uses, iii, 332, viii, 138, 140, 276-7 - (see also Sodium Chloride) - - Commutators, electrical, iv, 308, vi, 159, 177-9, 344-5; - use and construction, vii, 364-5 - - Como, Lake, iii, 146 - - Comparisons, measuring by, vii, 341 - (see also Contrasts) - - Compass, (Gyroscopic), iv, 254-5, v, 201, 340, 384 - - Compass (Magnetic), vii, 365; - compensation on iron ships, iv, 254, v, 340, vi, 42; - development, xvi, 102; - deviation, defined, iv, 247, vi, 42; - disturbances accompanying aurora, i, 161; - electric current effects, vi, 20, 88; - invention, 29; - magnet effects, 27, 32, 42-3; - modern improvements, 41-2; - needle, pointing and declination of, iv, 246-7, - (see also Magnetic Needle); - sun disturbances, vi, 40; - variation, defined, iv, 247; - variations on voyage of Columbus, 52-3, vi, 27 - (see also Mariner's Compass) - - Compensators, electrical, vi, 253-5 - - "Complete Recall," xi, 378 - - Complexes, mental, x, 355-6; - in hysteria, 361, 362 - - Composing Machines (see Linotype, Monotype) - - Composition of Forces, iv, 75-7 - - Compostella, Spain, shrine at, xii, 65 - - Compounds, Chemical, viii, 16, 100, 375; - analysis of, 285-95; - colors of, 312; - combustion of, 61; - constancy, 110, xvi, 160; - contrasted with mixtures, viii, 15; - decomposition, 101-2; - electrical balance, 121; - formation types, 20, 100; - formulæ, 91; - metallic, 130, 146; - molecular weights, 92; - multiple proportions law, 110; - nomenclature, 97-8; - organic (see Organic Compounds); - substitution in, 102; - unstable, 66; - with water, 20, 38-9 - - Compound-Wound Dynamos, vi, 187, 188-9, 191-2 - - Compound-Wound Motors, vi, 233-5 - - Comprehensive Terms, xi, 191 - - Compressed Air, applications and uses, i, 25-6, 27-9, iv, 30-2, 106, - 129-31, v, 111-38; - discovery, 109-11; - expansion effects, cooling by, iv, 191, v, 128-9, 351-3, xiv, 14; - heat of, v, 126-8, 161, 351; - methods of compression, 89-93, 126-7, 174; - physiological effects, i, 329, iv, 31-2, v, 119-21; - pressures used, i, 27 - - Compressed Air Locomotives, i, 26, 27, iv, 129, v, 133 - - Compression, heat of, i, 90, v, 126-8, 161, 351 - - Compressors, Air, v, 89-93, 127, 351 - - Compte, on sciences, x, 368 - - Comstock Mines, Nevada, iii, 366, 368; - temperature in, 121 - - Concentration, chemical, viii, 310-11; - mental, xi, 235-6, 378-9 - - Conchs, xii, 72-3, 73-4 - - Concordant Coasts, xiv, 248, 249 - - Concrete Buildings, value in earthquakes, xiv, 343 - - Concrete Dams, expansion joints, v, 71 - - Concrete Sciences, xvi, 42 - - Concrete Ships, v, 194-5 - - Concubinage, xv, 289, 290 - - Condensed Milk, scurvy from, x, 266 - - Condensers, electrical, iv, 265-7, vi, 170-4, 301-5, vii, 365; - applications, vi, 285-6; - capacity of, iv, 267-8; - dielectric, vii, 366 (see Dielectric); - discharge methods, iv, 267, vii, 366; - in automobiles, vii, 138-9; - oscillating currents, 373-4; - plate, vi, 170, 293-4, 295; - purpose, vii, 363; - synchronous, vi, 262; - use in wireless communication, iv, 314, vii, 263, 264, 266, 267 - - Condensers, Steam, v, 145, vi, 354-6 - - Condiments, as foods, viii, 362, 366; - effects on stomach, ix, 243-4; - sources, xiii, 265 - - Conditioned Reflex, xi, 198-201, 204; - in advertising, 348; - in habit formation, 251-2; - in hypnotism, 321-2 - - Condors, xii, 260 - - Conduct, rules of, how enforced, xv, 374-5 - - Conduction, of heat, iv, 138, 177, 178-9 - - Conductors (electrical), iv, 259, vi, 77, 294; - acids and bases as, viii, 122, 123; - air, i, 144-5; - copper, viii, 164; - discovery, vi, 13; - for radio currents, vii, 296; - resistance of, iv, 281-2 (see Resistance); - tabular information, vii, 377-84; - temperature effects on, iv, 301; - various materials as, 283 - - Conductors, (heat), iv, 176, 177, 179 - - Conduit Wiring Systems, vii, 55-60, 365 - - Condyle, xii, 239 - - Confectionery, poppy seed used in, xiii, 250, 254; - pure food law on, viii, 370-1 - - Confidence, psychological effects, xi, 212-13 - - Conglomerate, iii, 13, 377; - sedimentary rock, xiv, 18 - - Congo River, connections with Nile sources, xiv, 186-7; - furrow of, 287; - ocean slope at mouth of, 24; - varied course, 155 - - Congo River Basin, hippopotamus of, xii, 310; - okapi of, 321 - - Congo Tribes, habits of, xv, 225, 370 - - Conies, xii, 288, 304 - - Conifers, xiii, 174, 178; - American forests of, xiv, 371, 372, 374; - ancestors of modern, xiii, 310; - first appearance, iii, 256; - number of species, xiii, 323; - transitional form, 318 - (see also Gymnosperms) - - Conjugated Proteins, viii, 352 - - Connecticut, drainage studies, xiv, 131; - oyster industry, xii, 61 - - Connecticut River, course, iii, 234; - preglacial valley, xiv, 60 - - Connecticut Valley, down warping of, iii, 210; - igneous rock formations, xiv, 107, 111; - lava deposits, iii, 212; - origin, 232; - rocks under, 213 (fig.); - tracks of extinct animals in, 16, 291; - volcanic action in, xiv, 318 - - Connecting Nerve Cells, ix, 127, 128 (fig.), 129, 130; - of brain, 148-9, 150-1 - (see also Connector Neurones) - - Connective Tissue, ix, 13, 58-9; - growth of, 287; - in muscles, 75, 79; - ligaments formed of, 71; - making of, 54; - scars formed by, 48, 287 - - Connective Tissue Skeleton, ix, 71-2 - - Connector Neurones, xi, 21; - in brain, 31-2, 200; - in spinal cord, 26; - development in embryo, 35 - (see also Connecting Nerve Cells) - - Conscious Life, parts concerned in, ix, 21-2 - - Consciousness, in mental life, xi, 47; - habit and, 253-5; - motor response and, 27-8, 123-4, 202; - psychology as science of, 10-11; - "stream" of, 193 - - Consequent Streams, xiv, 157, 174 - - Conservation, technical meaning, iv, 382 - - Conservation of Energy, iv, 40-1, vi, 128; - establishment of doctrine, xvi, 131; - remarks on doctrine, iv, 9 - - Conservation of Resources, coal, v, 172, viii, 283; - forest, vi, 366, xiii, 9, 371-2, xiv, 382; - petroleum supply, vii, 309; - soil, xiv, 64 - - Constantinesco, George, v, 107-8 - - Constantin Metal, vi, 77 - - Constipation, causes and treatment, ix, 250-2; - chronic, x, 316-17, 328-9; - hyperacidity caused by, 322 - - Contact Catalysis, viii, 82-3, 103, 316 - - Contact Senses, ix, 86, 91-5; - connections with brain, 142 - - Contempt, sentiment of, xi, 148 - - Continental Climates, i, 208, 370, xiv, 346, 347 - - Continental Islands, xiv, 271-6, 278-81 - - Continental Platforms, major relief features, xiv, 9, 27; - margins and slopes, 25, 287-8 - - Continental Rivers, xiv, 153 - - Continental Shelves, iii, 52, xiv, 287; - area covered by, iii, 52, xiv, 26; - breadth of, 25, 285; - cutting of, by waves, iii, 55-6, xiv, 46-7; - deposits on, iii, 53, xiv, 284-5 - - Continental Slope, xiv, 287-8; - deposits on, iii, 53 - - Continents, average elevation of, xiv, 26-7; - climate on opposite sides, 346; - distinction from islands, 23; - drainage systems, - 190; - former connections, xiii, 320, xiv, 290; - former submergence, iii, 216, xiv, 19-20; - present, never covered by deep sea, iii, 55; - rate of wearing away, xiv, 41; - tides modified by, 292 - - Continuity, of action, xi, 264-5; - of training, 257 - - Contrast, association by, xi, 197; - attention aroused by, 344; - effect on tastes, 72; - illusions of, 189 - - Convection, iv, 139, 178-9, 185 - - Converters, electrical, vi, 162, 332-48, vii, 365; - speed-limiting devices, 48; - in traction systems, 199, 365 - - Convolutions of Brain, xv, 62, 63, xi, 29 - - Convulsions, production of, ix, 133-4 - - Cook, Capt. James, xvi, 123; - story of Polynesian, xv, 124 - - Cooke, Dr. R. P., x, 161 - - Cooking, chemistry of, viii, 367-9; - development of art of, xv, 13, 195, 232-3; - effect on vitamines, ix, 36, x, 263, 266; - frying habit, ix, 286; - good, advantages to digestion, 241-2; - "pressure cookers," iv, 171; - use and advantages, xv, 229 - - Cooking (electric), vii, 89; - special rates for, 174; - in U. S. Navy, 332-3 - - Cooking Utensils, aluminum, viii, 155; - copper, 164 - - Coolidge Tube, x, 185 - - Cooling, contraction by, iv, 134-5, viii, 107-8; - dynamic, i, 90 - (see also Expansion, cooling by); - use of water in, viii, 37; - water changes in, iv, 149, 150-1, viii, 38 - (see also Refrigeration) - - Coon Bear, xii, 338 - - Cooper, Astley, x, 129-30 - - Coordinates, iv, 16 - - Copal, in varnishes, viii, 265 - - Copepods, xii, 18, 84 - - Copernican Theory, ii, 43-4; - aided by Pythagorean teachings, xvi, 82; - establishment of, iv, 95; - Galileo and, ii, 54, 56; - Kepler, and, 49; - not accepted at once, 45, 46, 60, 311 - - Copernicus, ii, 42-4, iv, 19, xvi, 102; - as astrologer, ii, 21; - "De Revolutionibus," 12, 43; - ideas of motion, 63; - on speed and orbits of planets, 49; - studies in Italy, 12 - - Copper, affinity intensity, viii, 128, 164; - alloys, 164, 171, 273; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - density of, iv, 113; - electrical conductivity, iv, 283, vi, 77, 79, 80, viii, 164; - electrical positiveness, vi, 59; - electric welding of, iv, 312; - electrochemical analysis, viii, 295; - extraction methods, 270-1; - fungicide uses, 170; - formerly mined in New Jersey, xiv, 112; - heat conductivity, iv, 176, 179; - melting point and requirements, 162, viii, 384; - name, origin of, xv, 157; - native, iii, 327; - occurrence and production, 360-2, viii, 129, 130-1, 163, 198, xiv, - 237, 288; - refining of, vii, 319-20, viii, 166-7, 272; - specific heat of, iv, 155; - specific gravity, viii, 384; - tests for, 286, 287, 288; - uses, iii, 359-60, viii, 126-7, 163-4, 167; - valences of, 94, 189 - - Copper Bromide, color, viii, 123 - - Copper Chloride, color, viii, 123; - electrolysis of, 124 - - Copperhead Snakes, xii, 233 - - Copper-Plating, vii, 314-15, 317-18, viii, 165-6 - - Copper Pyrites, iii, 326 - - Copper Smelting, smoke precipitation, vii, 347 - - Copper Sulphate, color, viii, 123; - electrolysis of, 125; - uses, 146, 332; - used in Egyptian medicine, x, 12; - water and, mixture of, iv, 131 - - Copper Wire, for electrical transmission, vi, 77, 79, 80, vii, 20, 22-3, - 104; - standard tables, 378-80; - table of carrying capacities, 381 - - Copra, xiii, 220, xv, 125 - - Coquina Rock, viii, 152 - - Coral Reefs, xii, 40-2, xiv, 263-4; - formed in shallow water, iii, 53, xiv, 276; - oceanic islands built of, 276, 277; - temperature limitations, 263-4, 305, xii, 40 - - Corals, iii, 259, 266, 267-8, xii, 38-43; - calcium carbonate in, viii, 151; - false, xii, 47 - - Coral Snakes, xii, 213, 225-6 - - Corbeil, Gilles de, x, 37 - - Corcovado Peak, xiv, 112 - - Cordage, sources, xiii, 238-41 - - Cordaitales, xiii, 310, 317 - - Cordaites, iii, 255, 256 - - Cordova, university of, xvi, 100 - - Cores, in electric machines, vii, 365 - - Cork, specific gravity of, iv, 109, 112 - - Cormorants, xii, 253; - fish-catching with, xv, 223-4 - - Corn, American origin, xiii, 182, 211, 212, 221, 222; - economic importance, 208; - food value, viii, 364, 365, x, 262, 278, 279; - grains of, fruits, xiii, 56; - in grass family, 179; - leaves of, 32, 176; - monocotyledon, 178; - stalks, glucose from, ix, 230; - stalk structure, xiii, 26; - starch manufacture from, viii, 243; - time to plant, i, 255; - tryptophane in, viii, 351; - weather best for, i, 245-8 - (see also Indian Corn) - - Corn Crakes, xii, 262 - - Cornea, of eye, ix, 109, 110 (fig.), xi, 84, 85; - astigmatism of, ix, 113-14; - no warm spots in, xi, 112 - - Cornets, iv, 231 - - Corn Flour, vitamines in, x, 267 - - Corn-Harvesting Machines, v, 249 - - Corn Syrup, as food, ix, 292; - vitamines in, x, 262 - - Corolla, xiii, 45; - absent in some plants, 46, 182; - evolution of, 201 - - Corona Discharge (electricity), vii, 10-11, 23 - - Corona of Sun, ii, 219-26, 184; - appearance in eclipses, 213-14; - comets and, 281; - photographic studies, 128, 129; - rotation, 121; - study of, proposed method, 225-6; - study in various eclipses, 211-12, 214, 218 - - Coronas, atmospheric, i, 183-4, 370 - - Coronium, discovery, ii, 211, 223 - - Corposants, i, 157-8 - - Corrasion, defined, iii, 29; - by ice, 63-4; - by sand, 72; - in Grand Canyon, 40; - potholes formed by, 39-40 - - Correlation, mathematical, i, 253 - - Correlation of Energy, iv, 40 - - Corries, of Scotland, xiv, 58 - - Corrigan, John, x, 112 - - Corrosion, chemical, viii, 10, 13, 100; - Electrolytic (see Electrolytic Corrosion) - - Corrosive Sublimate, viii, 170 - - Cort, Henry, v, 316 - - Corti, Organ of, xi, 102 - - Corundum, iii, 327-8 - - Corvisart, x, 110 - - Corymb, flower-form, xiii, 50 - - Coryza, x, 295, 341 - - Cos, School of, x, 21-2; - influence in middle ages, 37 - - Cosmogony, defined, ii, 362; - theories, ancient and modern, 366-84, xvi, 58, 76-9, 80, 81-2, 84 - - Cossacks, bows and arrows of, xv, 214 - - Cotopaxi, Mount, xiv, 225 - - Cotton, as clothing material, ix, 311, x, 307, 308, 309; - cultivation, xiii, 238; - dyes for, viii, 259; - fiber, 229, 254, ix, 30, xiii, 237; - fiber to fabric, v, 269-83; - humidity effects, i, 78; - importance, xiii, 208, 235, 236; - kinds, v, 269, xiii, 236; - Mediterranean origin, xxiv, 382; - mercerized, viii, 255; - preparation for manufacture, xiii, 237-8; - removal of, from wool, viii, 255; - vegetable silk from, 255-6 - - Cotton Cloth, making of, v, 269-83 - - Cotton Crop, forecasts, i, 251 - - Cotton Gin, Macarthy's, xiii, 238; - Whitney's v, 269-71, 376 - - Cotton Plant, xiii, 236-7 - - Cotton Seed, uses, xiii, 238 - - Cottonseed Oil, viii, 246; - solidified, 232, 247 - - Cottrell, Dr., vii, 216 - - Cotyledons, xiii, 60; - classification by, 176 - - Cougars, xii, 363 - - Coughing, reflex action, ix, 135, 258, xi, 20 - - Coulomb, electric quantity unit, iv, 280, 284, vi, 17, 69, 82, vii, 365, - 374 - - Coulomb, C. A., electrical work, vi, 17-18, xvi, 122; - quantity unit named for, iv, 280 - - Countertrade Winds, i, 130, 366 - - Counter Voltage, vii, 365; - in motors, vi, 226-8, 232, 233, 236 - - Counting (see Numbers) - - Country Rock, definition and character, xiv, 105 - - Courage, motor origin, xi, 61 - - Courtship, among animals and birds, xv, 274-5 - - Cows, domesticating qualities, xv, 197; - fat production by, ix, 298; - milking by electricity, vii, 222, 226-7 - - Cow's Milk, for infants, ix, 33-4, 346 - - Cowries, xii, 73 - - Coyote, xii, 340 - - Crabs, iii, 260, 276, 279, xii, 85-7; - deep sea, 23; - hard and soft-shelled, 83; - "no-body," 89; - sponges and, 32 - - Cramps, from cold baths, ix, 313; - significance, xi, 120 - - Cranberry, bogs, xiii, 382; - origin, 225; - ovary, 202 - - Cranes, (birds), xii, 262 - - Cranes, hydraulic, v, 101-2, 106 - - Cranial Nerves, ix, 131, 132, 142, xi, 29-31, 76; - doggerel verse on, 214 - - Crater Lakes, iii, 155, xiv, 101, 203 - - Craters, formation of, xiv, 101-2; - of Hawaiian volcanoes, iii, 104, 105, xiv, 322; - of Mount Katmai, iii, 101, (fig.) - - Crawfish, xii, 87 - - Creation, ancient conceptions, ii, 366, xvi, 77 - - Creative Imagination, xi, 225-7 - - Creepers (birds), xii, 268 - - Creeping Speedwell, xiii, 28 - - Creodonts, xii, 332, 339, 366, 375 - - Creosote, constituents, viii, 333; - source, xiii, 255 - - Crepuscular Rays, i, 169, 370 - - Cress, xiii, 197, 222 - - Cresylic Acid, viii, 238, 253, 333 - - Cretaceous Peneplain, iii, 232 - - Cretaceous Period, iii, 214-20; - animals and plants of, 20, 256-7, 266, 295-6, 292, 297, xii, 154, 202, - 210, 242-3, 275; - first mammals in, xv, 71 - - Crete, ancient meteor in, ii, 284; - early civilization of, xiv, 281; - elevation changes, 33; - Phaestos disk, xv, 176 (fig.) - - Cretinism, x, 350 - - Crevasses, formation, iii, 63; - cirques from, 66 - - Crex Rugs, xiii, 188, 236 - - Cribo, (snake), xii, 219 - - Crickets, xii, 110 - - Crile, Dr. George W., on emotion effects, xi, 135-6; - on fear in animals, 136; - on kinetic system, 57-60; - on laughter, 355, 356; - on pain, 119, 120; - on suppressed desires, 141-2 - - Crime, hypnosis and, xi, 320; - of crowds, 329-31; - punishment of, among primitive peoples, xv, 369-75, 379-80; - street lighting and, vi, 279 - - Crinoids, xii, 23, 49 - - Cripple Creek Gold District, iii, 367 - - Crisis, in diseases, Hippocratic doctrine, x, 21 - - Critical Period, of crops, i, 248-50, 370 - - Critical Pressure, iv, 171-3 - - Critical Temperatures, i, 29, iv, 171-2, viii, 303-4; - of various substances, iv, 173 - - Crocker Land, i, 173 - - Crocodiles, xii, 182, 196, 198-202; - resemblance to tuatera, 184; - sleeping sickness due to, x, 169; - ziczacs and, xii, 263 - - Cro-Magnons, xv, 99-102, xvi, 50; - art of, xv, 110-21; - implements of, 109 - - Crompton, mule-spinner of, v, 274, 376 - - Cromwell, sea captain, v, 305 - - Crookes, Sir William, cathode ray studies, x, 184, xvi, 165, 193; - on nitrogen needs, i, 34; - theory of fourth state of matter, iv, 54-5, xvi, 193; - vacuum tubes named for, iv, 317 - - Crookes Tube, iv, 317, vi, 114, vii, 251; - electron study in, xvi, 193; - fluorescence in, iv, 380; - phenomena of, 50; - X-ray discovery and uses, x, 184, 185 - - Crop Forecasts, i, 250-2 - - Crops, critical period, i, 248-50, 370; - rotation of, viii, 342-6; - sun spots and, ii, 186; - weather and, i, 245-50, 252-3 - - Crossbows, xv, 215 - - Crosses, inheritance of characters in, ix, 333-7, x, 231-2, xiii, 332 - - Crossfell, helm and bar of, i, 105, 374 - - Cross Fertilization (plants), methods to insure, xiii, 120-54; - variations due to, 331-3 - - Croton Bugs, xii, 107 - - Croton Dam, iv, 119, 120 (fig.) - - Croup, antitoxin in, x, 298 - - Crowberry, spread of, xiii, 342 - - Crow Blackbird, coloring of, xii, 245 - - Crowd-poisoning, i, 321 - - Crowds, psychology of, xi, 323-33; - leaders of, 332-3; - legal responsibility, 329-31 - - Crucibles, graphite, viii, 43; - platinum, 173 - - Crucible Steel Process, vii, 312 - - Cruickshank, William, electrical work, xvi, 122 - - Cruickshank, Wm. Cumberland, medical work, xvi, 179 - - Crusaders, coffee not known to, xiii, 232; - heroic crowds, xi, 326; - paper introduced by, v, 290 - - Crusades, effect on medicine, x, 37; - horse improvement by, xii, 307 - - Crust of Earth, xiv, 16; - chemical constituents, iii, 308, viii, 19, 90, 118, 129, 138-9, 148, - 190-1, 192; - chemistry of, 190-203; - layers in, 191-2; - movements, iii, 76-98, xiv, 31-2, 33-9, 341 - (see also Earth Movements); - rocks in iii, 12-14, 110-12, xiv, 17-19; - settling, cause of brontides, 196; - specific gravity, xiv, 11; - theory of formation, iii, 160; - thickness, 17, viii, 191-2; - waters in, iii, 113-29 - - Cryptograms, xiii, 63; - cycads and, 309; - earliest plants, 303; - forests of, of Silurian, xv, 71; - in coal age, xiii, 310; - numbers, 168; - reproductive process, 154-65; - spore-dispersal by wind, 344; - water necessary to fertilization, 300 (see Flowerless Plants) - - Crystalline Form, iii, 309-11, viii, 203, 312-13; - solidification in relation to, iv, 163 - - Crystalline Rocks, iii, 378; - of oldest eras, 169, 170-1, 189 - - Crystals, Crystallization, iii, 309-20, 377-8; - cleavage, 310, 318, viii, 202; - electrification by cleavage of, iv, 260; - growth, iii, 311, 316; - growth of alum, viii, 313; - light polarization by, iii, 319-20, iv, 354; - Mitscherlich's studies, xvi, 161; - Pasteur's studies, 163-4; - snow and ice, i, 115-16; - water of, viii, 38; - X-ray studies, iii, 311, viii, 313 - - Ctesibius, discovery of compressed air, v, 109-11; - ignorant of atmospheric pressure, 112; - inventions and theories, xvi, 91-2; - water clocks, v, 59-62 - - Cuba, almiquis of, xii, 367; - American occupation, x, 160; - earthquakes in, xiv, 331; - jute production, xiii, 241; - sugar production, 215; - tobacco production, 258; - yellow fever eradication, x, 160-2, xiv, 356; - zoölogy of, 274-5 - - Cuckoos, xii, 255-6 - - Cucumbers, as food, viii, 365; - origin, xiii, 223 - - Cud Animals, xii, 311-12 - - Cugnot, Joseph, v, 207 - - Culinary Paradox, iv, 168-9 - - Cullen, Dr., refrigerating machine, v, 350, 354-6 - - Cullen, William, x, 88 - - Cultivated Plants, birthrate in, xiii, 51; - original sources, 221-7, xiv, 381-2 - (see also Garden Plants) - - Cultivation (soil), reason for, xiii, 92 - - Cultural Advance, requisites of, x, 107 - - Cumberland Plateau, xiv, 221; - height, 27 - - Cumberland Valley, xiv, 167 - - Cumene, viii, 235, 253 - - Cumulo-Nimbus Clouds, i, 102, 103-4 - - Cumulus Clouds, 1, 98, 101-2, 103-4; - air currents and, 293; - formation of, 93 - - Cuneiform Writing, xv, 174, 175 (figs.), xvi, 60 - - Curassows, xii, 261 - - Curie, Madame, radium discovery, xvi, 193 - - Curiosity, instinct of, xi, 55; - of crowds, 328 - - Curlews, xii, 262 - - Currents (water) power of, iii, 30-1, xiv, 39, 52-3 - - Current Transformers, vii, 44 - - Current Wheels, v, 76 - - Curtis, on spiral nebulæ, ii, 362 - - Curtis Turbines, v, 151, 152, 382 - - Curved Motion, forces producing, iv, 72-3 - - Curves, pitching of, iv, 67-9 - - Cusa, Nicolas de, xvi, 102 - - Custom, Cicero on, x, 135; - modesty and, xv, 254-5; - morality and, 286; - obedience to, how enforced, 374-5; - crowd psychology in, xi, 333 - - Customs Examinations, by X-rays, vii, 256-7 - - Cut-off, of steam engine, v, 146-7, 208 - - Cutting of Metals, v, 46-7, 54-5, 383; - by oxygen jet, i, 33 - - Cuttings, (plants) propagation by, ix, 337, xiii, 166, 167 - - Cutting Tools, of ancient Egypt, xvi, 66-7 - - Cuttlebone, xii, 79 - - Cuttlefish, iii, 260, 275-6, xii, 58, 78-9 - - Cuvier, biological works, xvi, 139, 148; - work on paleontology, 168 - - Cyanamide Process, i, 36, viii, 74, 153 - - Cyanide Solution, vii, 317 - - Cyanogen, xvi, 160 - - Cycads, iii, 251, 255, xiii, 309, 316, 317 - - Cycles, chemical, viii, 334-5, 349-50 - (see also Carbon, Hydrogen, nitrogen Cycles) - - Cycles, geographical and geological, xiv, 29 - (see also Cycles of Erosion) - - Cycles, of alternating currents, vi, 153, 154-5; - degrees of, 204 - - Cycles of Erosion, in land surfaces, iii, 33-6, xiv, 30, 34-5, 47-9, - 155-64; - in mountains, iii, 135-6; - in shore lines, 56-7, xiv, 254-5 - - Cyclones, i, 135-8, 370, xiv, 349-50; - electrification by, vii, 212-13; - handling of ships in, i, 277-8 - - Cyclonic Thunderstorms, i, 138, 151 - - Cyclonopathy, i, 330, 370 - - Cyclonoscopes, i, 279, 370 - - Cyclops, (crustacean), xii, 84 - - Cygni, 61, measurement of distance, ii, 16, 315; - parallax, 311-12 - - Cygnus, nebulæ in, ii, 360; - new star in, 332 - - Cylinders, boring of, v, 44-5; - cooling, 159-61, 166-7; - in internal combustion engines, 157-61, 166-7; - of steam engine, 147; - pressure in, iv, 119 - - Cyme, flower form, xiii, 50 - - Cynodictis, xii, 346-7 - - Cypress Trees, in landscaping, xiii, 270; - in southern forest, xiv, 372 - - Czecho-Slovakia, public health fellowships, x, 172; - stone age remains in, 108 (fig.) - - - Daboia, xii, 231 - - Daddy Longlegs, xii, 90 - - Da Gama, Vasco, xiv, 309, 351 - - Daggers, development of, xv, 212 - - Daguerre, ii, 125 - - Daimler, Gottlieb, v, 213, 382 - - Dairies, electricity in, vii, 226-7 - - Dairy Products, drain on farm of, viii, 342-3 - - Daisies, flowers of, xiii, 49-50; - introduction to America, 353-4; - seed dispersal, 58-9; - stems, 23 - - Daisy Family, xiii, 206; - fertilization in, 144; - flower forms, 44 (fig.); - fossil species, 324; - in New Zealand, 380; - in pampas, 376; - original home and spread, 350, 353; - petal arrangement, 190; - seed dispersal, 344, 345 - - Dakin, antiseptic solutions of, x, 181-3, 382 - - Dakota Sandstone Formation, iii, 114, 115 (fig.) - - Dalmatia, coast of, xiv, 252, 257; - harbors of, 268 - - Dalton, John, xi, 93, xvi, 133, 160, 162 - - Daltonism, inheritance of, ix, 340 - - Damaraland, desert plant of, xiii, 380 - - Damascus, swords of, v, 315 - - Damped Waves, vii, 264, 273, 286-8, 290 - - Dampier, William, i, 130, xvi, 114 - - Damping, in meters, vii, 159 - - Dams, beaver, xii, 295-6; - use of, v, 76, vi, 361, 364 - - Damsel Flies, xii, 105 - - Dances, Indian, xv, 305-6; - primitive, 310-12, 313, 316 - - Dandelion, family of, xiii, 206; - flower of, 49; - origin, 223, 353-4; - roots, 16; - seed dispersal, 58-9, 344 - - Daniell Cell, viii, 167 - - Dante, skull capacity, xv, 40 - - Danube River, delta of, xiv, 185; - historical importance, xv, 138-9; - longitudinal character, xiv, 154; - varied course, 155 - - Danzig, Poland and, xiv, 306 - - Darby, Abraham, v, 316 - - Dardanelles, important to Russia, xiv, 267 - - Dardanelles Expedition, i, 308 - - Dark Days, i, 56-7, ii, 211 - - Darkness, distinguishing of, by primitive animals, ix, 105; - effect on plants, xiii, 72, 76, 77, 84-90; - effects on plants, animals, and man, x, 253; - from interferences of light, iv, 377-8; - horrors of world of, 51; - periodic seeking of, xi, 52-3; - sleep and, 282, 288; - tuberculosis germ and, x, 290, 291 - - Dark Segments, i, 167, 371 - - Darning Needles (flies), xii, 105 - - Darwin, Charles Robert, x, 134-6, xv, 15; - book on fertilization of orchids, xiii, 145; - book on restless plants, 110; - epigenesis theory, xvi, 118; - experiment on destruction of seedlings, xv, 21; - experiment with tendrils, xiii, 112; - naturalist on "Beagle," 224, x, 134-5, xvi, 142; - on descent of man, xv, 56; - on emotions, xi, 131-3; - on expression of emotions by animals, xv, 64-5; - on fossil record, xiii, 302; - on Madagascar orchid, 48; - on self-fertilization, 135; - on sexual selection, xv, 274; - on variations, 334; - "Origin of Species," x, 135, xiii, 334, xvi, 148, 167, 181-2; - skull capacity, xv, 40 - (see also Darwinian Theory) - - Darwin, Erasmus, x, 134, xvi, 148 - - Darwin, George H., tidal friction theory, ii, 375-6, 377, 156-7 - - Darwinian Theory, x, 135, 136, xv, 15, 24-5, 56, xvi, 149-51, 152; - Bagehot on changes wrought by, xvi, 198; - Greek anticipation of, 79; - horror first caused by, xv, 53; - naturalism and, xvi, 111; - philosophical effects of, 195 - - Dassies, South African, xii, 304 - - Dasyures, xii, 278 - - Date Palm Tree, xv, 125 - - David's Deer, xii, 316 - - Davos, health resort, i, 210, 325 - - Davy, Edmund, xvi, 190 - - Davy, Sir Humphry, electrical work, vi, 16, 19, xvi, 122, 189; - heat studies, iv, 43, xvi, 131; - laughing gas discovery, x, 123-4, 125 - - Day, divisions of, v, 57, xvi, 57; - mean solar, iv, 15-16; - periods of high and low temperatures, i, 76, xiv, 347-8; - periods of highest energy, xi, 277 - - Day and Night Breezes, i, 131 - - Dayflies, xii, 104 - - Dead Reckoning, v, 65-6 - - Dead Sea, formation of basin, iii, 151, xiv, 118, 120-1; - level and level changes, iii, 151-2, xiv, 121, 205, 362; - salinity, iii, 152, viii, 139, xiv, 207 - - Deaf and Dumb, sign language of, xv, 148, 150 - - Deafness, ix, 103-4; - from brain disease, 146 - - Death, correlative of life, xii, 13; - "irritability" theory of, x, 86, 87; - James on phenomena of approaching, 242; - physiological meaning, ix, 17; - primitive conceptions of, xv, 327-9, 331-8; - vital knot in relation to, ix, 257 - - Death Adders, xii, 229 - - Debtors, treatment of, in African tribes, xv, 370 - - De Candolle, plant classification, xvi, 165-6; - vegetable table, xiii, 221 - - Decay, air and, xiii, 312-18; - carbon dioxide from, viii, 49, 61; - humus produced by, 340; - nitrogen from, 73, 346; - phosphorescence from, i, 346, 349, xii, 20 - - Deccan of India, lava fields, iii, 105, 228, xiv, 103 - - Deciduous Trees, xiii, 175, 269, 271-2; - of temperate forests, xiv, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374 - - Decimal System, xv, 181 - - Declination, of compass needle, iv, 247 - - Declination of Stars, ii, 299 - - Decomposition, (chemical), viii, 12, 101; - contrasted with dissociation, 121; - double, 104-5; - of salts, 117 - - Decrement, of oscillating currents, vii, 286, 287-8 - - Deeps, ocean, iii, 52, xiv, 9, 23, 286; - volcanoes and, 316 - - Deep Sea, animal life in, xii, 21-4; - animals, luminosity of, 139; - conditions of life in, 21-2; - darkness of, 22, xiv, 298; - density of, xii, 21; - deposits, iii, 54-5, xiv, 285, 286; - fish of, xi, 53, xii, 20, 23-4, 136, 138-9, 163, xvi, 146; - ground sharks of, xii, 143, 147; - movement of water in, xiv, 284, 298-9; - never over present continents, iii, 55; - ooze, xii, 18, 19; - plants of, 16-17; - seaweeds not found in, xiii, 72; - soundings of, xiv, 284; - temperature, 297, 298, 299; - topographical features, 284, 286-7, 288-90; - unknown to us, v, 202 - - Deer, xii, 317-20; - evolution of hoofs, iii, 300; - fear in, xi, 136; - heart in, x, 332 - - Deer Family, xii, 315-20 - - Deer-hunting, in India, xv, 223 - - Defectives, human, increase in, xv, 27 - - De Forest, audion detector, xvi, 191 - - Degrees, electrical, vi, 204 - - De Haen, x, 77 - - Dejection, emotion of, xi, 146; - posture and, 337, 338-40 - (see also Despondency) - - DeLaval Steam Turbine, v, 148-50, 382 - - Delaware Indians, prayer song of, xv, 346-7 - - Delaware River, estuary of, xiv, 40; - geological history, 40, 60, 168-9, 171; - heterogeneous course, 155; - rapids of, 159; - shad season in, xii, 155; - superimposed stream, iii, 233; - transverse characters, xiv, 99, 154, 167; - valley and gap, 50-1, 52, 169 - - Delaware Water Gap, iii, 233, xiv, 50-1, 167, 169; - rock weathering at, 76 - - Delco Automobile System, vii, 137 - - Delco Power Sets, vii, 232 - - De Lesseps, Ferdinand, Saharan proposal, xiv, 205 - - Deliberation, after contact and distance sensations, ix, 95, 121, 140; - nervous delays in, 140, 141, xi, 20, 21; - value of, 139 - - Delirium, Brown on, x, 89; - hot baths in, 311 - - Delta Connections (electric), vi, 210-11, 318, 325 - - Delphi, Oracle of, xv, 351-2 - - Deltas, iii, 32, xiv, 53; - alluvial soil of, 70; - coasts formed by, 53, 263; - in lakes, 202, 210-11; - lakes formed by, 203; - rivers joined by, 185 - - Delusions, x, 358-9 - - Demagnetization, vi, 37-8, 117, vii, 366; - by heat, iv, 253; - test, vi, 43 - - Dementia Precox, x, 237 - - Democritus, on knowledge, xvi, 87; - on matter, 83; - on origin of earth, ii, 366-7 - - Demosthenes, timed speeches, v, 62 - - Denatured Alcohol, viii, 250 - - Dendrites, xi, 18, 19; - receptors for pain, 117 - - Denmark, antiquity of man in, xv, 86-7; - föhrden of, xiv, 259; - forests and peat bogs, xv, 86-7 - - Density, absolute, iv, 110-11; - methods of determining, 111-12; - of liquids, how measured, 113, vi, 147; - of various substances, iv, 113; - specific, 111; - standard of, 149 - - Densmore, James, v, 312 - - Dental Arches, xv, 98 (fig.) - - Dentistry, hypnosis in, xi, 316; - protection against pain, 121 - - Denudation (see Erosion) - - Denver, boiling temperature in, iv, 170 - - Deodorants, inhibition in, xi, 81 - - Department Stores, Christmas lighting, vii, 342; - pneumatic tubes in, iv, 130; - rain and business, i, 265 - - Deperditometer, i, 319, 371 - - Depolarization, of electric cells, vi, 137, 139, vii, 366 - - Depression, of land and sea areas, (see Subsidence) - - Depressions, (geological) in land, xiv, 204-5; - in ocean floor, 286 - - Depressions (meteorological), i, 135, 371 (see Lows) - - Depth, perception of, ix, 119-20, xi, 173-85 - - Derborence, lakes of, xiv, 202 - - Derived Proteins, viii, 352-3 - - Derived Units, iv, 46, xvi, 131 - - Dermographism, xi, 317 - - Dermoid Cysts, x, 120 - - Desault, Pierre, x, 91-2 - - Descartes, influence of, x, 67; - mathematical and scientific work, ii, 15, xvi, 113-14, 118-19; - theory of vortices, ii, 60 - - Descriptive Astronomy, development of, ii, 15-16, 113-14, 119, 139 - - Deserts, density of air over, i, 171; - dust whirls, 60; - evaporation in, 323; - in trade wind belts, xiv, 355-6, 380; - irrigation by sun-power, v, 178; - lizards of, xii, 206; - mirages, i, 172-3, 174, iv, 328-9; - rainfall, i, 112; - rainfall and plants, xiii, 377-81; - rock weathering in, iii, 23, 71-3, xiv, 42, 77, 79; - salt deposits, viii, 197; - "stretching" of, xi, 173; - water-storing plants, xiii, 28, 30, 41-2, 104, 106-7, 336 (illus.); - wind action in, iii, 71-5 - (see also Arid Regions) - - Desert Sounds, i, 196, 371 - - Desert Topography, xiv, 41-2 - - Design, elements of (prehistoric), xv, 299 - - Designs, enlargement of by lanterns, iv, 342 - - Desires, suppression of, xi, 140-2 - (see also Suppressions) - - Despondency, indigestion and, xi, 370 - (see also Dejection) - - Detectors, wireless, iv, 315-16, vii, 261, 268-70, 278-80; - to guide ships, 284-5 - - Determiners, inheritance, ix, 329-42, x, 233-4, xiii, 330, xvi, 156 - - Detonation, of explosives, viii, 262 - - Detroit, steamers passing, xiv, 212 - - Devilfish, xii, 78, 148-50 - - Devil's Tower, Wyoming, iii, 111, 176 (Pl. 10), xiv, 129-30 - - Devil Whirlwinds, i, 60, 371 - - Devonian Period, iii, 20, 194-6, 378; - "Age of Fishes," 283, xv, 71; - animals and plants in, iii, 252, 271, 277, 278, 282-4, 285; - extension of sea in, 192 (fig. 37) - - De Vries, variation studies, xvi, 153 - - Dew, i, 120-1, 371, xiii, 108; - former belief about, i, 119; - not formed on cloudy nights, iv, 183 - - Dewar, liquid air inventions, i, 31, vii, 323 - - Dewar Flask, viii, 68 - - Dew Bow, i, 177 - - Dew Point, i, 78, 79, 371 - - Dew Ponds, i, 352-3, 371 - - Dextrin, viii, 227-8; - in bread crust, 368; - molecules of, 356; - production and uses, 241, 243, 244 - - Dholes, xii, 345 - - Diabetes, ix, 290, 293-4, x, 276, 330 - - Diablerets, peaks of, xiv, 202 - - Diagnosis, art and science of, x, 366-79; - Brown's system, 89; - chest, 99, 371; - Egyptian study of, xvi, 70; - of infectious diseases (serum method), x, 215-17; - X-rays in, vii, 251, 254, 255, 256, x, 185-6, 372-4 - - Diamond Drills, v, 263, 264, 380; - in ancient Egypt, xvi, 67 - - Diamonds, iii, 328, viii, 42-3; - artificial, vii, 301, 311, xvi, 190; - cathode ray effects, 193; - cutting of, vii, 300, 309; - electrification, vi, 12; - in meteorites, ii, 292; - X-ray tests, vii, 257 - - Diana of the Ephesians, ii, 284 - - Diarrhea, ix, 249, x, 253, 307, 328 - - Diastole, arterial, x, 62, 63-4, 65; - of heart, 65 - - Diathermanous Bodies, iv, 182 - - Diatoms, deposits of, iii, 257-8, xiii, 67-8; - in tripolite, iii, 335; - in sea, xii, 17; - oil from, iii, 349; - oil storage by, ix, 28 - - Diatonic Scale, iv, 207 - - Dichloramin-T., x, 183, 382 - - Dicotyledons, xiii, 60; - antiquity, 207; - leaves and flowers, 176, 178; - leaves and stems, 177 (fig.); - subdivisions, 180, 189-90; - various families, 189-205 - - Dictation, memory after-images in, xi, 220 - - Dieffenbach, Johann Friedrich, x, 130 - - Dielectric, of condensers, iv, 264, vi, 302, 305, vii, 366; - in lightning, 206; - losses due to imperfect, 297-8; - strain, 366 - - Diesel Engines, v, 161-2, 382; - efficiency, 164; - fuel, 156; - in submarines, 199 - - Diet, bile in relation to, ix, 275; - deficiency of, diseases from, x, 255-68, 276; - fads of, ix, 285-6; - fats and proteins in, 300-1; - for reducing weight, 301-2; - mixed, man adapted to, 246, 285-6; - natural regulation of, 301, x, 255, 257; - need of amino acids in, 278; - nutrients in daily, viii, 366-7; - starch foods in ordinary, ix, 290, 300 - (see also Foods, Nutrition) - - Difform Motion, ii, 80 - - Diffraction of light, iv, 326, 378; - optical phenomena, i, 183-5 - - Diffraction of sound, iv, 52, 236-7 - - Digestion, ix, 226-46, x, 319-30, 353; - benefited by savory food, ix, 98, 241-2; - chemistry of, viii, 356-8; - color effects, xi, 96; - emotion effects on, ix, 165, 241; - enzymes in, viii, 103, 357 (see Enzymes); - excitement effects, xi, 374-5; - exercise and, 339; - fried foods and, ix, 286; - fruit stimulation of, viii, 365; - glucose in, 225-6; - historical studies of, ix, 239-40, x, 121, 128; - hot baths and, ix, 313; - in men and plants, xiii, 109; - of proteins, x, 204; - sleep in relation to, ix, 219, xi, 285; - soups as aid to, ix, 241, x, 320 - (see also Indigestion) - - Digging with water jets, v, 88 - - Digitalis, source, xiii, 256; - use of, in heart diseases, x, 333, 383 - - Dikes (geological), iii, 13, 110-11, 378, xiv, 106-8; - columns in, 130; - illustrations, iii, 102, 160 (Pl. 9); - veins and, 383-4 - - Dilated Stomach, ix, 85 - - Dimension, illusions of, xi, 186, 188, 189; - perception of, 162, 165, 171-2, 172-83 - - Dining rooms, lighting, vi, 275-6, vii, 69-70 - - Dinosaurs, iii, 288-93, 304 (Pl. 17), xii, 182, 194-5 - - Diœcious Plants, xiii, 47 - - Dionysus, worship of, xv, 352 - - Diophantus, xvi, 95 - - Dioptra, of Ctesibius, xvi, 91 - - Diphenyl, viii, 240 - - Dipper (constellation), moving clusters in, ii, 343 - - Diphtheria, x, 296-8; - antitoxin of, 197, 212, 213-14, 218, 296-8; - immunity to, 207, 298; - named by Bretonneau, 110; - toxin of, 196, 197 - - Direct Current Generators, iv, 307-8, vi, 159, 175-94, 344; - commutators on, vii, 364-5; - employment, vi, 215; - voltages, 159 - - Direct Current Motors, vi, 217-39; - in traction, vii, 182-3, 198-200; - on farms, 224; - speed flexibility, vi, 224-6, 229, 230, 232, 240-1 - - Direct Currents, vi, 152, 153-4, vii, 365; - ammeters for, vii, 166-72; - circuit-breakers for, 37, 39, 40; - conversion from alternating, vi, 330-48; - generation (See Direct Current Generators); - inductance in, 166; - lighting and magnetic effects, 155, 156-7; - open-circuited by condensers, 170, 304; - power consumed by, 165; - transformers unusable, 309; - transmission by, 160, 161, 195, 332; - uses, 152, 332; - used in electric furnaces, vii, 305-6; - used in electrochemistry, vi, 163; - used in electrotherapy, vii, 244; - used in smoke precipitation, vi, 164; - used in traction, 161-2, vii, 182, 186, 195; - value of current flow, vi, 164-5 (see Ohm's Law); - voltages, vii, 164; - voltages, production of high, 349-50; - voltmeters for, 154-65; - wattmeters for, 172, 173, 175 - - Direct Lighting, xi, 277, 373 - - Direction, perception of, ix, 117-18, 120, xi, 165, 167-71 - - Directional Wireless, i, 291, 302 - - Dirigible Balloons, iv, 107-8, v, 226-30, 382; - in forest service, i, 49 - - Disaccharides, viii, 224, 226-7, 375; - enzyme of, 357 - - Discomfort, atmospheric, i, 318, 320, 322; - senses of, in infants, ix, 351 - - Discordant Coasts, xiv, 249 - - Discouragement, conquering of, xi, 337-40 - (see also Dejection, Despondency) - - Discoveries, accidental, xv, 212-13, 232, 241-2; - great, usual way of, x, 40; - priority in scientific, 122 - - Disease Germs, x, 193-226, xiii, 71; - body resistance to, ix, 177-9, 185-7, x, 197-8, 203-12, xi, 34; - campaign against, x, 285-315; - discovery of, x, 194, 381, xvi, 143; - identification of, x, 150, 215-17; - in air, danger from, i, 325-6; - in sewage, viii, 326, 328; - in water supplies, 41, 318, 319; - man's struggle with, xv, 25-6; - "portals of entry," x, 198, 201-2. (See also Infectious Diseases) - - Diseases, anciently ascribed to spirits, x, 12; - atmospheric electricity and, i, 330; - "atom" theory of, x, 26; - Brunonian theory of, 89; - causes and factors other than infection, 227-81, 283; - causes of infectious, 193-226; - causes of, historical conceptions, 380; - climatic treatment, i, 331, x, 383; - diagnosis, (see Diagnosis); - electric treatment (see Electro-therapeutics); - habit in, xi, 248; - Hoffmann's nervous fluid theory, x, 85-6; - Humoral Doctrine of, 21; - hypnotic treatment, xi, 319; - infectious (see Infectious Diseases); - James on, x, 244; - lesion differentiated from, 98; - living causes, 193-226; - Locke on curing of, 75; - manifestations of, in organs, 318-65; - mechanical theory of, 23, 70, 71; - mental, 354-65; - mental factors in, 242-4; - metabolism, effects of, ix, 179, 302-4; - nature in cure of, x, 21, 73, 75-6, 84-5, 367; - occupational, 244-6; - Paracelsus on causes of, 48-9; - pneumatic theory, 26-7, 29; - prevention of, 282-317, xv, 49; - Pythagorean theory of, x, 18; - racial susceptibility to, xv, 47-52; - recognition of, x, 366-76; - savage conceptions and treatment, xv, 352-3, 359; - solidistic theory, x, 25-6; - specific, 196; - sthenic and asthenic, 89; - spread by tainted water, xiv, 140; - suppressed emotions and, xi, 140, 141; - Sydenham on meaning of, x, 73; - Sylvius's chemical theory of, 69; - thirst unimpaired in, ix, 89; - treatment of, x, 379-84 - (see also Therapy); - tropical, xiv, 356-7, xv, 49-50; - Van Helmont's conception of, x, 68; - (see also Disease Germs) - - Disgust, in various sentiments, xi, 146, 148 - - Disinfectants, viii, 332-3; - chlorine, 86, 274, 333; - formaldehyde, 219, 333; - hydrogen peroxide, viii, 41; - mercuric, 170, 333; - ozone, vii, 354; - sulphur dioxide, viii, 78, 333 - - Dismal Swamp, coal-forming conditions in, iii, 199 - - Displacement Currents, vi, 302, 305 - - Display Lighting, vi, 280, vii, 339-43; - colors in, iv, 51; - psychology of, xi, 344, 345, 346 - - Dispositions, sour and sunny, xi, 55 - - Dissection of human bodies, x, 30, 41-2, 45, 81 - - Dissociation, chemical, viii, 120, 121, 122, 375 - - Dissociation of Ideas, xi, 206, 209; - in mental troubles, x, 355, 360-1, 365 - - Distance, method of measuring, ii, 197-8; - perception of, ix, 118-19, 120, xi, 165-9, 173-89; - units of, iv, 283 - - Distance Senses, ix, 86, 96-121; - choice in relation to, 121, 140; - connections with brain, 142 - - Distillation, alcoholic, viii, 249-50; - apparatus, 213 (fig.); - fractional, i, 32, iv, 168 - - Distillation of coal, vii, 252-3 - - Distractions, fatigue from, xi, 277 - - Distress Signals, vii, 284 - - Ditch Grass, fertilization, xiii, 151-2 - - Ditching Machines, v, 216, 253, 254-5 - - Divers, compression and decompression, v, 120-1; - pressure on, i, 329 - - Diversion, need of, in brain work, ix, 138 - - Diving Bells, v, 115-16, 121 - - Divining Rods, iii, 123-4 - - Division of Labor, first form of, xv, 279; - in plants, xiii, 61-2 - - Divorce, xv, 290-1 - - Dizziness, from over-ventilation of lungs, ix, 266-7; - sensation of, xi, 64 - - "Doctor" Winds, i, 131, 371 - - Dodder, plant, xiii, 100, 101 (fig.) - - Dodo, xii, 265 - - Dog Family, xii, 338-46 - - Dogfish, xii, 143, 146; - eggs of, 140; - name changed, i, 224 - - Dogs, xii, 344-6; - baboons and, 380; - canine teeth of, 333; - cat's hatred for, origin of, 355; - domestication of, xii, 345-6, xv, 197, 198; - embryological resemblances, 54; - employment in hunting, 223; - expression of emotions by, 64; - heat-loss regulation by, ix, 307-8; - hyenas and, xii, 351; - imitation in, xv, 66; - language methods of, 141; - mode of attack, xii, 354; - reasoning power in, xv, 68; - sense of smell in, ix, 97, 117; - wild, xii, 344-5; - zoölogical interest, xvi, 16 - - Dogwood, xiii, 271; - flowering, 45; - index plant, i, 255 - - Doldrums, i, 127, 129, 136, 371, xiv, 348, 349 - - Dollond, telescopes, ii, 100, 103, xvi, 125 - - Dolomite, viii, 149; - in refractories, vii, 307 - - Dolphins, xii, 297 - - Domestic Animals, development of, xii, 345-6, xv, 197-8 - - Dominants, in crosses, ix, 334, 335, x, 231, 233 - - Donati's Comet, ii, 275, 277, 280-1 - - Donkeys, xii, 308 - - Door-checks, pneumatic, v, 134 - - Doppler's Principle, ii, 119, iv, 209-10; - astronomical applications, ii, 123, 129, 133, 363 - - Dormice, xii, 291 - - Double Decomposition, viii, 104-5, 375 - - Double Images, xi, 175-81 - - Double Stars, ii, 122-4, 334-5; - colors, 296; - connections, 340; - proportion of, 320; - telescopes required for, 97-8; - theory of origin, 377 - (see also Binary Stars) - - Doubt, reasoning and, xi, 239-40; - retardization of impulses in, 20 - - Douglas Fir, forests, xiii, 340, xiv, 374 - - Dover, England, breakwater, xiv, 301 - - Doves, mating of, xv, 276; - plumage of neck, xii, 245 - (see also pigeons) - - Down, character of, xii, 244; - warmth of, x, 309 - - Downs of England, dew ponds, i, 352-3 - - Dowry System, xv, 285 - - Dragon Flies, xii, 105-6; - ancient, iii, 279, xiii, 308; - eyes of, xii, 102 - - Dragon Tree, xiii, 183-4 - - Drainage Systems, continental, xiv, 189-90; - development stages, iii, 33-4, xiv, 48, 49, 155; - earthquake effects, 335; - Ice Age changes, iii, 243-5, xiv, 60-1, 170-1; - joints and, 131 - - Drake, Daniel, x, 116 - - Drama, origin and development of, xv, 303-10, 322, 325; - sentiment in, xi, 151 - - Draper, Dr. Henry, astronomical work, ii, 17, 114, 116, 126, 130, 134, - 135, 307, 358; - reflectors of, 103, 106 - - Draper Catalogue of Star Spectra, ii, 116-18, 146, 307, 309, 310 - - Dravidians, of India, xvi, 53 - - Drawing, development of art of, xv, 296, 298-9 - - Drawing Rolls, Arkwright's, v, 273-4, 376 - - Dreams, xi, 292-302; - images of, 221; - primitive conception of, xv, 328-9, 358; - psychoanalysis of, x, 364-5 - - Dredges, modern, v, 255-9, 381; - walking-machine, 216 - - Dried Foods, viii, 371; - antiscurvy vitamines in, x, 262, 266 - - Drift, Glacial, iii, 378 (see Glacial Debris) - - Drills, ancient Egyptian, xvi, 67; - core, v, 263; - diamond, 263, 264, 380; - metal-cutting by, 47; - multiple, 53 (see Multiple Drills); - oil, v, 265-7; - pneumatic, i, 27, iv, 129, v, 129-30, 261-2, 263, 380, 381; - rock, 129, 261-2; - sonic-wave, 108; - spiral chisels, 46 - - Dropsy, polyuria in disappearance of, x, 344; - Van Helmont's idea of, 68 - - Droughts, i, 79, 371; - financial panics and, 263; - records of, in tree rings, xiii, 25; - springs and wells in, xiv, 136, 138 - - Drowned Valleys, iii, 37, 378, xiv, 40, 164, 255-6; - as harbors, 268 - - Drugs, blood riddance of, ix, 274; - coal tar, viii, 253; - in mother's blood, effects, ix, 343-4; - plant sources, xiii, 249-55; - pure food law on, viii, 370; - taste deadening by, xi, 72; - use of, in medicine, x, 21-2, 22-3, 30, 44, 45, 75-6, 77-8, 380-1, - xvi, 109, 186-7 - - Drumlins, iii, 69, xiv, 60 - - Drums, xv, 316; - African, 313 (fig.) - - Drupes, xiii, 54, 194 - - Dry Cells, iv, 297-8, vi, 59, 126, 127, 138, 143-4 - - Dry Docks, floating of ships in, v, 95 - - Dry Fogs, i, 96, 371; - of 1783, 57, 58-9 - - Dry Fruits, xiii, 54, 55-6, 57 - - Drying Machines, iv, 73 - - Dry Steam, v, 140 - - Duckbills, xii 272, 273 - - Ducks, xii, 257-8; - darkness effects on, x, 253; - primitive methods of hunting, xv, 222 - - Duckweed, xiii, 31 - - Ductless Glands, x, 346-53; - secretions used in therapy, 382 - - Dufrausne, x, 181 - - Duluth, Lake, iii, 149 - - Dunes, i, 53, iii, 71, 74 - - Duplex Telegraphy, vii, 112, 114-17, 376 - - Dupuytren, Guillaume, x, 130 - - Duralumin, v, 228 - - Duryea, Charles E., v, 213 - - Dust, atmospheric, i, 52-65; - atmospheric, elimination methods, ix, 269; - body handling of, 223-4; - deep sea deposits, iii, 54-5; - effects on light, i, 165, 183; - electric precipitation, vii, 216, 301-2, 347; - in cloud formation, i, 91; - in fog formation, viii, 304; - in stratosphere, i, 20, 144; - meteoric (see Meteoric Dust); - methods of measuring, i, 61-3; - physiological effects, i, 325; - volcanic (see Volcanic Dust); - wind-carrying of, i, 52-5, iii, 71, 73, 75, xiii, 344 - - Dust Count, Chicago standard, viii, 332 - - Dust-counter, i, 62, 371 - - Dust Whirlwinds, i, 60 - - Dusty Trades, i, 325 - - Dutch Language, relations of, xv, 160, 162 - - Dutchman's-pipe Vine, xiii, 131-3 - - Dyes, Dyeing, ancient Egyptian, xvi, 72-3, 74; - antiquity of use, xiii, 210; - chemistry of, viii, 258-60, xvi, 163; - coal tar, viii, 253-4; - importance of industry, 253-4; - purple, sources of, xii, 68, 72 - - Dynamic Electricity, vii, 367 - - Dynamic Heating and Cooling, i, 90 - - Dynamic Meteorology, i, 123, 371 - - Dynamite, viii, 261; - blasting with, v, 100; - invention, 380 - - Dynamo-Electric Machines, defined, vii, 367 - - Dynamometer, iv, 102, vii, 367 - - Dynamos, iv, 306-8, vi, 49-56; - discovery of principle, 22, 50; - function, 72; - Gramme's, 26; - interchangeability with motors, discovery of, iv, 54; - invention and development, xvi, 189; - parts, vii, 367; - pole pieces, 374; - separate and self-excited, vi, 186-7; - source of energy, 129; - submarine, double uses, v, 199; - voltage, on what dependent, vi, 131 - (see also Generators) - - Dynamotors, vii, 136-7 - - Dyne, unit of force, iv, 69-70 - - Dyrenforth, Gen. Robert, i, 338 - - Dysentery, amoebic, x, 195, 199; - from water pollution, viii, 318; - in tropics, x, 251, xv, 50; - overheating and, x, 307 - - Dyspepsia, from tight lacing, x, 309; - mental effects, xi, 369-70 - - Dysprosium, atomic weight and symbol, viii, 383 - - - Eads, Captain, Mississippi River jetties, xiv, 270 - - Eagles, xii, 260, 261; - bald-headed, unions among, xv, 277 - - Earache, in children, ix, 104 - - Ear-mindedness, xi, 222 - - Ears, ix, 100-3, xi, 98-102; - basilar membrane of, iv, 203; - cartilage in, ix, 57; - direction perception by, 117, xi, 167-9; - disorders and care of, ix, 103-4; - equal size of, 169-70; - equilibrium organs in, 89-90; - hearing by, iv, 203-4 (see Hearing); - infections of, ix, 61-2, x, 219; - limits of hearing power, iv, 204, ix, 99, 100; - liquids of inner, iv, 203; - movements of, in animals, ix, 82, 117; - mutilations of, by savages, xv, 259; - nerve connections, ix, 124, 142, 143 (fig.); - origin, xi, 109; - outer, in hearing, ix, 117; - reddening of, in cold, 311; - receptor organs, attunement, xi, 62; - ringing in, iv, 203; - sensitiveness of, 204, 211-12, 360; - static sense organs in, xi, 126; - temperature of, ix, 93 - - Ear Trumpet, iv, 239 - - Earth, agonic lines of, iv, 246; - ancient ideas, xvi, 58; - antiquity, iii, 21, 43, 201, 218, xiii, 306, 314, 322, xiv, 29, (see - also Geological Ages); - axis mutation, discovery, xvi, 124; - center of universe, ii, 9 (see Geocentric Theory); - centrifugal force of, iv, 75; - changeableness of features, iii, 9-12, xiv, 3-4, 15-16, 28-30; - changes in historic times, xv, 72; - chemistry of, viii, 190-203; - climate in past ages (see Climate); - comets in relation to, ii, 279-80; - crust (see Crust of Earth); - density and specific gravity, iv, 98, 164, xiv, 11; - diameter, ii, 64, 192, iii, 51; - diameters, equatorial and polar, iv, 101, xiv, 9; - electrification, i, 144, 145-6, iv, 269, 270, vii, 207, 209-10, 212-13; - energy sources and losses, ix, 25-6; - geological history, iii, 164-248, xv, 70-1, 72-6; - gravity of, iv, 98-9, 101; - heat from sun, amount of, 194; - heat radiation and protection, 183-4; - Hindu conception, ii, 36; - interior, heat and condition, iii, 107-8, 120-1, 160, 162, iv, 164, - xiv, 11-17, 312; - internal heat utilized, v, 178-81, ix, 25, xiv, 15; - internal waters, 151; - land and water distribution, 20-7; - life on, antiquity of, xv, 71; - life on, beginnings, xiii, 298-304; - life on, conditions necessary, ii, 242-5; - life on, origin of, xii, 9-13; - magnetic axis, iv, 250; - magnetic field and lines of, 252-253; - magnetic poles, 246, vi, 29-30; - magnetism, ii, 178, 186, iv, 248-50, vi, 12, 29, 39-40; - magnetism and internal iron, xiv, 11; - magnetism in relation to aurora, i, 159-61; - man's machining of, v, 251-67; - mass of, iv, 98; - motions (see Revolution, Rotation); - origin, ancient ideas, ii, 366-7, xvi, 77, 78; - origin, modern theories, ii, 373, iii, 158-63; - rigidity, 107-8, xiv, 17; - sciences of, xvi, 36; - shadow in space, ii, 206; - shape, 59, 69, 71, iv, 101, xiv, 9; - shape, ancient ideas, ii, 10, 28, 30, 34-5; - shrinking of, iii, 83-4, 108, 160, 162; - size, ii, 162, 163; - surface features, xiv, 9-11; - temperature layers, 13-15; - temperature ranges and control, ii, 243-4; - temperature regulation by atmosphere, iv, 183-4; - water circulation and supply, xiv, 134-5, 151; - waters, past and future, ii, 244; - waters within, iii, 109-10, 113-29; - weight, ii, 68-9, 76, iv, 98, 164; - wind and pressure belts, i, 128-9 - - Earth-Air-currents, i, 145, 371 - - Earth Movements, xiv, 32, 33-9; - importance to human life, 341 - - Earthquakes, iii, 92-8, xiv, 330-43; - faulting in, 39, 115, 128; - lakes formed by, 203; - submarine effects, 284; - water table affected by, 136 - - Earthquake Waves, transmission of, xiv, 17, 332-3 - - Earthworms, xii, 51-3; - power of distinguishing light, ix, 105 - - Earwigs, xii, 107 - - East Africa, ancient dinosaurs of, xii, 195; - clan ceremonies in, xv, 363; - development of, 136; - glaciers in, xiv, 54; - Great Rift Valley, 118-20, 121; - lava fields and volcanoes, 103, 317 - - East Indies, animals of, xii, 145, 288, 352, 353, 359, 362, 370; - beriberi in, x, 257; - chocolate growing, xiii, 234; - land and sea breezes, i, 131; - nautilus of, xii, 75; - nutmeg production, xiii, 261-2; - Portuguese and Dutch in, xiv, 310; - rattan palm of, 368; - smallpox inoculation in, x, 207; - spices from, xiii, 259; - wild arum of, 153 - - East River, pipe-thawing under, vii, 338-9 - - Eastport, Maine, tide at, xiv, 293 - - Eating, effect of excitement during, xi, 374-5; - kinaesthetic sensations in, 127; - metabolism increased by, x, 271; - obesity and, 273 - - Eccentric, of steam engine, v, 40-1 - - Echidnas, xii, 272-3 - - Echinoderms, iii, 259, 268-70, xii, 48-50 - - Echoes, iv, 237-9; - aerial, i, 190, 193 - - Eclipses, ancient studies of, ii, 9, 32, 37; - annular or ring, 214; - elements of, 216; - of Jupiter's moons, 263; - of moon, 206-8; - of sun, 209-18 - (see also Solar Eclipses) - - Ecliptic, ii, 162, 350; - plane of, 70, 163; - poles of, 92; - trepidation of, 38 - - Ecology, xiii, 354-7 - - Economic Botany, xiii, 208-66 - - Economic Geology, iii, 342-76, xvi, 172-4 - - Ectoderm, xii, 26 - - Ecuador, glaciers in, xiv, 54; - yellow fever in, x, 160, 172-3 - - Eddies, wind, i, 292, 294, 371 - - Eddington, astronomer, ii, 17, 330, 341, 342, 347, 348-9, 354, 356, 382; - quoted, 151, 320, 344, 384; - "Stellar Movements," 319 - - Eddy Currents, vi, 192, vii, 365-6; - in various machines, vi, 213, 225, 316 - - Edinburgh University, medical school, xvi, 179 - - Edison, carbon lamp, v, 381; - carbon lamp filaments, xvi, 189; - carbon microphone, v, 381; - early dynamos, xvi, 188; - electrical work, vi, 26; - father of electric lighting, vi, 265; - first incandescent lamp, xvi, 188; - kinetoscope, v, 330; - phonograph, 328, 381; - quadruplex telegraph system, vii, 112; - storage battery, vi, 149-51; - vacuum tube discovery, vii, 276; - Edison Closed Circuit Cell, vi, 137 - - Edison Electric Company, load factors, vi, 381-2; - storage battery reserves, 382-3; - tied with Interborough System (N. Y.), 384 - - Edison-Lelande Cell, vi, 139-40 - - Edison Storage Battery, vi, 130, 149-51 - - Education, association principle in, xi, 200-1, 203, 204; - botanical, xvi, 22; - environment in, xi, 249; - grasping reflex, importance, 43; - hygienic, x, 282-5; - imitation in, xv, 66-7; - importance of choices in, xi, 266-7; - language and, xv, 145-6; - modern, a summary of past, 145-6, 164; - modern, beginnings, xvi, 111; - necessity of, ix, 344, 352; - progress in relation to, xv, 30-1, xvi, 47; - reaction speeds, xi, 158, 159; - sensation as, 68; - Spencer on, x, 282, 284; - waste of time in spelling, xv, 177; - (see also Learning Processes) - - Eelgrass, fertilization, xiii, 150-1 - - Eels, xii, 162-3; - vinegar and paste, 45 - - Effector Neurones, xi, 21, 22, 26; - in embryo, 34 - - Efficiency, human, viii, 367, ix, 296, 306; - climatic effects, x, 238-9, xiv, 357, xi, 369-82; - temperature effects, i, 323-4 - - Efficiency, industrial, xi, 360, 362, 363 - - Efficiency of Machines, iv, 192, vi, 214, vii, 367; - electric lamps, vi, 268; - generators, 357, 379; - heat engines, highest attainable, iv, 192; - motors, vi, 228; - power plants, 380-3; - transformers, 317-18; - various kinds of engines, v, 155, 161, 164, 170, 172 - - Egg Cells, production and development of, ix, 332-3, 335, 339, 343-4 - - Eggs, albuminuria from eating of, x, 345; - amino acids in, 278; - boiling of, viii, 368; - boiling of, on mountains, iv, 170; - calories in, ix, 299; - composition and use, viii, 364; - poisoning from, x, 212; - vitamines in, viii, 369, ix, 33, x, 260, 261; - white of, composition, ix, 176; - white of, digestion of, 233 - - Egrets, xii, 244, 255 - - Egypt, antiquity of civilization in, xiv, 196, xv, 84; - bats of, xii, 371; - buffaloes in, 329; - cats of, 355; - geographical changes in, xiv, 33; - lions of, xii, 359; - locust plagues, 109; - Nile inundation, xiv, 70-1; - Nile valley fertility, 53, 71, 219; - Pyramids (see Pyramids); - rock weathering in, xiii, 23, xiv, 78-9; - snowfall in Lower, i, 210; - storks of, xii, 255; - ziczac of, 263 - - Egypt (Ancient), agriculture, xiii, 210; - astrology and astronomy, ii, 21, 23-6, xv, 269-70, xvi, 69, 70, 71; - baboons in, xii, 380-1; - brick-making in, xv, 267 (fig.); - calendar, xvi, 70; - civilization conditions, xv, 123, 127; - crocodile in, xii, 199; - dogs of, 346; - donkeys in, 308; - duck-hunting in, xv, 222; - hairdressing in, 255 (fig.); - history and civilization, xvi, 53, 65-75; - humped cattle of, xii, 330; - hunting dog of, 345; - irrigation methods, iv, 27 (fig.), v, 18-19, 178, xv, 240; - machines, v, 42; - medical science, x, 11, 12, 31, xvi, 82; - monuments and temples, ii, 24-6, 165; - musical instruments, xv, 314, 317, 318, 319; - papyrus, v, 289-90; - peoples, xvi, 64-5; - plague of blood, i, 358; - poppy cultivation, xiii, 253; - pottery-making in, xv, 249-50, 251 (fig.); - sacred ibis of, xii, 255-6; - sacred ichneumons of, 352; - sailing vessels, v, 182; - sciences, xvi, 54-75, 77, 96; - scribes of, xv, 177 (fig.); - slavery in, 378-9; - spinning and weaving in, 243, 244, 245, 246 (figs.); - stone-cutting in, 271 (fig.); - stone-moving in, 270-1; - sun-worship, ii, 20, 23, 24, 25-6; - tops, v, 339; - water clocks, 58-62; - weapons of, xv, 211 (fig.); - wheat in, xiii, 210; - wheel in, v, 18-19 - - Egyptian Art, xv, 300-2; - no perspective in, xi, 181 - - Egyptian Comet, ii, 134 - - Egyptians, ancient and modern, xvi, 65; - ideas of cosmos, 77; - ideas of insanity, x, 356; - in Mediterranean group, xvi, 49; - not seamen, xiv, 265, 306-7; - scarabs of, xii, 123 - - Ehrlich, Paul, "atoxyl" of, x, 169; - chemotherapy founded by, 381; - immunity theory, 209, 211-12 - - Eiffel Tower, hail rods, i, 342, 344; - horizontal rainbows seen from, 177 - - Einstein Theory, ii, 79-82, xvi, 196-8; - æther constitution and, vii, 368; - anticipations of, xvi, 85; - Newtonian system and, iv, 18 - - Elands, xii, 327 - - Elasmosaurus, xii, 202 - - Elastic Cords, vibrations, iv, 216 - - Elasticity, iv, 35-6, 156-9; - molecular, perfect, viii, 24; - temperature effects on, iv, 198; - vibration dependent on, 198, 213, 215, ix, 98, 100-1 - - Elation, in various sentiments, xi, 140, 150 - - Electrical Capacity, iv, 267-8 - - Electrical Conductors (see Conductors) - - Electrical Machinery, remote and automatic control, vi, 99-101; - ratings, 192-4, 212, 317 - - Electrical Protective Devices, vii, 32-50 - - Electrical Terms, vii, 361-76 - - Electrical Units, iv, 284-5 - - Electric Arcs, direct currents best, vi, 332; - extinguishing of, 102; - Faraday's experiments, xvi, 189; - heat of, iv, 312, vi, 348; - heat and light, 280; - on alternating circuits, vii, 208-9; - used in nitrogen production, 323-4 (see Arc Process) - - Electric Batteries (cells), iv, 271-3, 295-300, vi, 58-62, 126-51, vii, - 363; - chemical action, viii, 167-9; - defined, iv, 381, 382; - depolarization, vii, 366; - direct currents, vi, 154; - direction of currents, 59; - function, 72; - invented by Volta, 18-19; - local action, vii, 361; - polarization of, iv, 296, 298, 383; - primary and secondary defined, iv, 383; - used in electrotherapy, vii, 241-4 - (see also various kinds of batteries and cells) - - Electric Bell, iv, 290-2, vi, 99, 127, 138, 144, 306 - - Electric Breeze, vii, 238-9 - - Electric Cars, circuit-breakers in, vi, 101-2; - construction, types, and operation, vii, 182-6; - former and present feeling about, 75-6; - growth and improvement, 180; - movement on hills, vi, 232-3 (see Electric Traction) - - Electric Clocks, v, 74 - - Electric Currents, vi, 67-85; - alternating and direct, 152-3 (see Alternating, Direct Currents); - attracting and repulsion of, 20-1; - cause of, iv, 265, 271, 273, vi, 46, 72; - detection, 91; - direction, 54-7, 59, 124; - distribution (see Power Transmission); - effects on human body, vii, 246-9; - electron theory, vi, 123, 152, vii, 366; - flow, vi, 46, 47, 67-9; - follow least resistance, 96; - Galvanic Faradic, and Franklinic, vii, 242, 243, 245; - heat and light production by, iv, 310-12, vii, 337-8; - induced, iv, 303-8, vi, 22 (see Induced Voltages); - intensity, vii, 370; - leakage, 371; - magnetic effects of, iv, 273-9, 286-7, vi, 20-1, 88-91; - measured by ammeters (see Ammeters); - overloading lines, vi, 9, 72; - production, 46, 72 - (see also Dynamos, Electric Batteries, Thermal Couples); - protection against overloading, vii, 34-50; - selenium control valve, v, 332; - surges, vii, 16-18; - units and measurements, iv, 277-85, vi, 69-76, 82, 84-5; - values, effective and maximum, 346-7; - value in oscillating circuits, vii, 289-90; - velocity, Watson's study, xvi, 123; - wire capacity table, vii, 58 - - Electric Discharges, iv, 264-5, 267, 269, vii, 366; - atmospheric, i, 157, 158-62; - fog dispersal by, 94; - in vacuums, iv, 317-18; - nitrogen fixation by, viii, 73, 74, 346; - rain-making by, i, 340; - through gases, vii, 216, 301-2 - - Electric Eel, vi, 16, 64, xii, 160-1 - - Electric Energy, vii, 368; - conversion into heat, 89, 303-5; - due to difference of potential, iv, 263, 264, 265; - equivalents, vii, 382; - transmission (see Power Transmission); - unit of, vi, 82; - unit (joule), iv, 284, 294, 310, 312, vii, 370 - - Electric Fans, vii, 76-7, ix, 317 - - Electric Fishes, catfishes, xii, 161; - electric eel, 160-1; - torpedo fish, 149-50 - - Electric Furnace, iv, 312, vii, 302-12; - history and uses, xvi, 189-91; - invented by Acheson, vii, 301; - operation and products, viii, 283-4 - - Electric Hammer, vi, 94 - - Electricity, iv, 256-321 vols. vi, vii; - advantages in home and industry, vii, 51-2; - animal (see Animal Electricity); - atmospheric, i, 141-63, vii, 201-19, 362; - attraction and repulsion law, iv, 256-8, 261, vi, 18, 122; - basis of matter, iv, 23, vi, 107-8, 113, 118 (see Electron Theory); - battleship applications, vii, 325-35; - chemistry and, viii, 164 (see Electrochemistry); - commercial units, iv, 312; - conductors and nonconductors, 258-9, vi, 294-5 (see Conductors, - Nonconductors); - daily applications, xvi, 19, 20, 26-7, 30; - defined, vii, 367; - disadvantages in mines, v, 129; - farm uses, vii, 220-34; - flow, vi, 46, 67, 292-3; - flow, direction of, iv, 265, vi, 56-7; - frictional (see Frictional Electricity); - history of development, iv, 52-5, vi, 9-26, xvi, 121-3, 188-92; - home applications, vii, 73-90; - identity of kinds, vi, 23; - importance of understanding, - 9-10, 64-6; - late discovery and use, vii, 235; - lightning and, vi, 10-11, 13-16; - magnetism and, iv, 257, 276, vi, 12, 19-20, 21, 27-8, 86; - "messenger" of physics, iv, 50; - miscellaneous applications, vii, 336-59; - name, origin of, iv, 256, vi, 12; - not made, but moved, 46, 49, 72, 128; - origin, latest views of, 105-25; - physical effects of, x, 250, 254, xi, 117; - popular applications of, iv, 10; - positive and negative, i, 141, 142, iv, 258, 265, vi, 287; - precise measurements, vii, 152; - production of (see Electric Batteries, Generators, Power Plants); - production by wind power, i, 38, v, 173; - quantity unit, iv, 261, 277, 280, vii, 365, 374; - science of power, xvi, 36-7; - single-fluid theory, vi, 11, 288-93; - static (see Static E.); - transmission (see Power Transmission); - uses and power, vi, 10; - use in medicine (see Electro-therapeutics); - wave lengths and frequency, vii, 260; - wide familiarity with, 152-3; - widespread interest in, vi, 330-1 (see further Electric Currents, - Electric Power, Electromotive Force, etc) - - Electric Lamps, iv, 310, vi, 265-8; - candlepower of, iv, 352, xvi, 189; - detonation on breaking, vii, 211; - Edison's inventions, xvi, 188, 189; - energy requirements, iv, 311; - light and heat, vi, 268; - neon and argon fillers, i, 33; - number used, vii, 51; - short-circuiting by burning out, 35 - - Electric Lighting, vi, 264-83; - advances in applications of, iv, 50-1, vi; - direct and alternating current effects, 155-6; - due to glowing of a solid, viii, 60; - farm uses, vii, 231, 232, 233; - fire hazard reduced by, vii, 51; - history, xvi, 122-3, 188, 189; - homes and interiors, vi, 275-8, vii, 68-72, 75; - leading inventors, vi, 26, 265; - meter units, iv, 312; - outdoor, vi, 278-80, 283, vii, 339-4; - small fraction of power used in, vi, 381; - wide use and advantages, vii, 51, 52 - - Electric Locomotives, v, 212, vi, 161, 162, vii, 182; - induction motors in, vi, 249; - motors and currents, vii, 195-6, 200; - power and efficiency, 193-4; - regenerative brakes, 200 - - Electric Meters, vii, 151-79; - for alternating currents, vi, 346-7; - screening of, 32; - units used in, iv, 312, vi, 82-3 - - Electric Power, costs, on what dependent, vi, 380-2; - costs for farm work, vii, 224-6; - extra charges for peak hours, vi, 301, vii, 177-8; - measured in watts, iv, 310, 312, vi, 84-5; - transmission (see Power Transmission); - water power and, viii, 283 - - Electric Pumps, vii, 86-7; - remote control, vi, 99-100 - - Electric Ranges, vii, 88-9; - special rates for, 174 - - Electric Traction, vii, 180-200; - block signals, 355; - converters used, vi, 342; - current used, 161-3; - motors used, 231, 241 - (see also Electrification of Railroads) - - Electric Waves, discovery of, iv, 55, 313 - (see also Electromagnetic Waves) - - Electric Wiring (see Wires, Wiring) - - Electrification, iv, 256-62, vi, 11, 12, 13, 286; - degree of, 17; - methods of, iv, 265-7; - of atmosphere, vii, 207, 212-13, 216-17; - of earth and air, i, 144-6, 150 - (see also Charged Bodies) - - Electrification of Railroads, v, 212, vi, 162, 249, vii, 181-2, 193-6; - block signal system, vii, 359; - brake system, 200; - smoke relief by, i, 64; - trolley and third rail systems, vii, 197-8 - (see also Railroad Terminals) - - Electrochemical Analysis, viii, 294-5 - - Electrochemistry, vii, 299-324, viii, 164-9, 283-4, 312; - organic, 266; - use of direct current in, vi, 163; - water power and, viii, 267 - - Electrodes, iv, 297, 317, 382, vi, 60, 129, 130-5, 367; - graphite, vii, 308, 309 - - Electrolysis defined, iv, 382, vii, 367, viii, 375; - industrial applications, vii, 312-24, viii, 164-7, 271, 272, 284; - ionic hypothesis of, viii, 123-5; - of organic compounds, 266; - of water, 30-1 - - Electrolytes, iv, 382, vi, 23, 58, viii, 376; - acids, bases, and salts called, 125; - action of currents in, vi, 131-5, vii, 247; - don'ts about, vi, 149; - double-fluid, 137; - in primary and secondary cells, 130 - - Electrolytic Cells, vii, 313, 367 - - Electrolytic Corrosion, vi, 65-6, vii, 189; - alternating currents and, 305 - - Electrolytic Dissociation, viii, 123-4, xvi, 164-5 - - Electromagnetic Units, iv, 278-82 - - Electromagnetic Waves, form and lengths, vii, 371; - length and frequency, 259, 260; - transmitted by æther, vi, 119, 269 - (see also Radio Waves) - - Electromagnetism, Electromagnets, iv, 286-94, vi, 30, 31, 86-104, vii, - 367, 372; - Einstein theory and, ii, 80-1 - - Electromotive Force, defined, iv, 271, 294, 382, vi, 46-9; - dangers of uncontrolled, 64-5; - generation, 49-66 (see Electric Batteries, Generators, Thermal - Couples); - induced and generated, vii, 370; - measured in volts, iv, 280-1, 284, vi, 53-4, 57; - phase relations, 167-9, 171-4, 242; - self-induction, vii, 375; - uses, vi, 56 - (see also Voltage) - - Electromotive Force Waves, vi, 198-200, 208 - - Electromotive Series, viii, 127-9, 376 - - Electrons, vi, 113-15, vii, 367; - beta rays, viii, 185, 186; - from sun in upper air, i, 144, 146; - in charged bodies, 142, 143; - in sun, ii, 177-8; - knowledge of, from radioactivity, viii, 307; - motions in light, heat and electricity, vii, 371; - nature, vi, 118, 120; - negative electricity, viii, 187-8; - original study, xvi, 193; - size and weight, i, 141-2, viii, 187; - speed in cathode rays, iv, 318 - - Electron Theory, iv, 321, vi, 26, 122-5, vii, 366, 367, 371, viii, 187-8; - compared with Franklin's theory, vi, 288, 292; - in various electrical actions, 133-4, 152, 153, 284, 288, 302, 338-9, - 340; - Larmor's proposal, xvi, 193 - - Electroplating, vii, 314-19, 374, viii, 164-6, 284 - - Electro-Refining, vii, 319-21, viii, 166-7, 284 - - Electrostatic Fields, iv, 261-2, vii, 368; - intensity of, 370 - - Electrostatic Generators, vi, 298-301 - - Electrostatics, defined, iv, 259; - importance of, 271 - (see also Charges, Charged Bodies) - - Electro-Therapeutics, vii, 235-57, 368 - - Electrotyping, vii, 313-14 - - Elements, vi, 108-9, viii, 12, 16, 376, 383; - atomic numbers, 183, 309; - atomic weights (see Atomic Weights); - classification, metals and nonmetals, 17-19, 126, 175-7; - discoveries through Mendeléeff's tables, 180, 181, 182, xvi, 163; - Greek idea of primary, 81, 83; - in earth's crust, iii, 308, viii, 19, 190-1, 192, 194; - in heavenly bodies, 302; - in meteorites, ii, 292; - in sea water, xiv, 295; - in stars, ii, 115-18; - in sun, 114, 128, 185, 211; - isotopic and isobaric, viii, 189; - made up of molecules, 26; - number, 16, 183, 309; - only things man cannot produce, vii, 310; - origin in silicates, viii, 193; - origin, remarks on, 84; - periodic classification, 177-83; - physical state and chemical properties, 297-8; - potentials against hydrogen, vii, 383; - properties dependent on atomic weights, xvi, 134; - Prout's hypothesis of hydrogen basis, viii, 177; - radicals or groups, 93; - radioactive, 184-9; - spectra of, ii, 113, viii, 302; - symbols, 91, 383; - tests of, 285-91; - transmutation of, 188-9, xvi, 14-15; - union types, viii, 20-1, 99-100; - valency, vii, 384, viii, 93, 122 - - Elephants, xii, 301-4; - breeding and domestication of, xv, 197; - breeding rate, 20; - evolution, iii, 300; - fearlessness, xi, 136; - formerly in Europe, xv, 76, 92; - strength of, 18; - trapping of, 225, 226 (fig.), 227; - trypanosome in, x, 168 - - Elevation (geological), denudation increased by, xiv, 39, 40; - effects on streams, 163, 164-70, 187-8; - instances of, 33-4; - of coasts, 253, 262; - of ocean floor, xiv, 286 - (see also Level Changes, Rejuvenation) - - Elevators, air cushioning, v, 134-5; - first passenger, 380; - hydraulic, 102-3; - motors used, vi, 231, 234; - power for fast and slow, 83, 85; - sense of giddiness in, xi, 126-7 - - Elk, xii, 317, 318 - - Elm Trees, xiii, 194, 271-2 - - Embroideries, machine-made, v, 285-7 - - Embryo, development in man and animals, xv, 54, 55; - development of human, ix, 343-4; - development of nervous system in, xi, 34-6; - flexed form of hand, 42-3; - gill slits and notochord in, xii, 128; - of mammals, 273; - of marsupials, 274; - past stages of race seen in, xv, 53-4; - semiaquatic conditions, xi, 36 - - Embryo, of plants, xiii, 60 - - Embryological Development, x, 228 (see Embryo) - - Embryology, history, xvi, 107, 156 - - Emeralds, iii, 325; - oriental, 327 - - Emergencies, body responses in, ix, 166-7, 171-2, 209, 220, 221, 293 - - Emerson, metaphor of, i, 187; - on common mind, xi, 152; - on narrowness of men, 376 - - Emery, iii, 327-8 - - Emmet, Thomas, x, 122, xvi, 186 - - Emotional Glycosuria, xi, 138 - - Emotions, xi, 129-42; - associations - determined by, 205-6; - brain processes in, ix, 154; - classes of, 153-4; - combinations in sentiments, xi, 146-50; - expression of, in men and animals, xv, 63-5, 152; - fatigue and, xi, 274-6; - hypnotic suggestion of, 317-18; - in crowd psychology, 331-2; - not localized in body, 62; - pain and, 119, 120; - physiological effects of, ix, 163-7, 171-2, 200, 209, 240-1, 348, x, - 339, 353; - primary varieties, xi, 55-6; - suppression of, 140-2 - (see also Suppressions) - - Empathy, xi, 172-3, 186; - in advertising, 346-7; - in salesmanship, 335 - - Empedocles, atomic theory, xvi, 87; - malaria prevention by, x, 154; - on matter, xvi, 83, 118 - - Empiric Doctrine (medicine), x, 24, 28 - - Emu, xii, 243, 249, xv, 194 - - Emulsions, colloidal state, viii, 314, 316, 356; - defined, ix, 289 - - Encke's Comet, ii, 280; - used to find Mercury's weight, 77 - - End Buds, of fishes, xii, 137 - - Endless Screw, v, 38, 37 (fig.) - - Endocarditis, x, 195, 332 - - Endoderm, xii, 26 - - Endoskeleton, xii, 127 - - Endothelial Cells, x, 197, 210 - - Energy, conservation of, iv, 40-1 (see Conservation of Energy); - defined, 13-14, 37-9; - equation of, 78; - force contrasted with, 41; - forms and transformations, 81-8; - future sources of, v, 171-81; - heat equivalent (see Mechanical Equivalent of Heat); - kinetic and potential, iv, 79, 81-5, vii, 368; - matter and, iv, 13-14; - of plants and animals, viii, 334, 335, 336, 347, 349, 350 - (see also - Human Energy); - physics as science of, iv, 12, 13-14, 50; - power differentiated from, 80; - radiant (see Radiant Energy); - sources in nature, viii, 267-8, ix, 25-6, xiv, 31-2; - sun as source of, v, 177, viii, 267, 334, 350, ix, 25-6, xiv, 32; - transference and transformation of, iv, 37-41, 81-88, vi, 128-9; - units of, iv, 79-80, ix, 295; - unit equivalents table, vii, 382; - universality of, iv, 13-14; - work and, 37-40, 78-88; - (see also Atomic E., Chemical E., Electrical E., Human E., Molecular - E., Power) - - Engines, air and water cooled, v, 160-1; - Clausius's principle, xvi, 135; - heat, efficiency of, iv, 192; - reciprocating and rotary, v, 148; - two-cycle and four-cycle, 157-9; - (see also Gas Engines, Gasoline Engines, Internal Combustion Engines, - Steam Engines, etc.) - - Engines of Destruction, v, 359-75 - - England, Alpine Invasion, xvi, 49; - beet cultivation in, xiii, 216; - "Blackthorn winter," i, 363; - chalk deposits, iii, 266; - climate of, xiv, 345; - coal supply, v, 172; - coast destruction, iii, 56, xiv, 47, 301; - coffee consumption, xiii, 232; - early criminal justice in, xv, 372; - first recorded eclipse, ii, 210; - former connections with Europe, xiv, 271-3, xv, 76; - grass snake of, xii, 217-18; - insular position and results, xiv, 279-81, xv, 137; - iron industry, v, 316; - jute manufacture, xii, 243; - lakes of, xiv, 200; - landscape gardening, xiii, 267, 268; - maritime supremacy, xiv, 262, 280-1, 307-8, 310; - oak-hazel copses, xiii, 369-70; - primitive inhabitants, xv, 83, 92-3; - rainfall and verdure, xiv, 352; - recent restrictions on power vehicles, v, 212-13; - smallpox inoculation in, x, 207; - sugar in, xiii, 215; - surgery made a profession, x, 105; - tea in, xiii, 228-9; - tobacco introduction, 256; - trees in, xiv, 375 - - English Alphabet, xv, 176 - - English Channel, first aeroplane flight, i, 43; - historical importance, xiv, 279-80, xv, 137; - impassable to quadrupeds, xiv, 273; - tidal power system, v, 175-6; - tides of, xiv, 294 - - English Language, changes in, xv, 156-7; - double meanings of words, 158-9; - foreign words in, 161; - imitative words in, 153-4; - origin of various words, 157, 161; - relationships, 160, 162; - spelling and pronunciation, 176-8 - - English People, characteristics, xiii, 172; - insularity of, xiv, 280 - - English Sparrow, increase in U. S., xv, 21 - - Entada Scandens, xiii, 347-8 - - Enterokinase, x, 326 - - Entropy, iv, 193, xvi, 135 - - Environment, adaptation to (see Adaptation to Environment); - change of, to relieve fatigue, x, 247; - changes of, new species from, xv, 24-5; - defined, x, 228; - geographical, influence on civilization, xiv, 30-1, xv, 31, 122-39; - habit and, xi, 249; - health and disease factor, x, 237-44, 249-55, 303; - heredity and, ix, 344, x, 228-30, xvi, 47; - instincts as response to, xi, 49-53; - man creature of, 57-8; - man's conquest of, xv, 25-6; - man's regulation to, x, 249-51; - man the product and molder, of, xi, 33; - mental effects of, x, - 354; - mind as response to, xi, 12, 24, 58; - plant response to, xiii, 355-7; - selection of, xi, 257; - will and, 265 - - Envy, sentiment of, xi, 148 - - Enzymes, viii, 376, ix, 227, xiii, 83; - in digestive processes, viii, 103, 226, 228, 357, 358, ix, 227, 228, - 229-30, 235, 242; - in infants, ix, 346; - in tea, xiii, 230; - in tobacco curing, 257 - - Eocene Period, animals of, xii, 306, 366; - birds of, xv, 71 - - Eolithic Period, xv, 103-5 - - Epic Poetry, development of, xv, 321 - - Epicurus, atom theory, x, 26 - - Epicycles, ii, 35-6 - - Epidemics, Sydenham on, x, 74; - tainted water and, xiv, 140 - - Epigenesis, xvi, 118 - - Epileptics, multiplication of, x, 235-6; - primitive ideas of, xv, 350, 353 - - Epiphytes, xiii, 185, 362-3, 366; - in tropical forests, xiv, 368 - - Epithelial Cells, x, 201, 202 - - Epsom Salts, viii, 149 - - Epyornis, eggs of, xii, 249 - - Equator, altitude of stratosphere at, i, 20; - bulging at, ii, 69, 71; - magnetic, xiv, 246; - of wind system, xiv, 347; - solar eclipses seen at, ii, 215; - upper air temperatures, i, 20; - weight of bodies at, ii, 69, iv, 75, 101; - winds at, i, 127, xiv, 351 - - Equatorial Belt, winds and weather of, xiv, 348, 349 - - Equilibrium of Chemical Reactions, viii, 103-5, 190-1 - - Equilibrium of Forces, v, 183-4; - science of, iv, 25 - - Equilibrium Sense, ix, 89-90, 156, x, 126, xi, 64, 126, 127; - in infants, ix, 350 - - Equinoxes, defined, ii, 70-1; - observed in Egypt, 25, 26, xv, 269-70; - precession of (see Precession of Equinoxes) - - Eras, Geological, iii, 19-21, 378 - - Erasistratus, x, 23-4 - - Eratosthenes, ii, 10, 30 - - Erbium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Erg, energy unit, iv, 80; - table of equivalents, vii, 382 - - Ericsson, air engine, v, 380; - Monitor, 380; - solar engine, ii, 169; - steam fire engine, v, 378 - - Erie Canal, importance to New York, xiv, 267-8; - through Mohawk Valley, 194 - - Erie, Lake, salt in, viii, 139; - water constituents, 40; - water supplies from, v, 260-1 - - Ermines, xii, 349-50 - - Eros (asteroid), ii, 191; - distance, 132, 259 - - Erosion, iii, 28-9, 378; - agents and processes, xiv, 39-79 - (see also Glaciers, Ocean Waves, Streams, Wind); - bad lands and canyons due to, iii, 139-40; - base level, 30, 377 (see Base Level); - by ground water, xiv, 141, xvi, 173; - cycles (see Cycles of Erosion); - earth movements and, xiv, 39, 40; - final effect of, 80; - illustration of recent, iii, 64 (Pl. 3); - in deserts, 72; - in Ice Age, 242; - of faulted areas, xiv, 127; - of folded areas, 94-6; - of mountains, iii, 135, 139, 140-1, 188, 190-1, xiv, 233-4; - present relief due to, iii, 32; - rate of, xiv, 41; - unequal operation of, 35 - - Erosion Surface (see Unconformity) - - Errors, fatigue and, xi, 274; - of memory, 215-17; - in space perceptions, 183-90 - (see also Mistakes) - - Erysipelas, germ of, x, 195; - immunity to, 207; - puerperal fever and, 114 - - Eskers, iii, 70, 352 (Plate 20), xiv, 59-60 - - Eskimos, conditions of life, xv, 123-4; - customs concerning dead, 338; - ideas of future life, xv, 333, 335; - kayaks of, 264 (fig.); - language lacking in abstract words, 144; - leadership among, 363; - meat eating by, ix, 284, 309; - polar bear catching by, xv, 224-5; - reindeer uses, xii, 320; - weapons of, xv, 209 (fig.), 210-12 - - Esophagus, functions and connections, ix, 230, 231; - heartburn in, 232; - operations of, xi, 37-9 - - Esparto Grass, v, 292 - - Espy, James P., i, 215, 345 - - Essential Oils, viii, 251-2, 336, 349 - - Esters, viii, 221, 245, 248, 376 - - Estuaries, formation of, iii, 37, xiv, 255, 256 - - Eta Argus, ii, 324 - - Eternity, real meaning, xi, 196 - - Ethane, derivatives, viii, 210 - - Ether, composition and properties, viii, 216-18, 376; - density of, iv, 113; - explosibility, viii, 62; - refrigeration by, iv, 174; - use as anesthetic, discovery of, x, 123-5, xvi, 185 - - Ether of Space (see Æther) - - Ether Structure, viii, 217, 224 - - Ethyl, defined, viii, 376; - derivatives, 210 - - Ethyl Acetate, viii, 221 - - Etna, Mount, xiv, 100, 225, 316-17; - flashing arcs, i, 194; - water from eruption, iii, 107 - - Etruscans, vase decorations of, xv, 251 - - Eucalyptus Tree, xiii, 358; - fertilization of, xii, 266-7; - used in draining swamps, xiv, 379 - - Euclid, ii, 29, xvi, 81, 89, 95 - - Eudoxus, ii, 31, 300 - - Eugenics, x, 235-6, xvi, 157, 158 - - Euler, scientific work of, ii, 15, xvi, 125 - - Euphrates River, union with Tigris, xiv, 185 - - Europe, aeroplane routes, i, 44-5; - after-summers, 362; - Alpine invasions, xvi, 49; - ancient animals, xii, 275, 310, 359; - animals (carnivora), 336, 340, 348, 349, 350, 355, 356; - animals, (herbivora), 307, 317, 318, 329, 330-1; - aristocracies of, xv, 377; - Asiatic invasions, xiv, 74-5, 362, xv, 138-9, xvi, 141; - beet sugar production, xiii, 216; - birds of, xii, 255, 261, 262, 263, 266, 268-9; - Black Death in, x, 163-4; - cave period in, xiv, 148-9; - civilization in northern, 359; - climate of, 346-7, 359; - coast, western, 249; - coffee introduction, xiii, 232; - continental slope, xiv, 287; - cretinism in, x, 350; - Cro-Magnons in, xv, 99, 102, xvi, 50; - dowry system in, xv, 285; - drainage systems, xiv, 190; - earthquake belt, 332; - forests, 375-6, 377-8, 380-1; - former connection with America, 290; - geological history, iii, 180, 198, 216, 235-6; - glacial topography, xiv, 3, 30, 43, 61-2, 200; - gunpowder introduction, xvi, 101; - hail prevention devices, i, 340-3; - Ice Age in, iii, 62, 236-7, 239, 240, xv, 74, 75, 76, 102; - languages of, 161, 162; - map discrepancies, xiv, 10; - mediæval astronomy in, ii, 39-41; - meteorological statistics, i, 203; - monkeys of, xii, 378; - moor fires, i, 56; - mussel-eating in, xii, 65; - Nordic invasion, xvi, 50; - nutmeg introduction, xiii, 261; - paper introduction, v, 290; - paper making, 292; - plains of, xiv, 217; - population increase, xv, 27; - potato in, xiii, 218; - primitive man types found in, xv, 88, 92-102; - rainfall distribution, xiv, 352; - rainfall stations, i, 79; - revival of learning (see Renaissance); - rice in, xiii, 214; - rodents of, xii, 287, 288; - snails of, 69, 70; - snakes of, 218, 220, 231; - snow removal in cities, i, 117; - sugar introduction, xiii, 215; - syphilis in, x, 60; - tea introduced, xiii, 228; - telegraph systems, vii, 108; - tobacco introduced, xiii, 256; - trees of, xiv, 363, 375-6; - vegetables and fruits originating in, xiii, 222-7; - volcanic belts, xiv, 316-17; - weather observations, i, 217-18; - windmills, 37 - - European Races, classification and history, xvi, 48-50 - - Europeans, comparative measurements of, xv, 57; - hair of, 38; - northern and southern, color of, 37 - - European Sleeping Sickness, x, 301-2 - - Europium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Eustachian Tube, ix, 101 (fig.), 102, xi, 101; - adenoid effects on, x, 341-2; - deafness from closing of, ix, 103-4; - discovery, xvi, 82 - - Eutheria, xii, 271, 273-4, 281 - - Evaporation, body heat regulation by, i, 317, 318, ix, 316, 317; - by trees, xiv, 377-8, 378-9, 379; - (see also Transpiration); - cooling by, iv, 174, viii, 69, ix, 316; - electricity, caused by, vii, 212; - ice made by, v, 349-50; - measurement of, i, 88-9; - of liquids, iv, 167; - of terrestrial waters, xiv, 135; - water table affected by, 136 - - Evaporimeter (see Aumometers) - - Everglades, Florida, draining of, v, 255 - - Evergreen Trees, deciduous, xiv, 370, 371; - in landscape gardening, xiii, 269, 270, 271 (See also Conifers) - - Evesham Experiments, vii, 352 - - Evil Spirits, savage belief in, xv, 234, 304-5, 336, 339-40, 348, 352 - - Evolution, animals the main proof of, iii, 259, 260; - Buffon on, xvi, 139-40; - climatic, iii, 174; - Darwinian theory, x, 135, 136, xvi, 149-52; - Greek theories, 78-9, 139; - human, xv, 26-31, xvi, 47; - laws of, xv, 15-25, 381-2; - laws and goal of, xiii, 325-36; - Le Conte on, iii, 164; - social, xv, 29-31, 382, 383-4; - universality of, ii, 366, xv, 29, xvi, 152; - Wolff's theory, xvi, 118 - - Exaggeration of Parts, iii, 277 - - Excavating, air pressures in, v, 120; - through quicksands, 115-18, 123; - under river-beds, 121-4; - with water jets, 88 - - Excavating Machinery, v, 252-9; - for swampy ground, 216 - - Excitement, blood changes in, ix, 293, xi, 137, 138; - insomnia from, ix, 219; - pain and, xi, 119; - recovery period, 21 - - Exclusive Inheritance, x, 230-1 - - Exercise, effects, needs and rules, x, 303-6; - effects on breathing, ix, 256, 258; - effects on heart rate, 168-9, 207, 208-9, 261-2, x, 334; - effect on lymphatics, ix, 223; - effects on sweat glands, 169, 315-16; - for constipation, 251, x, 317; - heat produced by, - 270, 306; - obesity and, 273-4, 275; - oxygen consumption in, ix, 261; - psychological importance, xi, 339, 371-2; - pulse rate after, x, 334; - tuberculosis preventative, 292; - violent, albuminuria from, 345 - - Exfoliation, iii, 24, 378 - - Exhaust, of engines, v, 164-5 - - Exhaust Fans, vii, 86 - - Exhaustion, kinetic theory, xi, 59-60; - mental and physical, 135-6; - nervous system in, 274; - pain in, 119; - unlike sleep, 286 - - Exoskeleton, xii, 127 - - Expansion, by heat, iv, 134-5, 138, 140, 145, 151, v, 71, viii, 25, 107; - coefficient of, iv, 145; - cooling by, i, 30, 90, iv, 188, 191-2, vii, 323, viii, 68; - of fused quartz, vii, 311-12; - of water and other substances on solidifying, iv, 149-51, viii, 38 - - Experience, ability to profit by, ix, 139-40, 152-3; - accumulation and results, xi, 33; - contradictions of, 11; - learning and, viii, 269; - learning by, in man and animals, xv, 66; - psychology science of, xi, 10-11; - sensations as, 68; - subconscious storing of, 47; - Sylvius's test of truth, x, 69 - - Explanations, slower than events, xi, 210 - - Exploration Drilling, v, 262-5 - - Exploratory Laparotomy, x, 147 - - Explosions, boiler (see Boiler Explosions); - cause of detonations, vii, 211; - chemical and physical processes, viii, 61-3; - dust, i, 63; - gunpowder, viii, 62, 145; - hydrogen in air, 33, 36, 62; - speed of sound in, i, 187 - - Explosives, viii, 63, 260-2; - detonation, 262; - history of development, xvi, 163; - nitrogen compounds in, viii, 66, 71-2, 74, 75, 237, 253, xiv, 66; - nitrogen waste in, viii, 345-6; - sulphuric acid in, 80; - weather making by, i, 335-9 - - Exposure (outcrop), iii, 381 - - Extemporaneous Speeches, xi, 245 - - Extension, perception of, xi, 166, 171-2, 183-9 - - Extensor Muscles, ix, 76-7, xi, 54, 166 - - Exteroceptive Senses, xi, 63 - - Extrusive Rocks, xiv, 105 - - Eye-and-ear Method (astronomy), xi, 155 - - Eyeglasses, benefits of, iv, 51 - (see also Glasses) - - Eye-mindedness, xi, 222 - - Eye of the Storm, i, 136, 372 - - Eyes, vi, 270-3, ix, 109-11, xi, 83-97; - abuse of, mental effects, 373-4; - color, inheritance of, ix, 335-6; - color in different races, xv, 37, xvi, 48, 49, 50; - color perception by, ix, 116-17; - color perception limits, iv, 360-1; - comparable with camera, ix, 108; - connection with brain, 124, 142; - controlling nerves, xi, 30; - depth perception by, ix, 120; - diseases and defects, 112-14; - distance of distinct vision, iv, 342, 343; - distance perception by, ix, 118-19; - double images, xi, 175-81; - fatigue from, 279; - fear effects, 132; - fixation, how learned, 39-40; - inflammation due to lack of vitamines, x, 260; - in infants, ix, 350, 351, xi, 39, xv, 61; - in sleep, xi, 282, 283, 286; - muscles around, ix, 77; - of various animal forms, xii, 67, 101-2, 138-9, 205-6, 209; - origin, xi, 109; - persistence of vision, iv, 346-7; - position in attention, xi, 232; - pupil size, iv, 343; - receptor organs, xi, 30, 62; - regulation to light, x, 254; - sensibility to light waves, iv, 360; - smooth muscles of, ix, 161-2; - soul in, savage idea of, xv, 330-1; - space perception by, xi, 169-70, 171-2, 173, 174-83, 186-90; - winking and watering of, 19, 23, 63 - (see also Sight, Vision) - - Eye Sockets, ix, 62 - - Eyestrain, ix, 113, 114, 239; - Behan on, xi, 374 - - Eyra, xii, 364 - - - Fabre, J. H., xvi, 143-4 - - Fabrics, making of, v, 268-88; - manufacturing processes, viii, 256; - Philippine fiber, xiii, 236, 239; - warmth of different, ix, 311-12, x, 309 - - Fabry, Wilhelm, x, 78-9 - - Face, anthropological measurements, xv, 43-5; - brain case and, 43, 62; - in infants, ix, 345; - pallor and flushing of, 161, 165, 166; - brain power expressed in, xv, 39, 63-4; - color in different lights, iv, 364-5; - painting of, xv, 256 - - Facial Angle, xv, 44-5 - - Facial Expressions, xv, 63-4; - dejection and, xi, 337, 339; - man's trained control, 82, 350-1; - smell and, 82; - smiling, 357; - taste and, 74, 75, 76; - tone of voice and, xv, 144 - - Factor Differences, xiii, 330, 331-2 - - Factories, fatigue reduction, xi, 277; - importance of conditions, 361-2; - instruction of beginners, 363-5; - lighting importance, 361; - rest periods, 363; - warm floors, importance of, ix, 320 - (see also Industrial Plants, Industrial Psychology) - - Factory System, beginning of, x, 244; - occupational diseases in, 245 - - Fahrenheit, Daniel Gabriel, iv, 135-6 - - Fahrenheit Thermometer, i, 73, viii, 27; - compared with other scales, iv, 137, 141, viii, 27, 384; - invention, i, 69; - scale, how prepared, iv, 135-6, 137 - - Fainting, cause and relief, ix, 217; - due to weakness, x, 89; - low blood pressure in, 336 - - Fairmont, W. Va., deep well at, iii, 120, v, 265 - - Faith Healing, Barton on, x, 76; - effectiveness, xi, 374 - - Falcons, xii, 260, 261; - hunting with, xv, 223 - - Falkland Islands, groundsel of, xiii, 345 - - Falling Bodies, Galileo's studies of, iv, 19, 28, 97; - laws of, 96-7, xvi, 31-3; - velocity of, ii, 64, iv, 65; - velocity on sun and earth, ii, 168 - - Falling Stars (see Meteors, Meteorites) - - Fall Line, xiv, 28, 214 - - Fallopius, x, 51, 53 - - Fallowing, viii, 341-2 - - Fall Winds, i, 132-3, 372 - - False Cirrus, i, 102, 104, 372 - - False Coral, xii, 47 - - Family, origin and evolution of the, xv, 273, 278-85, 360-1, 362 - - Fancy, pictures of, xi, 202 - - Fanning, benefits of, ix, 316-17 - - Farad, electric capacity unit, iv, 284, vii, 368 - - Faraday, chemical work, xvi, 160, 162, 163; - discovery of anesthetics, 185; - dynamo invention, 189; - electrical work, vi, 16, 21, 22-3, 50; - farad named after, iv, 284; - metallurgical work, xvi, 174; - on lines of force, iv, 252; - on philosophers, x, 376; - suggestion of fourth state of matter, xvi, 193 - - Faradic Currents, vii, 243, 248-9 - - Fargo, N. D., region, iii, 34 - - Farmers, ancient and recent methods, v, 239-40; - motor machines, 214; - past injustice and hardships, vii, 220-1; - small, and machinery, v, 249-50 - - Farms, cost of horse work, vii, 224-6; - electricity on, iv, 10, vii, 220-34; - migration of boys from, 221; - motor machines on, v, 214, 215-18 - - Far-sightedness, ix, 112-13, xi, 85 - - Fata Morgana, i, 172, 372 - - Fatigue, xi, 268-80; - adrenalin effects, 137; - cure for, x, 247-8; - disorders and diseases due to, 246-9; - from muscles, xi, 124; - from posture, ix, 83, 84; - habit and, xi, 253; - insomnia from, 289; - mental and physical, relations, x, 247, xi, 135-6; - mental effects, 13; - mental effects illustrated, xvi, 18; - muscular, cause and effects, ix, 80-1; - nervous, 137-8; - no sense organs of, 91; - physical effects of, x, 246-7; - rest periods and, xi, 363; - retardation of impulses in, 20; - sleep in relation to, ix, 219; - smooth muscles free from, 84-5; - stimulation to change, xi, 338-9; - suggestibility in, 307 - - Fatness, (obesity), x, 272-5; - adipose tissues in, ix, 298; - reduction of, 301-2 - - Fats, amount in daily diets, viii, 366-7, ix, 300-1; - animal, viii, 246, 348, 349, 350, x, 260; - animal, vitamines in, ix, 33; - calories in, viii, 361, x, 269; - composition, viii, 221, 245, 247, 335-6, 376; - digestion and utilization, 356, 357, 359, ix, 242-3, 244-5, 289-90, - 294, 298-9, x, 326, 330; - extraction of, viii, 246; - food value and requirements, 335, 336, 362, 363, ix, 33, 300-1, x, - 256, 260-2, 268, 269, 271; - identification of, viii, 310; - indigestibleness of, ix, 286; - in human body, viii, 348, 349; - lipins, 350-1; - liquid and solid, 232, 244, 247 - (see also Oils); - metabolism of, x, 270; - molecular structure, viii, 217-18; - not antigens, x, 205; - preserving of, viii, 371; - skin excretions, x, 310; - soap effects on, viii, 141-2; - soap made of, 141, 221, 246; - tastelessness, 366; - uses, 246-7; - vegetable, 246, 335-6, 349, 350; - vegetable, lack of vitamines in, x, 259, 260-1, 262 - - Fatty Acids viii, 220; - butter percentage, 245, 364; - candles made from, 247; - in fats and oils, 221, 244, 245; - soap made from, 221, 246 - - Faults, Faulting, iii, 86-92, 378, xiv, 37-8, 114-28; - coasts formed by, 264; - earthquakes and, iii, 87, 90, 93, 94-6, 97, 98, xiv, 39, 115, 128, - 334-5, 339-41; - greatest displacement, 39; - hot springs in relation to, 143; - lakes formed by, iii, 151, 152, 153; - mountains formed by, 138-9, xiv, 226, 229, 230 - - Fault Scarps, iii, 378, xiv, 38; - denudation of, 115-16; - persistency of, 122, 123, 124 - - Fault Valleys, xiv, 127-8 - - Fear, cause and accompaniments of, ix, 153, 166, xi, 131-3, 136, 138; - dominant human impulse, xv, 185; - dreams from, xi, 293, 294, 299-300, 301-2; - expression of, in animals, xv, 64; - in various sentiments, xi, 146, 147, 148; - pain deadened by, 120; - subconscious processes and, 212-13, 214 - - Feathers, of birds, xii, 243-7 - - Feeble-mindedness, inheritance of, x, 234, 235-6; - reflex action in, xi, 36 - - Feelings, brain processes in, ix, 154; - classes of, 153-4; - essentials of, xi, 25; - expression of, xv, 143; - motor response and, xi, 43 (see Consciousness, Emotions, Sensations) - - Feet, bones of, ix, 68-9, 70 (fig.); - care of, x, 312; - Chinese women's, xv, 260, 261 (fig.); - cold or warmth felt in, ix, 320, 322; - custom of covering, xv, 254; - equal size of, ix, 170; - mental impairment by troubles with, xi, 373; - of ape and men, compared, iii, 301 (fig.), xv, 57, 60-1; - of infants, 61; - of Tertiary mammals, iii, 298, 299-300; - proper shoeing, ix, 69-70, x, 306; - relative lengths, xv, 57; - soles of, nerve connections, ix, 132, 135; - uses of, by men and monkeys, xv, 60-1; - wetting of, and colds, x, 239, 306, 341 - - Feldspar, iii, 308, 328-9; - chemical composition, viii, 90, 193; - clay from, iii, 25, 27, 28, 373; - disintegration, viii, 194; - potash in, 201 - - Felt, making of, v, 289 - - Fer-de-lance, xii, 234 - - Ferdinand II of Tuscany, i, 69, 213 - - Fergusson, William, x, 130 - - Fermat, Pierre de, xvi, 105, 114, 119 - - Fermentation, alcoholic, viii, 248-9; - of sewage, 328; - of sugars, 225, 227; - on what dependent, xiii, 66, 71; - Pasteur's studies in, x, 137, 138-9, 141, 143 (see Alcoholic - Fermentation) - - Ferments, viii, 357, 376; - as catalyzers, 103 - - Ferns, xiii, 63-6; - classification, iii, 251; - cycad-like, xiii, 309; - evolution, iii, 252, 254, 256, xiii, 303, 317; - fossils, iii, 272 (Pl. 15), xiii, 324; - in tropical forests, xiv, 368; - mosses and, xiii, 69; - number of species, 323; - power of roots, 19; - reproductive processes, 155-60 - - Ferrel's Law, i, 124-5 - - Ferrets, xii, 349 - - Ferric Compounds, viii, 161 - - Ferrite, viii, 160, 273 - - Ferrous Compounds, viii, 161; - action of oxygen on, 194 - - Fertilization of Plants, xiii, 118-65; - devices to insure, 48-53; - of yucca plant, xvi, 152-3 - (see also Cross Fertilization) - - Fertilizers, viii, 278-80, 342-6; - ammonium, 147; - garbage, 330, 343; - natural, 327, 342-4; - natural, in southern China, xiv, 73; - nitrogen, i, 34, viii, 72, 74, 75, 137, 280, 345-6, xiv, 66; - phosphate, viii, 89, 153, 279-80, 344-5, xiv, 67, 68; - potassium, viii, 134, 146, 278-9, 344; - potash, xiv, 67-8; - primitive knowledge of, xv, 202 - - Festoon Clouds, i, 104, 372 - - Fetal Anlage, x, 120 - - Fetishes, xv, 348-9 - - Fevers, cause, temperature, and treatment, ix, 317-19; - cooling of skin in, iv, 174; - explanation of phenomena, x, 214; - heart rate in, 334; - improvement of treatment, xvi, 184-5; - inanition in, x, 276; - racial immunity and susceptibility to, xv, 50, 51; - Sydenham's treatment of, x, 73; - use of antipyretics in, 381 - - Fibers, cellulose, viii, 254-6; - sources, uses, and kinds, xiii, 235-45 - - Fibrin, ix, 180 - - Fields, electrostatic and magnetic, vii, 368 (see Electrostatic Fields, - Magnetic Fields) - - Field Strength or Intensity, vii, 368, 370 - - Figs, for constipation, ix, 251; - origin, xiii, 225 - - Fig Trees, antiquity of species, xiii, 324-5; - of Bahamas, 18; - of Brazil, 365; - of India (illus.), 16; - of West Indies, 21 - - Filled Space, xi, 187 - - Filled Time, xi, 194 - - Filterable Viruses, x, 200 - - Final Common Path, xi, 22-3; - in acquired tastes, 73; - in association of ideas, 199; - in attention, 230; - preoccupation of, 119, 120, 121 - - Finches, coloring of, xii, 245-6 - - Fingal's Cave, jointed rocks in, xiv, 129 - - Fingers, bones of, ix, 67, 68, (fig.); - curling of, in infants, ix, 349; - flexed position, xi, 42-3; - muscles for operating, ix, 76; - of men and apes, xv, 60 - - Finland, coast of, xiv, 247, 259; - lakes of, 200 - - Finland, Gulf of, salinity, xiv, 296 - - Fiords, (see Fjords) - - Fire, Civilization in relation to, ix, 308, 309, xv, 229; - discovery of, v, 349; - possibility of life in, ii, 251; - production and sources, viii, 89, xv, 229-32; - production by air compression, v, 128; - production of, by friction, iv, 48-9; - religious associations of, xv, 234 - - "Fire Animal," xii, 20 - - Firearms, v, 361-8, 379; - ignition systems, viii, 145 - - Fire Balloons, v, 223 - - Fire Damp, iii, 354 - - Fire Engine, Ericsson's steam, v, 378; - Hero's, xvi, 92-3 - - Fire Extinguishers, carbon tetrachloride in, v, 212; - chemical and electric, vi, 101, 102 - - Fireflies, xii, 124; - as ignis fatuus, i, 346; - light of, vi, 268 - - Fire Hazard, electricity and, vii, 51-2, 223, 224; - in rural districts, 231; - reduced by lightning rods, i, 156 - - Fire Proof Type of Construction, vii, 55 - - Fire Pumps, v, 114 - - Fire Underwriters, Board of, vii, 53-4 - - Fires, caused by overloaded circuits, vii, 34; - cause of "spalling" in, iii, 24; - crowd psychology at, xi, 327-8; - dust from, i, 56-7; - extinguishing of, viii, 56-7; - prairie, xiii, 374, 375; - rain control by, i, 345; - records in tree rings, xiii, 25 - - Fire-Weather Warnings, i, 240 - - Fireweed, seed dispersal, xiii, 343-4 - - Fir Trees, dominance in north, xiii, 350; - forests of U. S., 367-8; - in landscaping, 270-1 - (see also Conifers) - - Fish, as food, ix, 24; - calories in, 299; - food value, viii, 362-3; - vitamines in, x, 262 - - Fishes, Age of, iii, 20, 21, 283, xv, 71; - anatomy and physiology of, xii, 132-6; - bony, 151-3; - breeding habits, 140-1; - carelessness of offspring, xv, 275; - cartilage skeletons of lowest, ix, 58; - catching of, by savages, xv, 227-8; - catching of, with cormorants, 223-4; - classification, iii, 260, xii, 142; - deep sea (see Deep Sea); - eggs, 140-1, 155, xv, 21, xvi, 116; - evolution, iii, 282-5; - food of, ix, 24; - intelligence in, xii, 139-40; - leeches and, 56; - migrations in relation to plankton, xvi, 147-8; - modern, xii, 154-66; - number of species, xvi, 146-7; - of oceanic islands, xiv, 278; - oxygen supply of, viii, 35, ix, 182; - rate of increase in, xv, 20; - regeneration in, xii, 170; - reproduction in, 140-1; - sense organs, 137-9; - "showers," of, i, 355; - temperature variations, 317; - temperature variations, effects, ix, 78 - - Fish-eye Views, iv, 374 - - Fishhawks, xii, 260 - - Fish Patrol, Aerial, i, 48 - - Fission, xii, 26 - - Fissures, defined, iii, 378; - ore deposits in, viii, 199 - - Fissure Springs, xiv, 138, 152 - - Fitch, John, steamboat, v, 189 - - FitzRoy, Admiral Robert, i, 224-5, 282, 363 - - Fiume, importance to Jugoslavs, xiv, 268, 306 - - Fixation (sight), how we learn, xi, 39-40 - - Fixed Stars, ancient idea of, ii, 350; - motions of, 46, 86-7, 121-2, 304-5 (see Stars) - - Fjords, Fjord Coasts, xiv, 258-62; - Norwegian, formation of, iii, 79; - Norwegian, frost smoke, i, 95 - - Flagellate Cells, xii, 30-1 - - Flame, viii, 57-61; - colors as metal tests, 133, 134, 144, 289, 301; - heat production by, iv, 138, 144 - - Flamingos, xii, 256 - - Flammarion, books on Mars, ii, 238; - on curious showers, i, 355; - on lightning pranks, 153-4 - - Flamsteed, astronomer, xvi, 124; - star numbering, ii, 302-3 - - Flannel, heat conductivity, iv, 179 - - Flannelette, x, 308 - - Flashboards, vii, 40 - - Flash Boiler, v, 213 - - Flashes, electric, vi, 91; - extinguished by electromagnets, 102 - - Flashing Arcs, i, 194, 372 - - Flatfish, eyes of, xii, 138 - - Flatulence, sleeplessness from, ix, 219 - - Flatworms, xii, 18, 44-5 - - Flavors, ix, 95, 97; - chemistry of, viii, 251-2; - food value, 366, ix, 98, 240, 242; - in plants, viii, 349; - perception of, ix, 97-8 - - Flax, retting of, xiii, 243; - spinning of, in ancient Egypt, xv, 243, 244 (fig.) - - Flax Plant, products and origin, xiii, 235, 244, xiv, 382 - - Flesh-eating Animals, as food, ix, 24; - bile color in, 275; - intestine length in, 246; - protein surplus in, 284-5 - - Flexner, medical work of, x, 200, 218, 302 - - Flexor Muscles, ix, 76-7; - strength, xi, 41, 43; - withdrawing reactions by, 54 - - Flies, xii, 120; - appearance in Jurassic, 104; - buzzing of, 103; - claws of, 102-3; - evolution and varieties, 104-6; - plant fertilizers, xiii, 131-3; - typhoid fever spread by, x, 287, 288; - wings of, xii, 103 - - Flight, bodily preparations for, ix, 166; - instinct of, xi, 55, 132, 136 - - Flint, iii, 13, 337; - fire production by, iv, 48; - flaking of, xv, 103, 104, 107 (fig.), 109 - - Flint and Steel, xv, 232 - - Flint Implements, ancient, xv, 79, 81, 82, 87, 104, 105, 109 - - Flintlock, viii, 145, xv, 217, 218 (fig.) - - Floating Bodies, v, 95, 195-6; - laws of, iv, 103-4, 107 - - Flood Lighting, vi, 283 - - Flood Plains, iii, 379, xiv, 53; - alluvial soils of, 70, 71; - embankments and slopes, 161-2; - illustration, iii, 80, (Pl. 4); - in old and new areas, 33, 34; - plant societies of, xiv, 372 - - Floods, power of, iii, 31; - rainfall and, i, 110-11 - - Flood Warnings, i, 240 - - Floors, warm, importance of, ix, 320 - - Flora, defined, xiv, 363 - - Florida, alligators of, xii, 197; - coal forming conditions, iii, 199; - coasts of, xiv, 251; - co-, xii, 40, 42; - crocodiles of, 198; - frosts in, xiv, 370; - serpula quina rock, viii, 152; - coral reefs, tubes, xii, 55; - shad fishing in, 155; - snakes of, 226, 236; - tarpon of, 154; - wolves of, 341; - youthful topography and drainage system, xiv, 157-8, 199-200, 201 - - Florissant, Colorado, insect remains at, iii, 279-80 - - Flour, calories in, ix, 299; - Graham, ix, 35; - vitamines in various kinds of, x, 262, 267 - - Flourens, Dr., x, 126, xvi, 185 - - Flowering Plants, beginnings and development, iii, 20, 252, 255, 256-7, - xiii, 318-19; - classification, 60-1, 173-81; - classification place, iii, 251; - culmination of plant life, xiii, 73-4; - description of parts, 15-62; - families and relationships, 168-207; - in relation to animal life, iii, 257; - none in earliest ages, xiii, 303; - number of species, 168, 319, 323; - origin of present, 323-5; - reproductive methods, 117-54, 167 - - Flowerless Plants, iii, 251, xiii, 13, 14, 43; - evolution, iii, 252, 253; - ferns, xiii, 63-6; - nonvascular, 66-73; - numbers, 168; - reproduction, 62-4, 154-65 - (see also Cryptogams) - - Flowers, annuals and perennials, (tables), xiii, 289-97; - coloring and fragrance, 124-5; - colors in various shrubs, (table), 274-88; - family groups determined by, 184; - fertilization devices, 48-51, 117, 123-48; - fertilization the climax of life, 152; - highly cultivated, 51; - largest, 363-4; - love in, 115; - matings of, remarks, 116-17; - male and female, 46-7; - motion pictures of growth of, iv, 348; - of monocotyledons and dicotyledons, xiii, 176, 178, 189-90; - parts of, 43-6; - purpose, 46, 52-3, 61; - various forms and colors, 47-53, 181-207 - - Flu, (influenza), x, 294-5 - - Fluctuating Variations, xiii, 328 - - Flue Gases, electric clearing, vii, 216, 343 - - Fluids, distinguished by pressure and diffusibility, iv, 22-3; - elasticity of, 158; - osmosis, xiii, 90-1 (see Osmosis); - pressure of, iv, 116-19; - pressure on moving inclined planes, i, 287-8; - principles applicable to, iv, 126 (see Gases, Liquids) - - Flukes, sea, xii, 44 - - Fluorescence, iv, 379-80; - produced by X-rays, 318, 320 - - Fluorescent Screen, iv, 320, vii, 254-5, viii, 184 - - Fluorine, a halogen, viii, 18, 84, 85, 87; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - in apatite, 193; - in tissues, 354 - - Fluorite, iii, 329-30 - - Fluoroscope, iv, 320 - - Flushing, of skin, ix, 161, 162, 163, 215 - - Flute, development of, xv, 316, 317 (fig.); - Egyptian, 314 (fig.) - - Fluxing, of ores, viii, 270 - - Fly-Catcher (plant), xiii, 40-1 - - Flying Dragons, xii, 206 - - Flying Fish, order of, xii, 163; - wings of, 134 - - Flying Mice, xii, 278 - - Flying Reptiles, iii, 293-4, 320 (Pl. 18), xii, 202, 203 (fig.) - - Foci of Infection, x, 198-9, 218-26 - - Focus, defined, iv, 335; - of cameras, ix, 108-9; - of eye, 110-11; - of lenses, iv, 338; - real and virtual, 335 - - Foehn Sickness, i, 328 - - Foehn Wall, i, 105, 372 - - Foehn Winds, i, 133, 372 - - Fog, i, 93-7, 372; - aviation effects, 300-2; - costs and dispersion, 94, 302; - dust nuclei, x, 62, viii, 304; - dry (see Dry Fog); - light diffraction by, i, 183, 185; - rime formed from, 121-2; - sound transmission by, 190 - - Fog Bows, i, 176, 372 - - Fog Drip, i, 351, 353, 372 - - Fog Hiccups, i, 195 - - Fog Signals, audibility, i, 189-91; - sirens, iv, 205 - - Folded Mountains, iii, 131-8, 190-1, xiv, 36-7, 226-34; - ridges in, 93-4, 95-6 - - Folding of Rocks, iii, 84-6, 349 (fig.), 379, xiv, 36; - theories of process, 231-2; - topography made by, 38, 93-9 - - Food, Foods, adulteration of, viii, 370-1; - amount consumed, 366-7; - artificially prepared, x, 257, 267-8; - benzenes and paraffins as, viii, 234; - calories in various, 361, ix, 299, x, 269; - calories, valuation in, iv, 48; - chemistry of, viii, 348-72; - children's, x, 314-15; - cold storage of, iv, 187, 8; - constituents all in air and water, i, 25; - cooking of, viii, 367-9, x, 263, 266 (see Cooking); - deficiency of, diseases from, x, 255-69, 276; - digestion and utilization, viii, 356-9, ix, 226-52, 277-304, x, - 268-71, 319-20; - fat-producing, x, 273; - infants', ix, 346-7; - kinds needed during exertion, xi, 278; - methods of obtaining, importance of, xv, 186-7; - nitrogen importance, viii, 66, 229; - of animals and plants, 349, 350, xii, 15; - procuring of, by animals, ix, 18-20 - (see also Chemotaxis); - requirements, viii, 362-7, 369-70, x, 255-68, 278-9; - selection of, viii, 369, ix, 300-1; - sources of, 24-30; - storing of, by animals, xii, 292-3; - taste and smell of, ix, 94-5, 97-8, 240, 241-2; - use of, for energy development, 15-16, 24, 36-40, 289-301; - use of, for growth, 31-4, 38-9, 286-9; - use of, for tissue repair, 34-6, 278-84 - (see also Diet, Nutrition) - - Food-poisoning, indigestion from, ix, 239 - - Food Plants, xiii, 209-27 - - Food Preserving, viii, 371-2; - chilling and refrigeration, v, 346, 353; - X-ray sterilizing, vii, 257 - - Food Supply, its making by plants, xiii, 77-84, 95, 96; - of tropics, 359 - - "Fool's Gold," iii, 335 - - Foot Candle, iv, 352, vii, 368 - - Foot-pound, iv, 79, vi, 82; - erg and calorie equivalents, vii, 382; - equivalent in watt-hours, iv, 312; - heat equivalent, v, 350-1 - - Foot-pound-second System, iv, 46 (see British System) - - Foot-poundal, unit of work, iv, 79 - - Foraminifers, iii, 54, 259, 261, 266; - in pelagic plankton, xii, 17-18 - - Force (mechanics), iv, 33-4, 41; - centrifugal and centripetal, 71-5; - defined, v, 182-3; - law of, in machines, iv, 90, 92; - Leibnitz's theory, xvi, 117; - magnetic, vii, 369; - measurement and units of, iv, 46, 58, 63-5, 69-70; - momentum and, 66-7; - motion and, 56-69, 71-2, 78; - Newton's and Huygens' studies of, 11; - primary forms of, 25; - static and kinetic measures of, 33; - work in relation to, 37-8, 78-9 - - Force Pump, v, 113-14 - - Forces, composition and resolution of, iv, 75-7; - parallel, 99; - parallelogram of, v, 184-6 - - Forecasts, i, 224 (see Weather Forecasts, Crop Forecasts) - - Foreign Languages, advantages of learning, xv, 146; - jabbering sound, xi, 103; - difficulty of learning, 201 - - Foreign Plants, importation forbidden, xiii, 272, 289; - introduction aided by phenology, i, 254 - - Foreign Trade, meteorology in, i, 268-9 - - Forest Fires, aeroplane lookouts, i, 48-9; - dust from, 56-7; - losses by, xiii, 371-2; - number and losses, i, 48-9; - rain and, 333-4; - records in tree rings, xiii, 25 - - Forests, ancient, iii, 252, 253-4, xiii, 10, 307-10, 312, 313; - branching of trees in, 86; - burial by sand dunes, iii, 74; - climate affected by, xiv, 379; - climax, xiii, 370; - conservation of, xiv, 238-9, 382-3 - (see also Conservation); - earthquakes in, 333; - European, 238-9; - grasslands and, xiii, 348-9, 368 (illus), 374-5, xiv, 380-1; - importance to industry, vi, 366; - leaving of trees in, xiii, 86-7; - migration of, xiv, 375-6; - mountain, 239-9; - northern limit, 375; - park, 374; - products, 382-3; - rainfall and, xiii, 372, xiv, 377-8; - soil protection by, 42, 379; - squirrel planting of, xiii, 340; - temperate, 366-73, 272 (illus), xiv, 370-1; - trees in American and European, 363, 375-6; - tropical, xiii, 358-66, xiv, 366-70; - types of, xiii, 357-8; - United States, xiv, 239, 372-4; - United States national, xiii, 371-2; - water supply and, 371-2, 9, xiv, 239 - - Forgetting, process of, xi, 209; - rate of, 216 - - Forked Lightning, vii, 205, 206-11; - sinuous character, i, 146 - - Form, athletic, ix, 159 - - Formaldehyde, viii, 219, 333, 335, 372 - - Formic Acid, viii, 220 - - Formosa, rice paper tree of, xiii, 214; - continental island, xiv, 274 - - Form-wound Coils, vi, 202, 223, 245 - - Fortin's Barometer, iv, 119-20 - - Fossane, xii, 353 - - Fossil Botany, xvi, 167 - - Fossil Record, extent, iii, 13-14; - imperfectness, xiii, 302-3, 306-7, 323-4, 325; - of various geological strata, iii, 165, 174, 179, 180, 263-5, 268 - - Fossils, defined, iii, 13, 379; - formation, 15-17; - formation of plant, xiii, 301-2; - former views of, iii, 14-15; - geological strata determined by, 15, 18-19, xvi, 126, 169; - of earliest animals, iii, 261-2, 263, 265-6; - of earliest birds, xii, 239-43; - of herbs and woody plants, xiii, 319, 324; - of sharks' teeth, xii, 142; - of water plants, xiii, 303; - of worms, iii, 270; - oldest known, 250; - some remarkable, 286-8, 291, 292, 295, xiii, 306, 347 - - Four-Cycle Engines, v, 159, vii, 123-4 - - Fourdrinier Paper Machine, v, 291, 295-8, 377 - - Four o'Clock (flower), colors in crosses, ix, 334, 336 - - Foussa, xii, 353, 354 - - Fowls, white meat of, xii, 247 - - Foxes, xii, 342-4; - excavators, xv, 206; - storing of food by, xii, 292 - - Fox Fire, i, 346 - - Fractional Distillation, i, 32, iv, 168 - - Fracto-Cumulus, i, 102 - - Fracto-Nimbus Clouds, i, 101 - - Fracto-Stratus Clouds, i, 102 - - Fractures, Pott's, x, 92; - X-ray locating of, vii, 254, 255, x, 185 - - France, aluminum production, iii, 369; - ancient fossils found in, 252, 263, xiii, 319; - botanical education, xvi, 22; - chalk deposits, iii, 266; - coasts, xiv, 46, 47, 257; - Cro-Magnons in, xv, 102; - early civilization of, xiv, 359; - first balloons, v, 219-21; - forestry in, xiv, 239, 382; - hail devices, i, 341, 342-3, 343-4; - harbors of north coast, xiv, 270-1; - invasions of, course taken, 92; - mistral winds, i, 133; - Northmen in, xiv, 261; - oyster culture in, xii, 62; - Paleolithic remains in, iii, 304-5; - rainfall of northern, i, 338; - river changes in, xiv, 184; - standard gun-manufacturing, v, 49; - tidal power plants, 176-7; - surgery made a profession, x, 104-5; - topography in World War, xiv, 86 (map), 88-93; - tuberculosis campaign in, x, 175-6 - - Franco, Peter, x, 57, xvi, 108 - - Franklin, Benjamin, cold season theory, i, 58-9; - climatic changes paper, 200-1; - electrical work, vi, 10-11, 13-16, xvi, 121, 188-9; - lightning experiments, i, 141, iv, 269-70, vi, 11, 14-16, vii, 204-5, - xvi, 121; - lightning rods, vii, 218-19; - medical work of, x, 104; - meteorological work, xvi, 177; - on "magnetic sleep," 185; - single-fluid theory, vi, 11, 288 - - Franklinic Currents, vii, 245 - - Fraunhofer Lines, ii, 112, iv, 362, viii, 302 - - Frazer, Sir J. G., i, 334 - - Frederick Barbarossa, medical interest of, x, 38 - - Freeze, defined, i, 372 - - Freezing, expansion of water on, iv, 149-51; - heat production by, 161 - - Freezing Mixtures, iv, 175; - known to ancients, v, 349 - - Freezing Point, in various thermometers, i, 73, iv, 136, 137, 141, viii, - 27; - of solutions, 299-301; - of various substances, iv, 173; - pressure effects on, 163-6 - - Freiberg, School of Mines, xvi, 126, 127 - - Freight Engines, modern, v, 210 - - French, in Alpine group, xvi, 49; - in America, xiv, 31, 191-2, 242, 310, 311 - - French Language, descent from Latin, xv, 160, 162 - - French Revolution, causes and results, xvi, 128; - crowds of, xi, 326; - metric measures adopted in, iv, 136; - results on cultural advance, x, 107 - - Frende, Gabriel, i, 244 - - Fresnel, light studies, xvi, 137 - - Freud, Sigmund, on dreams, x, 364; - on hysteria, 361; - psychoanalysis of, 363 - - Freudian School, work of, xi, 142 - - Friction, iv, 92-4, v, 203-7; - fire obtained by, viii, 89; - heat production by, iv, 48, 138; - in tubes, ix, 215 - - Frictional Electricity, iv, 257-8, 260, vi, 11, 12, 13, 286-7; - discovery, xvi, 122; - electron theory, vi, 122-3; - identical with other kinds, 23; - single fluid theory, 288 - - Frictional Machines, iv, 265, vii, 236, 245 - - Friction Matches, iv, 49, 138, viii, 88 - - Fried Foods, ix, 286 - - Frigate bird, xii, 253-4 - - Fright, physiological effects of, ix, 161, 165, 221, 240-1 - - Fringed Gentian, a biennial, xiii, 16; - corolla of, 44 (fig.) - - Fringing Reefs, xii, 41, xiv, 263 - - Frisian Islands, coast destruction in, xiv, 46 - - Frogs, iii, 285, xii, 169, 174-6, 177-81; - evolution of, 167; - heart of, ix, 84; - regeneration in, xii, 170; - sense organs in, 169, 174; - "showers" of, i, 355; - temperature effects on, ix, 78-9, 306 - - Frostbite, x, 252 - - Frosts, i, 257-60, 373; - insurance, 270; - rock weathering by, iii, 24, xiv, 62, 75-7, 233 - - Frost Smoke, i, 95, 373 - - Fructose, viii, 226 - - Fruit, defined, xiii, 53-4; - development, 54-5; - dry and fleshy, 54-5; - family groups determined by, 184; - flavors due to esters, 221; - food value, 365, ix, 34, 300, x, 262, 266, 268, 273, 317; - in grasses and sedges, xiii, 179, 182; - purposes of, 61; - seed dispersal, 55-9 - (see also Seed Dispersal); - sugar storage in, ix, 27-8 - - Fruit Trees, as index plants, i, 255-6; - frost danger points, 258 - - Fuels, future motor, viii, 209; - heat - measurement, 360-1; - our waste of, v, 172; - power from oxidation of, ix, 15-16, 24 - - Fuel Value, viii, 360-1 - - Fuji-san, Japan, xiv, 100, 320 - - Fujiyama, Japan, as observatory site, ii, 145, 149; - shadow in sky, i, 170 - - Fulgurites, i, 153, 373 - - Fuller Cells, vi, 137, 142-3 - - Fully, Lake, water drop, v, 81 - - Fulminating Mercury, viii, 262 - - Fulton, Robert, steamboat, v, 192, 377; - steam war vessel, 378; - submarine, 197-8 - - Functional Metabolism, ix, 39; - control of, 39-40, 77-8, 170; - daily amount in calories, 297; - food requirements dependent on, 295; - heat production by, 307; - no tissue wastage by, 282-3; - of glands, 159; - of muscle cells, 74, 77-9; - of nerve cells, 122-3; - of posture, 84; - of vital processes, 295-6 - - Fundamental Tones, iv, 213; - of bells, 222; - of organ pipes, 228-30; - of vibrating strings and rods, 223-4 - - Fundy, Bay of, tides, v, 175, xiv, 293 - - Fungi, xiii, 70-1; - in coal formation, 312; - luminous, i, 346; - reproductive processes, xiii, 164; - in rotten plants, 99; - species, 323; - spores in atmosphere, i, 61 - - Fungicides, viii, 77, 333 - - Funk, Casimer, x, 259 - - Furs, source of costly, xii, 346-51; - warmth of, iv, 178, ix, 311, x, 309 - - Furrows, of continental shelves, xiv, 287 - - Fusel Oil, viii, 214 - - Fuses, purpose and construction, vii, 34-7, 369; - inverse time features, 37, 39 - - Fusibility, of minerals, viii, 202, 384 - - Fusion, latent heat of, iv, 152, 160, 161; - table, 162 - - Fusions, of odors, xi, 81; - of tastes, 73; - of tones, 106; - of touch, 111 - - Future, a habit of thought, xi, 192; - predictions of, xv, 354, 355 - - Future Life, primitive conceptions of, xv, 332-6, 339, 340, 345, 358 - - - Gadflies, xii, 120 - - Gadolinium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Gailey, James A., v, 383 - - Galactose, viii, 226 - - Galagos, xii, 375 - - Galapagos Islands, xiv, 276; - turtles of, xii, 187, 192 - - Galaxy, ii, 350-6; - as basis of star distribution, 350, 353, 354, 364-5; - globular clusters and the, 339, 343; - nebulæ and the, 363, 364-5; - solar system and, 353-4; - spectra of stars, 116; - star streams and, 346; - studies at Mt. Wilson, 158-9, 160; - type of stars, 122; - variable stars and, 327, 328, 330, 332 - - Galen, x, 28-31; - anatomical ideas disputed by Vesalius, 51, 52, 53; - arterial bleeding unknown to, 39; - authority in Middle Ages, 32, 34, 36, 37, 39, 41, 43, 51, 52; - classification of minds, xi, 152-3, 155; - classifying tendency of, x, 83; - Locke, on, 75; - medical works, xvi, 98; - on circulation of blood, x, 22, 62-3, 65-6; - on convulsions, fainting, etc., 89; - on occupational diseases, 244; - Paracelsus on, 47, 48; - revival of writings, 44, 45 - - Galena, iii, 330, 362, 363, 368 - - Galilee, Sea of, formation, iii, 156; - level, xiv, 121 - - Galileo, astronomical work, ii, 14, 53-6, iv, 27-8; - astronomical and other work, xvi, 103; - discoveries, ii, 83, 94, 96, 262; - falling bodies demonstration at Pisa, iv, 28, 97, 101; - medical advances due to, x, 67; - motion studies of, iv, 19, 28, 35, 61; - on Galaxy, ii, 351; - on Gilbert, xvi, 109; - on laws of motion, ii, 63; - on Mars, 227; - pendulum discovery, v, 63-5; - pendulum clocks suggested, 65; - studies of nebulæ, ii, 357; - telescopes, 12, 94, 95; - thermometer invention, i, 68, 69, x, 71; - Torricelli pupil of, iv, 114 - - Gall Bladder, inflammations of, x, 220, 224 - - Galley Worms, xii, 88-9 - - Gallium, discovery of, viii, 180; - symbol and atomic weight, 383 - - Gallon, cubic inches in, iv, 46 - - Galls, on plants, xii, 125; - on roots, xiii, 98 - - Gall Stones, ix, 276 - - Galton, Sir Francis, eugenic work, xvi, 157; - on ancestral heredity, x, 231; - on fatigue, xi, 275; - on sun's corona, ii, 222; - statistical methods, xvi, 153 - - Galvani, electrical work, vi, 16-17; - electrical work, xvi, 122, 189 - - Galvanic Batteries, vii, 369 - - Galvanic Cells, vii, 236, 241-2 - - Galvanic Currents, vii, 242, 244, 248 - - Galvanism, discovery, xvi, 122 - - Galvanized Iron, vii, 318-19, viii, 155-6, 273 - - Galvanometers, iv, 279, vii, 179, 369; - invention, vi, 23, 24 - - Galveston, harbor of, xiv, 269; - hurricanes, i, 136; - hurricane of 1900 and rebuilding, xiv, 302-3 - - Game Birds, xii, 261-3 - - Games, athletic, advantages from, x, 304 - - Gamma Rays, i, 143, viii, 185 - - Gamopetalae, xiii, 47, 190, 201-5 - - Ganges River, crocodiles of, xii, 201; - delta, iii, 32, xiv, 53; - erosion by, iii, 31; - furrow of, xiv, 287 - - Ganglia, of nerves, xi, 26 - - Gangue Minerals, viii, 199; - handling of, 269, 270 - - Gannets, xii, 253 - - Ganoids, iii, 283 (fig.), 284, xii, 152-3 - - Ganoid Scales, xii, 134 - - Garbage, as fertilizer, xv, 280, 343, 344; - disposal of, 330, 346 - - Garda, Lake, formation, iii, 146; - in rift valley, xiv, 123 - - Garden Plants, xiii, 267-97; - origin of, xiv, 382 - - Garfield, James A., speech of, xi, 323 - - Garnet Group, iii, 330 - - Gar Pikes, xii, 134, 152, 153 - - Garua, Peruvian fog, i, 95, 373 - - Gas Carbon, electrical conductivity, iv, 283 - - Gas Constant, iv, 142 - - Gas Engines, v, 155-6, 381; - efficiency, on what dependent, iv, 192; - ignition, vii, 369; - in submarines, vi, 239; - operation in automobile, vii, 123-33; - starting of, vi, 235 - - Gases, adiabatic change in, iv, 158-9; - atmospheric, i, 9-16; - Boyle's Law, iv, 125-6, 133, 143; - Boyle's and Mariotte's researches, xvi, 110; - buoyant effect, iv, 30; - Charles's Law, 140; - chemical properties, viii, 297-8; - combinations, Gay-Lussac's studies, xvi, 133; - compressibility variations, iv, 143; - condition at absolute zero, 142-3; - conversion of liquids into, 152-3, 173-4; - cooling by expansion, i, 30, 90; - critical temperature, 29, iv, 171-3; - diffusibility of, iv, 23, 131, viii, 22-3, 23, 108; - distinguished by pressure and diffusibility, iv, 22-3; - elasticity of, 158-9, 198; - electric discharges through, 54-5, vii, 216, 301-2; - electrolytic separation, 321-4; - electrical conductivity of, iv, 259; - expansion by heat, 135, 151; - expansion coefficient, 145; - flame due to burning, viii, 57; - gram-molecular volume, viii, 109; - heat absorption, 309; - heat convection in, iv, 178; - heat effects on, 139-40; - heat from compression, i, 90, v, 351; - heat non-conductivity, iv, 177, 178; - ignition, viii, 54; - interchanges of molecular energies, xvi, 134; - ionization of molecules, i, 142, 143; - isothermal changes in, iv, 156; - latent heat of, 153, 173-4, v, 353, 354 (see Latent Heat); - laws not inflexible, iv, 142-3; - liquefaction of, 143, 153, 191-2 (see Liquefaction); - Mariotte's law, 141; - mechanical energy of, 142; - molecular velocity in, 133; - molecules in, iii, 309, iv, 22, 131, 132-3, 152-3, viii, 23, 24, 106, - 305-6; - molecules, number in, iv, 133, viii, 108-9, xvi, 133; - monatomic, viii, 309; - pressure of, v, 223, viii, 24-5, 109-10; - pressure, to what due, iv, 30, 132-3; - pressure, volume, and temperature laws, iv, 125-6, 139-43, v, 347, - viii, 106-8; - Regnault's constant, iv, 142; - solidifying of, i, 32, iv, 153, 192; - solubility in water, viii, 40, 111, 112; - sound velocity in, iv, 155-6, 198, 199; - specific heat ratio, 155-6, 159; - spectra of, ii, 112-13, iv, 361-3; - suspended change of state, viii, 113, 304, 305; - vibration of, iv, 215; - volume taken at atmospheric pressure, v, 223 - - Gas Lighting, vi, 195, 264; - fire hazards, vii, 51 - (see also Illuminating Gas) - - Gas Mantles, viii, 60, 252 - - Gasoline, combustion of, viii, 13, 52; - explosiveness, vii, 124, viii, 23, 54, 62; - production and uses, 208, 209, 235 - - Gasoline Engines, v, 156-61; - in aeroplanes, 231; - efficiency, 155; - compared with motors, vii, 223; - operation, 123-33 - - Gas Plant, xiii, 136-7 - - Gas Shells, i, 308, 314, viii, 263 - - Gastric Digestion, ix, 234-6, x, 319-25 - - Gastric Glands, control of, ix, 162, 240-2 - - Gastric Juice, viii, 358, ix, 234-8, x, 319-20; - control of secretion of, ix, 240-2; - conveyance of, 189-90; - disorders of, x, 321-3; - historical studies of, ix, 239-40; - indigestion from failure of, 239-41 - - Gas Warfare, viii, 262-4, x, 186-8 - - Gatling Guns, v, 362-3, 364, 380 - - Gatun Lake, Panama, xiv, 195 - - Gaurs, xii, 330 - - Gay-Lussac, balloon ascensions, i, 18; - chemical work, xvi, 133, 160, 162 - - Gazelles, xii, 327 - - Gearing, in turbine-driven ships, v, 105, 153-4, vii, 329 - - Gears, v, 25-31; - hydraulic, 104-6; - spiral, 38-9; - toothed, disadvantages, 104; - worm, 37 (fig.), 38 - - Geckos, xii, 205-6 - - Geese, xii, 257, 258 - - Gelatine, colloidal state, viii, 314, 315, 356; - food value, ix, 288 - - General Electric Company, autotransformers, vi, 337; - bulletin on motor costs, vii, 224-6; - machinery for Niagara Plant, vi, 374, 375, 376, 377; - Mazda lamps, 267; - radio engineering work, vii, 274; - small power sets, 232 - - Generators, vi, 49-56, vii, 369; - alternating current, vi, 158-9, 196-216 - (see also Alternators); - armature reaction, vii, 145-6; - direct current, vii, 175-94 - (see also Direct Current Generators); - efficiency, vi, 192-4, 214-15, 357, 379; - electrostatic, 298-301; - induction motors as, 249-50; - neutral points, vii, 373; - operation in power plants, vi, 357-8, 362; - of Niagara Plant, 374-5; - principal parts, 176; - purpose and parts, vii, 367; - radio, 274-8, 282-3, 290-1; - ratings, vi, 192-4, 214-15; - regulation of output, vii, 144-50; - short-circuit protection, 49; - size of units, vi, 378-9; - slow and high speed, 182; - turbine-driven, v, 151, 154; - use in therapeutics, vii, 236-7, 241-5 - (see also Dynamos) - - Genetics, xvi, 157-8 - - Geneva Lake, filling of, by Rhone River, xiv, 53; - former connections, 185; - slow movement of water, 210 - - Genital Organs, foci of infection in, x, 220, 221 - - Genius, Bessel on, ii, 93; - obstacles and, xvi, 30; - reflex action of, xi, 36; - Titchener on, 225-6 - - Genoa, growth of, xiv, 308; - sea captains of, 310 - - Gentians, xiii, 190, 205 - - Genus, Genera, defined, xii, 28, xiii, 170, 171 - - Geocentric Theory, ii, 9-10, 34-5 (see Ptolemaic System) - - Geo-Chemistry, viii, 190-203 - - Geocoronium, i, 192, 373 - - Geographical Change, agents of, xiv, 31-2, 33-79 - - Geographical Cycles, xiv, 29, 34-5, 48 (see Cycles of Erosion) - - Geographical Distribution, science of, xvi, 140 - - Geography, changes since prehistoric times, xiv, 29-30; - civilization and, xv, 122-3, 128-39; - defined, iii, 9-10, 379, xvi, 36; - development of science of, 94, 98, 114, 123-4; - genetic conception of, xiv, 3-4; - history and, 10, 30-1, 191-7, 239-45, 249-50, 261-2, 279-82, 305-11 - - Geological Ages, iii, 19-21, xv, 71; - determined by fossils, iii, 15, 18-19; - estimate of lengths, xiii, 314, 322; - length seen in coal formations, iii, 201; - length seen in chalk deposits, 218; - length shown by mosses, xiii, 306 - - GEOLOGY, Volume iii - - Geology, daily interest, xvi, 22-5; - definition and scope, iii, 3, 9, 11, 12, 378, xvi, 37; - history of development, 126, 168-73; - mineralogy and, iii, 309 - - Geometry, of Greeks and Hindus, xi, 239-40; - history of, xvi, 54, 68, 81, 89, 90 - - George, Lake, iii, 145; - stream changes around, 243 - - Georgia, aluminum production, iii, 369; - cotton of, xiii, 237; - glacial period in, xiv, 376; - soil of, 218 - - Georgian Planet, ii, 267 - - Geotropism, xiii, 85 - - Geranium Family, xiii, 200 - - Geraniums, fertilization, xiii, 136; - killed by hot water, 299; - multiples of five in, 176; - turning to light, 85; - petal arrangement, 190 - - Germanium, discovery, viii, 180; - symbol and atomic weight, 383 - - Germans, in Alpine group, xvi, 49; - grouped as Huns, xi, 22 - - German Silver, copper alloy, viii, 164; - resistance, vi, 76, 77 - - Germany, aeronautical weather service, i, 304; - barley growing in, xiv, 365; - beet sugar production, xiii, 216; - coal deposits, iii, 345; - coasts of, xiv, 247; - early surgery, xvi, 181; - earthquakes of, xiv, 128; - forest policy, xiii, 372, xiv, 238-9, 382; - geological works, xvi, 170; - hail insurance, i, 344; - in World War (see World War); - loess deposits, xiv, 72; - medicine of, Muller's influence, x, 118; - meteorological establishments, i, 222-3; - meteorology in World War, 309, 310; - military aviation development, 40; - mining products, iii, 362, 364; - moor fires in old, i, 56; - mountains of, xiv, 96, 235; - nitrogen fixation in, i, 36-7, xiv, 66; - plains of, 217; - potash deposits, viii, 130, 143, 144, 344, xiv, 67-8, 209; - salt beds of north, iii, 204, xiv, 141; - "sheep-cold", i, 363; - topography of western, xiv, 87 (map), 90; - unke toad of, xii, 176 - - Germ Cells, ix, 324-5, 327, 332, 339, x, 232, xvi, 156, 157-8; - in reproduction, x, 233; - source of, xii, 27 - (see also Germinal Tissue, Germ Plasm) - - Germinal Tissue, ix, 324-5; - chromosomes of, 328, 329, 339; - development of germ cells in, 332, 339; - heredity dependent on, 325-8; - independence of, 325 - (see also Germ Plasm) - - Germination of Seed, after low temperatures, i, 32; - acacia plant - of Natal, xiii, 375; - ancient wheat grains, 211, ix, 16-17; - bird-carried seed, xiii, 340, 341; - seed in sea water, 346, 348 - - Germ Plasm, x, 228, 229; - immortality theory, 230; - origin of energies, xvi, 145; - theory of inheritance, x, 233-4, 235, xvi, 156 - (see also Germinal Tissue) - - Germs, disease-producing, (see Disease Germs); - in body, ix, 177; - universal presence of, x, 193-4 - - Gestures, language of, xv, 146-52, 167-8 - - Geyserite, iii, 335 - - Geysers, iii, 128-9, xiii, 299; - artificial, in Michigan, v, 92 - - Gharials, xii, 199, 201 - - Ghizeh, Pyramid of, xiv, 78, xv, 270; - temples of, ii, 26 - - Ghor, of Syria, xiv, 120-1 - - Ghosts, as visual hallucinations, xi, 91 - - Giant and Dwarf Stars, ii, 153, 294, 309, 310, 382-4 - - Giant's Causeway, Ireland, xiv, 104; - columnar structure, iii, 111, xiv, 129 - - Gibbons, xii, 381-2; - reasoning power in, xv, 67; - skeleton compared with man, 59 - - Gibbs, James E. A., v, 285 - - Gibbs, J. W., xvi, 136, xvi, 169 - - Gibraltar, apes of, xii, 378 - - Gibraltar, Strait of, depth, xiv, 299 - - Giddiness, sensation of, xi, 126 - - Giffard, Henri, v, 227 - - Giffard Injector, v, 140-2, 380 - - Gila Monster, xii, 204, 207 - - Gilbert, Dr. William, electrical work, vi, 11-12, xvi, 109, 111, 188 - - Gilbertus Anglicus, x, 41 - - Gills, of fishes, xii, 128, 135; - functions and structure of, ix, 253, 254 - - Gills (plant), of mushrooms, xiii, 163 - - Ginkgo Tree, xiii, 315-16, 326 - - Ginseng, antiquity, xiii, 324-5; - distribution, 351; - origin, 255 - - Giraffes, xii, 320-1; - trapping of, xv, 224 (fig.) - - Giralda Observatory, xvi, 100, ii, 38 - - Girls, education of, xi, 266-7 - - Givler, Prof. R. C., author "PSYCHOLOGY," Vol. xi - - Glacial Bowlders, iii, 70, 237, 352 (Pl. 20), xiv, 69, 70 - - Glacial Deposits, iii, 66-70, xiv, 59, 60; - in U. S. and Canada, 170-1; - lakes formed by, iii, 144-6, xiv, 200-2 - - Glacial Epoch, iii, 236-48; - distribution of plants and animals, xiv, 375-7; - drainage changes, 30, 52, 164, 170-1; - fjords due to 259-61; - lakes formed by, iii, 143-51, xiv, 200-2; - topographical changes, 3, 30, 59-62, 158, 170 - (see also Ice Age) - - Glacial Periods, theories of, i, 58, iii, 247-8 - - Glacial Plants (see Arctic Plants) - - Glacial Soil, xiv, 63, 69-70 - - Glacial Valleys, xiv, 56-8 - - Glacier National Park, cliff glaciers in, iii, 60; - Swift Current Valley, Plate 5, p. 96; - thrust faulting in, 90 - - Glaciers, iii, 59-62, xiv, 54-5; - "autographs of," 56; - cirques of, 58; - cracks and fissures in, iii, 63; - defined, 379; - deposits of, 66-70, xiv, 59-60; - erosion by, iii, 63-70, xiv, 55, 56, 57-8, 60-2, 233; - falls formed by, iii, 48; - flow, 62-3, 68, 240-1, iv, 165-6; - lakes formed by, iii, 142-51; - occurrence, xv, 72-3; - topography produced by, xiv, 42-3, 44, 55-62; - valleys cut by, iii, 64, 65, 66 - (see also Plates 4, 5, and 6); - valleys "overdeepened by," xiv, 259-60 - - Gland Cells, functions, ix, 39, 43, 59; - number unchanging, 48 - - Glanders, germ of, x, 195; - immunity to, 207 - - Glands, activity and blood supply, ix, 220-1; - adrenalin effects on, 171; - control of, 159-69, x, 346-7; - ductless, x, 346-53; - energy release by, xi, 24; - fatigue effects, xi, 272; - nerve connections, ix, 159-60; - reflex responses by, xi, 23; - with ducts, x, 347 - - Glare, direct and reflected, vi, 277-8 - - Glasgow, soot-fall, i, 65 - - Glass, antiquity of, viii, 269, 280-1, xvi, 73-4; - coloring of, viii, 282; - colors in X-rays, iv, 378; - composition and properties, viii, 281, 304-5; - effects on light and heat waves, iv, 183; - electrification of, 257, 258, 259; - ground by sand blast, 130; - heat conductivity, 179; - light decomposition by, ii, 100-1; - light deviations in strained, iv, 330; - light refraction by, 327; - sodium compounds in, viii, 137, 146 - - Glasses (lenses), for various eye defects, ix, 111, 112, 113, 114 - - Glazed Frost, i, 108, 121, 373 - - Glidden, Carlos, v, 312 - - Glisson, Francis, x, 86, xvi, 178 - - Globefishes, xii, 164 - - Globigerina Ooze, xii, 18 - - Globular Clusters (Stars), ii, 336-40; - Hyades as, 342; - studies of, at Mt. Wilson, 159-60 - - Globular Lightning, i, 149, vii, 205-6, 213-15 - - Glory (meteorology), i, 184-5, 373 - - Glowworms, i, 346; - Fabre's studies, xvi, 144 - - Glucinum, atomic weight and symbol, viii, 180, 383; - in calcium group, 148 - - Glucose, viii, 225-6, 377, ix, 230; - converted from cellulose, viii, 255; - fermentation of, 225, 248; - formula, 219, 225, 229; - in human body, 359; - manufacture and uses, 228, 243-4; - production by plants, 335; - use of, by body, ix, 230, 243, 244, 245 - - Glutton (weasel), xii, 348, 349 - - Glycerine, viii, 215, 247-8; - base of fats, 221, 245; - boiling point, 299; - melting requirements, iv, 162; - production in wine-making, x, 138 - - Glycogen, xi, 136-7, 138; - chemistry of, viii, 228-9, 350; - production and storage in liver, 359, ix, 291, 292, 297, 298, x, 329; - reconversion into sugar, ix, 293 - - Glyptodon, xii, 283-4 - - Gnawers, xii, 285-96 - - Gneiss, iii, 379; - formation, 169, xiv, 19; - jointing of, 133 - - Gnomons, ii, 24, 25, 300 - - Gnus, xii, 327 - - Goats, xii, 325-6; - horns of, 328; - usefulness, 324 - - Gobar, of Nile region, i, 96 - - God, conceptions of, xv, 344; - ideas of, in Old Testament, 374 - - Goddard Rocket, i, 22-3 - - Godman, John, x, 116, xvi, 185 - - Gods, evolution of belief in, xv, 341-4, 347-8, 357 - - Goethe, evolution known to, x, 136; - on cloud forms, i, 98 - - Goethals, Panama Canal Zone work, x, 162 - - Goitre, ix, 303; - exophthalmic, x, 272, 276-7, 351-2; - removal of thyroid gland in, 349 - - Gold, atomic weight and symbol, viii, 383; - California mines, iii, 226, 365; - chemical inactivity, viii, 127-8, 163, 174; - contraction on solidifying, iv, 150; - density of, 113; - electrolytic refinement, vii, 301, 320; - extraction methods, viii, 131, 141, 170, 174, 269, 270; - fusibility, 384; - in sea water, 197, xiv, 295; - melting point, iv, 162; - metallurgy, development of, xvi, 176; - occurrence, iii, 330-1, 365-7, viii, 131, 198; - "parting" of silver from, 272; - positiveness, vi, 59; - production, iii, 365; - profitable ores, viii, 197; - properties, 126-7, 174, iii, 330-1; - recovered in copper refining, vii, 319, 320; - specific gravity, viii, 384 - - Golden Age, x, 18, 20; - of Greek science, xvi, 86-96 - - Golden Gate, formation, xiv, 258; - furrow of, 287 - - Goldenrod, bracts, xiii, 43; - stems, 23; - in the pampas, 376 - - Golden Showers, i, 61 - - Goldfish, family of, xii, 161; - in liquid air, i, 32 - - Gold Leaf, color between glasses, iv, 324 - - Gold Mining, dredges in, v, 256-7; - water jets in, 88 - - Gold-Plating, of aluminum, vii, 319 - - Goldschmidt Generators, vii, 274 - - Goldschmidt Method, of welding, viii, 155 - - Golf, as exercise, x, 317; - report of match, xi, 161 - - Goodwin, Rev. Hannibal, v, 330 - - Goodyear, Charles, xiii, 245 - - Goose Barnacle, xii, 84-5 - - Gooseberry, origin, xiii, 225 - - Goose-Flesh, ix, 161, xi, 112-13, 123 - - Gophers, xii, 290, 294; - badgers and, 348 - - Gopher Snake, xii, 219 - - Gopher Turtle, xii, 191 - - Gorals, xii, 325 - - Gordius (hairworm), xii, 45 - - Gorgas, William C., yellow fever work, x, 162, 172 - - Gorges, formation of, xiv, 50-1, 51-2; - in old and new areas, iii, 33, 34; - of New York and New England, 44, 242-3 - - Gorham, Marquis L., v, 248, 381 - - Gorillas, xii, 382 (fig.), 383-4; - brain weight of, xv, 62; - physical comparison with man, 57-8; - family groups among, 276, 360-1; - use of stones and clubs, v, 9 - - Gorner Grat, boiling temperature at, iv, 170 - - Gouffre, i, 196, 373 - - Gourd Seed, growth of, x, 229 - - Gout, uric acid and, x, 343 - - Government, beginnings of, xv, 360-74, 379-80; - cultivation and, 380 - - Grackle, coloring of, xii, 245 - - Gradients, meteorological, i, 373 (see Barometric, Potential Gradients) - - Graduated Flask, viii, 294, 295 - - Graham Flour, ix, 34 - - Graham's Law, viii, 108-9 - - Grain Cradles, v, 240-1 - - "Grain of the country", xiv, 99; - in river classification, 153 - - Grains, fruit of grasses, xiii, 56, 182; - milling of, xv, 237-9; - proteins in, ix, 34; - "showers", i, 357; - storing of, viii, 371 - - Gram, unit of force, iv, 70; - unit of mass, iv, 46, 69, viii, 28; - value in pounds and poundals, iv, 70 - - Gram-Molecular Volume, viii, 109 - - Gramophone, v, 328-9, 382 - - Grampuses, xii, 297 - - Grand Banks, dogfish of, xii, 146; - petrels of, 252; - scallop fisheries of, 65 - - Grand Canyon of the Colorado, iii, 40-3, 140, 230, xiv, 83; - conical fragments in, 81; - outer and inner gorges, 173; - plateau of, 124, 159, 220; - Proterozoic strata in, iii, 177; - rock pyramids in, xiv, 224-5 - - Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, iii, 44, and Pl. 2, p. 48; - color of rocks in, 26; - youthful valley type, 33; - relief model of, xiv, 10 - - Grand Point Tobacco, xiii, 258 - - Granite, composition, iii, 308, 326, viii, 192-3; - disintegration of, 194; - igneous nature, iii, 112; - jointing of, xiv, 133; - mountain cores of, 110-11; - occurrence and production, iii, 371; - plutonic rock, 13, xiv, 18; - weathering of, iii, 22, 27-8, 32 (Pl. 1), xiv, 78-9; - wells in, 137 - - Grapes, acids of, viii, 223; - origin and antiquity, xiii, 225, 324-5; - true berries, 54; - water content, viii, 365 - - Grape Sugar, viii, 224-5; - polarization of light by, iv, 356 - - Grapevines, xiii, 27, 28 - - Graphite, iii, 331, viii, 43; - in Archeozoic rocks, iii, 173, 249-50; - Rhode Island beds, 345; - use and production, vii, 308-9, xvi, 190 - - Graptolites, iii, 259, 266 (fig.), 267 - - Grasp, in infants, ix, 349, xv, 61; - of man, ix, 67-8; - grasping importance and organs of, 82; - reflex processes in, 157, 349 - - Grasping Reflex, xi, 40-5, 59 - - Grass, blue-eyed, xiii, 189; - leaves of, 176; - monocotyledon, 178; - veins, 32 - (see also Grass Family) - - Grasses, dominant on prairies, xiii, 350, 374; - evolution, iii, 251, 257; - fertilization, xiii, 148; - first appearance, 319; - true and incorrect, 179, 180; - water requirements, xiv, 381 - - Grass Family, xiii, 179, 181-3 - - Grasshoppers, xii, 108-10; - jaws of, 100 - - Grasslands, xiii, 373-7; - contests with forests, 348-9, 368 (illus.), 374-5, xiv, 380-1; - distribution of, 380, 381; - economic importance, 383-4; - vegetation of, 380, 381 - - Gratitude, sentiment of, xi, 147 - - Graupel, i, 107, 373 - - Gravel, rocks formed from, iii, 13, 53 (see Conglomerate); - sedimentary rock, xiv, 18 - - Grave Sacrifice, custom of, xv, 336 - - Graves, Robert, x, 112 - - Graves Disease, x, 351-2 - - Gravitation, universal, discovery and laws, ii, 63-72, iv, 20, 95-8, - xvi, 115-16; - Einstein theory, ii, 79-82; - magnetic force compared with, iv, 249-50; - nature of, ii, 78; - things unexplained by Newton's laws, 73-4, 78-82; - various applications of Newton's laws, 77, 78, 375, 380 - (see also - Gravity) - - Gravitation Units, iv, 64, 70 - - Gravity, ii, 63-4, 69, iv, 65, 109; - acceleration of, 65; - center of, 99-101; - direction of earth's, 98-9; - force in falling bodies, 42, 65, xvi, 32; - gyroscope and, v, 335, 336, 337-9; - Huygens's studies, ii, 58; - on asteroids, 257; - on moon, 199, 204; - on sun, 168; - Richer's observations, 59; - water-power due to, v, 76-7, 139; - weight due to, iv, 58, 74, 109 - - Gravity Battery, iv, 297, vi, 137, 140-1 - - Gravity Faults, xiv, 115 - - Grayfish, i, 224 - - Graylings (fish), xii, 159 - - Gray Matter, ix, 124; - of brain, xv, 63 - - Great Auk, xii, 265 - - Great Basin, block mountains in, iii, 138-9; - drainage changes in, xiv, 188; - faulting in, iii, 89, 229, xiv, 117, 127; - formerly submerged, iii, 181; - not being worn down, 32; - saline lakes of, xiv, 206; - streams, base level of, 164; - wind-eroded materials of, iii, 73 - - Great Britain, aerial travel statistics, i, 50; - aeronautical research, 51; - animals of, xiv, 272-3; - coal supply, iii, 345; - coast destruction, xiv, 46; - empire of, 279; - geology related to continent, 271-2; - manufacturers, American System in, v, 50; - manufacturing future, 173; - rainfall of, xiv, 41; - recent separation from continent, 30, 271-3; - serpents of, xii, 218; - soot studies, i, 65; - standard units in, iv, 45-6; - storm signals, i, 282; - thermometer scale in, iv, 136; - tides of, xiv, 293-4 - - "Great Eastern," steamship, v, 193 - - Greater Antilles, geological history of, xiv, 274-5 - - Great Indian Earthquake, xiv, 333, 334, 335, 336 (fig.); - cause, 340 - - Great Lakes, commerce on, xiv, 62, 212; - fish of, xii, 156, 159; - former drainage farther north, iii, 46; - level changes in region, 82; - origin and history, 146-51, xiv, 61, 62, 201-2, 203; - recentness of formation, iii, 12; - recessional moraines near, 67; - sewage disposal in, viii, 325; - sizes and depths, xiv, 204; - water supply of Lake cities, 140 - - Great Plains, elevation of, xiv, 27, 213; - evaporation in, 135; - geology of, 215; - grasses of, xiii, 181, 374, xiv, 380, 381; - horses of, xii, 306, 307; - pronghorns on, 322-3; - red beds, iii, 208; - rejuvenation, 230; - rodents of, xii, 294; - stock-raising on, xiv, 383-4; - trees in, xiii, 372-3, 374, xiv, 372; - volcanic action in, 318; - wind-fertilization of plants, xiii, 149 - - Great Rift Valley, xiv, 117-21; - lakes in, 203; - volcanoes of, 317 - - Great Salt Lake, crustal warping at, iii, 82; - history and formation, 152-3, xiv, 207-8; - mirages, i, 172; - plain of, xiv, 215-16; - salt in, iii, 374, viii, 139, 140, 275 - - Great Sea Waves, xiv, 337-343 - - Grebes, xii, 250-1 - - Greece, earthquakes of, xiv, 332, 333-4; - geographical changes in, 33; - rainfall of, 358; - rift valleys in, 123 - - Greece (ancient), astrology in, ii, 21; - Babylonian influences, xvi, 63; - civilization conditions, xv, 123; - civilization pictured in Odyssey, 324; - copyists of, 178-9; - foreigners called barbarians, xi, 22; - Golden Age, x, 20, xvi, 86-96; - musical instruments, xv, 316, 317 (fig.); - northern invasion, xiv, 281; - religion and science associated, xvi, 44; - slavery in, xv, 378-9; - timing of orators, v, 62; - weather records, i, 67-8 - - Greek Astronomy, ii, 10-11, 27-36, xvi, 81-2, 90-1 - - Greek Language, xv, 162 - - Greek Medicine, x, 16-25, xvi, 95-6; - preservation and revival of, x, 31, 36, 43-4, 45 - - Greek Philosophers, remarks on, ii, 27, 30; - on origin of earth, 366-7 - - Greeks (Ancient), boiling of foods unknown to, xv, 233; - degeneration of stock, xvi, 96; - gods of, xv, 343, 352; - idea of insanity, x, 356, 357; - idea of soul, xv, 330; - in Mediterranean group, xvi, 49; - intellectual height, 50; - knowledge of loadstone, vi, 28, 29; - monsoons used in navigation, i, 130; - oar-propelled ships, xiv, 265; - plants known to, xiii, 215, 216, 253; - sacrifices of, xv, 347-8; - scientific bent, xvi, 54; - superstitions of, xv, 355; - surveying inventions, xvi, 68-9; - trade and colonies of, xiv, 307 - - Greeks (modern), in Alpine group, xvi, 49 - - Greek Science, xvi, 75, 76-96; - debt to Egypt, 75; - influence on Copernicus, 102; - Roman development of, 99; - spread and continuation of, x, 23, 25 - - Greek Sculpture, xv, 302 - - Greek Vases, xv, 251, 253 (fig.) - - Green, complementary color of, iv, 367; - effect on blood pressure, xi, 63; - in interior decoration, vi, 274; - primary color, iv, 366; - seeing of, in color-blindness, ix, 116 - - Green Flash, i, 170-1, 373 - - Greenhouses, effects of glass on heat, i, 59, iv, 183; - electric lighting, xiii, 76 - - Greenland, climate, xiv, 345; - discovery, 261; - fjord coasts, 258, 259; - foxes of, xii, 344; - glaciers of, xiv, 55; - ice sheets, iii, 61-2, 237; - marriage customs in, xv, 282-3; - mirages, i, 173; - ocean colors near, xvi, 147; - rainlessness, i, 109; - winds, 128, 129 - - Greenland Ranch, Cal., i, 209 - - Green Mountains, iii, 188 - - Green River, Uinta Mts., xiv, 166, 168, 175 - - Greenwich Observatory, founding of, ii, 83, xvi, 124; - publications, 125 - - Grenville Strata, iii, 165-8 - - Grew, biologist, xvi, 112, 116, 126 - - Greylock, Mount, iii, 232 - - Grief, exhaustion from, xi, 135-6; - expression of, by monkeys, xv, 65 - - Ground Sharks, xii, 143 - - Grinders, invention, v, 48, 381 - - Grip, disease, x, 294-5 - - Grison, xii, 349 - - Ground Moraines, iii, 67 - - Ground Pines, iii, 254 - - Groundsel, seed disposal, xiii, 345 - - Ground Water, iii, 113-29, xiv, 135-52; - how plants absorb, xiii, 91-3; - landslips facilitated by, xiv, 233; - mineral concentration by, iii, 126, xvi, 173; - petrifaction by, iii, 15, 126-7; - rivers and, xiv, 157 - (see also Soil Water) - - Ground Wires and Plates, vii, 369 - - Groups, Chemical, viii, 93, 377; - interchange principle, 211; - ionization, 121-2; - nomenclature, 97; - valences of, 94 - (see also Radicals) - - Groups (human), formation of, x, 9, xv, 361-3 - - Grouse, xii, 261 - - Growing Season, i, 373 - - Growth, age in relation to, ix, 47-8, 288-9; - by cell division, 43-8; - chemical regulation of, 169-70; - food requirements for, 31-4, 286-8, 295; - life and, xii, 13; - metabolism of, ix, 38-9, 295; - of bones, 56, 58; - of skin, 312; - of various tissues, 47-8, 286-7; - of skull, xv, 40; - rate of, in man, ix, 32 (diagram); - vitamines necessary to, x, 261, 262 - - Gruener, Prof. H., author CHEMISTRY, Vol. viii - - Guam, ocean depths near, iii, 51 - - Guango Tree, i, 350 - - Guatemala, Santa Maria eruption, xiv, 328-9 - - Guava, xiii, 196, 225 - - Guayaquil, sanitary measures, i, 327; - yellow fever campaign, x, 173 - - Guericke, Otto von, iv, 29, 116, xvi, 110 - - Guillemots, xii, 264-5 - - Guinea Pigs, xii, 289; - anaphylaxis in, x, 213 - - Gulf Coastal Plain, xiv, 214; - chalk deposits, iii, 266; - Cretaceous deposits, 216; - geological history, 222, 231 - - Gulf Stream, climatic influences of, viii, 37, xiv, 304; - meeting with Labrador current, 305; - origin and course, 304; - "paper sailors" of, xii, 78; - plan for protecting, i, 345; - Portuguese man-of-war in, xii, 37; - seed dispersal by, xiii, 346 - - Gull, Sir William, xvi, 180, 184 - - Gulls, xii, 264 - - Gum Arabic, source, xiii, 226 - - Gumboils, ix, 56, 187 - - Gums, composition of, viii, 223, 229; - electrical conductivity, iv, 259 - - Gums (mouth), chilling of, by ether, iv, 174; - germ infection through, x, 202, 219, 222 - - Guncotton, composition and action, viii, 63, 255, 261; - discovery, xvi, 163 - - Gunite, v, 136 - - Gunnison River, Colorado, xiv, 172-3, 175 - - Gunny Sacks, xiii, 241 - - Gunpowder, viii, 144-5; - explosion, v, 156-7, viii, 62, 145; - introduction, v, 361, 368, xvi, 101 - - Guns (big), v, 368-71; - locating of, by sound velocity, i, 313, iv, 201-2; - making of, v, 323-5; - operation on battleships, v, 104, vii, 333-4; - phenomena in World War, i, 193-4 - (see also Artillery, Projectiles) - - Guns (small), development of, v, 361-2, xv, 213, 216-19; - kick, v, 143; - kick utilized in Maxim gun, 363; - machine, 362-8; - percussion lock invention, 377; - standardization in manufacture, 49-50 - - Gunshot Remedies, vii, 241, x, 76 - - Gunter, Edmund, xvi, 104 - - Gushers, oil, iii, 353-4 - - Gusts, i, 295, 373 - - Gutenberg, Johann, v, 300; - printing invention, xv, 179 - - Guttation, of plants, i, 350-1 - - Guyon, Felix, xvi, 184 - - Gymnarchus Fish, xii, 154 - - Gymnastic Exercises, x, 304-5 - - Gymnosperms, xiii, 174, 175, 178; - alteration of generations, xvi, 166; - first appearance, iii, 252, 255 - (see also Conifers) - - Gynecology, development of, x, 80-1, 122, xvi, 180 - - Gypsum, iii, 331-2, 375-6; - composition, viii, 153; - deposits and use, xiv, 209; - in sea water, 295 - - Gyro-compass, iv, 254-5, v, 201, 340, 384 - - Gyroscope, iv, 254-5, v, 335-44, 384; - in torpedoes, 373 - - Gyroscopic Action, of bullets and shells, v, 362 - - - Haber Process, i, 36-7, viii, 74, 105, xvi, 165 - - Habit, xi, 247-58; - autosuggestion and, 306; - in physical functions, ix, 81, 88, 251; - slaves of, xi, 263; - will and, 261 - - Habits of Thought, xi, 198, 203-4, 247 - - Habitual Images, xi, 222 - - Hackberry Tree, xiii, 194 - - Haeckel, Ernst, biological work, x, 136, xvi, 182; - on phosphorescence of sea, xii, 18-19 - - Hail, i, 106-8, 373-4; - formation, 120; - storms and stones, 119-20 - - Hail clouds, i, 102 - - Hail Insurance, i, 269, 344 - - Hail Rods, i, 341, 342-3, 374 - - Hail Shooting, i, 341-2, 374 - - Hailstorms, devices to avert, i, 340-4 - - Hair, cells of, ix, 13; - color and form in different races, xv, 37-8, xvi, 48, 49, 50; - cutting of by electricity, iv, 10; - dyeing of, x, 58; - emotion effects on, xi, 142; - erection of, ix, 161, 162, 166, xi, 113; - of mammals, xii, 270-1; - on face and body, xv, 38 - - Hairdressing, among savages and Chinese, xv, 260-1; - ancient Egyptian, 255 (fig.) - - Hairsprings, v, 70, 71-2 - - Hairworms, xii, 45 - - Hags (fish), xii, 130, 131 - - Haiti, gouffre of, i, 196; - rubber growing, xiii, 245; - words derived from, xv, 161; - yellow fever of, x, 160; - zoölogy of, xiv, 274 - - Hakemite Tables, ii, 38, 39 - - Hale, Prof. George E., ii, 147, 148, 177, 178, 225, 241; - spectroheliograph of, 129, 183 - - Hales, Stephen, x, 88, xvi, 112 - - Halite, iii, 332 - - Haller, Albrecht von, x, 77, 87-8, 97, 98; - medical works, xvi, 178 - - Halley, Edmund, comet and other discoveries, ii, 83-9; - discovery of moon's deviations, 73; - discovery of star motions, 304; - on Eta Argus, 324 - - Halley's Comet, ii, 84, 85-6, 273-4, 275, 281; - tail of, 134 - - Hallucinations, definition and kinds, x, 358; - of crowds, xi, 328-9; - visual, 91 - - Hallucinatory Images, xi, 221 - - Halogenation, viii, 266, 377 - - Halogen Derivatives, viii, 210, 211-12, 236 - - Halogens, viii, 18, 84-7, 377; - similarity of, 176 - - Halos, i, 177-183, 374; - circumscribed, 181, 369; - tangent arc, 383 - - Haly, "Royal Canon," of, x, 32, 37 - - Hamadryad, xii, 228-9 - - Hamburg, Deutsche Seewarte, i, 223, 276; - harbor of, xiv, 270 - - Hamilton Mill, vi, 296, vii, 209 - - Hamilton, Mount, ii, 142 - - Hammers, measurement of blows of, iv, 67; - pneumatic, i, 28 - - Hammurabic Code, xvi, 63; - on medical practices, x, 15 - - Hands, ape's and human compared, xv, 57, 58-60; - bones of, ix, 67-8; - cold or warmth felt in, 320; - color in different lights, iv, 364-5; - deftness of human, v, 248; - evolution of, xii, 167-8; - grasping reflex of, ix, 349, xi, 40-5; - importance in child's education, 43; - origin of flexed position, 42-3; - reciprocal innervation, 86; - tools resembling, 44-5; - temperature of, ix, 93; - X-ray pictures of, iv, 55 - - Hangars, i, 43 - - Hanging Glaciers, iii, 60-1 - - Hanging Valleys, iii, 65, xiv, 57 - - Hanks, of yarn, v, 272 - - Hanseatic League, xiv, 28, 308 - - Harbors, xiv, 266-71; - necessity of, to modern ships, 265; - photographic mapping of, i, 47-8 - - Hard Coal, combustion process, viii, 45; - flames from, 57; - origin, xiii, 10 (see Anthracite Coal) - - Hardening of Arteries, x, 334-6, 340 - - Hardening Processes, (health), x, 240 - - Hardness, defined, viii, 377; - scale of, iii, 320, viii, 202; - sensation of, xi, 128 - - "Hard Shell," xii, 83 - - Hard Water, cause, iii, 126, viii, 151, 322-3, 377; - effects of, 143, 151-2, 323; - effects, xiv, 147; - occurrence in nature, ii, 147; - softening of, viii, 323-4; - taste of, 40 - - Hares, xii, 286-8 - - Hargreaves, spinning jenny, v, 273, 376, xv, 246 - - Harmattan, i, 134, 374 - - Harmonica, iv, 235 - - Harmonics, iv, 213 - - Harmony, due to tonal fusion, xi, 106 - - Harney's Peak, xiv, 227 - - Harpoons, xv, 209 (fig.), 210-12 - - Harps, development of, xv, 318 - - Harpsichord, xv, 318 - - Harrisburg, Pa., topography near, iii, 36 - - Harrison, John and William, v, 66-7 - - Hartness, telescope of, ii, 101 - - Harun-al-Raschid, astronomy under, ii, 37 - - Harvard Classification of Stars, ii, 116-18, 146, 310 - - Harvard College, first eclipse expedition by, ii, 211 - - Harvard Football Team (1913), excitement effects, xi, 138 - - Harvard Observatory, Arequipa station, ii, 145-6, 148; - photographic work, 116, 118, 127, 130, 136, 137, 301-2; - star spectra studies, 307 - - Harvard Photometry, ii, 297 - - Harvesting Machines, ancient, v, 240; - modern, 244-9 - - Harvestmen (scorpions), xii, 90 - - Harvest Moon, ii, 196 - - Harvey, William, x, 61-2, 66-7, 97; - discovery of circulation of blood, ix, 192, x, 22, 61, 63-6, 69, 81, - xvi, 106-7, 142; - other work, 107, 111 - - Hashish, xiii, 239 - - Hate, emotion of, xi, 139; - motor character, 58; - sentiment of, 148-9 - - Hats, hygiene of, x, 240, 309; - renovation by electricity, iv, 10 - - Havana, harbor of, xiv, 268; - sanitary measures, i, 327, x, 162; - water supply, xiv, 140 - - Havemeyer, Dr. L., author ANTHROPOLOGY, Vol. xv - - Havre, port of, xiv, 271 - - Hawaii, geological formation, xiv, 101; - paper in sugar-growing, v, 291; - radio station, vii, 281; - screw pine of, xiii, 354 - - Hawaiian Islands, lava formations, iii, 28, 103; - oceanic character, xiv, 276; - rainfall on Mt. Waialeale, i, 112; - trade wind effects, xiv, 356; - volcanic soils, 329; - volcanoes, iii, 103-5, xiv, 322-3 - - Hawaiian Music, xv, 315 - - Hawk Moths, xii, 119-20; - facets of, 102 - - Hawks, xii, 260, 261; - man's lesson from, xv, 206 - - Hawksbee, Francis, xvi, 122-3 - - Hay Fever, cause of, x, 212, xiii, 118 - - Haze, atmospheric, i, 374; - dry fog, 96; - dust (African coast), 55; - from smoke, 56, 57; - in distance perception, xi, 182 - - Hazel Copses, xiii, 370 - - Hazelnut Tree, xiii, 193 - - Head, binding of, among savages, xv, 260; - blood supply of, ix, 197; - bones of, 61-3; - motions and position, how sensed, 90; - saving heels by, xi, 376-7; - shape in race classification, xv, 42-3; - washing of, x, 312; - word, various uses of, xv, 158-9 - - Headaches, electrical treatment, vi, 285, vii, 238-9; - eyestrain and, ix, 113; - hypnosis and, xi, 315; - significance of, 120-1 - - Head of Water, v, 94; - high and low, 79-81 - - Health, care of, instruction in, x, 282-5 - (see also Personal Hygiene); - dependent on kinetic system, xi, 61; - emotions and, 129; - mental efficiency and, 369; - regulation to environment, x, 249-50; - resistance to disease strengthened by, ix, 185-6; - Science of, vol. x; - worry and, ix, 167 - - Health Resorts, i, 331 - - Hearing, iv, 203-4, 211-12, ix, 98-103, xi, 98-108; - "arrival platform" for, ix, 146; - colored, xi, 222; - direction perception by, ix, 117, 120; - distance perception by, 121; - ear movements and, 82; - in fishes, xii, 137-8; - in insects, 101; - limits (vibration rates) of, iv, 204, ix, 99, 100; - nerve of, 30; - organ of, position, ix, 61; - sense of, in infants, 351; - space perception by, xi, 163, 167-9 - - Heart, anatomy and operation of, ix, 200-12; - of, x, 332, 333-4; - as seat of affections, ix, 200; - emotion effects on, ix, 200, xi, 135, 136-7; - emotions attributed to, 130-1; - examination methods, ix, 205; - exercise effects, 261-2, x, 303, 304-5; - fatigue effects, xi, 272; - fear and terror effects, 131, 132; - high temperature effects, x, 251; - hypertrophy of, 331-2; - motions, Harvey on, 64-6; - nerve centers and control, ix, 168; - part in maintenance of life, 21-3; - passage of blood through former ideas, x, 52, 62, 65-6; - removed from body, beating of, ix, 84; - rest and sleep needs (eight-hour day), 209-10; - septum of, x, 66, 113; - sleep effects, xi, 283; - sounds, how listened to, ix, 205-6, x, 108-9; - supposed "pores" of Galen, 52, 62, 65-6; - systole and diastole, 64-5, 109; - valves of, ix, 202, 204, 206-7, x, 332; - work of, how measured, ix, 213-14 - - Heart Beat, ix, 202-3; - adrenalin effects, 171, 172, 209; - chemical theories of, x, 84; - control through nerve centers, ix, 168; - disturbances of, x, 333; - emotion effects, ix, 166, 209; - exercise effects, 168-9, 207, 208-9, 261-2; - rate of, 203, 204-5, x, 334; - rate increased by heat, 251; - rate in infants, ix, 347; - sounds of, 205-6; - variations in rate and vigor, 207-10 - - Heartburn, ix, 232 - - Heart Disease, atmospheric conditions best for, x, 241; - digitalis in, 333, 383; - early ignorance, xvi, 180-1; - modern therapy of, x, 382-3; - rheumatism and, 224; - valvular, 332 - - Heart Failure, x, 333; - symptoms accompanying, 340-1, 344 - - Heart Muscle, ix, 74-5, 84, x, 333-4; - "eight-hour day" of, ix, 210; - hypertrophy of, x, 331-2, 335; - nervous control of, ix, 207-335; - nervous control of, ix, 207-9 - - Heartwood, xiii, 24, 25, 26, 177 (fig.) - - Heat, absorbers of, iv, 182; - absorption by colors, x, 309; - absorption by gases, viii, 309; - absorption by mixtures, iv, 175; - artificial, man's dependence on, ix, 308; - available supply in universe, iv, 193; - bacteria destroyed by, viii, 332; - "caloric" or "imponderable" theory, iv, 47, xvi, 125; - capacity, iv, 154-5; - change of state by, 151-3, 192-3; - chemical reactions and, viii, 12, 15, 53, 62, 95-6, 100, 308, 360; - chemical reactions hurried by, 310; - "closeness" due to, ix, 268-9, 270; - compression and, i, 26-7, 90, v, 126-8, 161, 351; - conduction and conductors of, iv, 138, 176-7, 178-9, x, 307, 308, 309; - convection of, iv, 139, 177-8; - demagnetization by, 253, vi, 34-5, 38, 117; - direction of flow of, iv, 190, v, 351, xvi, 135; - effects of, on bodies, iv, 144-59; - electrical production of, iv, 310-12, vii, 89, 337-8, 303-5, viii, - 283-4; - electricity generated by, vi, 340 - (see also Thermal Couples); - electromagnetic theory, vii, 371; - energy form, iv, 138, 140, 189; - "engineer" of physics, 50; - entropy, iv, 193; - expansion by, i, 27, iv, 134-5, 138, 140, 145, 151, viii, 25, 107; - forms, ii, 383; - from charcoal, viii, 186-7; - from foods, 361, 367, x, 269, 271; - from infrared waves, iv, 366; - from moon, ii, 200; - from radium, viii, 186-7; - from sun, ii, 169-71, iv, 181-2, 183, 194, ix, 25-6; - insulators, iv, 178, 184-5, vii, 307-8; - kindling temperature, viii, 53-4; - latent (see Latent Heat); - measurement for fuels and foods, viii, 360-1; - measurements, physico-chemical, 307-8; - measurement of quantity of, iv, 154; - mechanical equivalent of, (see Mechanical Equivalent); - mechanical (dynamical) theory of, iv, 48-9, 140; - molecular activity and, iv, 138-9, 140, viii, 25, 37-8; - motive power, - xvi, 135; - of earth's interior, iii, 108, 120-1, 160, 162, v, 178-81, xiv, 11-16, - 31-2, 312; - of electric arc, iv, 311, vi, 280; - of electric lamp, vi, 268; - of volcanoes, iii, 106; - power from, v, 139-54, 351; - pressure of gases increased by, iv, 140; - production, electrical, 310-12; - production of, by friction, iv, 48-9; - production by mixtures, 174-5; - production by solidification, 160, 161; - radiant energy, vibration rate, ix, 114, 115; - radiation of, iv, 180-4; - reflectors of, 182-3; - resistance of charcoal, vii, 306; - rolling friction and, v, 204; - scientific meaning of, iv, 139-40; - sensation of, ix, 93, xi, 109, 113-14; - shrinkage in relation to, ii, 170 (see Lane's Law); - solvent action and, viii, 112; - specific, iv, 155-6, viii, 308-9; - "stuffiness due to", i, 321, x, 237-8; - temperature and, iv, 14-45; - thermodynamic laws, 189-90; - transmission through bodies, 176-9; - transmission through space, 180-4; - units, iv, 154, 189-90, vii, 369, viii, 374, x, 269; - universal presence, v, 345; - vacuums, v, 345-58; - wastage in engines, v, 155, 161, 165-6, 351 - (see also Heat Waves, Temperature) - - Heat Engines, iv, 192, 193-4, xvi, 135 - - Heat Equator, xiv, 347 - - Heating, dynamic, i, 90 - - Heating Systems, iv, 185-7; - dryness from, xiv, 353; - water advantages in, iv, 162 - - Heat Lightning, i, 148, vii, 205, 213 - - Heat Prostrations, ix, 316 - - Heat Regulators, vii, 87-8 - - Heat Stroke, x, 251-2, 274 - - Heat Thunderstorms, i, 138, 151, vii, 217 - - Heat Waves, vi, 119, 269, 270, vii, 371; - length and frequency, 260; - transmission of, iv, 180-4; - volcanic dust effects, i, 59 - - Heath Family, xiii, 202; - shrubs of, 274 - - Heavier-than-air Machines, v, 230-8; - principles, i, 286-9; - remarks on, vii, 76 - - Heberden, William, x, 104 - - Hebrew Language, xv, 162; - religious words from, 161 - - Hebrews, hemp fiber unknown to, xiii, 239; - ideas of insanity, x, 356; - unclean animals of, xii, 311 - - Hedgehogs, xii, 366, 367 - - Heidelberg Man, xv, 92, 93-5; - period of, 102 - - Heidelberg Race, xv, 96-7 - - Height, human, at morning and night, ix, 65; - rate of growth, 32; - of various races, xv, 38-9 - - Heights, oceanic, xiv, 286 - - Helicopter, i, 42 - - Heligoland, coast destruction, iii, 56 - - Heliocentric System, ii, 43-4; - known in Egypt, xvi, 69; - taught by Aristarchus, ii, 28 - (see also Copernican System) - - Heliometer, ii, 311 - - Helioscope, ii, 172-3 - - Heliotaxis, xi, 52-3, 61 - - Heliotropism, in hydroids, xii, 34 - - Helium, atmospheric, i, 11, 12, ii, 232; - boiling and freezing points, iv, 173; - critical temperature, 173; - density of, 113; - discovery, i, 12, viii, 302, xvi, 194; - frozen, v, 345; - liquefaction, i, 32, xvi, 194; - liquefaction temperature, v, 348; - molecular velocity in, iv, 133, viii, 185, 186; - monatomic, viii, 309; - production by disintegration, i, 12; - specific heat ratio for, iv, 156; - symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383; - use of, in balloons, iv, 108 - - Hellbenders, xii, 171-2 - - Hell Gate, tidal race of, xiv, 294 - - Hellgrammite, xii, 106 - - Helmets, modern, xv, 221 - - Helmholtz, chemical work, xvi, 142; - "Conservation of Energy," 181-2; - contraction theory, ii, 380; - medical work of, x, 131; - on Young, 97; - pupil of Muller, 118, 128; - sound studies, iv, 52, 233; - theory of life, xii, 9; - thermodynamic studies, xvi, 136; - theory of color vision, x, 96 - - Heloderma, xii, 207 - - Hematite, iii, 332, 356, 358, viii, 47, 156 - - Hemlocks, in class of conifers, xiii, 174; - foliage, 270-1; - planting conditions, 270; - poison, 250; - roots, 17; - in northern forests, xiv, 372 - - Hemoglobin, ix, 181-3, 184, 258-9, 275, x, 337; - deficiency in anemia, 337 - - Hemorrhages, blood transfusion in, x, 338; - low blood pressure in, 336; - prevention of, in surgery, 14, 148; - stopping of, ix, 179-81 - - Hemostat, x, 148 - - Hemp cellulose composition, viii, 254; - sources, xiii, 238 - - Hemp Plant, xiii, 238-9 - - Henna Dye, of Amatus, x, 58 - - Henry, induction unit, iv, 285 - - Henry, Prof. Joseph, i, 189, vi, 24, xvi, 191; - induction unit named for, iv, 285 - - Henry I, (England), arm's length of, iv, 45 - - Henry the Navigator, xiv, 309 - - Henry Mountains, iii, 139, xiv, 109, 227 - - Hens, language methods of, xv, 141 - - Heraclitus, on change, xvi, 79 - - Herbivora, xii, 300-31; - intestine length in, ix, 246 - - Herbs, antiquity, xiii, 319, 310; - in American summer forests, 368, 369; - as class of plants, 175; - fossil and existing species, 324; - garden, 289; - hairy covering, 104-5; - none among gymnosperms, 175; - planting table of annuals and perennials, 290-7; - stems, 23; - in temperate forests, 366 - - Hercules (constellation), star clusters in, ii, 336, 340; - stars moving from, 305 - - Herd-Instinct, x, 9 - - Hereafter, primitive conceptions of, xv, 332-6, 339, 340, 345 - - Heredity, x, 227-8; - diseases and, ix, 103, 181, 304, x, 234-5, 292, 303; - importance in human evolution, xvi, 47; - importance of knowledge of, x, 236; - laws and facts of, ix, 325-44, x, 228-34, xiii, 326-7, 331-4, xv, - 22-3, 24, 27, xvi, 153-8; - social, xv, 30-1 - - Hering, Prof. D. W., author PHYSICS, Vol. iv - - Hering's Illusion, xi, 189 - - Hermit Crab, xii, 85 - - Hernia, operations for, x, 14, 41, 57 - - Hero, Greek scientist, inventions, xvi, 91, 92, 93; - mathematical work, 95; - steam turbine, v, 142-4, 148, xvi, 92, 93 - - Herodotus, Barton on, x, 20; - on fossil shells, iii, 14; - on Egyptian geometry, xvi, 68; - on Nile River, xiv, 71 - - Heroism, in crowds, xi, 326-7, 330 - - Herons, xii, 254-5 - - Herophilus, x, 23-4 - - Herring, xii, 154, 156; - limacina and, 19 - - Herschel, Caroline, ii, 104 - - Herschel, Sir William, astronomical work, ii, 15-16, xvi, 124-5; - discovery of Uranus, ii, 267; - father of descriptive astronomy, 139; - ideas of nebulæ, 368-9, 380; - knighting of, 254; - on habitability of sun, 252; - on proper motion of stars, 305; - picture of solar system, 162-3; - reflectors of, 103, 104; - studies of Galaxy, 352; - studies of Mars, 227; - studies of nebulæ, 358 - - Herschel, Sir John, dismantling of telescope by, ii, 104; - on spectrum lines, 112; - on Galaxy, 352; - studies of nebulæ, 358-9; - studies of star clusters, 336-7 - - Hertz, Heinrich, vi, 25, vii, 258, xvi, 191 - - Hesperornis, xii, 242 - - Hesperus, ancient name of Venus, ii, 191 - - Hessian Fly, i, 256 - - Hetchy-Hetchy Canyon, iii, 225 - - Heterodyne Receivers, vii, 278-9 - - Heterogeneous Rivers, xiv, 154-5 - - Heteromecic Numbers, xvi, 80 - - Hevelius, astronomer, ii, 57, 85; - telescopes of, 48, 99; - halo of, i, 374 - - Hewson, William, x, 88, xvi, 179 - - Hexane, viii, 206, 224 - - Heyl, Henry, v, 330 - - Hi and Ho, Chinese astronomers, xvi, 56-7, ii, 22 - - Hicetas, Greek astronomer, xvi, 81, 102 - - Hickory Trees, in American forests, xiv, 373; - in apetalae group, xiii, 190; - family, 191; - fertilization, 148; - leaves, 36-7; - leaf-bud protection, 34; - roots, 17; - sexes in, 46, 191 - - Hides, drying and tanning of, viii, 257 - - Hieroglyphics, Egyptian, xv, 172-4 - - High Blood Pressure, ix, 214, x, 334-6, 340 - - Highbrow, xv, 43 - - High Cost of Living, results in disease, x, 268 - - High Frequency Circuits, vii, 263 - - High Frequency Generators, vii, 290-1 - - Highlands, and lowlands, xiv, 213 - - Highlands-of-the-Hudson, iii, 188, 189 - - Highs, High Pressure Areas, i, 135-6, 137, 374; - movements, 134-5, 237; - weather significance, 236, 237; - winds in relation to, 125 - (see also Pressure Areas) - - Hill, James J., quoted, xi, 377 - - Hill, Prof. Leonard, i, 319, 320, 321, 322 - - Himalayas, animals of, xii, 288, 322, 325, 330, 337, 357; - forming of, iii, 236, xiii, 319; - glacial erosion in, xiv, 233; - height and importance, xv, 137; - impressiveness of, xiv, 9; - rainfall, i, 111; - rainfall on opposite sides, xiv, 355; - rhododendrons and azaleas in, xiii, 202; - rivers of, xiv, 167; - site formerly submerged, iii, 235; - sky line from Tibet, xiv, 234; - snow pinnacles, i, 117; - youthfulness, xiv, 96, 235 - - Hinds, xii, 317 - - Hindu Language, words from, xv, 161 - - Hindus, animal worship of, xv, 334; - astronomy, ii, 21, 26; - belief concerning trances, ix, 11, 17, 266-7; - cloud classifying by ancient, i, 97; - conception of earth, ii, 36; - crocodile veneration by, xii, 201; - geometry of, xi, 239; - in brown race, xv, 37; - marriage ceremonies of, 292, 293; - medicine and surgery of, x, 13-14, 57, 100, 123; - monkeys revered by, xii, 379 - - Hip Joint, dislocation of, ix, 67, 71 - - Hipparchus, ii, 10, 30-2, xvi, 90-1; - data gathered by, 94; - discoverer of precession, ii, 70; - novae observed by, 331; - star catalogue of, 300 - - Hippocrates, x, 18-22, 97, xvi, 95-6, 106; - aphorism of, x, 192, 379; - description of diseases by, 17; - humoral doctrine, 21, 98; - influence in Middle Ages, 31-2, 34, 36, 37; - "Oath" of, 18-19; - references to teachings, 55, 78, 154, 244, 289; - revival of teachings of, 44, 47, 48, 72, 73, 74 - - Hippopotamus, xii, 310; - trapping of, xv, 225 - - Hiqua, xii, 74 - - His, Wilhelm, x, 131 - - Histology, defined, xiii, 75 - - History, beginnings of, xv, 322, xvi, 51; - climatic influences, xiv, 29, 357-9, 361-2, xv, 123; - crowds and individuals in, xi, 333; - emotions in, 130; - geographical influences, xiv, 10, 30-1, 191-7, 239-45, 249-50, 279-82, - 305-11, xv, 122-3, 136-9; - poetry and, 323-4; - sentiments the moving force, xi, 150; - suggestibility and records, 310; - warriors and artisans in, v, 15 - - Hoang-ho, shifting of courses, xiv, 184 - - Hoarfrost, i, 121, 258, 374 - - Hoatzin, xii, 241 - - "Hobble-Skirt" Cars, vii, 184 - - Hoe Printing Press, v, 301, 379, 381 - - Hoffmann, Friedrich, x, 85-6 - - Hogs, descent of, xii, 310; - embryological development, xv, 54, 55; - feeding garbage to, viii, 330 - - Hohenbergia, leaves, xiii, 106 - - Hohenheim, Aureolus von (see Paracelsus) - - Hoists, in power plants, vi, 353 - - Holland, commercial history, xiv, 262, 280-1, 310; - low elevation of, 247; - rain-deposited salt, i, 60; - vaccination in, x, 103; - windmills, i, 37; - Zuider Zee of, xiv, 45-6 - - Holland Submarine, v, 382 - - Holly, American, xiii, 367 - - Holmes, Dr. Oliver Wendell, x, 114; - anesthetics named by, 125; - "goodly company" of, 134; - puerperal fever studies, 114-15, 122; - quoted, on therapeusis, 75 - - Holmium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Holothurians, xii, 23 - - Holyoke, Mount, xiv, 111 - - Home, electrical appliances in, iv, 10, vii, 73-90; - electric wiring, 67-8; - lighting and lighting systems, vi, 274-8, vii, 68-72, 75 - - Homer, historic value of poems, xv, 323-4; - medical references in, x, 16-17; - on blood showers, i, 55; - on the loadstone, vi, 29 - - Hominy Block, xv, 238-9 - - Homogeneous Rivers, xiv, 154 - - Honey, as food, ix, 292; - purpose in flowers, xiii, 124, 126, 142-3, 184; - "showers" of, i, 357 - - Honeydew, on plants, i, 351-2, 357 - - Honeysuckle, Italian, fertilization, xiii, 142-3; - leaf arrangement, 38; - tendril movement, 111 - - Hood, Mount, beauty of, xiv, 315; - cone of, iii, 226, xiv, 100-1, 225 - - "Hoodoo Country," xiv, 105 - - Hoofed Animals, xii, 300-31; - evolution, iii, 299, 300 - - Hooke, balance spring invention, v, 65; - geological work, xvi, 126; - light theory, 137; - microscope invention, x, 67; - microscopic work, xvi, 112; - on protoplasm, 166 - - Hooker Telescope, ii, 148, 156, 157-8, 159-60 - - Hookworm, campaign against, x, 171, 174-5; - parasite of, 199, 201; - in tropics, xiv, 357 - - Hookworm Anemia, x, 337 - - Hoosac Tunnel, drills in building, i, 27 - - Hope, physical effects, xi, 339 - - Hopkins, Dr. A. D., i, 255, 256, 367 - - Hop-vines, xiii, 27, 111 - - Horizontal Rainbows, i, 177 - - Hormones, ix, 170, 171, 189, 303, x, 320, 331, 347; - disease poisons as, ix, 178 - - Hornbeam, family, xiii, 193; - European, 271-2 - - Horneblende, iii, 321; - chemistry of, viii, 193 - - Horned Screamers, xii, 256-7 - - Horned Toad, xii, 204, 206 - - Horner, William, x, 116 - - Horn Gaps, vii, 17-18 - - Horns, in cattle family, xii, 324-5, 328; - of deer, 316 - - Horns (musical), from shells, xii, 74; - origin of, xv, 317; - sound production by, iv, 239-41 - - Horrocks, Jeremiah, ii, 58 - - Horseback Riding, as exercise, x, 304, 317 - - Horsechestnut Tree, dense shade, xiii, 86; - in landscaping, 271-2; - leaf-bud protection, 34; - stipules absent, 34 - - Horse Latitudes, i, 129, 374, xiv, 349 - - Horsepower, defined, iv, 80, vi, 83, 84, vii, 369; - electrical equivalent, vi, 84-5; - erg and calorie equivalents, vii, 382; - men's labor in, iv, 311; - thermal equivalents, v, 350-1 - - Horsepower-hours, iv, 80 - - Horseradish, aconite and, xiii, 252; - in mustard family, 197; - origin, 223 - - Horses, xii, 306-7; - automobiles and, v, 215; - class of, xii, 300; - cost of work, vii, 224-6; - diphtheria antitoxin from, x, 297; - domestication of, xv, 197; - ear movements, of, ix, 82, 117; - fear in, xi, 136; - geological history, iii, 299-300; - pictured in ancient art, xv, 112, 114, 116; - surra disease of, x, 168; - young of, ix, 346 - - Horseshoe Magnets, iv, 250, vi, 34, 45, 333 - - Horsetail Plants, iii, 251, 254, 256, xiii, 308-9, 314, 317, 323 - - Hoses, force, vi, 47-9; - rate of flow, 70-1 - - Hospitals, disease germs of, i, 325-6; - rise of modern, xvi, 184; - "Sunday temperatures" in, xi, 140 - - Hospital Tanks, v, 120 - - Hot Air Heating System, iv, 185 - - Hot Baths, ix, 322, x, 311-12, 383; - after eating, ix, 313; - cold sensation on entering, 93; - therapeutic uses of, x, 311, 383 - - Hot Climates, clothing for, x, 307, 308; - oiling of skin in, 311 - - Hot Springs, occurrence and explanation, iii, 128, xiv, 143-5; - plant life in, xiii, 299; - proof of earth's internal heat, xiv, 12; - travertine deposits, 146 - - Hottentots, hair of, xv, 38; - marriage by purchase among, 284 - - Hot-water Bottle, iv, 162-3 - - Hot Water Heating System, iv, 185-6, 187 - - Hot Water Plants, xiii, 299, 300, 301 - - Hot Waves, i, 374 - - Hot Winds, i, 134, 374 - - Hotchkiss Machine Gun, v, 365 - - Hotels, color lighting, vi, 274-5 - - House-breaking, of children, xi, 251-2 - - House Meters, vii, 174-7 - - Houses, dry air of, xiv, 353; - electric wiring, vii, 65-8; - evolution of, xv, 266-8 - - Howard, Luke, i, 97-8 - - Howe, Elias, sewing machine, v, 284, 379 - - Howitzers, v, 368-9 - - Huanacos, xii, 313 - - Huckleberry, growth of, x, 229 - - Hudson River, course, iii, 234, 245; - estuary of, xiv, 40; - locating rock under, v, 263-4; - mouth, xiv, 25, 270; - Palisades (see Palisades of Hudson); - sediment in channel, 268; - submerged channel, iii, 37 (fig.), 78, 234, xiv, 25, 287; - superimposed stream, iii, 233 - - Hudson River Valley, drowned character, iii, 38, 77-8, xiv, 25, 40, 255; - origin, iii, 232; - section of, 138 (fig.) - - Hue, of colors, xi, 90 - - Hughes, D. E., vi, 26; - coherer of, xvi, 191 - - Human Energy, consumption in life processes and work, viii, 367; - daily expenditure in calories, ix, 297; - efficiency in use of, 296, 306; - food sources and requirements, viii, 334, 349, 350, 359, 361, ix, - 289-301; - from foods, calculation of, x, 269-70; - per cent used, xi, 264; - Ostwald's imperative, 257; - production in kinetic system, 60-1 - - Humanists, "medical," x, 45 - - Human Life, temperate zones most favorable, xi, 51; - temperature limits, v, 348, ii, 243 - (see also Life) - - Human Race, cradle of, xvi, 46-7; - grouping tendency of, x, 9; - improvement by selection, xvi, 157 - - Humanistic Period, xvi, 86 - - Human Voice, range of, ix, 99 (see Voice) - - Humboldt, Alexander von, discovery of orchid insect, xiii, 48; - geological work, xvi, 170, 171; - on the Ghor of Syria, xiv, 121; - on thunder at sea, i, 193; - studies of electric eel, vi, 16 - - Humboldt Current, xiv, 305 - - Humboldt Range, iii, 214 - - Humidifying Systems, i, 78 - - Humidity, i, 76, xiv, 353-4; - absolute and relative, i, 76-7, 375, xiv, 352-3, 354; - atmospheric, viii, 67; - body heat and, i, 317, v, 348-9, ix, 316, 317, x, 237, 251, xiv, 354; - danger in thunderstorms, i, 156; - heat prostration from, ix, 316; - measurement of, i, 78-9; - practical importance, 77-8; - ventilation and, 321, viii, 331, 332, ix, 268-9, 270, x, 237 - - Hummingbirds, xii, 269; - colors of, 245; - family of, 267; - plant fertilization by, xiii, 144 - - Humor, psychology of, xi, 350-7 - - Humoral Doctrine, x, 21, 28-9, 69, 98, 380 - - Humped Cattle, xii, 330 - - Humphreys, Dr. W. J., i, 58, 59, 113, 152, 153, 155, 172 - - Humus, formation of, viii, 340, 341, 346-7 - - Hungary, loess deposits, xiv, 72; - plains of, xiii, 373, xiv, 217; - stone implements of ancient, xv, 109 - - Hunger, "best sauce," ix, 242; - food regulation by, 299; - impulse of, in civilization, xv, 185-204, 273; - sensation of, ix, 87-8, 231, xi, 65-6, 67, xv, 65; - sense of, in infants, ix, 349-50; - sleep and, xi, 290 - - Hunger Strikes, water in, x, 275 - - Hunt, T. Sterry, xvi, 190 - - Hunter, John, x, 93-6, 97; - electric eel studies, vi, 16; - Jenner pupil of, x, 94, 99; - Virchow compared to, 129 - - Hunter, William, x, 92-3, 94 - - Hunter's Moon, ii, 196 - - Hunting, primitive methods and devices, xv, 222-8 - - Hunting Dog, African, xii, 345 - - Hunting Dogs, heart in, x, 332 - - Hunting Stage, xv, 187, 192-6; - equality of members in, 376; - leaders in, 366; - polygamy in, 287 - - Hurdy-Gurdy Wheel, v, 77 - - Huron, Lake, size, xiv, 204 - - Hurricane Cliffs, xiv, 124 - - Hurricane Grass, xiii, 344 - - Hurricanes, i, 136, 375; - electrification by, vii, 212-13; - handling of ships in, i, 277-8; - warnings in Caribbean Sea, 282, 309 - - Hurry, modern spirit of, xv, 12 - - Hussey, Obed, v, 244-5, 246, 247, 249, 379 - - Hutton, Dr. James, geologist, xvi, 126, 169-70 - - Huxley, gorilla studies of, xv, 57; - on herring, xii, 156; - work of, x, 136, xvi, 140-1, 142, 182 - - Huygens, as astrologer, ii, 21; - Kepler's Laws and, 61; - light theory, xvi, 119; - mechanical method of, iv, 11; - micrometer invention, ii, 58; - on planetary pull, 63; - on rings of Saturn, 54, 57; - pendulum clock invention, v, 65; - studies of Mars, ii, 227, 228; - studies of nebulæ, 357; - telescopes, 13, 57, 99 - - Hyacinth, xiii, 120, 184 - - Hyacinth Stone, iii, 341 - - Hyades, ii, 341-3 - - Hyalite, iii, 335 - - Hybrids, defined, ix, 334, xiii, 147; - transmission of characters, ix, 334-7, x, 231-2, 233, xiii, 332, 333 - - Hydra, fresh water, xii, 33-4 - - Hydraulic Jets, v, 88 (see Water Jets) - - Hydraulic Machinery, v, 97-108 - (see also special heads, as Cranes, Elevators, etc.) - - Hydraulic Press, v, 97-100, 376; - mechanical gain in, iv, 41 - - Hydraulic Ram, v, 84-6 - - Hydriodic Acid, formation of, viii, 95-6 - - Hydro-acids, viii, 98, 114, 377 - - Hydrocarbons, and derivatives, viii, 51-2, 205-40; - molecular complexity and physical state, 298; - oxygen affinity for, 36; - substitution phenomena, xvi, 162 - - Hydrochloric Acid, viii, 86-7, 115; - action on cellulose, 255; - in gastric juice, x, 320, 325, ix, 234-5, 236, 237-8; - metal tests by, viii, 288; - production, 87, 105, 275, 277; - solubility in water, 111; - test for, 285 - - Hydroelectric Plants, v, 79, 83, vi, 351-2, 361-78; - on farms, vii, 233-4; - use of alternators, vi, 215; - (see also Power Plants) - - Hydroelectric Power, called "white coal," v, 76; - in Switzerland, xiv, 242 - - Hydrogen, viii, 18, 29-33; - affinity strength, 128; - affinity for halogens, 85, 86; - atmospheric, i, 11, 192, ii, 232; - atomic weight and symbol, viii, 383; - atomic weights based on, 33, 92; - basic element, Prout's hypothesis, 177; - boiling and freezing points, iv, 173; - compressibility and volume, 143; - critical temperature and pressure, 173; - density of, 110, 113; - diffusibility of, viii, 108; - discovery, xvi, 120; - elimination from body, viii, 353; - explosions of, 33, 62; - flame of, 57, 58, 59-60; - increasing demand for, vii, 321; - in acids, viii, 114; - in organic compounds, 64, 204; - in plants, 336-7, 340-1; - in proteins, 351; - in water, weight and volume, 39-40; - liquefaction of, iv, 171, 191; - melting point, 162; - molecular speed, viii, 24, iv, 133; - percentage in coal series, iii, 345; - plant uses and sources, xiv, 64-5; - positive ionization, viii, 122; - preparation, 30-3, 102; - sound speed in, i, 192; - uniqueness of, viii, 182-3; - use of, in balloons, iv, 108; - valence basis, viii, 93; - valences to, 178, 179-80; - weight, iv, 110 - - Hydrogen Compounds, viii, 29, 36, 41, 51-2, 68-70, 205-40 - - Hydrogen Cycle, viii, 334, 350 - - Hydrogen Peroxide, viii, 41, 97; - bleaching by, 86, 256 - - Hydrogen Sulphide, viii, 77-8; - in metal tests, 288; - solubility in water, 111 - - Hydrogenation, viii, 232, 247, 377 - - Hydroids, xii, 18, 23, 33-7; - regeneration in, 170 - - Hydrology, problems, vi, 365-7 - - Hydrolysis, viii, 39, 217-18, 377; - by enzymes, 357, 358; - in cement setting, 280; - ionization and, 120 - - Hydrometers, iv, 113, vi, 147 - - Hydrophobia, Pasteur's work on, x, 142-3; - reduction of mortality in, 217 - - Hydroplanes, v, 192; - of submarines, 197-8 - - Hydrostatic Pressure, v, 95-6 - - Hydrotherapy, x, 383 - - Hydroxides, viii, 93, 377; - bases as, 115; - commercial preparation, of, 276; - metals found as, 130, 131, 198 - - Hydroxyl Derivatives, viii, 210, 212-14, 215, 218 - - Hydroxyl Group, viii, 377; - in bases, 115; - boiling point raised by, 299; - negative ionization, 122; - solubility, 112 - - Hyenas, xii, 351-2 - - Hygiene, among early Jews, x, 15; - daily applications, xvi, 15; - instruction in, remarks on, x, 282-5; - mental, xi, 368-82; - personal, disease prevention through, x, 302-17 - - Hygrometers, i, 78-9, 375; - invention, 68-9 - - Hygroscope, i, 375 - - Hymenoptera, xii, 124-6 - - Hyperfunction, defined, x, 348 - - Hyperopia, ix, 113 - - Hypersensibility, x, 212-15 - - Hypnotism, xi, 311-22; - use in medicine, xvi, 185-6 - - Hypo, of photography, viii, 140, 172 - - Hypofunction, meaning, x, 348 - - Hypophysis, (gland), x, 347, 352 - - Hysteresis, vi, 192, 213-14; - in motors, 225; - in transformers, 316 - - Hysteria, x, 360-3 - - - Ianthena, xii, 19 - - Iatrochemical School, x, 69-70 - - Iatrophysical School, x, 69, 70-2 - - Iberian Racial Group, xvi, 49 - - Ibervillea, xiii, 106-7 - - Ibexes, xii, 325-6 - - Ibises, xii, 254, 255-6 - - Ibn-Yunos (Jounis), ii, 38, 210 - - Ice, ancient use in refrigeration, v, 349; - artificial, iv, 188, v, 349-50, 354-8, viii, 69-70; - color of, 40; - comparative heat, v, 345; - cooling by, iv, 178, v, 346; - density of, iv, 149; - disadvantages in refrigeration, vii, 230; - erosion by, (see Glaciers); - expansion of water in, viii, 38; - heat conductivity, iv, 179; - keeping of, v, 346, 349; - melting point and requirements, iv, 152, 161, 162; - melting point, pressure effects on, 163, 164, 164-6; - mixture with salt, temperature resulting, 175; - mixture with water, temperatures obtained, 160-1, v, 353-4; - regelation of, iv, 164-6; - specific gravity, iii, 321; - specific heat of, iv, 155; - temperatures at different pressures, v, 345; - transformation of snow into, iii, 59-60; - warming of, iv, 151-2 - - Ice Age, Great Quaternary, iii, 236-48, xv, 72-6; - antiquity of, xiii, 209, 322; - lakes formed, iii, 143-51; - man during, 302, 303, xv, 102; - Mississippi Valley remains, iii, 35; - moraines left by, 67-8; - sea level in, 83; - subsidence of land in, 80; - Yosemite Valley formed in, 48, 64 - (see also Glacial Epoch) - - Ice Age, Permian, iii, 203-4 - - Ice Ages, theories of, iii, 247-8; - volcanic dust theory, i, 58 - - Icebergs, submergence of, iv, 149 - - Ice Breakers, gyroscopes on, v, 342 - - Ice Caps, iii, 60, 61; - of Greenland and Antarctica, xiv, 55 - - Ice Clouds, i, 92-3, 103; - halos produced by, 177 - - Ice Dam Lakes, iii, 143-4, xiv, 201 - - Ice Crystals, i, 115-16; - halos from, 177, 178, 182-3 - - Ice Fogs, i, 95-6 - - Ice Houses, insulation method in, iv, 178 - - Iceland, discovery and settlement, xiv, 261; - fault displacement in, 39; - foxes of, xii, 344; - future manufacturing center, v, 173; - ice caps, iii, 61; - low pressure area, i, 361; - volcanic eruptions, 57, 59; - volcanic formation, xiv, 277, 289, 316 - - Icelandic Language, xv, 162 - - Iceland Spar, iii, 325; - effect on light, 319, iv, 354 - - Ice Needles, i, 92-3, 96 - - "Ice Pavement," xiv, 56 - - Ice Rain, i, 107, 375 - - Ice Saints, i, 363, 375 - - Ice Sheets, iii, 60, 61-2; - of Great Ice Age, 237-42, xv, 74-6 - - Ice Storms, i, 108 - - Ice Water, drinking of, ix, 229; - temperature of, viii, 38 - - Ichneumon Flies, xii, 125 - - Ichneumons, xii, 352 - - Ichthyornis, xii, 243 - - Ichthyosaurs, iii, 286-8, xii, 182, 202 - - Idaho, lava formations, xiv, 102, 103, 318; - mining products, iii, 362-3, 368 - - Idaho Fire (1910), i, 57 - - Ideal Metal, resistance, vi, 77 - - Ideas, psychological meaning, xi, 201-2 - (see also Association of Ideas, Dissociation, Repression) - - I-em-hetep, x, 11 - - Igneous Rocks, iii, 13, 379, xiv, 17-18; - common modes of occurrence, iii, 102 (fig.); - illustrations (Pl. 8, 9, 10); - intrusive and extrusive, xiv, 105; - intrusions in mountain ranges, 228, 230, 232-3, 234; - jointing in, 129-30; - land forms in, 44, 99-113; - oldest by nebular theory, iii, 160; - soils from, 28; - volcanic and plutonic, 106, 110, xiv, 99-100 - - Ignis Fatuus, i, 346-9, 375 - - Ignition, electric, vii, 369; - in automobiles, 130-41, 369; - in firearms, viii, 145; - temperatures of, 53-4 - - Iguanas, xii, 207; - boas and, 216; - color of, 204; - spiny crest of, 204 - - Ilkhanic Tables, ii, 39 - - Illinois, coal beds, iii, 199; - prairies of, xiv, 373, 383 - - Illinois River, sewage effects, viii, 326 - - Illuminating Gas, acetylene, viii, 60, 231; - burning of air in, 55, 56; - flame of, 57-9; - production, 46, 47, 252; - requisites, 60; - transfusion of blood in, poisoning from, x, 338 - (see also Gas Lighting) - - Illumination, art of, vi, 273; - measurement of, iv, 350-2; - unit of intensity, vii, 368 - (see also Lighting, Lighting Systems) - - Illusions, x, 358 - (see also Hallucinations) - - Illusions, Optical (see Optical Illusions) - - Ilopango, Lake, draining of, xiv, 198 - - Images, formed by reflection, iv, 335-7; - formed by refraction, 337-9; - formation of, ix, 106-9; - real and virtual, iv, 335, 338, 339 - - Images (psychology), xi, 218-22 - (see also After-Images) - - Imagination, xi, 218-27; - due to conditioned reflexes, 202-3; - in science, xvi, 58-9 - - Imbeciles, reflex action in, xi, 36 - - Imhoff Tanks, viii, 328 - - Imitation, education by, xv, 66-7; - in language, 153-4; - instinct of, xi, 56; - suggestion and, 304 - - Immunity, against disease, ix, 179, x, 204-12; - racial, xv, 48-52 - - Impedance, in alternating currents, vi, 170, 171; - in oscillating circuits, vii, 289 - - "Imponderables," iv, 47 - - Impressions, first, xi, 211-12 - - Impulsiveness, of motor type men, xi, 157, 158-9; - will and, 264 - - Inanition, x, 275-7, 279 - - Inattention, xi, 25, 236 - - Inbreeding, in plants, xiii, 119-20 - - Incandescent Bodies, spectra of, ii, 112-13, iv, 360-3 - - Incandescent Lights, iv, 311 - - Incas of Peru, civilization in temperate climate, xv, 123; - corn in tombs, xiii, 212; - hunts of, xv, 222; - quipus of, 165, 166, (fig.) - - Inclined Plane, iv, 90, v, 35-41; - primitive use of, iv, 24 - - Index of Refraction, in chemical analysis, viii, 310 - - Index Plants, i, 255 - - India, aborigines in black race, xv, 37; - aconite used as poison, xiii, 252; - adjutant bird of, xii, 255; - aerial photographic service, i, 46; - ancient astronomy, ii, 25, 26, xvi, 57; - ancient meteorology, i, 68, 213; - ancient science, xvi, 54, 62; - ancient sun-worship, ii, 23-4; - animals (carnivora), xii, 337, 340, 344, 345, 359, 365; - animals (herbivoral), 302, 303, 305, 308, 320, 327, 328, 330; - artificial ice in ancient, v, 349; - banana plants, xiii, 216; - betel nut, 254; - brontides, i, 195; - bubonic plague in, x, 164, 165; - Catalan forges in, v, 315; - cinnamon growing, xiii, 264; - civilization and climate, xv, 123; - coco palm of, 125; - copra production, xiii, 220; - cotton production, 237, 238; - cradle of human race, xvi, 47; - crocodiles of, xii, 199, 201; - deer-hunting in, 365, xv, 223; - dust whirlwinds, i, 60; - earthquake of, xiv, 333 (see Great Indian Earthquake); - famines, xiii, 214; - forests, government-controlled, 372; - former trade routes, xiv, 307, 309; - glacial deposits, iii, 203; - hailstorms, i, 120; - Himalayas as protection to, xv, 137; - ideas of eclipses, ii, 209; - jungle fowls of, xii, 261; - jute production, xiii, 241, 243; - monkeys of, xii, 379; - monsoons, importance, i, 66-7, 131, 218, xiv, 350-1; - monuments and records, ii, 24; - music of, xv, 314 - native marriage customs, 282; - peoples and civilization, xvi, 53-4; - pipal tree, xiii, 108; - plains of, xiv, 47, 217; - polyandry in, xv, 286; - poppy growing, xiii, 253; - quinine production, 251; - rainy seasons, xiv, 352; - rattan palm, xiii, 27, 361; - religious cults, ix, 266; - religious philosophy, xi, 116; - rice in, xiii, 213; - rivers of, xiv, 195-6; - rubber growing, xiii, 247, 248; - serpents of, xii, 214, 219, 228-9, 231; - smallpox inoculation in, x, 100; - sugar production, xiii, 215; - Suttee in, xv, 335; - tarpon of, xii, 154; - tea cultivation, xiii, 228; - telegraph plant, 114; - tobacco production, 258; - tortoises of, xii, 191; - weather conditions, distant causes, i, 241; - wine palm, xiii, 53 - (see also Hindus) - - Indiana, glacial drift in, xiv, 69, 170; - limestone quarries, iii, 371-2; - prairies of, xiv, 373 - - Indian Corn, American origin, xiv, 382; - history and uses, xiii, 211-13; - prop roots, 20 (fig.); - stem, 183 - (see also Corn) - - Indian Meteorological Dept., i, 241 - - Indian Ocean, extent of, xiv, 22; - monsoons of, 350-1; - salt in, viii, 139; - sharks of, xii, 146; - tortoises on islands of, 192 - - Indian Pipe Plant, xiii, 99, 202 - - Indians, American, acuteness of vision, vi, 272-3; - arrows of, xv, 196 (fig.); - basket-weaving of, 248; - bows of, 214 (fig.); - canoe-making, 262; - cattle-raising stage absent, 187, 199; - chiefs, 364; - color of, 37; - corn-growing, xiii, 211-12, 212-13, xv, 201 (fig.); - dogs used in hunting, 223; - domestic animals lacking to, 199; - dramatic ceremonies and plays of, 305-6, 306-7, 308; - fear of pogonip, i, 96; - fertilizing method of, xv, 202; - guardian spirits, 348-9; - hair of, 37; - Happy Hunting Grounds of, 333; - "hiqua" money of, xii, 74; - language deficiencies, xv, 144; - lodgepoles of, xiv, 374; - long houses of, xv, 267; - marriage practices, 283-4, 284; - measles and, 48; - mineral springs used by, xiv, 145; - note to Jenner, x, 103; - painting of faces by, xv, 256; - pottery of, 250 (fig.), 252 (fig.); - prairie firing, xiii, 374; - prayers of, xv, 346-7; - religious beliefs, xvi, 44; - signal fires, xv, 165-6; - sign language, 148-51; - sign writing, 172, 173 (fig.); - stone pestles of, 238 (fig.); - tents of, 266; - tomahawks of, 208; - tree-felling by, 262; - tribal morality of, 374; - tribes in mountains, 129-30; - unions among, 363; - weaving of, 247 (fig.), 301 (fig.) - (see also South American Indians) - - Indian Summer, i, 361-2, 363, 375 - - India-rubber, elasticity of, iv, 36; - low temperature effects, i, 31 - - Indicators, chemical, viii, 114, 294, 378 - - Indigestion, causes and results, ix, 238-42; - from worry, 165, 167; - mental effects, xi, 369-70 - - Indigo (color), ix, 115; - changed to indigo white, viii, 259 - - Indirect Lighting, vi, 277, vii, 70 - - Indium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Individuals, differences in, ix, 327, xi, 152-9; - influence of, in history, 333; - inheritance of extreme characters, xvi, 154; - moral control, 48; - new species from variations of, xiii, 325, 328-9; - psychology in crowds, xi, 324, 325-30; - transmission of acquired characters, ix, 325-6 - - Indo-China, food plant source, xiii, 221; - python of, xii, 214 - - Indo-Chinese, in yellow race, xv, 37 - - Indo-European Languages, xv, 161, 162 - - Induced Currents, iv, 303-9 - - Induced Voltages, vii, 370 - - Inductance, defined, vi, 91, 166; - in direct and alternating currents, 166-7, 169; - flashes caused by, 102, 312; - in induction motors, 248; - in telephone lines, vii, 104; - in wireless communication, 264, 286-7, 289, 293-5, 296-7 - - Inductance Coils, vii, 105, 264, 266, 267 - - Induction, charging by, vi, 290-2, 297-301; - discovery, 22, 23; - electrification by, iv, 260; - electrodynamic and static, vii, 370; - law of, vi, 313; - Lenz's Law, vii, 371; - magnetization by, iv, 243; - self, vii, 375; - unit of, iv, 285 - - Induction, Proof by, xi, 242 - - Induction Coils, iv, 265, 303-5, vii, 364, 370; - in automobiles, 133-4; - in electrotherapy, 242-4, 245; - in wireless telegraphy, iv, 313, 314 - - Induction Machines, vi, 292, 298-301, vii, 245 - - Induction Motors, vi, 241, 242-56; - in motor-generator sets, 332, 342 - - Induction Regulators, vi, 328-9, 346 - - Inductivity, vi, 293-4 - - Industrial Plants, advantages of electricity, vii, 51-3; - lighting, 52; - wiring, 57 - - Industrial Psychology, xi, 358-67 - - Industry, electricity in, vi, 195-6, 381; - energy sources, viii, 267-8; - metals of, 154; - motors most used, vi, 241; - science in, xvi, 9-10; - water power and, vi, 352 - - Inertia, defined, vi, 90-1, vii, 370; - examples of, iv, 35, 62, 66, 67, v, 148, 234, 336-9; - in electrical currents (see Inductance); - in perception errors, xi, 184, 189; - law of, ii, 62, iv, 19-20, 61-2; - of æther, vi, 120; - of ear, xi, 105; - of sense organs, 71 - - Infancy, period of, x, 283, xvi, 79 - - Infantile Paralysis, germ of, x, 200, 202; - immunity to, 207 - - Infants, ape-like structures in, xv, 61; - bodily condition and care of, ix, 345-52; - clothing of, x, 309; - grasping reflex, xi, 40-3; - heart rate in, x, 334; - learning to breathe, xi, 36-7; - learning to fixate, 39-40; - learning to swallow, 38; - milk modifications, viii, 363; - nervous system in, ix, 344, 348-9; - new-born, free from germs, x, 201; - new-born, weight of, ix, 31; - periodic breathing in, x, 340; - skull capacity in, xv, 40; - space perceptions, xi, 162-3, 166 - - Infections, ix, 177-8, x, 193; - by germs, x, 193, 204; - body resistance to, 197-8, 203-12; - body resistance to, ix, 177-9, 185-6; - exhaustion from, ix, 59-60; - focal, x, 198-9, 218-26; - in surgery, prevention of, 14, 123, 145-7, 181-3; - local and general, 198; - "portals" of, 198, 201-2; - pus, ix, 186-8 - - Infectious Diseases, x, 193-226; - atmospheric electricity and, i, 330; - danger from, 326; - heredity and, x, 234-5; - immunity to, 204-12, ix, 179; - infants' susceptibility to, ix, 352; - pain in, 87; - Pasteur and Koch's work, xvi, 184; - prevention and treatment, x, 217-18, 285-302 - (see also Antitoxins, Inoculation, Vaccination); - ticks as cause of, xii, 98; - transmission and history of various, x, 153-70 - - Infinity, meaning, xi, 191, 196 - - Inflammations, germ-produced, x, 195; - terms used to define, 30 - - Influence Machines, vi, 292, 298-301, vii, 372; - in therapeutics, 236 - - Influenza, x, 294-5; - from chilling, 306; - immunity to, 207; - present knowledge of, 153, xv, 48 - - Infra-red Rays, iv, 365, 366 - - Ingersoll, Dr. E., author Zoölogy, Vol. xii - - Ingots, steel, v, 322; - "pipes" in, 323 - - Injections, subcutaneous, ix, 59 - - Injectors, of boilers, v, 140-2, 380 - - Ink, Acheson's, vii, 301 - - Innominate Bone, ix, 63 (fig.), 66-7 - - Inoculation, early practice of, x, 207; - for anthrax and rabies, 141-2; - for smallpox, 100-3 - (see also Vaccination) - - Inorganic, defined, viii, 378 - - Inorganic Chemical Industries, viii, 267-84 - - Inorganic Compounds, colors of, viii, 312; - solubility in water, 37, 111-12 - - Inorganic Matter, plant use of, viii, 339, 349, xiii, 14, 79, 81 - - Inorganic Nature, chemical inactivity, viii, 267 - - Insanity, definition and symptoms, x, 357-9; - former ideas and treatment, 11, 356-7; - increase of, xv, 27; - increase prevention, x, 235-6; - Pinel's treatment, 110-11; - primitive conceptions of, xv, 350, 353 - - Insecticides, arsenic, viii, 169 - - Insectivora, xii, 366-8; - lemurs and, 376 - - Insects, xii, 99-126; - capture of, by plants, xiii, 39-41; - classification, iii, 260, 276; - cold effects on, ix, 306; - evolution, iii, 20, 257, 279, xii, 104-7; - flower fertilization by, xiii, 48, 123-46, 318, xvi, 152-3; - fossil remains, iii, 16, 279-80; - hearing of sounds by, iv, 204; - jaws in, xii, 106; - larvæ affected by light, x, 253; - musical, xii, 109-10; - number of species, 99; - popular definition, 90; - primitive groups, 104-7; - protective coloration in, xv, 17-18; - reproduction in, xii, 104; - respiration in, 103; - structure of, 99-103; - studies of, xvi, 143-4; - tool-using by, v, 10-11 - - Inside Passage, xiv, 258-9 - - Insomnia, xi, 288-91; - caused by vasoconstrictor activity, ix, 218-19; - exhaustion from, xi, 59-60 - - Inspiration, as intuition, xi, 245; - Titchener on, 226 - - Instincts, defined, xi, 46-8; - fundamental, 49-56, xv, 185; - in man and animals, 65-6; - reflex nature, xi, 48-9; - self-preserving, x, 9-10, 282-3 - - Instrument-Shelter, i, 375 - - Instrument Transformers, vii, 44, 165 - - Insular Climate, xiv, 347 - - Insulation, importance, vi, 9-10; - in dynamos, 192, 211-12; - types of wire, vii, 58 - - Insulators, electrical, iv, 259, vi, 294-5, vii, 370; - pin and suspension types, 15-16 - - Insulators, heat, iv, 178, vii, 307-8 - - Insults, emotions from, xi, 150 - - Insurance, weather, i, 269-70, 344 - - Intake-Output Test, x, 379 - - Intellectual Processes, in brain, ix, 147-53, 154 - - Intelligence, artificial selection of, xvi, 154; - mental economy and, xi, 377; - instinct and, 46, 47, 50; - nervous organization and, 13 - - Intelligence Tests, xi, 359-60 - - Intemperance, arteries injured by, ix, 214 - - Intensity, electric, vii, 370 - - Intensity, of sounds, iv, 211 - - Interborough Rapid Transit Company, great alternators, vi, 216, 378-9; - synchronized plants, 384 - - Interchangeable System, v, 48-52, 53-4, 55-6 - - Interest, advertising value, xi, 345-6; - associations determined by, 203, 205-6; - attention and, 235-6; - fatigue and, 275; - in salesmanship, 341-2 - - Interference of Light, iv, 376-8 - - Interference of Sounds, iv, 218-22 - - Interferometer, ii, 151, 323 - - Interior Lighting Systems, vi, 275-8, vii, 68-72 - - Interior Wiring, vii, 51-72; - insulators in, 370 - - Interlaken, Switzerland, lakes at, xiv, 202 - - Internal Combustion Engines, v, 155-70; - in aeroplanes, 231; - in automobiles, 213; - in submarines, 199; - efficiency, securing of, xvi, 135; - Joule's equivalent and, 132-3 - - Internal Senses, ix, 86-91 - - Interoceptive Senses, xi, 63 - - Interpoles, of dynamos, vi, 190-1 - - Interurban Traction, vii, 181; - automatic substations, 192-3; - cars and motors, 186; - voltage drop, 189 - - Intestinal Stasis, x, 220 - - Intestines, ix, 233 (fig.); - development in black and white races, xv, 50; - emotion effects on, xi, 135, 137; - functions of, viii, 356-7, 358; - functions, operations, and disorders of, ix, 232-4, 236-8, 242-52, x, - 325-9; - germs in, ix, 247-9, x, 193, 194, 201, 287-8; - infections through, x, 198, 220, 221; - in infants, ix, 346; - inflammation of, cause, x, 224; - length in animals and man, ix, 246; - mucous membrane, functions of, x, 347; - position in circulatory system, ix, 196 (fig.), 198; - smooth muscles in, 74, 160-1, 162 - - Intrenched Meanders, xiv, 165 - - Intrusive Rocks, xiv, 105 - - Intrusive Sheets (sills), xiv, 108 - - Intuition, xi, 245-6; - Bergson on, xvi, 196 - - Inventions, imagination in, xvi, 59; - inspiration and labor in, xi, 226; - method of great, xvi, 98; - misuse of ancient, v, 15-16, 111; - necessity and laziness in, 282; - production increased by, 17-18; - pure science preliminary to, iv, 44-5; - summary of mechanical, v, 376-84; - war as stimulus to, 12, 359-60, 375 - - Inverse Time Relays and Switches, vii, 37, 39-40, 41, 42 - - Invertases, viii, 357 - - Invertebrates, xii, 127; - age of, iii, 20; - largest, xii, 80 - - Invincible Armada, xiv, 280 - - Inyo Earthquake, iii, 225 - - Iodine, a halogen, viii, 18, 84-5, 86; - as antiseptic, 333; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - classification place, 182, 183; - indicator uses, 294; - in seaweed, 197; - manufacture of, 274; - physical state and, chemical properties, 22, 297-8; - test of, 290; - thyroid secretion of, x, 351 - - Iodoform, viii, 52, 212 - - Ion-Counters, i, 142-3, 375 - - Ionic Reactions, viii, 119-25 - - Ionization, vi, 133-5, vii, 247, 248, 370; - defined, viii, 378; - electron theory, 188; - in electric precipitation, vii, 348-9; - of atmosphere, i, 142-4, 146, 150; - of solutions, viii, 119-25, 300-1; - origin of theory, 296, 300-1 - - Ionogens, viii, 122, 125, 378 - - Ions, iv, 382, vii, 370, viii, 378; - in electric batteries, vi, 133, vii, 247; - number in air, i, 142-3; - of solutions, viii, 120-4, 286-90; - origin of name, 124; - positive and negative, i, 142, vii, 247, 370 - - Iowa, glacial deposits, iii, 241; - gypsum deposits, 376; - loess deposits, xiv, 72; - porous rocks beneath, iii, 114; - soil of, xiv, 383; - wells, iii, 118, 119, 125 - - Ireland, Alpine invasion, xvi, 49; - coast formations, xiv, 24, 47, 249, 251, 257; - continental island in character, 273; - "Emerald Isle," 352; - eskers and drumlins, 59, 60; - former volcanoes, 318; - Ice Age in, xv, 74; - lakes of, xiv, 200; - lava plateau of, 104; - potato in, xiii, 218; - rainfall in, xiv, 41, 352; - scurvy and potato crop, x, 266; - snakes in, xii, 217 - - Iridescence, cause of, xii, 245 - - Iridium, viii, 173, 383 - - Iridocytes, xii, 135 - - Iris, xiii, 22-3, 57 (fig.) - - Iris Family, xiii, 189 - - Irish, pre-Nordic, xvi, 49 - - Irish Language, xv, 162 - - Irish Potato, xiii, 218, 219 - - Irish School, of Medicine, x, 112 - - Irish Wakes, xv, 336 - - Iron, affinity strength, viii, 128; - antiquity of use, v, 314-15; - atomic weight of, viii, 180, 383; - body use of, ix, 184, x, 256; - cast and wrought, v, 316-17; - cast and wrought, viii, 157, 158, 159; - castings of, iv, 150; - density of, 111; - electrical conductivity, 283, vi, 77; - electrical positiveness, 59; - electrolytic refining, vii, 320; - expansion on solidifying, iv, 150; - expansion rate, 145-6; - extraction from ores, viii, 271; - fusibility, 384; - galvanized, vii, 318-19, viii, 155-6, 273; - heat conduction by, iv, 179; - importance, v, 314, viii, 156; - in blood, 354; - in chlorophyll, xiii, 79-80; - in earth's crust, iii, 308, viii, 19, 129, 192; - in earth's interior, xiv, 11; - magnetic, iv, 242, 243 (fig.); - magnetization, 243, 245, 251, 287-8, vi, 35-6; - melting point and requirements, iv, 162, 163; - metallography of, viii, 273-4; - meteoric, ii, 292; - meteoric, in deep sea, iii, 55; - ores and occurrence, 355-9, viii, 47, 130, 148, 156, 198; - ores, profitable, 197; - plant needs of, 337, 341; - properties of, 126-7, 154; - rusting, iii, 25, viii, 9, 13, 155-6; - sheet tin, 161; - shortness, hot and cold, iii, 356; - sound velocity in, iv, 201; - specific gravity of, 109, viii, 384; - specific heat, 308; - symbol, 383; - test for, 287, 288-9; - valences, 161, 189 - - Iron Age, xvi, 51; - tools of, 47 - - Iron Compounds, viii, 160-1 - - Iron Industry, history, xvi, 174-6; - processes in, v, 315-18, viii, 157-9, 273, 345 - - Ironing Machines, Electric, vii, 82-3 - - Iron Oxides, viii, 13, 156, 157; - in pigments, 265; - in rock decay, iii, 25, 27; - in soils, iii, 28; - removal in steel-making, v, 320; - rock coloring due to, iii, 25-6, 27, 44 - - Iron Pyrites, iii, 335, viii, 156, 198; - in wireless detectors, vii, 269 - - Irons, Electric, vii, 77 - - Iron Ships, floating of, iv, 104-5; - magnetization of, 254 - - Iron Structures, magnetization of, iv, 253 - - Iroquois, Lake, iii, 149, 150 - - Iroquois Indians, and Mohawk Valley, xiv, 194; - power of women among, xv, 295; - union in nation, 363 - - Irrationality of Dispersion, ii, 101 - - Irrigation, development of methods, v, 239; - in Egypt, 18-19, 178; - electrical methods, vii, 231; - in relation to critical periods, i, 250; - sewage disposal by, viii, 327; - snow sources, i, 118 - - Irritability (life), doctrine of, x, 86, 87, 88 - - Isallobars, i, 238 - - Ischia Earthquake, xiv, 339 - - Isinglass, iii, 334 - - Islands, classes, continental and oceanic, xiv, 271-9; - formed on coasts, 251-2, 256, 258; - historical importance, 281-2, xv, 137; - new volcanic, xiv, 319; - overpopulation of, 282; - plants of oceanic, xiii, 348; - tidal races produced by coastal, xiv, 294 - - Isobaric Elements, viii, 189 - - Isobars, i, 125, 375-6; - classification, 238; - spacing, 126; - winds in relation to, 126 - - Isohyet, defined, i, 376 - - Isohyetal Charts, i, 206 - - Isomer, defined, x, 137 - - Isomerism, defined, viii, 378 - - Isomorphism, viii, 313 - - Isothermal, defined, iv, 382 - - Isothermal Changes, in gases, iv, 156, 159 - - Isothermal Layer (atmosphere), i, 19 - - Isotherms, i, 206, 207, 376; - barriers to plants and animals, xiv, 364 - - Isotopic Elements, viii, 189 - - Israelites, "Cities of Refuge," xv, 369; - life of, 199 - - Italian Honeysuckle, xiii, 142-3 - - Italian Language, descent from Latin, xv, 160, 162; - musical terms from, 161 - - Italians, in Alpine group, xvi, 49 - - Italy, Adriatic coast, xiv, 252, 263; - aeronautical weather service, i, 230, 304; - Alps Mountains and, xiv, 244-5, xv, 138; - "blood showers," i, 55; - boric acid sources, viii, 90; - brontides, i, 196; - bubonic plague measures, x, 164; - buffalo use in, xii, 329; - earthquakes of, xiv, 332, 340-1; - former connection with Tunis, 291; - geographical changes in, 33; - hail-shooting, i, 341, 342, 343; - lakes, beauty of, xiv, 200; - lakes, breezes of, i, 132; - mercury production, iii, 370; - meteorological observations, i, 68-9, 213; - Napoleon's campaigns in, xiv, 244; - paper-making, v, 290; - rainfall, xiv, 358; - Renaissance and science in, ii, 12-13; - rice growing, xiii, 214; - sea captains of, xiv, 310; - volcanic power, v, 179-80; - in World War, xiv, 244-5, 252-3, xv, 138; - in World War, medical preparedness, x, 176 - - Itching, sensation of, ix, 92-3, xi, 109, 114 - - Ivory, elasticity of, iv, 36; - sources of, xii, 302, 303 - - Izalco Volcano, xiv, 321, 325 - - - Jackals, xii, 339-40; - dogs and, 344; - ears of, 346 - - Jack-in-the-Pulpit, in arum family, xiii, 188; - flower, 52 (fig.); - leaves, 183 (fig.); - stems, 23 (fig.) - - Jacks, Hydraulic, v, 100, 101, 124, 260 - - Jackson, Dr. Charles T., x, 124, 125 - - Jackson, James, x, 116, xvi, 185 - - Jacquard Loom, v, 280-2, 377 - - Jade, iii, 322-3; - pyroxene, 336 - - Jaguars, xii, 360-2 - - Jaguarundi, xii, 364 - - Jamaica Earthquake, cause, xiv, 340 - - James, William, on associations, xi, 204-6; - on attention, 232; - on emotions, 141; - on habit, 255-6, 256-7; - on instincts, 48; - on memory, 208; - on stream of consciousness, 193; - on will and action, 264; - on complexity of life, x, 244; - on seasickness, 242; - on outdoor treatment, 241; - pragmatic philosophy, xvi, 196 - - James, W. T., link motion invention, v, 208, 379 - - James, I. Harvey, physician to, x, 62; - of England, submarine trips, v, 196-7 - - James River Valley, N. D., wells in, xiv, 12, 139 - - Janet, Dr. P., x, 360-1 - - Janssen, Jules, astronomer, ii, 114, 127, 180-1; - station on Mt. Blanc, 142 - - January Thaws, i, 363, 376 - - Japan, Ainus of, xvi, 64; - beriberi in, ix, 35, x, 257; - brown bears of, xii, 336; - copper production, iii, 360; - earthquakes of, xiv, 332, 341; - earthquake studies in, 337, 342; - geology of, 125; - ginkgo tree in temples, xiii, 315; - goat antelope of, xii, 325; - historical development from insulation, xiv, 281; - idea of eclipses in, ii, 209; - octopod fishing, xii, 78; - railway bridges, earthquake construction, xiv, 342; - rice, xiii, 213; - tea cultivation, 228; - temperate rain forests, 372; - tidal waves, xiv, 337; - trees of, 377; - volcanic eruption effects, i, 57, 59 - - Japan Current, xiv, 304 - - Japanese, artificial immunity practiced by, xv, 49; - food and stature of, xiii, 172; - in yellow race, xv, 37; - tattooing among, xv, 258 - - Japanese Earthquake, iii, 94; - fault formed by, xiv, 334, 335 - - Jasper, iii, 337 - - Jaundice, cause of, ix, 243; - epidemic, x, 201 - - Java, ancient man-ape of, iii, 302, xv, 88-92; - bats and fruits of, xii, 370; - cinnamon production, xiii, 264; - continental island, xiv, 274; - tea cultivation, xiii, 228; - transplanting rice in, (illus.) 208; - zoölogy of, xiv, 274-5 - - Javelins, Roman, xv, 213 - - Jaws, bones and functions of, ix, 62-3; - deformities of, results, 228; - in aged people, 57; - in apes and men, xv, 62; - of primitive men, 91, 92, 95; - protruding, classification by, 43-5 - - Jealousy, absent in polygamous countries, xv, 288; - sentiment of, xi, 149-50 - - Jefferson, Thomas, on climatic changes, i, 201; - on standard muskets, v, 49; - vaccination interests, x, 102 - - Jelly-Fishes, iii, 259, 266-7, xii, 35-7; - coelenterates, 26; - phosphorescence of, 18, 19 - - Jenkins, C. Francis, v, 330 - - Jenner, Edward, x, 99-103, xvi, 126-7, 184; - love affair, x, 95; - pupil of John Hunter, x, 94, 99; - vaccination discovery, x, 100-2, 122, 207-8 - - Jerboas, xii, 289-90 - - Jesuits, meteorological services, i, 213, 223; - survey of China, xvi, 123 - - Jewelweed, seed dispersal, xiii, 56 - - Jewish Medicine, x, 15-16 - - Jews, of Asia and Europe, xvi, 64; - circumcision, untransmitted, x, 230; - history in relation to Ghor of Syria, xiv, 121; - immunity from trichina, xv, 49; - polygamy among, 289; - prepotency in crosses, x, 230 - - Jew's Harp, iv, 232 - - Jibon River, Salvador, xiv, 198 - - Jihar River, xiv, 185 - - John Daniel, orang-utan, xvi, 25 - - "John H. Grindle", (fish), xii, 152 - - John of Gaddesden, x, 41 - - Johns Hopkins Hospital and Medical School, x, 151, 172 - - Johnson, Prof. D. W., coast classification, xiv, 253; - on climatic changes, 361 - - Johnson, Samuel, compared with Paracelsus, x, 48; - on Heberden, 104 - - Johnstown Flood, iii, 31 - - John the Baptist, locusts and honey of, xv, 134 - - Joints, arm and hand, ix, 67; - diseases of, x, 224-5; - dislocation of, ix, 71; - fastening at, 70-1; - hip, 67, 71; - motion sense in, ix, 90; - muscles to move, 76-7; - sensations of, xi, 124-5, 128; - shoulder, ix, 66, 71 - - Joints, Joint Blocks (geology), iii, 23, 379, xiv, 128-30; - illustration, iii, 144 (Pl. 8); - residual cores, iii, 32 (Pl. 1); - topography and drainage effects, xiv, 130-3; - various examples, iii, 48, 49-50, 65 - - Joint Worms, xii, 125 - - Joliet, expedition of, xiv, 192 - - Joplin, Mo., mining district, iii, 362, 364 - - Jordan Engine, v, 294-5 - - Jordan River, base level of, xiv, 164 - - Jordan Valley, iii, 151, xiv, 118, 120, 167 - - Jorullo, Mexico, xiv, 320 - - Joule, electrical energy unit, iv, 284, 294, 310, 312, vii, 370; - used as heat unit, 369; - erg and calorie equivalents, 382; - work or energy unit, iv, 80 - - Joule, James Prescott, energy unit named for, iv, 284; - heat experiments of, 49-50; - mechanical equivalent of heat, xvi, 131-3 - - Joule-Thomson Effect, i, 30 - - Joy Stick, i, 299 - - Judæa, Wilderness of, xiv, 121 - - Judaism, development of, xv, 199 - - Jumping Hare, xii, 290 - - Juniper, a conifer, xiii, 174; - in landscaping, 270; - spread by buds, 340 - - Junker Engine, v, 163-4 - - Jupiter (planet), ii, 260-3; - atmosphere, 249, 261; - comet families, 271; - disturbing effect on asteroids, 258; - "great inequality," 87; - habitability of moons, 250; - life on, ii, 248-9; - lucid planet, 249, 261; - photographic studies, 132-3; - rotation period, 377; - satellites, 261-3; - satellites, discovery of, 54, 83, 94, 110, 267; - size and orbit, 162, 163; - weight, 76, 77 - - "Jupiter", U. S. collier, vii, 326 - - Jura Mountains, xiv, 93-4; - age of, 232; - folding of, 36, 93-4, 229-30; - little metamorphism in, 234; - streams of, 94, 95, 157, 167 - - Jurassic Period, iii, 213-14; - Age of Reptiles, xv, 71; - animal and plant life in, iii, 20, 255, 270, 276, 289, 295; - flies of, xii, 104 - - Juries, as crowds, xi, 326 - - Justifying (printing), v, 308; - on linotype, 310; - on monotype, 311-12 - - Jute, cellulose composition, viii, 254; - uses and production, xiii, 241-3; - economic importance, 208 - - Juvenile Water, xiv, 151-2 - - - Kaaba of Mecca, ii, 284 - - Kaguan, Malayan, xii, 367 - - Kalahari Desert, xv, 133; - antelopes of, xii, 327 - - Kames, glacial, iii, 69-70 - - Kayaks, xv, 264 (fig.) - - Kangaroo Mice, xii, 290 - - Kangaroos, xii, 278-80; - young of, 274 - - Kansas, ancient birds of, xii, 242; - former reptiles of, 202; - gypsum deposits, iii, 376; - locust plague of, xii, 109; - volcanic dust beds, xiv, 327 - - Kansas City, automatic telephony, vii, 92 - - Kant, excessive professionalism of, xi, 376; - nebular hypothesis, ii, 367-8, 380; - on structure of universe, 350, 352; - philosophy of, xvi, 111 - - Kaolin, iii, 333; - formed from feldspar, 25, 27, 373 - - Kapteyn Plan, ii, 353 - - Karnak, Temples of, ii, 25-6 - - Karst District, xiv, 150 - - Katathermometer, i, 319-20, 321, 376 - - Katmai, Mount, crater, iii, 101 (fig.), 102; - eruption, i, 59, iii, 102; - lake in crater, 155 - - Katydids, xii, 109-10; - Florida, 100 (fig.) - - Kaye, John, x, 45 - - Keewatin Glacier, iii, 238-9 - - Keewatin Series, iii, 169 - - Kelvin, Lord, contributions to electricity, vi, 23-4; - on oscillatory circuits, xvi, 191; - on rigidity of ether, 137; - theory of life, xii, 9 - - Kelvin-Chetwynd Compass, vi, 41-2 - - Kelvin's Law, vii, 21-2 - - Kent's Cavern, England, xv, 77-83 - - Kentucky, "Blue-grass Region," xiv, 68; - "dark and bloody ground" of, 243; - glacial period in, 376; - non-glacial topography, 56; - underground streams, 149 - - Kentucky Blue Grass, xiii, 179 - - Kenya, Mount, glaciers of, xiv, 54 - - Keokuk Power Plant, v, 81-3, vi, 352 - - Kepler, Johann, ii, 14, 49-52, iv, 19, 95, xvi, 102-3; - as astrologer, ii, 21; - on comets, 83-4; - eclipse calculations, 216; - Galileo and, 53; - idea of moving bodies, 63; - new star seen by, 331; - on star distances, 350; - on sun's corona, 221; - Tycho Brahe and, 12 - - Kepler's Laws, ii, 49-52; - Newton's explanations, 62-6, 88, xvi, 115-16; - proved by Keeler's discoveries, ii, 121; - used in weighing planets, 75-6 - - Kerosene, viii, 51, 208; - combustion of, 52, 54, 57, 59; - soap and, 142; - used in mosquito campaign, x, 300 - - Ketones, viii, 225 (note) - - Kettle Holes, iii, 144 - - Keyhole Nebula, ii, 355, 365 - - Key Instruments, xv, 318 - - Kidney Diseases, atmospheric conditions best for, x, 241; - blood pressure and, 335; - Bright's Disease, 112, 346; - from focal infections, 224, 225; - nephritis, 344-5, 346; - salt in, 256; - therapy of, 382-3 - - Kidneys, development in black and white races, xv, 50; - emotion effects, xi, 135; - functions and disorders, x, 342-6; - functions and structure, ix, 271-4; - functional capacity tests, x, 377-9; - position in circulatory system, ix, 51 (diagram), 197, 198, 199; - Simon's removal of, x, 131; - sugar handling by, ix, 291-2 - - Kilauea, volcano, iii, 103, 104, 105, 106-7, xiv, 322, 323 - - Kilimanjaro, Mount, xiv, 317 - - Killdeer (plover), xii, 262 - - Kilogram, iv, 46, viii, 28; - standard, iv, 69 - - Kilowatt, iv, 80, 312, vi, 85, vii, 370 - - Kilowatt-Hour, iv, 81, vi, 82, 84; - meters and charges for, vii, 174 - - Kinaesthetic Sensation, xi, 124-8; - space perception by, 166-7, 169-70, 175, 183, 186; - strain in attention, 228, 231-2; - in will, 265 - - Kindling Temperature, viii, 54 - - Kinematic, defined, iv, 382 - - Kinetic, defined, iv, 382 - - Kinetic Energy, iv, 79, 81, 83; - defined, v, 84, vii, 368; - forms of, iv, 82-5, 87-8 - - Kinetic System of Body, xi, 57, 60-1; - action in attention, 231-2; - connection with sensation, 67, 68, 127 - - Kinetic Theory, iv, 30, 131; - of gases, viii, 305-6, 378 - - Kinetics, defined, iv, 25 - - Kinetoscope, iv, 348, v, 330 - - King, Prof. L. V., i, 190-1 - - Kingfishers, xii, 267 - - King's River Canyon, iii, 43, 225 - - Kingston Earthquake, xiv, 340 - - Kiosks, weather, i, 75, 267, 376 - - Kipling, airship prediction, i, 43; - "female of the species," x, 162; - on dew ponds, i, 353 - - Kirchhoff, spectrum lines, ii, 17, 112-13 - - Kitasato, x, 164 - - Kitchens, lighting, vi, 276, vii, 71 - - Kite Balloons, v, 226 - - Kites, v, 230, 233-5; - action of wind on, iv, 42-3, 76 (fig.); - aerological uses, i, 18, 19, 22, 89 - - Kittatinny Ridge, Delaware Water Gap through, xiv, 169; - rock weathering at, 776 - - Kiwis, xii, 243, 249 - - Klamath Mountains, iii, 214 - - Klebs, Edwin, x, 141, 155 - - Knee-cap, ix, 69, 70 (fig.) - - Knee Jerk, ix, 136 - - Knitted Goods, threads in, v, 277 - - Knitting machines, inventions, v, 282-3, 377, 378, 379 - - Knots, tying, by machine, v, 247-8 - - Knotweeds, xiii, 194 - - Knowledge, Bacon on, xi, 10; - Bergson on intuitive, xvi, 196; - Greek theories, 87-8; - growing thirst for, vi, 330; - relativity of, xvi, 195-6; - St. Augustine on proper, 99-100; - science and, 39-40, 41-2; - scientific, remarks on, iv, 26; - transmission means, xv, 142, 145-6, 167 - - Koch, Robert, x, 149-50, 169, 292, xvi, 184, 185; - "postulates" of, x, 150, 160, 196 - - Kodak, invention, v, 382 - - Koenig, acoustician, iv, 52, 233 - - Kohl-rabi, xiii, 223, 333-4 - - Kopjes, of S. Africa, xiv, 82 - - Korea, geology of, xiv, 125 - - Kraft Paper, v, 294 - - Krakatoa Eruption, xiv, 324-5; - atmospheric waves from, i, 188, xiv, 324; - distances heard, i, 188; - dust from, 57-8, iii, 100-1, xiii, 344, xiv, 325; - noctilucent clouds from, i, 18; - plant and animal extinction by, xiii, 345, xiv, 278 - - Krakatoa Island, xiv, 324; - restocked after eruption, xiii, 344-5, xiv, 278 - - Krasnoiarsk Iron, ii, 284 - - Kril, xii, 19 - - Krypton, in atmosphere, i, 11, 12; - symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Kut-el-Amara, i, 308 - - - Labor-saving Machinery, remarks on, vii, 73-4, 75, xi, 268 - - Labrador, auks of, xii, 265; - climate of, xiv, 345 - - Labrador Current, i, 345, xiv, 305 - - Labradorite, iii, 329 - - Laccoliths, xiv, 109 - - Lace Coralline, xii, 47 - - Lace Leaf Yam, xiii, 89-90, 32 (illus.) - - Laces, machine-made, v, 287-8 - - Lactic Acid, viii, 222, 223, 248, xi, 24-5; - fatigue product, 271-2; - stimulant, 272-3; - from fermentation, x, 138; - in body, 280 - - Lactometer, iv, 113 - - Ladakhis, character of, xiv, 245 - - Ladybirds, xii, 122; - lemon tree scales and, xv, 22 - - Laënnec, René, T. H., x, 108-10 - - Lag, angle of, vii, 362; - in electric currents, vi, 167; - correction, 262 - - Lagrange, mathematical work, xvi, 105, 125; - scientific work of, ii, 15, 71-2, 73, 74, 75, 216, 375 - - Laid Paper, v, 296 - - Lake, Simon, submarine of, v, 382 - - Lake Dwellers, agriculture, xiii, 210; - houses and implements, v, 14 - - Lakes, iii, 142-57, xiv, 198-212; - color of, viii, 40; - economic importance, xiv, 212; - ephemeral character, iii, 142, xiv, 198-9, 209-12; - few in mature regions, xiv, 160; - freezing of, iv, 150; - processes of destruction, iii, 157, xiv, 198, 210-12; - salt, 206-9; - shore-line development, iii, 57-8; - sizes and depths, xiv, 204 - - Lake Superior Region, glacial topography of, xiv, 56; - mines, iii, 356-7, 358, 361, viii, 163; - rock formation, iii, 172, 175, 176-7 - - Lakeview Gusher, iii, 354 - - Lamarck, cloud classification, i, 97; - on inheritance of acquired characters, ix, 325-6; - paleontological work, xvi, 169 - - Laminated Construction, vi, 316, vii, 371 - - Laminated Magnets, vi, 34 - - Lammergeiers, xii, 261 - - Lampblack, viii, 47 - - Lampreys, xii, 130-1 - - Lamps, portable, vi, 276-7, vii, 68-9 - - Lamp-Shells, xii, 47-8 - - Lancashire Cotton Mills, xiii, 236 - - Lancelets, xii, 129 - - Lancisi, x, 98, 154 - - Land, Land Surfaces, always some unsubmerged, xiv, 19-20; - area and distribution, 20-2; - area measurements, 10-11; - changes in features of, 28-30; - character of old and new, iii, 33-5, xiv, 48-9, 155-63; - elevation distribution, 26-7; - forms determined by earth movements and erosion, xiv, 33-79; - forms determined by rocks, 80-113; - heating and cooling of, i, 208, xiv, 346; - level changes (see Level Changes); - oldest, iii, 168-9; - relief features, orders of magnitude, xiv, 27; - rock formation, 19; - wind variations on, 351 - (see also Continents) - - Land-and-Sea Breezes, i, 131, 376 - - Land Animals, beginnings of, iii, 20, ix, 176; - development of, iii, 285-6, xii, 167; - salt in body fluid of, ix, 175-6 - - Land Filling, by machine, v, 258-9 - - Landlocked Areas, of continents, xiv, 190 - - Land Plants, beginnings, iii, 252; - development, xiii, 304-22 - - Land Plaster, iii, 376 - - Landscape Gardening, xiii, 267-97; - color contrast and induction in, xi, 95 - - Landscape Painting, xv, 302 - - Landscapes, changes in, iii, 10, xiv, 28; - dramatic interest in, xiii, 11 - - Land-sculpture, xiv, 30 - - Lane's Law, ii, 309, 371, 380, 383 - - Lanfranchi of Milan, x, 38, 39 - - Langenbeck, Bernard von, x, 130-1 - - Langley, Prof. S. P., aeronautical work, iv, 43-4, v, 231, 382; - astronomical work, ii, 144, 169, 213, 223-4; - measurement of heat of moonbeams, iv, 301; - on the camera, ii, 221; - spectrobolometer, 128, 186 - - Language, xv, 141-2; - association principle in, ix, 151-2; - clearness of, xi, 379; - importance of, ix, 152-3, xv, 68, 142, 143, 145-6; - inadequacy in feelings, 143; - making of, xv, 140-63; - psychological importance, xi, 200, 224, 225; - race and, xv, 159; - thought and, 143-5, 146 - - Languages, Aryan and Semitic, xv, 161-3; - changes in, 154-6; - difficulty of learning new, xi, 201; - foreign, advantages of learning, xv, 146; - foreign, sound of, xi, 103; - relationships and common origin, xv, 159-63 - - Lantern Gears, v, 27-8 - - Lanterns, enlarging and projecting, iv, 341-2 - - Lanthanum, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Lap, cotton, v, 272; - wood pulp, 293 - - Lapilli, volcanic, xiv, 323-4 - - Laplace, asteroid hypothesis, ii, 258; - mathematical work, xvi, 105, 125; - nebular hypothesis, ii, 369-72, 374-5, 378, 380 (see Nebular - Hypothesis); - on sound velocity, iv, 198-9; - other work, ii, 15, 72, 73, 74, 87 - - La Plata River, connections of tributaries, xiv, 187; - fish of, xii, 160 - - Lapwings, xii, 262, 263 - - Lard, animal fat, viii, 246; - calories in, ix, 299; - vitamins absent in, x, 261, 262 - - Larks, xii, 268 - - Larmor, light theory, xvi, 137-8; - magnetism theory, 193 - - Larrey, Jean, x, 130 - - Larvæ, affected by light, x, 253; - used in nest repairing, v, 10; - "rains," i, 356-7 - - Larynx, aphonia of, x, 29-30; - infection center, 220 - - La Salle, xiv, 192 - - La Soufriere, eruption of, xiv, 28, 338 - - Lassen Peak, iii, 103, 226, 176 (Pl. 10); - activity of, xiv, 315 - - Latent Heat, iv, 152-3, v, 169, 353-4, viii, 37-8, 378; - of fusion, iv, 152, 160, 161, 162; - of vaporization, 173-4, 187 - - Latent Period, of pain, xi, 121; - of sound, 105; - of touch, 111 - - Lateral Line, of fishes, xii, 137 - - Lateral Moraines, lakes formed by, xiv, 202 - - Lathes, development of, v, 42-6, 47, 52-3, 376, 378, 380, 383 - - Latin, in animal classification, xii, 29; - in cloud classification, i, 98; - in plant classification, xiii, 169; - languages derived from, xv, 160, 162 - - Latitude, barometric corrections for, iv, 122-3; - color of skin and, xv, 36-7; - of ships, how determined, v, 65; - plant distribution determined by, xiv, 364-6; - temperature and, 344-5; - weight of bodies, affected by, iv, 101-2 - - Laudanum, discovery of uses, xvi, 109; - first prepared by Paracelsus, x, 50 - - Laughing Gas, viii, 71, x, 123-4; - critical temperature and pressure, iv, 172 - - Laughter, emotional control of, ix, 164; - in infants, 349; - kinetic theory, xi, 355-7; - psychology of, 350-7 - - Laurel Family, xiii, 196-7 - - Laurel-leaf Points, xv, 109 - - Laurel Magnolia, xiii, 318 (fig.) - - Laurent, chemist, xvi, 162, 163 - - Laurentian Highlands, antiquity of, xiv, 235 - - Laurentide Glacier, iii, 238 - - Lava, iii, 380, xiv, 17-18; - fissure flows, iii, 105-6; - forms of fragments, xiv, 323-4; - heat of molten, iii, 106-7; - heat retention by, xv, 230; - in Hawaiian craters, iii, 103, 104, 105, xiv, 322-3; - porous, iii, 101 (see Pumice); - rate of flow, 104-5; - sheets, 102 (fig.); - soils from, 28, xiv, 329; - spine of Mount Pelee, iii, 103 - - Lava-dam Lakes, iii, 156 - - Lava Formations, xiv, 102-4, 164, 170, 172, 188; - erosion effects, 103-5; - extent of, iii, 106; - in Appalachian trough, 212; - in British Isles, 191; - in Colorado, 177; - in Columbian Plateau, 105-6, 227, 228, xiv, 102-3, 104, 164, 170, 172, - 188; - in Deccan of India, 105-6, 228, xiv, 103; - in East Africa, 103; - in Keewatin Series, iii, 169; - in Lake Superior region, 177; - in Snake River Valley, 228 - - Lava Rocks, not crystallized, iii, 170-1 - - Lavender, source, xiii, 205 - - Laveran, Alphonse, x, 155 - - Lavoisier, chemical work, xvi, 120, 121, 159-60, 177; - combustion theory, viii, 34 - - Law, beginning of, xv, 360-3, 367-74, 379-80 - - Lawn Sprinklers, revolving, v, 143 - - Laxatives, use of, ix, 252 - - Lazear, Dr. Jesse W., x, 160, 162 - - Lead, affinity intensity, viii, 128; - alloys with tin, melting point, iv, 161-2; - atomic weight, viii, 189, 383; - commercial source, iii, 330; - compounds, viii, 29, 162; - density of, iv, 113; - extraction from ores, viii, 270, 271; - from radium disintegration, 185; - fusibility, 384; - melting point and requirements, iv, 162; - occurrence of, viii, 129; - opaque to X-rays, vii, 250, 251; - ores of, viii, 154, 198, 199-200; - positiveness, vi, 59; - production, iii, 362-3; - properties, viii, 126-7, 154, 162; - refining of, 272; - refining, electrolytic, vii, 320; - specific gravity, viii, 384; - symbol, 383; - test for, 287, 288; - uses, iii, 362, viii, 162 - - Lead (of electric currents), vi, 171-4, 261, 262; - angle of, vii, 362 - - Lead Arsenate, viii, 169 - - Lead Cells, vi, 130, 146-7, 150-1, viii, 167-9 - - Leaders, of crowds, xi, 332-3; - of primitive peoples, xv, 363-6 - - Lead Pencils, graphite of, viii, 43 - - Lead Peroxide, in storage batteries, viii, 167-9 - - Lead Pipes, corrosion of, viii, 162 - - Leadville Mining District, iii, 363, 364 - - Leaf Mosaic, xiii, 38 - - Leafstalks, xiii, 34, 35 (fig.); - light effect on, 87-8 - - Leakage, electrical, vii, 10-11, 371 - - Leaning Tower of Pisa, ii, 53, iv, 100-1; - Galileo's use of, iv, 28, 97 - - Learning, Egyptian advice, xvi, 70; - experience and, viii, 269 - - Learning Processes, xi, 33-46, 68; - rules, 211-15 - - Leather, making of, viii, 257 - - Leather Collar, Maudsley's, v, 99 - - Leaves, xiii, 32-43; - absent in some plants, 15, 28, 30, 31, 99, 100; - arrangement on stems, 38; - branches as, 378, 379; - buds of, 34; - colors, 42; - coloring in autumn, 79; - coloring in tropics, 361; - compound, 36-7; - first, 60-1; - forms and varieties, 34-6; - fossils of, 302; - functions, 37-8, 42, 61, 77-84; - hairy covering, 104-5, 379; - insect-capturing, 39-41; - light and, 38-9, 87-90; - large, examples, 189, 217, 359; - moving, 105-6, 113, 114; - none in fungous plants, 70; - not decisive in family grouping, 184; - of desert plants, 41-2, 106-7, 378, 379-80, xiv, 378-9; - of evergreens and deciduous trees, xiii, 174, 175; - of ferns, 63, 65; - of monocotyledons and dicotyledons, 176, 178; - osmotic pressure, 94; - reproduction by division of, 165-6; - rigidity of, viii, 338; - shedding of, in dry periods, xiv, 369; - skeleton (Madagascar yam), xiii, 90; - sleeping, 88-9, 113; - stems acting as, 28-31, 378; - structure, 78-9; - struggle for sunlight, 38-9, 87-90; - tendrils on, 38; - transitional form, 43; - transpiration, 103, 104, 113, 374, 378, 379; - uses, summarized, 42-3; - veins, 32-3; - water-dripping, 107-8; - water-storing, 41-2, 106-7, 379-80; - water-supply methods, 102-9; - wilting, 102, 103, 114 - - Leblanc Process, viii, 276-7 - - Leclanche Cell, vi, 138 - - Lee, Dr. Willis T., i, 47 - - Lee, William, knitting machine of, v, 283 - - Leeches, xii, 51, 55-6 - - Leeuwenhoek, Antonius von, xvi, 107-8, 112 - - Legs, bones of, ix, 68-9, 70 (fig.); - bones, growth, 56, 58; - equal length, 169-70; - evolution of, xii, 167; - in insects, 102; - length of men and apes, xv, 57, 59; - muscles of, ix, 76; - nerves of, 124-5; - vestiges of, in snakes, xii, 213 - - Legumes, xiii, 56; - nitrogen fixation by, viii, 74, 346, xiv, 66 - - Lehigh River, gap of, xiv, 51, 167 - - Leibnitz, mathematical work of, ii, 14, xvi, 105; - monad theory, 117-18; - scientific work, 113 - - Leif Ericson, xiv, 261 - - Lelande Cell, vi, 137, 139 - - Lemmings, xii, 290, 291 - - Lemon Oil, viii, 240, 252 - - Lemon Tree, origin, xiii, 225; - scale on, xv, 22; - spread, xiii, 354 - - "Lemuria", xii, 192 - - Lemurs, xii, 374-6; - primates, 373; - feet of, iii, 301 (fig.) - - Length, British units, iv, 45, 69, 283; - measurements and standards, xvi, 130; - metric units, iv, 46, 69, viii, 28 - - Lenoir Motor Car, v, 213 - - Lenses, iv, 337-8; - achromatic, iv, 372-3, xvi, 125-6; - Bacon's improvements, 101; - for eye defects, ix, 111, 112, 113, 114; - formation of images by, iv, 337-42, ix, 108-9; - of eye, 109-11, 113 (fig.); - refraction of light by, ii, 99 - - Lenticels, xiii, 26 - - Lenticular Clouds, i, 104, 376 - - Lentils, xiii, 198, 223 - - Lenz's Law, vi, 311, vii, 371 - - Leonardo da Vinci, anatomical work of, x, 51-2; - astronomical work, ii, 41; - idea of moving bodies, 63; - views of fossils, iii, 14 - - Leonids, ii, 288 - - Leopards, xii, 357; - deer-hunting with, xv, 223 - - Lepidoptera, xii, 115-20; - "blood rains" of, i, 358 - - Lepidosirens, xii, 142, 166 - - Leprosy, immunity and susceptibility to, xv, 50, 51 - - Lesions, meaning, x, 98, 322; - X-ray treatment, vii, 253, 255-6 - - Lettuce, as food, ix, 27, 30; - family, xiii, 206; - origin, 223; - wild, 105 - - Leucippus, theory of matter, xvi, 83, 84, 118 - - Leukaemia, metabolism in, x, 272 - - Leucocytes, germ destruction by, x, 209-10 - - Levees, effects of, xiv, 162 - - Level Changes, iii, 76-83, xiv, 33-6; - due to earthquakes, iii, 97, 98; - due to lateral pressure, 85; - effect on erosion cycles, 36-7, xiv, 40, 163-4; - shown by erosion of rocks, iii, 171-2 - (see also Elevation, Rejuvenation, Subsidence) - - LeVerrier, astronomical work of, ii, 16, 79, 189, 269; - meteorological work, i, 217, 228 - - Levers, v, 21-5; - Archimedes on power of, iv, 25; - classes of, remarks on, 89; - clubs as, v, 12; - friction in, iv, 93; - legs as, v, 215; - liquid, 97-103; - mechanical gain in, iv, 41; - primitive beginnings of, 24, v, 9, 14-15; - principles shown by Archimedes, xvi, 89; - revolving, v, 25-35 - - "Leviathan," steamship, v, 193-4 - - Leviathan Reflector, ii, 16-17, 105-6 - - Levulose, viii, 226, 248 - - Lewis & Clarke reports, xvi, 171 - - Lewis Machine Gun, v, 365-6 - - Lex Talionis, xv, 371 - - Leyden Jar, iv, 267, 368 (fig.), vii, 259, 260; - discovery and experiments, xvi, 188-9; - oscillations of, iv, 313 - - Lianes, xiii, 362, 363, 366 - - Liberty Engines, v, 53-4 - - Libyan Cat, xii, 355 - - Libyan Desert, rain in, i, 210 - - Lichens, species, xiii, 323 - - Lick Observatory, ii, 142-4, 148 - - Licorice Plant, leaves, xiii, 113 - - Liebig, Justus von, x, 126; - chemical work, xvi, 162; - on fermentation, x, 138-9 - - Liège, siege of, xiv, 92 - - Life, antiquity on earth, xiii, 314; - beginnings on earth, iii, 20, 173, 249, xv, 71; - Bergson on, xvi, 196; - brain in relation to, xi, 15; - Brunonian (excitability) theory of, x, 89; - cell basis of, ix, 17, x, 119, xii, 10, 14, xv, 16, 381; - chemical nature of processes, viii, 353, 355; - chemical theories of, x, 69, 84; - colloidal theory, xii, 11-13; - conditions necessary, ii, 242-5; - conscious, parts concerned in, ix, 21-2; - demand for, in nature, xiii, 69; - dependence of, on sugar products, ix, 27; - distinctions from inorganic realm, xii, 13-14; - fundamental instincts, xi, 49-56; - Hoffman's "ether" theory, x, 85; - instinct for renewal, xiii, 116, 167; - instinct of preservation of, x, 9-10, 282-3; - interest and triteness, vi, 330; - irritability theory of, x, 86, 87, 89; - James on complexity of, 244; - low temperature effects, i, 32; - maintenance of, ix, 18-23; - mechanical explanations of, x, 70, 71, 72; - metals congenial to, viii, 148; - nature of processes, ix, 34; - necessity of water, xi, 66; - only thing man cannot produce, vii, 310; - origin, ii, 243, 245, xii, 9-13, xiii, 300-1; - Paracelsus on process of, x, 49; - possibility in other worlds, ii, 242-53; - possibility on Mars, 228-32, 237-8; - protoplasm the seat of, viii, 356, ix, 13, 17, x, 228, xiii, 74; - recent lengthening in U. S., x, 291; - salts in relation to, ix, 174-5; - savage attitude toward, xv, 327; - seat of, in body, ix, 11-12, 17; - sea water favorable to, viii, 355; - signs (proofs) of, ix, 9-17; - soul as source of (Stahl), x, 84; - spontaneous generation of, 139; - temperature in relation to, ii, 249, v, 348, x, 250-1; - universality, Indian belief, xvi, 44 - (see also Vital Processes) - - Life Plant, xiii, 165 - - Lift, of aeroplanes, i, 288, 298 - - Lifting Magnets, iv, 289, vi, 86, 94 - - Lifting Pump, iv, 126 - - Lift Locks, of canals, v, 103 - - Ligaments, ix, 70-1 - - Ligatures, history of use of, x, 14, 27, 55-6, 91, 121-2, 123, 129-30, - 146, 148 - - Light, iv, 322-34; - aberration of (see Aberration of Light); - absorption in space, ii, 160, 354-5; - absorption of, by objects, iv, 364; - actinic effects, vii, 250; - artificial, applications of, iv, 50-1; - artificial, colors, of, ix, 115; - bacteria destroyed by, viii, 332; - body regulation to, x, 250; - chemical action of, viii, 171-2; - chromatic aberration, ii, 99-100; - corpuscular theory of, iv, 47, 50, xvi, 136; - decomposition, ii, 99, 111, 112, iv, 357-9 - (see also Spectrum, Spectroscope); - deflection of, 330, 374; - deflection by sun, ii, 81-2; - diffraction, i, 183, iv, 326; - effects of objects on, 323-4; - effects on organisms and man, x, 253-4; - Einstein theory, ii, 80-2; - electrical production, inefficiency, vi, 268; - electromagnetic theory of, iv, 54, vi, 25, vii, 371, xvi, 137-8; - eye and, vi, 270-2, xi, 86, 95-6; - eye regulation to, x, 254; - from sun, importance of, ix, 25-6; - "gentleman" of physics, iv, 50; - glowing effects on minerals, vii, 254; - injury from excessive, 153; - intensity unit, iv, 351-2; - interference of, 376-8; - instinct of seeking, xi, 52-3; - invisibility, iv, 333-4; - machines responding to, v, 331-2, 332-3; - measurement of illumination of, iv, 350-2; - measurement of intensity, viii, 374; - monochromatic, iv, 364, 365; - of electric lamps, vi, 268; - of firefly, 268; - of glowworms, xvi, 144; - of moon, ii, 200; - of stars, 296; - of sun, 168-9; - penetration of ocean by, xii, 22; - perception limits, iv, 360-1; - perception of, in animals, ix, 105; - physiological sensation, vii, 249; - polarization, iii, 319-20, iv, 353-6; - polarization, discovery, xvi, 119; - production by various kinds of rays, iv, 378-80; - quantity unit, 352; - radiant energy, 322, ix, 114; - rays of, iv, 323; - reflection and refraction (see Reflection and Refraction); - seeing by, iv, 322-3, 324-9; - shadows cast by, 332-3; - theory of, present state, 50; - transformed to musical sounds, v, 332-5; - transmitted by ether, vi, 119, 120, 269, vii, 259; - traveling of, in straight lines, iv, 330; - velocity, 323; - velocity constancy, xvi, 196; - velocity in different media, iv, 327; - velocity, methods of obtaining, ii, 59-60, 91, 167; - vibrations and colors of, ix, 115; - wave theory, iv, 47, 353, vi, 118-19, 269, xvi, 136-8; - wave theory discovery, 119; - white (see White Light); - wind effects on, iv, 211 - (see also Light Waves, Sunlight) - - Light-headedness, production of, ix, 266-7 - - Lighthouses, strength of, xiv, 300-1 - - Lighting, art of, modern advances in, iv, 50-1; - direct, xi, 277, 373; - emotional effects, vi, 273; - factory, xi, 361; - flood, vi, 283; - modern gas, viii, 60; - proper and improper, vi, 273-5; - unit of intensity, vii, 368 - (see also Electric Lighting, Lighting Systems) - - Lighting Systems, color effects, iv, 370; - exterior, vi, 278-83, vii, 339-43; - interior, vi, 275-8, vii, 68-72 - - Lightning, i, 146-57, vii, 201-19; - annual deaths by, x, 254; - awe-inspiring power, vii, 201, 202; - causes, i, 149-52, iv, 269, vii, 206-15, 217-8; - current strength, i, 152-3; - danger and protection, 155-7, vii, 201-2, 218-19; - danger in aeronautics, i, 303; - defined, 376, vii, 371; - displays, 203; - distance, how determined, i, 187, vii, 210; - electromagnetic waves from, 260; - fire from, xv, 320; - Franklin's experiment, i, 141, vi, 10-11, 14-16, vii, 204-5; - large raindrops and, 215-17; - multiple flashes, i, 146-8; - nitrogen fixation by, 13, 34-5; - oscillations, vii, 208, 366, 374; - ozone produced, i, 15; - photographic study, 146-8, 151; - protection of electric lines, vii, 16-19, 49-50; - thunder from, i, 192-3, vii, 210-11; - types, i, 146, 148-9, vii, 205-6, 211-15; - visibility, i, 152; - voltage, 151-2, vii, 206-7; - weathering agency, iii, 24; - wind effects, i, 148 - - Lightning Arresters, vii, 17-18, 49-50, 362, 371 - - Lightning Prints, i, 154-5, 376 - - Lightning Rods, i, 156-7, 376, iv, 270, vii, 218-219, 371; - invention, i, 141, vi, 14, 16; - principle, vii, 209; - use of points, vi, 297 - - Light-Pillars, i, 376 - - Light Waves, iv, 353, vi, 118-19, 269; - atmospheric effects, i, 165-6, 170-1; - caused by molecular vibrations, iv, 360, 363, 379; - Doppler's principle, ii, 119, iv, 210; - glass and, 183; - interference of, 376-8; - length and frequency, vii, 250, 260; - length and frequency with different colors, iv, 359, 360, 365, ix, - 114, 115; - motion of, xvi, 137; - unit of length, iv, 359, xvi, 130 - - Light-Year, ii, 315, xvi, 33 - - Lignite, iii, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, viii, 44, 45 - - Lilac, fertilization, xiii, 143-4; - leaves, 38 - - Lilienthal, Otto, v, 231 - - Lily, African, xiii, 38; - leaves, 38, 176 - - Lily Family, xiii, 183-4 - - Lily of the Valley, xiii, 45, 47, 178 - - Lima Beans, variation in, xiii, 331 - - Limacina, xii, 19 - - Lime, calcium oxide, viii, 149; - in earth's crust, iii, 308; - in water, viii, 40, xiv, 142, 147; - production, iii, 373, viii, 150, 276; - slaking of, 38-9; - uses, iii, 373, viii, 149-50, 278, 323, 347 - - Limes (fruit), origin, xiii, 225; - spread, 354 - - Lime Salts, body needs of, ix, 32, 33, 33-4, 174; - in bone, 57; - in diet, x, 256 - - Limestone, iii, 13, 380; - cliffs of, jointing in, xiv, 133; - composed of carbonate of lime, iii, 25, 308; - destruction by frost, xiv, 76-7; - formation of, viii, 152; - lime making from, 149, 150, 276; - marble from, iii, 169, 189, 371; - occurrence in U. S., 371-2; - polyzoans in, xii, 47; - residual soils from, xiv, 68, 145; - sedimentary rock, 18; - solubility, iii, 24-5, 126, viii, 151, xiv, 145-6, 147; - travertine deposits, 146; - uses, iii, 325-6, 373-4, v, 315, 318, viii, 151, 280; - weathering of, iii, 27 - - Limestone Formations, iii, 185, 267, 270; - caves in, 127, viii, 151, xiv, 147-8; - underground streams in, iii, 116, xiv, 149-50 - - Limonite, iii, 333, 359, viii, 130, 156 - - Lincoln, assassination incident, xi, 323; - in Holmes's "goodly company," x, 134 - - Linden Trees, xiii, 324-5, 345-6 - - Linen, antiquity of, xv, 243; - as clothing material, ix, 311-12, x, 307, 309; - cellulose composition, viii, 254; - from flax plant, xiii, 235; - paper from, v, 290-1, 292 - - Lines of Force (electric), iv, 261-2, vi, 295-6 - - Lines of Force (magnetic), iv, 251-2, 261, 274-5, vi, 33, 54, vii, 371; - cutting of, iv, 301-8, vi, 23, 54, 307-8; - direction, iv, 277-8, vi, 54-5, 88-90; - leakage, vii, 371; - least resistance tendency, vi, 43-4, 96; - shortest direction tendency, 219; - terrestrial, 39, 40; - terrestrial, in relation to aurora, i, 159-60 - - Line Squalls, i, 138-9, 376 - - Link Motion, v, 208-10, 379 - - Linnæus (Carl von Linné), x, 84, 134; - natural history work, xvi, 116, 126, 139, 165; - rattlesnake named by, xii, 235 - - Linotype, Mergenthaler, v, 308-10, 381-2 - - Linsangs, xii, 353 - - Linseed Oil, viii, 231-2, 246; - action in paint, 264, 265; - source, xiii, 235; - spontaneous combustion of, viii, 55-6 - - Lions, xii, 359-60; - fearlessness, xi, 136; - instinctive fear of fire, 46; - strength of, xv, 16, 18 - - Lipari Islands, volcanoes of, xiv, 317 - - Lipases, viii, 357, x, 326 - - Lipins, viii, 350-1 - - Liquefaction of Gases, i, 29, 32, iv, 143, 153, 171, 188, 191-2, viii, - 303-4 - - Liquid Air, i, 26, 29-33, iv, 190-2, vii, 323, viii, 68; - boiling point, iv, 173; - oxygen production from, viii, 67, 274; - temperature, and pressure, iv, 172 - - Liquids, boiling of, iv, 167-74; - boiling point and chemical composition, viii, 298-301; - boiling point and pressure, iv, 168, 169-72, v, 354, viii, 303-5; - buoyant powers of, iv, 30, 103-7; - chemical aspects, viii, 22, 297-301; - compressibility, v, 107; - conversion to gases, iv, 152-3, 153, 167; - critical temperature, 171-2, viii, 303-4; - density, how measured, iv, 113, vi, 147; - distinguished by pressure and diffusibility, iv, 22-3; - elasticity of, 156, 158; - evaporation, 167, 174; - expansion by heat, 135, 138; - expansion coefficient, 145; - fractional distillation of, 168; - heat effects on, 144, viii, 25; - heat transmission in, iv, 138-9, 177-8; - intermingling of, in contact, 131; - latent heat (see Latent Heat); - molecules in, iii, 309, iv, 22, 131, 152, 167, 363, viii, 23, 24; - osmosis, xiii, 90-1; - pressure of, iv, 116-19; - solubility in water, viii, 111-12; - sound velocity in, iv, 198; - specific gravity, how determined, 112, 113; - spectra of incandescent, ii, 112, iv, 360, 363; - supercooled and heated, viii, 113, 304-5; - vapor pressure of, 303-5; - vaporization of, iv, 173-4; - vibrations of, 196, 215; - volatile, 174 - - Lister, Joseph, x, 144-6, xvi, 182-3; - importance of work of, x, 40, 107, 149, 381; - on Pasteur, 143 - - Liter, standard of volume, viii, 28 - - Lithium, viii, 128, 132, 133; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - flame color, 301; - specific gravity, 384; - spectrum of, 301-2; - test for, 287, 289 - - Litmus, viii, 114 - - Little Falls Gorge, iii, 243 - - Little Red Riding-hood, xv, 358 - - Littoral Fauna, xii, 16, 17 - - Live Oaks, xiv, 370 - - Liver, bile secreted by, ix, 237, 275; - changes caused by shock, xi, 59; - development in black and white races, xv, 49-50; - disorders of, x, 330; - emotion effects on, xi, 136-7, 138; - failure in diabetes, ix, 293; - functions, x, 329-30, 347, xi, 60; - gall stones in, ix, 286; - glycogen storage in, 291, 292, 293, 298; - hemoglobin decomposed in, 184, 275; - in circulatory system, 196 (fig.), 198, 245; - inflammation of, x, 224; - secretin effects on, 325; - therapy of, 382-3; - urea production in, ix, 284, 285; - waste removal by, 271, 275 - - Liverwort, reproduction, xiii, 166, 167 - - Livingstone, David, African exploration, xiv, 196; - quoted, 78 - - Lizards, xii, 182, 203-10; - descent of, 203; - embryo of, xv, 54; - Mesozoic, iii, 295 - - Llamas, xii, 313, 315 (fig.) - - Lloyd's, insurance of, i, 270 - - Load Factor, vi, 380-2 - - Loadstones, vi, 28-9, vii, 372; - at magnetic pole, vi, 30; - Gilbert's studies, 11, 12; - used as suspended compass, 29, 31 (fig.); - (see also Lodestone) - - Lobsters, iii, 260, 278-9, xii, 87 - - Locaille, xvi, astronomer, 124 - - Locke, John, medical work of, x, 74-5; - philosophy of, xvi, 111, 115, 117 - - Lockjaw, x, 298-9; - immunity to, 206, 207; - prevention of, 218 - - Lockyer, Sir Norman, discovery of sun prominences, ii, 181; - collision theory, 327, 333; - star classification, 309-10; - on temple orientation, 26 - - Locomotion, forms of, ix, 82, 155-6; - friction necessary to, iv, 94; - of animals, means of, ix, 73-4; - of serpents, xii, 212; - reflex processes in, ix, 156-9; - rolling, v, 215 - - Locomotives, Steam, v, 207-12, 377, 378-9; - boilers, 140 (see Boilers); - efficiency, 155; - compared with electric, vii, 193-4; - power source of, ix, 15; - smoke from, i, 64, vii, 345; - sound of passing, iv, 210 - - Locomotor Ataxia, ix, 90-1 - - Locusts, xii, 108-9; - jaws of, 100; - seventeen-year, 112, 113; - as food, xv, 134 - - Locust Trees, in landscaping, xiii, 271-2; - in Long Island, 354; - in pea family, 198; - lightning danger, i, 155; - petals, 47; - sleeping of leaves, 89, 113 - - Lodestone, iv, 52-3, 242, viii, 156; - name of, iv, 243, - (see also Loadstone) - - Lodge, Sir Oliver, Evesham experiments, vii, 352; - on atmospheric electricity, 212; - on electrons, vi, 114; - on forces in atoms, 115; - on luminiferous æther, 118; - wireless system, xvi, 191 - - Lodgepole Pines, xiv, 374 - - Loess, i, 53-4, iii, 73-4, 380, xiv, 63, 72-5 - - Loire River, base-leveled stream, xiv, 49 - - London, "Black Day," ii, 211; - eclipses in, 214; - fogs, i, 94; - harbor of, xiv, 270; - sewage disposal, viii, 327; - smoke deposits, i, 65; - tea market of world, xiii, 231; - water purification, viii, 319-20 - - London-Paris Air Route, i, 44-5, 95, 285-6 - - Long, Crawford W., x, 124, 125 - - Long Branch, N. J., wave destruction at, xiv, 45, 302 - - Long Distance Electrical Transmission, alternating and direct currents - in, vi, 159-61, 195-6; - choke coils in, vii, 50; - condensers in, vi, 285-6; - difficulties, 367; - high voltages best, 159, 161, 163, 331-2; - high voltages and leakage, vii, 10-11; - of Niagara Power Plant, vi, 376-8; - power-factor correction, 262; - present distances attained, 365; - progress in, vii, 9-10; - synchronous condensers in, vi, 262; - three phase alternators in, 206; - transformers, 309, 324; - transcontinental, 10, 367-8; - vacuum tubes in, 125 - - Long Distance Telephony, inductance reduction, vii, 104-5; - method of connecting cities, 104; - phantom circuit, 105-6, 119; - repeating stations, 114; - in United States, 91-2 - - Longfellow, stanzas on nature, xvi, 43 - - Long Heads, physical characteristics, xv, 47; - racial divisions, xvi, 48-9; - skull index in, xv, 42 - - Long Island, bowlders on, xiv, 69; - locust tree on, xiii, 354; - opossums in, xii, 275; - outwash plain on, iii, 69; - plant conditions, xiii, 382; - scallop fisheries, xii, 65; - terminal moraine on, iii, 68, 237, 238 - - Long Island Sound, false corals of, xii, 47; - oysters of, 61; - oyster "drills" of, 72 - - Longitudinal Rivers, xiv, 153-4 - - Looking-glass, images in, iv, 335-6 - - Looming, optical, i, 172, 174, 376 - - Looms, history and development, v, 268, 277-82, xv, 245-7; - various inventions, v, 376-7, 381, 383 - - Loons, xii, 250 - - Loop-the-loop Cars, iv, 74 - - Loosestrife, xiii, 140-1, 203 - - Lop-Nor Desert, xiv, 209 - - Lorentz, light theory, xvi, 137-8; - relativity theory, iv, 18, xvi, 196 - - Lories, Australian, xii, 266-7 - - Los Angeles, electric power supply, v, 81, vi, 363; - telephone connection with New York, 367-8 - - Loudness, of sound, iv, 211; - to what due, xi, 104 - - Louis XIV, high heels introduced by, x, 306; - observatory founded by, ii, 58; - on Pyrenees Mts., xiv, 239 - - Louis, Pierre C. A., x, 108 - - Louisiana cotton, xiii, 237; - salt deposits, viii, 140; - sulphur deposits, 76 - - Louisiana Purchase, xiv, 192, 193, 311 - - Louisville, early growth, xiv, 219; - water supply, viii, 318 - - Loup Fork, xiv, 161 - - Love, fundamental impulse, xv, 185; - motor character, xi, 58; - sentiment of, 149-50; - unknown to savages, xv, 279, 321 - - Lowbrows, xv, 43 - - Lowell, Percival, ii, 233-4, 237, 271; - reference to, xi, 218 - - Lowell Observatory, ii, 146-7, 148 - - Low German, xv, 162 - - Lowlands, xiv, 213 - - Lows, Low Pressure Areas, i, 135-6, 137, 376; - of Iceland, 361; - movement, 134-5, 237; - physiological effects, 330; - thunderstorms and, 138; - wind and weather attendants, 125, 218, 236, 237 - (see also Pressure Areas) - - Lubricants, fatty, viii, 247; - graphite, 43, vii, 308, 309; - oil-dag, 300 - - Luciferin, xii, 20 - - Lues, curability of, x, 134; - germ of, 195, 199; - immunity to, 207 - - Lumber, chief source of, xiv, 383; - from heartwood, xiii, 25 - - Lumen, light unit, iv, 352 - - Luminous Plants and Animals, i, 346-7, xii, 20, xiii, 203-4, xvi, 144, - 146 - - Lunation, defined, ii, 196 - - Lundy, Lake, iii, 149 - - Lung Fish, iii, 283 (fig.), xii, 164-6 - - Lungs, ix, 254-6; - aeration of blood by, 253, x, 62, 63, 331; - carbon dioxide diffusion by, ix, 263-7; - circulation of blood through, 196 (fig.), 198-200; - congestion of, x, 341; - development in black and white races, xv, 50; - diseases of, susceptibility to, 50, 51; - dust in, ix, 223; - evolution in animal kingdom, xii, 164-5, 169, 187, 248; - external respiration by, x, 339; - functions in maintenance of life, ix, 21-3; - infection through, x, 198, 220; - in pneumonia, 289; - oxygen supply through, ix, 51 (diagram), 253, 258; - poisons exhaled by, 269; - water loss by, i, 317, ix, 274 - - Lupine, leaves, xiii, 113 - - Luray Caverns, iii, 127, xiv, 148 - - "Lusitania," loss of, xi, 332 - - Luster, of metals, viii, 126; - of minerals, 201 - - Lycopodium Selago, xiii, 305-6, 322 - - Lycopods, iii, 253-4, 256 - - Lye, making of, viii, 276, 278; - in soap-making, 221 - - Lyell, geological work, xvi, 126, 171 - - Lymphatics, ix, 222-5; - in circulatory system, 196 (fig.) - - Lynx, xii, 364-5 - - Lyra, elliptic nebulæ in, ii, 360; - movement of sun toward, 18, 122, 137, 305-6 - - Lyric Poetry, primitive, xv, 319-21 - - Lysins, x, 211 - - - Maas River, shifts in delta, xiv, 186 - (see also Meuse) - - Macaques, xii, 378-9 - - Macaws, xii, 266 - - McCormick, Cyrus, reaper, v, 244-7, 249, 379 - - MacCulloch, on rocks, xvi, 170 - - McDowell, Ephraim, x, 122, 147 - - Mace, spice, xiii, 261, 262 - - Mace, symbol of power, xv, 208 - - McGehee, Arkansas, antimalarial work in, x, 174 - - Machine Guns, v, 362-8, 380, 382 - - Machines, advantages of electrical drive, vii, 62; - air-cushioning in, v, 134; - "animated," 326-44; - contract with operators, vii, 121-2; - displacement of men by, v, 17-18; - early, iv, 26; - efficiency (see Efficiency of Machines), elementary, iv, 89-94, v, - 20-41; - fascination of, vi, 175; - force and resistance law, iv, 90, 92; - for making machines, v, 42-56; - friction in, iv, 92-4; - history of development, v, 15-19, 376-84; - hydraulic, reliability, 106; - instruction of workers, xi, 363-5; - labor-saving, vii, 73; - mechanical advantage, iv, 89, 98; - parts named from human parts, v, 20; - skilled artisans and, 42, 46; - standardization of parts, 48-50, 53-4; - summary of progress in, 376-84 - - Machine Tools, development, v, 42-56, 376; - in relation to automobile industry, 55-6, 214, 383 - - Mackerel Sky, i, 100, 376 - - Mackerel Year, i, 359 - - Mackintosh Waterproof Cloth, xiii, 245 - - Madagascar, chameleons of, xii, 210; - crocodiles of, 199; - former union with Africa, 376; - fossane of, 353; - lemurs of, 374, 375; - laceleaf yam, xiii, 89-90; - orchid, 48; - ratite birds in, xii, 249; - separation from Africa, xiv, 273; - tenrecs of, xii, 367; - tortoises of, 191, 192 - - Madder Family, xiii, 205-6 - - Madeira, discovery of, xiv, 309; - oceanic volcano, 289, 316 - - Madrepores, xii, 39-40 - - Maeterlinck, on eelgrass, xiii, 150-1 - - Magazines, printing and binding, v, 305-7 - - Magdalenian Period, xv, 105, 109; - clay models of, 118-19 - - Magdeburg Hemispheres, iv, 29 - - Magellanic Clouds, ii, 355 - - Magendie, François, x, 126, 127, xvi, 186 - - Maggiore Lake, iii, 146 - - Magi, Persian, xvi, 59 - - Magic, history of, xvi, 44, 59 - - Magic Lantern, iv, 341-2 - - Magma, viii, 191 - - Magnesium, viii, 17, 127, 148-9, 153; - affinity intensity, 128; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - automobile parts made of, 127, 149; - electrolytic production, vii, 320-1; - fusibility, viii, 384; - ignition, 53, 54; - in body, 354; - in body fluids, ix, 174; - in earth's crust, iii, 308, viii, 19, 129, 192, 195, 196; - light of, 60, 172; - plant needs of, 337, 341; - specific gravity, 384; - test for, 287, 289 - - Magnesium Chloride, in sea water, xiv, 295-6 - - Magnesium Compounds, viii, 130, 148-9; - deposits of, 138, 195, 196, 275; - in hard water, 40, 318, 322-4; - lightness of, 29 - - Magnesium Oxide, medicinal uses, viii, 153 - - Magnetic Axis, of earth, iv, 250 - - Magnetic Blowout, vii, 37, 39 - - Magnetic Circuits, vii, 364; - force of, vi, 93 - - Magnetic Disturbances, accompanying aurora, i, 161; - due to moon, ii, 201; - sun-spots and, 176, 186 - - Magnetic Equator, iv, 246 - - Magnetic Fields, iv, 251, vi, 31, vii, 368; - concentration of, vi, 91-2; - distortion, 43-4; - electromotive force created by, 50-3, 54; - electron theory, 128; - generator and motor actions in, 218-19; - of atoms, 117; - of earth, iv, 253, vi, 39, 40; - of electric currents, iv, 274-5, 277, 279 (fig.), vi, 19-20, 88-91; - of sun, ii, 177-9; - spectra of vapors in, 178; - strength or intensity, iv, 252, vii, 368, 370 - - Magnetic Force, vii, 369 - - Magnetic Leakage, vii, 371 - - Magnetic Meridians, iv, 246 - - Magnetic Needle, iv, 243-4; - dip or inclination of, 245-6; - earth's action on, 248; - electric current effects on, 273-4, 275-6, 278-9 - - Magnetic Permeability, vii, 372 - - Magnetic Poles, vii, 374; - force of attraction between, iv, 249 - - Magnetic Poles (of earth), iv, 246, 248, vi, 29-30; - aurora in relation to, i, 159-60 - - Magnetic Saturation, vii, 372 - - Magnetic Screens, vi, 32 (fig.) - - Magnetic Storms, vi, 40 - - Magnetism, iv, 242-55, vi, 27-45; - daily application, xvi, 19, 30; - effects on body, vii, 246, 247; - electricity and, vi, 12, 19-20, 27-8, 86, iv, 256, 276; - electron theory, vii, 371; - energy in, iv, 82; - force of, how measured, 249; - history of, 52-5, vi, 9-26, xvi, 109, 122; - law of attraction and repulsion, vi, 18, 42-3, 286-7; - of direct and alternating currents, 155-6; - lines of force (see Lines of Force); - of earth, iv, 248-50, 252, vi, 29-30, 39-40; - of earth, connection with internal iron, xiv, 11; - of rotating bodies, ii, 178, vi, 21; - residual, vi, 191, vii, 372; - science of power, xvi, 36-7; - term as used, vii, 372; - universal presence, vi, 40 - (see also Electromagnetism, Magnetic Fields, Magnets) - - Magnetite, iii, 333-4, viii, 156; - ores in Adirondacks, iii, 359; - properties of, iv, 242 - - Magnetization, iv, 242; - aided by striking, 253; - by electric currents, 286-8, vi, 30, 50; - by induction, iv, 243, 253; - by lightning, i, 152-3; - by loadstone, vi, 29; - internal effects, 36-7; - of iron structures, iv, 253; - molecular effects, 245, 253; - processes of, vi, 44-5; - test, 43 - - Magneto Generators, vi, 215-16 - - Magnetomotive Force, vi, 92-3 - - Magnetos, automobile, vii, 140-41 - - Magnets, iv, 242-4; - action of, 250-1, vi, 31-2; - aging of, 45, vii, 159; - attraction and repulsion of, iv, 242, 244, 245, 249, vi, 33, 42-3, - (fig.); - demagnetization methods, iv, 253, vii, 366; - effect on compass, vi, 27, 42-3; - electromotive force produced by, iv, 303; - force, how measured, 249-50; - heat and jarring effects, vi, 34-8, 117; - internal constitution, 36-7; - laminated, 34, 35 (fig.); - lines of force, 33 - (see also Lines of Force); - lifting force of, iv, 289; - making of, vi, 44-5 (see Magnetization); - natural, iv, 242; - penetrability, 250, vi, 31-2; - permanent and temporary, iv, 243, vi, 30; - poles of, iv, 242, 244-5, 253, 262, vi, 31, 42, 43; - types, 30-1, vii, 372; - uses, commercial and industrial, iv, 255, viii, 270 - (see also - Electromagnets) - - Magnifying Glass, iv, 343 - - Magnitude, illusions of, xi, 184-90 - - Magnitude of Stars, absolute (see Absolute Magnitude); - catalogued by Hipparchus, ii, 31; - classification by, 295-6, 297; - conditions affecting, 322; - determined by photoelectric methods, 328; - different kinds, 296; - different stages, 383, 384; - spectral type in relation to, 309 - - Magnolias, antiquity, xiii, 324-5; - development, 55; - fertilization, 130-1; - former distribution, xiv, 375; - fossil ancestor, xiii, 318; - index plants, i, 255; - in landscaping, xiii, 271-2 - - Mahogany, from tropical forests, xiv, 383; - in anacardiaceae family, xiii, 200 - - Maidenhair Tree, xiii, 315-16; - in landscaping, 271-3 - - Mail-Order Business, in stormy weather, i, 264 - - Maine, coast of, iii, 37-8, 57, 235, xiv, 256, 257, 262-3; - coast destruction, 46; - dikes on coast, iii, 110, xiv, 108; - harbors, 268; - moose of, xii, 318 - - Mains, electric, vii, 373 - - Maize, history and uses, xiii, 211-13 - - Major Triad (music), iv, 206-7 - - Make-and-Break (electricity), iv, 382 - - Malachite, iii, 334, 360 - - Malaise, sensation of, ix, 91 - - Malaria, x, 153-9; - campaign against, 173-4, 299-301; - control of, in tropics, xiv, 356, 357; - former idea of causes, x, 286; - quinine and, xiii, 250-1 - - Malaspina Glacier, iii, 70 - - Malay Archipelago, bananas native to, xiii, 216; - continental relationships, xiv, 274; - crocodiles of, xii, 201; - lemurs of, 374, 375; - largest flower in, xiii, 363-4; - parrots of, xii, 266; - rain forests, xiv, 369 - - Malay Peninsula, beriberi in, x, 257; - coco palm of, xv, 125; - leaf butterfly of, xii, 117; - rhinoceros of, 306; - snakes of, 214, 218; - tapirs of, 306; - tin production, iii, 369 - - Malays, hair of, xv, 37; - immunity to tuberculosis, 51; - in tropics, xiv, 356; - members of brown race, xv, 37 - - Malic Acid, viii, 222-3, 336 - - Malicious Animal Magnetism, xi, 311 - - Malleable Iron, v, 319 - - Malleability, viii, 126; - in mineral identification, 202 - - Mallow Family, xiii, 200 - - Malmags, xii, 374 - - Malpighi, Marcello, x, 77, xvi, 107, 112, 116, 126 - - Malt, viii, 249 - - Malta Fever, diagnosis of, x, 216 - - Maltase, viii, 357 - - Maltose, viii, 227, 241, 243, 244; - in brewing, 249; - formed in digestion, ix, 230 - - Mammals, xii, 270-384; - Age of, iii, 20; - appearance in Cretaceous, xv, 71; - egg-laying, 272-3, 274; - evolution of, xii, 185, 271-2; - geological history, iii, 20, 297-306; - growth in relation to flowering plants, 257; - in oceanic islands, xiv, 277-8; - order of succession, xii, 338-9; - primitive types, 272-4; - smallest of, 368; - temperature maintenance in, ix, 307-8; - warm-bloodedness of, 305, 306 - - Mammato-Cumulus Clouds, i, 104, 376 - - Mammoth Cave, iii, 127, xiv, 148; - fishes of, xii, 163 - - Mammoth Coal Bed, iii, 201, 347-8 - - Mammoth Hot Springs, terrace, iii, 192 (Pl. 11); - travertine deposits, 325, xiv, 146 - - Mammoths, xii, 301 (fig.), 302; - of Ice Age, xv, 76, 79; - prehistoric pictures of, 85, 86; - remains found in Siberia, 16 - - Man, activities of, ix, 21; - adaptation to environment by, xiv, 344, 363, xv, 25, 26, 28, 31, 36; - adapted to mixed diet, ix, 246, 285; - Age of, iii, 20; - anthropology science of, xv, 10-11, 15, xvi, 36; - antiquity of, ii, 19, iii, 301-2, 303, v, 11, xv, 11-12, 69-87, 95, - 163; - apes and, physically compared, xii, 373, xv, 57-62, 94; - brain in, 39-41, 62-3, 96; - broadened interests of, x, 10; - cell development in, ix, 44; - chromosome number in, 46, 339; - dependence on fire, shelter and clothing, 308-9; - descent of, 349, xii, 384, xv, 56; - distribution over earth, xiv, 21, 344, xv, 12; - distribution mostly on plains, xiv, 218-19; - dominant impulses, xv, 185; - educability, 66; - embryological development, 53-5; - environmental control of, xi, 33, 58, xiv, 30-1; - environment conquest by, xv, 25-6; - environment of present, x, 354; - erect posture and walking, xv, 58; - evolution of, iii, 283, 301-6, xv, 25, 26-31, 53-4, 70, 88-102; - evolution, Anaximander on, xvi, 78-9; - face and brain case in, xv, 43; - fear in, origin of, xi, 136; - fire generation confined to, ix, 308, xv, 229-30; - fundamental instincts, xi, 50-6; - grasp of, ix, 67-8; - grouping tendency in, xv, 361-3; - improvement by selection and education, xvi, 157; - impulses conscious, xv, 273; - increase in numbers, 26-7; - infectious diseases peculiar to, x, 206; - instincts and reason in, xv, 65-6, 68; - language evolution, 140, 142-3, 146-63; - language importance, ix, 152-3, xi, 224; - "measure of all things," xvi, 85; - origin of, various accounts and theories, xv, 69-70; - Paracelsus on, x, 48; - physical, xv, 32-52; - physical measurements, comparative, 57; - place in nature, iii, 260, 281, xvi, 126; - primate, xii, 373; - psychological unity, xvi, 42-3; - races of (see Races); - rate of growth in, ix, 32 (diagram); - reasoning power, xi, 237, 243-4, xv, 65, 66, 68; - relation to lower animals, 53-68; - rudimentary structures in, 56; - sense of smell, xi, 77-8; - sex determiners in, ix, 338-9; - skull capacity, xv, 40-1, 89; - skull shapes in, 42-3; - stages in development of, 188-204; - structure compared with apes, 57-62; - struggle for existence in, 25-6, 27; - struggle for perfection in, 28-9; - survival of fittest in, 27; - symmetrical instinct in, 251; - tool-using animal, v, 9, 10-11, ix, 67-8, xv, 205; - tropical animal, ix, 308-9 - (see also Primitive Man) - - Manatees, jaguars and, xii, 362 - - Mandan Indians, buffalo dance, xv, 305-6 - - Mandibles, of insects, xii, 99; - of men and apes compared, xv, 94 - - Mandrills, xii, 379-80 - - Mangabeys, xii, 379 - - Manganese, viii, 154; - affinity strength, 128; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - electrochemical analysis, 295; - fusibility, 384; - ores, 198, 271; - specific gravity, 384; - test for, 287, 289 - - Manganin, resistance, vi, 77, vii, 364 - - Mangrove Keys, xii, 42 - - Mangle, Electric, vii, 82-3 - - Manhattan Elevated Railway, engines and turbines, v, 152-3 - - Manholes, construction, vii, 30 - - Mania, hot baths in treatment of, x, 311; - of adolescence, 236-7 - - Maniacs, strength of, xi, 264 - - Manila Hemp, xiii, 236, 239-40 - - Manila Paper, source, xiii, 240 - - Manna, "rains" of, i, 355, 357 - - Mantids, xii, 107-8 - - Manual Labor, fatigue from, ix, 81; - food requirements in calories, 297 - - Manufacturing Centers, of future, v, 173 - - Manufacturing Stage, xv, 187, 203 - - Manures, as fertilizers, viii, 342-3; - as nitrogen source, xiv, 66; - waste of, viii, 346 - - Map-Making, aeronautical, i, 45-8 - - Maple Tree, antiquity, xiii, 324-5; - as forest tree, 86-7; - fruit, winged, 57, 58 (fig.); - in landscaping, 271-2; - petals absent in, 195; - seed dispersal, 343; - source of sugar, viii, 242-3; - in United States, xiii, 368, xiv, 372 - (see also Sugar Maple) - - Maps, discrepancies in, xiv, 10-11; - tinting of, iv, 130 - - Marble, iii, 371; - green, 338; - metamorphic rock, 380, xiv, 19; - reaction with acids, viii, 37 - - March (of weather elements), i, 205, 376-7 - - Marchetti, Peter, x, 79 - - Marconi, distress signal system, vii, 284; - wireless messages, 258, 259; - wireless work, xvi, 191 - - Marconi Transmitting System, vii, 263-5 - - Mare Tenebrosum, i, 55 - - Mare's Tail Clouds, i, 99, 377 - - Margarines, vegetable, x, 261, 267 - - Marine Animals, conditions necessary, iii, 17; - large, xii, 297-9, 333-5, 347; - mollusks, 57-80; - primitive types, 16-24, 26, 32, 128-9; - worms, 45, 51, 54 - - Marine Climate, i, 208, 377 - - Marine Deposits, iii, 52-5 - - Marine Meteorology, i, 271-83; - founding of, 216 - - Marine Rivers, xiv, 153 - - Marine Rocks, xiv, 19; - found above sea level, iii, 82-3, 85, 132, 235; - in mountains, xiv, 231 - - Mariner's Compass, iv, 253-4, vii, 365; - invention and improvements, vi, 29, 41-2 - - Mariotte, Edme, xvi, 110, 111; - law of, iv, 140 - - Markhor, xii, 325 - - Marmosets, xii, 376 - - Marmots, xii, 294-5 - - Marne, Battle of, defence of "Grande Couronne", xiv, 90; - soldiers asleep on retreat, xi, 286-7 - - Marne River, topographical features, xiv, 89 - - Marquette, Père, xiv, 192 - - Marriage, xv, 273-95, 364 - - Mars, (planet), ii, 227-34; - atmosphere, 228-32, 247; - canals, 235-41, 248; - distance, 235-6; - Kepler's studies, 50; - life on, 228-32, 237-8, 247-8; - "lucid" planet, 264; - motions and orbits, 50, 162, 163; - photographic study, 131, 132; - rotation period, 59, 377; - satellites, 241, 110; - size, 162, 163; - surface study, 238-9; - Tycho Brahe's studies, 49; - weight, 76, 77-8 - - Marshes, draining of, by trees, xiv, 379; - malaria and, x, 154, 300 - - Marsh Gas, iii, 345, 354, viii, 51; - as ignis fatuus, i, 347, 348 - (see also Methane) - - Marshmallow, family, xiii, 200 - - Marsupials, xii, 274-81; - evolution of, 271 - - Martens, xii, 350, 351 - - Martensite, viii, 274 - - Martha's Vineyard, waves action, iii, 56 - - Martin, Prof. E. G., author PHYSIOLOGY Vol. ix - - Maryland, former volcanoes, xiv, 318; - oyster industry, xii, 61 - - Maskelyne, astronomer, xvi, 124; - mountain-weighing, ii, 68-9 - - Mass, defined, iv, 35, xvi, 130; - density and, iv, 110; - measured by beam balance, 102; - momentum in relation to, 62-3; - motion in relation to, 60-1, 63-5, 72, 78; - standard units of, 46, 69, xvi, 130; - weight and, iv, 35, 110, xvi, 130 - - Massage, ancient Chinese, x, 13; - effect on lymphatics, ix, 223 - - Massasauga, xii, 235 - - Mastoiditis, ix, 61-2 - - Matches, friction and safety, viii, 88; - invention of, xv, 232 - - Materialism, xi, 13-14; - in mediæval philosophy, x, 35 - - Materia Medica, Mesue's work on, x, 32; - 17th century improvements, xvi, 109 - - Mathematical Astronomy, ii, 15, 113-14; - culmination of, 15, 71-2; - spectroscopic methods in, 119-24 - - Mathematical Calculations, development of, xv, 181-4, xvi, 61 - - Mathematical Machines, v, 326-7 - - Mathematics, coordinates used in, iv, 16; - Golden Age, ii, 15; - history of development, xvi, 54, 60-3, 68, 71-2, 79-81, 88-90, 92, - 94-5, 103-5, 113-14, 118-19, 125; - practice of challenges in, iv, 89 - - Mather, Cotton, on disease, x, 380; - on inoculation, 101 - - Mating Instinct, xiii, 116 - - Mato Tepee, xiv, 129-30 - - Matter, chemical energy of, viii, 267; - chemistry, science of, 11, iv, 12; - constitution of, 21, 23, vi, 35-6, 78, 108, 109-12, viii, 22-8 (see - also Atomic Theory, Electron Theory, Molecular Theory); - elasticity of, iv, 35-6; - elements of, viii, 11-12, 16-21; - energy and, iv, 12, 13-14; - energies in, xvi, 15; - energy loss, 134; - ether in, iv, 181; - fluxation idea, xvi, 194; - fourth state of, iv, 54-5, xvi, 193; - Greek theories, 77, 83-4, 86, 91, 118; - indestructibility, vi, 128, viii, 110; - inertia of, iv, 20; - kinetic theory of, 30, 131; - monad theory, xvi, 117-18; - primary concept, iv, 15, 16; - sciences of, xvi, 36-7; - states of, iv, 21-3 - (see also Physical States) - - Matterhorn, formation of, iii, 236 - - Matriarchy, xv, 295 - - Maudsley, Henry, inventions, v, 45-6, 99, 376 - - Mauna Loa, iii, 103-4, 107, xiv, 322-3; - real height and diameter, 101, 225 - - Maury, Lieut. M. F., i, 216, 271-2, xiv, 288 - - Maxim Machine Gun, v, 363, 364, 382 - - Maxwell, Clerk, electromagnetic theory, iv, 54, 55, vi, 25, vii, 371; - on loss of molecular energy, xvi, 134; - on motor-dynamo discovery, iv, 54; - on rings of Saturn, ii, 133, 265-6; - prediction of electromagnetic radiations, xvi, 191 - - Mayans, number and time systems of, xv, 181, 182 (fig.) - - May Bugs, xii, 123 - - Mayflies, xii, 104 - - Mazama, xii, 325 - - Mazda Lamps, vi, 267, 268; - ohms of, 75; - sizes and light, vii, 153 - - Mazda Nitrogen Lamps, vi, 278 - - Meadow Pink, xiii, 133-5 - - Meals, agreeable surroundings, at, ix, 241, x, 319-20; - alcohol at, ix, 244; - bathing after, 313; - eating between, 88; - excitement at, xi, 374-5; - soup value at, ix, 241, x, 320; - water at, ix, 229 - - Meanders, iii, 380; - in old and new areas, 33, 34, xiv, 162, 165; - intrenched, 165 - - Measles, Brown's treatment of, x, 89; - consumption and, 292; - eardrum affected by, ix, 103; - epidemic of 15th century, x, 59-60; - first description of, 32; - germ of, 200; - Indian susceptibility to, xv, 48, 51 - - Measurements, British and metric systems, iv, 45-6, 69-70, viii, 27-8; - chemical apparatus, 294, 295 (fig.); - in different fields, vii, 151-2; - sciences and standards of, xvi, 129-31 - - Meat, body heat production by, ix, 309, x, 271, 273; - calories in, 269; - calory loss in preparing, ix, 299; - composition, viii, 362; - cooking effects, 368; - digestion of, x, 326; - eating of, effects, ix, 384-6, x, 279; - eating of, in relation to bile, ix, 275; - food constituents in, 300; - gristle of, 13; - proteins in, 34, 35, 280; - salted, tinned and dried, x, 263; - salts and extracts of, viii, 366; - structure of lean and coarse, ix, 75; - vitamines in, x, 260, 261, 262, 266 - - Mechanical Advantage, iv, 89, 92, 93 - - Mechanical Equivalent of Heat, iv, 49-50, 140, 142, 189-90, v, 350-1, - viii, 186-7, xvi, 131-3 - - Mechanical Progress, summary, v, 376-84 - - MECHANICS, Volume v - - Mechanics, "artisan" of physics, iv, 50; - daily applications, xvi, 16-17, 19-20, 30; - defined, iv, 25; - history, xvi, 67-8, 72, 89, 91 - - Medical Education, requirements of, x, 367-8, 369; - Rockefeller Foundation and, 172 - - Medical Humanists, x, 45 - - Medical Meteorology, i, 316-31 - - MEDICINE, Volume x - - Medicine, history of, x, 9-192, xvi, 59, 63, 70-1, 82-3, 95-6, 98, - 106-9, 112, 126-7, 178-87; - Paracelsus on science of, x, 49; - science of, remarks on, 368, xvi, 15, 37 - - Medicine Men, xv, 349-53, 354, 359, 365-6 - - Medicines, electrical application of, vii, 247-8; - quack, 240-1; - plants used as, xiii, 249-55; - specific, x, 49-50 - - Mediterranean Lands, climate of, xiv, 348-9, 358-9; - source of cultivated plants, 381-2 - - Mediterranean Racial Group, xvi, 49 - - Mediterranean Sea, ancient civilization around, xiv, 290, 306-7, 358, - 359; - concordant coasts, 249; - darkness at depths, 298; - geology of, 290-1; - petrels of, xii, 252; - "pilgrim shell" of, 65; - salt in, viii, 139, xiv, 296, 297; - sponges of, xii, 32; - temperature of waters, xiv, 299 - - Mediterranean Volcanic Belt, xiv, 316-17 - - Medium, technical meaning, iv, 382 - - Medulla, xi, 28, 29, 76 - - Medusae (jellyfish), xii, 36 - - Megabar, iv, 123 - - Megaphones, iv, 239-40 - - Megatheres, xii, 283 - - Melampus, xii, 68-9 - - Melancholia, of adolescence, x, 236-7 - - Melancholic Temperament, xi, 153, 205 - - Melanesia, xiv, 277 - - Melanesians, beards of, xv, 38; - hair of, 38 - - Melting Point, iv, 153; - chemical composition and, viii, 298-301; - of various substances, iv, 161-2; - pressure and, 153, 162, 163-6 - - Membranes, fluid equalization through, ix, 194, xiii, 90-1; - vibrations of, iv, 101 - - Memory, xi, 208-17, ix; - association of ideas in, 149-51; - delayed nervous disturbances in, 141-2; - of emotions, 154; - hypnosis and, xi, 317-18; - reason and, 243-4; - right use, 378; - seat of, in cerebrum, ix, 145, 146-7 - - Memory Colors, xi, 89, 220-1 - - Men, basal metabolism of, x, 271; - brain in, xv, 39; - color-blindness in, ix, 116, 340-1; - hats of, x, 309; - heart rate in, 334; - height of, xv, 38; - skull capacity, 40; - susceptibility of, x, 240; - voice vibration rates in, ix, 99 - - Mendel, Gregor, x, 231-2, 13, 333, xvi, 154; - experiments on peas, ix, 328, 333-4 - - Mendel's Law, xiii, 333, xvi, 157 - - Mendeléeff, chemical work, xvi, 134, 163; - classification of elements, viii, 177; - prediction of elements, 180 - - Mendelian Theory, xvi, 156 - - Mental Activity, insomnia due to, ix, 219; - seat of, 145-6; - temperature effects, i, 323-4 - - Mental Fatigue, ix, 137-8, x, 247, xi, 269 - - Mental Healers, x, 242-3, 365 - - Mental Hygiene, xi, 368-82 - - Mental-Nerve Diseases, x, 353 - - Mental Processes, in brain, ix, 145, 147-54; - similarity in all men, xvi, 42-3 - - Mental Tests, in diagnosis, x, 371; - in vocational guidance, xi, 359-60 - - Mental Types, xi, 152-9 - - Mercaptan, smell of, xi, 80 - - Mercerized Cotton, viii, 255 - - Mercuric Chlorides, viii, 170, 333 - - Mercuric Mercury, test for, viii, 287, 288 - - Mercuric Oxide, instability, viii, 101; - oxygen preparation from, 34, 170 - - Mercurous Mercury, test for, viii, 288 - - Mercury (metal), affinity intensity, viii, 128; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - barometric column of, iv, 30; - compounds, viii, 170; - density of, iv, 113; - electrical conductivity, 283; - expansion by heat, 135; - freezing point, 153; - heat capacity, 155; - light of, viii, 172; - melting point and requirements, iv, 162, viii, 384; - ores and production, iii, 370, viii, 198, 270; - properties and uses, iii, 370, viii, 126-7, 170; - specific gravity, 384; - specific heat, iv, 155; - use of, in syphilis, x, 60, 104; - use of, in thermometers, iv, 135, 137, 153 - - Mercury (planet), ii, 189-90; - atmosphere, 190, 246; - life on, 245-6; - "lucid" planet, 264; - motion at perihelion, 79, 81; - non-rotation theory, 377; - orbit, 39, 73, 162, 163; - size, 162; - weight, 76, 77 - - Mercury Arc Converters, vii, 365 - - Mercury Arc Lamp, vi, 281-3 - - Mercury Arc Rectifiers, vi, 331, 333-9 - - Mercury Fulminate, viii, 145 - - Mercury Vapor, viii, 309 - - Mergansers, xii, 257 - - Mergenthaler Linotype, v, 308-10, 381-2 - - Meridian Photometer, ii, 297 - - Mesaba Range, iii, 358 - - Mesas, iii, 140, 380, xiv, 81, 82 - - Mesenchyme, xii, 26-7 - - Mesentery, ix, 59 - - Mesopotamia, ancient empire of, xiv, 306; - astronomy of ancient, xvi, 70; - British campaign, i, 308; - cradle of human race and history, xvi, 46, 51; - food plant center, xiii, 221, xiv, 381-2; - mirage in World War, i, 173; - ostriches of, xii, 249; - photographic mapping, i, 47; - present desert character, xiv, 219; - scurvy in, during World War, x, 265; - wild wheat of, xiii, 210 - - Mesozoic Era, iii, 20, 208-20; - animal life in, 270, 272, 275, 285, 286; - birds of, xii, 239, 242; - divisions and species of, xv, 71; - mammals of, iii, 297, xii, 271; - marsupials in, 277; - plants of, iii, 255, 256, 257; - reptiles of, 286-95, xii, 183, 188, 194-5, 202-3; - sharks of, 143 - - Messages, primitive methods of sending, xv, 165-7 - - Messina Earthquake, xiv, 340-1 - - Mesue of Damascus, x, 32 - - Metabolism, ix, 37, x, 268; - calculation of, 269-70; - daily total in calories, ix, 296, 297; - disease in relation to, 302-4, x, 268-81; - fatigue caused by, ix, 80, 81; - food requirements for, 289, 295-301; - protein, x, 277-80; - protein effects on, ix, 301-2; - rate of, how influenced, x, 270-1; - studies of, 128, 382; - temperature effects on, ix, 37, 306-7 - (see also Cell Metabolism, Basic Metabolism, Functional Metabolism, - Growth Metabolism) - - Metal-Bearing Deposits, iii, 355-70 - - Metallography, vi, 78, viii, 273-4, xvi, 175-6 - - Metallurgy, viii, 269-74; - historical development, xvi, 51, 59, 74, 174-7 - - Metals, viii, 17, 126-74, 379; - affinities (electromotive series), 127-9; - affinity for sulphur, 76, 77; - atomic weights, vii, 384, viii, 383; - atomic weights in relation to activity, 133, 180; - chemical analysis, 286-9, 291-2; - colors of compounds due to, 312; - common states of, iv, 153; - compounds of, viii, 130, 146, 202; - corrosion of, 13, 100; - cutting of (see Cutting of Metals); - electrical conductivity, iv, 259; - electrification of, 257, 259; - electrochemical analysis, viii, 295; - electromotive positiveness, vi, 59; - expanding on solidifying, iv, 150; - extraction from ores, viii, 131, 269-72; - groups of, 181-2; - heat conductors, iv, 177, 178-9; - identification of, viii, 201, 202, 313; - industrial, 154; - internal structure, vi, 78-9; - in body, viii, 354; - in sea, 197; - melting point and requirements, iv, 162; - melting points, viii, 384; - occurrence, 129-31, 198-200; - occurrence due to igneous action, xiv, 234, 237-8, 329; - original form in earth, viii, 193; - periodic classification, 180-1; - plant uses of, 337, 341; - positive ionization of, 122; - potentials against hydrogen, vii, 383; - rare earths, viii, 182; - refining of, 272; - refining, electrolytic, vii, 319-21; - resistance (electrical), vi, 77-9; - resistance tables, vii, 384; - resistance reduced by low temperatures, i, 32; - specific gravity table, viii, 384; - thermoelectric powers, vii, 383; - valency, vii, 384; - welding by oxyacetylene blowpipe, 33; - X-ray examination, vii, 257 - - Metamorphic Rocks, iii, 13, 380, xiv, 18-19; - jointing of, 133; - land forms in, 44, 113; - ores in, 234, 237 - - Metamorphism, iii, 380; - by molten intrusions, xiv, 112; - fossils and, iii, 265 - - Metazoa, xii, 25, 26-7 - - Metchnikoff, x, 143, 201, 209-10, xi, 218 - - Meteoric Dust, i, 53, 56; - in deep-sea deposits, xiv, 285 - - Meteoric Iron, ii, 292 - - Meteorites, ii, 290-3; - energy from, ix, 25; - iron and dust from, iii, 55; - origin of life from, xii, 9 - - Meteorograph, i, 88, 377 - - Meteorological Instruments, i, 68-89; - public display, 266-7 - - Meteorological Observations, history and organization, i, 212-23; - marine, 272-3, 274-6 - - Meteorological Terms, i, 365-84 - - METEOROLOGY, Volume i - - Meteorology, daily interest, xvi, 13; - defined, i, 7, 377, xvi, 37; - history of development, 114, 177; - organized, i, 212-23 - - Meteors, ii, 283-9; - carborundum found in, vii, 310; - cause of brontides, i, 196; - dust from, i, 53, 56; - former meaning, 7; - in relation to corona, ii, 224, 225; - in relation to solar system, 164; - orbits, 287, 288, 289; - photographic study, 134-5; - planetesimal theory, iii, 162 - (see also Meteorites) - - Meter, length unit, iv, 46, 69, viii, 27-8; - radio unit, vii, 272; - value in yards, iv, 70 - - Methane, viii, 51, 206; - combustion products, 61; - derivatives, 210, 230-1; - flame of, 60; - name of, 98 - - Methodism (medical), x, 26, 28, 29 - - Methyl, defined, viii, 379 - - Metric System, iv, 46; - adoption in French Revolution, 136; - advantage in specific measurements, 111; - units in, iv, 69-70, 80-1, 154, viii, 27-8 - - Meuse River, xiv, 89; - delta and shifts, 186 - - Mexico, ancient civilization (see Aztecs); - century plants, xiii, 355; - chocolate cultivation, 234; - climatic belts, xiv, 223; - copper production, iii, 360; - corn-growing in ancient, xiii, 212; - deserts of, xiv, 380; - first hospital, x, 81; - harbors and commerce, xiv, 265-6; - jaguars of, xii, 362; - lava fields, iii, 228; - lead production, 362; - new volcanoes in, xiv, 320; - oil output, iii, 350, 354, v, 173; - plateau and hot lands of, xiv, 221, 223; - rivers of, 195; - rubber plants, xiii, 248; - serpents of, xii, 214, 234, 235; - silver production, iii, 367-8; - vanilla production, xiii, 260; - yellow fever in, x, 163 - - Mexico, Gulf of, importance in rainfall distribution, xiv, 360; - sponges in, xii, 32 - - Meyer, Lothar, xvi, 163; - classification of elements, viii, 177 - - Mica, iii, 334; - in granite, 308; - chemical composition, viii, 90, 193 - - Mice, xii, 289-91; - snakes and, 220, 227 - - Michelangelo, anatomical work of, x, 51-2 - - Michelson, interferometer, ii, 151, 322-3; - standard length measurements, xvi, 130 - - Michigan, copper production, iii, 327, 360, 361; - gypsum deposits, 376; - iron ores, 357; - salt deposits, 375 - - Michigan, Lake, size, xiv, 204 - - Micron, wave length unit, iv, 359 - - Microline, iii, 328 - - Micrometer, use of, ii, 58, vii, 151 - - Micronesia, xiv, 277 - - Microscopes, iv, 343-4; - in chemical analysis, viii, 290-1; - in medicine, x, 67, 128, 132, xvi, 112-13 - - Middle Ages, astronomy in, ii, 37-41, 42; - comets of, 273; - constructive work, 12; - ermine fur in, xii, 350; - European commerce in, xiv, 240, 241, 307, 308; - falconry of, xv, 223; - hail and lightning prevention, i, 341; - hysteria epidemics in, x, 360; - intellectual character of, 34, 35, 43; - intellectual lethargy, ii, 11; - Jewish polygamy of, xv, 289; - magic, xvi, 79; - medicine in, x, 31, 34-42, 43; - meteoric showers of, ii, 287; - minstrels of, xv, 323; - painting in, 302-3; - poisoning in, 228-9; - science in, iv, 27-8; - science and philosophy, xvi, 99-105; - views of fossils in, iii, 14 - - Migrations, of birds, xii, 258, xiii, 55; - of forests, xiv, 375-6; - of plants, xiii, 348 - - Mikulicz-Rodecki, xvi, 183 - - Mil, wire measure, iv, 283, 382, vii, 373 - - Mil Foot, vi, 77 - - Military Meteorology, i, 306-15 - - Milk, amino acids in, x, 278; - boiling of, viii, 368; - calories in, ix, 299; - composition, value and products, viii, 363; - contamination and safeguarding of, ix, 347; - digestion of, 235, 292; - fat globules of, viii, 315; - food constituents in, ix, 300; - for infants, 33-4, 346-7; - germs in, x, 193; - milk sugar in, viii, 227; - pasteurized, x, 139-40, 263, xiii, 71, ix, 347; - snakes and, xii, 222-3; - sour, and longevity, xiii, 172; - souring of, 71; - souring, lactic acid developed, viii, 223; - typhoid fever from, x, 287, 288; - vitamines in, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 266; - vitamines and lime salts in, ix, 33-4, 347; - water in, how measured, iv, 113 - - Milking Machines, vii, 227 - - Milk Sugar, viii, 226, 227, 363; - digestion of, ix, 292 - - Milkweeds, flowers, xiii, 50; - plumes, 343-4 - - Milky Way, ii, 350-6; - discovery of separate stars, 96; - Egyptian knowledge of, xvi, 69; - Galileo's observations, 103 - (see also Galaxy) - - Miller, Hugh, xvi, 169 - - Miller, Prof. W. J., author GEOLOGY, Vol. iii - - Milliken, Dr., vi, 121 - - Milling Machines, v, 47, 53, 378, 381 - - Millipedes, xii, 87, 88-9 - - Mills, Milling, development of, xv, 237-41 - - Mind, activities of, xi, 12, 25, 32, 236; - body and, relations, 13-14, 61, 369-75; - care and right use, 375-82; - character of a good, 377-80; - complexity, 206; - conscious and subconscious, 47; - differences and classes of, 152-9; - difficulty of study of, x, 356; - diseases of, 354-63; - dominant traits, xi, 208-9; - Emerson on common, 152; - environment effects on, x, 237, 242-4; - fatigue of, xi, 269; - impairment by physical ills, 369-75; - kinetic theory, 57-61, 123; - meaning, 12, 13, 23-5, 32, 236; - mechanism, meaning, 12-14; - origins, 45; - psychology as science of, 10-14; - qualities revealed in smiles, 357; - similarity in all men, xvi, 42-3 - - Mind of the Crowd, xi, 323-33 - - Mineral Matter, in animal and plant tissues, viii, 354-5; - in ground water, xiv, 142-3, 144; - in human body, viii, 348; - in plants, 337, 339, 341, xiv, 65-6; - in sea and surface waters, iii, 52, 127; - in soils, viii, 338, 339, xiv, 68-9 - - Mineralogy, iii, 307-41, viii, 200-3; - daily interest, xvi, 23, 29; - defined, 38; - history of development, 112, 126, 169, 173 - - Minerals, concentrations of, viii, 192, 195-200, xvi, 173; - definition, iii, 307-8, 380, viii, 192, 200, 379; - description of various, iii, 321-41; - distinguished from living things, xii, 13-14; - groups of, viii, 200-1; - number of species, iii, 308, 315, viii, 200; - properties and identification, iii, 309-21, viii, 201-3, 313; - silicates, importance, viii, 193; - veins, how formed, iii, 126 - - Mineral Salts, need of, in food, x, 256, ix, 33 - - Mineral Springs, xiv, 142-5; - limestone deposits of, 146 - (see also Hot Springs) - - Mines, Mining, coal dust explosions, i, 63; - compressed air uses, 26, 27, iv, 129; - deep shafts, iii, 120, v, 259-60; - explosions caused by oxygen, i, 322, xiv, 12, 15; - hot water in, 144; - importance of faults, iii, 88, xiv, 37; - mountains and, 237-8; - oxygen in air, i, 322; - science of, xvi, 36; - temperature limitations, xiv, 15; - underground water in, iii, 116; - water-blasting in, v, 100 - - Mining Machinery, compressed air in, v, 128-9; - sonic wave transmission, 108 - - Mining Schools, xvi, 126 - - Mink, xii, 349, 350 - - Minnesota, iron ores, iii, 357-8; - lakes and lake basins, xiv, 200, 212; - newness of topography, 158; - moose of, xii, 318 - - Minnows, xii, 161, 163 - - Minstrels, mediæval, xv, 323 - - Mint Family, xiii, 204; - petals in, 190 - - Miocene Epoch, iii, 221; - species surviving from, xv, 71; - tortoise of, xii, 191 - - Mira, classification, ii, 115; - oldest known variable, 325 - (see Omicron Ceti) - - Mirages, i, 172-4, 377, iv, 328-9 - - Mirrors, ancient, v, 109-10; - fire generation by, xv, 232; - images formed by, iv, 335-7; - making of, viii, 171 - - Missing Link, xv, 56, 91 - - Mississippi-Missouri System, xiv, 153, 189 - - Mississippi River, aerial mapping, i, 47; - course changed, iii, 98; - delta, xiv, 53; - depth and dredging at mouth, 270; - discovery and exploration, 192; - flood plain slope, 162; - former steamboats, 193; - harnessing of, v, 81-3; - in American history, xiv, 192-3; - meanders of lower, 162, 165; - mineral matter in solution, iii, 127; - overflow question, xiv, 71; - paddle-fish of, xii, 151; - salt content, viii, 139; - sediment carried by, iii, 31, xiv, 53; - upper, superimposed, 171 - - Mississippi Valley, alluvial soils of, xiv, 71; - bowfins of, xii, 152; - coal fields, iii, 348; - development due to rivers, xiv, 31; - earthquakes of 1811, 203; - forests of, 378; - French in, 192; - geological history, iii, 35, 182-3, 187, 195, 206, 207, 231; - growth of population, xiv, 193; - loess deposits, i, 54, xiv, 72; - panthers formerly in, xii, 363; - precipitation in, xiv, 360; - thermal springs absent, 143-4; - thickness and composition of strata, 228-9; - turtles of, xii, 187, 193; - volcanic action in, xiv, 318; - yellow fever epidemic, x, 160 - - Mississippian Period, iii, 20, 197-8, 380; - animals of, 268-9; - plants of, 252-3; - sea extensions in, 193 - - Missouri, Ice Age in, iii, 239; - loess deposits, xiv, 72; - mining products, iii, 362, 364; - sunk country, 98 - - Missouri River, course changed, iii, 245; - in western emigration, xiv, 195; - upper Mississippi, xiv, 153 - - Mist, i, 377, Brocken specters in, 184-5 - - Mistakes, analysis of, xi, 340, 379 - (see also Errors) - - Mistletoe, xiii, 15, 100 - - Mistpoeffers, i, 195, 377 - - Mistral Winds, i, 133, 377 - - Mitchell, John, x, 116 - - Mitchell, Mount, xiv, 97, 168 - - Mites, xii, 98 - - Mixtures, compared with compounds, viii, 15; - explosions of, 62; - heat and cold production by, iv, 174-5; - separation by vapor pressure, viii, 305 - - Mizar, double star, ii, 123, 334 - - Mocking Bird, xii, 269 - - Modesty, clothing and, xv, 253; - custom and, 254-5 - - Mohammed Ibn Musa, xvi, 103 - - Mohammedan Astronomy, ii, 37-9 - - Mohammedanism, development of, xv, 199; - polygamy allowed by, 289 - - Mohawk Valley, importance of pass, xiv, 194; - origin, iii, 232; - rock faulting, 91 - - Moissan, electrical work, xvi, 176; - Arc Furnace, vii, 303 - - Moisture (atmospheric) climate determined by, xiv, 351-6; - temperature effects, 352-4; - vegetation determined by, 364, 366, 372, 377-8, 380, 381; - atmospheric (see Humidity) - - Molar Solutions, viii, 118-19, 379 - - Molasses, production and use, viii, 242, 243, xiii, 215; - vitamines in, x, 262 - - Mold, cause of formation, i, 61; - disease-producing, x, 196; - reproduction, xiii, 164 - (see also Fungi) - - Molecular Theory, viii, 23-5; - history of development, xvi, 91, 133-4 - - Molecular Weight, viii, 92; - boiling point and, 299-300; - diffusibility and, 108; - differences, to what due, iv, 110; - found by vapor pressure, viii, 305; - in relation to actual weight, 109; - of proteins, 351 - - Molecules, iv, 21, vi, 109, viii, 379; - arrangement in relation to crystals, 203, xvi, 164; - attraction of, viii, 306; - possible variations in, iv, 143; - condition at absolute zero, iv, 142-3; - discrimination from atoms by Dumas, xvi, 162; - dissipation of energy, 134; - electrical balance and unbalance, i, 142, 143; - electrical charges of, viii, 121; - escape from liquids, iv, 167; - ether in, iv, 181; - formulæ of, viii, 91; - fundamental vibrations of, iv, 363; - in solids, liquids and gases, iii, 309, iv, 22, 131-3, 152-3, 363, - viii, 23-4, 106; - in solutions, 311-12; - invariability law, 110; - laws of, 106-10; - magnetization of, iv, 245, 253; - momentum, viii, 109-10; - monatomic, 309; - motions of, iv, 132-3, 363, viii, 23-5, 305-6; - motion increased by heat, iv, 138-9, 144, 152-3, viii, 25, 37-8, 107, - 108, 309, 310; - number, vi, 112; - number of, in gases, iv, 133, viii, 25, 108-9; - polymerization, 219; - size, vi, 112, viii, 24, 306; - structure, 25-7, 306; - structure, chain and ring, 233; - structure, ether, 217, 224; - structure in hydrocarbons, 51; - structure in proteins, 351; - structure and color, 258, 259, 312; - structure and physical state, 207, 298; - structure in relation to boiling and freezing points, 298-9; - structure revealed by polariscope, 309; - velocity of, iv, 133, viii, 24 - - Moles, xii, 366, 367-8 - - Molluscoids, iii, 259, 263, 270; - origin of name, xii, 47 - - Mollusks, iii, 260, 272-6, xii, 57-80; - deep sea, 23; - in sea plankton, 19; - sponges and, 32 - - Molybdenum, atomic weight and symbol, viii, 383; - use and occurrence, xiv, 238 - - Moments of Force, iv, 382 - - Momentum, iv, 62-3, 66-7 - - Monadnock, Mount, iii, 232 - - Monadnocks, iii, 35 - - Monads, xvi, 117, 118 - - Mondeville, Henri de, x, 39, 40 - - Mongolian Orongo, xii, 327 - - Mongols, hair of, xv, 37, 38 (fig.); - in yellow race, 37 - - Mongooses, xii, 351, 352 - - "Monitor," Ericsson's, v, 380 - - Monitors (lizards), xii, 208 - - Monkeys, xii, 376-9; - embryological resemblances, xv, 54; - expression of feelings by, 64-5; - fear in, xi, 136; - feet of, iii, 301 (fig.), xv, 61; - first appearance, iii, 301; - jaguars and, xii, 362; - lemurs and, 374, primates, 373; - resemblance to man, xv, 57; - thumb in, 60 - - Monkshood, xiii, 196; - aconite from, 252 - - Monochord, xvi, 82 - - Monocotyledons, defined, xiii, 60; - evolution, 181; - families, 181-9; - first appearance, 319; - leaves and flowers, 176, 179; - stem formation, 177 (fig.); - relative antiquity, 207; - subdivisions, 179, 180 - - Monoecious Plants, xiii, 46 - - Monogamy, xv, 285, 289-94, 295; - among birds, 276-7 - - Monorail Car, v, 342-3 - - Monosaccharides, viii, 223-6 - - Monotony, of work, xi, 275-6, 277-8, 280 - - Monotype, v, 310-12, 383 - - Monros, physicians, xvi, 179, 181, 186 - - Monsoons, i, 130-1, 377, xiv, 350-1; - conditions resulting from, 359-60; - use of, in early trade, 307 - - Montana, bad lands of, xiv, 82; - fossils found, iii, 250; - grasslands and cattle, xiv, 222-3; - mining products, iii, 360, 361, 364, 368 - - Montauk Point, birds at, xiii, 342 - - Mont Cenis Tunnel, xiv, 240, 241; - drills used, i, 27 - - Montenegro, mountaineers of, xiv, 243 - - Monte Nuovo, eruption of, xiv, 316, 320 - - Montpellier, University, x, 36, 38 - - Montreal, harbor of, xiv, 270 - - Moodus, Conn., brontides, i, 196, 360 - - Moon, ii, 193-205; - acceleration of, iv, 98; - atmosphere, ii, 200, 204, 232; - coronas, i, 183; - distance, ii, 64, 197-8; - earthshine on, 41; - eclipses, 32, 206-8; - erratic amplitude, 25; - falling motion, 64, 65; - Galileo's studies, 54, 96, xvi, 103; - Halley on motions of, ii, 87; - halos, i, 100, 103, 178, 180, 181; - Hevelius's studies, ii, 57; - influences of, 201; - irregularities in motions, 32, 34, 73-4; - life on, 204-5, 247; - light and heat of, 168, 200; - light of, Egyptian knowledge, xvi, 69; - non-rotation theory, ii, 376, 377; - path around earth, xiv, 292-3; - photographic studies, ii, 130; - quartering, 28, 194-5; - size, 198-9, 230; - size as observed by ancients, 27-8, 32; - solar corona and, 221, 222; - spectrum lines, 112; - stereograms of, xi, 181; - telescopic views of, iv, 346; - theories of origin, ii, 375-6; - tides caused by, 70; - tides caused by, xiv, 291, 292-3 - - Moonbeams, measurement of heat of, iv, 301 - - Moon Dogs, i, 180, 377 - - Moon-Pillar, i, 376 - - Moonstone, iii, 329 - - Moor Fires, i, 56 - - Moors, astronomy of, ii, 11, 38; - in Mediterranean group, xvi, 49; - medical influence of, x, 37-8; - science of, xvi, 100, 106 - - Moose, xii, 318-19; - antlers of, 316 - - Moraines, iii, 67-8, 380, xiv, 59; - lakes formed by, iii, 144-6, xiv, 202 - - Morality, beginnings of, xv, 356; - civilization and, xvi, 43-4, 45, 47-8; - primitive, limited to tribes, xv, 374; - religion and, 355-7; - varying conceptions of, 285-6 - - Morgagni Giovanni, x, 97-8 - - Moriceau, François, x, 79, 80 - - Morning Glories, climbing stems, xiii, 27; - roots, 18; - tendrils, 111 - - Moro, Lazzaro, xvi, 126 - - Morphine, xiii, 253; - an alkaloid, viii, 240; - use of, in pain, x, 381 - - Morro Velho, mine shaft, v, 259-60 - - Morse, S. F. B., telegraph inventor, vi, 24, vii, 108, xvi, 188 - - Morse Systems, vii, 108, 109-11 - - Mortar, lime in, viii, 150 - - Mortar and Pestle, xv, 238 - - Mortars (military), v, 368 - - Mortmain, meaning, xi, 44 - - Morton, William, ether introduction, x, 124-5, xvi, 185 - - Mosaic Laws, medical importance of, x, 15 - - Mosasaurs, iii, 288, xii, 203 - - Moselle River, xiv, 89, 90, 165 - - Mosenthal's Test, x, 379 - - Mosquitoes, campaign against, x, 299-301; - in fly family, xii, 120; - kinds of, x, 156; - malaria spread by, 154, 156-9, 299-301; - singing of, cause, xii, 103; - yellow fever and, x, 160, 161-2, 173 - - Moss Animals, xii, 46-7 - - Mosses, alternation of generations, xvi, 166; - character and kinds, xiii, 68-70; - reproductive process, 160-3 - - Mosso, Prof., experiment of, xi, 285; - on mountain sickness, i, 328 - - "Mother Carey's Chickens", xii, 252 - - Mother-Family, xv, 295 - - Mother-of-Pearl, xii, 63; - iridescence of, 245 - - Mother Shipton, iv, 104 - - Mothers, rule of, under polyandry, xv, 294-5; - transmission of hereditary traits, ix, 340-1; - transmission of nervous influences, 343-4 - - Mother's Milk, infants' digestion of, ix, 346 - - Moths, xii, 114-16, 118-20; - appearance in Tertiary, 104; - evolution of, 107; - in flower fertilization, xiii, 142-3; - number of species in New York, xii, 99; - Pronuba, adaptation in, xvi, 152-3 - - Motion, as sign of life, ix, 9-11, 14; - bodily, different kinds of, 82-3; - of animals, means of, 73-4; - sense of, ix, 90, xi, 123-8 - (see also Movement) - - Motion (mechanics), energy of (see Kinetic Energy); - force in relation to, iv, 56-69, 71-2, v, 182-3; - forms of, iv, 85-6; - Galileo's investigations, iv, 19; - laws of (see Newton's Laws of Motion); - quantity of, iv, 62; - rapid, not explained by Newton's theory, ii, 80, 81; - relativity of, iv, 16-17, xvi, 85; - science of, iv, 25; - time and, Newton on, 15; - uniform and difform, ii, 80; - Zeno's theories, xvi, 84-5 - - Motor Cycles, cooling of cylinders, v, 160; - gyroscopic action, 343; - generators in, vi, 215-16 - - Motor-Generator Sets, vi, 332-3, 342-3; - efficiency in electric furnaces, vii, 306 - - Motor-mindedness, xi, 222 - - Motor Nerve Cells, ix, 125, 126, 129, 160; - connections, 130 (fig.), 131, 147, 148 (fig.) - - Motor Nerves, at birth, ix, 348 - - Motor Neurones, xi, 21, 22, 24; - development in embryo, 34, 35 - - Motor Response, defined, xi, 123-4; - method of, 26-7; - sensation dependent on, 27-8, 43, 63, 66, 74-5, 102-3, 110-11, 118-21, - 202-3; - to contact and distance senses, ix, 95, 121, 140; - violence in emotions, xi, 134 - (see also Final Common Path, Reactions, Reflex Actions) - - Motors, iv, 308-9, vi, 217-63, vii, 367, 373; - advantages over engines, 223; - air-driven, v, 129-30; - alternating-current, vi, 240-63; - automatic regulation, 218, 224-9, 232; - automobile, v, 156-61; - compressed-air effects, 128; - compression and non-compression, 157; - constant-speed, vi, 231; - direct-current, 217-39; - direction of revolutions, 56; - earliest form, 21; - efficiency, 228; - efficiency in cold weather, vii, 194; - electromagnetic, vi, 95-6; - for farm purposes, vii, 223-4, 225-6, 228; - heat, Clausius's principle, xvi, 135; - individual machine, vii, 52; - in household appliances, 74, 78, 83-4, 86; - interchangeability with dynamos, iv, 54; - multiple cylinder, v, 159; - of electric cars, vii, 182-3, 185, 186; - of electric locomotives, 196, 200; - popular applications of, iv, 10; - power, on what dependent, vi, 223; - ratings, 192-4; - self-regulation of voltage, 226-8; - single-cylinder, v, 157; - speed variation and constancy, vi, 240-1; - starting and starters, 235-9, 250-5, 262-3; - synchronous, 241; - three-phase system, 206-7; - torque of, iv, 309, vi, 224-7; - toy, 95-9; - voltage generated, 247; - water and air-cooled, v, 159-61; - waterproof in U. S. Navy, vii, 332 - - Motor Tractors, v, 214, 215-218, 243 - - Motor Trucks, v, 214; - advantages to farmers, vii, 231; - growing use, 195 - - Motor Type of Men, xi, 155, 157, 158-9 - - Mott, Valentine, x, 121-2 - - Motus Peculiaris, ii, 346 - - Mound Builders, weaving of, xv, 248 (fig.) - - Mountain-and-Valley Breezes, i, 131, 132, 377 - - Mountain Goats, xii, 325 - - Mountain Health Resorts, i, 322 - - Mountain Lions, xii, 363 - - Mountain Observatories, ii, 139-51 - - Mountain Passes, formation of, xiv, 58, 176 - - Mountains, Mountain Ranges, xiv, 224-6; - atmospheric pressure on, i, 28, iv, 114-15, 170, ii, 245; - block, iii, 138-9, xiv, 117, 226; - boiling point of water on, viii, 303; - Brocken specters, i, 184-5; - cirques of corries on, xiv, 58; - civilization of, xv, 129-31; - cloud caps and banners, i, 104-5; - coast lines and, xiv, 248, 249; - distinguished from plateaus, 28; - economic importance, 237-9, 245; - ephemeral character, iii, 11, 12, 130, xiv, 235; - faulted, iii, 138-9, xiv, 226; - folded, iii, 131-8, xiv, 36, 93-4, 96, 226-34; - forests on, xiv, 238-9; - formed by erosion of plateaus, iii, 139-40, xiv, 225, 226; - formation complex, iii, 140-1; - granite cores of, 112, xiv, 110-11; - heights determined by barometers, 124; - hot springs of, 143; - igneous intrusions, 228, 230, 232-3, 234; - influence of, on human history, 10, 236-45, xv, 136, 137-8; - lightning dangers, i, 156; - making of in various eras, iii, 187-91, 205-6, 213-14, 218-19, 224-6; - metamorphism in, xiv, 234; - old and young, 235-6; - ores and mines, 234, 237-8; - peoples of, 245, xv, 129-31; - plants and animals of, xiii, 321, 381, xiv, 365-6, 370, 376-7; - rainfall and, i, 111, xiv, 354-5; - rime on, i, 121-2; - rock weathering on, iii, 23, 24, xiv, 40, 233-4; - ruggedness due to erosion, 234; - St. Elmo's Fire, i, 157; - shadows in sky, 169-70; - snow-line on, iv, 183-4; - solar radiation on, i, 210; - sound intensity on, 186; - structural topography of, xiv, 94; - stunted trees, xiii, 367; - temperature on high, i, 19; - volcanic, iii, 139, xiv, 225-6, 327 - (see also Volcanic Cones); - weighing of, ii, 68-9; - wind types, i, 132-3 - - Mountain Sickness, i, 328, ii, 144, 150 - - Mountain Streams, harnessing of, v, 79-81; - material transported by, xiv, 52, 233-4 - - Mountain Systems, xiv, 227 - - Mount Wilson Observatory, ii, 147-8; - program and equipment, 152-61 - - Mouse-hunter (weasel), xii, 349 - - Mousterian Implements, xv, 100, 105, 107-8 - - Mouth, cavity as resonance chamber, iv, 232; - dryness of, in fear, ix, 166; - germs in, x, 201, 202, 219, 289; - grasping organ, ix, 82; - opening of, in concussions, xi, 101; - "watering" of, cause, ix, 165 - - Movement, perceptions of, xi, 165, 166, 170-1, 184, 185 - (see also Motion) - - Moving Bodies, deflection by earth's rotation, i, 124-5, xiv, 32, 348; - old theory of, ii, 63 - - Moving Pictures, iv, 347-9; - business men and, xi, 340; - color reproduction in, iv, 369; - facial expressions in, xv, 63; - of eclipses, ii, 212 - - Moving Picture Machines, v, 329-31; - mercury arc rectifiers in, vi, 333 - - Moving Star Clusters, ii, 341-4, 379 - - Mozambique Channel, xiv, 273 - - Mudfish, xii, 152 - - Mud Hens, xii, 262 - - Mud Puppy, xii, 171 - - Mufflers, automobile, v, 165 - - Mulberry Tree, fruit, xiii, 55, 226; - paper from, v, 290 - - Mule Killers, xii, 167 - - Mullein, hairy covering, xiii, 105 - - Müller, Johann (1801-58), x, 117-18; - pupils of, 118, 127, 128, 131 - - Müller, Johann, ii, 13 (see Regiomontanus) - - Multiple Proportions, law of, viii, 110 - - Multiplex Telegraphy, vi, 87, vii, 112-18, 373 - - Mummies, Egyptian, linen wrappings of, xv, 243; - scars of tuberculosis in, x, 290; - wheat grains found with, ix, 17, xiii, 211 - - Muriatic Acid, viii, 87 - - Murrayville Well, iii, 355 - - Muscle-and-Joint Sense, ix, 80, 90-1, 153 - - Muscle Cells, ix, 74-5; - action of, 78-9; - fatigue in, 81; - number unchanging, 48, 348 - - Muscles, action of, ix, 77-9; - action in posture, 83-4; - adrenalin effects, 171, xi, 273; - at birth, ix, 348; - blood supply, how controlled, 216-17, 220; - blood supply in emotion, xi, 136-7; - cell constitution of, ix, 22 (See Muscle Cells); - communication with sense organs, 19-20, 122, 124, 137, 139, 140; - connection with nervous system, 124-37, xi, 19, 20, 24; - control of, by brain, ix, 139-40, 141, 147, 148 (fig.); - cramps in, 313; - development and overdevelopment, x, 304; - development in embryo, xi, 34, 35; - efficiency of, ix, 296; - energy release and restoration, xi, 24-5; - exercise effects, x, 270, 303; - fatigue in, 247, xi, 271, 273-4, ix, 79-81, 83-4; - fear and anger effects on, 166-7, xi, 132, 133; - flexibility and tensions, effects, 337, 339-40, 371, 372, 374; - flexion strength, 41-2; - flexors and extensors, 54, 166, 262-3, ix, 76-7; - force of, 75; - functions in kinetic system, xi, 60; - fundamental purposes of, ix, 86; - injuries to tissues, 287, 348; - irritability of, x, 87; - mechanical action of, 71-2; - kinaesthetic sensations from, xi, 123-8; - kinds of, ix, 74-5; - metabolism of, measurement in calories, 296, 297; - motion sense in, 90-1; - origin from coelom, xii, 27; - pain in relation to, xi, 118-21; - range of effort, ix, 79; - reciprocal innervation, xi, 86; - responses (see Motor Response); - response to contact & distance sensations, ix, 95, 121, 140; - soreness of, 80-1; - strength and capacity, on what dependent, 75-6, 79; - structure, 75; - thickness and length, 75-6; - uses, different kinds of, 82-4; - wasted in starvation, 297-8 - (see also Heart Muscle, Skeletal Muscles, Smooth Muscles) - - Muscle (Muscular) Senses, ix, 90-1, xi, 63, 64; - in infants, ix, 350; - organs of, 125 - - Muscular Motion, electricity from, vi, 16-17, 63-4 - - Mushrooms, character of, xiii, 43, 70; - origin, 223; - reproductive processes, 163-5 - - Music, fatigue diminished by, x, 247; - Hawaiian, xv, 315; - light transformed to, v, 332-5; - pitch modulations in, iv, 209; - primitive, xv, 312-15 - - Musical Chords, xi, 106-8 - - Musical Insects, xii, 109-10 - - Musical Instruments, development of, xv, 315-18, 325; - quality differences, iv, 233; - reed mouthpieces, 234-5; - stringed, 222-4; - wind, 231 - - Musical Scale, iv, 206-9, xi, 105-6; - tones in Indian, xv, 314 - - Musical Terms, from Italian, xv, 161 - - Musk, source of, xii, 322; - spread of odor of, iv, 131, xi, 80 - - Musk Deer, xii, 322 - - Muskox, xii, 328; - in glacial period, xiv, 376 - - Muskrats, xii, 289, 290 - - Mussels, xii, 58-67; - in lakes, xiv, 211-12 - - Mustangs, xii, 307 - - Mustard, effects on stomach, ix, 243-4; - origin, xiii, 265 - - Mustard Family, xiii, 197 - - Mustard Gas, viii, 263, 264, x, 187 - - Mustard Plant, fruit, xiii, 57 (fig.); - leaf, 38 - - Mustard Seed, xiii, 60 - - Mutants, Mutation, ix, 342-3, xiii, 333-4, xv, 23-4, xvi, 155 - - Mutilations, of body, xv, 257-60; - regeneration of, xii, 170 - - Muybridge, Edward, v, 330 - - Myer, Gen. Albert J., i, 217, 220 - - Myopia, ix, 112 - - Myotomes, xi, 34, 35 - - Myrtles, antiquity, xiii, 324-5 - - Mythology, beginnings of, xv, 357-8 - - Myxedema, x, 272, 349-50, 351 - - - Nacre, xii, 59 - - Naias, fertilization, xiii, 151-2 - - Naids (Naidae) xii, 53-5, 65-6 - - Nails, former making of, by smiths, iv, 49 - - Nails (body) cells of, ix, 13 - - Names, and perceptions, xi, 160-1 - - Naphthalene, viii, 51, 240, 253 - - Napier, John, logarithm invention, xvi, 104 - - Naples, Bay of, crustal movements about, iii, 80-1 - - Napoleon, dissolution of Salerno University, x, 36; - Egyptian campaign, mirage, i, 172; - indigestion before Waterloo, ix, 238; - Italian campaign, xiv, 244; - military road over Alps, 241; - Russian campaign, i, 306-7; - vaccination order, x, 102-3 - - Napoleon III, brain weight, xv, 39 - - Narragansett Bay, oysters of, xii, 61; - scallop fisheries, 65 - - Narrow-mindedness, muscular causes, xi, 372; - of grinds and thrill-hunters, 376 - - Narwhales, xii, 297 - - Nassa, xii, 70 - - Nassir Eddin, ii, 39 - - Nasturtium, leaves, xiii, 33 (fig.); - roots, 16 (fig.); - water-dripping by, 108 - - Natal, forests and grasslands, xiii, 375, 376; - hailstorm, i, 119 - - Naticas (mollusks), xii, 73 - - Native Shrubs, advantages, xiii, 273; - planting table, 274-89 - - Natural Bridges, iii, 127 (fig.), 128 - - Natural Gas, iii, 354; - composition, viii, 208; - exhaustion of supply, v, 173; - found with petroleum, iii, 350-3, 354, 355; - low luminosity, viii, 60; - origin and occurrence, iii, 354-5; - waste, 355 - - Natural History School, of medicine, x, 113 - - Naturalism, development, xvi, 111, 115 - - Natural Sciences, xvi, 139-48 - - Natural Selection, x, 135, 136, xv, 23, 24, xvi, 150-1, 152; - disease and, xv, 48; - in man, xv, 47-8; - working of, xii, 293, xiii, 334-5, 346, xv, 24-5 - (see also Struggle for Existence, Survival of Fittest) - - Nature, actions of, former theories, iv, 18-19, 26; - complexity and interdependence in, xv, 22; - curative powers, of, x, 21, 73, 75-6, 84-5, 367, vii, 240; - cycles in, viii, 349; - efficiency of, vi, 96; - life-renewing instinct, xiii, 116-17; - Longfellow's lines, xvi, 43; - man and, contrasted by language, xi, 224; - personification of, xv, 357; - prodigality (see Prodigality of Nature); - savage attitude toward, xv, 321, 329, 331, 339; - science and the forces of, vii, 235 - - Nature-Philosophy School, x, 113 - - Naunyn, Bernard, xvi, 184 - - Nausea, ix, 91; - cause of, xi, 39; - visceral sense, 63 - - Nautical Almanacs, ii, 13, 40, 216, 263; - of Greenwich, xvi, 125 - - Nautilus, pearly, iii, 273-5, xii, 75-6 - - "Nautilus," submarine, v, 198 - - Navajo Indians, weaving of, xv, 247 (fig.) - - Naval Architecture, problems of, v, 194 - - Naval Warfare, projectiles in, v, 373 - - Navigation, chronometers in former, v, 66; - historical development, 182, 188-9, xv, 261-5; - meteorology in, i, 271-83; - wireless applications, vii, 284-5 - - Neanderthal Cave, xv, 95 (fig.) - - Neanderthal Man, xv, 96-8; - disappearance of, 99; - implements of, 107, 108; - period of, iii, 302, xv, 102; - skull of, iii, 304 (fig.) - - Neap Tides, ii, 70, xiv, 292 - - Nearsightedness, ix, 112, xi, 85 - - Nebraska, potash supplies, viii, 279, xiv, 67; - volcanic ash deposits, 327; - water beneath, iii, 114 - - Nebulæ, ii, 357-60; - distribution, 352; - double, 377; - Herschel's conception, 16, 368-9; - in connection with new stars, 332, 333; - in relation to Galaxy, 355, 364-5; - in relation to stars, 308-9, 365, 381; - motions, 364; - photographic study, 135-7; - spectra, 116; - types, ring and spiral, iii, 160-1 - (see also Spiral Nebulæ) - - Nebular Hypothesis, ii, 367-72, 374-5, 380, iii, 159-61; - anticipated by Swedenborg, ii, 367; - applied to asteroids, 258; - in relation to earth's heat, iii, 108, 178, 184-5 - - Nebulium, ii, 359 - - Neck, arteries of, ix, 196-7; - pulse in, 311 - - Necropsies, x, 98 - - Nectar, of flowers, xiii, 124, 125 - - Needles, primitive, xv, 81; - threading of, ix, 118 - - Negative, electrical meaning, vi, 57, 124 - - Negative Electricity, i, 141, 142, iv, 258, 265, vi, 287, 288; - electrons as, viii, 187-8; - in atmosphere, i, 143 - - Negroes, color of skin, xv, 36; - hair of, 38; - in Tropics, xiv, 356; - in U. S., 218-19; - language of, xv, 159; - nose index and nostril shape, 46; - prepotency in crosses, x, 230; - susceptibility to lung diseases, xv, 50; - type characteristics, 35 - (see also Black Race) - - Negroes (African), belief in Reincarnation, xv, 334; - idea of soul, 330; - ideas of sleep, 332; - priests of, 350-1 - - Nematodes, xii, 45 - - Neodymium, atomic weight and symbol, viii, 383 - - Neolithic Period, domestic animals of, xii, 346; - implements of, iii, 302, 306, v, 14, xv, 103, 109-10 - - Neon, in atmosphere, i, 11, 12; - production and use, i, 33; - symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Neotomy, xii, 173 - - Nephoscope, i, 86, 377 - - Neptune (planet), ii, 268-9; - atmosphere, 250; - comet families, 271; - discovery, 67, 79, 86, 189, 268, 272; - distance from sun, iii, 159; - habitability, ii, 250; - orbit, 270, 163; - photographic study, 133; - planets beyond, 270-3; - retrograding motion, 271; - size, 163; - rotation period, 377; - weight, 77 - - Nerve Cells, functions and structure, ix, 122-4, 125; - growth of, 48; - of brain, 140 - (see also Connective, Motor and Sensory Nerve Cells) - - Nerve Centers, of brain stem, ix, 168, 257 - - Nerves, color effects, vi, 274-5; - at birth, ix, 348-9; - composition and color, 124, 159-60, xi, 17; - cranial, 29-31 (see Cranial Nerves), ix, 131, 132; - distribution to muscles, 124-5, 127; - electrical excitation, vi, 63-4; - spinal, ix, 131-2, xi, 25-6; - to glands and smooth muscles, ix, 159-60, 162, 164-5 - (see also Nerve Cells, Neurones) - - Nerve Trunks, ix, 131-2 - - Nervous Actions, complex, ix, 139-54; - simple, 132-7; - special, 155-72 - - Nervous Activity, fundamental laws, xi, 18-23, 27-8 - - Nervous Diseases, electrical treatment, vi, 17, 63-4, 284-5; - electrical treatment, vii, 235, 238-9; - habit in, xi, 248; - hot baths in, x, 311; - physical attendants, 353; - physical causes, xi, 370-2; - suppressed emotions and, 140 - - Nervous Fatigue, ix, 137-8 - - Nervous Fluid Theory, x, 85-6 - - Nervous Prostration, x, 248 - - Nervous System, xi, 16-32, ix, 122-38; - brain connections in, ix, 142-4, 147-51; - complexity and mental activity, xi, 13, 20; - control of body functions by, x, 346-7, 352-3; - control of glands and smooth muscles by, ix, 159-60, 162-3, 164-5, 168; - development in embryo, 343, 344, 348-9, xi, 34-6; - emergency effects on, ix, 166-7, 171; - examination methods, x, 371; - fatigue effects, xi, 272, 274; - function (Crile), 58; - functional unit, 20; - habit in, 248; - hereditary diseases of, x, 234; - in sleep, xi, 286-8; - part of, in maintaining life, ix, 20, 21, 23; - reciprocal innervation in, xi, 86; - sympathetic, x, 352-3, xi, 134-5; - thyroid effects on, ix, 303, 304 - (see also Central Nervous System) - - Net Goods, v, 277 - - Netherlands, delta formation of, xiv, 186 - - Nettle, hairs of, xiii, 42 - - Net-veined Leaves, xiii, 32, 34, 176, 178, 183 (fig.); - classification of plants with, 60-1 - - Networks, electric, vii, 27, 373 - - Neuralgia, barometric effects, i, 329 - - Neurasthenic Abscess, Amatus' cure of, x, 58-9 - - Neurones, xi, 17-18, 20-1, 22 - (see also Nerve Cells) - - Neurotomes, xi, 34, 35 - - Neutral Coasts, xiv, 248, 254, 263-4 - - Nevada, mining products, iii, 366, 368, 370; - "pogonip" fogs, i, 96; - rainfall, 112; - silver mines, viii, 198; - topography, xiv, 42 - - Névé, granulated snow, iii, 59 - - New Brunswick, N. J., radio plant, vii, 274-5 - - Newcomen's Engine, v, 144, xvi, 125 - - New England, agriculture and manufacturing in, xv, 132; - building stones, iii, 371, 372; - clock making, v, 50; - cod fisheries, xii, 164; - cotton mills, xiii, 236; - "dark days", i, 56-7; - forest trees of, xiv, 372; - geological history, iii, 219, 231-2, 234, 235, 240; - glacial bowlders, 70, xiv, 59; - glacial soil of, 70; - glacial topography, 56, 60; - gorges, iii, 44; - igneous rock formations, xiv, 111, 112; - January thaws, i, 363, 376; - Labrador current effects, xiv, 305; - lakes of, 200; - mussels on coast, xii, 65; - opossums in, 275; - peneplain of southern, iii, 35; - plateau of southern, xiv, 216-17, 221, 236; - "Vineland" as, 261; - water power and manufactures, 31 - - Newfoundland Banks, cod fisheries of, xii, 164; - fogs, i, 93-4, 94, xiv, 305 - (see also Grand Banks) - - New Guinea, animals of, xii, 249, 272, 279; - bird of paradise of, xv, 275; - cockatoo of, v, 9-10; - continental island, xiv, 276; - rain forests of, 369 - - New Jersey, coast of, xiv, 256, 262, 263; - coast destruction, 45, 302; - coastal plain water supply, 138; - dunes on coast, iii, 71; - former copper mines, xiv, 112; - former volcanoes, 318; - igneous rock formations in, 107, 111, 112; - pine barrens, xiii, 371; - silk industry of, xiv, 269; - streams of southern, 160; - zinc production, iii, 363, 364 - - New Madrid Earthquake, iii, 95, 98 - - Newman, Cardinal, on change, xiii, 325-6, 336 - - New Mexico, arid topography of, xiv, 42; - mesas of, 82; - volcanic fields of, 102, 315, 317, 318; - wife auctioning by Indians, xv, 283-4 - - "New Mexico" (battleship), electrical operation, vii, 327-8; - induction motors, vi, 248 - - New Orleans, acquisition of, xiv, 193; - founding of, 192; - growth, 219; - harbor of, 270; - yellow fever epidemic, x, 160 - - New Orleans Inner Harbor Canal, v, 259 - - Newspapers, printing and presses, v, 301-5, 306; - typesetting by machine, 307-8 - - Newsprint, making of, v, 292, 298 - - New Stars (see Novae) - - New Testament, sounding lines mentioned in, xiv, 284 - - Newton, Sir Isaac, ii, 14, 62, iv, 19-20; - forerunners of, ii, 58-9; - gravitation discovery and laws, 63-72, iv, 20, 95-8, xvi, 115-16; - Halley and, ii, 88; - influence of, on mechanics, iv, 11; - laws of motion, ii, 62-3 (see Newton's Laws); - light experiments, ii, 111, iv, 357, xvi, 119; - light theory of, iv, 47; - mathematical work, ii, 14-15, xvi, 115-16; - methods, ii, 71; - on comets, 85; - on conservation of energy, xvi, 131; - on mountain observatories, ii, 139, 140; - on precession, 70-1; - on refracting telescopes, 100, 140; - on shape of earth, 69; - on tides, 70; - on time, iv, 15; - on what gravitation is, ii, 78; - "Principia", 13, 63, 67-8, 88, xvi, 105, 115; - sound velocity law, iv, 198; - telescopes, ii, 102, 103 - - Newton's Laws of Motion, ii, 62-3, 66, iv, 61-9; - anticipated by Galileo, ii, 56, iv, 19; - applicability, 86; - based on absolute space and time, 16, 18; - discovered under apple tree, v, 109 - - Newts, xii, 169, 170-3 - - New Vienna School, x, 113 - - New York (City), Beach's subway, v, 138; - Broadway lighting, vii, 340-1; - croton bugs of, xii, 107; - Croton Dam, iv, 119; - crowds after Lincoln's death, xi, 323; - Edison system, vi, 151, xvi, 188; - five-cent fare, vii, 198; - garbage value, viii, 330; - geological changes around, iii, 78, 79; - growth, to what due, xiv, 267-8; - "hobble-skirt" cars, vii, 184; - insects around, xii, 99; - magnetism of earth at, iv, 247, 249, 250, 252; - Penn. R. R. station, xiv, 146; - region west of, iii, 211 (fig.); - sewage disposal, viii, 325; - submachine guns for police, v, 368; - subway excavating, 261; - subways, air-brake system, 132-3; - subways, dust, i, 325; - subways, electrolytic corrosion, vi, 66; - synchronized electric service, 384; - telephone connections with Los Angeles, 367-8; - telephone exchanges, vii, 103; - telephones in, 75; - telephones, automatic, vi, 87, vii, 92, 106; - temperature range, xiv, 346; - terminals electrified, vi, 162, vii, 181-2, 193-4; - underground wire systems, 12, 14, 24; - water supply, viii, 317, xiv, 140; - weathering in climate of, iii, 23; - wireless device in Times Square, vii, 280 - - New York Harbor, developing shore lines, iii, 58; - dredging of Ambrose Channel, v, 257-8; - formation of, xiv, 255, 268; - lighterage conditions, 266-7; - sedimentary deposits, 268-9; - wireless piloting, vii, 284-5 - - New York (State), drumlins, iii, 69, xiv, 60; - finger lakes, 203, 211; - forest trees of, 372; - geological history, iii, 195-6, 231-2, 234-5, 219, 240, 243-5; - glacial bowlders, 70; - glacial soil of, xiv, 70; - glacial topography, 56, 60, 61; - gorges, iii, 44, 243, xiv, 50, 52, 171-2, xiv, 50, 52, 171-2; - gypsum deposits, iii, 376; - lakes, how formed, 143-4, 145; - lakes, number, xiv, 200; - oyster industry, xii, 61; - salt deposits, iii, 375, viii, 140; - weather observations, organized, i, 215 - - New Zealand, coasts, xiv, 258, 264; - geological history, 275-6; - Maori of (see Maori); - native carvings in, xv, 300; - ratite birds of, xii, 249; - sheep plant, xiii, 379; - sheep-raising in, xiv, 384; - snakes absent from, xii, 217; - spinach in, xiii, 224; - travertine terraces, xiv, 146; - tuatera of, xii, 183-4 - - Niagara Falls, electric furnace industries at, vii, 302; - harnessing of, vi, 368-70; - origin and history, iii, 45-7, 243; - rate of recession, 246; - verticality due to undermining, xiv, 133; - working power, vi, 47 - - Niagara Falls Power Plant, vi, 368-78; - load factor and charges, 381; - phased with Canadian plant, 384 - - Niagara Limestone, iii, 192 - - Niagara River, drop in, vi, 368; - due to Ice Age, iii, 243; - first impressiveness, vii, 202; - gorge of, xiv, 51 - - "Niagaras," Electric, i, 342, 343-4 - - Nickel, viii, 126-7, 154; - affinity strength, 128; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - classification place, 178, 183; - electrical conductivity, iv, 283, vi, 77; - fusibility, viii, 384; - in earth's interior, xiv, 11; - in steel alloys, xiv, 238; - magnetic susceptibility, iv, 251; - melting point and requirements, iv, 162; - ores of, viii, 198, 270; - positiveness, vi, 59; - source, xiv, 238; - test for, viii, 287, 289 - - Nickel-Iron Batteries, vi, 149-51 - - Nickel Plating, vii, 314, 316-17 - - Nicol's Prism, iv, 354 - - Nieve Penitente, i, 117, 377 - - Niger River, furrow of, xiv, 287; - Park's explorations, xvi, 123 - - Night, cooling of earth at, i, 121; - "falling" of, xi, 173; - plant conduct at, xiii, 88-9, 113, 114, 126 - - Night Adders, xii, 232 - - Night-Blooming Plants, fertilization, xiii, 152-3 - - Nightingales, xii, 269 - - Nightjar Family, xii, 267 - - Nightshade, xiii, 250 - - Nile River, aerial photography, i, 46-7; - ancient harnessing, v, 19; - annual overflow of, xiv, 53, 70-1; - bichir of, xii, 151; - Bruce's exploration, xvi, 123; - connections with Congo system, xiv, 186-7; - course of, 120, 155; - crocodiles of, xii, 199; - dominance of Egyptian life, ii, 26; - Egypt gift of, xiv, 71; - gobar of upper region, i, 96; - hippopotamus of, xii, 310; - length and volume, xiv, 189; - rafts used on, xv, 264-5; - veneration in Egypt, v, 18; - water supply of, xiv, 182-3 - - Nile Valley, antiquity of man in, xv, 84; - fertility, xiv, 71; - sand-abrasion of granite bluffs, 77 - - Nimbus Clouds, i, 98, 101, 103, 377 - - Ninevah, burying of, iii, 75 - - Ninevah Eclipse, ii, 209 - - Nipissing Lakes, iii, 150, 151 - - Nirvana, xv, 334 - - Niton, viii, 185; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - in atmosphere, i, 11, 12 - - Nitrate Group, viii, 93; - in explosives, 71 - - Nitrates, cellulose forms, viii, 254-5; - Chilian deposits, i, 35; - viii, 64, 197, xiv, 66; - commercial production, i, 35-6, vii, 322, 323-4, viii, 74; - formation in soil, i, 35, viii, 340, 345, xiii, 98; - metal occurrence in, viii, 130; - test, 290; - uses, 72; - arterial spasm, x, 381 - (see also Potassium, Silver, Sodium Nitrates) - - Nitric Acid, character and uses, viii, 71-3, 115, 116; - in atmosphere, i, 13; - production of, 36, vii, 322, 323-4, viii, 74, 137, 275; - solubility, 112; - strength, 115 - - Nitro, defined, viii, 379 - - Nitrocellulose, viii, 255, 256, 261 - - Nitro Compounds, viii, 237; - in explosives, 71 - - Nitrogen, viii, 18, 64-8; - agricultural needs and sources, i, 34, vii, 321, viii, 73-4, 75, 280, - 340, 341, 343, 345-6, xiv, 64-5, 66; - atmospheric, i, 10, 11, 34, vii, 321-2, viii, 67; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - boiling and freezing points, iv, 173; - chemical inertness, i, 12-13; - critical temperature, 29, iv, 173; - derivatives, viii, 229-30 - (see also Amines); - elimination from body, 353-4, x, 342; - fixation, natural and artificial, i, 13, 33, 34-7, 153, vii, 301, - 321-4, 352-3, viii, 66, 73-5, 153, 345-6, x, 193-4, xiii, 98, - xiv, 66, xvi, 165; - freed by combustion and decay, viii, 61, 330, 345-6; - in blood effects, i, 329, v, 120, x, 346; - in chlorophyll, xiii, 80; - in explosives, viii, 63, 345-6; - in garbage, 330; - in proteins, 64-5, 340, 351, ix, 29, 279, 282, 284, x, 270, 277; - industrial uses, i, 33, 34; - liquefaction of, iv, 171; - melting point, 162; - preparation from air, viii, 65-6; - production from liquid air, i, 30, 32, 34, viii, 67, 68, 274; - solubility in water, 40, 111; - spectrum of, i, 161 - - Nitrogen Compounds, viii, 64, 68-74; - by-products of coke, 46-7; - in air, i, 13; - in animal body, viii, 353-4; - instability, 66; - organic, 229-30; - vitamines, 369 - - Nitrogen Cycle, viii, 73, 334, 335, 349; - practical applications, 325-6, 330, 340, 345-6 - - Nitrogenous Waste, x, 270 - - Nitroglycerine, viii, 63, 247-8, 260, 261 - - Nitrous Acid, viii, 115; - in atmosphere, i, 13; - production, 36 - - Nitrous Oxide, viii, 70-1; - as anesthetic, x, 123-4; - critical temperature and pressure, iv, 172 - - Nobody Crabs, xii, 89 - - Noctilucent Clouds, i, 17-18, 58, 377 - - Nodes, of moon, ii, 197 - - Nodes, of vibrations, iv, 217 - - Noguchi, Hideyo, x, 173 - - Noises, awe roused by, xi, 147; - qualities of, 104 - - Nomadic Life, xv, 128, xiv, 141 - - Nonconductors, (electrical) iv, 259, vi, 77, 294, vii, 373; - nonmetals as, viii, 126 - - Nonmetals, viii, 17-19, 84, 126, 379; - in body tissues, 354; - manufacture and uses, 274-5; - negative ionization, 122; - oxides of, 20, 39; - periodic classification, 181; - plants needs of, 337, 341; - tests, 289-90; - union with metals, 20, 32 - - Nordic Group, xvi, 48-9, 50 - - Norfolk, Va., harbor of, xiv, 268 - - Noria, ancient use of, v, 19 - - Normals, meteorological, i, 204, 378 - - North Africa, civet cat of, vii, 353; - civilization in, xiv, 196; - mormoids of, xii, 154; - vultures of, 260; - zoölogy of, xiv, 291 - - North America, ancient camels of, xii, 313; - animals (carnivora), 340, 342-3, 349; - birds of, 268-9; - climate of eastern, xiv, 346-7; - climate on opposite coasts, 345; - coasts, Atlantic and Pacific, 25-6, 40, 247-8, 249-50; - cyclones and tornadoes, i, 137; - drainage systems, xiv, 190; - exploration and settlement, 196-7, 310-11; - forests of, 371, 372-4, 375-6; - former connection with Asia, xii, 313, xiii, 351, xiv, 30; - former connection with Europe, 290; - frogs of, xii, 180; - fur animals of, 350; - geological history, iii, 164-248; - Ice Age and resulting topography, 62, 236-48, xiv, 3, 30, 43, 59-62, - 200, xv, 74-6; - indigenous plants, xiv, 382; - no absolute deserts in, xiii, 377; - Northmen in, xiv, 261; - rainfall of, 360; - rivers in history, 31, 190-5, 196-7; - snails of, xii, 69, 71; - tobacco used by natives, xiii, 256; - trees of, xiv, 375-7; - Urodela of, xii, 170-2 - - North American Basin, xiv, 288-9 - - North Atlantic Ocean, birds of, xii, 251, 252, 253; - currents of, xiv, 304; - deep sea life in, xii, 23; - formation of, xiv, 290; - giant squids of, xii, 79-80; - herring fisheries, 156; - limacina of, 19; - sharks of, 145, 146; - temperature of, xiv, 297; - walruses of, xii, 334; - weather charts, i, 275, 276 - - North Beach, Florida, wave power at, xiv, 300 - - North Cape, level changes at, xiv, 34 - - North Carolina, Appalachian Mts. in, xiv, 97, 168; - coast of, 264; - thermal belts, i, 259; - trap dikes of, xiv, 112-13 - - Northern Hemisphere, cradle of flowering plants, xiii, 319; - deflection of motion in, i, 125; - dip of magnetic needle in, iv, 245-6; - forests of, xiv, 371; - land in, 20; - winds of, i, 125, 127, 128, 137, xiv, 345-6, 348 - - Northern Lights, i, 158 (see Aurora) - - Northmen, history of, xiv, 261-2 - - North Pole, rain at, i, 109 - - North Sea, commerce development in, xiv, 308; - formation of, 287; - formerly land, xv, 76; - herring fisheries, xii, 156 - - Norway, barley ripening in, xiv, 365; - civilization of, xv, 131; - coasts, iii, 57, 79; - coasts, xiv, 247, 258, 259 - (see also Fjords); - glaciers of, 55; - Gulf Stream effects, 304; - latitude of, 315; - nitrogen fixation, i, 36, vii, 324, viii, 74; - plain on west coast, xiv, 47 - - Nose, adaptation to odors, xi, 80; - bones of, ix, 62; - cartilage in, 57; - cleanings of, x, 312; - cold effects on, ix, 311; - functions and diseases of, x, 341; - germ infection through, 198, 202, 219; - in infants, xv, 61; - nerve connections, xi, 81-2; - organ of smell, 62, 78; - passages, 77; - plastic surgery of, x, 57, 189; - racial types, xv, 45-6; - smell organs in, ix, 96; - violent blowing, danger, xi, 101; - X-ray examinations of, x, 373 - - Nose Rings, xv, 259 (fig.), 260 - - Nostrils, of monkeys, xii, 376; - racial shapes of, xv, 46 - - Notes, musical, iv, 206-9, xi, 105-6; - of Indian scale, xv, 311; - pitch and intervals, iv, 205-6, ix, 99-100; - pitch changes by motion, iv, 210; - quality of, to what due, 233 - - Notochord, xii, 128; - in lancelets, 129 - - Novae, or New Stars, ii, 331-3; - explanation, 329; - in class of variables, 324; - location, 328; - outbursts, 328-9 - - Nova Scotia, coal beds, iii, 199; - Vineland as, xiv, 261 - - Nuclei, chemical, xvi, 162 - - Nuggets, iii, 367 - - Numbers, development of systems of, xv, 180-4; - Pythagorean theory, xvi, 80 - - Numerals, Arabic, xvi, 103; - Babylonian, 60-1 - - Nummulites, iii, 235 - - Nut Butter, source, xiii, 10, 220 - - Nuthatches, xii, 268 - - Nutmeg, xiii, 261-2 - - Nutrition, chemistry of, viii, 348-72; - defective, due to under-chewing, ix, 228; - deficiency of, disease from, x, 255-68, 314; - problem of, in therapy, 382; - stimulated by light, 253 - (see also Diet, Food) - - Nuts, food value, viii, 366; - oil in, 246 - - Nymphs (aquatic larvæ), xii, 106 - - - Oak-Hazel Copses, xiii, 369-70 - - Oak Trees, antiquity, xiii, 324-5; - family, 193; - fertilization, 148; - flowers without petals, 190; - index plants, i, 255; - in American forests, xiv, 373; - in Danish Peat bogs, xv, 87; - in landscaping, xiii, 271-2; - northern limit, 367; - rate of increase of, xv, 19, 21 - - Oaths, judicial, xv, 373-4 - - Oats, food value, viii, 364; - native of Old World, xiii, 182; - vitamines in, x, 262 - - Obelisks, Egyptian, ii, 24 - - Obesity, x, 272-5 - - Obsequent Streams, xiv, 160, 174 - - Observatories, ancient, ii, 37, 38, 39; - mountain, 139-51; - first European, xvi, 100 - - Occupational Diseases, x, 244-6 - - Occupational Fatigue, xi, 270 - - Occupational Postures, xi, 371, 372 - - Ocean, Oceans, annual discharge of rivers into, xiv, 135; - atmospheric conditions over, i, 13, 14, 143-4, vii, 212; - basins and shoal water line, xiv, 24-6, 287-8; - basins, topographical features, iii, 52, xiv, 27, 286-90; - birds of, xii, 251-4, 258, 264; - chemical elements in, xiii, 196-7; - circulation of water in, xiv, 298-9, 303-5; - color of, viii, 40; - coloring, to what due, xii, 17, xvi, 147; - density of water in, v, 195-6, xii, 21-2; - deposits on floor, iii, 52-5, 168, xiv, 284-6; - depths, iii, 51, xii, 21, xiii, 72, xiv, 23-4, 26-7, 288-9, 290 (see - also Deep Sea); - depths still a mystery, v, 202; - divisions, xiv, 22; - earthquakes in, 336-7; - erosive work (see Ocean Waves); - evaporation, vii, 212; - exploration of, xiv, 283-4; - extent of distribution, 20-3, iii, 51; - faulting in bed of, xiv, 39; - floors, general flatness, iii, 52, xiv, 24, 284; - floor level changes, iii, 83, 168, 206, xiv, 34, 253; - floors never land, iii, 55, xiv, 290; - floor, ooze of, xii, 17-18; - former extensions, iii, 12, 54, 55, 130, 132, 165-224 (maps), 235, - xiii, 298-9, xiv, 19; - heating and cooling of, 346; - historical importance, 305-11; - metals found in, viii, 148; - meteorology of, i, 271-83; - organic life of, xii, 16-24, xvi, 146-8; - organic life in relation to salts, ix, 174, 175; - phosphorescence of, xii, 18-20, 84; - potassium compounds in, viii, 143, 279; - power from, v, 174 (see Tides, Ocean Waves); - pressure of water in, v, 95, 201; - salinity, iii, 51-2, viii, 138-9, 195, 196, 279, xiv, 295-6; - salt of early, ix, 175-6; - soundings, xiv, 284; - surface form and tides, 291-5; - temperature layers, xii, 21-2, xiv, 297-9; - theories of origin, iii, 160, 163; - thunder audibility, i, 193; - volcanoes in, xiv, 285-6; - wind and pressure belts, i, 128-9; - wind charts, 271-6 - - Ocean Commerce, development of, xiv, 305-11 - - Ocean Currents, xiv, 303-5; - altering courses, i, 345; - charts, 271-6; - deflection by earth's rotation, xiv, 32; - plant and animal distribution by, 277, 278; - seed-dispersal by, xiii, 346-8 - - Oceanic Islands, xiv, 276-9; - plants of, xiii, 348 - - Ocean Steamers, development, v, 192-4; - strains on, 194; - turbines in, 153-4 - - Ocean Waves, base level of erosion, xiv, 254; - cause, 299; - coast destruction by, iii, 55-7, xiv, 44, 45, 46, 299-303; - length, vi, 269; - motion, v, 124; - power uses, 174; - quelled by compressed air, 124-5 - - Ocelots, xii, 364 - - Octopus, xii, 77 - - Odorous Oils, in mint plants, xiii, 205 - - Odors, ix, 97; - adaptation to, 97, xi, 80-1; - agreeable, enjoyment of, ix, 98; - classification, xi, 79; - digestion and, x, 320; - inhibition effects, xi, 81; - perception of, ix, 96, 97; - spread of, iv, 131 - - Odyssey, historic value of, xv, 323-4 - - Oersted, Hans Christian, vi, 19-20; - electromagnetic discovery, iv, 276; - on waterspouts, i, 356 - - Ogden River Canyon, iii, 39; - thrust faults in, 92 - - Ohm, Dr. S. G., vi, 21-2 - - Ohm's Law, iv, 281-2, vi, 22, 74-5, vii, 373; - applied in meter construction, 157-8; - anticipated by Cavendish, vi, 17; - for alternating currents, 164-5, 169-70 - - Ohmmeter, vi, 80 - - Ohms, electrical resistance unit, iv, 282, 284, vi, 71, 74-5, 170, 171, - vii, 373; - method of measuring, 165-6 (see Ohm's Law) - - Ohio, corn-crops and weather, i, 245-8; - glacial drift in, xiv, 170 - - Ohio River, drainage changes, iii, 245; - water supply and sewage, viii, 318 - - Ohio Valley, floods, i, 110-11 - - Oil, fuel on battleships, vii, 328; - Crude (see Petroleum), films of, colors in, iv, 377; - shark's, xii, 146-7; - turtle, 194; - use in lessening friction, v, 203 - - Oildag, vii, 300 - - Oil of Vitriol, iii, 336, viii, 83 - - Oil Pools, iii, 380 - - Oils, defined, viii, 244 - - Oils, Fatty, viii, 244, 245, 246, 247; - as food, 363; - hydrogenation of, 232, 247; - insolubility, 112; - preserving of, 371; - vegetable (see Vegetable Oils) - - Oil Wells, drilling of, v, 265-7; - from diatom deposits, ix, 28; - gushers, iii, 353-4; - productiveness and life of, 353 - - Okapi, xii, 321-2 - - Okeechobee, Lake, xiv, 200 - - Old Age, cause of degeneration in, x, 201; - feelings of time in, xi, 194; - jaws in, ix, 57 - - "Old Probabilities", i, 216-17 - - Old Testament, hygienic laws in, x, 15; - morality of, xv, 374 - - Old Vienna School, x, 77, 104 - - Old Wives' Remedies, xiii, 249 - - Oleic Acid, viii, 221 - - Olfactory Nerve, ix, 142, xi, 29-30, 81-2 - - Oligoclase, iii, 329 - - Olive Oil, chemical nature, viii, 231; - making of, by plants, ix, 28, xiii, 95; - substitutes for, viii, 363 - - Olives, acquired taste for, xi, 72, 73; - origin, xiii, 226 - - Olivine, iii, 334 - - Omega Centauri, ii, 136, 336-7, 338-9 - - Omens, belief in, xv, 355 - - Omicron Ceti, type of variables, ii, 324-5, 327 - - Onions, antiscurvy vitamines in, x, 266; - bulb, xiii, 25 (fig.); - in lily family, 184; - origin, 223; - underground, stems, 23 - - Ontario, glacial soil of, xiv, 70, 170; - Keewatin series, iii, 169; - lakes, 143; - oldest fossils in, 250 - - Ontario, Lake, increasing altitude, iii, 82 - - Oozes, deep-sea, iii, 54, xii, 18, 19, xiv, 285 - - Opals, iii, 334-5 - - Opaque Bodies, iv, 324; - X-ray examination, vii, 253-5 - - Open Hearth Furnaces, v, 320-2, 323 - - Open-Hearth Process, viii, 160, 269 - - Opium, history and sources, xiii, 253-4; - use of, in tropics, xv, 126-7 - - Oppolzer, Johannes von, x, 113 - - Opossums, xii, 274-6, 278; - embryological resemblances, xv, 54; - instinct of, xi, 46 - - Optical Illusions, iv, 323, xi, 184-90; - due to atmospheric refractions, i, 171-4, iv, 326-9 - - Optic Nerve, ix, 110 (fig.), 124, 142, xi, 29-30, 84-5; - discovery, xvi, 82; - retina and, iv, 346; - stimuli affecting, x, 118 - - Optics, atmospheric, i, 164-85; - "father of physiologic", x, 97; - history of development, xvi, 101, 119 - - Optimal Temperature, xi, 51 - - Optophone, v, 332-5, 384 - - Orange (color), complementary color of, iv, 367; - heat color, 361; - soothing effects, vi, 274, 275 - - Orange Juice, for babies, ix, 347 - - Oranges, food values, x, 266, 268; - origin, xiii, 226; - spread, 354; - true berries, 54 - - Orang-utan, xii, 381, 383; - compared with man, xv, 59; - of Bronx Garden, v, 9 - - Orators, advantages over writers, xv, 145; - limited speeches of ancient, v, 62; - pitch of voice of, iv, 232 - - Orchards, frost protection, i, 259, 332; - warm and cold spots, 258-9 - - Orchestras, sounds of, iv, 199 - - Orchid Family, xiii, 184-7 - - Orchids, aerial roots, xiii, 20-1; - butterfly, 145; - epiphytic, 362; - fertilization, 144-5; - flowers, 50; - highest of monocotyledons, 181; - illustrations, 145-7; - leaves of saprophytic, 100; - Madagascar, 48; - seeds, 154, 344; - vanilla, 259-60; - in tropical forests, xiv, 368 - - Ordeals, xv, 373 - - Ordovician Period, iii, 20, 185-91, 381; - plants and animals, 251, 261, 266, 267, 268, 270, 273, 274, 277, 281; - sea extensions in, 183 (fig.) - - Ore Deposits, iii, 355-70, viii, 197-200 - - Oregon, block mountains, iii, 139; - earthquakes in, xiv, 331; - forests of, 374; - lava formations, 102, 104, 318; - storm waves on coast, 300 - - Ores, defined, iii, 381, viii, 197; - electrolytic refining, vii, 319-21; - extraction of metals from, viii, 131, 269-72; - in metamorphic rocks, xiv, 234, 237; - veins, how formed, iii, 126 - - Oresme, Nicole, xvi, 101 - - Organic, defined, viii, 380 - - Organic Acids, viii, 52, 219-21, 336 - - Organic Chemical Industries, viii, 241-66 - - Organic Chemistry, viii, 52, 204-40; - beginnings, xvi, 162 - - Organic Compounds, viii, 51-2, 204, 205; - character of series, 207; - colors, 85-6, 258, 312; - explosion of, 63; - interchange of groups, 211; - physical state and molecular complexity, 298; - solubility in water, 37 - - Organic Life, beauty universal, xvi, 145-6; - climatic influences, 141-2; - distinction from inorganic realm, xii, 13-14; - origin, xiii, 300-1, xvi, 144-5, 149; - no traces in meteors, ii, 292; - studies of Mayer and Helmholtz, xvi, 142 - (see also Life) - - Organic Liquids, solubility, viii, 112 - - Organic Matter, chemical constituents, viii, 18, 29, 34, 42, 64; - food of animals, 349; - formed by plants, xiii, 14; - in atmospheric dust, i, 60-1; - in soils, viii, 339-40; - in waters, 40-1 - - Organicists, school of, x, 86 - - Organisms, binomial nomenclature, x, 84; - cell constitution, 119, xv, 16, xvi, 142; - chemical basis of, xii, 10-13; - chemistry of, viii, 204-5, 348-72; - chemosynthetic, xii, 15; - earliest, xiii, 299, 303; - frames and shells, xvi, 145; - growth and forms due to physical laws, xvi, 142, 144-5; - growth compared with crystallization, iii, 311; - metals congenial to, viii, 148; - microscopic (see Germs); - reproduction of, x, 228; - symmetry in, xvi, 155; - variations, meristic and substantive, xvi, 155; - vestiges in oldest rocks, iii, 249-50 (see Animals, Plants) - - Organogens, viii, 18 - - Organs (physical), disordered functions of, x, 318-65; - vital function testing, 376-9, 382-3 - - Organs (musical), iv, 228-31; - flue and reed styles, 234-5; - intervals on, 208; - temperature effects on, 231-2; - pipes of, xv, 316 - - Oribasius, x, 31 - - Oriental Gobies, fins of, xii, 134 - - Orientation, in ancient temples, ii, 25-6 - - Orinoco Basin, arrau turtle of, xii, 193-4; - chocolate in, xiii, 234; - jaguars of, xii, 362 - - Orinoco River, caribes of, xii, 160; - connections with Amazon, xiv, 187 - - Orioles, xii, 269 - - Orion, great nebula in, ii, 357, 359, 363, 364; - moving clusters of, 343; - distortions from sun's motion, 306 - - Orion Stars, ii, 117; - moving clusters among, 343; - radial velocities, 308 - - Orkney Islands, wave action at Wick, xiv, 300 - - Ornaments, bodily, xv, 253-4 - - Ornithorhynchus, xii, 272 - - Orongo, Mongolian, xii, 327 - - Orpathology, x, 318 - - Orräus, of Russia, x, 164 - - Orris Root, source, xiii, 189 - - Orthoclase, iii, 328; - hardness of, 320 - - Orthodontia Appliances, xi, 373 - - Orthoptera, xii, 107-10 - - Osborn, Henry Fairfield, quoted, xii, 13 - - Osborn, Prof., on cave pictures, xv, 115-16; - on Neanderthal Man, 97 - - Osborne, J. W., i, 319 - - Oscillation Circuits, vii, 263, 265, 373-4; - theory of, 286-98 - - Oscillation Generators, vii, 273-8, 290-1 - - Oscillations, electric, iv, 313, 314, vii, 373-4; - damped and undamped (see Damped, Undamped Waves) - - Oscillations, in planetary system, ii, 75 - - Osler, Sir William, x, 150-2; - on conceptions of disease and therapy, 380; - on Pasteur, 144; - on sleeping sickness, 169; - on yellow fever germ, 162-3; - on hardened arteries, x, 335 - - Osler's Disease, x, 152 - - Osler's Spots, x, 152 - - Osmium, viii, 172; - symbol and atomic weight, 383; - valence, 178, 180 - - Osmosis, xiii, 91-2, 93-4 - - Osmotic Pressure, viii, 113, xiii, 93-4; - bursting of fern spores by, 156; - discovery and law, xvi, 164; - in solutions, viii, 123, 311; - water supplied to plants by, xiii, 102 - - Ostracoderms, iii, 260, 281-2 - - Ostracods, xii, 18-19 - - Ostriches, xii, 249; - hunting of, by bushmen, xv, 134-5, 222 - - Ostrich Fern, xiii, 159 - - Ostrich Plumes, xii, 244 - - Ostwald, chemical work, xvi, 164, 165 - - Ostwald's Imperative, xi, 257 - - Oswego Tea Plant, xiii, 201, 205 - - Ottoman Turks, conquests of, xiv, 308-9 - - Otters, xii, 347 - - Ouachita Range, xiv, 227 - - Oughtred, William, xvi, 104 - - Ounce (leopard), xii, 357 - - Outcrop, defined, iii, 381 - - Outdoor Treatment, x, 240-1 - - Outgoing Reactions, xi, 54-6, 146 - - Outriggers, xv, 263-4 - - Outwash Plains, iii, 68-9 - - Ouzels, xii, 268 - - Ovaries, of plants, xiii, 46, 54-5, 118; - beginnings, 317-18; - grouping of plants by, 173-5; - superior and inferior, 202-3 - - Ovariotomy, x, 122, 147 - - Over-Compound Generators, vi, 189-90 - - Overeating, auto-intoxication by, xi, 370; - hardened arteries from, x, 335 - - Overhead Transmission, vii, 10-11, 14-24, 25 - (see also Trolley System); - in telephony, 104, 105 - - Overheated Liquids, viii, 304 - - Overshot Wheels, v, 76 - - Overtones, iv, 213; - of organs, 230-1; - quality of sounds due to, 233 - - Overwork, fatigue from, xi, 269, 272, 371; - muscular soreness from, ix, 81 - - Ovules, plant, xiii, 118, 119; - action of fertilized, 153; - naked and enclosed, 173-5 - - Owen, morphology studies, xvi, 140-1 - - Owens Automobile, vi, 104 - - Owen's Valley, California, earthquake of, xiv, 334, 335 - - Owls, xii, 267 - - Oxalic Acid, viii, 222, 336 - - Oxbow Streams and Lakes, iii, 34, xiv, 162 - - Oxford University, foundation, xvi, 100 - - Oxidation, defined, viii, 380; - in water, 35; - of organic substances, 266; - of sewage, 326, 327; - of iron, v, 316 (see Rusting); - power extraction by, ix, 16, 24 - - Oxide of Manganese, ancient use of, xv, 113 - - Oxides, defined, viii, 380; - chemical formation, 11-13, 20, 36; - combinations with water, 38-9; - extraction of metals from, 47, 131, 271; - metallic and nonmetallic, 20; - ores, 47, 198 - - Oxyacetylene Blowpipe, i, 33 - - Oxy-acids, viii, 98, 380 - - Oxyhemoglobin, ix, 259-60 - - Oxygen, viii, 17, 34-6; - affinities, i, 12, viii, 33, 36, 47, 77, 85, 87, 134, 155; - amount inspired in sleep, xi, 283, 285; - atmospheric, i, 10, 11, 24, 25; - atmospheric, viii, 67; - atomic weight, 33, 39, 383; - atomic weight base, 92; - body needs and supply, ix, 198-9, 253-62, 267-8, x, 338-9; - boiling and freezing points, iv, 173; - carriers of, viii, 71; - carrying of, in blood, ix, 182-3, 258-61, x, 338-9; - combustion and, i, 10, iv, 138, viii, 12-13, 53, 54, 55-6, 61; - consumption by gas lighting, vi, 264; - consumption of, in exercise, ix, 261-2; - corrosion of metals by, viii, 13; - critical temperature, i, 29, iv, 174; - deficiency effects, i, 322, 328, ix, 268, x, 238, xi, 371; - density of, iv, 110; - diffusibility, viii, 108; - discovery, 34, 170, xiv, 65, xvi, 120; - energy source, viii, 268; - elimination from body, 353; - explosion with hydrogen, viii, 62; - hydrocarbon derivatives, 52, 212, 216-20; - importance, i, 24, 25; - in chlorophyll, xiii, 80; - in coal series, iii, 345; - in earth's crust, 308, viii, 19, 129, 192; - in organic compounds, 64, 204; - in proteins, 351; - in steel making, vii, 321; - in water, viii, 39-40, x, 26; - industrial uses, i, 32-3, viii, 274; - liquefied, i, 29, iv, 171, viii, 68; - melting point, iv, 162; - molecular structure, viii, 26-7, 36; - molecular velocity in, iv, 133, viii, 24; - most active form, 36, 41; - negativeness of, 31; - necessity of, to life, ix, 16, 18, 22, 267-8; - plant uses of, viii, 336-7, 340-1, xiii, 14, 80, 81, 109, xiv, 64-5; - potential energy in, iv, 82; - preparation, viii, 34-5; - production by plants, 49, 335, xiii, 81, 82, 109, xiv, 65; - production from liquid air, i, 30, 32-3, viii, 68, 274; - production from nitric acid and nitrates, 72; - production from water, 30, 31, 274; - rock decomposition by, 194, iii, 24, 25; - rusting produced by, 25; - solubility in water, viii, 35, 40, 111; - supply of, in air, ix, 254, 267-8; - symbol, viii, 383; - valences to, 178, 179-80 - - Oxygen Compounds, viii, 20, 34, 36-41, 70-4 - - Oxygen Cycle, viii, 334, 350 - - Oysters, iii, 260, 272, xii, 58-63; - enemies and destroyers, 50, 70, 72, 73; - food procuring by, ix, 19, 74; - raw, digestion of, 233 - - Oyster-Shells, deposits of, iii, 272 - - Ozone, i, 15-16, 378, vii, 353-5; - activity of, viii, 36; - allotropic form of oxygen, 43; - electrical production, vii, 238-9, 301; - molecular structure, viii, 26, 36; - production by lightning, i, 153 - - - Pacas, xii, 289 - - Pacific Coast, geological changes, iii, 213, 222, 214 (maps); - ports and commerce of, xiv, 269; - potash from seaweeds, viii, 279; - seaweed of, xiii, 27, xiv, 67, 68; - shellfish of, xii, 62, 65, 68, 74; - thunderstorms rare, vii, 218; - width of continental shelf, xiv, 285 - - Pacific Coastal Plain, xiv, 215 - - Pacific Coast Forest, xiv, 374 - - Pacific Drainage System, xiv, 189-90 - - Pacific Islands, xiv, 277; - coco palm of, xv, 125; - weapons of, xv, 216, 219 - - Pacific Ocean, climate on opposite coasts, xiv, 345; - coral reefs in, 264; - currents of, 304, 305; - depths, iii, 51, xiv, 23; - extent, 22; - herring of, xii, 156; - salmon of, 157; - seals of, 333-4; - sharks of, 145, 146; - shoal-water belt, xiv, 25; - temperatures, 297; - trade winds, i, 127; - unchanged for ages, iii, 55; - volcanic dust in, 55; - whales of, xii, 298 - - Pacific Type of Coasts, xiv, 247-9, 250 - - Pack Rats, acquisitiveness of, xii, 292-3 - - Packing, Maudsley's cup leather, v, 99, 376 - - Paddle-fish, xii, 151 - - Paget, Sir James, xvi, 184 - - Pain, xi, 116-21; - "arrival platform" for, ix, 146; - contact sense of, 91; - expression of, by dogs and monkeys, xv, 64-5; - no space perception by, xi, 164; - organs and nerves in skin, ix, 314; - purpose as warning, 87; - sense of, in infants, 349; - use of morphine in, x, 381 - - Painter Fogs, i, 96-7, 378 - - Painting, art of, beginnings and development, xv, 108-9, 110-16, 120-1, - 297-303, 325; - by compressed air, i, 29, iv, 130, v, 136; - of body, xv, 255-6 - - Paintings, depth impressions in, ix, 120; - skies in, i, 105 - - Paints, ancient, xv, 113-14; - chemistry of, viii, 264-6; - colors of, iv, 369-70; - drying oils in, viii, 245, 247; - lead in, 162; - linseed oil in, 231 - - Pajero, xii, 364 - - Paleolithic Man, iii, 303-5; - horses of, xii, 307; - implements of, xv, 103, 105-9; - state of, xiii, 209-10 - - Paleontology, defined, iii, 381; - history, xvi, 169, 170, 172 - - Paleophytology, xvi, 167 - - Paleozoic Era, iii, 20, 381; - animals, 263, 266-75, 276-8, 284, 285, xii, 49, 75, 104, 142, 151, 165; - climatic zones in, iii, 173; - divisions and species of, xv, 71; - plants, iii, 251-5; - rocks and history, 179-207; - vertebrates absent, 261 - - Paleozoic Rocks, iii, 179-207; - recognizable by fossils, 174, 179; - why rich in fossils, 264 - - Palestine, ancient rain measurements, i, 68, 213; - climate changes in, xiv, 361-2, 379; - maritime plain of, xv, 138 - - Palisades of the Hudson, iii, 111, 212, xiv, 108-9, 122; - blocks at foot of, 76; - jointing at Bergen Cut, 133 - - Palladium, viii, 173; - as catalyzer, 103; - symbol and atomic weight, 383 - - Pallas, meteor found by, ii, 284 - - Pallas (asteroid), discovery, ii, 255; - orbit, 258 - - Pallor, causes of, x, 337; - temporary, ix, 161, 162, 163, 165, 166 - - Palm Beach, millionaires at, xi, 52 - - Palmer, Dr. G. T., i, 323 - - Palm Family, xiii, 188 - - Palmitic Acid, viii, 220, 221, 350 - - Palm Kloof, xiv, 369-70 - - Palm Oil, African development and, xiii, 11; - source, xiv, 383; - vegetable fat, viii, 246 - - Palm-Oil Tree, xiii, 188 - - Palms, cocoanut, xiii, 219-20; - first appearance, xiii, 319; - in tropics, distribution of, xiv, 368; - leaves of, xiii, 176; - monocotyledons, 178; - trunks of, 26 - - Paloverde, leaves of, xiii, 379 - - Pamias, rock disintegration on, xiv, 73-4 - - Pamlico Sound, bar of, xiv, 264 - - Pampas, absence of trees in, xiv, 381; - armadillo burrows on, xii, 284; - cattle-raising and agriculture on, xiv, 384; - dust whirls, i, 60; - flatness of, xiv, 158, 216; - grass and other plants of, xiii, 375-6; - grasses, drying of, xiv, 381; - horses of, xii, 307; - true plains, xiv, 218 - - Pampas-Cat, xii, 364 - - Panacea, x, 16 - - Panaceas, medicinal, x, 41 - - Panama Canal, Caribbean traffic, i, 282; - Chagres River and, xiv, 195; - dredges used, v, 255-6; - material excavated, 258 - - Panama Canal Zone, health conditions, i, 327, x, 162; - sanitary control, costs, xiv, 344, 356; - temperatures, i, 209 - - Panama, Isthmus of, anteaters of, xii, 283; - earthquakes on, xiv, 331; - pearl fisheries of, xii, 62; - sea devils of, 150; - temperature, i, 208-9; - yellow fever extermination, x, 162, xiv, 356, 357 - - Pancreas, functions of, ix, 237, x, 330, 347; - secretin effects on, 325 - - Pancreatic Juice, viii, 358, ix, 237-8, 242, x, 325-6, 330; - of infants, ix, 346 - - Pangolins, xii, 281 - - Pangong Lake, Tibet, xiv, 211 - - Panpipes, xv, 315 (fig.), 316 - - Panspermia, xii, 9 - - Panthers, xii, 363; - stalking of game, xi, 224 - - Pantograph, in trolley systems, vii, 197 - - Papaw, origin, xiii, 226 - - Paper, electrical conductivity, iv, 259; - electrification by tearing of, 260; - heat conductivity, 179; - making of, v, 289-99, 380; - making of, in ancient Egypt, xvi, 72; - made from corn fiber, xiii, 213; - made from mulberry, v, 290, xiii, 244; - made from spruce wood, 10, 236; - Manila, 240; - origin of name, xv, 157 - - Paper Machines, v, 295-9, 377 - - Paper, Mulberry, xiii, 244; - bark as cloth, xv, 256-7 - - Paper Pulp, making of, viii, 153 - - "Paper Sailor," xii, 78 - - Paper Showers, i, 359 - - Papier-Maché, ancient, xvi, 73 - - Papillæ, xi, 70-1 - - Papin's Digester, iv, 170-1 - - Papuans, hair of, xv, 38; - prayer, 346 - - Pappus, Greek author, xvi, 94-5 - - Papyrus, v, 289; - Egyptian, xvi, 72 - - Paracelsus, x, 46-50; - classifying tendency of, 83; - compared with Vesalius, 53; - followed by Van Helmont, 68; - Locke on, 75 - - Parachutes, v, 234 - - "Paradise Lost", quotations, ii, 36, 210-11, 350 - - Paraffin, viii, 51, 208; - combustion of, 52; - meaning of name, 206, 380; - melting requirements, iv, 162 - - Paraffin Candles, viii, 247 - - Paraffins, Paraffin Hydrocarbons, viii, 206-210, 241; - contrasted with benzenes, 232-4; - defined, 380; - derivatives, 210-32; - molecule configuration, 233; - residues in benzenes, 235-6, 238-40; - unsaturated, 230-2 - - Paragreles, i, 341, 378 - - Parallactic Motion, ii, 317 - - Parallax, ii, 311-18; - Galileo's method, 55; - Hipparchus on, 32; - in distance perception, xi, 182; - photographic study, ii, 137, 314 - - Parallel Forces, resultant of, iv, 99 - - Parallel-veined Leaves, xiii, 32, 37 (fig.), 176, 177, 178 - - Parallelogram of Forces, v, 184-6 - - Paralysis, electric treatment, vi, 17, vii, 238 - - Paranthelion, i, 378 - - Parantiselenæ, i, 378 - - Para Rubber, xiii, 246-7 - - Paraselanæ, i, 180, 183, 378 - - Parasitic Clouds, i, 104, 378 - - Parasitic Plants, xiii, 15, 21, 100, 364 - - Parasitology, xvi, 181 - - Parchment Paper, strength, viii, 255 - - Paré, Ambroise, x, 46, 54-6, 97, 129, xvi, 108 - - Pareira, "Materia Medica", xvi, 186 - - Parental Instinct, xi, 56 - - Parental Solicitude, xi, 149 - - Parents, care of children, ix, 352; - children's resemblance to (see Heredity); - pleasure of, in children, 153 - - Parhelia, Parhelic Circles, i, 179-80, 181, 183, 378 - - Parian Chronicle, meteor recorded in, ii, 284 - - Paris, balloons in siege of 1871, v, 225; - bombardment in World War, 369-70, iv, 201-2; - Salpêtrière Hospital, xvi, 184; - sewage disposal, viii, 327 - - Paris Green, viii, 169 - - Paris-London Air Service, i, 44-5, 95, 285-6 - - Paris Observatory, ii, 58 - - Paris, University of, founded, xvi, 100; - medical school, x, 38 - - Park, Mungo, xvi, 123 - - Park Cattle, xii, 331 - - Parker, morphology studies, xvi, 140-1 - - Park Forests, xiv, 374 - - Parkinson, James, x, 112 - - Parklike Landscapes, xiii, 374-5, 376 - - Parliament, British, gold mace of, xv, 208 - - Parmenides, Greek philosopher, xvi, 84 - - Paros, fossils in rocks of, iii, 14 - - Parrakeet, Carolina, xii, 266 - - Parrots, xii, 265, 266-7; - dyeing of, 179; - monogamous, xv, 276 - - Parsec, astronomical unit, ii, 315 - - Parsley, xiii, 200-1, 223 - - Parsnips family, xiii, 200-1; - origin, 223; - swelled roots, 19 - - Parsons Steam Turbine, v, 150-1, 382 - - Particles, technical meaning, iv, 382 - - Partridge Berry, crossbreeding devices, xiii, 122; - in madder family, 205; - illustration, 96 - - Partridges, xii, 261 - - Pascal, Blaise, atmospheric pressure studies, iv, 114-16; - mathematical work, xvi, 105, 114, 119; - vacuum studies, 110 - - Passenger Aircraft, i, 41-3, 44-5, 50 - - Passerine Birds, xii, 268-9 - - Passiflora, origin, xiii, 226 - - Passion Flower, tendrils, xiii, 112 - - Passions (see Emotions) - - Past comparisons with present, vii, 76 - - Pasteboard, making of, v, 299 - - Pasteur, Louis, x, 136-44, 208; - bacteria studies, xvi, 143, 182, 184, 185; - chemical work, 163-4; - courage of, x, 101; - Lister and, 144, 145, 146; - references to work of, 107, 132, 133 - - Pasteurization, x, 139-40 - - Pasteurized Milk, xiii, 71, x, 132, 140; - scurvy from, 266; - vitamines in, 263, ix, 347 - - Pastries, as food, x, 273, 315 - - Patagonia, bushlands of, xiv, 381; - huanacos of, xii, 313; - plains of, xiv, 218; - rhea of, xii, 249; - tides of, xiv, 298 - - Patagonians, height of, xv, 39 - - Patches of Peyer, x, 287-8 - - Patella, ix, 69, 70 (fig.) - - Patent Medicines, remarks on, vii, 241 - - Pater Noster, in Aztec, xv, 169 - - Pathfinders, of flowers, xiii, 134, 140 - - Pathogenic Germs, x, 194-5 (see Disease Germs) - - Pathological Anatomy, Morgani's work in, x, 98 - - Pathology, Cellular, founded by Virchow, x, 119, 128 - - Patriotism, sentiment of, xi, 145, 151 - - Pavloff, Ivan, x, 131, 319 - - Pavlov's Law, xi, 198, 201 - - Pay-as-you-enter Cars, vii, 184 - - Peach Trees, xiii, 197, 226 - - Pea Family, xiii, 198-9; - antiquity, 324-5; - fertilization, 137-9; - food devices, 97-8; - nitrogen-fixing parasites, i, 35, xiv, 66; - seed dispersal by, xiii, 339, 347 - - Peake Deep, xiv, 289 - - Peanuts, oil of, ix, 28 - - Pearl Islands, xii, 62 - - Pearls, finding by X-rays, vii, 256; - origin, xii, 62-3, 66 - - Pearly Nautilus, xii, 75-6; - evolution of, iii, 273-5 - - Pear Psylla, honeydew of, i, 351-2 - - Pearson, eugenic studies, xvi, 157; - on artificial selection, 154; - statistical methods, 153 - - Pear Trees, development of fruit, xiii, 54; - in rose family, 197; - origin, 224, 226 - - Peary, Arctic soundings of, xiv, 22; - mirage of Crocker Land, i, 173 - - Peas, as food, viii, 365, ix, 34, x, 262; - crossing experiments, 231-2; - flowers, xii, 44 (fig.); - food-obtaining devices, 97; - leaf-tendrils, 38; - leaves, 36-7, 113; - origin, 223; - petals, 47, 190; - pods, dry fruit, 54; - seeds, 56; - sleeping of leaves, 88-9 - (see also Pea Family) - - Peat, elements, iii, 345; - formation, xiii, 68, 313; - in relation to coal, iii, 344; - in sheep plant, xiii, 380; - per cent of carbon in, viii, 44; - wood fiber seen in, 45 - - Peat Bogs, dust from burning, i, 56, 57; - extent of present, v, 173; - of Denmark, xv, 87 - - Pebrine, Pasteur's study of, x, 140 - - Peccaries, xii, 310-11; - jaguars and, 362 - - Pekans, xii, 350, 351 - - Peking, Temple of Sun, ii, 26 - - Pelagic Fauna, xii, 16 - - Pelee, Mount, eruption, iii, 102-3, xiv, 28, 325; - dust from eruption, i, 58, 59; - earthquakes preceding eruption, xiv, 338 - - Pelée's Hair, iii, 105 - - Pelicans, xii, 254 - - Pellagra, x, 265, 268; - cause of, viii, 351; - eruptions on uncovered surfaces, x, 254 - - Pelterie, R. Esnault, v, 175-6 - - Pelton Wheels, v, 77-9, 80, 81, 170, vi, 368 - - Pelvis, ix, 63, 66-7 (fig.); - in man and apes, xv, 58; - vestiges of, in snakes, xii, 213 - - Pelycpoda, xii, 58-63 - - Pemba, clove production, xiii, 263 - - Penang, clove trees, xiii, 262 - - Penck, Prof., climate studies, xiv, 361; - land and water curves, 26 - - Pendulum, discovery, v, 63-5; - Galileo's observations, ii, 53; - gravity action on, iv, 97-8; - oscillations and regulation of, 147, 225, 226; - types in clocks, v, 73, 74 - - Pendulum Clocks, invention, ii, 58; - escapement, v, 73-4; - regulation to temperature, iv, 147 - - Peneplains, iii, 30, 34-5, 381; - cretaceous, 232 - - Penetrating Radiation, i, 143-4, 146, 379 - - Pennsylvania, coal beds, iii, 199, 347-8; - former volcanoes, xiv, 318; - glacial soil of, 70, 170; - natural gas, iii, 355 - - Pennsylvanian Period, iii, 198-202; - coal deposits, 198-201, 345; - insects, 279; - plants, 252-4 - - Pennyroyal, source, xiii, 205 - - Penguins, xii, 251 - - Penstocks, vi, 363 - - Pentane, derivatives, viii, 210 - - Pentose, viii, 229 - - Pentstemon, corolla, xiii, 201 - - Penumbra, of shadows, iv, 332-3 - - Peony, pollen of, xiii, 124 - - Pepin, Lake, xiv, 202 - - Pepo, xiii, 54 - - Pepper, black, xiii, 265; - red, 223 - - Peppermint, viii, 251, 252 - - Pepsin, in gastric juice, ix, 235, x, 320, 326 - - Peptones, x, 277 - - Pepys, Samuel, "Diary" quoted, iv, 53 - - Per, defined, viii, 380 - - Perceptions, defined, xi, 160-2; - differences in power of, 152; - Greek theories, xvi, 87; - misinterpreted, x, 358; - of color, ix, 114-17; - of light and shade, 105; - of objects, 105-11; - of space, xi, 162-91; - of time, 192-6; - relativity of, xvi, 85 - - Percussion, in diagnosis, x, 99, 110, 371 - - Percussion Cap, viii, 145 - - Percussion Drills, v, 129, 261-2, 263 - - Percussion Shells, v, 372 - - Percussive System, of oil boring, v, 265-7 - - Perennials, buds, xiii, 53; - roots, 16; - planting tables, 289-96 - - Perfection, Man's struggle for, xv, 38-9 - - Perfumes, chemistry of, viii, 251-2 - - Pericles, reference to, x, 20 - - Peridot, iii, 334 - - Perier, Pascal and, iv, 114-15 - - Perigee, defined, ii, 197 - - Perigord District, human relics, iii, 304-5 - - Perihelion, defined, ii, 50, 275 - - Period, technical meaning, iv, 383 - - Periodic Breathing, x, 340 - - Periodic Classification, viii, 177-83, 307, 309 - - Periods, Geological, iii, 19-21, 381 - - Peripatus, xii, 81 - - Perique Tobacco, xiii, 258 - - Periscopes, v, 200-1 - - Peristalsis, x, 327 - - Peritonitis, asepsis in, x, 147; - causes of, 195, 288 - - Periwinkles, xii, 71 - - Perkins Ice Machine, v, 358, 379 - - Perlite, viii, 160, 274 - - Permanent Magnets, iv, 243, vi, 30, 37, 117, vii, 372; - care of, vi, 34, 38; - lifting force of, iv, 289 - - Permian Period, iii, 20, 202-5, 381 - - Perpetual Motion, v, 97, vi, 214, xvi, 135 - - Perpetual Snow Line, iii, 59 - - Perpetuation of the Race, ix, 324-44; - marriage and the family, xv, 273 - - Perret, Prof. F. A., i, 194 - - Perrine, astronomer, ii, 136, 146, 262, 362 - - Perseids, ii, 288 - - Perseus, star clusters in, ii, 336, 343 - - Persia, ancient, Mediterranean aims, xiv, 306; - astronomy of ancient, ii, 26; - cheeta of, xii, 365; - climate changes, xiv, 361-2; - lions of, xii, 359; - magi of, xvi, 59; - plateau of, xiv, 222; - sun-worship, ii, 20; - use of opium, xiii, 253; - wild asses of, xii, 308 - - Persian Cats, xii, 356 - - Persian Gulf, first civilization around, xvi, 47; - pearl fisheries of, xii, 62 - - Persian Language, xv, 162; - words from, in English, 161 - - Persimmons, xiii, 226, 352-3 - - Persistence of Vision, iv, 346-7, v, 329, vi, 155 - - Persistency and will, xi, 264 - - Personal Equation, xi, 156 - - Personal Hygiene, disease prevention through, x, 302-17; - teaching of, 283-5 - - Personality, changed in emotion, xi, 134; - dreams as revelation of, 302; - loss of, in crowds, 324, 325-6, 329-30; - source, 33; - splitting of, in hysteria, x, 360-1, 362 - - Perspective, xi, 181-2; - in distance perception, ix, 119-20 - - Perspiration, absorption by various materials, x, 307, 308, 309; - amount of "insensible," 70-1; - caused by fear, xi, 131,132, 133; - constitution of, x, 310; - humidity and, i, 77; - temperature regulation by, 317, v, 348-9, ix, 169, x, 251, 274 (see - also Sweat, Cold Sweat) - - Peru, ancient use of cocaine, xiii, 254; - ancient corn-growing, 212; - ancient stone structures of, xv, 271; - conquest of, xiv, 250; - foot plow of Indians, xv, 236 (fig.); - harbors and commerce, xiv, 265, 266; - Incas (See Incas); - rainfall and fog, i, 95, 96-7; - rain-tree, 352; - source of quinine, xiii, 251; - words derived from, xv, 161 - - Peruvian Art, ancient, xv, 297 (fig.), 311 (fig.) - - Peruvian Bark, xiii, 250-1 - - Peruvian Earthquake, xiv; - tidal waves of, xiv, 337 - - Peruvian Paint, i, 96-7, 378 - - Pessimism, physical causes, xi, 339, 369-70, 372 - - Pestles, xv, 238-9 - - Petals, of flowers, xiii, 45, 47; - importance in classification, 47; - first appearance, 318; - lacking in some flowers, 46 - - Peter Pan, story of, xv, 330 - - Peters, Dr., of Hamilton, ii, 256 - - Petiole, of leaves, xiii, 34, 35 - - Petit, Jean-Louis, x, 90-1, xvi, 161 - - Petrels, xii, 251, 252 - - Petrified Animals and Plants, iii, 15-16, 126-7 - - Petroleum, composition, products, and supply, viii, 208-10; - fluorescence of, iv, 323, 379-80; - origin and occurrence, iii, 348-54; - production and supply (U. S.), v, 172-3; - supply and approaching exhaustion, vii, 309 - - Petrology, iii, 381, xvi, 170 - - Pfeiffer, immunity theory of, x, 211; - influenza germ discovery, 295 - - Phaestos Disk, xv, 176 (fig.) - - Phagocytosis, x, 209-10 - - Phaleropes, xii, 262 - - Phanerogams, xiii, 62-3; - reproduction, 117-54 (see Flowering Plants) - - Phantasies, in psychoanalysis, x, 365 - - Phantom Circuits, vii, 105-6, 119 - - "Pharaoh's Chicken," xii, 260 - - Pharmacognosy, xiii, 249 - - Pharmacology, x, 381, xvi, 186; - chemical, founded by Paracelsus, x, 50 - - Pharmacy, history, xvi, 186-7 - - Pharnyx, condition in thirst, xi, 66 - - Phase (electricity), defined, vi, 204-5; - "in," 168; - "out of," 167, 204 - (see also Single-Phase, Two-phase, Three-phase) - - Phase Law (chemistry), xvi, 136, 164 - - Phase Relations, vi, 167-9, 171-4 - - Phases, of Mars, ii, 227; - of moon, 190, 193-5, 196 - - Phasing-in, defined, vi, 263, 342 - - Pheasants, xii, 261; - hearing of, i, 188 - - Phenology, i, 254-6, 379 - - Phenolphthalein, viii, 294, x, 378 - - Phenols, viii, 236, 237-8, 380; - as disinfectants, 333 - - Philadelphia, summer of 1816, i, 360; - water supply of, xiv, 140; - yellow fever epidemic, x, 159 - - "Philadelphia Ledger," first Hoe press, v, 301 - - Philippine Islands, aerial exploration work, i, 47; - baguios, 136; - beriberi in, ix, 35, x, 257; - carabao of, xii, 329; - civilization in mountain valleys, xv, 131; - continental islands, xiv, 274; - copra production, xiii, 220; - dipterocarp forests, 350; - fiber-wear, 236; - fire obtained by friction, viii, 89; - fire by air-compression, v, 128; - Manila hemp, xiii, 239-40; - new volcano in Camiguin, xiv, 320; - ocean depths near, iii, 51; - octopod fishing, xii, 78; - rainfall at Baguio, i, 110; - rice growing, xiii, 213, 214; - Weather Bureau, i, 223 - - Philo of Byzantium, thermoscope, i, 69 - - Philosophers, Faraday on, x, 376 - - Philosopher's Stone, xvi, 14 - - Philosophy, Greek, xvi, 76-80, 83-8, 99; - 18th century, 117; - mediæval, x, 35; - recent, xvi, 195-8; - Roman and Mediæval, 99-100; - science and, 112, 115; - social spirit and, 195 - - Philostratus, on death of Domitian, ii, 221; - on sun, 165 - - Phlegmatic Temperament, xi, 153 - - Phlegraean Fields, xiv, 225, 316, 320 - - Phlogopite, iii, 334 - - Phœnician Language, xv, 162 - - Phœnicians, Africa circumnavigated by, xiv, 196; - commerce of, 307; - in Iberian group, xvi, 49; - introduction of cats by, xii, 355; - invention of Alphabet, xv, 175; - navigation of, v, 182; - ships of, xiv, 265 - - Phonisms, xi, 222 - - Phonograph v, 328-9, 381; - combined with motion pictures, 331; - making of records of, iv, 240; - motor-driven, vii, 87; - vibration rates in, ix, 101 - - Phosgene, viii, 263, x, 187 - - Phosphate Baking Powders, viii, 136 - - Phosphate Group, viii, 93 - - Phosphate of Lime, plant needs of, xiv, 67 - - Phosphate Rock, as fertilizer, viii, 89, 344, 345; - occurrence and supply, xiv, 67 - - Phosphates, derivation and uses, viii, 89; - fertilizers, 153, 279-80; - in blood, x, 280; - in urine, x, 343; - test, viii, 290 - (see also Calcium Phosphate, Sodium Phosphate) - - Phosphine, viii, 89 - - Phospholipins, viii, 351 - - Phosphorescence, iv, 380; - of decaying wood, i, 346; - of marine animals, xii, 18-20, 24, 84 - - Phosphoric Acid, composition, viii, 89, 115; - in body, x, 280; - plant needs and sources, xiv, 67, 68, 69; - salts from, viii, 116; - solubility, 112; - stability, 115 - - Phosphorus, viii, 18-19, 87-9; - burning under water, 54-5; - ignition point, 53; - in body, functions, 354-5; - in fertilizers, 343, 344-5; - in iron ores, iii, 356; - melting requirements, iv, 162; - plant needs of, viii, 337, 341, 342, 344-5, ix, 29; - sources, viii, 345; - symbol and atomic weight, 383 - - Phosphorous (plant), ancient name of Venus, ii, 191 - - Phosphorus Pentoxide, viii, 87, 89 - - Photisms, xi, 222 - - Photochemical Climate, i, 325, 379 - - Photo-engraving, xvi, 129 - - Photographic Action, of different colors, iv, 365-6 - - Photographic Films, composition, viii, 255; - invention, v, 330-1 - - Photographic Map-Making, i, 45-8 - - Photographs, savage ideas of, xv, 331; - X-ray, vii, 250, 253-4 - - Photography, chemistry of, viii, 171-3; - color, iv, 368-9; - history, xvi, 192; - in astronomy (see Astronomical Photography); - in aurora studies, i, 162; - in lightning study, 146-8; - lenses used in, iv, 373; - underwater, i, 47-8 - (see also Camera) - - Photometers, vii, 374 - - Photosphere, defined, ii, 173 - - Photosynthesis, xiii, 81, 105, 109; - in cactus plants, 378 - - Phrenic Nerve, xi, 37 - - Phrenology, ix, 145 - - Phrygian Stone, ii, 284 - - Phylum, Phyla, xii, 29 - - Physas, xii, 69, 71 - - Physical Changes, contrasted with chemical, viii, 14-15 - - Physical Characters, classification of man by, xv, 36-47 - - Physical Chemistry, viii, 296-316 - - Physical Examinations, x, 370-1 - - Physical States of Matter, viii, 22, 382; - changed by heat, iv, 139, 151-3; - chemical interpretation, viii, 296-316; - in relation to pressure and temperature, 303-5; - suspended changes, 113, 304, 305 - - Physical Training Exercises, x, 305 - - Physicians, Babylonian laws controlling, x, 14-15; - capacity and preparation of, 367, 369; - earliest distinction from surgeons, 16-17; - essential duties of, 21, 75-6; - Oath of Hippocrates, 18-19; - Paracelsus on province of, 49 - - PHYSICS, Volume iv - - Physics, branches of, iv, 50; - concrete science, xvi, 42; - daily applications of, iv, 10, 187, xvi, 17, 19, 30; - defined, 36; - energy the subject of, iv, 12, 13-14, 50; - exact, positive science, x, 368; - history of development of, iv, 11, 18-20, 24-30, xvi, 54, 82, 89, - 91-2, 101, 103, 105, 109-10, 129-38; - interrelation of phenomena of, iv, 39, 40; - measurements in, iv, 45, xvi, 129-30; - medicine and, x, 81, 369; - realm of, iv, 13-20; - technical terms, glossary, 381-4 - - Physik, Philip, x, 121 - - PHYSIOGRAPHY, Volume xiv - - Physiography, defined, iii, 381, xvi, 36 - - Physiological Meteorology, i, 316-31 - - PHYSIOLOGY, Volume ix - - Physiology, daily applications, xvi, 15, 16-17; - history of development, x, 29, 30-1, 81, 125-8, xvi, 82-3, 180; - medicine based on (Boerhaave), x, 76-7; - science of body, xvi, 37; - teaching of, remarks on, x, 284-5 - - Piano, automatic, vi, 97; - evolution of, xv, 318; - intervals on, iv, 208; - sympathetic vibration, vii, 261-2; - vibration rate of notes, ix, 99 - - Picard, astronomer, ii, 58, 59, 64 - - Piche, A., deperditometer, i, 319 - - Pickerel Frogs, xii, 180 - - Pickerels, xii, 163 - - Pickering, Prof. Edward C., astronomical work, ii, 17, 116, 118, 122, - 127, 130, 132-3, 133, 145, 146, 233, 237-8, 297, 307, 359 - - Pickering, W. H., ii, 271 - - Picric Acid, viii, 63, 238, 262 - - Pictou, Nova Scotia, pollen shower, i, 359 - - Picture Writing, xv, 167-9 - (see also Hieroglyphics) - - Pictures, depth impressions in, ix, 120 - - Piddington, Henry, i, 135 - - Piddocks, xii, 59 - - Pie Crust, "taste" of, xi, 127 - - Piedmont Glaciers, iii, 60 - - Piedmont Plateau, xiv, 27-8, 213; - building stones of, iii, 371, 372; - forests of, xiv, 378; - geology, iii, 28, 112, 172, 188, 231-2 - - Pig Iron, v, 318, viii, 157, 158, 159; - electric furnace production, vii, 312 - - Pigeons, xii, 265; - equilibrium disturbances in, x, 126, xi, 31 - - Pigments, viii, 162, 264, 265-6; - ancient, xv, 113-14; - colors of, iv, 369-70 - - Pigs (swine), xii, 310-11; - evolution of hoof, iii, 300 - - Pikas, xii, 287-8 - - Pikes (fish), xii, 163 - - Pike's Peak, shadow in sky, i, 170 - - Pile-driving, by water jets, v, 88-9 - - Pileus, of mushrooms, xiii, 163 - - Pilgrim Shell, xii, 65 - - Pili Erectores, xi, 113 - - Pillows, and sleep, xi, 290 - - Pillsbury, Prof., quoted, xi, 168-9 - - Pilot Balloons, i, 21-2, 312, 379 - - Pilot Charts, i, 273-5 - - Piloting, wireless system, vii, 285 - - Pilot Lights, vi, 276 - - Pilot Snakes, xii, 219-20, 233 - - Piltdown Man, xv, 92-5; - brain of, 96; - implements of, 107; - period of, 102 - - Pimento, origin, xiii, 265 - - Pimpernel, xiii, 203 - - Pimples, ix, 186, 187; - germs of, x, 201 - - Pineapple, American origin, xiii, 221, 226, xiv, 382; - fiber of leaves, xiii, 236; - introduction, 10; - water-holding leaves, 106 - - Pineapple Family, in tropical forests, xiii, 362-3; - restricted to America, 320 - - Pine Forests, conditions favorable to, xiii, 371; - pollen showers, i, 359 - - Pinel, Philippe, x, 110-11 - - Pine Needles, measuring heat in, vi, 62-3 - - Pine Trees, in American forests, xiv, 372, 374; - lightning dangers, i, 155; - planting conditions, xiii, 270; - pollen of, 118, 149; - polycotyledons, 60; - seeds of, 345; - seed-dispersal, 343; - wind-fertilization, 148 - (see also Conifers) - - Pinhole Camera, ix, 107-8, 109 - - Pinion Gears, v, 29, 30 (fig.) - - Pink Family, petals and sepals, xiii, 194, 195 - - Pink Lady's Slipper, xiii, 145 (fig.) - - Pinks, meadow, xiii, 133-5; - sea or marsh, 204 - - Pinuela, origin, xiii, 226 - - Pipal Tree of India, xiii, 108 - - Pipefishes, xii, 163 - - Pipe Organ, of Ctesibius, v, 110-11 (see Organs) - - Pipes, lead, viii, 162 - (see also Water Pipes) - - "Pipes", in ingots, v, 323 - - Pipes of Pan, xv, 316, 315 (fig.) - - Pipette, viii, 294, 295 (fig.) - - Pipe Vine, fertilization, xiii, 131-3 - - Piracy, Stream, iii, 38-9, xiv, 177-83 - - Piranha, xii, 159 - - Pirogoff, Nikolai, x, 131 - - Pisa Cathedral, lamp in, ii, 53, v, 63-4 - - Pisa, Leaning Tower (see Leaning Tower) - - Pistillate Flowers, xiii, 46-7 - - Pistils, xiii, 45, 46; - in reproduction, 117-22; - of highly cultivated plants, 51 - - Pistons, measurement of work of, vi, 81-2; - reciprocating and rotating, v, 148; - service in internal combustion engines, i, 57-9 - - Pita, origin and product, xiii, 244 - - Pitch of Sounds, iv, 205-6, ix, 99-100, xi, 104, 105; - extremes of audibility, iv, 204; - hearing of, xi, 103; - modulations of, in voice and music, iv, 209; - motion effects on, iv, 209-10; - of bells, 222; - of organ pipes, 230-1, 231-2; - of vibrating strings and rods, 223-4; - resonators for special, iv, 232, 233; - temperature effects on, 231-2 - - Pitchblende, radium from, xvi, 193 - - Pitcher Plant, xiii, 39-40 - - Pith Balls, electrification of, iv, 257-8, vi, 286-7 - - Pithecanthropus Erectus, iii, 302-3, xv, 88-92; - brain of, 96; - period of, 102 - - Pittsburg, dryness of, i, 337; - growth as river city, xiv, 219; - smoke nuisance, i, 64, 65; - "Smoky City", vii, 343; - water supplies of, viii, 318; - water supply and typhoid rate, 322 - - Pittsburg Bituminous Coal Bed, iii, 200-1, 347 - - Pituitary Gland, x, 347 - - Plaaters Kill, xiv, 179 - - "Place in the Sun", struggle of plants for, xiii, 27-8, 38-9, 76-7, 361-3 - - Placental Animals, iii, 297, 298; - evolution of, xii, 271, 332 - - Placer Deposits, defined, iii, 381; - gold, 331, 365-6, 366-7; - platinum, 335; - tin, 369 - - Plagioclase, iii, 328-9 - - Plague, Greek ideas of, x, 285; - immunity to, 207; - inoculation against, 208; - racial susceptibility to, xv, 50, 51 - - Plagues, great, x, 153-70; - uncleanliness and, xv, 49 - - Plains, xiv, 212-19; - civilization in relation to, xv, 128; - define and distinguished, xiv, 27, 213, 220; - Great (see Great Plains); - outwash, iii, 68-9; - perfect, seldom attained, 35; - populations mostly on, xiv, 218-19; - sea-cut, 46-7, 216; - surfaces of high and low, 28 - - Planarians, xii, 44 - - Plane of Ecliptic, ii, 70, 163 - - Planers, invention, v, 47 - - Plane Tree, in landscaping, xiii, 271-2; - leaf buds, 34 - (see also Sycamores) - - Planet Deep, iii, 51 - - Planetary Motions, ii, 163, iii, 158, 159; - compared with whirling of pail, iv, 71; - Copernicus on, ii, 43-4; - gravitation and, iv, 95, 98; - Huygen's studies, ii, 58; - irregularities, 66, 67, 71, 73, 79, 87; - Kepler's laws, 49-52; - Ptolemaic theory, 35-6; - spectroscopic investigation, 120-1; - theory of relativity and, 80-1; - tidal friction theory, 376-7 - - Planetary Nebulæ, ii, 360; - distribution and motion, 364; - star streaming by, 347; - stars and, 308-9 - - Planetary Orbits, ii, 162-3; - deviations, 66, 67, 79; - elliptical form, 39, 50-1, xvi, 102; - first thought to be circular, ii, 34, 49; - variations in elements, 74-5 - - Planetesimal Hypothesis, ii, 372-4, iii, 160-3; - not sustained by Mt. Wilson studies, ii, 157; - origin of moon by, 376; - rings of Saturn by, 266 - - Planetesimals, ii, 374, iii, 161, 162 - - Planets, atmospheres of, i, 10, ii, 231-2, 245; - conjunction recorded by Hindus, 21; - days and seasons in, 228; - distances and periods, 51-2; - erratic amplitudes, 25; - farthest, 267-9; - hypotheses of origin, ii, 369-74, 379, iii, 160, 162; - inner, ii, 189-92; - law of sun's attraction, 65; - life on, 245-50; - lucid, 264; - minor, 16, 254-9 (see Asteroids); - motions (see Planetary Motions); - orbits (see Planetary Orbits); - photography in study, 130-4; - sizes and motions, 162-3; - of stars, 252-3; - trans-Neptunian, 270-2; - weighing of, 75-7 - - Plankton, Sea, xii, 17-21, xvi, 147-8; - copepods in, xii, 84; - one-celled animals of, 25 - - Planning, of work, xi, 377-8 - - Planosphere, xvi, 91 - - Plantain Eaters, xii, 265 - - Plantains, xiii, 217, 226 - - Plant Breeding, ix, 327, 337 - - Plant Classification, xiii, 168-81; - by cotyledons, 60-1; - by factor expressions, 330; - by morphological characters, xvi, 165-6; - by reproductive processes, 166-7; - former method, xiii, 175; - Linnæan System, x, 84; - outline, iii, 251 - - Plant Distribution, xiii, 337-84; - determined by climate, xiv, 364-79, 380-1; - facilitated by land arrangement, xiv, 21; - Ice Age and, xiii, 321, xiv, 375-7; - importance of study of, xiii, 12; - land changes and, xiii, 320 - - Plant Ecology, xiii, 354-7 - - Plant Families, xiii, 179-207; - restricted areas of some, 320 - - Plant Formations, xiv, 371-2, (see Plant Societies) - - Plante, ball lightning studies, vii, 215 - - Planting, index plants, i, 255-6; - rules and tables, xiii, 267-97 - - Planting Machines, v, 244 - - Plant Kingdom, distinguished from animal, xii, 14-15, xiii, 13-14; - history of, xiii, 298-336 - - Plant Names, xiii, 168-71 - - Plants, active principle, xiii, 250; - adaptations in (see Adaptation to Environment); - aerial, xiii, 21; - ancient study, 249; - animals and, interdependence, viii, 334-5, 347, 349, 350, xiii, 82; - autophytic, 96-7; - behavior, 76-115; - blended characters in, ix, 337; - borrowing and robbing, xiii, 97-101; - breathing of, 109; - Brownian movements, xvi, 166; - carbon dioxide used by, i, 13-14, viii, 49; - cell constituents of, ix, 26; - cellulose of, 30; - chemical composition and processes, iii, 344, viii, 335-8, 341, 348, - 349, 354-5, xiv, 64-5; - chlorophyll (see Chlorophyll); - chromosomes in different species, ix, 46; - classification (see Plant Classification); - climate and, xiv, 363; - colorless, xii, 14-15; - cultivated (see Cultivated P.); - defined, xiii, 13-14; - distribution (see Plant Distribution); - distinguished, xii, from animals, vii, 14-15; - evolution, iii, 249-58; - flowering and flowerless (see Flowering, Flowerless Plants); - fog drip, i, 351; - food and feeding, viii, 339-46, 347, 349, 350, xiii, 13-14, 17-18, 19, - 23, 24, 25-6, 39-41, 42, 90-101, xiv, 64-8; - food of green and other, xiii, 70; - food-making and storage by, viii, 334, ix, 25-30, xiii, 77-84, 95, 96; - food varieties for man and animals, ix, 24-5, 30; - frost protection, i, 259; - frost susceptibilities, 258; - galls on, xii, 125; - garden (see Garden Plants); - geotropism, xiii, 85; - growth electrically stimulated, vii, 351-3; - growth, upward and downward, xiii, 84-5; - guttation, i, 350-1; - highly cultivated, xiii, 51; - hybrid, 147; - immobility, 14, 109-10; - index, i, 255; - inheritance laws, x, 231, 232; - injured, hasty flowering of, xiii, 167; - insect-capturing, 39-41; - instinct in, xi, 49; - land (see Land Plants); - light effects on, x, 253; - marine, xii, 16-17; - microscopic (see Bacteria); - modern, origin and development, xiii, 316-25; - movements, 109-15; - motion pictures of growth, iv, 348; - mutation (see Mutants); - new species, how developed, xiii, 325-36; - nitrogen needs, i, 34, viii, 280, 345-6, xiv, 66; - nitrogen supply in soil, x, 193-4; - northward movement, xiii, 321; - number of species, 323; - of oceanic islands, xiv, 277, 278; - oils of, ix, 28; - parasitic, xiii, 100 (see Parasitic Plants); - parts of, 15; - petrified, iii, 15-16; - phenology, i, 254, 256, 379; - protective methods (see Protective Methods); - proteins of, ix, 278-9, 280, 287; - protoplasm of, xiii, 74; - rate of increase in, xv, 19, 21; - reasoning in, xiii, 3, 97; - reproduction, 116-67 (see Reproduction of Plants); - restless and irritable, 109-15; - rock disintegration by, viii, 194, 338; - rootless, xiii, 15, 21; - salt and fresh water, ix, 174, 175; - saprophytic, xiii, 99-101; - seat of life in, ix, 17; - seed-dispersed (see Seed); - struggle for dominance (see Struggle for Dominance, Struggle for - Existence); - sunlight and, ix, 27, xi, 52, xiii, 76-7, 84-90, 361-3, xiv, 365-6, - 367; - unicellular and multicellular, xiii, 166; - uses to man, 9-12, 208-66; - variation in, xv, 22-3 (see Variation); - vascular and nonvascular, xiii, 65-6; - water sources and uses, 90-6, 101-9; - water storage, 28, 41-2, 106-7, 378, 379, 380 - (see also Vegetation) - - Plant Societies, xiii, 356-83, xiv, 371-2 - - Plaskett, reflector of, ii, 106-7 - - Plaster of Paris, iii, 332, viii, 153; - made from gypsum, xiv, 209; - manufacture of, iii, 376 - - Plastic Surgery, x, 57, 189, 384 - - Plateaus, xiv, 220-4; - dissection and destruction, 224; - distinguished from plains and mountains, 27-8, 213; - formed by warping, 38; - mountains from dissected, iii, 139-40, xiv, 225, 226; - oceanic, 286; - re-elevated, 96-8; - topography developed from stratified, 80-1 - - Plate Condensers, vi, 293-4 - - Platelets, of blood, ix, 188-9; - held by capillary walls, 194 - - Plates, photographic, viii, 172-3 - - Platiarius, Joannes, x, 37 - - Plating of Metals (see Electroplating) - - Platinum, iii, 335, viii, 126-7, 173-4; - affinity intensity, 128; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - catalyzer, 82, 103; - coefficient of expansion, vi, 265; - density of, iv, 113; - electrical conductivity, 283; - extraction from ores, viii, 131; - melting point, iv, 162, viii, 384; - occurrence, 131, 198; - positiveness of, vi, 59; - specific gravity, viii, 384 - - Platinum Metals, viii, 173 - - Plato, classifying fault of, x, 83; - greatness of, 20; - on forms and knowledge, xvi, 87, 88; - on passions, xi, 130 - - Platte River, overloading results, xiv, 161; - sediment deposited, iii, 32-3 - - Platyhelminthes, xii, 44 - - Plauen Laces, v, 288 - - Play, of animals and men, ix, 21, xvi, 143 - - Playfair, xvi, 170 - - Pleasure, artistic forms of, xv, 296-325; - emotions of, ix, 153, 165; - significance of, xi, 121-2; - stimulation requisite, 195 - - Pleiades, star cluster, ii, 122, 336; - in moving cluster, 343; - nebulosity, 110, 359-60 - - Pleistocene Animals, xii, 279, 306, 313, 327 - - Plesiosaurs, iii, 288, xii, 182, 202 - - Pleurisy, friction sounds in, x, 109 - - Pliny, harvesting machines mentioned by, v, 240; - natural history of, xvi, 98; - on Roman physicians, x, 25 - - Pliocene Epoch, species surviving from, xv, 71 - - Plovers, xii, 262 - - Plowing, deep, xiv, 69; - modern, v, 218, 243 - - Plows, evolution and kinds, v, 239-40, 241-3, xv, 235-6 - - Plucker, experiments of, xvi, 193 - - Plucking of Rock, iii, 29, 64, 65 - - Plumbago, viii, 43 - - Plumbing, of houses, how worked, v, 84-6 - - Plumb Lines, iv, 99 - - Plumed Seed and Fruits, xiii, 343-4, 345 - (see also Winged Seed) - - Plum Trees, xiii, 197, 271-2 - - Plums, drupes, xiii, 54; - origin, 226; - splitting, 94 - - Plutarch, on rain and battles, i, 336; - on sun, ii, 165, 220-1 - - Plutarch's Lives, Copernicus' study, xvi, 102 - - Plutonic Rocks, defined, iii, 381, xiv, 105; - exposure by denudation, 100, 105; - forms, iii, 102 (fig.), 110-12, 170, xiv, 105-11; - topography due to, iv, 105-13; - weathering of, 105-6, 107, 110, 112-13 - - Pneuma, x, 27, 29, 63, 85 - - Pneumatic Breakwaters, v, 125 - - Pneumatic Caissons, v, 116-21 (see Caissons) - - Pneumatic Cars, v, 133 - - Pneumatic Cement Gun, v, 136 - - Pneumatic Cushions, v, 133-5 - - Pneumatic Dispatch, i, 29 - - Pneumatic Drills, i, 27, iv, 129, v, 129, 261-2, 263, 380, 381 - - Pneumatic Engineering origin, v, 109 - - Pneumatic Hammer, i, 28, v, 129 - - Pneumatic Motors, v, 129-30 - - Pneumatic Musical Toys, of Hero, xvi, 92 - - Pneumatic Power Transmission, i, 26, 27-8 - - Pneumatic Riveters, v, 129 - - Pneumatic School, of medicine, x, 26-7, 29 - - Pneumatic Shovels, v, 262 - - Pneumatic Tampers, v, 135 - - Pneumatic Tires, v, 133-4, 206, 382; - bursting by heat, iv, 151 - - Pneumatic Tools, i, 27-8, iv, 129 - - Pneumatic Trough, viii, 32 (fig.) - - Pneumatic Tubes, i, 28-9, iv, 130, v, 137-8; - obstructions in, how located, iv, 200 - - Pneumatic Tunnel Shield, v, 122-4, 260 - - Pneumogastric Nerve, xi, 30 - - Pneumonia, x, 288-9; - discovery of cocci, xvi, 185; - germ of, x, 194, 196, 216, 221, 289; - immunity to, 207; - inoculation against, 208; - negro susceptibility to, xv, 50, 51; - toxin of, x, 196 - - Po (River), levees of, xiv, 53; - longitudinal character, 154 - - Pockels, F., i, 152-3 - - Pocky Clouds, i, 104, 379 - - Pocono Plateau, xiv, 221 - - Podalic Version, x, 56 - - Podalirius, x, 16 - - Pods, seed-shooting, xiii, 339 - - Poetry, development of, xv, 319-22, 325; - historic value of, 322, 323-4 - - Poggendorff's Illusion, xi, 187 - - Pogonip, ice fog, i, 95-6, 379 - - Poincaré, astronomical work, ii, 356, 377; - on relativity, xvi, 197 - - Pointed Objects, electric discharges from, i, 157, iv, 265, 269, vi, - 295-7 - - Poiseuille, Jean Leonard Marie, x, 126 - - Poison Ivy, xiii, 252; - aerial roots, 20; - family, 200 - - Poisonous Amphibians, xii, 169-70 - - Poisonous Gases, in World War, i, 308-9, 313-14, x, 186-7; - scars of, 189 - - Poisonous Snakes, xii, 224-38 - - Poisonous Spiders, xii, 93, 95 - - Poisons, arsenic, 169; - carbon monoxide, viii, 50-1; - diseases from, x, 255; - effect on mind, xi, 13; - in air, ix, 270; - in plants, 30, xiii, 250, 252; - mercuric, viii, 170; - vegetable acids, 222; - wood alcohol, 214; - use of, by savages and others, xv, 227-9 - - Poisson, Simeon Denis, xvi, 122 - - Pola, harbor of, xiv, 253 - - Poland and Danzig, xiv, 306 - - Polar Bands, i, 99 - - Polar Bears, xii, 336-7; - Eskimo method of catching, xv, 224-5 - - Polar Coordinates, iv, 16 - - Polarimeter, viii, 226 - - Polaris (Pole Star), ii, 232; - a binary, 123; - color, 297; - magnitude, 295; - standard of magnitude, 297 - - Polariscope, viii, 309-10, x, 137 - - Polarity, magnetic, vii, 374 - - Polarization, meaning, iv, 354, 383 - - Polarization, in electric cells, iv, 296, 298, 383, vi, 136-7 - - Polarization of Light, iii, 319, iv, 353-6, 383; - discovery, xvi, 119; - Pasteur & Le Bel's studies, 163-4; - sugar testing by, iv, 354-6, viii, 226 - - Polar Regions, aurora in, i, 159; - clouds and fogs, 93, 95; - frozen soil, xiv, 75; - halos, i, 179; - land areas uncertain, xiv, 11, 20; - living conditions in, 344; - mirages, i, 172, 173; - plant conditions of, xiv, 365; - rain and snow in, i, 109, 119, xiv, 42; - rime in, i, 121; - sky shadows in, 170; - tundra vegetation, xiii, 381; - winds, i, 127, 128, 129 - - Polar Relays (telegraphy) vii, 114-18 - - Polecats, xii, 349 - - Pole Lathes, v, 42-3 - - Pole-line Transmission System, vii, 14-24 - - Poles of Earth, altitude of stratosphere at, i, 20; - aurora in relation to, 159; - compass in relation to, iv, 246; - flattening at, ii, 69; - weight of bodies at, 69, iv, 101 - (see also Polar Regions) - - Pole Strength, unit of, iv, 249, 250 - - Policeman's Whistle, iv, 220 - - Pollen, xiii, 118, 119; - attraction to insects, 124, 125, 134, 143; - found in ancient remains, 310; - hay fever from, x, 212; - in air, i, 61; - in aquatic plants, xiii, 149-52; - mixtures of, 146-8; - protection, 126; - "showers," i, 359; - wind-blown, xiii, 123, 148-9, 144 (illus.) - - Pollution Gauge, i, 65, 379 - - Pollux, angular diameter, ii, 151 - - Polonium, discovery, xvi, 193 - - Polyandry, xv, 285, 286-7, 294-5 - - Polycotyledons, xiii, 60 - - Polycythemia, x, 152 - - Polygamy, xv, 285, 287-9 - - Polymerization, viii, 219, 232, 335 - - Polynesia, xiv, 277; - ease of life in, xv, 124; - overpopulation of, xiv, 282 - - Polynesians, clothes of, xv, 256-7; - fire generation by, 231; - hair of, 37; - in brown race, 37; - seamanship of, xiv, 282, 305-6; - susceptibility to tuberculosis, xv, 51; - tattooing among, 258; - wind gods of, 342 - - Polypeptides, viii, 353 - - Polypetalae, xiii, 47, 190, 195-201 - - Polyps, xii, 33-43 - - Polysaccharides, viii, 224, 227-9 - - Polyuria, x, 343-4 - - Polyzoa, xii, 46-7 - - Pomegranates, origin, xiii, 226 - - Pompeii, burying of, iii, 100; - earthquake at, xiv, 326; - volcanic material over, 326 - - Pomes, xiii, 54 - - Pondering, delays in brain, xi, 21 - - Ponds, depth appearances of, iv, 327; - dew, i, 352-3 - - Pond Snails, xii, 69 - - Pond-weed, xiii, 340 - - Pons, comet discoveries, ii, 275, 289 - - Pontchartrain, Lake, xiv, 203 - - Pontias, i, 131-2, 379 - - Poor Whites, of southern mountains, xv, 130-1 - - Popcorn, eating of, ix, 251; - known to Indians, xiii, 212 - - Poplar Trees, antiquity, xiii, 324-5; - earliest appearance, 318; - family, 191; - fluttering of leaves, 113; - in landscaping, 271-2; - seed dispersal, 343 - - Popliteal Aneurism, x, 121 - - Popoff, wireless system, xvi, 191 - - Poppy, cultivation and uses, xiii, 253-4; - seed in confections, 250, 254 - - Population, artificial selection, xvi, 154-5; - civilization in relation to, xv, 128-9; - distribution of, 12; - increase of, 26-7; - mostly on plains, xiv, 218; - of mountains, 245 - - Porbeagles, xii, 145 - - Porcelain, viii, 283; - Egyptian, xvi, 74 - - Porcupines, xii, 288-9; - absence of fear in, xi, 136 - - Porifera, xii, 30 - - Pork, calories in, ix, 299; - proteins in, 279; - trichina caused by, xv, 49; - vitamines in, x, 262 - - Porous Rock, water in, iii, 113-15 - - Porpoises, xii, 297 - - Portals of Entry (infections), x, 198, 201-2 - - Portal Vein, ix, 198, 245 - - Port Hudson, capture of, xiv, 194 - - Port Jackson Shark, xii, 143 - - Portland Cement, iii, 373, 374, viii, 280 - - Porto Bello, heavy rain, i, 110 - - Porto Rico, hookworm in, x, 174; - ocean depths near, iii, 51; - overpopulation of, xiv, 282; - zoölogy of, 274 - - Porto Rico Trench, xiv, 289 - - Portugal, aphysia dyes of, xii, 68 - - Portuguese Empire, xiv, 310 - - Portuguese Language, xv, 162 - - Portuguese Man-of-War, xii, 18, 37 - - Portuguese Navigators, xiv, 196, 309 - - Port Valais, xiv, 53 - - Position, perception of, xi, 162-3, 164, 165, 167-71 - - Positive, electrical meaning, vi, 57, 124 - - Positive Electricity, iv, 258, 265, vi, 287, 288 - - Positive Ions, i, 142, 143, viii, 121-2 - - Post, C. W., rain experiments, i, 339 - - Post, Wright, x, 121 - - Postage Stamps, dextrin gumming, viii, 228; - printing of, vii, 314 - - Postal Telegraph Company, vii, 108, 112 - - Post-Mortem Findings, x, 98 - - Postures, importance to health, x, 241-2; - importance of, to right growth, ix, 57; - mental effects, xi, 294, 301, 337, 338-40, 371, 372; - muscular activity in, ix, 83-4; - standing and walking, x, 305 - - Potash, available supplies and uses, viii, 275, 278-9, 344, xiv, 67-8, - 69, 209; - from smoke precipitation, vii, 347, 348; - in body fluids, ix, 174; - in ground water, xiv, 142; - locked-up forms, viii, 200-1; - salts of, in protoplasm, ix, 82 - - Potash Lakes, xiv, 206, 212 - - Potassium, viii, 143-5; - affinity strength, 127, 128; - alkali metal, 132-4; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - fusibility, 384; - in body tissues, 354; - in earth's crust, iii, 308, viii, 19, 129, 148, 192, 195, 279; - light metal, 17, 127; - metallic character, 181; - plant needs and sources, 337, 341, 342, 343, 344; - specific gravity, 384; - spectrum, 301-2; - test for, 287, 289 - - Potassium Compounds, viii, 144; - chlorate uses, 34, 35, 87, 88, 89, 146; - chloride, 188; - cyanide, in gold extraction, 174; - feldspar, 90; - flame color, 301; - hydroxide, in soap making, viii, 142; - nitrate, 72, 138, 144-5, 146, 372; - occurrence in nature, 130, 138, 143-4, 195, 196, 279, 344; - permanganate, 294, 333; - uses, 130, 144, 146 - - Potatoes, calories in, ix, 299; - eyes of, xiii, 22; - food value, ix, 34, viii, 365, x, 261, 265, 266, 268; - history and kinds, xiii, 218-19; - keeping of, viii, 371; - origin, xiii, 221, 223, xiv, 382; - starch from, viii, 248, xiii, 83; - starch storage in, ix, 27-8; - stems, xiii, 22, 23; - tubers, 24 (fig.), 83 - - Potential, Electrical, iv, 262-3, 383, vi, 49, vii, 374; - maintenance of constant, vi, 329; - positive and negative, iv, 265; - spark table, vii, 383 - - Potential Differences, iv, 263, 383, vi, 50, 51, 57, 72, vii, 366; - between earth and clouds, i, 144, iv, 269; - electric energy from, 263, 264-5, 294-5; - in thunderstorms, i, 149-50, 151-2, vii, 206-7; - measured by voltmeters, 154; - production of, iv, 271-3; - unit of, 280 - - Potential Energy, iv, 79, vii, 368; - conversion to kinetic, iv, 81, 82, 87-8; - forms of, 82 - - Potential Gradient, i, 144, 145 - - Potential Transformers, vii, 44, 45 - - Potholes, iii, 39-40 - - Potomac River, course of, xiv, 154, 168-9; - gap, 51, 52, 167; - rapids, 159; - shad season in, xii, 155 - - Pott, Percival, x, 92 - - Pott's Disease, x, 92 - - Pott's Fracture, x, 92 - - Potter's Wheel, xv, 249-50, 251 (fig.) - - Pottery, viii, 282-3; - ancient making of, viii, 280-1, xv, 248-51, xvi, 74; - decorations of, xv, 250-1, 252, 253, 297-8 - - Pouched Gophers, xii, 290 - - Pouched Mice, xii, 278 - - Poulsen Arc Generators, vii, 274, 275-6, 291 - - Poultry, originals of, xii, 261 - - Poultry Products, drain on farm, viii, 342-3 - - Pound, unit of force and mass, iv, 58, 64-5, 69-70; - value in grams, 70, viii, 28 - - Poundal, unit of force, iv, 64, 69; - value in grams and dynes, 70 - - "Poverty Year," i, 359 - - Powder (see Gunpowder, Smokeless Powder) - - Power, defined, iv, 80, vi, 83, 84; - electric (see Electric Power); - from fuels, ix, 15-16; - gain in elementary machines, v, 22-3, 31-5, 38; - relation to velocity in machines, iv, 92; - sources of, ix, 25-6; - unit of, iv, 80, vi, 83, 84, vii, 369 - (see also Energy, Force) - - Power Boats, cylinders, v, 159 - - Power Factor, in alternating currents, vi, 169, 172; - in induction motors, 255-6; - regulation by, synchronous motors, 255, 260-2; - in rotary converters, 348 - - Power Plants, vi, 349-84; - distribution of power, vii, 25-31 - (see also Power Transmission); - extra charges for peak hours, vii, 177-8; - for farms, 231-4; - high and low head, v, 79-83; - interest of machinery, vi, 175-6; - number and capacity in U. S., vii, 74-5; - remote control in, vi, 100-1, 102; - Shuman's sun-using, v, 177-8; - tidal, 174-7; - turbine use, advantages, 151, 153; - use of alternators, vi, 215; - using volcanic heat, v, 179-80 - (see also Hydroelectric Plants) - - Power Transmission (electrical), vii, 9-31; - alternating currents in, vi, 159-61, 169, 195-6; - direct currents in, 160, 195; - Niagara Plant system, 375-8; - overhead and underground (see Overhead, Underground Transmission); - present distances attained, 365; - problem, 367-8; - prominent names in history, 26; - synchronous condensers in, 262; - traction methods, vii, 186-93, 197-200; - voltages and currents used, vi, 159, 160-1, 163, 169, 331-2, vii, - 10-11 - (see also Long Distance Transmission) - - Power Transmission (Hydraulic), v, 104-8 - - Power Transmission (pneumatic), i, 26, 27-9 - - Practice, effects of, xi, 253 - - Praepositus, Nicolaus, x, 37 - - Præsepe, star cluster, ii, 336 - - Pragmatic Philosophy, xvi, 196 - - Prairie Dogs, xii, 294 - - Prairie Fires, smoke from, i, 56 - - Prairies, dominance of grasses on, xiii, 350; - plant societies of, 373-6; - soils of, xiv, 383; - United States, 374, xiv, 373; - windbreaks, i, 333 - - Prase, iii, 337 - - Praseodymium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Prayer, primitive conceptions of, xv, 344-7 - - Pre-Babylonian Science, xvi, 56-63 - - Precession, of gyroscopes, v, 336, 337-9, 340, 341, 342 - - Precession of Equinoxes, ii, 70-1; - Arab work on, 38; - discovery, xvi, 90; - Hipparchus on, ii, 31, 300 - - Precipitate, defined, viii, 380 - - Precipitation (atmospheric), annual amount, xiv, 135; - climate determined by, 351-2, 355-6; - measurement, i, 79-82; - mountain effects, xiv, 354-5; - source of terrestrial waters, 134, 151; - various kinds, i, 106-22, 379 - - Precipitation (electrical), vi, 164, vii, 216, 346-51 - - Precipitation Treaters, vii, 348-51 - - Prehistoric Man (see Primitive Man) - - Prehistoric Times, before writing, xv, 167, 322-3; - geographical and climate changes since, xiv, 29-30 - - Prejudice (see Bias) - - Preoccupation, of mind, xi, 154-5 - - Prepotent Inheritance, x, 230 - - Preservatives, action of, viii, 333; - chemical, 372 - - Preserving of Foods, viii, 371; - effect on vitamines, x, 263, 266 - - Pressure, boiling point and, iv, 167-8, 169-70; - critical, 171-3; - melting point and, 153, 162, 163-6; - sense of, xi, 109, 110, 111, 113, 114 - (see also Atmospheric Pressure, Gases, Liquids) - - Pressure Areas, ordinary movement, i, 237; - physiological effects of alternations, 329-30; - wind and weather attendants, 125, 134-5, 218, 237-8, xiv, 349-50 (see - also Highs, Lows) - - Pressure Belts, i, 127-9 - - Pressure Cookers, iv, 171 - - Pressure Gradients, i, 126, 373; - reversal, 130, 131 - - Pressure Waves, in alternating currents, vi, 198 - - Prevailing Westerlies, i, 128, 379, xiv, 345-6, 349 - - Preventive Medicine, x, 282-317; - history of development of, 15, 99, 133-4, 171-6, 217-18 - - Prickly Fruits, xiii, 58, 343 - - Priestley, chemical work, xvi, 120, 177; - oxygen discovery, viii, 34, x, 89, xiv, 65 - - Priests, of savages, xv, 349-53, 354, 359 - - Primary Cells, iv, 299, 383, vi, 130, 131-44, vii, 363; - chemical action of, viii, 167 - - Primary Coils, iv, 383, importance of knowledge of, 9 - - Primary Colors, iv, 366 - - Primary Concepts, iv, 14-16 - - Primary Rocks, viii, 191; - disintegration, 194-5 - - Primates, iii, 301, 302, xii, 373-4, 375, xvi, 126 - - Prime Movers, ix, 15, vii, 373; - of future, v, 171-81; - various kinds, vi, 181-2, 351-2 - - Primitive Man, æsthetic arts of, xv, 296-325; - conditions of life, x, 10, xv, 188-92; - dogs of, xii, 345-6; - language of, xv, 140; - love of decoration in, 252-3; - mind and beliefs, xvi, 42, 43-5, 51, 56; - religion of, xv, 327-59; - sex relations of, 277-8; - tools and weapons of, v, 11, 12-15, xv, 102-10; - types of, 77-102 - (see also Cave Men, Savages) - - Primrose, leaves, xiii, 88; - petals, 190 - - Primrose Family, xiii, 203-4 - - Prince Rupert Drops, viii, 281 - - Princeton College, founding, xvi, 127 - - Prince's Island, groundsel in, xiii, 345 - - Principle of Archimedes, iv, 30, 102-5; - applicable to gases, 107, 126 - - Pringle, John, x, 104, 155 - - Print, machines to read, v, 332-5, 384 - - Printing, v, 300-13; - color, iv, 370-1; - electrotyping, vii, 313-14; - invention of, xv, 179; - invention, results on science, ii, 13, 40, 42, x, 44; - photographic, viii, 173 - - Printing Presses, development, v, 300-5, 378, 379, 381 - - Prisms, effect on light, i, 165, ii, 99, 111, 112, iv, 357-9, 365, viii, - 301 - - Prisoners, habit in, xi, 255; - labor of, 275 - - Privet, leaf arrangement, xiii, 38 - - Proboscis, of insects, xiii, 126 - - Proctor, astronomer, ii, 249, 343 - - Procyon, ii, 297, 319 - - Prodigality of Nature, in ferns, xiii, 155, 156; - to insure reproduction, 117, 118, 124, 152 - - Produce Exchanges, weather reports at, i, 252 - - Professional Men, food requirements, ix, 297 - - Proficiency, unconsciousness of, xi, 254 - - Profiteers, and farmers, vii, 220, 221 - - Prognathic Angle, xv, 44 (fig.) - - Prognosis, Hippocrates on, x, 78 - - Progress, cumulativeness of, xvi, 41; - due to experience of past, ix, 153, xv, 30-1; - due to individuals, xi, 333; - in organic life, xvi, 152; - language and, xv, 68, 145-6; - rhythm in, xvi, 46, 116; - scientific (see Science, progress); - summary of mechanical, v, 376-84; - transportation and, 18 - - Projectiles, atmospheric resistance, v, 369; - explosives for throwing, viii, 260-1; - flight, i, 312-13; - from aeroplanes, v, 372-3; - handling on battleships, vii, 334; - meteorological corrections, i, 312-13; - sound, i, 193-4; - World War, v, 372 - - Prometheus, story of, viii, 89 - - Promontories, formation of, xiv, 256 - - Pronghorns, xii, 322-3 - - Proof by Induction, xi, 242 - - Propane, viii, 210 - - Propellers, iv, 34; - electric drives, v, 105-6, 153-4; - mechanical and electric drives, vii, 329-30; - most efficient speed, 329; - of early steamboats, v, 189-90; - suction applications of, iv, 127 - - Proper Motion of Stars, ii, 121-2, 304-5; - determined by spectrum analysis, 119-20; - Eddington on, 344; - Halley's discovery of, 84, 86-7; - in relation to spectral type, 307-9; - origin, 308 - - Property, inheritance systems, xv, 289-90, 294 - - Prophylaxis, x, 213, 318 (see Immunity) - - Propionic Acid, viii, 220 - - Proportional, defined, iv, 63 - - Proprioceptive Senses, xi, 63 - - Propyl Alcohol, boiling point, viii, 212, 299 - - Propylene Glycol, boiling point, viii, 299 - - Prosauria, xii, 182, 183, 203 - - Prosepny, geological work, xvi, 172-3 - - Protagoras, on relativity, xvi, 85, 87; - theory of knowledge, 87 - - Proteases, viii, 357 - - Protective Coloration, xv, 17-18; - in amphibians, xii, 170; - in birds, 245-6; - in lizards, 204; - in lions and tigers, 359-60; - in rabbits, 287 - - Protective Devices (electrical), vii, 32-50 - - Protective Methods in Plants, flower buds, xiii, 45; - leaf-buds, 34; - leaves, against sunlight, 89; - leaves, hairy covering, 104-5; - nettles against animals, 42 - - Protective Motions, of animals, ix, 21 - - Proteins, viii, 380; - amount in daily diet, 366-7, ix, 300-1; - amount needed in foods, ix, 281-4, x, 255-6, 278-9; - anaphylaxis from injection of, x, 213, 214, 223; - animal and plant, ix, 278-9, 280, 287; - animal and plant percentages, viii, 348, 349, 351; - antigenic properties of, x, 205; - body heat production by, ix, 309; - body needs of, ix, 33, 34-5, 278, 287-8, x, 255-6, 277-8, xi, 279; - body percentage, viii, 348; - calories in, 361, x, 269; - chemical composition and properties, viii, 351-2, 357, ix, 29, 279, - 287; - classification, viii, 352-3; - different kinds, ix, 278-9; - digestion and utilization of, 235, 242, 243, 244, 245, 279-84, x, 204, - 270, 277-80, 319, 326, 329, 330, 342; - energy value, ix, 300; - excess of, in food, 283-6; - human, 279, 280, 287; - in blood, 176-7, 181, 183, 184, 194-5; - injections of, effects, x, 204, 213, 214, 223; - injections of, in therapy, 226; - in plants, iii, 344, viii, 348, 349, 350, 351, ix, 278, 280, 287; - in protoplasm, 32-3, 34, 278; - in various foods, viii, 362, 363, 364, 366, ix, 300, xiii, 213; - likeness and differences, ix, 278-9; - making of, by plants, viii, 336, 349, 350, ix, 29, 278, xiii, 95; - metabolism effects, ix, 301-2; - molecular structure, viii, 217-18; - need of, in diet, x, 255-6, 268, 278-9; - nitrogen in, viii, 64-5, 73, 340, x, 270, 277, 342; - plant, ix, 278-9, 280, 287; - plant percentages, viii, 348, 349, 351; - storage of, by body, x, 272; - wool and silk as, viii, 256 - - Proterozoic Era, iii, 20, 174-8; - plants and animals, 251, 261-2, 262-3, 264-5, 270, 271, 276 - - Proterozoic Rocks, iii, 174-8 - - Prothallus, xiii, 157, 158, 160, 162 - - Protonema, xiii, 156, 162, 163 - - Protoplasm, x, 228; - basis of life, ix, 13, 17, x, 228, xiii, 74; - body percentage of, ix, 31; - chemical composition and processes, viii, 356, ix, 32-3, 34, xvi, 155; - chlorophyll and, xii, 14; - color in nerve cells, ix, 124; - conditions necessary to, ii, 243; - constitution and functions, ix, 41-3; - control of activities of, 39-40; - differences of, in plants and animals, 278-9; - inactivity when cooled, 306-7; - maintenance and growth, 34-6, 278-84; - making of new, 32, 33, 38-9, 287-8; - motion by, 73; - occurrence and nature, xii, 13; - origin of, xiii, 300; - salts in relation to, ix, 32, 174; - signs of life, 13-17; - studies of, xvi, 166; - wastage of, in body, ix, 34, 282-3; - water in, effects on metabolism, 37-8 - - Protopterus (fish), xii, 166 - - Prototheria, xii, 271, 272-4 - - Protozoa, iii, 259, 263, 265-6, xii, 25, 26; - disease-producing, x, 199, 200, 204; - in plankton, xvi, 147; - origin of, xii, 12; - reproduction in, 26 - - Prout's Hypothesis, viii, 177, 187 - - Prunes, as antiscorbutic, x, 266; - eating of, ix, 251 - - Prussia, vaccination in, x, 103 - - Pruth River, xiv, 185 - - Psuchrainometer, i, 319, 379 - - Psyche, xvi, 17 - - Psychiatry, x, 356, 357 - - Psychic States, motor character, xi, 58-9, 61 - - Psychor Analysis, x, 243, 363-5 - - PSYCHOLOGY, Volume xi - - Psychology, complexity of science of, x, 368; - concrete science, xvi, 42; - daily applications, 17-19; - defined, 37, xi, 10-14; - field of applied, 9-10, 367; - medicine and, x, 369; - origin of name, xvi, 17 - - Psycho-neuroses, x, 359-60 - - Psychoses, of adolescence, x, 236-7 - - Psychrometers, i, 78-9, 379 - - Pteranodons, iii, 294 - - Pteridophytes, iii, 251, 252, 253, 256 - - Pteridosperms, iii, 251, 252, 254-5 - - Pterodactyls, xii, 202, 203 (fig.) - - Pteropoda, xii, 18, 19 - - Pterosauria, xii, 182, 202 - - Ptolemaic System, ii, 10, 34-6, xvi, 93; - Bacon's criticisms, 101; - Copernicus and, ii, 49; - dissatisfaction with, 40, 42; - Galileo and, 54; - Regiomontanus and, 40; - persistence, 45 - - Ptolemy, ii, 32; - Almagest, 10, 33-6; - Aristotle and, 42; - conception of moving bodies, 63; - debt to earlier astronomers, 29; - ideas of cosmos, 367; - remarks on geography of, xiv, 3; - works of, xvi, 93-4 - - Ptomaines, viii, 215 - - Ptyalin, ix, 230, 235-6 - - Puberty, mental diseases following, x, 236-7; - need of health instruction at, 283 - - Public Halls, ventilation methods, ix, 269 - - Public Health, campaign for, x, 171, 172; - science of, viii, 317-33 - - Public Health Service, U. S., x, 190-1 - - Public Lands, (U. S.), xiv, 384 - - Public Opinion, power of, xv, 374-5, 380 - - Public Speakers, and audiences, xi, 216; - pitch of voice in, iv, 232 - - Puccini, reference to, xv, 297 - - Pudding-stone, sedimentary rock, xiv, 18 - - Puddled Clay, xiv, 137 - - Puddling Process, invention, v, 316-17 - - Pueblo Pottery, xv, 249 (fig.) - - Puerperal Fever, x, 114-15 - - Puff Adder, xii, 231-2 - - Puffballs, fungous, xiii, 71 - - Puffins, xii, 264-5 - - Puget Sound, harbors of, xiv, 268; - salmon in, xii, 157 - - Pugnacity, derivation of word, xi, 43-4; - instinct of, 56 - - Pulleys, v, 33-5; - action of, like levers, iv, 89; - friction in, 93 - - Pull-out Loads, of motors, vi, 260 - - Pulmonary Artery, ix, 199, 201 (fig.); - capillaries of, 254; - elasticity of, 210 - - Pulmonary Vein, ix, 199, 201 (fig.); - blood in, 260 - - Pulmonates, xii, 68-71 - - Pulp, in paper-making, v, 291-5 - - Pulse, ix, 211; - former ideas of, x, 62, 63; - Galileo's measurement, v, 64-5; - rate of, x, 334 - - Pulsilogia, Galileo's, v, 65 - - Pumas, xii, 363-4 - - Pumice, from Krakatoa eruption, iii, 101, xiv, 325; - in ocean, iii, 55, xiv, 285-6 - - Pumpelly, climate studies, xiv, 29, 361; - on loess accumulations, 73-5 - - Pumpkin, xiii, 54-5, 223 - - Pumps, centrifugal, vi, 363; - chain, iv, 26; - electric and automatic, vi, 99-100, vii, 86-7; - for deep wells, v, 114-15; - force, 113-14; - suction, 112-13; - reciprocating, motors used, vi, 234; - suction, iv, 26-7, 126 - - Punching Machines, chisel form, v, 46; - motors used, vi, 235 - - Pupil, of eye, ix, 109, 110 (fig.); - dilation of, in fear, 166; - size changed by smooth muscle, 162 - - Purbach of Vienna, ii, 40 - - Purchase, marriage by, xv, 283-5 - - Pure Breeds, in animal breeding, ix, 337; - from crosses, 335, 336 - - Pure Food Law, viii, 370 - - Puritanism, suppression of emotions, xi, 140 - - Purmann, Matthaeus, x, 78 - - Purple Dyes, sources of, xii, 68, 72 - - Purple Light, of sunsets, i, 167, 379-80 - - Purple Loosestrife, xiii, 140-1 - - Purpose, motor character, xi, 61 (see Will) - - Purslane, xiii, 15 - - Pus, formation of, ix, 186-7; - former conception of, x, 39-40, 41, 43; - modern attitude towards, 145, 147 - - Pus Pockets, ix, 187, 188 - - Pus-producing Germs, ix, 186-8, x, 195, xiii, 71; - infections by, x, 198, 207, 221; - vaccination against, 218 - - Putrefaction, cause, xvi, 143; - intestinal, ix, 249-50 - - Pycraft, Prof., on chameleons, xii, 209-10 - - Pyemia, x, 198 - - Pygmies of Africa, xv, 38-9 - - Pyorrhea, of gums, x, 202, 219, 222 - - Pyramids of Egypt, ii, 24, xv, 269-71; - civilization exhibited, xvi, 66-7, 71; - orientation, ii, 26; - rocks used in, iii, 235; - weathering of, xiv, 78 - - Pyrene Extinguisher, vi, 101 - - Pyrenees Mts., as barrier between Spain and France, xiv, 239-40; - geranium of, xiii, 136; - geological history, iii, 235, 236, 240; - recent formation, xiv, 235 - - Pyrheliometer, i, 88, 380 - - Pyridine, viii, 240, 253 - - Pyrite, iii, 335-6; - gold in, 366 - (see also Iron Pyrites) - - Pyrogallol, viii, 288 - - Pyrosoma, xii, 19-20 - - Pyroxene, composition of, viii, 193 - - Pyroxene Group, iii, 336 - - Psycho-Analysis, x, 243, 363-5 - - Pythagoras, conception of universe, ii, 10, 42-3, xvi, 80, 81-2; - mathematics of, 79-81; - medical work of, x, 17-18 - - Pythagorean Theory, xvi, 81-2 - - Pythonomorpha, xii, 182, 202-3 - - Pythons, xii, 213-15 - - - Qobar, i, 380 - - Quacks, Barton on, x, 76, 367, 374-5; - cures of, vii, 240-1 - - Quadruplex Telegraphy, vii, 112, 117 - - Quagga, xii, 308 - - Quahogs, xii, 66-7 - - Quails, xii, 261 - - Qualitative Analysis, viii, 285-91 - - Quantitative Analysis, viii, 285, 291-5 - - Quantum Dynamic Theory, xvi, 134-5 - - Quarrying, in ancient Egypt, xvi, 67-8; - joints in, xiv, 128-9 - - Quart, compared with liter, viii, 28 - - Quartz, iii, 336-8; - fused, manufacture and uses, vii, 311-12; - gangue mineral, viii, 199; - gold found with, iii, 366, 367; - in granite, 27, 308; - in iron ore, 356; - in soils, 27, 28; - insolubility, viii, 112 - - Quartzite, iii, 381; - origin, 169, 189 - - Quaternary Period, iii, 20, 236-48; - appearance of man, 302, 303, xv, 72; - differentiation of races in, 95; - divisions of, 71; - Ice Age (see Ice Age) - - Quaternion Analysis, invention, ii, 72 - - Quatrefages, morphology studies, xvi, 140-1 - - Quebec, harbor of, xiv, 270; - plateau of, 221, 236 - - Quebec Bridge, construction, v, 100-1 - - Queen Anne's Lace Plant, xiii, 201 - - Queensland, barramunda of, xii, 165 - - Queensland Hemp, xiii, 244 - - Questions, suggestion by form of, xi, 308-10 - - Quetelet, xvi, 153 - - Quicklime, iii, 373, viii, 149-50 - - Quickness, in different types of men, xi, 156-9 - - Quicksand, excavating through, v, 115-18, 123 - - Quicksilver (see Mercury) - - Quinces, origin, xiii, 226 - - Quinine, an alkaloid, viii, 240; - from tropical forests, xiv, 383; - history and production, xiii, 250-2; - importance of discovery, 9; - sulphate of, iv, 356, 379; - use in malaria, x, 154-5, 158, 381 - - Quipus, xv, 165 (fig.), 166 - - - Ra, Egyptian sun-god, ii, 24; - horns of, xii, 326 - - Rabbits, xii, 286-8; - direction perception by, ix, 117; - embryological development, xv, 55; - fear in, xi, 136; - heart of, x, 332; - nest-making by, xi, 56; - protective coloration in, xv, 17, 18; - rate of increase and destructiveness, 20 - - Rabelais, François, x, 45 - - Rabies, germ of, x, 200; - Pasteur's cure of, 141, 142-3 - - Raccoon Creek, Ohio, xiv, 185 - - Raceme, flower form, xiii, 50 - - Racemic Acid, Pasteur's studies of, x, 137 - - Racers (snakes), xii, 218, 219, 220 - - Races of Mankind, xv, 32-4; - brain and skull, differences, 41-3, 62; - contact of inferior, xvi, 50; - characteristic diseases, xv, 47-52; - differences in, due to proteins, ix, 279; - European, xvi, 48-50; - extinction of, xv, 98-9; - intermixture of, 32, 35-6; - language and, 159; - mental characteristics, 36; - physical characteristics, 36-47; - separate origin theory, 69-70; - subdivisions of, xiii, 173; - type characters, 34-6; - vanished and weak, xvi, 64 - - Races, Tidal, xiv, 294 - - Race Type, xv, 34-5 - - Racing Cars, speed, v, 214 - - Radial Velocities of Stars, ii, 120, 122; - of nearest stars, 319; - of star clusters, 337, 339; - photographic study, 137, 158-9 - - Radiant Energy, iv, 322, 366, ix, 114-15; - of sun and stars, ii, 170, 383-4, iv, 181-2, 194 - (see also Radiation) - - Radiant Matter, iv, 54-5 - - Radiation, heat, iv, 180-4, 366; - light production by various kinds, of, 378-80; - penetrating, i, 143-4, 146, 379; - terrestrial, volcanic dust effects, 59; - therapeutical uses of, x, 383 - - Radiation Emanation, vi, 269-70 - - Radiative Equilibrium of sun and stars, ii, 382, 383-4 - - Radiators, heat of, iv, 186, 187 - - Radicals, Chemical, viii, 93, 380; - method of expressing, xvi, 160-1; - valences of, viii, 94 - (see also Groups) - - Radioactive Substances, viii, 184-9; - emanations of, i, 143, 330; - fluorescence produced by, iv, 380; - helium produced by, xvi, 194; - in nature, i, 143, xvi, 193; - ionization by, i, 143-4 - - Radioactivity, viii, 184-9, 307; - climatic effects, i, 211; - discovery of, iv, 55, xvi, 165, 193; - explained by electron theory, iv, 23; - of meteorites, ii, 292; - light theory, iv, 50; - physical phenomena of, viii, 307 - - Radio Communication, vii, 258-98 - (see also Wireless) - - Radio Compass, i, 191 - - Radio Control, of aeroplanes and ships, vii, 283-4 - - Radio Corporation of America, vii, 274-5 - - Radio Generators, vii, 273-8; - in aeroplanes, 282-3 - - Radiographs, X-ray, vii, 253-4, x, 185-6 - - Radiolarians, xii, 17-18; - in plankton, xvi, 147 - - Radio Stations, aeronautical services, i, 292; - distress signal system, vii, 284; - intercommunication, 261; - remote control from, 283-4; - weather reporting, i, 281, 282 - - Radio Theory, vii, 285-98 - - Radiotherapy, x, 383-4 - - Radio Waves, conversion by vacuum tubes, vi, 339-41; - damped and undamped, vii, 273-4, 289-90; - generation and detection, iv, 314-15, vi, 163, 215, vii, 273-8, - 286-91, 293-8; - generation in aeroplanes, 282-3; - length, iv, 315, vi, 269, vii, 260; - length, by what determined, 266; - lengths used, 272, 274, 275; - measurement of length and frequency, 291-5; - measured in meters, 272; - remote control by, 283-4; - transmission, 261, 263-73, 278-80 - (see also Radio Communication); - vibrations in æther, vi, 119, 163, vii, 250 - - Radish, xiii, 197, 223 - - Radium, viii, 184-5, 186; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - discovery and occurrence, xvi, 193; - disintegration into niton, viii, 185; - emanation (see Niton); - energy from disintegration, viii, 186-7; - fluorescence and luminosity from, iv, 380; - increase, xvi, 194; - in soil, i, 143; - therapeutic uses of, x, 383-4 - - Radium Compounds, viii, 184 - - Radium Watch Dials, iv, 380 - - Radius Vector, ii, 51 - - Raffia, origin and product, xiii, 244 - - Raffles, Sir Stanford, xiii, 363 - - Rafflesia Arnoldii, xiii, 364; - illustration, 352 - - Rafts, xv, 264-5 - - Rage, emotion of, xi, 138, 139 - - Rags, paper from, v, 290-1, 292 - - Ragweed, pollen of, xiii, 118 - - Rahbeg, Arabia, charting of harbor, i, 47 - - Rahu, Chinese dragon, ii, 209 - - Railroads, air brakes on, iv, 129, v, 130-2; - block signal systems, vii, 355-9; - coal using, v, 172; - early, 207, 208, 377, 378-9; - effects on rivers and water power, xiv, 31, 191; - electrification (see Electrification of Railroad); - in tropical regions, xiii, 359; - present inadequacy, vii, 194-5; - snow removal, i, 117; - weather and climate problems, 267-8 - - Railroad Terminals, electrification, vi, 162, vii, 181-2, 193, 197-8 - - Railroad Ties, walking on, ix, 89 - - Railroad Tracks, expansion by heat, iv, 134; - outer rail on curves, 73; - pneumatic tamping, v, 135; - reduction of friction, 206; - sound transmission by, iv, 199; - traction of, v, 207 - - Rails (birds), xii, 261-2 - - Rails (Railroad), manufacture of, v, 322-3 - - Rain, i, 108-9; - artificial production, 332, 333-4, 336-40, 345; - "blood showers," 55; - business effects, 264, 265; - dust depositing by, 55; - explanation, 93; - formation of drops, 112-13; - formation in hot afternoon storms, vii, 217; - from cloudless, sky, 119; - gray suit sets and, 166; - large drops in thunderstorms, vii, 215-17; - low pressure areas and, i, 237; - no region without, 210; - rainbow predictions, 177; - red, 358; - rock-weathering by, xiv, 39, 41-2, 49, 62, 63, 77, 105-6; - salt deposited, by, i, 59-60; - sounds as prognostics of, 187; - yellow, 61 - (see also Raindrops, Rainfall) - - Rain Balls, i, 104, 380 - - Rainbow, i, 175-7, 380, iv, 374-6; - colors of, ix, 115; - Keats on, i, 346 - - Rain Clouds (see Nimbus, Cumulo-Nimbus Clouds) - - Raindrops, formation, i, 112-13; - rainbows due to, 175, 176; - size, 113-14; - speed of fall, 113, 114 - - Rainey, George, xvi, 145 - - Rainfall, i, 380; - ascending air currents and, xiv, 354-6; - changes in historic period, 362; - climate determined by, 351-2, 355-6; - corn-crops and, i, 247, 248; - distribution and intensity, 109-12, 208; - economic importance, 263; - examples of excessive, 109-11, 111-12; - forests dependent on, xiii, 367, 372, 373-4, 376, xiv, 377-8, 379; - in desert regions, xiii, 377, 380; - in tropical forests, 358, 360; - measurement, i, 79-82; - measurements, ancient, i, 68; - mountains and, 111, xiv, 354-6; - plant types determined by, xiii, 357-8, xiv, 369; - soil elements affected by, 68-9; - solar radiation and, ii, 187-8; - sun-spots and, 186; - statistics, importance of, i, 110-11; - water in inch of, 109; - water table dependent on, xiv, 136 - (see also Precipitation) - - Rainfall Charts, i, 206 - - Rain Forests, xiii, 358-66, 372, xiv, 368-9 - - Rain Gauges, i, 68-9; - kinds and uses, 80-2, 380; - on Mt. Waialeale, 112 - - Rain Gods, Australian, xv, 195 - - Rainier, Mount, xiv, 225; - beauty of, 100-1, 315; - glaciers of, iii, 60-1; - snow honeycombs, i, 117; - vapors of, xiv, 313, 314; - volcanic origin, iii, 106, 226 - - Rain Insurance, i, 270 - - Rain-making (see Rain, artificial production) - - Rains, curious, i, 355-9; - of toads, xii, 177 - - Rainstorms, gathering of, viii, 304; - water in, 109-10 - - Rain Tree, i, 349-52, 380 - - Rain Water, nitrogen compounds in, i, 13 - - Rainy Regions, factors determining, i, 111 - - Rainy Weather, splitting of tomatoes in, xiii, 94 - - Raisins, eating of, ix, 251 - - Rakers, automatic, v, 246, 247, 379 - - Raleigh, Sir Walter, introduction of potato by, xiii, 218 - - Rameses, monument, xvi, 67; - sacrifice made by, xv, 347 - - Ramie, cellulose composition, viii, 254; - origin and product, xiii, 244 - - Rams, horns of, xii, 325-6 - - Ramsay, Sir William, discovery of elements, i, 12; - discovery of argon, viii, 67; - helium discovery, xvi, 194 - - Ranches, cattle, xiv, 383-4 - - Range Finders, principle, xi, 179-80 - - Ranges, electric, vii, 88-9 - - Rankin, Angus, quoted, i, 158 - - Raoulia Cushions, xiii, 379-80 - - Raphael, anatomy advanced by, x, 51-2 - - Rapids, in new and old regions, xiv, 48, 49 - - Rapid Sand Filters, viii, 320 - - Rare Earths, viii, 182 - - Raspberries, origin, xiii, 226 - - Rate, technically defined, iv, 383 - - Ratings, of electrical machines, vi, 192-4, 212, 317 - - Rationalizations, xi, 244-5 - - Ratite Birds, xii, 243, 249 - - Rats, xii, 289-91; - bubonic plague and, x, 163, 165-7; - cannibalism of, ix, 280-1; - dangerousness of, 12, 285-6; - sleeping sickness organism in, x, 168; - snakes and, xii, 219, 220, 222; - war against, x, 171 - - Rattan Cane, xiii, 244 - - Rattan Palm, xiii, 27, 361, xiv, 368 - - Rattlesnakes, xii, 234-8; - prairie dogs and, 227; - tongue of, 212 - - Ravenna, formerly on coast, xiv, 53 - - Raw materials of Plant Life, xiii, 79; - Sources of, 80, 81 - - Ray, natural history work, xvi, 116, 126 - - Ray Flowers, xiii, 206 - - Rayleigh, Lord, discovery of argon, i, 12, viii, 67; - light theory, xvi, 137-8; - on ultra-violet light, i, 16; - sound studies of, iv, 52 - - Rays (fish), xii, 148-50; - eyes of, 138 - - Rays, of flowers, xiii, 44, (fig.), 49; - of light and electricity, iv, 383 - - Razor Fish, xii, 59 - - Reactance, condenser, vi, 171; - current-limiting, vii, 49; - inductive, vi, 170; - in alternating currents, 170, 172; - in induction motors, 248; - in oscillating circuits, vii, 289 - - Reaction, principle of equal, v, 143-4 (see Action and Reaction) - - Reactions (physical) outgoing and withdrawing, xi, 54-6 - (see also Motor Responses) - - Reaction Types and Times, xi, 152-9 - - Reactors, current-limiting, vii, 49 - - Read, Commander, on aeroplane safety, i, 50 - - Reading Glasses, ix, 111 - - Reading Machines, v, 332-5 - - Reagent, defined, viii, 381 - - Reality, Aristotle on, xvi, 88; - in pragmatic philosophy, 196 - - Reaping Machines, v, 240, 244-9, 379 - - Reason, Reasoning, xi, 237-46; - in man and animals, xv, 65-6, 67-8; - in sleep, xi, 286, 287; - instinctive, 46, 47; - meanings of, 233-4, 237-9 - - Rèaumur, René, A. F. de, x, 88, xvi, 174; - thermometer, scale of, iv, 136, 137 - - Rebus, game of, xv, 168-9 - - Receivers, telephone, vii, 94, 96-7 - - Recency, in associations, xi, 204-5 - - Receptacle (botanical), xiii, 153 - - Reception Halls, lighting, vii, 70-1 - - Receptor Neurones, xi, 21, 22, 26, 27, 30; - in embryo, 34, 35 - - Receptor Organs, of various senses, xi, 63, 116-17 - - Recessional Moraines, iii, 67 - - Recession of Spring Heads, xiv, 176 - - Recessives, in crosses, x, 231 - - Reciprocal Accumulation, vi, 298 - - Reciprocal Innervation, xi, 86 - - Reciprocating Engines, compared with turbines, v, 152-3; - control, 153; - disadvantages, 148; - waste of heat energy, 155 - - Recoloration (see Afterglow) - - Recording Meters, vii, 177-8 - - Recreation, psychology of, xi, 269-70 - - Rectifiers, mineral contact, vii, 268-9; - mercury arc, vi, 331, 333-9; - vacuum tube, 339-41 - - Rectilinear Coordinates, iv, 16 - - Recurrence, Weather, i, 362-3, 380 - - Recurrent Images, xi, 221 - - Red, complementary color of, iv, 367; - effects of blood pressure, xi, 63; - heat colors, iv, 361; - of sunset and rise, i, 166, 168; - penetration of ocean by, xii, 22; - primary color, iv, 366; - seeing of, in color-blindness, ix, 116; - stimulating effects, vi, 274; - vibration rate, ix, 115; - wave lengths, i, 165, iv, 360, 365 - - Red Beds, iii, 202, 204, 208 - - Red Cedar, spread, xiii, 340 - - Red Clay, on sea floor, iii, 54, xiv, 285, 286 - - Red Coral, xii, 43 - - Red Corpuscles, ix, 181-4, 275; - blood transfusion in relation to, x, 338; - carbon monoxide effects on, viii, 50-1; - held by capillary walls, ix, 194; - oxygen-carrying by, ix, 182-3, 258-9, x, 338-9; - reduced in anemia, 337 - - Red Cross, Pringle's idea, x, 104 - - Red Crust Polyzoans, xii, 47 - - Redfield, W. C., i, 215 - - Red Fire, viii, 301 - - Red Flash, of sun, i, 171 - - Red Hot, temperature of, iv, 361 - - Redi, Francesco, xvi, 114 - - Red Lead, viii, 162 - - Red Light, photographic uses, viii, 171 - - Red Marrow, ix, 183 - - Red Pepper, source, xiii, 221 - - Red Race, xv, 32, 37; - diseases of, 51; - separate origin theory, 70 - - Red Rain, i, 358 - - Red River of the North, xiv, 158, 201 - - Red Sea, in Great Rift Valley, xiv, 117-18; - origin of color, xvi, 147; - salt in, viii, 139, xiv, 296-7; - sharks of, xii, 145 - - Red Snow, i, 358 - - Red Test, of kidneys, x, 378 - - Red Thread (worm), xii, 54 - - Reduction (chemical), viii, 381 - - Redwood Forests, fog drip, i, 351 - - Redwoods, former distribution, xiii, 320; - of California, xiv, 374 - - Reed, Dr. Walter, x, 160, 162, 200 - - Reed Instruments, iv, 284-5 - - Reed Boat, xv, 264 (fig.) - - Reefs, oceanic, defined, xiv, 286; - of seaweed deposits, iii, 250, 251 - (see also Coral Reefs) - - Refining of Metals, viii, 272 - (see also Electro-Refining) - - Reflection of Light, iv, 324-5, 330-1; - by mirrors, 335-7; - total, 373-4 - - Reflectors (heat), iv, 182 - - Reflex Actions, ix, 185-6, 258, xi, 20, 26-7, 62-3, xv, 65; - development in embryo, xi, 35-6; - grasping reflex, 40-3; - hypnotic suggestion of, 317; - in glands and smooth muscle, ix, 163; - in infants, 349; - in vasomotor system, 311; - in sleep, xi, 26-7, 286; - instincts as, 48; - law of final common path, 22; - mind as sum of, 23-5; - shivering, ix, 309-10; - some special, 155-9, 163, 168-72 - (see also Chain Reflex, Circular Reflex, Conditioned Reflex) - - Reflex Arc, x, 20-8; - time factors, 154 - - Refracting Telescopes, ii, 96-101, 103-4, 108, 202 - - Refraction of Light, iv, 325, 326-9, 330, 331, 373-4; - astronomical, i, 167, 380; - by lenses, iv, 337-9; - index of, in chemical analysis, viii, 310; - Newton and Huygens' studies, xvi, 119; - terrestrial, i, 171, 380 - - Refraction of Sound, iv, 286-7 - - Refractories, furnace, vii, 306-8 - - Refractory Phase, of nervous excitation, xi, 21 - - Refrigerating Machines, v, 346-7, 350, 351-8, 380, vii, 85-6, viii, 59 - - Refrigeration, ammonia system, iv, 187-8; - battleship system, 331-2; - domestic, 85, 86; - electric, 85, 229-30; - evaporation methods, iv, 174, 187; - expansion and brine methods, vii, 85-6, 328; - freezing mixtures and solutions, iv, 175; ice, iv, 178; - ice, objections to, vii, 230; - liquid air, i, 30, 31-2; - salt used in, viii, 140 - (see also Refrigerating Machines) - - Refrigerator Cars, v, 346-7 - - Regelation, iv, 165-6, 383 - - Regeneration, power of, xii, 170 - - Regenerative Brakes, vii, 200 - - Regiomontanus, ii, 13, 40-1 - - Regnault's Constant, iv, 142 - - Regular Coasts, xiv, 250-2, 256, 262; - unfavorable to commerce, 265 - - Regulators, Induction, vi, 328-9, 346 - - Regulus (star), ii, 295 - - Rehabilitation, of World War disabled, x, 189-91 - - Rehoboam, wives of, xv, 289 - - Reign of Algæ, xiii, 314, 323 - - Reincarnation, belief in, xv, 333, 334 - - Reindeer, xii, 319-20; - horns of, 316; - in glacial period, xiv, 376; - in Cro-Magnon art, xv, 114; - relics of, in Spain, 100 (fig.) - - Reindeer Moss, xii, 320 - - Reinhold, astronomical tables, ii, 44 - - Reis, telephone of, vii, 92 - - Rejuvenation (geological), definition, iii, 36, 381; - examples, 219, 230, 231, 232-3; - of folded areas, xiv, 96-8 - (see also Elevation) - - Reka River, xiv, 150 - - Relapsing Fever, diagnosis of, x, 216 - - Relative Time, Newton on, iv, 15 - - Relative Wind, i, 289, 299, 380 - - Relativity, doctrine of, iv, 16-18; - Einstein theory, ii, 80-2, xvi, 196-8; - of knowledge and perception, 85, 87, 195-6; - of motion, 12, 85 - - Relaxation, xi, 339-40, 371-2; - after meals, 374-5 - - Relay Circuits, vii, 39-48 - - Relay Regulators, vii, 148-50 - - Relays, in telegraph lines, iv, 293-4, vii, 110, 374 - - Relief Features, making and leveling of, xiv, 80; - of new and old areas, iii, 33, 34, 34-5, xiv, 47-9; - of sea bottom, iii, 52, xiv, 286-7; - orders of magnitude, 27 - - Relief Models, vertical exaggeration of, xiv, 9-10 - - Religion, Religions, Babylonian and Assyrian influences, xvi, 51-2; - beginnings and development of, xv, 326-59, xvi, 44; - development of, at cattle-raising stage, xv, 199; - fear and, 185; - fire in, 234; - marriage and, 291, 292-3; - meanings of, 326; - medicine and, x, 12, 16, 34, 242-3; - morality and, xv, 355-7, xvi, 43-4, 45, 48; - psychological factors, xi, 130, 151, 204; - science and, iv, 27-8, xvi, 42, 44-5; - similarities in, 43; - universality of instinct, 43, 47 - - Religious Fanatics, exaltation of, xi, 120; - hysteria of, x, 360 - - Religious Words, from Hebrew, xv, 161 - - Remedies, quack, vii, 240-1, x, 76, 367; - specific, 49-50, 75 - - Remembering, process of, xi, 209 (see Memory) - - Remington Typewriter, v, 313, 381 - - Remora, dorsal fin of, xii, 133; - used in catching turtles, 139-40 - - Remote Control, vi, 99-101; - by radio waves, vii, 283-4; - in power plants, vi, 360 - - Renaissance, medicine of, x, 43-60; - science in, iv, 28, ii, 11-12, 12-13, 42 - - Rennin, enzyme, ix, 235 - - Repetition, psychological effects, xi, 21-2; - in advertising, 348; - in learning, 214-15 - - Repletion, sensation of, ix, 91 - - Repression, of ideas, x, 355-6, 361, 364, 365 - (see also Suppression) - - Reproach, sentiment of, xi, 149 - - Reproduction (organic), x, 228; - cells in, ix, 43, 324-5, 332-3, xv, 54, xvi, 156, 157-8; - germ cells in, x, 232; - in primitive animals, xii, 26, 31, 34, 53-4, 60; - rapidity of, in plants and animals, xv, 19-21 - - Reproduction of Plants, xiii, 43-6, 48-53, 116-67; - transitional form, 309, 316; - without mating, 165-7, 182-3, 215, 217-18 - - Reproductive Instinct, xi, 56 - - Reproductive Tissues, cell development in, ix, 48, 287 - - Reptiles, xii, 182-238; - age of, iii, 20, 21, 286, 292-3, xv, 71; - birds and, iii, 295, 296, xii, 239; - classification place, iii, 260; - egg-laying of, xv, 275; - evolution of, iii, 283, 285-6; - first appearance, xv, 71; - mammals and, xii, 271; - Mesozoic, iii, 286-95, xii, 183, 188, 194-5, 202-3; - origin of, 168; - temperature variations, i, 317; - tracks preserved in rocks, iii, 16 - - Repugnance, emotional, xi, 275 - - Repulsion, instinct of, xi, 55 - (see also Disgust) - - Réseau, i, 221, 380 - - Réseau Mondial, i, 220, 380 - - Reservoirs, puddled-clay bottoms, xiv, 137 - - Residual Magnetism and Voltage, vi, 191, vii, 372 - - Residual Soils, iii, 26-8, xiv, 68, 145 - - Residue (chemical), viii, 381 - - Resignation, as intellectualized reproach, xi, 149 - - Resinous Electricity, iv, 258, vi, 12 - - Resins, electrical conductivity, iv, 259; - electrification of, 257 - - Resistance, electrical, iv, 281-3, vi, 74-9, vii, 374-5; - in dynamo armatures, vi, 185-6; - in electric cells, 135-7; - in electric wires, 79-80; - in magnetic circuit, 93-4; - in wireless circuits, vii, 286, 287, 290, 296, 297, 298; - of various wires, vi, 77, vii, 378-80, 384; - Ohmic, vii, 373; - reduced by liquid air, i, 32; - unit (see Ohms); - variations with temperature, iv, 301 - - Resistance, Heat, vii, 337 - - Resistance (mechanical), relation to force, iv, 11, 90, 92 - - Resistance Coils, vii, 364 - - Resistance Furnaces, vii, 303-4 - - Resolution, and will, xi, 259-60 - - Resolution of Forces, iv, 76-7 - - Resonance, iv, 225-6; - in sound, 226-32; - in wireless currents, vii, 267, 289-90 - - Resorcinol, viii, 238 - - Respiration, chemistry of, viii, 36, 49-50; - discovery of physiology of, x, 29, 88-9; - of fishes, xii, 135; - of insects, 103; - of chelonian reptiles, 187; - processes and disorders of, x, 338-42 - (see also Breathing) - - Respiration Calorimeter, viii, 361, 367 - - Respiratory Center, ix, 257; - control of, 264-5, 266 - - Respiratory Diseases, susceptibility to, xv, 51 - - Respiratory Quotient, x, 270 - - Respiratory System, laughter by, xi, 355, 356-7 - - Rest, as cure for fatigue, x, 247-8; - efficiency and, xi, 363; - necessity of, time used in, ix, 80; - need of, in all things, xi, 21; - nervous fatigue and, ix, 137-8 - (see also Relaxation) - - Resting Arrow Argument, xvi, 85 - - Resting Metabolism (see Basic Metabolism) - - Resultant, of forces, iv, 76, 99 - - Retail Sales, and weather, i, 264 - - Retaliation, Law of, xv, 371 - - Retina, of eye, iv, 346-7, ix, 109, 110 (fig.), xi, 30, 62, 84, 89-97; - color perception by, ix, 116-17 - - Retrospect, time lengths in, xi, 194 - - Retting Process, xiii, 239, 241-2, 243 - - Revenge, sentiment of, xi, 150 - - Reverberatory Furnace, v, 316-17 - - Reverdin, thyroid studies, x, 349 - - Reverence, sentiment of, xi, 147-8 - - Reversed Faults, xiv, 114 - - Revival of Learning (see Renaissance) - - Revolution of Earth, ii, 43; - known to Aristarchus, 28; - orbit, changes in eccentricity, 73, 74-5; - orbit, measurement, 121, 162, 263; - orbit, speed in, 91-2, 163; - proved by aberration orbits of stars, 92; - year measured by, iv, 15 - - Revolutionary War, Bushnell's submarine, v, 197; - muskets in, 361; - surgeons of, x, 104 - - Revolutions, geological, xiv, 29 - - Revolving Turret, patented by Timby, v, 380 - - Rex Begonia, reproduction, xiii, 165-6 - - Reymond, Emil du Bois, x, 126-7 - - Reynolds, Osborne, xvi, 132 - - Rhazes, Arab writer, x, 32 - - Rheas, xii, 243, 249 - - Rheostat, iv, 383, vii, 375; - invention, vi, 23 - - Rheticus, friend of Copernicus, ii, 43 - - Rheumatism, Rheumatic Fever, x, 223-4; - acute, ix, 187-8; - barometric effects, i, 329; - germ of, x, 195, 221, 223; - leaking heart valves from, ix, 207; - lightning cures, i, 153; - salicylates in, x, 381; - uric acid and, 343 - - Rhine River, changes in course and connections, xiv, 185-6; - channel of, 87 (map), 117, 167; - falls at Schaffhausen, 132-3; - varied course, 155 - - Rhine Valley, xiv, 87 (map), 90, 117, 185-6; - wine industries of, viii, 249 - - Rhinoceros, xii, 304-6; - ancient remains, iii, 16, 303; - formerly in Europe, xv, 76, 79, 92; - Merck's, 100 (fig.), xii, 305 (fig.), 306 - - Rhizoids, xiii, 156, 157, 158 - - Rhodes, ancient importance, xiv, 281-2 - - Rhodesia, climate of, xiv, 224 - - Rhodium, viii, 173; - symbol and atomic weight, 383 - - Rhododendrons, difficulty of obtaining, xiii, 289; - in heath family, 202; - in southern forests, 367; - seed, 344 - - Rhodora, flower, xiii, 202 - - Rhubarb, origin, xiii, 223; - oxalic acid in, viii, 222 - - Rhynchocephalia, xii, 183 - - Rhythm, idea of, in man, xv, 251, 310; - In human organism, xi, 281; - in learning, 214; - in scientific progress, xvi, 46, 116 - - Ria Coasts, xiv, 257-8 - - Rib Cage, ix, 63, 65 (fig.) - - Ribs, of body, ix, 63 (fig.), 65; - connections with breastbone, ix, 71 - - Rice, ancestral home, xiii, 182, 221; - calories in, ix, 299; - eating of, in relation to stature, xiii, 172; - food value, viii, 364; - fruit for seed dispersal, xiii, 54; - history and uses, xiii, 213-14; - importance, 10, 211; - in grass family, 179; - origin, xiv, 382; - starch from, viii, 243; - transplanting, in Java (illus.), xiii, 208; - vitamines, in hulls of, viii, 369, ix, 35-6, x, 258, 259, 260 - - Rice Paper, source, xiii, 214 - - Richer, astronomer, ii, 59, 69 - - Richet, anaphylaxis studies, x, 212-13 - - Richter, J. B., chemical work, xvi, 160 - - Rickets, x, 264-5, 314 - - Rifles, xv, 218-19; - improvements in, v, 362, 379; - machine gun types, 366-8; - standardization, 50 - - Rift Valleys, xiv, 117-21, 123 - - Rigg's Disease, x, 315-16 - - Right, original meaning, xi, 190 - - Right Ascension, ii, 299, 300, 305 - - Right-Hand Rule, vi, 55, 89-90 - - Rights, grasping instinct and, xi, 44 - - Rime, i, 108, 380; - formation, 121-2 - - Ringhals, xii, 227 - - Ring Hypothesis (see Nebular Hypothesis) - - Ring Spinning Machine, v, 273, 276, 378 - - Ring Structure (molecules), viii, 233, 240, 381 - - Rio de Janeiro, Corcovado peak, xiv, 112; - harbor of, 268 - - Rio Negro, connections of, xiv, 187 - - Rises, ocean, xiv, 286, 288, 290 - - Ritchey, astronomer, ii, 107-8, 148, 333, 336 - - River Beds, tunneling through, v, 121-4 - - River Man, iii, 302 - - Rivers, alterations in courses (historical), xiv, 183-6; - ancient veneration of, v, 75; - annual discharge of, xiv, 135; - antecedent, 164-70; - base-level of, 40, 49; - "beheaded," 182; - channels, gorges, and valleys, iii, 40-4, xiv, 49-52, 167-8; - classification of, 153-5; - connection of systems, 186-7; - consequent, 157; - courses changed by earthquakes, xiv, 335; - courses determined by rock structure, 43-4, 131-2, 160, 175, 187-8; - deltas (see Deltas); - development of, 155-88; - erosive work of, iii, 30-44, xiv, 39-40, 49-54, 158-63, 198, 233; - forest regulation of, xiii, 372, xiv, 379; - harbors in mouths, 270-1; - headward extension, iii, 38-9, xiv, 175-6; - homogeneous and heterogeneous, 154-5; - importance, xv, 129; - importance, by what determined, xiv, 189; - importance, historical and industrial, 31, 190-7; - in clayey country, 137; - in new and old areas, iii, 33-4, xiv, 48, 49, 155-63; - in regions of subsidence, iii, 37, xiv, 40, 163-4; - in rejuvenated regions, iii, 36, 232-3, xiv, 40, 163, 164-70; - longitudinal and transverse, 153-4; - marine and continental, 153; - metaphorical names of parts, xv, 158; - mineral matter in, viii, 196, xiv, 206; - obsequent, 160; - "piracy," 177-83, iii, 38-9; - potholes in beds, 39-40; - power of currents, 30-1, xiv, 39-40, 198; - power utilization, 5, 75-93; - recession of spring heads, xiv, 176; - sedimentary deposits of, xv, 84; - sediment carried by, iii, 31-3, xiv, 52-3, 161; - seed dispersal by, xiii, 346; - sewage systems, viii, 325; - sources of water, xiv, 182-3; - subsequent, 159; - superimposed, iii, 39, 137, 233-4, xiv, 170-4; - topography produced by, 49-54; - trunk and branch, 153; - underground, iii, 116, xiv, 149-50; - use in industry, vi, 352, 353, 361, 366-7; - water supply from, xiv, 140, 141 - (see also Drainage Systems) - - River Terraces, formation of, xv, 84 - - River Traffic, past and future, xiv, 31, 190-1 - - River Valleys, civilization in relation to, xv, 122, 128, 129; - development, xiv, 49-52; - general character, 56-7; - in old and new regions, iii, 33-5, 36-7, xiv, 48, 49, 57; - in stratified rock, 80-1, 82-3; - soils of, 70, 71, 218; - tributaries, 57; - usually excavated by their streams, 123-4 - - Riveters, pneumatic, iv, 129, v, 129 - - Roads, good, and farmers, vii, 230-1; - motor traffic and, v, 214-15; - rough and smooth, in relation to traffic, 206-7 - - Roaring Forties, i, 128, 380 - - Robert, Nicholas Louis, v, 291, 377 - - Roberts, astronomer, ii, 135-6, 361 - - Roberval, xvi, 104, 114 - - Robins, westward spread of, xii, 53 - - Robinson Cup Anemometer, i, 83 - - Roche, astronomer, ii, 157, 380 - - Rochelle Salts, from baking powder, viii, 136 - - Rochester, N. Y., drumlins near, xiv, 60 - - Roches Moutonnées, xiv, 56 - - Rock, Rocks, iii, 382, xiv, 17; - ages, how determined, iii, 17-19; - blasting of, v, 100, 261; - blocks and joints in, xiv, 128-30; - carbon dioxide absorbed by, viii, 49; - chemistry of, 192-5; - classes, iii, 12-13, xiv, 17-19; - coloring, iii, 25-6, 44; - color changes, viii, 194; - composition, 192-3; - disintegration, chemical, and physical, viii, 194-5, 338 (see - Weathering of Rocks); - erosion of (see Erosion); - formations, iii, 379; - fracturing and folding (see Faults, Folding); - geology the study of, iii, 9, 12; - geological history, 164-248; - ground water effects on, xiv, 141; - in interior earth, iii, 108, 110; - joints, 23, xiv, 128-9; - land forms determined by, 43-4, 80-113, 125-7; - metal-bearing, iii, 355-70; - non-metalliferous, 370-6; - oldest, 160, 163, 168-9; - permeability of, xiv, 137; - plucking of, iii, 29; - primary and secondary, viii, 191-2; - rotten and bed, iii, 26, xiv, 64; - specific gravity, 11; - stream adjustment to, 160, 175; - striation, iii, 63, xiv, 56; - structure, defined, iii, 383; - structural changes, 83-98; - subsurface exploration, v, 262-3; - undermining or sapping of, xiv, 131; - weathering of (see Weathering) - - Rockaway Beach, iii, 58 - - Rock Basins, iii, 142-3, xiv, 202-3 - - Rock Crystal, iii, 337 - - Rock Debris, as deep sea deposit, iii, 55; - carried by ice, 68; - carried by winds, 73 - - Rock Drills (see Drills) - - Rockefeller Foundation, International Health Board of, x, 171-6 - - Rocket Lightning, i, 149, 152 - - Rockets, in aerology, i, 22-3 - - Rock Flour, xiv, 69 - - Rock Gypsum, iii, 331, 375-6 - - Rocking Stones, iii, 70 - - Rock Pigeon, xii, 265 - - Rock Rabbits, xii, 304 - - Rock Salt, iii, 374-5, xiv, 209 - - Rock Saws, ancient, xvi, 67 - - Rock Slides, earthquakes and, xiv, 333-4 - - Rocky Hill Sill, xiv, 109, 111 - - Rocky Mountain Forest, xiv, 373-4 - - Rocky Mountain Revolution, iii, 218, 219; - dinosaurs destroyed by, 298 - - Rocky Mountains, age of, iii, 191, xiv, 235; - birth of, iii, 218-19; - coal areas, 348; - forming agencies, 230; - fossils found in, 263; - geological strata, 138, 177, 184; - glaciers of, 240, xiv, 54-5; - granite-cored, 111, 228; - lakes in, iii, 143; - mineral wealth of, xiv, 237; - plateau west of, 220, 380; - red beds, iii, 208; - rejuvenation in Tertiary time, 231; - rock weathering in, xiv, 76; - sea over, iii, 130, 181, 184, 195, 197, 213; - thrust faulting in, 90; - volcanic activity, 229 - - Rodents, xii, 285-96 - - Rods, of eye, xi, 84, 89-90, 96 - - Rods, vibration of, iv, 213-15, 223-4 - - Roemer, discovery of speed of light, ii, 50-60, 91; - transit instrument, 58 - - Roentgen, Prof., vii, 249; - X-ray discovery, iv, 55, 317, x, 184, xvi, 192-3 - - Roentgenography, x, 185-6, 373 - - Rogers, Samuel Baldwin, xvi, 174 - - Rohlfs, explorer, i, 210 - - Rokitansky, Carl, x, 113 - - Roller-bearings, v, 205-6 - - Roller Mills, introduction, v, 381 - - Rollers, friction-saving by, v, 204-5, 205-6; - not found in nature, 16, 215 - - Rolling Country, iii, 34 - - Rolling Friction, v, 203-4, 207, 214-15 - - Romance Languages, descent from Latin, xv, 160 - - Romanche Deep, xiv, 289 - - Roman Empire, Alps Mts. and, xiv, 240; - growth and fall, 307; - metal supplies, 237; - medicine under, x, 25-31; - survey of, xvi, 98 - - Roman History, Alps Mountains in, xv, 137-8 - - Roman Numerals, xv, 183 - - Romans, character and civilization, xvi, 97-8; - divisions of day, v, 57; - elephants of, xii, 302; - gods of, xv, 344; - knowledge of loadstone, vi, 28; - plants known to, xiii, 215, 216, 253; - superstitions of, xv, 355; - taste and smell, cultivation by, ix, 98 - - Roman Soldiers, javelins of, xv, 213 - - Rome, civilization of, xv, 122; - copyists and books of, xv, 178-9; - fire veneration in, 234; - lampreys in ancient, xii, 130-1; - policy with conquered peoples, xv, 155-6; - sleeping sickness in, x, 301 - - Römer, Ole, thermometer of, i, 69 - - Rondeleti's Shark, xii, 145 - - Rood, O. N., i, 146 - - Roofing, copper, viii, 163 - - Rooms, appearance of filled and empty, xi, 187; - ventilation of, ix, 268, 269 - - Room Temperature, iv, 137 (fig.) - - Roonhuyze, Hendrik, x, 80 - - Roosevelt, Theodore, African trip, xvi, 16; - on rain forests, xiii, 365; - on the caribe, xii, 159 - - Root, C. J., wheat studies, i, 253 - - Rootcap, xiii, 17-18 - - Root Hairs, xiii, 17, 91-4 - - Rootless Plants, xiii, 15 - - Roots of Plants, xiii, 15-22; - downward growth, 84-6; - functions, 15-22, 61, 80, 91-4; - galls, 98; - nitrogen absorption, 98; - of scavenger and parasitic plants, 99, 100; - sugar storage in, ix, 27-8 - - Rootstalks, xiii, 22-3; - potatoes as, 24 (fig.); - reproduction from, 43, 182-3, 215, 217-18 - - Ropes, materials of, xiii, 10, 239, 240, 241 - - Rosales, antiquity, xiii, 324-5 - - Rose Apples, origin, xiii, 226 - - Rose Beetles, and magnolias, xiii, 130-1 - - Rose Bugs, xii, 124 - - Rose Family, xiii, 197-8 - - Rosemary, source, xiii, 205 - - Rosenau, quoted, i, 328, 329 - - Rose of Sharon, xiii, 200 - - Rose Quartz, silica in, viii, 90 - - Roses, generic and specific names, xiii, 170-1; - leaf arrangement, 37, 38; - petal arrangement, 190 - - Rose's Fusible Metal, iv, 162 - - Rosetta Stone, xv, 172 - - Ross, Sir Ronald, x, 156-7; - article on, 155 note - - Ross Antarctic Expedition, xvi, 142 - - Rosse, Lord, discovery of spiral nebulæ, ii, 361, 372, 380; - Leviathan reflector, 16-17, 105-6 - - Rossignol, Jules, i, 348 - - Rotary Converters, vi, 342-8, vii, 199, 365 - - Rotary Engines, v, 148 - - Rotary Press, v, 301, 305-6, 378, 379 - - Rotation, iv, 85-6; - energy of, 83-5; - magnetism of, ii, 178; - researches in dynamics of, 166-7 - - Rotation of Crops, viii, 342-6 - - Rotation of Earth, ii, 43; - ancient Greek beliefs, 28, 36, xvi, 81; - changing speed, ii, 74, 375, 376, 377; - De Cusa on, xvi, 102; - deflection of moving bodies by, i, 124-5, xiv, 32, 303, 348, 351; - effect on earth's shape, ii, 69; - effect on gyroscope, iv, 255; - effect on weights, ii, 69, iv, 74-5; - measure of day, 15-16; - precession in relation to, ii, 71; - proved by aberration orbits of stars, 92; - rising of sun due to, xvi, 12 - - "Rotten" Plants, xiii, 99-100 - - Rotten Rock, iii, 26, xiv, 64 - - Rotterdam, Holland, xiv, 271 - - Roughness, sensation of, xi, 128 - - Roundheads, racial division, xvi, 49 - - Roundworm, x, 200 - - Rousseau, philosophy of, xvi, 111, 117 - - Routine, in relation to will, xi, 261 - - Roux, antitoxin work of, x, 396; - pupil of Pasteur, 143 - - Roving, cotton, v, 272-3 - - Rowland, Prof. Henry A., heat work of, iv, 49-50; - on atoms, viii, 187 - - Rowntree, categories of therapy, x, 380; - kidney test, 378; - on therapeutic science, 334 - - Royal Families, origin of, xv, 366 - - Royal Society of England, xvi, 111-12; - Duchess of Newcastle's visit to, iv, 53 - - Rozier, M. de, v, 220-1 - - Rubber, artificial, viii, 257; - chemistry and manufacture of, 257-8; - electrification of, iv, 257, 259; - economic importance, xiii, 11, 208; - history and production, 245-9; - source of, xiv, 383 - - Rubbers, wearing of, x, 306 - - Rubber Trees, xiii, 245, 247-8 - - Rubidium, viii, 128, 132, 133; - spectrum of, 302; - symbol and atomic weight, 383 - - Rubies, variety of corundum, iii, 327 - - Ruby Glass, viii, 282 - - Rudolphine Tables, ii, 44, 216 - - Rulers, origin of, xv, 263-7 - - Rum, making of, viii, 250 - - Rumford, Count, heat theory of, iv, 47-8; - on friction and heat, xvi, 125, 131 - - Ruminants, xii, 311-12 - - Rumor, autosuggestion in, xi, 304 - - Runge, chemist, xvi, 163 - - Runners, in transportation, v, 214-15 - - Running, as exercise, x, 304; - reflex processes in, ix, 155-6 - - Rusby, H. H., on Amazon region, xiii, 360 - - Rush, Benjamin, x, 104 - - Rushes, ancient, iii, 254; - origin and products, xiii, 244 - - Russell, giant and dwarf star theory, ii, 150-1, 153, 309, 310, 382, 384; - photographic work, 130; - studies of binaries, 326, 328, 329 - - Russia, agricultural meteorology, i, 249-50; - beet sugar production, xiii, 216; - bison of, xii, 329; - elk in, 318; - forests and grasslands, xiv, 380-1; - gold production, iii, 365; - harbors closed by ice, xiv, 267; - loess deposits, 72; - meteorological service, i, 223, 228; - Napoleon's invasion, 306-7; - oil output, iii, 350, 354; - plains of, xiv, 217; - rainfall of, 355; - rodents of, xii, 294; - sleeping habit of peasants, xi, 285; - steppes - (see Steppes); - wheat cultivation, xiii, 211; - winters in, xiv, 347; - "Young Women's Summer", i, 362 - - Russian Alphabet, xv, 176 - - Russian Language, xv, 162 - - Rust, of wheat, xiii, 13, 71 - - Rusting, of iron, iii, 25, viii, 9, 10, 155-6 - - Rutabaga, xiii, 19, 223 - - Ruthenium, viii, 173; - symbol and atomic weight, 383; - valence of, 178, 180 - - Rutherford, chemical work, xvi, 120, 177 - - Rye, food value, viii, 364; - native of Old World, xiii, 182; - phosphate requirements, xiv, 67 - - - Sabbath, among early Jews, x, 15 - - Sables, xii, 350 - - Sacandaga River, iii, 245 - - Saccharide, viii, 381 - - Saccharose, viii, 226-7, 242-3 (see Cane Sugar) - - Sacrifices, religious, xv, 347-8, 354, 358-9 - - Sacrum, ix, 64 (fig.), 66 - - Saddle (meteorology), i, 238, 380 - - Safety Devices, vii, 32-3 - - "Safety First," vii, 33, 355, xi, 365 - - Safety Matches, viii, 88 - - Safety Valve, earliest use of, iv, 171 - - Saffron, origin, xiii, 255 - - Sagebrush, xiv, 380 - - Sagitta, xii, 18 - - Sago, source of, viii, 243 - - Sago Palm, xiii, 309 - - Sahara Desert, antelopes of, xii, 327; - depressions of, xiv, 205; - dust from, i, 55, iii, 54; - harmattan, i, 134; - impenetrability of, xv, 136; - largest desert, xiii, 377; - rain and snow in, i, 210; - sand storms, iii, 73 - - Sailing, against wind, iv, 77 (fig.), v, 182, 186-8 - - Sailing Vessels, historical development, v, 75, 111, 182, 188-9; - relative decline of, i, 37 - - Sails, evolution of, xv, 265 - - St. Anthony Falls, xiv, 171; - rate of recession, iii, 246 - - St. Cæsarius, i, 132 - - St. Elias Range, volcanoes of, xiv, 315; - youthfulness of, 96, 235 - - St. Elmo's Fire, i, 157-8, 380; - as ignis fatuus, 347 - - St. Gothard Tunnel, xiv, 240, 241; - heat encountered in, iii, 121 - - Saint Helena, groundsel of, xiii,345; - volcanic origin, xiv, 277, 289, 316 - - St. Helens, Mount, xiv, 315 - - St. John, astronomer, ii, 82, 154 - - Saint John's Bread, xiii, 226 - - Saint Lawrence, Gulf of, iii, 235; - Bird Rock of, xii, 253; - lows (cyclones) in relation to, i, 137 - - St. Lawrence River, discovery of, xiv, 310; - historical importance, 191; - white whales of, xii, 297 - - St. Lawrence Valley, geological history, iii, 78, 195, 232, 234, 235 - - St. Louis, early growth, xiv, 219; - power supply from Keokuk, v, 83; - water supply, viii, 326 - - St. Malo, Gulf of, tidal system, v, 176 - - St. Martin, Alexis, ix, 240, x, 121 - - St. Martin's Summer, i, 362, 381 - - St. Mihiel Salient, xiv, 91 - - St. Patrick, legend of, xii, 217 - - St. Pierre, destruction, iii, 103, xiv, 325 - - St. Vincent, eruption of La Soufrière, xiv, 28 - - Saint Vitus, x, 360 - - St. Vitus Dance, rheumatism and, 224 - (see also Cholera) - - Saké, Japanese, xiii, 213 - - Sakhalin, separation from Asia, xiv, 274 - - Salads, food value of, x, 273 - - Salamanders, xii, 169, 170-3, iii; - ancient, 285; - evolution of, xii, 167, 168; - regeneration in, 170; - sense organs in, 169 - - Sal Ammoniac, solution of, temperature produced, iv, 136, 175 - - Sal Ammoniac Cell, iv, 297, 298 (fig.), vi, 59 - - Salerno University, x, 36-7, 38, 77, xvi, 100 - - Salesmanship, psychology of, xi, 334-42 - - Saliceto, surgeon, x, 38-9 - - Salicylates, in rheumatism, x, 381 - - Salicylic Acid, viii, 236, 239, 372 - - Saline Lakes, xiv, 206-9, 212 - - Salisbury, Prof., relief classification, xiv, 27 - - Saliva, conveyance to digestive canal, ix, 189-90; - in digestion, viii, 358, ix, 227-30, 235-6, x, 319; - of infants, ix, 346; - secretion of by chewing, 163; - thirst relief by, 89 - - Salivary Glands, blood supply of, ix, 197; - fear effects on, 166, 221, xi, 132; - reflex control of, ix, 163, 165; - response to tastes, xi, 74, 76 - - Salmon, xii, 154, 156-8; - canned, calories in, ix, 299; - eggs, number of, xv, 20; - instinct of, xi, 46; - river habits of, ix, 174-5; - shooting of, xv, 227 - - Salpae, xii, 19-20, 129 - - Salsify, origin, xiii, 223 - - Sal Soda, viii, 135 - - Salt, Common (see Common Salt) - - Salt Lake City, site of, xiv, 208 - - Salt Lakes, viii, 139; - persistency of, xiv, 199 - - Salt Pork, calories in, ix, 299 - - Salton Sink, iii, 156, xiv, 204-5 - - Salts, defined, viii, 381; - digestion of, 356; - electrolytes, 125; - esters, 221; - formation and nature, 114, 115-18; - formers (halogens), 84; - in body fluids, ix, 174, 175-6; - in blood, filtered by kidneys, 272, 273; - in fabrics, viii, 256; - in sea and inland waters, 138-9, 195-7, xiv, 295-7; - in sea, gradual accumulation, ix, 175-6; - ionization in solution, viii, 119-25, 300-1; - most important, 130; - natural deposits, 138, 195-7, 275; - nomenclature, 98; - organic life in relation to, ix, 174-6; - positive and negative elements, viii, 126; - protoplasm dependence on, ix, 32, 174; - uses, viii, 146 - - Salvador, Izalco volcano, xiv, 321; - public health fellowships, x, 172 - - Salversan, x, 381 - - Salvia, corolla, xiii, 201; - flower, 48, 204, 205; - petal arrangement, 190 - - Samara, winged fruit, xiii, 58 - - Samarium, atomic weight and symbol, viii, 383 - - Samoan Islands, native prayers, xv, 345-6 - - Sampson Cell, vi, 138, 144 - - Samson, Hebrew sun-god, ii, 20 - - Sanctorious, Santoro, x, 70-1 - - Sand, corrasion by, iii, 72, xiv, 77; - form of rock, 18; - rock formed from, iii, 13 (see Sandstone); - wind-carrying of, 71, 72 73, 74-5 - - Sand Bars, iii, 57, 58; - effect on waves, v, 124 - - Sand Blast, iv, 129-30, v, 135-6; - natural, xiv, 77 - - Sand Cherries, origin, xiii, 226 - - Sand Dunes, iii, 71; - migration, 74; - vegetation xiii, 149 - - Sand Filters, viii, 319-20 - - Sand Hogs, v, 117 - - Sand Hoppers, xii, 82, 85 - - San Diego, Cal., North Island station, i, 48 - - Sand Myrtle, petals, xiii, 202 - - Sandpaper garnet, iii, 330 - - Sandpipers, xii, 262 - - Sand Saucers, xii, 73 - - Sandstone, iii, 13, 382, xiv, 18; - bad conductor of heat, 12; - frost destruction of, 77; - jointing in, 133; - occurrence, iii, 372; - permeability, xiv, 137; - quartzite from, iii, 169, 189; - weathering of, 25, 27 - - Sandstone Belt, of eastern U. S., xiv, 107, 111-12 - - Sandy Hook, iii, 58 - - Sandy Regions, sledges used, v, 214-15 - - Sanford, F., on ignis fatuus, i, 249 - - San Francisco, bubonic plague in, x, 164; - harbor of, xiv, 268-9; - latitude and climate, 345; - power supply, vi, 363 - - "San Francisco," wreck of the, i, 272 - - San Francisco Bay, xiv, 257-8, 268-9 - - San Francisco Earthquake, iii, 94-7; - cause of, xiv, 128, 340; - experience with building types, 343; - faulting at time of, iii, 89; - lateral displacements in, xiv, 335; - origin of fault, iii, 224 - - San Francisco Mountains, xiv, 102 - - Sanguine Temperament, xi, 153, 159, 205 - - Sanitary Chemistry, viii, 317-33 - - Sanitary Sewage, viii, 324 - - Santa Maria Eruption, xiv, 314, 325-6, 328-9; - earthquakes preceding, 338 - - Santo Domingo, sugar cultivation, xiii, 215 - - Santorin, volcano, xiv, 317, 319 - - Santorin Islands, xiv, 319 - - Santos-Dumont, v, 227-8, 382 - - Sao Paulo University, Brazil, x, 172 - - Sap of Plants, xiii, 80, 81; - distribution, 23, 24, 25-6; - functions, ix, 27 - - Saplings, in temperate forests, xiii, 369 - - Sapodilla, origin, xiii, 225, 226 - - Saponification, viii, 221, 381 - - Sapote, origin, xiii, 226 - - Sapper, on Santa Maria eruption, xiv, 328 - - Sapphires, iii, 327; - electrification, vi, 12 - - Sapping, of rocks, xiv, 131 - - Saprophytes, xiii, 99-100; - in heath family, 202; - orchids as, 185 - - Sapwood, xiii, 24, 25, 26, 177 - - Sarasin, P. & F., i, 58 - - Saratoga Springs, carbon dioxide in waters, xiii, 49; - known to Indians, xiv, 145; - seaweed reefs near, iii 251; - stream changes around, 243-4 - - Sarawak, war play of natives, xv, 307-8 - - Sardinian Rise, xiv, 291 - - Sargasso Sea, xiii, 73; - ianthina of, xii, 19; - temperature of waters, 21 - - Sargon the First, writings of, ii, 19-20 - - Saros, Chaldean, ii, 27, 209-10, 215 - - Särs, naturalist, xvi, 148 - - Sarsaparilla, source, xiii, 188, 255 - - Sassafras Family, xiii, 196-7 - - Sassafras Tree, antiquity of species, xiii, 324-5; - distribution, 351; - earliest appearance, 318; - northern limits, 367; - stamens and pistils, 120 - - Satellites, in solar system, ii, 163; - habitability, 249-50, 262; - of various planets, 241, 249-50, 261-4, 268; - of moon, 208; - orbits of, 197; - theories of origin, 370, 371, 374, 380; - weighing of primaries by, 75-6 - - Satin Spar, iii, 331, 332 - - Saturated Air, i, 14, viii, 67 - - Saturated Color, xi, 90 - - Saturated Vapor, iv, 167-8, v, 140; - temperature table, iv, 173 - - Saturation, chemical, viii, 206, 230-1 - - Saturn (planet), ii, 264-6; - comet families, 271; - "great inequality," 87; - life on, 249; - photographic study, 133; - rings, 133, 264-6; - rings, discovery, 54, 96, 109; - rings, Cassini on, 59; - rings, Huygens on, 54, 57; - rings, Keeler on, 120-1; - rings, Laplacian theory, 370, 372; - rotation period, 377; - satellites, 249-50, 264; - satellites, discovery, 85, 104, 146; - size and orbit, 162, 163; - weight, 77 - - Saurians, xii, 182, 203 - - Sauropods, iii, 288-9 - - Savages, æsthetic arts of, xv, 296; - attitude toward nature, 329; - body mutilations among, 257-60; - brain in, 63-4; - canoe-making, 262; - child-bearing among, 278; - clothing of, 252, 254, 255; - cooking methods, 283; - counting ability, ii, 9, xv, 180; - dances of, 305-6, 310-12; - dramatic art of, 303-10, 322; - feet of, 61; - fire sources and generation, 230-1; - fire worship, 234; - fish-catching methods, xv, 227; - grouping tendency, 363; - hair decorations, 260-1; - hunting methods, 222-3; - hunting stage of present, 187, 192-6; - keenness of senses in, 228; - leaders and rulers, xv, 363-6; - life of, remarks on, 9-10; - marriage among, 278-82, 283-5; - marriage ceremonies, 292; - musical scales of, iv, 206; - music of, xv, 312-15, 316, 318; - natural selection among, 47; - obedience to customs and laws, 374-5; - painting of body, 255-6; - poetry of, 319-21; - poison uses by, 227-8; - polygamy among, 287; - rain-makers, i, 334; - religious ideas, xv, 234, 292, 304-6, 326-59, 375, 380; - salt esteemed by, ix, 95; - sex relations among, xv, 277-8; - similarity to ourselves, 9; - songs of, 319-21; - time divisions, v, 57; - tribal morality of, xv, 374; - war dances, 307; - writing a mystery to, 164 - - "Savannah", steamship, v, 192-3, 378 - - Savannah River, shad time in, xii, 155 - - Savory, source, xiii, 205 - - Sawfish, xii, 148-9; - teeth of, 134 - - Sawflies, xii, 125 - - Saws, chisel form, v, 46; - electric, on farms, vii, 229; - gang, xi, 268 - - Saxon Chronicle, eclipse recorded in, ii, 210 - - Scale, musical, iv, 206-9 (see Musical Scale) - - Scale Insects xii, 112 - - Scales, of fishes, xii, 134-5 - - Scallops, xii, 59, 60, 65 - - Scandinavia, coasts concordant, xiv, 249; - early seamanship in, 261-2; - lakes of, 200; - level changes in, iii, 80, xiv, 33-4, 35-6; - rock formations, iii, 172, 178 - - Scandinavian Languages, xv, 162 - - Scandinavians, in Nordic group, xvi, 48 - - Scandium, discovery of, viii, 180; - symbol and atomic weight, 383 - - Scaphopoda, xii, 58, 74 - - Scarabs, xii, 123 - - Scarf Clouds, i, 104, 381 - - Scarlet Fever, effects on ear drum, ix, 103; - immunity to, x, 207; - virus of, 141 - - Scarpa, surgeon, x, 104 - - Scarring, of body, xv, 257-8 - - Scars, xi, 248; - formation of, ix, 48, 287; - treatment of disfiguring, x, 189 - - Scar Tissue, ix, 348 - - Scepters, xv, 207-8 - - Schadenfreude, xi, 351 - - Scheele, Carl Wilhelm, xvi, 120-1, 177 - - Schiaparelli, studies on Mars, ii, 229, 235, 237 - - Schiff, thyroid studies, x, 350 - - Schiffli Machines, v, 286, 287 - - Schiller, skull capacity, xv, 40 - - Schist, iii, 169, 189, 382; - jointing of, xiv, 133; - metamorphic rock, 19 - - Schizogony, x, 158 - - Schizopoda, xii, 19 - - Schleiden, Matthias, x, 119, 120, xvi, 142 - - Schleswig-Holstein, föhrden of, xiv, 259 - - Schlick, Dr., v, 342, 384 - - Schmidt, Dr. William, i, 193 - - Schneefresser, i, 133 - - Schoharie Creek, xiv, 179 - - Scholastic Philosophy, xvi, 99, 100 - - Schönbein, xvi, 163 - - Schönlein, Johann Lucas, x, 113 - - Schools, seats and desks in, ix, 56-7; - teaching of hygiene in, x, 283-4; - ventilation, ix, 97 - - Schuchert, quoted, iii, 205, 278, 293, 297 - - Schultze, Max, x, 131; - on protoplasm, xvi, 166 - - Schuster, astronomer, ii, 178, 224 - - Schwann, Theodor, x, 119, xvi, 142 - - Schweitzer's Reagent, viii, 256 - - Science, Airy on progress of, ii, 82; - Aristotle on, xvi, 88; - art and, iv, 9; - birth of true, ii, 9-10, 86; - exact and complex, x, 368; - field of, xvi, 35; - history of, xvi, 39-198; - imagination in, xvi, 58-9; - importance and interest, xvi, 9-34; - industry and, v, 15; - invention and, iv, 44-5; - "laws" of, iv, 19; - meaning of, vi, 10, xvi, 39-40; - measures and units in, iv, 45-6; - methods of, 26, vi, 10, xvi, 10, 34-5; - philosophy and, 112, 115; - principles of, remarks on, iv, 9-10; - progress, means and ways, xvi, 30, 41, 46, 75, 76, 98, 116, 118; - realm of, vi, 107; - religion and, iv, 27-8, xvi, 42, 44-5; - St. Augustine on, 99; - specializing axiom, x, 43; - understanding of, xvi, 10-11, 30-4; - unity, 34, 35 - - Sciences, abstract and concrete, xvi, 42; - development of, iv, 9-11; - historical sequence, xvi, 35; - interrelations and boundaries, 35, 42; - summarized, 36-8 - - Scientific Expeditions, xvi, 123, 140, 142 - - Scientific Laws, iv, 19, vi, 106; - principle of final common path in, xi, 23 - - Scientific Research, in World War, v, 360 - - Scientific Tendency, growth of, vi, 330 - - Scientists, methods of, xvi, 10, 11, 41; - realm and aim of, vi, 107 - - Scoresby, Capt. William, i, 173, 361 - - Scoriæ, of volcanoes, xiv, 323 - - Scorn, facial expression of, xi, 133; - sentiment of, 148 - - Scorpion Flies, xii, 106 - - Scorpions, xii, 89-90; - ancient, iii, 278 - - Scotch Fir, in Danish peat bogs, xv, 87 - - Scotch Mist, i, 108, 377 - - Scotland, bag-pipes of, xv, 317; - corries of, xiv, 58; - fjord coasts, 258, 259; - former volcanoes, 318; - Gulf Stream effects, 304; - Highlands, conquest of, 243; - Highlands, geology of, iii, 172, 178, xiv, 122-3, 272; - lakes of, 200; - latitude of, 345; - lava plateau, 103-4; - lowlands, 123; - scurvy and potato crop, x, 266; - shoals on west coast, xiv, 47; - wave pressure on coasts, 300; - wild deer of, xii, 317 - - Scott, explorer, death of, x, 252 - - Scott, Prof. W. B., author PHYSIOGRAPHY, Vol. xiv; - quoted, iii, 17, 18, xii, 332 - - Screens, shadows of, doubled, iv, 332-3 - - Screw, v, 37-9; - Archimedes, iv, 26, 27 (fig.); - form of inclined plane, 90; - friction with, 93; - gimlet-pointed, v, 379; - mechanical advantage of, iv, 91-2 - - Screw and Cogged Wheel, iv, 92, 93 (fig.) - - Screw Pines, xiii, 187, 354 - - Scribes, ancient and modern, xv, 177 (fig.), 178 - - Scrub Vegetation, xiv, 378-9 - - Scud, cloud form, i, 101, 381 - - Scully, William C., on snakes, xii, 214-15, 227-8, 231-2 - - Sculpture, beginnings and development of, xv, 108-9, 111 (fig.), 117-20, - 300-2 - - Schultetus, surgeon, x, 78 - - Scum, of pools, xiii, 13, 73 - - Scurvy, x, 264, 265-6; - vitamines to prevent, 261, 262, 263 - - Scythes, development, v, 240-1 - - Sea, animal life in (see Marine Animals); - geological work of, iii, 51-8; - man's invasion of the, v, 182-202 - (see also Ocean) - - Sea Anemones, xii, 23, 37-8 - - Sea Bathing, x, 312 - - Sea Birds, xii, 251-4; - feathers of, 244 - - Sea Breezes, i, 131, 381 - - Seacoasts, civilization in relation to, xv, 128, 129 (see Coasts) - - Sea Cucumbers, xii, 50 - - Sea Devils, xii, 150 - - Sea Elephant, xii, 335 - - Sea Fans, xii, 37, 43 - - Sea Fleas, xii, 85 - - Sea Grapes, xii, 75 - - Sea Hares, xii, 68 - - Sea Horses, xii, 163 - - Sea Island Cotton, v, 269, 270, xiii, 236-7 - - Sea Level, changes in, iii, 83 - - Sea Lilies, iii, 259, 268-70, xii, 48-9 - - Sealing Wax, electrification of, iv, 257-8, 258-9 - - Sea Lions, xii, 333-4 - - Seals, xii, 333-4, 335 - - Seamanship, developed in Scandinavia, xiv, 261-2 - - Sea Mosses, iii, 259, 270 - - Sea of Darkness, legend, i, 55 - - Sea Mouse, xii, 54 - - Sea Necklaces, xii, 73 - - Sea Pens, xii, 43 - - Sea Purses, xii, 148 - - Searchlights, iv, 352 - - Searchlight Shells, v, 372 - - Sears, astronomer, ii, 153, 298 - - Searles Lake, potash supplies, viii, 279 - - Sears Roebuck & Company, small power sets, vii, 232 - - Sea Scorpions, iii, 260, 278 - - Sea Serpents, ancient, iii, 288 - - Sea Serpent Stories, origin of, xii, 80, 143 - - Sea Shells, xii, 71-4 - - Sea Sickness, cause, xi, 127; - James on phenomena of, x, 242 - - Sea Slugs, xii, 68 - - Sea Snakes, xii, 225, 229 - - Seasons, phenology, i, 254, 255 - - Sea Swallows, xii, 264 - - Sea Turtles, xii, 192-3; - catching of, 139-40 - - Seatworm, x, 200 - - Sea Urchins, iii, 259, 269 (fig.), 270, xii, 50 - - Sea Walls, of Galveston, xiv, 303; - wave action on, 301-2 - - Sea Water, atmospheric carbon absorbed by, i, 14; - density of, iv, 149; - effect on seed, xiii, 346; - gold in, viii, 197, xiv, 295; - organic life in relation to, viii, 355, ix, 174, 175; - radioactive matter in, i, 143; - salts and other dissolved substances, iii, 51-2, viii, 139, 140, 279, - xiv, 295-7; - salts in, gradual accumulation, ix, 175-6 - - Seaweeds, classification, iii, 251; - flowerless plants, xiii, 13, 43; - great Pacific, 27, 66-7; - habits and character, 72-3; - iodine in ash, viii, 197; - potash from, 279, xiv, 67, 68; - Pre-Cambrian, xiii, 304; - remains in old strata, iii, 20, 250, 251, 252, 256; - reproduction, xiii, 166 - - Sea Wrack, fertilization, xiii, 151-2 - - Sebaceous Glands, ix, 313-14, x, 310 - - Sebum, x, 310 - - Secchi, Fra Angelo, ii, 17, 114, 115 - - Secchi Classification (stars) ii, 115-16, 118 - - Second, unit of time, iv, 70 - - Secondary, Cyclonic, i, 238, 381 - - Secondary Cells, iv, 383, vii, 363 (see Storage Batteries) - - Secondary Coils, iv, 383; - of transformers, vi, 308 - - Secondary Currents, vii; - in induction coils, vii, 243 - - Secondary Rock (see Sedimentary Rock) - - Secondary Spectrum, ii, 101, 108 - - Secretin, x, 325 - - Secretion, Borelli on, x, 72; - metabolism of, ix, 159 - - Secular, meaning in astronomy, ii, 74 - - Secular Parallax, ii, 316-17 - - Sedentary Habits, food requirements with, ix, 297; - sluggishness from, 223, 251 - - Sedges, xiii, 187-8; - family, 179, 180; - fertilization, 148; - first appearance, 319; - product and origin, 244; - stems, 182 (fig.) - - Sedimentary Rocks, iii, 13, 382, viii, 191, xiv, 18; - folding of, iii, 85, xiv, 32, 36 (see Folding of Rock); - fossils in, iii, 16-17; - jointing of, xiv, 130; - land forms in, 44, 80-99; - marine, 19-20; - oldest, iii, 163, 165, 167; - original horizontal formation, xiv, 36; - weathering of, 79 - (see also Strata) - - See, on binaries, ii, 377 - - Seed of Plants, xiii, 59-62; - absent in some plants, 13, 14, 215, 218; - of annuals, 53; - destruction of, xv, 21; - dispersal methods, xiii, 55-9, 338-48; - dispersal by sea currents, xii, 42; - fats from, viii, 246; - germination (see Germination of Seed); - naked and enclosed, xiii, 174-5, 178; - number and increase, xv, 19; - persistence of life in, ix, 16-17; - small-sized, xiii, 344; - storage of food in, 96, ix, 27-8, 278; - survival of, by what determined, xv, 22, 23, 25; - waste of, xiii, 11-12 - - Seed-bearing Plants, iii, 251 - - Seed Ferns, iii, 251, 254-5 - - Seed-habit, beginning of, xiii, 309, 310 - - Seeding Machines, v, 244 - - Seed Leaves, xiii, 60-1 (see Cotyledons) - - Seedless Plants, xiii, 13, 14 - (see also Cryptogams) - - Seedlings, destruction of, xv, 21 - - Seeing Machines, v, 331-2, 334-5 - - Seihun River, xiv, 185 - - Seine River, tidal basin, v, 176; - trench of, xiv, 89 - - Seismographs, iii, 93 - - Seismology, xiv, 337 - - Selection, artificial, ix, 327, xvi, 154-5, 157-8; - natural (see Natural Selection) - - Selenite, iii, 331 - - Selenium, sensitiveness to light, v, 332, 334; - symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Seleucus, astronomer, ii, 28 - - Self, "real," x, 302 - (see also Personality) - - Self-abasement, xi, 55; - in admiration, 147 - - Self-assertion, xi, 56, 146 - - Self-Control, xi, 257 - - Self-encouragement, xi, 278; - in salesmanship, 336-40 - - Self-excited Dynamos, vi, 187, 191 - - Self-Feeling, in various sentiments, xi, 146-50 - - Self-Fertilization of Plants, xiii, 120; - avoidance of, 152-3; - Darwin on, 135; - preventive methods, 120-2, 123, 127-30, 131, 134, 135, 141-2; - as last resort, 135-44 - - Self-Gratification, impulse of, xv, 185 - - Self-induction, vii, 375 - - Self-interest, not the motive of crowds, xi, 330-1 - - Self-luminous Objects, ix, 105-6 - - Self-Maintenance, impulse of, xv, 185, 186-204, 273 - - Self-Perpetuation, impulse of, xv, 185, 273 - - Self-preservation, emotions of, ix, 153, 165-6, 171-2; - instinct of, x, 9-10, 282-3, xv, 273 - - Selfridge, Admiral, periscope, v, 200 - - Self-Sacrifice in plants, xiii, 52-3, 61-2, 117, 151 - - Self-Starters vi, 238-9, vii, 120, 127, 142-3 - - Selkirk Mountains, snow mushrooms, i, 116 - - Semaphores, i, 282 - - Semicircular Canals, ix, 89-90, 101 (Fig.), x, 126; - in fishes, xii, 137 - - Semites, rule of fathers among, xv, 367 - - Semitic Languages, xv, 161-3 - - Semitic Religion, sun-worship in, ii, 20 - - Semmelweis, x, 114, 115, 122, 144; - debt of women to, x, 149 - - Seneca, on comets, ii, 85 - - Seneca Lake, xiv, 203; - delta in, 211 - - Senecio, seed dispersal, xiii, 345 - - Sensation, xi, 62-4; - defined, 67-8; - dependent on motor response, 43, 66, 74-5, 102-3, 110-11, 118-21, - 123-4, 202-3; - dependent on sense organs, x, 118; - hallucinatory, 358; - nervous impulse from, xi, 19; - perceptions and, 160-1; - physical effects, 67-8; - physical essentials and cost, 25; - threshold of, 71 - (see also Senses) - - Sense Organs, at birth, ix, 349-51; - cell structure of, 22; - classes, 86; - condition in attention xi, 228-9; - connections with brain, ix, 142-4, 145-6; - connections with dendrites, xi, 19; - connections with muscles, ix, 19-20, 122, 124-37, 139, 140; - development in embryo, xi, 35; - in amphibians xii, 169; - in fishes, 137-9; - of skin, ix, 314; - part of, in maintaining life, 19, 21, 23, 166-7; - percentage of error, xi, 184-5; - receptive attunements, 62; - sensations dependent on, x, 118; - threshold of sensation, xi, 71; - summation of stimulations, 21-2 - - Sense Perception, motions of, ix, 82 - - Senses, contact, ix, 86, 91-5; - distance, 86, 96-121; - hypnosis of, xi, 315; - internal, ix, 86, 87-91; - number and kinds, xi, 63-4, 109; - primary purpose of, ix, 86-7 - - "Sensible Temperature," i, 318, 381 - - Sensitive Plant, xiii, 113-14 - - Sensory Nerve Cells, ix, 125, 126 (fig.); - at birth, 348; - connections of, 129-31, 142 - - Sensory Neurones, xi, 21; - development in embryo, 34, 35 - - Sensory Reaction Type, xi, 155, 156-7, 158, 159 - - Sentiments, xi, 143-51; - in advertising, 345-6 - - Sepals, xiii, 45, 47 - - Separately-excited Dynamos, vi, 187, 191 - - Separate Origin Theory, xv, 69 - - Separation, energy of, iv, 82 - - Separators, electromagnetic, vi, 103-4 - - Sepia, origin of, xii, 79 - - September Massacres, honesty of crowds, xi, 331 - - Septicemia, x, 198 - - Septic Tanks, viii, 328 - - Sequoias, ancient and present, iii, 256; - Californian, xiv, 374; - climatic record in rings, i, 199-200, xiv, 362; - former distribution, 375 - - Serbia, Austria's control of, xiv, 306; - Turkish conquest, 243 - - Serbian Language, xv, 162 - - Series, chemical, viii, 381 - - Series Circuits, vii, 364, 375 - - Series Field of dynamos, vi, 189 - - Series Wound Motors, vi, 231-4 - - Serow, xii, 325 - - Serpentine, iii, 338 - - Serpents, xii, 211-38; - descent of, 203; - eggs, care of, xv, 275 - - Serpollet, flash boiler, v, 213 - - Serpula Tubes, xii, 55 - - Serums, used in diagnosis, x, 215-16; - use of, in disease prevention, 218, 296-7, xv, 49 - (see also Antitoxins) - - Serum Sickness, x, 212, 215 - - Serval, xii, 357 - - Servant Question, electricity and, vii, 74, 90 - - Sesheta star goddess, ii, 24 - - Seven, basic number, xvi, 80; - former supposed virtue of, ix, 115 - - Seventeen-year Locusts, xii, 112, 113 - - Severinus, Marcus Aurelius, x, 79 - - Severn River, tidal basin, v, 177; - tides of, xiv, 293 - - Seville, Giralda Observatory, xvi, 100 - - Sewage, composition, disposal, and purification, viii, 324-9; - in water supply sources, 318, 319, xiv, 140-1; - oyster and clam poisoning by, xii, 59; - plant fertilizing by, viii, 327, 343-4 - - Sewer Gas, harmlessness, i, 326 - - Sewer Pipes, bamboo stems as, xiii, 183 - - Sewers, rainfall and, i, 110 - - Sewing Machines, v, 283, 284-5, 379; - embroidering and lace-making, 285-8; - motor-driven, vii, 84-5 - - Sex, determination of, ix, 338-40, xvi, 156; - effectiveness of jokes on, xi, 355-6; - hereditary traits, bound up with, ix, 338, 340-1; - in flowers, xiii, 46-7; - in various trees, 191-2; - influence on disease, x, 237; - of twins, ix, 44 - - Sex Chromosomes, ix, 339; - hereditary traits carried in, 338, 340-1 - - Sex Determiners, ix, 338-9, x, 234, xvi, 156 - - Sex Glands, double functions of, x, 347 - - Sex Relations, among animals, xv, 274-7, 277-8; - among primitive men, 277-8; - varying ideas of morality in, 286 - - Sexual Feelings, xi, 63, 138, 139 - - Sexual Impulse in man and animals, xv, 273, 274; - repression of, x, 356 - - Sexual Reproduction (see Reproduction) - - Sexual Selection, xv, 274 - - Seychelles Islands, coco-de-mer of, xiii, 60, 154 - - Shad, xii, 154-5; - river habits of, ix, 174-5 - - Shadbush, leaves of, xiii, 105 - - Shaddock, origin, xiii, 226 - - Shadoof, v, 18-19 - - Shadows, iv, 332-4; - colored, xi, 94-5; - in distance perceptions, 183; - in perception of solidity, ix, 120; - savage fear of, xv, 330 - - Shaft-sinking, v, 260 - - Shagreen, xii, 134 - - Shakespeare, pronunciation changes since, xv, 156 - - Shale, iii, 13, 382; - petroleum source, viii, 209-10; - schist and gneiss from, iii, 169, 189; - weathering of, 27 - - Shaler, Nathaniel, on lunar surface, ii, 376 - - Shallow Water Belt, xiv, 24-5 (see Continental Shelf) - - Shamash, sun-god, ii, 20 - - Shame, Carlyle on, x, 306; - custom and, xv, 254-5 - - Shape, perception of, ix, 105 - - Shapers, metal cutting by, v, 47 - - Shapley, astronomer, ii, 17, 153, 326-7, 330, 337, 338, 339, 340, 356 - - Sharks, xii, 142-7; - caudal fin in, 133; - evolution, iii, 282, 284; - eyes of, xii, 138; - gill clefts in, 148; - scales of, 134; - sense of smell in, 139 - - Shark's Teeth, fossils of, xii, 142 - - Sharps, musical, iv, 208, ix, 100 - - Shasta Indians, arrows of, xv, 196 (fig.) - - Shasta, Mount, iii, 106, 226 - - Shat-el-Arab, xiv, 185 - - Shaw, Lieut., aeronaut, i, 285 - - Shaw, Sir Napier, i, 139-40 - - Shear, plane and torsional, iv, 158 - - Shearing Machines, motors used, vi, 234-5 - - Shearing of Sheep, pneumatic, v, 130 - - Shears, as levers, v, 23, 46 - - Shearwaters, xii, 252 - - Sheep, xii, 324, 326; - anthrax of, Pasteur's work on, x, 140-2; - domestication of, xv, 197; - elastic cord in neck, ix, 59; - horns of, xii, 325, 328 - - Sheep-cold, i, 363 - - Sheep-raising, in New Zealand and Australia, xiv, 384 - - Sheet Lightning, i, 148-9, vii, 205, 213 - - Sheet Tin, viii, 161 - - Sheldrakes, xii, 257 - - Shellac, composition and use, viii, 264 - - Shell-Animals, origin and development, iii, 20, 264, 265-6, 272, 273-5 - - Shellfish, xii, 57-80 - - Shells (animal), calcium carbonate in, viii, 152, 354; - deposits, iii, 53, 54, 235, 257-8, 272; - formation of, xvi, 145; - rocks formed from, iii, 13, viii, 152 - (see also Chert, Flint, Limestone) - - Shells (artillery), v, 371-2, 373; - explosives for, viii, 260; - triple reports in World War, i, 193 - - Shell Worms, xii, 54-5 - - Shelter, man's need of, ix, 308-9 - - Shenandoah River, longitudinal character, xiv, 154; - piracy of, iii, 38-9 - - Shenandoah Valley, xiv, 167 - - Sherrington, Charles, x, 131; - quoted, xi, 12 - - Shetland Islands, storm waves in, xiv, 300 - - Shields, xv, 221 - - Shields River, Montana, xiv, 176 - - Shields, Tunnel, v, 122-4 - - Shin, bones of, ix, 68, 70 (fig.) - - Shiners, xii, 161, 163 - - Shinleaf Plants, xiii, 99 - - Shipbuilding, developed in Scandinavia, xiv, 261 - - Ships, ancient and modern, xiv, 265; - bottoms, how cleaned, ix, 174, 175; - bow and stern shapes, v, 191-2; - concrete, 194-5; - gyroscopic stabilizing, 341-2; - handling in cyclones, i, 277-8; - Marconi distress system, vii, 284; - materials of hulls, v, 194-5; - measuring of position of, 65-6; - refrigerating systems, 353; - St. Elmo's Fire on, i, 157; - speed and driving power, v, 190-2; - strains, 194, 195; - water and air resistance, 190-2; - wireless directing, vii, 284, 285; - why they float, v, 95 - (see also Steamships, Steel Ships) - - Ships' Chronometers, v, 65-7 - - Shirt Tree, xv, 256 - - Shivering, heat production by, ix, 309-10 - - Shoals, xiv, 286; - aerial mapping, i, 47; - effect on waves, v, 124 - - Shoal Water Belt, xiv, 24-5, 46-7 (see Continental Shelf) - - Shock, cause and treatment of, ix, 195; - kinetic theory, xi, 59; - low blood pressure in, x, 336 - - Shoes, mending of, by electricity, iv, 10; - proper and improper, ix, 69-70, x, 306; - working, xi, 279 - - Sholes, typewriter, v, 312, 380 - - Shooting-Star Plant, xiii, 203 - - Shooting Stars, ii, 164, 283-9; - altitude in air, i, 17 - (see also Meteors, Meteorites) - - Shops, displays and weather, i, 266; - electric wiring, vii, 57 - - Shore Lines (see Coasts) - - Shore-Weed, distribution, xiii, 352 - - Short-Circuits, defined, vii, 375; - protection against, 35-50 - - Shortening Agents, viii, 232 - - Shorthand Typewriter, v, 313 - - Short Heads, skull index in, xv, 42 - - Shoulder Blades, ix, 63 (fig.), 66 - - Shoulder Girdle, ix, 66 - - Shoulder Joint, ix, 66; - dislocation of, 71 - - Shovels, most efficient lifts, xi, 362 - - Showers, curious, i, 355-9, 55 - - Shrews, xii, 366, 367, 368 - - Shrimps, class of, xii, 81, 82; - swimming of, ix, 39 - - Shrubs, garden, planting tables, xiii, 272-89; - hairy covering, 104-5; - in plant classifying, 175; - older than herbs, 319; - roots, 16 - - Shu, Egyptian god, xvi, 77 - - Shuman, Frank, solar engine, ii, 169; - sun-power plant, v, 177-8 - - Shunt Circuits, vii, 364 - - Shunt-Wound Dynamos, vi, 187-8, 191-2 - - Shunt-Wound Motors, vi, 229-31, 232 - - Siam, opium in, xiii, 253; - rivers of, xiv, 196; - viper of, xii, 230 - - Siberia, animals of, xii, 317, 349, 350, 356; - anti-cyclone of, i, 218; - extinct animals, iii, 16; - low temperatures, i, 209-10; - plains and table lands of, xiv, 217; - rift valleys in, 123; - rivers of, 195 - - Sibert, Maj.-Gen'l William, x, 187 - - Sicily, earthquake belt of, xiv, 340; - temporary island near, 319-20 - - Sickles, evolution, v, 240 - - Sickness (see Disease) - - Sidereal Period, of moon, ii, 196 - - Siderite, viii, 156 - - Siemens, Sir William, xvi, 175, 176 - - Sierra Chica Observatory, ii, 146 - - Sierra Nevada Mountains, age, iii, 191; - canyons, 225; - cirques, 66; - exfoliation in, 24; - fault scarp of, 89, 225, xiv, 117, 122, 230; - fault valleys in, xiv, 127; - filled lakes of, 212; - former volcanic activity, iii, 226; - geological history, 136, 140-1, 213-14; - glaciers, past and present, xiv, 54-5; - granite core, iii, 112, xiv, 111, 228; - intense folding, 230; - lakes, iii, 143; - metamorphism in, xiv, 234; - Mother Lode gold belt, iii, 366; - power plants, v, 79, vi, 363; - precipitation on opposite sides, xiv, 355; - snowfall, i, 118-19 - - Sight (sense), iv, 346-7, ix, 104-21, xi, 83-97; - acuteness of, vi, 272-3; - arrival platform for, ix, 146; - center of, xi, 97; - defects of, 112-14; - deficiency, to what due, iv, 322; - development in infants, ix, 350, 351, xi, 40; - direction perception by, ix, 118, 120; - distance and depth perception by, 118-20; - illusions of, iv, 323, 326-9; - in fishes, xii, 138-9; - nerve of, xi, 29-30; - space perception by, 163, 169-70, 171-2, 173, 174-83; - touch and, ix, 92; - walking reflex from, ix, 158 - - Signal Fires, xv, 165-6 - - Signals, distress, wireless, vii, 284; - storm, i, 282-8 - - Signal Service, weather service called, i, 216 - - Signal Systems, of railroads, vii, 355-9 - - Signatures, magazine sections, v, 306-7 - - Sign Languages, xv, 148-51 - - Sign Lighting, vi, 280, vii, 339-48; - colors in, iv, 51; - psychology of, xi, 344, 345, 346 - - Silence, from interferences of sound, iv, 218, 219, 220-2; - horrors of world of, 51; - zones of, i, 189-92, 381 - - Silica, viii, 90; in earth's crust, 193; - in iron ore, iii, 356; - in organic compounds, ii, 243; - petrifying material, iii, 127; - residue of primary rock, viii, 195 - - Silicates, identification, viii, 201; - in earth's crust, 90, 193, 194, 198, 200-1; - in glass making, 281; - preparation of, 117; - specific gravities, 202 - - Silicles, xiii, 197 - - Silicon, viii, 19, 90; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - compounds, 90; - in body tissues, 354; - in earth's crust, iii, 308, viii, 19, 129, 192; - in wireless detectors, vii, 269; - metallic, 300-1; - plant needs of, viii, 337, 341 - - Silicon Carbide, vii, 310 (see Carborundum) - - Silicon Dioxide, viii, 90 - - Silk, as clothing material, ix, 311-12, x, 308, 309; - chemistry and manufacture, viii, 256; - dyes for, 269; - electrical conductivity, iv, 259; - electrification of, 257, 258, 259; - vegetable, viii, 255-6 - - Silkworm Moths, xii, 119 - - Silkworms, Pasteur's work on diseases of, x, 140 - - Sills (geological), xiv, 108-10; - columns in, 130; illustration, 107 - - Sill Tunnel, corrasion in, iii, 29 - - Silurian Period, iii, 20, 191-4, 382; - animals and plants of, 252, 268, 274, 278, 282, 284; - limestones of, xii, 49; - species of, xv, 71 - - Silver, iii, 338; - affinity strength, viii, 128; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - atomic weight determination, 308-9; - contraction on solidifying, iv, 150; - electrical conductivity, 283, vi, 80; - electric positiveness, 59; - extraction from ores, viii, 140, 170, 269, 270, 271-2; - fusibility, 384; - heat conductor, iv, 179; - in heavy metal group, viii, 126-7; - melting point and requirements, iv, 162; - metallurgy of, xvi, 176; - occurrence and uses, viii, 170-3, 198; - "parting" from gold, 272; - production, iii, 367-8; - recovered in copper refining, vii, 319, 320, viii, 272; - refining of, vii, 320; - specific gravity, viii, 384; - sterling, 171; - tarnishing of, 13, 77; - tests for, 286, 288 - - Silver Bromide, in photography, viii, 172 - - Silver Chloride, analysis, viii, 292; - in photography, 173 - - Silver Compounds, in photography, viii, 171-3 - - Silver Nitrate, uses, viii, 72, 146, 290 - - Silver-Plating, vii, 318-19, viii, 284 - - Silver Suboxide, viii, 97 - - Silver Sulphide, viii, 13, 170-1 - - Silver Thaw, i, 108, 381 - - Similarity, association by, xi, 197 - - Simon, Gustav, x, 131 - - Simoons, i, 134, 381 - - Simple Mechanical Powers, iv, 25 - - Simplon Tunnel, heat encountered in building of, iii, 121, xiv, 14; - length and altitude, 240, 241 - - Simpson, Dr. G. C., i, 93, 150 - - Simpson, Sir James, xvi, 185 - - Sims, Marion, x, 122, xvi, 186 - - Sin, disease as result of, x, 380 - - Sine Curves (electricity), vi, 201 - - Singers, range of, ix, 99; - vocal cords of, 83 - - Singer Sewing Machine, v, 285 - - Singing, development of art of, xv, 296, 312-15, 325; - of teakettle, iv, 167 - - Single-celled Animals, iii, 265 (see Unicellular Animals) - - Single-celled Plants, xiii, 166, 167 - - Single-fluid Theory, vi, 288-93 - - Single-Phase, defined, vi, 201-3 - - Single-Phase Currents, advantages and disadvantages, vii, 196 - - Single-Phase Induction Motors, vi, 241, 250 - - Single Rail Cars, v, 342-3 - - Single-thread Sewing Machines, v, 285 - - Sink Hole Lakes, iii, 157 - - Sink Holes, iii, 127 (fig.), 128 - - Siphon, atmospheric pressure in, i, 25; - in ancient Egypt, xvi, 68 - - Siphonophores, xii, 37 - - Siren Whistle, iv, 205 - - Sirian Stars, ii, 115, 117; - distance and brightness, 353; - in galaxy, 122 - - Sirius, angular diameter, ii, 151; - binary system, 334; - brightness, 263, 295, 316; - color, 115, 296, 297; - companion of, 109; - composition, 115; - displacement in spectrum lines, 119; - distance and parallax, 315, 319; - distance increasing, 119-20; - in moving cluster system, 343; - magnitude, motion and type, 319; - origin of name, 302 - - Sirocco Winds, i, 134, 381 - - Sisal, ropes from, xiii, 10; - source of, 188, 240-1 - - Sitatungas, xii, 327 - - Sitka, climate of, xiv, 345 - - Sitka Spruce, in Pacific forests, 374 - - Sitting, right posture, importance of, ix, 57 - (see also Sedentary Habits) - - Size, effect on attention, xi, 344; - perception of, ix, 105; - physiological actions dependent on, 296, 347 - - Skaptar Jokull, i, 59 - - Skaters (bugs), xii, 114 - - Skates (fish), eggs of, xii, 140; - gill clefts in, 148 - - Skeletal Muscle, ix, 75-84; - breathing controlled by, 256-7; - contraction and relaxation, of, 164; - nerve connections of, 160, 162; - voluntary control of, 163 - (see also Muscles) - - Skeleton, of vertebrates, xii, 132; - weight of, iv, 13; - compared with apes, xv, 59; - bones of, ix, 59-71; - cartilage beginnings, 58; - connective tissue, 13, 71-2 - - Skeptics, Greek, xvi, 85 - - Skill, of artisans, past and present, v, 42, 46; - fineness of discrimination in, xi, 125-6; - origin in response processes, 45; - will in relation to, 263-4 - (see also Proficiency) - - Skim Milk, viii, 363 - - Skin, blood vessels of, how controlled, ix, 161, 163, 215, 216, 217; - body heat regulation through, 310-12, 314-16; - chilling of, effects, ix, 323; - cold and warmth spots, 93; - colors in different races and latitudes, xv, 36-7; - cuticle of, ix, 312-13; - development in black and white races, xv, 49-50; - dry feeling, i, 322; - effects of cold and wet on, x, 239; - electric insulator, vii, 247; - excretions of, ix, 314, x, 310-311; - exercise effects on, 303; - fear effects, xi, 131, 132; - flushing and paling of, ix, 161, 162, 163, 165, 215; - functions, 312-14, x, 310; - germ infection through, 198, 201-2; - growth of, ix, 47-8, 287, 312-13; - hyperemia in sleep, xi, 284, 289; - of Nordics and Iberians, xvi, 48, 49; - oiling of, in hot and cold climates, x, 311; - pain organs in, ix, 314; - pores of, 322; - protective structure, x, 201; - sebaceous glands, ix, 313-14, x, 310; - sense organs in, ix, 314 (see Contact senses); - structure and sensations, xi, 109-15, 164-6, 184; - sunlight effects, vii, 249; - suppressed emotion effects xi, 141-2; - temperature, i, 318; - temperature sensations in, ix, 93-4, 319-20; - touch sense of, 92 - - "Skin Friction," v, 191, 192 - - Skin Grafting, x, 183, 189 - - Skin Pain, xi, 117 - - Skins, as clothing, xv, 256, 257; - canoes and rafts of, 264; - use in ancient Egypt, xvi, 73 - - Skipping Silverfish, xii, 104 - - Skoda, Josef, x, 113, 115 - - Skolai Creek, Alaska, iii, 217 - - Skuas, xii, 264 - - Skull, Skulls, bones of, ix, 61-3; - bones in infants, 345; - measurement and classification of, xv, 42; - of apes and men compared, 42-3, 62; - of European races, xvi, 49, 50; - of primitive men, xv, 91, 93; - of various races, 41-3; - use for drinking vessels, 248 - - Skullcap, flowers, xiii, 201, 205 - - Skull Capacity, xv, 40; - in various men and races, 40-1; - of apes and men, 89, iii, 302-3; - of primitive man, 304, xv, 89, 94-5 - - Skull Index, xv, 42 - - Skunk Cabbage, xiii, 188, 350 - - Skunk, absence of fear, xi, 136; - luminous species, i, 347; - protective means, xv, 18, xii, 347, 348 - - Sky, colors, explanation, i, 164, 165-6; - in art, 105; - man's invasion of, v, 219-38; - shadows of mountains in, i, 169-70 - - Skyscrapers, as lightning protection, vii, 219; - in earthquakes, xiv, 343; - wind-thrust on, v, 194 - - Slag, viii, 157-8; - phosphate from, 280, 345 - - Slasher (weaving), v, 280 - - Slate, iii, 382; - metamorphic rock, xiv, 19; - origin and occurrence, iii, 372; - quarries in N.Y., 189 - - Slaughterhouse Waste, as fertilizer, viii, 280, 343 - - Slavery, social results of, xv, 376, 378-9 - - Slavo-Lettic Tongues, xv, 162 - - Slavonian Language, xv, 162 - - Slavs, in Alpine group, xvi, 49; - north and south, xv, 137 - - Sledges, in transportation, v, 214-15 - - Sleep, xi, 281-91; - autosuggestion and, 306; - causes and factors of, ix, 218-19; - hot baths and, 322; - heart rest in, 210; - life during, ix, 11-12, 17; - metabolism during, 282-3, x, 271; - mind activity in, xvi, 19; - nature and functions, xi, 281-91; - periodic breathing in, x, 340; - primitive conceptions of, xv, 328, 329, 332; - retardation of impulses in, xi, 20; - skin during, 110; - tea and, xiii, 227; - time spent in, ix, 80 - - Sleeping, of plants, xiii, 88-9, 113; - outdoor, x, 240 - - Sleeping Sickness, immunity and susceptibility to, xv, 49, 50, 51 (see - African, European Sleeping Sickness) - - Sleep-Walkers, xi, 286-7 - - Sleet, i, 107-8, 381; - glaze called, 373; - ice rain, 375 - - Sliding Elasticity, iv, 157-8 - - Sliding Friction, v, 203, 204, 207, 214-15 - - Slings, xv, 219-20 - - Slip Rings, of alternators, vi, 159, 177, 196-7 - - Slipher, astronomer, ii, 131, 147, 337, 363 - - Slivers, cotton, v, 272, 274 - - Slogans, effectiveness, xi, 332 - - Slot Machine, Hero's, xvi, 93 - - Sloths, xii, 282, 283 - - Slow Sand Filters, viii, 319-20 - - Slowworms, xii, 206 - - Slugs, xii, 69-70 - - Slums, infant mortality in, ix, 352 - - Smallpox, African superstition of, x, 285-6; - consumption from, 292; - early inoculation for, 100-1, 207; - eruption on uncovered surfaces, 254; - European epidemic of, 59-60; - first described by Rhazes, 32; - germ of, 200; - immunity to, 207; - prevention of, xv, 49; - racial susceptibility to, 50, 51; - vaccination discovery, x, 100-3, 207-8; - vaccination success, 217 - - Smeaton, on Watt's engine, v, 44 - - Smell (Sense), ix, 96-8, xi, 69, 77-82; - direction perception by, ix, 117, 120; - distance perception by, 121; - food-judging by, 95; - in fishes, xii, 139; - in insects, 101; - in infants, ix, 350-1; - nerve of, xi, 29-30; - photisms of, 222; - sense of, location, x, 341 - - Smellie, William, x, 104 - - Smelling, motions of, ix, 82-3 - - Smelting, v, 315-16, 317-18; - dependent on oxygen, i, 24; - history of processes, xvi, 174, 175, 176; - precipitation treaters in, vii, 348-51; - smoke from, 345, 346, 347 - - Smelts, xii, 154, 159 - - Smilax, leaves, xiii, 183 (fig.) - - Smilax Family, xiii, 188 - - Smiling, psychology of, xi, 357 - - Smith, Prof. J. Warren, i, 246, 248, 253 - - Smith, William, geological work, iii, 15, 18, xvi, 126, 168-9 - - Smith River, Montana, xiv, 176 - - Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, ii, 186 - - Smithsonian Institution, i, weather observations, i, 215-16 - - Smoke, cause and prevention, vii, 343-5, viii, 45-6; - cloud and fog nucleus, i, 91, 94; - electrical precipitation, vi, 164, vii, 216, 301-2, 343, 346-51; - evils and war against, i, 63-5, viii, 304; - from fires, in air, i, 56-7; - from gunpowder, viii, 145; - in air, clearing of, ix, 269; - moor, i, 56; - nuisance and waste, vii, 345-6 - - Smokeless Powder, viii, 145, 260-1; - introduction, xvi, 163 - - Smoke Screens, phosphorus, viii, 87 - - Smoking, of foods, viii, 372 - - Smoking of Tobacco, xiii, 256; - cancer from, x, 120; - heartburn from, ix, 232 - - Smooth Muscle, ix, 74, 84-5; - adrenalin effects on, 171; - chemical control of, 167-9, 170, 336; - emotional control, 163-7, 168; - habit in operation of, 251; - nerve connection and control, 159-69; - occurrence in body, 160-2; - reflex control, 163 - - Smoothness, sensation of, xi, 128 - - Smuggled Goods, X-ray search for, vii, 256-7 - - Smyth, Piazza, ii, 141 - - Snails, iii, 260, 272, 272-3, xii, 68-71; - deep sea, 23; - flower fertilizers, xiii, 123, 144, 153; - in lakes, xiv, 211-12; - winged, xii, 19 - - Snakebird, xii, 253 - - Snake Hill, N. J., xiv, 110 - - Snake River, xiv, 174-5; - gorge of, xiv, 166 - - Snake River Valley, lavas of, iii, 228 - - Snakes, xii, 182, 211-38; - absence of fear, xi, 136; - ancient, iii, 295; - ancient, xii, 210; - egg-teeth of, xii, 205; - embryological resemblance, xv, 54; - in oceanic islands, xiv, 278; - poison of, xv, 18 - - Snapdragon, flowers of, xiii, 190, 201 - - Sneers, origin, xi, 133 - - Sneezing, in infants, ix, 349; - nervous mechanism, xi, 19, 20; - reflex action, ix, 135, 258 - - Snell, Willebrord, ii, 58 - - Sniffing, effect of, xi, 80; - purpose of, ix, 82-3, 96 - - Snipes, xii, 262-3 - - Snow, i, 114-17, 381; - forests and, xiv, 378; - freezing mixtures with, iv, 175; - from cloudless sky, i, 119; - glaciers and, iii, 59-60; - railroad problem, i, 267; - regelation of, iv, 166; - removal problem, i, 117; - water supply from, i, 118; - winter wheat and, 253 - - Snow Bins, i, 118, 381 - - Snow Clouds, i, 101, 102 - - Snow Crystals, i, 115-16 - - Snowdrops, flowers, xiii, 120 - - Snow-eater Winds, i, 133, 369 - - Snowfall, glaciers in relation to, xiv, 54-5; - heaviest in U. S., i, 118-19; - measurement, 79-80, 118, xiv, 351 - (see also Precipitation) - - Snowfall Charts, i, 206 - - Snowflakes, i, 115; - clouds of, 92-3, 103; - fogs of, 95 - - Snow Fleas, xii, 104 - - Snow Line, iii, 59; - in tropics and arctic, xv, 72-3; - on mountains, iv, 183-4 - - Snowstorms, St. Elmo's Fire in, i, 157, 158 - - Snow Surveys, i, 118, 382 - - Snubbing Posts, friction on ropes on, iv, 94 - - Soap, chemistry of, viii, 141-3, 221; - hard water effects, viii, 143, 152, 322, xiv, 147; - use of, in bathing, ix, 313, 314, x, 311 - - Soap Bubbles, iridescence of, xii, 245 - - Soap Films, colors of, iv, 377, xii, 245 - - Soapstone, iii, 339-40 - - Sobieski, John, xiv, 308-9 - - Sobrero, nitroglycerine, xvi, 163 - - Social Classes, rise of, xv, 375-8 - - Social Evolution, xv, 29-31 - - Social Institutions, crowd psychology in, xi, 333; - development of, xv, 29-31, 383-4 - - Socialism, theories of, xv, 377-8 - - Social Workers, in treatment of disease, x, 383 - - Society, dominant impulses in, xv, 185; - habit and stability of, xi, 255-6; - language the product of, xv, 142 - - Sociology, concrete science, xvi, 42; - least positive science, x, 368; - medicine and, 369 - - Socrates, killed by hemlock, xiii, 250; - on essential forms, xvi, 87 - - Soda, deposits of, viii, 275 - - Soda Ash, viii, 135 - - Soda Lakes, xiv, 206, 212 - - Soda Pulp, v, 294 - - Sodium, affinity intensity, viii, 128; - affinity for chlorine, 120; - alkali metal, 132; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - electrolytic production, vii, 320-1, viii, 284; - extraction by electrolysis, 271; - flame color, 134, 301; - fusibility, 384; - in body tissues, 354; - in earth's crust, iii, 308, viii, 19, 129, 148, 192, 195; - metallic nature, 17, 127, 181; - plant needs of, 337, 341; - properties, 133-4; - source of industrial, 275; - specific gravity, 384; - spectrum of, iv, 362, viii, 301; - test for, 287, 289 - - Sodium Acetate, electrolysis of, viii, 266 - - Sodium Bicarbonate, viii, 136 - - Sodium Borate, viii, 141 (see Borax) - - Sodium Carbonate, viii, 116; - manufacture of, 276-8; - occurrence in nature, 189, 197; - uses, 135, 146 - - Sodium Chloride, viii, 138-40; - electrolysis of, 124-5; - ionization in solution, 123, 301; - in urine, x, 343; - pure, xiv, 296; - stability of, viii, 120 - (see also Common Salt) - - Sodium Compounds, viii, 134-43; - flame color, 301; - in sea, 138, 196, 279; - replacing potassium, 133-4, 144; - uses, 146 - - Sodium Cyanide, viii, 141 - - Sodium Feldspar, viii, 90 - - Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate, viii, 135-6 - - Sodium Hydrogen Sulphate, viii, 83, 116, 137 - - Sodium Hydroxide, viii, 134-5; - normal solution, 119; - preparation of, 276, 278, 284; - uses, 135, 141, 142, 221, 255 - - Sodium Hypochlorite, as antiseptic, x, 146, 181; - preparation, viii, 284 - - Sodium Iodide, solubility, viii, 112 - - Sodium Light, colors in, iv, 365 - - Sodium Nitrate, viii, 137-8; - Chilean deposits, 64, 72, 197, 280 - - Sodium Nitrite, viii, 141 - - Sodium Peroxide, viii, 134 - - Sodium Phosphate, viii, 89, 141 - - Sodium Silicate, viii, 141 - - Sodium Stearate, viii, 143, 221 - - Sodium Sulphate, viii, 83, 116, 137; - electrolysis of, 125 - - Sodium Sulphite, viii, 117, 140, 146, 372 - - Sodium Thiosulphate, viii, 140-1, 172 - - Soffioni, steam jets, v, 179 - - Soft Coal, combustion, viii, 45; - composition, 252; - conversion into coke, 46, 252; - distillation and products, 252-4; - origin, xiii, 10 - - Soft Foods, for children, remarks on, x, 314, 315 - - Softness, sensation of, xi, 128 - - Soft Soap, making of, viii, 142 - - Soil, iii, 382; - acid conditions and correction, viii, 346-7; - air in, xiii, 92; - alluvial, xiv, 70-1; - bacteria in, xiii, 98; - clay in, iii, 27-8, xiv, 137; - conservation necessity, 64; - constituents necessary to plants, viii, 341-6, xiv, 64-5, 66-8; - depths of, iii, 26, xiv, 64; - enrichment by nitrogen plants, xiii, 98; - fertilization by lightning, i, 153; - forest protection of, xiv, 379; - formation and nature, iii, 26-8, 32 (illus.), viii, 191, 195, 338-41, - 347, xiv, 63-4, 68-9; - glacial, iii, 67, xiv, 69-70; - holding of, by plant roots, xiii, 19; - liming of, viii, 150, 346-7; - loess (see Loess); - of arid regions, xiii, 381, xiv, 68-9; - rainfall effects on constituents, 69; - residual, iii, 26-7, xiv, 68; - restoration of, viii, 341-6, 347, xiv, 66-8, 69 - (see also Fertilizers); - sewage application to, viii, 327; - traveled, xiv, 63, 69-75; - vegetation determined by, xiii, 382, xiv, 363-4; - volcanic, 69, 329 - (see also Lava Soils); - wind carrying of, i, 53-4, iii, 71, 73-4, xiv, 71-5 - - Soil Water, absorption by plants, xiii, 91-3; - erosive depths, xvi, 173; - plant materials in, ix, 26, 29; - rise of, viii, 37 - (see also Ground Water) - - Solar Apex, ii, 305 - - Solar Constant, iv, 194 - - Solar Day, iv, 16 - - Solar Eclipses, ii, 209-18; - corona seen only in, 219; - death of Domitian announced, 221; - difficulty of observing, 219; - Einstein theory tested by, 81-2; - first accurate prediction, 27; - necessary interval between, ii, 224; - Hally's observations, 87; - Hipparchus's discoveries, 32; - prominences observed in, 179, 180; - records of, in ancient China, 21-2; - restricted areas, 207 - - Solar Engines, ii, 169-70 - - Solar Spectrum, ii, 111-12, 114, iv, 358-9, 362, 365-7; - lines, how produced, ii, 184; - photography, 128 - - Solar Stars, ii, 115; - distance, 353; - distribution, 122, 354; - planetary systems, 252 - - Solar System, bodies and motions, ii, 162-4; - brief description, iii, 158-9; - identity with atomic, vi, 115; - motions accounted for by Newton, ii, 67, 73; - movement toward Hercules, xvi, 124-5; - movement toward Lyra, ii, 122, 137, 305-6; - position in universe, 353-4; - sun as center (see Heliocentric System); - theories of formation, 366-81, iii, 159-63; - unit of measurements, ii, 315 - - Solar Tides, xiv, 292 - - Solder, tin and lead in, viii, 161-2, iv, 161-2 - - Soldering, alloys used for, iv, 161-2 - - Soldier Beetles, rains of larvæ, i, 356 - - Soldiers, asleep on march, xi, 286-7; - crowd psychology in battle, 326-7; - crossing of bridges by bodies of, iv, 225; - fatigue relieved by music, x, 247; - lack of choice in, xi, 260-1; - sense of pain in, 119-20; - shoes of, ix, 69 - - Solenoid, iv, 286-7, vii, 375 - - Solfatara, volcano, v, 180 - - Solidification, expansion on, iv, 149, 150-1, 163; - heat of, 160, 161, 188; - suspended, viii, 113, 304-5 - - Solidism, doctrine of, x, 25-6, 28 - - Solidity, perception of, ix, 119-20, xi, 173-83 - - Solids, chemical properties, viii, 297-301; - distinguished by pressure, iv, 22-3; - elasticity of, 156; - expansion coefficient of, 145; - heat conduction by, 176-7; - heat effects on, 144, 152, viii, 25; - melting of (see Melting); - molecules in, iii, 309, iv, 22, 131, 152, 363, viii, 24; - solutions in water, 112-13; - sound velocity in, iv, 198; - spectra of incandescent, ii, 112, iv, 360, 363; - vibration of, 215 - - Solitaire (bird), xii, 269 - - Solomon, wives of, xv, 289 - - Solomon's Seal, rootstalk, xiii, 22 (fig.) - - Solstices, observed in ancient times, ii, 25-6 - - Solute, defined, viii, 382 - - Solutions, viii, 111; - boiling point and freezing point, 299-30; - chemical reactions in, 37; - colloidal, 314-16; - heat and cold production by, iv, 175; - ionization of, viii, 119-25; - molar, 118-19, 379; - molecular action in, 113, 311; - normal, 119, 379-80; - of gases, liquids and solids in water, 111-13; - osmotic pressure in, 113, 311, xvi, 164; - overheated, viii, 304; - properties of, summarized, 311-12; - specific gravity of, 313; - vapor pressure of, 305 - - Solutrian Implements, xv, 100, 105, 109 - - Solvay Process, viii, 276, 277-8 - - Solvent Action, of water, viii, 111-12; - heat and, 112 - - Solvents, esters as, viii, 221; - water, alcohol and ether, 217 - - Somaliland, antelopes of, xii, 327 - - Somme River, changes in, xiv, 184 - - Somnambulism, xi, 286-7 - - Song Birds, xii, 268-9 - - Songs, primitive, xv, 312-13, 314, 319-21 - - Sonic Wave Transmission, v, 108 - - Sonnblick, St. Elmo's Fire, i, 157, 158 - - Sonora Earthquake, xiv, 334 - - Soot, i, 52; - deposits, 64, 65; - formation of, viii, 45 - - Sophists, Greek, xvi, 87 - - Soranus of Ephesus, x, 26 - - Soreness, muscle, ix, 80-1 - - Sore Throat, cause, x, 253; - from colds, 253; - from infection of tonsils, ix, 187 - - Sorghum Molasses, viii, 243 - - Sori, of plants, xiii, 64, 155 - - Souder, Wilmer H., iv, 237 - - Soul, and body (Hindoo belief), ix, 11-12, 17; - meaning of, xi, 382; - primitive conceptions of, xv, 328-32; - source of vital movement, (Stahl), x, 84; - Thales on universal, xvi, 76; - universal belief in, 44 - - Soule, Samuel W., v, 312 - - Sound, Sounds, analysis and synthesis of, iv, 52, 233-4; - atmospheric effects, i, 187; - audibility, distances and variations in, 187-92; - audibility in rain, 187; - audibility (vibration limits), iv, 204; - colored hearing, xi, 222; - dense atmosphere effects on, iv, 31-2; - distance, how estimated, i, 187; - emotions stirred by different kinds, iv, 51-2; - intensity and loudness, 211-12; - interference of, 218-22; - kinds and qualities, xi, 104-8; - motor response, 103; - "musician" of physics, iv, 50; - perception of, by ear, 203-4, 211-12, ix, 99, 100, 103; - perception of direction and distances by, 117, 121, xi, 167-9; - pitch of, (see Pitch); - production, iv, 195-7, ix, 98; - quality of, iv, 232-5; - resonance, 226-32; - shadows, 236; - simple and compound, 213-17; - transmission, i, 186, iv, 195-201, ix, 98-9; - transmission by water, v, 107, 108; - velocity, i, 186-7, iv, 198-9, 200, 201, vii, 210; - wave theory of, iv, 52; - wind effects on, 210-11 - (see also Acoustics) - - Sounding Balloons, i, 20-1, 382; - heights reached, 22 - - Soundings, ocean, xiv, 23-4, 284 - - Sound-ranging, i, 313; - in World War, 201-2 - - Sound Waves, diffraction of, iv, 52, 236-7; - Doppler's principle, ii, 119, iv, 209-10; - effect on ear, ix, 99, 100, xi, 99-101; - energy, on what dependent, iv, 211; - formation and transmission, 196-201; - frequency and length, 204, 236; - from Krakatoa eruption, i, 188, xiv, 324; - interferences of, iv, 218-19, vii, 279; - interferences in thunder, i, 193; - machine to respond to, v, 331; - mechanical reproduction of, iv, 240; - number, amplitude, and forms, xi, 104-5; - passage through orifices, iv, 236; - photographic records of, 52, 233-4, 237; - power transmission by, v, 107-8; - reflection and refraction of, iv, 236-40; - simple and complex, 213-17; - transmission, i, 186, iv, 196-201, ix, 98-9; - visible, (flashing arcs) i, 194, 372 - - Soups, value of, at meals, ix, 241, x, 320 - - Sour, taste of, ix, 95, xi, 70, 71, 72 - - Sour Disposition, xi, 55 - - Souring, lactic acid in, viii, 223 - - Sourland Mountains, xiv, 111-12 - - Sour Milk, longevity and, xiii, 172 - - Soursops, origin, xiii, 226 - - South Africa, ancient reptiles of, xii, 184; - animals of, 281, 304, 327-8, 345, 348, 360; - bushmen of (see Bushmen); - climate of, xiv, 224; - cobras of, xii, 226, 227; - diamond mines, iii, 328; - duet whirlwinds, i, 60; - glacial and coal deposits, iii, 203, 204; - gold production, 365, 367; - kopjes of, xiv, 82; - no weather maps, i, 230; - rodents of, xii, 289, 290; - spurges, xiii, 28-9; - stock-raising in, xiv, 384 - - South Aldabra, tortoise of, xii, 191 - - South America, animals (herbivora), xii, 275, 276, 282, 283-4, 289, 306, - 313; - animals (carnivora), 342, 360-2, 363, 364; - antiquity of, 282; - birds of, 241, 251, 256, 266; - climate on east and west coasts, xiv, 305; - coasts iii, 57, xiv, 25-6, 247-8, 250, 251; - coasts, coral reefs on, xii, 40; - coffee in, xiii, 232; - drainage systems, xiv, 190; - fish of, xii, 159-60, 166; - former connection with Antarctica, xiv, 290; - former submergence, iii, 216; - indigenous plants, xiv, 382; - meteorological backwardness, i, 218, 230; - monkeys of, xii, 377; - plains of, xiv, 218 - (see also Pampas); - plateaus of, 222; - potato in, xiii, 218; - reptiles, xii, 198, 208; - river connections, xiv, 187; - "scrub" vegetation of, 379; - snakes of, xii, 213, 215-16, 221; - temperate forests of, xiv, 371, 382; - tobacco used by natives, xiii, 256; - west coast harbors, xiv, 265 - - South American Indian, acclimatization of, xiv, 356; - blow gun of, xv, 216, 217 (fig.); - foot-plow of, 236 (fig.); - long bow of, 213 (fig.); - weapons of, 216, 219 - - South Atlantic Ocean, temperature of, xiv, 297 - - South Carolina, tin production, iii, 368 - - South Dakota, bad lands of, xiv, 81 (see Bad Lands); - high temperature, i, 209; - loess deposits, xiv, 72; - "Sunshine State," i, 86; - tin production, iii, 368 - - Southern Cross (stone), xv, 103 - - Southern Forest, (U. S.), xiv, 372-3 - - Southern Hemisphere, climates insular, xiv, 346; - deflection of motion in, i, 125, xiv, 348; - land in, 20; - temperate forests of, 371, 382; - tides in, 292; - winds of, i, 125, 127-8, xiv, 345-6, 348 - - South Pole, rain at, - (see also Antarctica) i, 109 - - South Sea Islanders, xv, 9; - chiefs, how chosen, 364; - ideas of morality, 254; - plaited mats of, 243; - writing venerated by, 164; - words derived from, 161 - - South Sea Islands, atolls of, xii, 41; - snakes absent from, 217 - - Sowerby, James, xvi, 170 - - Spa, Belgium, xiv, 145 - - Space, absolute and relative, ii, 80, iv, 16-17; - æther of (see Æther); - heat transmission through, iv, 180-4; - infinity of, xi, 191, 196; - interplanetary, air absent, i, 186; - perception of, xi, 162-91; - primary concept, iv, 14, 15; - relativity of, xvi, 196-8; - temperature of outer, vi, 270; - time compared with, xi, 192 - - Spadix, of arums, xiii, 188 - - Spain, Arab astronomy in, ii, 38; - buffaloes in, xii, 329; - callina, i, 96; - cattle of, xii, 330; - coast formations, iii, 57, xiv, 46-7, 249, 257; - conquests in America, 310; - Cro-Magnons in, xv, 102; - desiccation of, xiv, 379; - esparto grass, v, 292; - formerly peninsula of Africa, xiv, 291; - lynx of, xii, 365; - metal production, iii, 360, 362, 370, xiv, 237-8; - Moorish science, xvi, 100, 106; - potash deposits, xiv, 68, 209; - Pyrenees Mts., as protection of, 239-40; - rainfall of, 358; - solar eclipses, ii, 215-16; - toads of, xii, 176 - - Spallanzani, Lazaro, x, 88, 139, xv, 114 - - Spalling, of stones, iii, 24 - - Spanish-American War, searchlights at Santiago, iv, 352; - typhoid fever in, x, 286; - weather service in, i, 309 - - Spanish Armada, xiv, 280; - weather importance, i, 307 - - Spanish Bayonet, xiii, 183 - - Spanish Fly, x, 111 - - Spanish Language, descent from Latin, xv, 160, 162 - - Spare Diet, remarks on, xi, 370 - - Spark Gaps, in wireless installations, vii, 263, 264, 271-2, 287 - - Sparking, of electric machines, 375; - potential tables, 383 - - Sparrows, increase in U. S., xv, 21 - - Spathe, of arums, xiii, 188 - - Spawn, of mushrooms, xiii, 164 - - Speaking Trumpets, iv, 239-40 - - Spear-throwers, xv, 212 (fig.), 213 - - Spears, xv, 208-10 - - Specialization, in civilization, xv, 131-2, 203 - - Specializing, in science, x, 43 - - Species, xii, 28, xiii, 170, 329-30; - chromosome numbers in different, ix, 46; - climate effects, on, xvi, 141; - continuity dependent on heredity, xiii, 326; - crossing of (plants), 147; - distribution studies, xvi, 140; - establishment of new, 158; - evolution of, iii, 18, 260-1; - extinction of, 261 (6), 293, xiii, 323; - geological epochs determined by iii, 19; - number in relation to latitude, xiv, 366; - number of plant, xiii, 323; - origin, Darwinian theory, x, 135, xvi, 150-2 - (see also Mutation, Variation, Natural Selection); - permanence theory, xvi, 150; - types and, xiii, 356 - - Specific, technical meaning, iv, 109, 383 - - Specific Density, iv, 111, 112, 113 - - Specific Diseases, x, 196 - - Specific Gravity, iv, 109, viii, 381; - atomic weight and, 313; - discovery by Archimedes, xvi, 89; - methods of determining, iv, 111-13; - mineral identification by, iii, 321-41, viii, 202-3, 313; - of earth, xiv, 11; - of metals (table), viii, 384; - of solutions, 296, 813; - of various substances, iv, 109-10 - (see also Density) - - Specific Heat, iv, 109, 155-6, viii, 308-9, 382; - of water, 37 - - Specific Nerve Energy, doctrine of, x, 118 - - Specifics, medicinal, x, 49-50, 75 - - Specter of Brocken, i, 184-5, 382 - - Spectral Types (stars), ii, 115-18, 307-10; - absolute magnitudes and, 317; - binary periods and, 310, 334; - of star clusters, 343-4; - of star streams, 347, 348; - planetary systems and, 252; - solar apex and, 305-6; - speed of, 153 - - Spectrobolometer, ii, 128, 186 - - Spectrographs, at Mt. Wilson, ii, 154-5 - - Spectroheliograph, ii, 129, 183; - in work on sun, 176, 179; - of Mt. Wilson, 148, 154 - - Spectroscope, ii, 111, viii, 301; - astronomical applications, ii, 17-18, 112-24, 181; - chemical analysis by, viii, 301-2 - - Spectroscopic Binaries, ii, 122-4 - - Spectroscopic Parallaxes, ii, 153 - - Spectrum, Spectra, colors and lines of, ii, 111-12, 113, iv, 358-63, - 365-7; - displacement of lines, ii, 119, 120, 121; - displacement of lines to test Einstein theory, 82; - intensity of lines, 124; - interceptions by atmospheric ozone, i, 16; - of airlight, ii, 181; - of aurora, i, 161; - of alkali metals, viii, 133, 147, 301; - of chemical elements, 183, 301-2; - of nebulæ, ii, 357, 359; - of new stars, 332-333; - of stars, 115-18, 119, 123; - of suns' corona, 211, 212, 223, 225; - of sun-spots, 177; - of vapors in magnetic field, 178; - of variable stars, 325, 326, 329; - used in measuring star distances, 153-4, 318; - X-ray, viii, 183, 309 - (see also Solar Spectrum) - - Spectrum Analysis, ii, 113-24, viii, 301-2; - discovered by Kirchhoff, ii, 17 - - Spectrum Colors, eye receptors of, xi, 89-90 - - Speculum, defined, vi, 102 - - Speech, advantages over sign language, xv, 151-2; - dense atmosphere effects on, iv, 32; - emphasis importance in, xv, 144-5; - evolution of, 152-4; - physical factors of, ix, 83; - power of, in man and animals, xv, 68, 91, 141 - - Speech Organs, tendency to respond to sound, xi, 103 - - Speed, perception of, xi, 165 (see Velocity) - - Speed Boats, vi, 192 - - Spelling, English, xv, 176-8 - - Spencer, Herbert, evolution taught by, x, 136; - on education, 282, 284; - on evolution, xvi, 152; - on origin of priests, xv, 350; - on relativity of knowledge, xvi, 195-6 - - Spermaceti, xii, 299 - - Spermatozoön, origin of energy, xvi, 145 - - Sperm Cells, production and development of, ix, 332-3, 335, 339 - - Sperm-Whale, xii, 298-9 - - Sperry, Elmer A., v, 343 - - Sphagnum Moss, xiii, 69, 160-3, 166 - - Sphalerite, iii, 339, 363, 364 - - Sphincter Muscles, ix, 85; - fear effects on, xi, 132; - of stomach, ix, 231, 232, 233, 234, 236-8; - operation, xi, 37-9 - - Sphinx, erosion of, iii, 73 - - Spice Bush, xiii, 196, 351 - - Spices, xiii, 259-65; - effects on stomach, ix, 243-4; - food value, viii, 366; - in preserving, 372; - sensation from, ix, 98 - - Spiders, xii, 90-7 - - Spiegeleisen, v, 320 - - Spike, flower form, xiii, 50; - of grasses, 181 - - Spinach, origin, xiii, 223-4 - - Spinal Column, ix, 64 (fig.), 65; - in infants, xv, 81; - in man and apes, 57-8; - in vertebrates, 55-6; - ligaments of, ix, 71; - notochord of, xii, 128 - - Spinal Cord, ix, 131, 133 (fig.), xi, 25-7; - inflammations, cause of, x, 224; - medulla of xi, 28; - nerve connections through, ix, 130 (fig.); - neurones, xi, 21 - - Spinal Nerves, ix, 131-2, xi, 25-6 - - Spindles, ancient, xv, 244, 245 (fig.) - - Spine, tuberculosis of, x, 92 - - Spinning, by Lake Dwellers, v, 14; - historical development of, xv, 243-4, 246 - - Spinning Jenny, invention, xv, 246 - - Spinning Machines, v, 273, 274-6, 376, 378 - - Spinning Wheels, v, 268, 273, 274; - development of, xv, 244 - - Spinosa, philosophy of, xvi, 117 - - Spinosity, in animals, iii, 277 - - Spiral Gears, v, 38-9 - - Spiral Hypothesis (see Planetesimal Hypothesis) - - Spiral Nebulæ, ii, 361-5; - discovery, 17, 106, 186, 380; - distances, 124; - distribution, 355, 356; - globular clusters and, 337; - Jeans on origin, 378; - new stars in, 333; - new universes, 381; - origin, planetesimal theory, 372-4, iii, 160-2; - star streaming and, ii, 348-9; - studies at Mt. Wilson, 157-8; - transition from nebula to star, 136 - - Spirilli (bacteria), x, 195 - - Spirits, savage belief in, xv, 331, 332, 337-40, 348-9, 350, 358 - - Spirits of Wine, viii, 213-14 - - Spirometer, x, 339 - - Spitball, effectiveness of, iv, 69 - - Spitting, indiscriminate, x, 291 - - Spitting Adders, xii, 227 - - Spitzbergen, coal deposits, i, 199; - flora of, xiii, 341-2; - ice-caps of, iii, 61 - - Splanchnic Nerve, xi, 273 - - Spleen, functions of, ix, 184, 275 - - Split-Phase Starters, vi, 250 - - Spoken Language, evolution of, xv, 152-4 - - Sponges, iii, 259, 266, xii, 23, 30-2 - - Spongin, xii, 31 - - Spontaneous Combustion, viii, 55-6 - - Spontaneous Generation, x, 139; - history of doctrine, xvi, 114; - origin of life by, xii, 10 - - Spoonbills, xii, 151, 256 - - Sporangia, xiii, 155 - - Spore-habit, relics in cycads and ginkgo tree, xiii, 309, 316 - - Spores, xiii, 64; - dispersal by winds, 344; - fermentation by, viii, 248; - in atmosphere, i, 61; - of anthrax bacillus, x, 149; - of ferns, xiii, 155-7, 159, 160; - of moss, 69, 162; - of mushrooms, 163, 164 - - Sporogony, x, 159 - - Sports (mutants), ix, 342, xiii, 333-4 - - Sporulation, x, 155 - - Spotted Fever, cause of, xii, 98 - - Sprague, F. J., vi, 26 - - Spring, frosts, i, 257-8; - rate of advance in U. S., i, 256 - - Spring Balance, iv, 58-9, 102 - - Springboks, xii, 327 - - Springhaas, xii, 289 - - Springs, iii, 116-17, xiv, 137-9; - drying of, 136; - fissure, 138, 152; - fluctuations and constancy, 152; - forests and, 379; - Havana water supply from, 140; - hillside, 137-8; - in river formation, 175-6; - in western canyons, iii, 116; - "juvenile," xiv, 151-2; - lacking in clay soils, 137; - mineral matter in, viii, 195 - (see also Hot Springs, Mineral springs) - - Springs (mechanics), air-cushioning of, v, 134; - energy of, iv, 82, 87-8; - pneumatic, v, 126; - storage of energy in, 126 - - Spring-tails, xii, 104 - - Spring Tides, ii, 70, xiv, 292 - - Spruce, traveler, i, 352 - - Spruce Forests, xiii, 367-8; - in relation to winds, 149 - - Spruce Trees, dominance in north, xiii, 350; - in northern forests, xiv, 372, 374; - nativity, xiii, 244; - paper pulp from v, 292, 293, xiii, 10, 234, 244; - planting conditions, 270; - polycotyledons, 61; - roots, 17 - (see also Conifers) - - Sprudel Spring, xiv, 152 - - Spur Gears, v, 29 - - Spurges, antiquity, xiii, 324-5; - South Africa, 355, 379; - rubber from, 249; - stems, 28-9, 30-1 - - Sputum, tuberculosis spread by, x, 291, 292, 293-4 - - Squalls, i, 382 - - Squash, origin, xiii, 224 - - Squaw Winter, i, 361, 382 - - Squids, xii, 79-80; - deep sea, 23; - phosphorescence of, 20; - whales and, 299 - - Squirrel-cage Induction Motors, vi, 245; - on farms, vii, 224 - - Squirrels, xii, 291-4; - antiquity of, 286; - arboreal habits, 285; - man's lesson from, xv, 206; - storing of fruits by, xiii, 56, 340; - sugar, xii, 278 - - Stabilizers, gyroscopic, v, 341-2 - - Staffa, hexagonal columns of, xiv, 129, 130 - - Stags, xii, 317; - age of, xv, 100 (fig.) - - Stahl, George Ernst, x, 84-5, 301 - - Stained-glass Windows, preparation of designs for, iv, 342 - - Stalactites and Stalagmites, iii, 127, viii, 151, xiv, 148; - rate of formation, xv, 79-80 - - Stalks, of plants, xiii, 27 - - Stalling, of motors, v, 157 - - Stamens, xiii, 45, 46; - arrangement in various flowers, 123-46, 181-207; - in grasses, 182; - of highly cultivated plants, 51; - in reproduction, 117, 119, 120, 121, 122 - - Staminate Flowers, xiii, 46-7 - - Stamping, of feet, in excitement, xi, 356 - - Standard, of flowers, xiii, 47-8 - - Standard Barometer, iv, 119-23 - - Standardization, in manufactures, v, 48-52, 53-4, 55-6 - - Standing, correct posture in, ix, 57, x, 305; - heart beat in, ix, 207 - - Stanley, Henry M., African trip, xiii, 359, 361 - - Staphylococci, x, 195 - - Star Anise, origin, xiii, 255 - - Star Apples, origin, xiii, 227 - - Starch, composition and properties, viii, 227-8; - digestion of, 357, ix, 230, 235, 242, 292, x, 270, 326, 330; - fermentation, viii, 225, 248, 249; - food value, 365, ix, 300, x, 259, 262, 269, 271 - (see also - Carbohydrates); - food amounts in ordinary diet, ix, 290, 300-1; - foods for infants, 346; - glucose production from, viii, 225, 228, 241, 243-4; - iodine effects, 228, 294; - made from rice, xiii, 213; - making of, by plants, viii, 335, 349, ix, 27-8, 28-9, xiii, 79, 80, - 83-4, xiv, 65; - manufacture and uses, viii, 243; - tastelessness of, 366 - - Star Charts and Catalogues, ii, 298-9, 300-3; - early, 29, 31, 34, 39, 45, xvi, 90, - (see also Draper Catalogue) - - Star Classification, by color, ii, 296-8; - by giant and dwarf theory, 309; - by magnitude, 295-6, 297; - by spectra, 115-18, 307-10; - by temperature changes, 309-10 - - Star Clouds, ii, 357-60 - - Star Clusters, ii, 122, 336-40; - moving, 341-4; - nebulæ and, 357; - photography of, 136 - - Star Distances, ii, 311-18; - ancient ideas, 28, 350; - brightness in relation to, 322; - first measurement, 16; - methods of measuring, 124, 153, 311-13, 316-18; - of Galaxy, 355; - of globular clusters, 337, 338-9, 340; - of nebulæ, 358; - of spiral nebulæ, 363; - of Sirians and Solars, 122, 353; - unit of measurement, 315-16, xvi, 33-4 - - Star Distribution, ancient and modern conceptions, ii, 350, 352-3; - Galaxy as basis, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 364-5; - globular clusters, 338, 339 - - Starfishes, iii, 259, 268, 269, 270, xii, 49-50 - - Star Flowers, xiii, 203 - - Starling, Prof., quoted, xi, 154, 182; - secretin discovery, x, 325 - - Stars, aberration orbits, ii, 90-1, 92; - actual dimensions, 321-4; - angular diameters, 150-1; - brightness (see Magnitude of Stars); - Classification (see Star Classification); - constitution, 382-3; - constitution determined by spectra, 17, 113, 114-18; - distances (see Star Distances); - distribution (see Star Distribution); - evolution order, 116-17, 308-9, 310, 383; - evolution seen in spiral nebulæ, 362; - giant and dwarf, 153, 294, 309, 310, 382-4; - light, 296, 16; - light-intensity, vi, 272; - light of, in space, iv, 334; - magnetism, ii, 178; - magnitudes (see Magnitude of Stars); - motions (see Motus Peculiaris, Proper Motion, Star Streams); - multiple, 335; - naming of, 302-3; - nearest, 319-20; - nebulæ and, 308-9, 365, 381; - nebulous, 360; - new or temporary (see Novae); - number, 294-5; - origin, Jeans on, 378-9; - parallax (see Parallax); - photography in study of, 135, 137; - planets of, 252-3; - radiant energy, 384; - radiative equilibrium, 383-4; - right ascension and declination, 299, 305; - spectral type, 115-18, 307-10; - spectra affected by atmospheric ozone, i, 16; - transit measurement by eye-and-ear method, xi, 155-6; - twinkling, to what due, i, 174; - universe of, ii, 294-9; - variable (see Variable Stars); - worship in ancient Egypt, 24; - why unseen by day, i, 164 - - Star Streaming, ii, 306, 317, 345, 347; - Jeans on origin, 378 - - Star Streams, ii, 345-9; - nearest stars in, 320 - - Starters, automobile, vii, 120, 127, 135, 142-8; - of motors, vi, 236-9, 250-5, 262-3 - - Starvation, x, 275; - diabetes treatment by, ix, 294; - sense of hunger in, 88; - waste of tissues in, 297-8; - weight reduction by, 302 - - Stassfurt Deposits, viii, 196, 278-9, 344, xiv, 67, 209 - - States of Aggregation, iv, 22 - - States of Matter (see Physical State) - - Static, technical meaning, iv, 383 - - Static, in wireless (see Strays) - - Static Breeze, vii, 238-9 - - Static Electricity, iv, 259, vi, 284-305, vii, 375; - lightning as, 205, 206, 207-9 - - Static Generators, vii, 245 - - Static Induction Machine, vii, 236 - - Static Sense, xi, 126 - - Statics, defined, iv, 25, 383; - early development of, 25, 27 - - Stationary Waves, iv, 217 - - Statue of Liberty, lighting, vi, 283 - - Statues, coloring of, xv, 300, 302; - primitive, 118, 120 - - Stature, artificial selection, xvi, 154, 157; - in relation to food, xiii, 172; - of various European groups, xvi, 48, 49; - of various races, xv, 38-9; - rate of growth in man, ix, 32 (diagram) - - Steam, density of, iv, 113; - dry and wet, v, 140; - exhaust, vi, 355; - invisibility of true, i, 90; - latent heat of, iv, 188, v, 354, viii, 38; - saturated and superheated, v, 140; - saturated, pressure of, iv, 168; - specific heat of, 155, 187; - specific heat ratio, iv, 156; - use in engine and turbine, v, 142 - - Steamboats, early, v, 189-90, 192, 377; - early dangers, i, 49-50 - - Steam Boilers (see Boilers) - - Steam Carriages, v, 207-8, 212 - - Steam Electric Plants, vi, 351, 353-61; - size of generating units, 378-9 - - Steam Engines, efficiency, on what dependent, iv, 192; - estimate of work of, 193-4; - history and principles, v, 139-48, 376; - in power plants, vi, 354-5, 357-8; - invention and consequences, xvi, 125, 126; - origin in kitchen, v, 109; - reciprocating compared with turbine, 152-4; - starting of, vi, 235; - temperature and pressures in, v, 139-40; - waste of heat energy, 155; - Watt's, 44, 47, 144-6, 376, 377 - - Steam Hammer, invention, xvi, 175; - Nasmyth's, v, 379 - - Steam Heat, dryness of air from, xiv, 353 - - Steam Heating System, iv, 186-7, xiv, 353 - - Steam Navigation, development, v, 189-90, 192-4 - - Steam Power, disadvantages in mining, v, 128-9; - from subterranean heat, 180-1; - from sun's heat, 177-8; - from volcanoes, 179-80; - waste of heat energy, 155 - - Steam Reserve, of power plants, vi, 367 - - Steamships, development of ocean, v, 192-4, 378; - glass-enclosed machinery, vi, 175; - propellers (see Propellers); - speed, power and lines, v, 191-2; - turbines on, 105, 153 - (see also Ocean Steamers) - - Steam Shovels, v, 252-3, 262 - - Steam Traction, beginnings, v, 207-8, 212 - - Steam Turbines, v, 148-54, 382, vi, 354-5; - connection with ship propellers, v, 105-6, 153-4, vii, 329-30; - efficiency, v, 155, 172; - Hero's, xvi, 92, 93; - most efficient speed, vii, 329; - speed-limiting device, 49; - use of steam in, v, 142 - - Stearic Acid, viii, 220, 221, 350 - - Stearin, glycerine from, viii, 247 - - Steatite, iii, 339 - - Stebbins, astronomer, ii, 212, 328 - - Steel, alloys of, xiv, 238; - composition and properties, viii, 159-60; - cutting of, vii, 321; - elasticity of, iv, 36; - expansion by heat, 145, v, 71; - magnetism of, iv, 245, 251, vi, 36-8; - purification in electric furnaces, vii, 304; - structure of hard and soft, iv, 37; - silicon in, viii, 90 - (see also Steel Making) - - Steel Engravings, by electrotype, vii, 314 - - Steel Making, v, 319-25, 380, 383, viii, 159-60, 273, xvi, 174-5; - electric furnace in, vii, 301, 305, 312; - phosphorus obtained from, viii, 345 - - Steel Mills, electromagnets in, vi, 35, 86; - great motors, 228-9; - rise of body temperature in, ix, 317 - - Steel Rails, electric furnace steel for, vii, 312; - expansion by heat, iv, 134; - friction, v, 204, 206; - manufacture, 322-3 - - Steel Shipments, meteorology in, i, 269 - - Steel Ships, v, 195; - compass variations in, iv, 254, v, 340, vi, 42 - - Steel Structures, electrolytic corrosion, vi, 64-6; - in earthquakes, xiv, 343 - - Steel Tracks, for trucks, v, 206-7 - - Steenheil, K. A., xvi, 191 - - Stegocephalia, xii, 168 - - Stegosaurs, iii, 289-90 - - Steinboks, xii, 326, 327 - - Steinmetz, C. P., vi, 26 - - Stejneger, Dr. Leonard, xii, 226, 234 - - Stems of Plants, xiii, 22-32; - acting as leaves, 28-31, 378, 379; - chlorophyll in, ix, 26; - of grasses and sedges, xiii, 179, 182 (fig.), 183; - purposes, 61; - response to light, 85; - roots from injured, 19; - starch and sugar storage in, ix, 27-8; - upheld by osmotic pressure, xiii, 94; - violets without, 15 - - Stenotype, v, 313 - - Step-down Transformers, vi, 310 - - Step Faults, xiv, 116 - - Stephenson, George, locomotive, v, 208, 377, 378 - - Stephenson, Robert, link motion, v, 208-10, 379 - - Steppes of Russia, grasslands, xiii, 181, 373, xiv, 381; - impossibility of forests, xiii, 349; - wind-fertilized vegetation, 149 - - Step-up Transformers, vi, 309 - - Stereopticon, iv, 341-2 - - Stereoscope, xi, 177-81; - depth impressions by, ix, 120; - in lightning study, i, 148; - in photographic map-making, i, 45-6 - - Stereoscopic Wind Maps, i, 230, 231, 233 - - Stereotyping, v, 302-3, 383 - - Sterilization, by heat, viii, 371-2; - by ozone, vii, 354; - by X-rays, 257 - - Sterilized Milk, vitamines in, x, 262 - - Sterling Silver, viii, 171 - - Sternoptychidæ, xii, 23 - - Sterols, viii, 350 - - Stethoscope, ix, 205; - discovery and use of, x, 108-10, 112, 371 - - Stevens, Col. John, steamboat, v, 189 - - Stevenson-Huntington, on crocodiles, xii, 199-200 - - Stevin, Simon, xvi, 103-4, 109 - - Sthenic Disease, x, 89 - - Stichwort, in pink family, xiii, 195 - - Stinging Cells, xii, 33, 36 - - Stigma of Flowers, xiii, 46, 118, 119, 147 - - Stigmata, hypnotic production of, xi, 317 - - Stiles, Dr. Percy, on emotions, xi, 137-9; - on hypnotism, 322; - on nutrition and mentality, 369-70; - on suppression of emotions, 140-1 - - Stiles, Prof., on malarial parasites, x, 159 - - Still Engine, v, 165-70 - - Stills, apparatus of, viii, 250 - - Stimuli, Stimulations, ix, 78; - common response to varying, xi, 22-3; - law of consciousness of, 27-8; - law of summation, 21-2 - - Stipe, of mushrooms, xiii, 163 - - Stipules, xiii, 34, 35 (fig.) - - Stirling, Rev. Robert, xvi, 174 - - Stoats, xii, 349 - - Stock-raising, on grasslands, xiv, 383-4 - - Stocks (geological), xiv, 110 - - Stoics, definition of thought, xi, 228; - fatalistic logic, 240; - principle of reason, 228, 233-4; - suppression of emotions, 140 - - Stokers, automatic, v, 211-12, vi, 354, viii, 46 - - Stokes, William, x, 112; - ether theory, xvi, 137 - - Stoma, of leaves, xiii, 78, 82, 103, 109 - - Stomach, action of, ix, 230-8; - action in hunger, ix, 88, 231, xi, 65-6, 123, 124; - adjustment to meals, ix, 85; - bacteria, few in, x, 201; - brain and, xi, 370; - condition between meals, ix, 230-1; - control of action of, 163; - disorders of, 238-41, x, 321-5; - emotion effects on, ix, 165, 166, 241, xi, 135, 137; - food absorption from, ix, 243-4; - form and position, 233 (fig.), x, 321; - functions in digestive process, viii, 356-7, 358, ix, 232, 234-6, x, - 319-21; - functions in maintenance of life, ix, 21-3; - habit in functioning of, 251; - in infants, 346; - muscles of, ix, 74, 85, 160-1, 162; - nervous connections of, 164-5; - position in circulatory system, ix, 198; - smell effects, xi, 69; - supporting framework, ix, 71; - ulcer of, cause, x, 224; - worry effects on, ix, 165; - X-ray examination of, x, 373 - - Stomach Catarrh, x, 253 - - Stomiatidæ, xii, 23 - - Stone, Cheselden's operation for, x, 92; - Oath of Hippocrates on, 19 - - Stone Age, agriculture, xiii, 209, 210; - bow and arrow in, xv, 214; - end of in Europe, xvi, 50; - fire uses in, xv, 229; - tools of, v, 13, 14, xvi, 47 - (see Eolithic, Neolithic, Paleolithic Periods) - - Stone Axes, primitive, xv, 192 (fig.) - - Stone Buttons, xvi, 29 - - Stonehenge, xv, 271-2; - solstitial orientation at, ii, 26 - - Stone Flies, xii, 106 - - Stone Lilies, iii, 268-70, 256 (Pl. 14) - - Stone Meteorites, ii, 291, 292 - - Stone Mountain, exfoliation on, iii, 24 - - Stone Pestles, xv, 238 - - Stone Structures, ancient, xv, 269-72 - - Stones, art of breaking, v, 12; - breaking of, by freezing water, iv, 150-1; - cutting in ancient Egypt, xvi, 67 - - Stone Tools, beginning of, v, 11, 12-14; - evolution of, xv, 102-10 - - Stone Walls, cleaned by air jets, v, 185-6 - - Stoney, on planetary atmospheres, ii, 231-2 - - Storage Batteries, iv, 298-300, vi, 130, 144-51, vii, 375; - care in automobiles, vii, 121, 144; - charging of, vi, 331, 332, 333; - chemical action in, viii, 167-9; - in farm plants, vii, 233 - - Storage Battery Reserves, in power plants, vi, 382-3 - - Storks, xii, 254, 255 - - Storm Cards, i, 279, 382 - - Storm Signals, i, 282-3 - - Storms, i, 134-9; - electrification by, vii, 212-13; - height in atmosphere, i, 17; - prediction of, 239, vii, 218; - rainfall of, 110-11; - wave power in, xiv, 299-300, 303 - (see also Cyclones, Hurricanes, Thunderstorms) - - Storm Waters, i, 382; - in sewage systems, viii, 324 - - Stormy Petrels, xii, 252 - - Storm Weather, business effects, i, 264 - - Stove Blacking, graphite in, viii, 43 - - Strabo, geography of, xiv, 3, xvi, 98; - on Vesuvius, xiv, 313 - - Strata, elastic, iv, 82, 157, 158 - - Strain Sensations, xi, 124; - in time estimation, 195-6 - - Straits of Calais, tidal basin, v, 176 - - Strangulation, effect on blood color, ix, 261 - - Strata, Stratified Rocks, iii, 382-3; - ages, how determined, 17-19; - formation of, 13, 54; - land forms in, 139-40, xiv, 80-99; - oldest by planetesimal theory, iii, 163; - significance of, 12; - thickness in folded mountains, 132, xiv, 228-9; - thickness of series, iii, 17 - (see also Sedimentary Rock) - - Stratiography, defined, iii, 383 - - Stratosphere, i, 20, 382 - (see also Upper Air) - - Stratus Clouds, i, 98, 102-3, 103 - - Strawberry, fertilization, xiii, 139-40; - fruit, 59; - in rose family, 197; - origin, 227; - poisoning from, x, 212; - production of new plants, xiii, 166 - - Strays, wireless disturbances, i, 162-3, 382 - - Stream Gravels, precious stones in, iii, 327, 328 - (see also Placer Deposits) - - Stream-line Construction, v, 236 - - Stream Piracy, iii, 38-9, xiv, 177-83 - - Street Cars, reading on, xi, 373-4 - - Street Cleaners, vacuum, v, 137 - - Street Fakers, crowd psychology and, xi, 328 - - Street Lighting, vi, 278-9 - - Street Railways, air-propulsion in, v, 133; - electric, vii, 180-93, 197; - underground wires, 11-14 - (see also Electric Traction) - - Streptococci, x, 195, 221 - - Stress, elastic, iv, 157, 158 - - Streubel, Prof, Ernest J., author Electricity, Vol. vi, vii - - Striated Rock, xiv, 56 - - Strikes, crowd psychology in, xi, 330 - - Stringed Instruments, development of, xv, 317-18 - - Strings, vibration of, iv, 216-17, 222-3 - - Stromboli, xiv, 314, 317, 321 - - Strombus Gigas, xii, 74 - - Strontium, affinity strength, viii, 128; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - flame color, 301; - in calcium group, 148; - specific gravity, 384; - test for, 287, 289 - - Structural Topography, xiv, 94 - - Structure, geological, iii, 383 - - Struggle for Dominance, in plants, xiii, 337-8, 348-50, 354, 375 - - Struggle for Existence, xv, 21-2; - among plants, xiii, 11, 21-2, 27-8, 32, 38-9, 87, 365, xvi, 167; - Darwinian theory, xvi, 150-1; - emotions developed by, xi, 138; - in inanimate institutions, xv, 29; - in man, 25-6, 27; - in tropical forests, xiv, 367 - - Struve, astronomer, ii, 312, 313 - - Strychnine, action on nervous system, ix, 132-3; - an alkaloid, viii, 240 - - Strychnos Apple, origin, xiii, 227 - - Stubbornness, muscular tenseness and, xi, 372 - - Stuber, Dr., vi, 15 - - Stuffiness, cause of, i, 321 - - Stuffing Box Packing, v, 99 - - Sturgeons, xii, 151-2 - - Style, of flowers, xiii, 46; - in grasses, 182; - in plant reproduction, 118, 119, 134, 135, 140, 141 - - Styria, hail shooting, i, 341, 342 - - Subærial Agents, of rock destruction, xiv, 47-79 - - Sub-Atomic Energy, Eddington on, ii, 384 - (see also Atomic Energy) - - Subconscious Mind, xi, 47; in dreams, x, 364, 365, xi, 294-5, 290-300; - evasions of consciousness, 300, 305-6; - in learning, 212-13, 214; - in reasoning, 244-6; - repressed ideas in, x, 355-6, 361, xi, 350-1; - revealed in smiles, 357; - work retarded by fear, 212-13, 214 - (see also Autosuggestion, Suppressions) - - Submachine Gun, v, 367-8 - - Submarine Bells, i, 191 - - Submarines, iv, 105-7, v, 195-202; - Diesel engines in, 162; - gyro-compasses of, iv, 254, v, 340; - Holland and Lake, 382; - motors used, vi, 239; - photographic spotting of, in World War, i, 47 - - Submarine Torpedoes, v, 373-4; - gyroscopes in, 340 - - Submerged Object photographic discovery of, i, 47-8 - - Submerged Plants, fertilization, xiii, 149-52 - - Submerged Rocks, aerial mapping of, 47 - - Submergence, Coasts of, iii, 37-8, 57, xiv, 253, 255-62 - - Subsequent Streams, xiv, 159, 174 - - Subsidence of Land, coasts resulting from, iii, 37-8, 57, xiv, 253, - 255-62; - during Ice Age, iii, 80; - effect on streams, xiv, 40, 163-4; - in relation to coal formation, iii, 199; - of ocean bottom, 83, 168, 206; - various instances of, 78, 79, 80-2, 133, 225 - (see also Level Changes) - - Substantive Variations, xvi, 155 - - Subsurface Conditions, exploration of, v, 262-3 - - Subways, Beach's pneumatic, v, 138 - - Subway Train Systems, vii, 197-8 - - Succession, association by, xi, 197 - - Sucking, mouth deformities from habit of, x, 314; - reflex in infants, ix, 349 - - Sucrose, viii, 226, 242 - (see Cane Sugar) - - Suction, due to atmospheric pressure, i, 25, v, 112; - work by so-called, 137 - - Suction Dredge, v, 257-9 - - Suction Pump, iv, 126, v, 112-13; - atmospheric pressure in, i, 25; - early ideas of, iv, 26-7 - - Sudbury, Ontario, nickel of, xiv, 238 - - Suess, Prof. coast classification of, xiv, 247; - on North Atlantic Ocean, 290 - - Suez Canal, tropical disease control at, xiv, 356 - - Sugar, calories in, ix, 299; - chemical structure and properties, viii, 225-7, 309-10, ix, 26; - digestion and absorption of, viii, 227, 356, ix, 230, 243, 290-4, x, - 270; - fermentation of, viii, 213-14, 227, 248, 249; - fermentation in intestines, ix, 248; - food value and requirements, viii, 227, 364-5, 366, ix, 27, 289-90, - 300-1, x, 256, 269, 273 - (see also Carbohydrates); - history of use, viii, 227, xiii, 215; - in blood, cause of excess, x, 330; - in blood, liver action on, 329; - in blood, regulation of, ix, 290-3, x, 329, 330; - in blood, increase in excitement, 293, xi, 138; - in fruits, viii, 365; - in urine, ix, 292-4, x, 330, 343; - in various foods, ix, 300; - kinds and sources, viii, 225-7, 242-3, ix, 230, xiii, 214-16; - making and storage of, by plants, ix, 26-9, xiii, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, - 214, xiv, 65; - maltose as substitute, viii, 243; - manufacture of, iv, 170; - preserving by, viii, 372; - production, 242-3; - produced artificially, xvi, 142; - respiratory quotient with, x, 270; - "showers", i, 357; - taste sensations, xi, 71-2; - testing of, by polarized light, iv, 355-6; - vanilla from, xiii, 259 - (see also Beet Sugar, Cane Sugar, Maple Sugar) - - Sugar Beet, xiii, 214, 216; - extraction method, viii, 242 - (see also Beet Sugar) - - Sugar Cane, xiii, 214-15; - ancestral home, 221; - economic importance, 208; - in grass family, 179, 181-2; - growth and structure, 26; - a monocotyledon, 178; - stem, 183; - sugar extraction from, viii, 242; - sugar in stems of, ix, 27-8 - (see also Cane Sugar) - - Sugar Growing, in Hawaii, v, 291 - - Sugar Maple, viii, 242-3; - as forest tree, viii, 86; - as source of sugar, 214 - - Sugar Pine, in Pacific forests, xiv, 374 - - Sugar Refineries, potash residues, viii, 344 - - Sugar Squirrel, xii, 278 - - Sugar Tongs, as levers, v, 24 - - Suggestion, Suggestibility, xi, 303-10; - in advertising, 347; - in crowds, 324-31; - hypnotism as, 311, 313-14, 316, 317-22; - outgoing reaction, 56; - psychoanalytical uses of, x, 363-4 - - Sulphate Group, viii, 93; - valence of, 94 - - Sulphates, viii, 76; - formation of, 80, 83, 118; - metal occurrence in, 130; - test of, 285, 287, 290; - in urine, x, 343 - - Sulphide Ores, viii, 76, 77, 130, 198; - extraction of metals from, 131, 270-1, 271-2 - - Sulphite Pulp, v, 292, 293-4 - - Sulphites, test, viii, 290 - - Sulphonic Acids, viii, 236, 237 - - Sulphur, viii, 76-7; - axis ratio, iii, 317; - combustion of, viii, 11-12, 13, 57; - compounds, 18, 77-83; - electrification of, iv, 257, 259, vi, 12; - energy in native, viii, 268; - ignition of, viii, 53; - in body tissues, 354; - in coal, 118; - in gunpowder, 145; - in iron ore, iii, 356; - in ores, viii, 77, 131, 270-1; - in proteins, 351; - in rubber making, 257-8; - in steel, removal of, v, 320; - melting requirements, iv, 162; - occurrence in nature, iii, 339, viii, 19, 76, 118, 193, 198; - odor of, iv, 131; - plants uses of, viii, 337, ix, 29; - presence in minerals, how determined, viii, 201; - silver tarnished by, 13, 77, 171; - uses, iii, 339, viii, 77; - valences of, 94 - - Sulphur Dioxide, viii, 78 - - Sulphur Showers, i, 61, 355, 359 - - Sulphur Springs, viii, 77, xiv, 144 - - Sulphur Trioxide, viii, 78, 79, 80-2; - affinity for water, 101 - - Sulphuric Acid, viii, 79-83; - action on cellulose, 255; - formation in body, x, 280; - industrial importance, viii, 76, 78-91, 141, 275; - molecular weight, 92; - normal, 119; - production, 81-2, 275, viii, 198; - salts from, 83, 116; - solubility, 112; - strength, 115; - used in electric batteries, vi, 58-9, 131-4; - atomic weight and symbol, viii, 383; - production by electrolysis, 125; - production, iron pyrites used, iii, 336, viii, 167-9; - use in explosives, 80; - used in hydrogen preparation, 32-3; - use in vacuum refrigeration, v, 355 - - Sulphurous Acid, viii, 78, 115 - - Sumac, family of, xiii, 200 - - Sumatra, apes of, xii, 381-3; - cocoanut gathering, 378; - continental island, xiv, 274; - giant flower of, xiii, 363-4; - rhinoceros of, xii, 306; - tobacco production, xiii, 258 - - Sumatran Earthquake, "offsets" from, xiv, 335 - - Summation, Law of, xi, 21-2 - - Summer, efficiency in, i, 323; - historic cold, i, 359-61, 361-2; - hot or cool, how determined, xiv, 350; - hot in America, i, 323; - Indian, 361-2, 363; - land and sea winds in, xiv, 346; - regularity, i, 361-2 - - Summer Clothing, materials for, ix, 312 - - Summer-Day, temperature, i, 205, 382 - - Summer Forests, xiii, 368 - - Sun, ii, 165-73; - Anne Bradstreet on, 19; - atmosphere, i, 10, ii, 184-5, 225; - atmosphere, heat absorption by, ii, 170; - atmosphere, spectrum analysis of, iv, 362; - atmospheric displacement of, iv, 327-8; - axis direction, ii, 175; - "backstays," i, 169, 367; - center of solar system (see Heliocentric System); - chemical composition, ii, 113, 114, 128, 185, 211, viii, 302; - chromosphere, ii, 183, 184; - corona, ii, 184, 219-26 - (see Corona of Sun); - comet tails and, 277, 278; - coronas (atmospheric), i, 183; - corpuscles from, in upper air, 144, 146, 158, 159, 160; - crepuscular rays, 169; - distance, early ideas, ii, 32, 83, 84; - distance, how obtained, 27-9, 91-2, 121, 129, 132, 166-7, 191, 263; - distance measured by Richer, 59; - disturbances affecting earth's magnetism, vi, 40; - disturbances in relation to aurora, i, 160, 161; - "drawing water," 169, 382; - eclipses (see Solar Eclipses); - electromagnetic waves from, vii, 260; - electrons shot off by, i, 144, 146; - erratic amplitude, ii, 25; - faculae, 176, 182; - goal and quit, 305; - "green and red flashes," i, 170-1; - habitability, ii, 252; - halos, i, 100, 103, 178, 180, 181; - heat from, iv, 181-2, 183, 194; - heat from, atmospheric effects, i, 123; - heat from, modified by volcanic dust, 58-9; - helium in, 12; - Herschel's studies, ii, 16; - Hipparchus on motions, xvi, 90; - hypothesis of origin, iii, 160, 161; - light and heat, ii, 168-71; - light deflection by, 81-2; - magnetism, 154, 156, 175, 176-9, 186; - motion toward Lyra, 122, 137, 305-6, 317; - movement eastward, 195-6; - observation methods, 172-3, 19; - parallax, 59, 92; - photosphere, 173, 184; - photosphere, studies, 127, 129; - physical constitution, 183-4, 185; - position in solar system, 50, 51, 163; - prominences, 179-83, 184, 211, 214; - Ptolemaic theory, 35; - pull on planets, 65; - radiant energy, 170, 384, vi, 269-70, ix, 114-15; - radiation, atmospheric effects, i, 324; - radiation, biological importance, 211; - radiation, measurement of, 88; - radiation, physiological effects, 324-5; - radiation, weather effects, 218-19, 242, ii, 186-8, iv, 194; - radiative equilibrium, ii, 382, 383-4; - reversing layer, 184, 211, 212; - "rising" of, xvi, 12; - rotation, ii, 54, 129, 175, iii, 159; - rotation discovery, xvi, 103; - rotation studied by spectroscope, ii, 120; - shrinking of, 170; - size and shape, 28, 162, 167; - solstices observed in ancient Egypt, 25-6; - source of energy, v, 177, viii, 267, 334, 347, 349, 350, ix, 25-6, 27, - xiv, 32, 75; - source of organic life, xii, 11; - Spectrum of (see Solar Spectrum); - stars resembling, ii, 117, 118 - (see Solar Stars); - stellar magnitude, 296; - studies at Mt. Wilson, 152, 154; - temperature of, iv, 194; - tides and, ii, 70, xiv, 291, 292; - variable star, ii, 171; - variations in heat, iii, 248; - weight, ii, 76, 77, 78, 167-8; - winds caused by, xiv, 347 - - Sunburn, vii, 249, 253, x, 254; - chemical cause, i, 324-5; - X-ray burns and, vii, 250 - - Sundews, xiii, 40 - - Sundial, limitations, v, 58 - - "Sun Dogs," i, 180, 181, 382 - - Sunflower, in daisy family, xiii, 206; - restricted area, 320 - - Sunk Country of Missouri, iii, 98 - - Sunlight, atmospheric effects on color, i, 165-6, 167-71; - colors of, 165, ix, 115; - disease and, x, 240, 291, 292; - energy utilized, v, 177-8; - heat of, iv, 181-2, 183; - intensity compared with starlight, vi, 272; - leaf protection against excess of, xiii, 105-6; - penetration of ocean by, xii, 22; - plants and, viii, 335, 336, ix, 27, x, 253, xiii, 14, 76-7, 79, 80, - 81, 84-90, 114, 361-3, xiv, 65, 365-6, 367; - physiological effects, i, 324-5; - results of absence in forests, xiii, 369, 370; - spectrum of, viii, 302; - struggle of leaves for, xiii, 27-8, 38-9 - (see also Place in the Sun) - - Sunny Dispositions, xi, 55 - - Sun-Pillar, i, 376 - - Sunrise, atmospheric refraction of, iv, 323, 327-8; - green flash of, i, 170-1; - red and grey, 166; - succession of lights and colors, 167, 169; - temperature at, 76 - - Sunset, atmospheric refraction of, iv, 323, 327-8; - green flash of, i, 170-1; - red and gray, 166; - succession of light and colors at, 167-9 - - Sunshine Recorders, i, 86-8, 382 - - "Sunshine State," i, 86 - - Sun Spots, ii, 174-9, 184, 185; - corona and, 182, 184, 212, 220, 224; - discovered by Galileo, 54; - method of examining, 172; - periodicity, 171, 175-6, 185, 186; - photographic study, 127, 129; - prominences and, 182; - radiation in relation to, 171; - rotation of sun proved by, 120; - spectrum of, 117, 153, 155; - summer of 1816 and, i, 360; - weather effects, 16, 242, ii, 186 - - Sunstone, iii, 329 - - Sun Stroke, x, 252 - - Sun Valve, v, 331-2 - - Sun-Worship, at Stonehenge, xv, 272; - of agricultural peoples, 342; - of ancient nations, ii, 20, 23, 24, 25-6, 165 - - Supan, coast classification of, xiv, 247, 248, 249; - on landlocked areas, 190; - on river courses, 155; - on water circulation, 134 - - Supercooled Liquids, viii, 304-5 - - Super-Electric Zone, vi, 384 - - Superheated Solutions, viii, 304 - - Superheated Steam, v, 140 - - Superheaters, vi, 354 - - Superheating, method and use of, iv, 170-1 - - Superimposed Streams, iii, 137, 233-4, xiv, 170-4 - - Superior, Lake, xiv, area and depth of, xiv, 204 - - Superposition, in distance perception, xi, 183 - - Supersaturation, viii, 113 - - Superstitions, dread of, x, 364; - in ancient medicine, x, 12; - in savages and civilized races, xv, 354-5; - weather, i, 334-5 - - Suppressions (Emotions, Wishes), xi, 140-2, 206, 257; - getting rid of, 381-2; - laughter in relation to, 350-1, 353-4, 355-6, 357 - (see also Repressions) - - Suprapubic Cystotomy, x, 57 - - Suprarenal Capsules, xi, 273 - - Suprarenals, x, 347; - Addison's disease of, 113; - affections of, 352 - - Surf, destructive work of, xiv, 45, 47 - - Surface Senses, xi, 63, 64 - - Surface Waters, as water supplies, viii, 318 - - Surgery, antiseptic and aseptic, x, 146-8 - (see also Antiseptic Surgery); - history of development, 13-14, 24-5, 27, 32, 35, 37, 38, 39, 41, 43, - 55-8, 78-81, 90-7, 121-5, 129-31, 144-9, xvi, 63, 108, 181, 182-4, - 185; - hypnosis in, xi, 316-17; - made a scientific profession, x, 104-5; - plastic, 57, 189, 384; - separation from general medicine, 16-17, 35, 38, 39, 41, 43; - three perplexities of early, 14, 123, 134, 148; - X-rays in, vii, 256 - - Surgical Dressings, sphagnum in, xiii, 160-1 - - Surinam Eel, vi, 16 - - Surinam Toad, xii, 175 - - Süring, balloon ascension, i, 18, v, 225 - - Surprise, effects of strong, xi, 21 - - Surra, disease, x, 168 - - Surukuku, xii, 234 - - Surveying, by aeroplane, i, 46-7; - history of development, xvi, 68-9, 91, 98 - - Survival of the Fittest, x, 136, xiii, 334-5, 346, xv, 23, 24-5, xvi, - 150-1, 152; - in human race, xv, 27, 47-8; - in plants, xiii, 12, 89; - in social institutions, xv, 30 - (see also Struggle for Existence) - - Susceptibility, racial, xv, 50-2 - - Susquehanna River, cutting of present course, iii, 36, xiv, 168-9; - drowned valley of, 40, 255-6; - former extension and branches, 256; - gap of, 51, 167; - heterogeneous stream, 155; - in Glacial Epoch, 171; - superimposed character, iii, 137, 233; - transverse course, xiv, 99, 154 - - Susquehanna Valley, origin, iii, 232 - - Sutlej River, aerial mapping of, i, 46 - - Suttee, xv, 335 - - Swallowing, ear pressure equalized by, xi, 101; - effect on sphincter muscles, ix, 231; - movement of, 82; - operation, how learned, xi, 37-9; - saliva necessary to, ix, 228-9 - - Swallows, xii, 268; - seed dispersal by, xiii, 341 - - Swamp Azalet, xiii, 208 (fig.) - - Swamps, coal-forming conditions in, iii, 199; - ditch-digging in, v, 216; - draining of, by trees, xiv, 379; - formed by filling lakes, 212; - of Coal Age, iii, 200, 253, 254, xiii, 309, 312; - plant formations of, xiv, 372; - shrubs suitable for, xiii, 275 - - Swann, Dr. W. F. G., i, 145, 146 - - Swans, xii, 257, 258-9; - wing power of, xv, 18 - - Swape, v, 18-19 - - Sweat, ammonia in, ix, 276; - body heat regulation by, 169, 315-16, 317; - control of, 168, 169; - in sleep, xi, 285; - odor, to what due, ix, 315; - poisons exhaled in, 269; - purpose, xi, 271, 272 - (see also Perspiration, Sweat Glands) - - Sweat Center, ix, 315, 316 - - Sweat Glands, ix, 314; - body heat regulation by, 169, 314-16; - fever effects on, 318; - nervous control of, 168, 169; - water and waste removal by, 271, 274, 276 - - "Sweating," of ice pitchers, i, 121 - - Sweat Shops, air poisons in, ix, 270; - tuberculosis and, x, 291 - - Sweden, coast of, xiv, 247; - crustal movements, iii, 80; - fiords of, xiv, 259; - Ice Age in, iii, 246; - nitrogen fixation, i, 36 - - Swedenborg, theory of universe, ii, 367 - - Swedish Language, xv, 162 - - Sweet, taste of, ix, 95, xi, 70, 71, 72 - - Sweet Alyssum, xiii, in mustard family, xiii, 197 - - Sweet Fern, xiii, 192 (fig.) - - Sweet Gum Tree, petals absent in, xiii, 195; - in landscaping, 271-2 - - Sweet Pea, flower, xiii, 138 - - Sweet Potato, xiii, 218-19; - American origin, xiii, 221, xiv, 382; - root of, xiii, 13 - - Sweetsop, origin, xiii, 227 - - Sweet Woodruff, xiii, 205 - - Swellings, cause of, ix, 222 - - Swift, Dean, on moons of Mars, ii, 241 - - Swift River Valley, iii, 96 (Pl. 5) - - Swifts (foxes), xii, 344 - - Swifts (lizards), xii, 203 - - Swim Bladder, xii, 136 - - Swimming, equilibrium sense in, ix, 90; - reflex processes in, 155-6 - - Swine, xii, 310-11 - - Swiss, in Alpine group, xiv, 49 - - Switchboards, of power plants, vi, 360, 375; - remote control by, 100-1 - - Switches, electroller, vii, 68; - inverse-time, 37; - oil, 41 - - Switzerland, cirques of, xiv, 58; - civilization of, xv, 131; - independence due to Alps, xiv, 243-4; - lakes of, 200; - ocean trade of, 306; - population and industries, 241-2; - winds, i, 133; - in World War, xiv, 244 - - Sycamore Tree, calyx and Corolla absent, xiii, 46; - leaf buds, 34 - (see also Plane Tree) - - Sydenham, Thomas, x, 72-4, 81, xvi, 108-9; - malaria in time of, 10, 155; - on "comatose fever," 301; - pupils of, 76, 77; - smallpox studies, 100 - - Syllogism, invention, xvi, 88 - - Sylvius (De la Boe), x, 69-70, xvi, 108; - Locke on, x, 75 - - Sylvius, Jacobus, x, 51, 52-3 - - Symbiosis, x, 221, xiii, 98-9 - - Symbols, of chemical elements, viii. 91, 383 - - Syme, James, x, 144 - - Symmetry, idea of, inborn in man, xv, 251; - in organisms, major and minor, xvi, 155 - - Sympathetic Nervous System, x, 352-3, x, 113, 134-5, 137 - - Sympathetic Vibration, iv, 225-6, vii, 118, 261-2 - - Sympathy, instinct of, xi, 56; - empathy and, 172; - suppression of, 141 - - Synæsthetic Images, xi, 222 - - Synapses, defined, xi, 20; - retardation at, 20, 21, 71, 154 - - Synchronism, defined, vii, 376 - - Synchronizing Action of alternators, vi, 383-4 - - Synchronous Charts, i, 214-15, 383 - - Synchronous Condensers, vi, 262 - - Synchronous Converters, vi, 343-8 - - Synchronous Motors, vi, 241, 255, 256-63; - in motor-generator sets, 332, 342 - - Synchronous Speed in motors, vi, 241, 247 - - Synchronous Vibration, vii, 118, 261-2 - - Synclines, iii, 85, 133, 383 (fig.); - hot springs and, 128 - - Synodic Period, of moon, ii, 196 - - Synonyms, botanical, xiii, 171 - - Synoptic Charts, i, 215, 383 - - Synthetic Races, xii, 134 - - Syphilis, history of, in Europe, x, 60; - Hunter's study of, 95; - mercury for, 60, 104 - - Syria, gazelles of, xii, 327; - Rift Valley or Ghor, xiv, 120-1 - - Syrinx, of birds, xii, 248, 249 - - Systole and Diastole, of arteries, x, 62, 63-4, 65; - heart, 65 - - - Tabit ben Korra, ii, 38 - - Table-lands (see Plateaus) - - Table Mountain, South Africa, xiv, 225; - cloud cap, i, 105, 383; - fog drip, x, 351 - - Table Mountains (mesas), xiv, 81, 82 - - Table Salt, impurities in, xiv, 296 - - Tacking (sailing), v, 182, 188 - - Taconic Range, iii, 188-9, 190, 192, 210; - antiquity of, xiv, 235 - - Tadpoles, xii, 175, 179, 181; - regeneration in, 170 - - Tagliacozzi, x, 57-8, 189 - - Tahiti, vanilla production, xiii, 260 - - Tahiti Apple, xiii, 227 - - Tahoe, Lake, iii, 153-4 - - Tails, rudimentary, in man, xv, 56 - - Talbot, Fox, xvi, 192 - - Talc, iii, 339-40; - chemical composition, viii, 90 - - Talking Machines (see Phonograph, Graphophone) - - Tallow, animal fat, viii, 246 - - Tallow Candles, viii, 247 - - Talman, Prof. C. F., author Meteorology, Vol. i - - Talons, xii, 260 - - Talus, defined, iii, 383 - - Talus Slopes, in arid regions, xiv, 77-8; - of mountains, 233 - - Tamandua, xii, 282 - - Tamarinds, origin, xiii, 227 - - Tamerlane, grandson of, ii, 39, 300 - - Tamia-caspi, i, 352 - - Tampers, pneumatic, v, 135 - - Tampico, harbor of, xiv, 266 - - Tan, skin, vii, 249, 253 - - Tanagers, xii, 245, 269 - - Tanganyika, Lake, size, xiv, 204 - - "Tanks", in World War, v, 218, 384 - - Tannic Acid, in tea, xiii, 231 - - Tannin, uses of, viii, 257, 259 - - Tanning, of hides, viii, 257; - in ancient Egypt, xvi, 73 - - Tantalum, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Tapegrass, fertilization, xiii, 150-1 - - Tapeworm, x, 200, xii, 45; - food of, ix, 18; - motions of, 73 - - Tapioca, source, viii, 243 - - Tapirs, xii, 304, 306 - - Taproots, xiii, 16, 17, 18 - - Tar, constituents of, viii, 333; - production and uses, 253 - - Tarantella (dance), xii, 93 - - Tarantulas, xii, 93 - - Tarnishing, of metals, viii, 13, 77, 100 - - Tarpons, xii, 154 - - Tartar Astronomers, ii, 39 - - Tartar, on teeth, x, 315-16 - - Tartaric Acid, viii, 136, 222-3, 336; - asymmetric atoms of, 309-10; - Pasteur's study of, x, 137 - - Tasmania, aborigines, iii, 303, 304; - animals of, xii, 277-8; - continental island, xiv, 276; - leafless yew-tree, xiii, 30 - - Tasmanians, hair of, xv, 38; - in black race, 37 - - Taste (sense), ix, 94-5, 96, xi, 69-77; - in infants, ix, 350-1; - mingled associations with, xi, 64, 127; - phonisms of, 222 - - Taste Buds, ix, 94, 95; - related to end-buds of fishes, xii, 137 - - Tastes, agreeable, digestion aided by, ix, 98, 240, x, 320 - - Tattooing, xv, 257 (fig.), 258-9 - - Taughannock Falls, iii, 50 - - Taylor, Bertha Fanning, xiii, 4 - - Taylor, Fred W., v, 54-5, 383 - - Taylor, Dr. Griffith, i, 324 - - Taylor, Prof. Norman, author BOTANY, Vol. xiii - - Tea, history and production, xiii, 227-31; - over-boiling, 231; - polyuria from drinking of, x, 344; - wakefulness from, ix, 219 - - Teakettles, heating of, iv, 182-3 - - Tea Plant, xiii, 228, 229-30; - ancestral home, 221 - - Teak-wood, source, xiv, 383 - - Tear Gases, viii, 263 - - Tear Glands, blood supply of, ix, 197; - control of, 162, 163 - - Tears, cause, xi, 23; - taste sensations and, 76 - - Technical Terms, glossary of, iv, 381-4 - - Tectonic Topography, xiv, 94 - - Tedium, xi, 194-5 - - Teeth, ancient birds with, iii, 296, 297, xii, 241-3; - care of, ix, 228, x, 313-16; - decay of, cause and results, 312-13, 314; - decay from emotional strain, xi, 142; - defective, mental impairment by, 373; - diet and, x, 265, 314-15; - diseased, fatigue from, xi, 279; - electric treatment, vii, 237; - enamel of, ix, 13; - grinding of grains by, xv, 237-8; - infections from, x, 202, 218, 222, 225-6; - killing of nerves of, ix, 187, 188; - loss of, results on jaws, 57; - malnutrition from bad, 228; - modified scales, xii, 134; - mutilations of, by savages, xv, 260; - of carnivores, xii, 332-3, 389; - of manlike apes, iii, 303; - of Neanderthal man, xv, 98 (fig.); - of rodents, xii, 286; - of Tertiary mammals, iii, 298, 300; - poisons from decaying, ix, 269-70; - pus pockets at roots of, 187, 188; - replacing of sound, x, 56; - temporary and permanent, 313-14; - ulcerated, ix, 56; - X-ray examinations, x, 373, vii, 254 - - Teguexins, xii, 208 - - Tejus Lizards, xii, 208 - - Telautograph, vi, 98 - - Teleosts, iii, 285, xii, 142, 151-66; - eggs of, 141 - - Teledu, stinking, xii, 348 - - Telegraph, Telegraph System, iv, 292-4, vii, 108-18, 376; - cells used, vi, 127, 140; - etymology of word, vii, 91; - invention, 108, vi, 24, xvi, 188; - protection against lightning, vii, 49-50; - sounders, 375; - submarine, vi, 24 - - Telegraph Codes, vii, 108-9 - - Telegraph Plant, xiii, 114 - - Telegraph Plateau, xiv, 288 - - Telegraph Poles, in desert regions, iii, 72-3 - - Telegraph Wires, humming of, i, 194-5 - - Telephone Exchange, brain compared to, xi, 15-16; - central nervous system compared to, ix, 129 - - Telephone, Telephone System, iv, 305-6, vii, 91-107, 376; - automatic, vi, 87, vii, 92-3, 106-7; - cells used, vi, 138, 142; - condensers in, 285, 304; - invention, v, 381, vii, 92, xvi, 188; - magneto-generators, vi, 215; - number in New York, vii, 75; - protections against lightning, 50; - receiver, electromagnet of, vi, 99; - simultaneous messages, vii, 118-19; - vacuum tubes in, 280; - vibration rates of, ix, 101; - wire used, vii, 314 - - Telephony, prominent names in, vi, 26 - - Telescopes, ii, 93-110, iv, 345-6; - comet-seekers, ii, 274; - first used by Galileo, 54; - first eclipse seen by, 210; - Galileo's, xvi, 103; - lens improvements, 125; - limitations due to atmosphere, ii, 140, 201-2; - modern, 18, 143 - (see also Bruce, Hooker, Leviathan, Yerkes Telescopes); - use in astronomical photography, iv, 372-3 - - Telluride Ores, iii, 366 - - Tellurium, classification place, viii, 182, 183; - symbol and atomic weight, 383 - - Temperament, classes of, xi, 153-9 - - Temperate Forests, xiii, 366-73, xiv, 366, 370-1; - timber supply from, 382-3 - - Temperate Zone, civilization in, xv, 122, 123, 127, 383, xiv, 344, 357-9; - most favorable to man, xi, 51; - weather, how determined, xiv, 349-50; - winds, i, 127-8, 135, 137, xiv, 345-6, 349 - - Temperature, absolute, viii (see Absolute Scale); - altitude and, i, 19, 20, 208, xiv, 364-5; - barometric pressure and, iv, 122-3, 124, 125; - body (see Body); - climate classification by, i, 208; - colors in relation to, iv, 361; - critical (see Critical Temperature); - daily range, xiv, 247-8; - dependent on atmospheric constituents, i, 14-15, 16, 58-9, iii, 248; - determining factors, i, 208, xiv, 344-7; - electrical conductance affected by, iv, 301; - equalization by water, viii, 37, 38; - gas pressure and, iv, 139-42, viii, 107; - heat and, iv, 139-40, 144-5, 153-4; - high and low attained, v, 345, 348; - highest atmospheric, i, 209; - human control of, 332-3; - human efficiency and, i, 323-4; - human feelings of, 317-18, 320-1, ix, 93-4, 319-21, xi, 112-14; - humidity and, i, 76, 77, xiv, 352-4; - infant's adjustment to, ix, 352; - latitude and, xiv, 344-5; - lowest atmospheric, i, 209-10; - maximum and minimum, i, 75-6; - mean, 203-4; - measurement of (see Thermometers); - measuring of high, iv, 137-8, vi, 62-3; - metabolism affected by, ix, 37, 78-9; - musical instruments affected by, iv, 231-2; - observations and records, i, 203-5; - of deep sea, xii, 21-2; - of electric arc, iv, 312; - of electric furnace, vii, 302, xvi, 189; - of liquid air, i, 31, viii, 68; - of meteors, ii, 285, 290; - of oxyacetylene blowpipe, i, 33; - of stratosphere in different latitudes, 20; - of sun, ii, 169, iv, 194; - optimal, xi, 51; - physical state and, viii, 303-5; - plant distribution determined by, xiv, 364-71, 374-7; - plant societies in relation to, xiii, 357, 381; - range of, on earth, ii, 243-4; - range possible for life, i, 32, ii, 243-4, 245, 249, v, 348-9, x, - 250-1; - rise of, to what due, iv, 144; - scientific meaning of, 139-40, 144; - seeking of favorable, xi, 51-2; - sensations of, ix, 93-4, 314, xi, 112-14; - sensible, i, 318; - sound speed and, i, 186-7, iv, 198-9; - subterranean layers of, xiv, 12-15; - susceptibility to change of, x, 240; - sun-spot effects, i, 16; - variability, i, 204-5; - variations by night and day, iv, 134, 183; - variations, effect on timepieces, v, 71-2, 73; - variations, human effects, x, 238-9; - variations and rock weathering, iii, 23-4, 72, xiv, 41, 62, 74, 75, - 77-9, 233; - ventilation factor, viii, 331, 332; - volcanic dust effects, i, 58-9; - winds in relation to, 124, 126-7, 131, 293, xiv, 345-7 - (see also Heat) - - Temperature Charts, i, 206 - - Temperature Inversion, i, 375 - - Tempered Scale (music), 4, 208-9 - - Ten Commandments, xv, 368 - - Tender Emotion, xi, 146, 147, 149 - - Tendon of Achilles, ix, 76 - - Tendons, ix, 59, 79; - early surgery of, x, 79, 96; - sensations of, xi, 124, 125 - - Tendrils, xiii, 28; - movements of, 111-12; - on leaves, 38 - - Teneriffe, Smyth's experiment on, ii, 141; - volcanic nature, xiv, 277, 316 - - Tennessee, non-glacial topography of, xiv, 56; - underground streams of, 149 - - Tennessee River, former course, xiv, 186 - - Tennis, "cutting" of balls in, iv, 67, 68-9 - - Tennyson, in Holmes' "goodly company," x, 134; - quoted, i, 136, 183, iii, 11, xi, 33 - - Tension Spring, air as, v, 136-7 - - Tents, Indian, xv, 266 - - Teratoma, x, 120 - - Terbium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Term Hours, i, 203, 383 - - Terminal, of moon, ii, 28 - - Terminal Moraines, iii, 67; - lakes formed by, xiv, 202; - of great Ice Sheet, iii, 67-8, xiv, 59, 200, xv, 74-6 - - Terminal Voltages, vi, 186, 188, 189 - - Terminals (see Railroad Terminals) - - Terminator (astronomical), ii, 194, 202 - - Termites, xii, 110, 125 - - Terns, xii, 264 - - Terpenes, viii, 240, 251-2 - - Terra Firma, iii, 76 - - Terraces, defined, iii, 383; - of California, 224 - - Terrapins, xii, 189-90 - - Terrestrial Refraction, i, 171, 380 - - Terror, exhaustion from, xi, 135-6; - expression and origin, 131-3 - - Tertiary Period, iii, 20, 221-36, 383; - appearance of man in, xv, 72; - development of mammals in, xii, 271-2; - divisions and species surviving, xv, 71; - plants and animal life, iii, 257, 279, 297, 298-9, 300, 301-2, 303, - xii, 104, 154, 243, 283, 366; - remains of man in, v, 11 - - Tesla, Nicola, vi, 26 - - Testudinidae, xii, 188 - - Tetanus, negro susceptibility to, xv, 51 - (see Lockjaw) - - Teptonic Races, in Nordic group, xvi, 48 - - Texas, chalk deposits, iii, 216-18; - chapparal of, xiv, 379; - coasts of, iii, 57, xiv, 251, 262, 263; - cotton, xiii, 237; - dust whirlwinds, i, 60; - mercury production, iii, 370; - monsoons, i, 131; - oil wells, helium from, iv, 108; - peccary of, xii, 311; - stock-raising system, xiv, 383 - - Texas Fever, xii, 98 - - Textile Machinery, v, 268-83, 376-7; - induction motors in, xi, 256; - of ancient Egypt, xvi, 72-3 - - Textiles, chemistry of, viii, 254-8; - Egyptian, xvi, 72-3; - fireproofing of, viii; - starch in, 243 - - Thackeray, W. M., brain weight, xv, 39 - - Thales, discovery of magnetism, vi, 11; - eclipse predictions, ii, 9, 27, 209-10; - scientific teachings, xvi, 76-7, 77 - - Thallium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Thallophytes, iii, 250, 251, 252, 256 - - Thallus, of ferns, xiii, 156-7; - none in mosses, 163 - - Thames River, former tributary of Rhine, xv, 76; - tidal basin, v, 176; - true mouth of, xiv, 270 - - Theatres, color induction in, xi, 95; - use of ozone in, vii, 353-4; - wiring, 57 - - Thebes, Egyptian, xvi, 64, 65, 67, 70; - papyri discovered at, x, 12 - - Thenard, chemical work, xvi, 162 - - Theobromin, polyuria induced by, x, 344 - - Theology, Creek, Roman, medieval, xvi, 99-100, 115 - - Theophrastus, zoölogical work, xvi, 126 - - Therapy, Therapeutics, x, 379-84; - aeronautics in, i, 51; - ancient systems of, x, 12, 13, 21-2, 26, 380; - Brunonian system, 89-90; - climatological, i, 331, x, 383; - drug, 21-2, 380-1; - electricity in (see Electro-therapeutics); - hypnosis in, xi, 317; - Locke and Holmes on, x, 74-5; - modern, 380-4; - nihilism doctrine in, 113; - open-air, 240-1, 291; - Rowntree's categories of, 380; - Stahl's system, 85; - Sydenham's glossary of, 74; - X-rays in, vii, 251, 252-3, 255-6 - - Thermal Belts, i, 259, 383 - - Thermal Couples, vi, 62-3, 72; - electron theory, vi, 123-5; - power tables, vii, 383; - source of energy, vi, 129 - - Thermal Springs, xiv, 143-5 - (see also Hot Springs) - - Thermal Unit, v, 350-1 - - Thermionic Valve, vi, 125 - - Thermodynamics, iv, 384; - great laws of, 189-94 - - Thermo-electricity, vii, 376 - - Thermo-electric Powers, vii, 383 - - Thermograph, i, 76, 77, 383 - - Thermo-junction, i, 318 - (see Thermal Couples) - - Thermometers, i, 72-6, 383, iv, 135-8, 145; - as comfort measures, i, 318; - comparison of scales, iv, 137 (fig.), xiii, 27, 384; - development, i, 68-9; - drugstore, 266; - Galileo's, x, 71; - metallic, iv, 146-7 - - Thermometer Screen, i, 375, 383 - - Thermos Bottle, construction and use, iv, 184-5; - invention, vii, 323; - principle, i, 31, viii, 68 - - Thermoscope, i, 69 - - Thermostat, iv, 148-9, 384, vii, 87 - - Thermostatic Regulators, vii, 148 - - Thermotaxis, xi, 51-2, 61 - - Theromorpha, xii, 184-5; - mammals developed from, 271 - - Thibet (see Tibet) - - Thigh, bone of, ix, 68, 70 (fig.) - - Thimbleberry, xiii, 199 (fig.) - - Thinking, law and process of, xi, 201 - (see also Thought) - - Thinness, x, 277 - - Third Dimension, perception of, xi, 173-83 - - Third Rail System, vii, 187, 189, 197-8, 199 (fig.) - - Thirst, exercise effects, x, 303-4; - sensation of, ix, 87, 88-9, xi, 66-7; - sense of, in infants, ix, 350 - - Thomas, Holt, on airships, i, 42 - - Thomas of Sarzona, x, 44 - - "Thomas W. Lawson," schooner, v, 188-9 - - Thompson, Benjamin (see Rumford) - - Thompson, S. P., vi, 26 - - Thompson, William (see Kelvin) - - Thomson, Elihu, vi, 26 - - Thomson, J. J., cathode ray studies, xvi, 193; - electron theory of, iv, 55, vi, 26; - experiments on gas cooling, i, 30 - - Thomson Water Meter, v, 87 - - Thorax, diagnosis of diseases of, x, 98-9, 109; - of insects, xii, 99, 102 - - Thoreau, on Indian summer, i, 362 - - Thorium, in soil and air, i, 143; - radioactivity, viii, 184, 186; - symbol and atomic weight, 383 - - Thorn Tree of Natal, xiii, 375 - - Thorpe, John, ring frame, v, 378 - - Thothmes, war chariot of, xv, 242 - - Thought, brain processes in, ix, 147-53, xi, 15; - cerebrum seat of, ix, 167; - gray matter and, xv, 63; - habits of, xi, 198, 203-4, 247; - language and, xv, 143-45, 146; - law and process of, xi, 201; - need of changes of, ix, 138; - nervous mechanism, xi, 19-20; - physical essentials and costs, 25; - speed of, 13 - (see also Reaction Types); - Stoic definition, 228; - stream of, 193; - similarity in laws of, xvi, 42-3 - - "Three Fates", painting, xi, 192 - - Three-Horned Beast, iii, 292 - - Three-phase, meaning, vi, 207 - - Threes, multiplies in plants, xiii, 176, 178 - - Threshing Machines, v, 248-9 - - Threshold of Sensation, xi, 71; - of distance discrimination, 184, 185; - in various senses, 80, 104-5, 111 - - Throat, as infection focus, x, 219, 224; - connections with ear, ix, 101, 102 (fig.); - drying of, in thirst, iv, 88; - in speech production, ix, 83 - - Thrombosis, x, 336 - - Thrush, disease, x, 196 - - Thrushes, xii, 269 - - Thrust Bearings in Niagara Plant, vi, 374-5 - - Thrust Faults, iii, 87, 88 (fig.); - examples, 90-2, 188, 219 - - Thugs, jaws of, xv, 43 - - Thulium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Thulis, astronomer, ii, 275 - - Thumb, flexibility of human, ix, 67-8; - of apes and men, xv, 58-60 - - Thunder, i, 383; - at sea, 193; - cause of sounds, 192-3; - distances heard, 188-9; - explanation, vii, 210-11; - general awe of, 201-2; - large raindrops and, 215-17; - reverberations of, iv, 238; - speed of sound, i, 187 - - Thunderclouds, i, 102, 296; - formation, 93 - - Thunderhead, i, 139 (fig.), vii, 217 - - Thunderstorms, i, 138-9, 383; - astraphobia, 330; - classes and causes, vii, 217-18; - dangers and protection, i, 155-7; - hail in, 106, 120, 373-4; - lightning flashes, 149-52; - potential differences in, vii, 352; - St. Elmo's Fire in, i, 157; - strays and, 163; - vertical currents in, 293 - - Thunderstorm Recorders, i, 163, 383 - - Thuringian Forest, xiv, 238 - - Thylacine, xii, 277-8 - - Thyme, flowers, xiii, 205; - origin, 265 - - Thymol, viii, 238, 333 - - Thyro-globulin, x, 351 - - Thyroid Gland, x, 347, 348; - disorders and treatment, ix, 303-4, xi, 60-1; - functions and disorders of, x, 348-52; - inflammation of, and rheumatism, 224; - operations on, 148; - secretion used as drug, 382 - - Tiamat, or Chaos, xvi, 77 - - Tian Sham, xiv, 232 - - Tiber River, delta of, xiv, 263 - - Tibet, bears of, xii, 337, 338, xiv, 205, 211; - marine deposits, iii, 235; - plateau of, xiv, 97, 222, 232; - polyandry in, xv, 286; - rainfall, i, 111, xiv, 355; - wild ass of, xii, 308; - yak of, 330 - - Tibetans, in yellow race, xv, 37 - - Tickle, Tickling, sensation of, ix, 92-3; - sense of, xi, 109, 114; - laughter from, 355 - - Ticks, xii, 98 - - Tickseed, seed dispersal, xiii, 58, 343 - - Tick Trefoil, xiii, 58 - - Tidal Estuaries, formation of, xiv, 164, 255 - - Tidal Friction Theory, ii, 375-7 - - Tidal Power, v, 174-7 - - Tidal Races, xiv, 294 - - Tidal Waves, from earthquakes, xiv, 337; - from Krakatoa eruption, iii, 101, xiv, 324 - - Tide-predicting Machines, v, 327 - - Tides, xiv, 291-5; - Bacon's lunar theory, xvi, 101; - cause, ii, 70, v, 177, xiv, 32, 291; - erosive work of, 44-5; - importance to shipping, 295; - local ranges and peculiarities, 293-4; - neap and spring, ii, 70; - daily occurrence, xiv, 291-2, xiv, 292; - power utilized, v, 174-7; - "races", 294; - variations in rise and fall, 292-3 - - Tides, Plastic, ii, 375 - - Tide Water, sewage disposal in, viii, 325 - - Tied Images, xi, 221 - - Tierra del Fuego, climate and forests of, xiv, 371 - - Tiger, saber tooth, in Europe, xv, 76; - strength of, 18 - - Tigers, xii, 357-60; - apes and, 362; - Tiger Triton, 172-3 - - Tigris River, civilization on, xv, 123; - mapping of flood areas, i, 47; - rafts used on, xv, 264; - union with Euphrates, xiv, 185 - - Tilefish, xii, 164 - - Till, glacial, iii, 67, xiv, 59, 61 - - Tillamook County, Oregon, rainfall, i, 112 - - Tilling Machines, v, 244 - - Timber, source of, xiv, 382-3 - - Timber Line, xiv, 233 - - Timber Wolf, xii, 340 - - Timbre, of sound, xi, 104 - - Timby, Theodore R., v, 380 - - Time, absolute and relative, ii, 80, iv, 16-18; - coordinate for determining events, 16; - geological (see Geological Ages); - measuring of, v, 57-74; - memory perception, xi, 208; - Newton on absolute and relative, iv, 15; - origin of word, xi, 192; - perceptions of, 192-6; - primary concept, iv, 14, 15; - relative, Newton on, 15; - relativity doctrine, xvi, 196-8; - units of, iv, 15-16, 45, 46, 70 - - Timepieces, Chaldean, xvi, 58; - civilization and, v, 57; - historical development, 58-65 - - Time-rate, iv, 383 - - Timocharis, ii, 28-9, 31 - - Tin, viii, 161; - alloys with lead, melting point, iv, 161-2; - atomic weight and symbol, viii, 383; - affinity strength, 128; - extraction from ores, 271; - fusibility, 384; - in heavy metal group, 126-7, 154; - melting point and requirements, iv, 162; - positiveness, vi, 59; - production and uses, iii, 368-9; - specific gravity, viii, 384; - tests for, 287, 288; - uses, viii, 161 - - Tin Plating, viii, 273 - - Tinstone, viii, 161 - - Tint, of colors, xi, 90 - - Tips, of plants, xiii, 111, 114 - - Tire Pumps, heat of, v, 351 - - Tires, iron, on wagon wheels, iv, 4, 134-5; - pneumatic and other, v, 133-4 - - Tissue Fluids, ix, 50; - abundance in connective tissues, 59; - constituents, 173-81, 189-90; - oxygen supply, 253, 254, 260; - renewal and supply system, 51 (fig.), 191, 193-5; - waste products removal, 221-2, 262 - - Tissues, amino acids in, ix, 284, x, 204, 277-8; - blood acidity neutralized by, 280, 281; - carbon dioxide, production and removal, ix, 262, 264; - chemical composition, viii, 298, 348, 354, 355; - colloidal condition, viii, 356; - connective (see Connective Tissues); - diseased, composition and X-ray treatment, vii, 253, 255-6; - electricity effects, 247; - energy sources, ix, 289, 290, 291, 297; - growth of various kinds, 47-8, 286-7; - infections of, x, 204; - "irritability" theory of, 86; - oxygen needs and supply, ix, 253, 260, 261-2, x, 331, 338; - protection against germs, 201; - protein needs, viii, 359, ix, 278-84, 287-9, x, 204, 277-8; - resistance to germs, 197-8; - spaces for fluid, ix, 50; - wastage, normal, 281-3; - wastage in starvation, 297-8; - waste removal, 271; - water in, viii, 39 - (see also Body Cells, Protoplasm) - - Titan, moon of Saturn, ii, 249-50 - - "Titanic," loss of, xi, 332 - - Titanium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Titchener, Prof. on imagination, xi, 225; - on skin, 114; - on reaction types, 155 - - Titicaca, Lake, xiv, 205 - - Tivoli, Italy, travertine deposits, xiv, 146; - waters of, 147 - - Tjemoro Tree, xiii, 15 - - TNT (see Trinitrotoluol) - - Toads, xii, 169, 174-7; - evolution of, 167; - rains of, 177 - - Toadstools, xiii, 164 - - Toasts, origin of, xv, 363 - - Tobacco, xiii, 256-9; - American origin, 221; - xiv, 382; - historical importance, xiii, 208; - hyperacidity of stomach caused by, x, 322; - ripened by bacteria, 194 - - Tobacco Leaf, X-ray sterilization, vii, 257 - - Todd, Prof. David, author ASTRONOMY TODAY, Vol. ii. - - Toddy, flowering of, xiii, 53 - - Toes, bones of, ix, 69; - rising on, muscle used, 76; - of infants, xv, 61; - use of, by apes and men, 60, 61 - - Toilet Soap, viii, 142 - - Toledan Tables, ii, 38, 39 - - Toledo, blades of, v, 315; - conquest of, effects, x, 37 - - Toluene, derivatives, viii, 238-9; - from coal tar, 253 - - Toluidine, viii, 237 - - Toluol, viii, 235 - - Tom, Mount, iii, 212, xiv, 111 - - Tomahawks, xv, 208 - - Tomatoes, adventitious roots, xiii, 19-20; - berries, 54; - calories in, ix, 299; - food value, viii, 365, ix, 30; - origin, xiii, 221, 224, xiv, 382; - splitting of, xiii, 94 - - Tomato Tree, origin, xiii, 227 - - Tomboro, dust from eruption, i, 59, 360 - - Tommasi, Crudeli, x, 155 - - Ton, unit of weight, iv, 283-4 - - Tonal Fusion, xi, 106 - - Tones, musical, iv, 207, xi, 105-6; - number in Indian scale, xv, 314; - pitch and intervals, ix, 99-100; - qualities of, xi, 104, 105; - simple and compound, iv, 213-17; - vibration rates, iv, 204 - - Tongue, functions in voice production, ix, 83; - muscles of, 77, 83; - nerve connections, xi, 76; - of chameleons, xii, 209; - of serpents, 211-12; - of toads and frogs, 174; - papillæ, xi, 70, 71; - response to taste, 62; - taste buds of, ix, 94, 95; - touch organs of, 92 - - Tonopah District, Nevada, xiv, 126 (fig.) - - Tonsilitis, rheumatism and, x, 223 - - Tonsils, infections of, ix, 187, 188, 224; - infections through, x, 198, 202, 219, 220, 221, 223-4, 225; - lymph nodes, ix, 224; - removal of, 224 - - Tool-making Animals, v, 9-19 - - Tools, adjustment to workmen, xi, 362; - antiquity of hand, v, 42; - early use of, iv, 24; - historical development, v, 12-16; - machine, 42-56; - of ancient Egypt, xvi, 67; - pneumatic, i, 27-8, iv, 129; - resemblance to hand, xi, 44-5; - stone, evolution of, xv, 102-10; - use by man and animals, v, 9-11, ix, 67-8 - - Tool Steel, v, 55 - - Toothache, hypnotic treatment, xi, 315 - - Top Shells (Trochus), xii, 71-2 - - Topaz, iii, 340; - oriental, 327 - - Topography, changes in, xiv, 29-30; - changes, how effected, 33-79; - fault and joint effects, 114-33; - forms determined by rocks, 80-113, 125-6; - importance in war, 92-3; - of old and new areas, iii, 33-5, 36-7, xiv, 30, 47-9; - winds affected by, i, 294, 296-7 - (see also Land Surfaces, Relief Features) - - Tops, as gyroscopes, v, 339 - - Tornadoes, i, 137-8, 383; - cores, 299; - devices to dispel, 335-6; - electrification by, vii, 212-13; - lifting power, i, 356; - miscalled cyclones, xiv, 349 - - Tornado Insurance, i, 269 - - Torpedo Fish, vi, 16, xii, 149-50 - - Torpedoes, from aeroplanes, v, 375; - submarine, 340, 373-4 - - Torque, defined, iv, 384; - of motors, 309, vi, 224-7, 232, 234; - in induction motors, 24 5, 247-8 - - Torricelli, barometer invention, i, 68, iv, 29-30, 114, 121 (fig.), xvi, - 109, 177; - scientific work, 104, 109-10, 111 - - Torsion Balance, invention, vi, 17-18 - - Torsion Pendulum, v, 74 - - Tortoises, xii, 182, 185-94 - - Tortoise Shell, xii, 185-6; - commercial source, 193 - - Totalizers, i, 118, 383 - - Touch (sense), ix, 91-2, 314, xi, 109-11, 114-15; - arrival platform for, ix, 146; - development of, xi, 43; - in fishes, xii, 137; - in infants, ix, 349; - in men and apes, xv, 60; - quality differences, to what due, xi, 164-5; - space perception by, 163, 164-6, 184 - - Touch Blends, xi, 127-8 - - Touch-me-nots, xiii, 56 - - Toul-Verdun Line, France, xiv, 90-1 - - Tourmaline, iii, 340; - light polarization by, iv, 354 - - Tours, cave dwellings near, xv, 266 - - Toxins, x, 196, 197, 296, 299 - - Trachea (windpipe), as infection center, x, 220 - - Tracheata, xii, 81 - - Trachoma, racial susceptibility to, xv, 51 - - Traction, of locomotives, v, 207; - Electric (see Electric Traction) - - Tractors, motor, v, 214, 215-18, 243; - of airplanes, iv, 34 - - Trade Marks, psychology of, xi, 348 - - Trade Winds, i, 127, 383, xiv, 348-9; - Columbus and the, i, 128-9; - deflection by earth's rotation, xiv, 32, 348; - dryness of, 355-6; - in Mediterranean lands, 358; - "pulse of atmosphere," i, 218; - salinity of sea affected by, xiv, 296; - variations and depth, i, 130 - - Traditions, crowd psychology in, xi, 333 - - Trailing Arbutus, xiii, 202, 351 - - Training, continuity of, xi, 257 - - Train Sickness, cause, xi, 127 - - Traits, hereditary, ix, 328-9 - (see also Characteristics) - - Trances, Hindoo belief regarding, ix, 11-12, 17, 266-7; - primitive conception of, xv, 328 - - Transformation of Energy, vi, 128-9; - by muscle cells, ix, 74; - by plants, 27; - in Wilberforce Spring, iv, 85 - - Transformers, Current, vii, 44-5 - - Transformers (Potential), vi, 159-60, 306-29; - distinguished from current, vii, 44-5; - distribution units, 25-6; - efficiency, vi, 317, 317-18, vii, 367; - importance of understanding, vi, 9; - in electro-therapeutics, vii, 245-6; - in power plants, vi, 364, 376-7; - in radio generation, vii, 266; - in traction systems, 199; - voltage possible, 9-10 - - Transfusion of Blood, x, 337-8 - - Transits, defined, ii, 189; - eye-and-ear observations, xi, 155-6 - - Translation, energy of, iv, 83-5; - motion of, 85-6 - - Translations, inadequacy of, xv, 146 - - Translucent Substances, iv, 324 - - Transmigration of Souls, xv, 333-4; - morality and, 356-7 - - Transmission Gears, hydraulic, v, 105-6 - - Transmitter, telephone, vii, 93-4, 96 - - Transmutation of Elements, viii, 188-9 - - Trans-Neptunian Planet, ii, 270-2 - - Transparency, of glass, viii, 305 - - Transparent Substances, iv, 324 - - Transpiration (plants), xiii, 103, 104, 113, 374, 378, 379, xiv, 377-8, - 378-9, 379 - - Transportation, aerial, i, 39, 41-3, 44-5; - civilization and, v, 18; - evolution of, 17-18, xv, 13, 241-3; - friction in, v, 203, 204-6; - meteorology in, i, 267-8; - motor trucks, v, 214; - river, xiv, 191; - wheels, v; - legs, v, 214-15 - - Transportation Problem (U. S.), vii, 194-5 - - Transvaal, climate conditions, xiv, 224; - gold production, iii, 365; - law against rain-making, i, 336 - - Transverse Rivers, xiv, 154; - in Appalachians, 167, 168-9 - - Trapdoor Spiders, xii, 97 - - Traps, animal, xv, 224 (fig.), 225-7; - avoidance of, xv, 66 - - Trauma, x, 255 - - Travel, educational advantages, vi, 330 - - Traveled Soils, xiv, 69-75 - - Traveler's Tree, xiii, 106, 112 (illus.), 189 - - Travertine, iii, 325, xiv, 146 - - Treadmills, xv, 239-40 - - Tree Corals, xii, 43 - - Tree Frogs, xii, 176, 177-9; - voice of, 170 - - Tree of Heaven, xiii, 200 - - Tree Ferns, xiii, 65 - - Tree Snakes, xii, 221 - - Trees, ancient, iii, 252, 253-4, 254, 255, 256-7, xiii, 309-10; - Big (see Big Trees); - branching of, xiii, 85-6; - carbon dioxide used by, i, 10; - cone-bearing, xiii, 174 (see Conifers); - danger in thunderstorms, i, 155; - deciduous, xiii, 175; - distribution determined by Glacial Epoch, xiv, 375-7; - felling of, by Indians, xv, 262; - fog drip, i, 351; - hardiness of, xiv, 364; - landscaping, xiii, 269-72; - leaving in forests, xiii, 86-7; - marsh-draining by, xiv, 379; - moisture required by, 377-9; - northern limit of, xiv, 371, 374-5; - older than herbs, xiii, 319; - paper from fibers, v, 290, 292-5; - prairies and, xiii, 374, 375, 376; - rainfall and cold in relation to, 373; - rate of increase by seeding, xv, 19; - rime on, i, 121-2; - rings, xiii, 24-5, 26; - rings, climate changes seen in, i, 199-200, xiv, 362; - rise of water in, xiii, 94; - roots, 16-17, 19; - roots, power of, iii, 24; - shedding of leaves in dry seasons, xiv, 369; - species in America and Europe, 375; - strangled by vines, xiii, 21-2; - stunted, 367; - tallest, 94; - trunks, structure, 23-6; - United States, xiv, 372-4 - - Trembling, in fear, xi, 132, 133 - - Tremolite, iii, 321 - - Trench-digging, competitive test, xi, 363 - - Trench Fever, x, 202 - - Trenches, ocean, xiv, 286, 288, 289 - - Trenching Machines, v, 253, 254-5 - - Trentino, xiv, 244, 245 - - Trenton Falls Gorge, iii, 50, 243 - - Trenton Limestone, iii, 185-6 - - Trepangs, xii, 50 - - Trepanning, Hippocrates, methods, xvi, 96 - - Trephine Operations, x, 27, 79 - - Trevithic, Richard, v, 207-8, 212, 377 - - Trial Marriages, xv, 290 - - Triangles, center of gravity in, iv, 101 - - Triassic Period, iii, 20, 208-13, 383; - animal life of, 271 (fig.), 285, 291; - appearance of mammals in, xii, 271; - insects of, 104 - - Tribes, formation of, xv, 363; - primitive morality limited to, 374 - - Tribes, plant, xiii, 171 - - Tributary Streams and Valleys, xiv, 56-7 - - Triceratops, iii, 292 - - Trichina, cause of, xv, 49; - parasite of, x, 199, xii, 45 - - Trieste, Gulf of, springs along, xiv, 150 - - Trifid Nebula, ii, 355, 364, 365 - - Trigonometry, history of development, xvi, 54, 62, 92, 101 - - Trilobites, iii, 260, 276-8 - - Trinidad Head Lighthouse, storm waves at, xiv, 300 - - Tri-nitro-phenol, viii, 262 - - Trinitrotoluene, (T. N. T.) viii, 236, 237, 261-2 - - Trinitrotoluol, viii, 63; - potential energy in, iv, 82 - - Trinil Man, xv, 89; - brain of, 96 - - Triphenyl Methane, viii, 240 - - Triple Register, i, 88 - - Tripoli, intersection of eclipse paths in, ii, 216 - - Tripolite, iii, 335 - - Trogons, Mexican, xii, 267 - - Trojan War, hashish at time of, xiii, 239 - - Trolley Cars, uses and disadvantages, i, 41 - (see Electric Cars, Electric Traction) - - Trolley Systems, vii, 186-91, 197-200; - underground wires in, 11-14 - - Trombones, iv, 231 - - Trompe, air compressor, v, 89-91 - - Tropic Birds, xii, 253 - - Tropical Diseases, xiv, 356-7; - racial immunity to, xv, 48, 50, 51 - - Tropical Rain Forests, xiii, 357-66, xiv, 366-70; - woods and other products of, 383 - - Tropics, civilization in relation to, xv, 123, 124-7; - climate monotony, xiv, 357; - cyclones, i, 136; - dry and rainy seasons, xiv, 352; - frost in, 42; - glaciers in, 54; - health conditions, i, 327, x, 251, xiv, 356-7; - labor in, xv, 126; - land and sea breezes, i, 131; - man's development in, ix, 308-9; - products, remarks on, xiii, 259; - quinine use, 251; - rainfall, i, 109; - rainfall and forests in, xiv, 377; - seasonal temperature layer in, 13; - soil depths, 64; - snow line in, xv, 73; - thunderstorms, i, 151; - vegetation of, xiv, 366-70; - white race in, i, 327, xiv, 344, 356-7, xv, 49-50; - winds, i, 127, 135 - - Troposphere, i, 20, 383; - turbulent conditions, 293-6 - - Trotula, x, 36, 37 - - Trough (meteorology), x, 238, 384 - - Troughs, oceanic, xiv, 286, 288-9; - earthquakes and, 341 - - Trough Valleys, xiv, 117-21, 123-4 - - Trout, xii, 158-9; - wariness of, 139 - - Troy, siege of, plague at, x, 285 - - Trucks, Motor, v, 214; - advantages to farmers, vii, 230-1 - - Trumpet Creeper, xiii, 20 - - Trumpets, sounding of, iv, 231 - - Trunk (body), muscles of, ix, 77; - skeleton of, 64-7, 63 (fig.) - - Trunk-bearing Animals, evolution, iii, 300, xii, 302 - - Trunks, tree, structure, xiii, 23-6 - - Truth, experience as test of, (Sylvius), x, 69; - men's notion of, xi, 243; - scientist's search, vi, 107 - - Trypanosomiasis, x, 167-79 - - Trypsin, x, 326 - - Tryptophane, viii, 351 - - Tsetse Flies, x, 168-70, xiv, 197, 223 - - Tuatera, xii, 183-4 - - Tubercle Bacillus, discovery of, x, 149; - killed by sunshine, 292; - tissue-killing power, 293 - - Tubercles (lesions), x, 293; - of plants, xiii, 98 - - Tubercular Lesions, x, 293; - radiation treatment of, 384 - - Tuberculin, x, 150, 216 - - Tuberculin Test, x, 372 - - Tuberculosis, x, 289-94; - campaign against, 171, 172, 175-6, (France), 290-2; - climatic treatment, i, 331; - contraction of, from consumptives, i, 326, x, 293; - darkness and, 253, 290, 291; - diagnosis, 216-17, 372; - discovery of bacillus of, 149, xvi, 184; - diseases leading to, x, 292; - Galen's studies of, 30; - germ of, 195, 292; - immunity to, 207; - in warm and cold-blooded animals, 206; - Koch's studies of, 149-50, xvi, 184; - local infections, x, 293; - lowered blood pressure in, 336; - outdoor treatment, 240-1, 291; - pain of, xi, 118; - portal of entry of germ, 198; - predisposition inherited, 235; - racial susceptibility to, xv, 49, 50, 51; - spinal, x, 92 - - Tubers, xiii, 23, 24 (fig.), 218 - - Tuileries, invasion (1848), xi, 331 - - Tulips, in lily family, xiii, 184 - - Tulip Tree, xiii, 271-2, 318 - - Tumbleweeds, seed dispersal, xiii, 345 - - Tumors, radiation treatment of, x, 383 - - Tundra Vegetation, xiii, 381 - - Tungsten, in steel alloys, xiv, 238; - symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Tungsten Lamps, vi, 267, 268; - candle power, iv, 352; - due to Acheson, vii, 300 - - Tunicates, xii, 19-20, 129 - - Tuning Forks, record of, iv, 214-15 (fig.); - reenforcement and interferences of sounds, 219, 220-1; - resonance columns and, 227-8; - sound production by, 197; - synchronous vibration, vii, 118; - vibrations of, iv, 224 - - Tunneling Machines, iv, 122-4, 260-1 - - Tunnels, compressed air use in, iv, 129; - heat encountered in building, iii, 121, xiv, 13-14; - hot water encountered, xiv, 144; - sounds of trains in, iv, 236 - - Tuns (shells), xii, 73-4 - - Tupaias, xii, 367 - - Turbans (shellfish), xii, 71-2 - - Turbinates, of nose, x, 341 - - Turbines (see Steam Turbines, Water Turbines) - - Turf, xiii, 183 - - Turf Grasses, xiii, 181 - - Turgenev, Ivan, brain weight, xv, 39 - - Turgor of Leaves, xiii, 102, 103, 114 - - Turin, position toward Alps passes, xiv, 240 - - Turkestan, wild horses of, xii, 307 - - Turkey, coverings of women in, xv, 254; - opium in, viii, 253; - tobacco production, 258 - - Turkey Buzzards, xii, 260 - - Turkeys, xii, 261 - - Turkish Empire, extent of conquests, xiv, 308-9 - - Turks, invasion of, through Danube Valley, xv, 138; - migration and conquests of, xiv, 308-9, 311 - - Turner, astronomer, ii, 301, 343; - on Halley, 86 - - Turning Effort (see Torque) - - Turnip, family and origin, xiii, 197, 224; - swelled root, 19; - vitamines in, x, 262, 266, 268 - - Turpentine, chemistry of, viii, 51, 240; - in medicine, Galen's use of, x, 30; - specific gravity of, iv, 109-10 - - Turquois, iii, 340-1 - - Turret Lathes, v, 52-3 - - Turtles, xii, 182, 185-94; - absence of fear, xi, 136; - egg-teeth of, xii, 205; - heart of, ix, 84; - Mesozoic, iii, 295; - regeneration in, xii, 170; - shell of, xv, 18; - under-shield of, xii, 184 - - Tuscarora Deep, xiv, 341 - - Tusks, evolution, iii, 300, xii, 302; - of walruses, 335 - - Tusk Shells, xii, 58, 74 - - Twentieth Century Science, xvi, 195-8 - - Twilight, i, 167, 384; - duration, 18 - - Twine Binders, v, 247-8, 381 - - Twinleaf, distribution, xiii, 351 - - Twins, identical and nonidentical, ix, 44, 327, xv, 27 - - Twisters, Texas, i, 60, 384 - - Two-phase, defined, vi, 203-4, 242 - - Tycho Brahe, ii, 14, 45-8, iv, 95, xvi, 102; - as astrologer, ii, 21; - eclipse of 1560 and, 210; - new star seen by, 12, 331; - Kepler and, 49, 50; - star catalogue of, 300-1 - - Tylor, Prof. E. B., "Anthropology" of, xv, 4; - on English spelling, 177 - - Tyndall, fog signal studies, i, 189, 190 - - Tyndall Effect, viii, 315 - - Type, invention, v, 300; - movable, Chinese, xv, 179 - - Typesetting Machines, v, 307-12 - - Typewriters, development, v, 312-13, 380, 381; - to take spoken words, 331; - used in telegraphy, vii, 112-13 - - Typhoid Fever, x, 286-88; - consumption from, 292; - death rate, viii, 321-2, x, 286, 288; - discovery of germ, xvi, 185; - feeding in, ix, 319; - from water pollution, xiv, 140; - germ, x, 194, 287-8; - germs destroyed by chlorine, viii, 86; - germ diagnosis, x, 215, 216; - immunity to, 205, 207; - inoculation against, 208, 217; - named by P. C. A. Louis, 108; - portal of entry of, 198; - prevention of, 171, xv, 49; - water pollution and, viii, 318-19, 321-2; - wells and, iii, 121 - - Typhoons, i, 136, 384; - locating of, 279-80; - signals (China), 283 - - Tyrannosaurs, iii, 290 - - Tyrian Dye, xii, 72 - - Tyrol, hail crosses, i, 341; - lakes of, xiv, 200 - - Tyrrhenian Basin, xiv, 291 - - - U-boats, motors used, vi, 239 - - Uganda, sleeping sickness in, xiv, 223 - - Uinta Mts., xiv, 83, 98, 226-7, 229; - fault scarp of, 230; - little metamorphism in, 234; - no igneous intrusions in, 228, 230; - river canyons of, 83, 166 - - Ulcerated Teeth, electric treatment, vii, 237 - - Ulloa, Admiral, astronomical studies, ii, 179, 221 - - Ulloca's Rings, i, 184, 384 - - Ultramicroscopic Organisms, x, 200 - - Ultraviolet Rays, iv, 358 (fig.); - absorption in upper air, i, 16; - actinic effects, iv, 365-6, vii, 250; - effects on barium, 254; - frequency of vibration, 260; - in therapeutics, 253; - fluorescence from, iv, 379; - luminosity of objects in, 378; - ozone produced by, i, 16; - radiant energy of, iv, 366; - transmitted by æther, vi, 119, 269; - use of, in medicine, iv, 51; - wave lengths of, 365, 366 - - Ulugh Begh, ii, 39, 300 - - Umbel, flower form, xiii, 50, 200 - - Umbra, of shadows, iv, 332 - - Umbrella Type Generators, vi, 362 - - Unclean Diseases, Jewish laws on, x, 15 - - Uncleanliness, air poisoning by, ix, 270, 352; - diseases from, x, 290, 311; - plagues due to, xv, 49 - - Uncompahgre River, iv, 172, 173 - - Unconformities (geology) defined, iii, 171, 383; - oldest known, 175; - what they represent, 176 - - Unconscious Actions, xi, 27; - from habit, 254-5 - - Unconscious Mind, xi, 47; - in reasoning, 245-6 - (see also Subconscious Mind) - - Unconsciousness, from excessive breathing, ix, 266-7 - - Undamped Waves, vii, 273, 289-90, 291 - - Underclothing, proper materials, x, 307, 308; - soiled, injuriousness of, 310 - - Underfeeding, results, xi, 370 - - Underground Streams, iii, 116, xiv, 149-50; - springs and, iii, 117 - - Underground Transmission, vii, 11-14, 24-31; - in telephone systems, 104, 105 - - Underground Trolley System, vii, 187, 189 - (see also Third Rail) - - Underground Water (see Ground Water) - - Undermining, of rocks, xiv, 131 - - Undernutrition, due to under-chewing, ix, 228 - - Undershot Wheels, v, 76 - - Underwriters, National Board of Fire, vii, 53-4 - - Underwriters' Code, vii, 54, 57, 58, 61, 62 - - Unfit, Survival of, xv, 27 - - Unger, xvi, 166, 167 - - Ungulata, xii, 300-31 - - Unicellular Plants and Animals, xii, 10, xii, 166, 167; - composition and life, ix, 48-9; - food needs of, 33; - food procuring by, 12-15, 19; - motions of, 73, 74; - perception of light and shade by, 105 - (see also Protozoa) - - Unicorn Plant, fruit, xiii, 57 (fig.); - seed dispersal, 343 - - Union Pacific Railway, Rocky Mountain pass of, xiv, 76 - - Unions, chemical, viii, 20-1 - - United States, aerial mail service, i, 44; - animals (carnivorous), xii, 337, 340, 342, 349, 350, 363, 365; - Atlantic coast, xiv, 25, 45, 246-7, 249-50, - (see also Atlantic Coastal Plain); - Atlantic coast rivers, 167; - automobile industry, v, 213-14; - bats of, xii, 371; - beet sugar production, xiii, 216; - birds of, xii, 254-69; - bison of, 329; - brontides, i, 196; - bubonic plague measures, x, 164; - buildings overheated, i, 323; - building stones, iii, 371-2; - coal and coal beds, 343, 345-8; - coal supply, v, 172; - coffee consumption, xiii, 232; - corn crops, critical period, i, 248; - cotton production, early, v, 270; - crop forecasts, i, 251; - dark days, 56-7; - deer species in, xii, 317-18, 322; - deserts of, xiv, 380; - dust deposits, i, 54-5; - dust in west, xiii, 344; - English sparrow in, xv, 21; - fire losses in rural districts, vii, 231; - first locomotive, v, 378, 378-9; - fish of, xii, 151-64; - flies of, 120; - food and vitamine question, x, 267-8; - forests, xiii, 366-73, xiv, 239, 372-4; - forests, national, xiii, 371-2, xiv, 239; - forest fires, i, 48-9, 56-7; - fresh-water mussels of, xii, 65-6; - frogs of, 180, 181; - geological works on, xiv, 171; - glacial topography in northeast, 60-2, 170-1; - gypsum production, iii, 376; - hailstorm insurance, i, 344-5; - high temperature record, i, 209; - history in relation to physiography, xiv, 61-2, 191-5, 242-3, 249-50, - xv, 136; - Indian summers, i, 361; - influenza pandemics, x, 294-5; - iron and steel industries, xvi, 175; - jute production, xiii, 243; - land leveling rate, iii, 31-2; - land policy, xiv, 384; - lava plateau of northwest, 104, 164, 170, 172, 188 - (see Columbia Plateau); - lengthened life in, x, 291; - lightning losses, i, 156; - lizards of, xii, 207, 208; - loess deposits, xiv, 72; - medical practice, history of, x, 104, 115-16, 121-5, xvi, 185-6; - medical schools, xvi, 181; - metal products, iii, 356-70; - meteorological organization, i, 212-13, 215-17, 221, 222; - mineral springs, xiv, 143-4, 145; - newts of, xii, 172; - opossums of, 275; - ore deposits, monographs on, xvi, 173; - oyster industry, xii, 61, 62; - Pacific coast (see Pacific Coast); - paper-making, v, 292; - pellagra in, x, 265, 268; - petroleum and natural gas, iii, 349-51, 353, 354, 355, v, 172-3; - phenological observations, i, 254-5; - plains, coastal and interior, xiv, 213-15; - potash sources, viii, 279; - power plants, viii, 74-5; - prairies, xiii, 373, 374, xiv, 380, 383; - public health fellowships, x, 172; - rainfall i, 110, 110-11, 112, xiv, 352, 360, iii, 113; - rodents of, xii, 288, 290, 293-6; - salt deposits, iii, 374-5; - scurvy in, x, 266; - seasonal advance rate, i, 256; - smoke costs, 64; - snails of, xii, 71; - snakes of, 218-25, 232-8; - snowfall, heaviest, i, 118-19; - specialization of different parts, xv, 131-2, 203; - standard units used in, iv, 45-6, 69; - summer of 1816, i, 359-61; - tea consumption, xiii, 231; - telegraph system, vii, 107-8; - thermometer scale used in, iv, 136; - thunderstorms, vii, 218; - toads of, xii, 176; - tobacco production, xiii, 256, 257, 258, 259; - transportation problem, vii, 194-5; - tuberculosis in, x, 290, xv, 49; - turtles of, xii, 189, 190, 191; - typhoid fever, viii, 322, x, 286; - volcano, only active, iii, 103; - water consumption, viii, 324-5; - water filtering in, 319, 320; - water power, v, 83-4; - water supply by wells, iii, 118; - weather prophets, i, 243; - weeds, xiii, 353-4; - western plateaus, xiv, 220; - western rivers and lakes, 188; - wheat cultivation, xiii, 211; - windmills, i, 37-8; - winds, 128, 133-4; - World War chemical and medical services, x, 176-83, 186, 187-8; - World War disabled, care of, 189-91; - yellow fever extermination, 162 - - U. S. Army, chemical warfare service, x, 187-8; - medical corps in World War, 177-83, 186, 187; - yellow fever campaign, 159, 160-2 - - United States Bureau of Fisheries, xii, 155 - - U. S. Bureau of Standards, aeronautical research, i, 51; - lightning statistics, 156-7 - - United States Forest Service, xiii, 371-2; - aeroplanes in, i, 48-9 - - U. S. Hydrographic Office, i, 273, 277 - - United States Navy, cold-air machines, v, 353; - electricity on ships, vii, 326-35; - meteorological unit, i, 311; - ocean surveys of, xiv, 283; - radio control of ships, vii, 284 - - U. S. Public Health Service, x, 162, 164, 175 - - U. S. Signal Service, i, 282-3; - meteorological observations, 216, 220 - - U. S. Weather Bureau, agricultural service, i, 252, 256-7; - bulletin on temperature and foods, 268; - cloud pictures, 103; - code, 234; - establishment, 216; - fog classification, 95; - forecasts of various kinds, 239-40, 242; - frost predictions, 260; - functions, 7-8; - kiosks, 267; - library, 268-9; - marine division, 273, 275-6, 281; - organization, 222; - question answering, 359; - snow surveys, 118; - Spanish war services, 309; - storm predictions, vii, 218; - sunshine recorder, i, 86-7; - term hours, 203; - terms used, 107, 108, 136; - thermometers, 74, 75; - tide predicting machines, v, 327; - triple registers, i, 87-8; - vanes used, 82; - weather maps, 228, 230, 232-7; - wind-aloft maps, 230, 231, 233; - wireless reports, 280 - - Units, iv, 384; - absolute and gravitational, 64-5; - atmospheric pressure, 121, 123; - electrical, 261, 284-5; - heat, 154; - magnetic force, 249; - power, 80; - work and energy, 79-80 - (see also Weights and Measures) - - Universal Ether (see Æther) - - Universal Soul, or pneuma, x, 27, 29 - - Universe, electricity the basis, vi, 107-8, 113, 118; - elements, 108-9; - energy of, unchanging, iv, 40; - evolution, ii, 366-84; - geocentric conception, ii, 9-10, 34-5; - Greek theories, xvi, 76-7, 77-9, 80, 81-2, 84, 186; - magnetism pervading, vi, 40; - primary concepts, iv, 14-15; - shape of visible, ii, 352-3; - stellar, 294-9; - total available heat of, iv, 193 - - Universities, founding of European, x, 38, xvi, 100; - revival of learning through, ii, 11-12 - - University of Pennsylvania, park in grounds, xi, 188 - - Unknown, uneasiness in face of, xi, 224, 225 - - Unsaturated, defined, viii, 382 - - Unsaturated Paraffins, viii, 230-2 - - Upper Air, composition, i, 10-11, 16; - exploration, 18-19, 20-3; - rarity, 17; - sun corpuscles in, 144, 146, 158, 159, 160; - temperatures, 19, 20 - (see also Stratosphere) - - Ural Mountains, antiquity of, xiv, 96 - - Uraniborg Observatory, ii, 45, xvi, 102 - - Uranium, atomic number, viii, 183, 309; - radioactivity, 184, 185, 186; - symbol and atomic weight, 383 - - Uranus, atmosphere, ii, 250; - comet families, 271; - discovery, 15, 104, 254, 255, 267, 272; - habitability, 250; - Neptune and, 268-9, 270; - orbital deviations, 67, 79, 271; - photographic study, 183; - rotation period, 377; - satellites, 105, 268; - size and orbit, 162-3; - weight, 76, 77 - - Ure, chemist, xvi, 163 - - Urea, artificial production, xvi, 142, x, 279, 329; - composition and amount, 342; - composition and functions, viii, 230, 353-4; - in amine group, 215; - production and disposal of, x, 279, 329, ix, 284, 285 - - Uremia, x, 346 - - Ureter, ix, 273 - - Uric Acid, viii, 230, 354, x, 342-3 - - Urinalysis, x, 378 - - Urinary Tract, as Infection center, x, 220 - - Urine, acidity and alkalinity of, x, 281; - albumen in, 378; - amount and excretion, 379; - amount, on what dependent, ix, 274-5; - constituents and disorders of, x, 342-6; - Corbeil's work on, 37; - formation stages, ix, 273; - nitrogen in, 282; - salt in, 273; - sugar in, 291, 292-4; - urea in, 284; - waste products in, x, 270 - - Urochords, xii, 129 - - Urodela, xii, 169, 170-3 - - Ursa Major, changes in, ii, 306; - spiral nebulæ, 363-4; - system, 122, 343, 344 - - Utah, arid topography of, xiv, 42; - bad lands, 82; - cliff topography, 88; - mining products, iii, 360, 361-2, 362, 363, 368; - plateaus, xiv, 220, 222; - subsidence, iii, 152; - Uinta Mountains, xiv, 83; - volcanic fields of, 317, 318 - - Uteroplacental Circulation, discovery of, x, 94 - - - Vaccination, discovery, x, 100-3, 207-8, xvi, 127; - present extent, x, 103; - success of, 217, 288 - - Vaccines, autogenous, x, 218; - in focal infection diseases, 226 - - Vaccinia, x, 100 - - Vacuum Balloons, v, 222-3 - - Vacuum Cleaner, iv, 127, v, 137, vii, 83-4; - atmospheric pressure in, i, 25; - for barn uses, vii, 228 - - Vacuum Machine, iv, 127 - - Vacuum Refrigerating Machines, v, 354-6 - - Vacuums, boiling point of water in, v, 354; - detonation from filling, vii, 211; - early attempts to obtain, iv, 29-30; - electrical nonconductors, 259; - electric discharges in, 317-18; - falling bodies in, 97; - Gessler's and Crookes's x, 183-4; - heat, v, 345-58; - high, iv, 127, vii, 376; - nature's abhorrence of, iv, 27, 114; - of steam condensers, vi, 355; - Pascal's studies, xvi, 110; - sound in, i, 186, iv, 195 - - Vacuum Tube Generators, vii, 274, 276-8, 291 - - Vacuum Tube Receivers, vii, 270, 278-80 - - Vacuum Tube Rectifiers, vi, 339-41 - - Vacuum Tube Repeaters, vi, 125 - - Vacuum Tubes, cathode rays in, iv, 317; - Gessler's, x, 183-4; - use in wireless service, vi, 125, 339-41, vii, 277-80 - (see also Crookes Tube, Coolidge Tube) - - Vagus Nerve, xi, 30 - - Vail, Theodore N., vi, 87 - - Valence (chemistry), viii, 93-4, 382; - in periodic classification, 178, 180-1, 179-80; - ionization and, 122; - table of, vii, 384; - variable, viii, 94, 179, 189; - variable in catalyzers, 102; - zero, 178, 181 - - Valeric Acid, viii, 220 - - Valley Breezes, i, 131, 132, 377 - - Valley Glaciers, iii, 60, 62-3, 67 - - Valleys, air currents, i, 294 (fig.), 296; - drowned (see Drowned Valleys); - fault-made, xiv, 117-21, 127-8; - glacial, iii, 64, 66, xiv, 56-8, 259-60; - hanging, iii, 65, xiv, 57; - historical importance of, xv, 138-9; - longitudinal in folded strata, xiv, 93, 94-6, 98, 226, 229; - people of, xv, 122; - rift or trough, xiv, 117-21, 123; - river (see River Valleys) - - Valley Trains, iii, 68 - - Valliere River, tributary changes, xiv, 184 - - Valparaiso, harbor of, xiv, 265 - - Valve Gears, inventions, v, 379 - - Valves, of heart, ix, 204; - leaking, 206-7 - - Valvular Heart Disease, x, 332 - - Vampires, xii, 369, 371-2 - - Vanadium, use and occurrence, xiv, 238; - symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Van Deventer, obstetrician, x, 80 - - Van Drebel, Cornelius, v, 196 - - Vanes, wind, i, 82, 384 - - Vanessas, xii, 117 - - Van Helmont, Jean Baptiste, x, 67-9, 71, xvi, 108, 110, 111, 119, 163; - recipe for creation of mice, x, 139 - - Van Hise, geological work, xvi, 172-3, 174 - - Vanilla, xiii, 259-60; - chemical composition, viii, 239, 251 - - Vanity, clothes due to, xv, 253, 255; - impulse of, 185 - - Van Maanan, astronomer, ii, 153, 314, 363 - - Van Swieten, x, 77, 104 - - Van't Hoff, xvi, 164 - - Vapor Baths, temperature of, x, 251 - - Vapor Pressure, iv, 167-8, viii, 303-5 - - Vaporization, latent heat of, iv, 173-4 - - Vapors, condensation of, viii, 304 - - Variable Stars, ii, 324-30; - collision theory, 327, 329, 333; - color, 296; - discoveries by Bailey, 146; - in star clusters, 337, 338; - inception of study, 16; - sun, 171, 187 - - Variability, in living things, xiii, 326-7 - (see Variation); - meteorological, i, 384 - - Variation (biological), xiii, 326-36, xv, 22-3, xvi, 151; - causes and perpetuation, ix, 327, 328-9, xvi, 153; - in human beings, xv, 27; - in plants, xiii, 326-36; - meristic and substantive, xvi, 155; - new species developed from, xv, 24-5; - principles understood in Egypt, xvi, 72; - selection and perpetuation, xvi, 154-5 - - Varieties, crossing of, results, ix, 333-4, x, 231, xiii, 332-3; - defined, 329-30; - mixture, 147; - origin, 326-35 - - Variola (smallpox), x, 100 - - Varney, B. M., i, 296 - - Varnishes, ancient knowledge of, viii, 269; - chemistry of, 264-6; - drying oils in, 245, 247 - - Varro, on weather vanes, i, 68 - - Varus, defeat of, i, 307 - - Vascular Cryptograms, alternation of generations, xvi, 166 - - Vascular System, xiii, 65-6; - not in mosses, 69; - first appearance, 303, 304, 306 - - Vasoconstrictor Center, ix, 215-19 - - Vasodilator Center, ix, 219-21 - - Vasomotor Center, ix, 215 - - Vasomotor System, efficiency, how developed, x, 238-9, 240, 241; - heat loss, regulation by, ix, 311 - - Vassenius, astronomer, ii, 179 - - "Vaterland," steamship, v, 193 - - Vaughn, on anaphylaxis, x, 214 - - Vedas, song to day-god, ii, 23-4; - weather proverbs in, i, 67 - - Veery, xii, 269 - - Vega, Arabic name, ii, 39, 302; - color, 297; - Sirian star, 115; - spectrum, 116 - - Vegetable Acids, viii, 222-3 - - Vegetable Fats, viii, 244, 246; - vitamines absent in, 369, ix, 33, x, 259, 260-1, 262 - - Vegetable Kingdom, chemistry of, viii, 191; - food source of man, ix, 24; - how distinguished, xii, 14-15, xiii, 13-14; - relation to animals, viii, 334 - (see also Plants) - - Vegetable Oils, composition and energy value, ix, 28 - - Vegetables, calory loss in preparing, ix, 299; - cooking of, effects, viii, 368; - food value, 365, ix, 34, 280, 300, x, 259, 260, 262, 266, 273, 279; - freezing prevention, iv, 161; - frost danger point, i, 258; - green bile from eating of, ix, 275; - origin of common, xiii, 221-4, xiv, 382 - - Vegetable Sheep Plant, xiii, 379 - - Vegetable Silk, viii, 255-6 - - Vegetarianism, protein supplies in, ix, 280; - remarks on, 285 - - Vegetation, defined, xiv, 363; - determined by climate, and soil, 363-81; - effect of light and darkness on, xiii, 84-90; - effect on winds, i, 292-3; - electrical stimulation, vii, 351-3; - growth in tropical forests, xiii, 358-9, 360, 364-5; - optimal temperature, xi, 51; - past and present, xiii, 174, 175; - phosphorescence of decaying, i, 346; - soil and rock protection by, xiv, 42; - types on what dependent, xiii, 12 - - Vegetative Nervous System, x, 352-3 - - Vehicles, evolution of, v, 17 - - Veins, of body, ix, 191, 195, 197-8; - of body, bleeding from, x, 39; - blood in, carbon dioxide content, ix, 263, 264; - blood in, color of, 260-1; - functions in circulation of blood, x, 63-65, 334; - connections with arteries, ix, 192-3 (fig.) 197; - valves of, 222; - of leaves, xiii, 32-3, 37 (fig.), 79 - - Veins, Mineral, defined, iii, 383-4; - how formed, 126 - - Velocity, iv, 56-7, 384; - acceleration of, 57 (see Acceleration); - energy from, 78; - momentum and, 62-3; - Newton's laws and high, ii, 80, 81; - of falling bodies, iv, 65; - relation to power in machines, 92; - required on centrifugal railroads, 74; - unity of, 64 - - Velpeau, x, 130 - - Vena Cava, ix, 197-8, 201 (fig.), x, 334; - waste fluids emptied into, ix, 222 - - Vena Contracta, v, 89-90 - - Venereal Diseases, contagion demonstrated by Saliceto, x, 39; - quacks and, 76 - - Venice, commercial growth and decline, xiv, 308 - - Venomous Snakes, xii, 224-38 - - Ventilation, i, 321-2, viii, 331-2, ix, 267-70, x, 237-8; - air moving systems, i, 323; - electrical, on battleships, vii, 330-1; - katathermometer in, i, 320; - importance of, to infants, ix, 352; - ozone, vii, 353-4; - perception of need of, ix, 97 - - Ventral Segments, of vibrations, iv, 217 - - Ventricles, of brain, xi, 29 - - Ventricles, of heart, 201 (fig.), ix, 203, 204-5 - - Venus (planet), ii, 190-2; - atmosphere, 130-1, 191, 192, 246; - life on, 246-7; - lucid planet, 264; - non-rotation theory, 377; - orbit, 50, 162, 163; - phases of, xvi, 103; - phases, discovery of, ii, 54, 83, 94; - size, 162, 163; - stellar magnitude, 296; - transits, 58, 129; - weight, 76, 77 - - Venus's Flower Basket, xii, 31 - - Venus's Flytrap, xiii, 40-1, 64 (illus.) - - Vera Cruz, harbor of, xiv, 266 - - Verbal Images, xi, 222 - - Verdant Zones, i, 259, 384 - - Verdun, defense of, xiv, 90-1 - - Verkhoyansk, Siberia, i, 209-10 - - Vermilion, viii, 170 - - Vermont, marble production, iii, 189, 371; - summer of 1816, i, 360 - - Verne, Jules, novel by, i, 170 - - Verrazano, voyage of, xiv, 310 - - Vertebrae, of spine, ix, 64, 65 (fig.); - origin from coelom, xii, 87 - - Vertebrates, xii, 127-9; - characteristics of, 132; - classification, iii, 260; - evolution, 287 (chart), xii, 167; - geological history, iii, 281-306; - reproduction in, xv, 54; - resemblances among, 55-6; - structure and organs of, 55-6 - - Vertical Distances, xi, 185 - - Verworn, Dr. Max, quoted, xi, 67 - - Vesalius, Andreas, x, 46, 50-3, 65 - - Vesico-vaginal Fistula, x, 122 - - Vesta (planet), ii, 255, 257 - - Vestal Virgins, cult of, viii, 89; - fire of, xv, 234 - - Vestibule, of head, ix, 90 - - Vesuvius, Mount, cone of, xiv, 100, 225; - eruptions of, iii, 99-100, xiv, 313, 326, 338; - flashing arcs, i, 194; - material ejected, xiv, 326-7; - only active European volcano, 316; - soils and vegetation, viii, 339; - soils on, xiv, 329 - - Vetches, in pea family, xiii, 198; - leaves, 113; - used in soil enrichment, 98 - - Veterans of World War, care of, x, 189-91 - - Vibration, Vibrating Bodies, iv, 86-8, 196; - amplitude of, 211; - elasticity and, 156; - frequency defined, 205, 382; - interferences of, 218-22; - of elastic bodies, ix, 98-9, 100-1; - of rods, iv, 213-15, 223-4; - of strings, 216-17, 223; - period of, 196, 205, 383; - rate of, on what dependent, 213, 223; - sound production by, 195-6; - sympathetic, 225-6, vii, 118, 261-2; - transverse and longitudinal, iv, 215 - (see also Waves) - - Vibrators, electric, vii, 87 - - Vibgyor, i, 165 - - Vichy Springs, xiv, 145 - - Vickers-Vimy Bomber, v, 233 - - Vicksburg, capture of, xiv, 194 - - Victoria Falls, iii, 49, xiv, 131-2; - forests at, 369-70 - - Victoria Nyanza, xiv, 120, 204 - - Vicuñas, xii, 313 - - Vienna, siege of, xiv, 308-9 - - Vienna Meteorological Congress, i, 219, 220 - - Vigo, Juan del, x, 155 - - Vikings, history of, xiv, 261 - - Vilmorin, work on sugar beet, xiii, 216 - - Vincent, George E., x, 175 - - Vinci, Leonardo da (see Leonardo da Vinci) - - Vinegar, acetic acid in, vi, 111, viii, 220, 293; - from cider, 219; - in preserving, 372; - production of, 248, 249 - - Vines, nature and methods, xiii, 27-8; - tendrils, 111-12; - of tropical forests, 361-2 - - Vineyards, and hailstorms, i, 343 - - Vinland, xiv, 261 - - Violence, and will, xi, 264 - - Violet (color), complementary color of, iv, 367; - primary color, 366; - vibration rate, ix, 115; - wave lengths, i, 165, iv, 360 - - Violet Light, fluorescence from, iv, 379; - of mercury arc lamp, 282, 283; - use of, in medicine, 51 - - Violet Ray Machine, x, 183-4 - - Violets, dogtooth, xiii, 184; - fertilization, 120; - seed dispersal, 56, 339; - stemless, 15 - - Violin, intervals on, iv, 208; - resonance chamber, 223 - - Violin-Piano, vi, 97 - - Vipers, xii, 229-32; - ancestry of, 225; - hedgehogs and, 367 - - Virchow, x, 128-9; - "Cellular Pathology," xvi, 182; - founder of cellular pathology, x, 119; - malaria studies, 156-7 - - Vireos, xii, 268 - - Virginia, former volcanoes of, xiv, 318; - mineral springs of, 143; - rainfall, i, 338 - - Virginia Creeper, xiii, 28 - - Virility, from cross breeding, xiii, 120, 122-3 - - Viruses, attenuating principle, x, 141, 142, 143; - filterable, 141, 161 - - Viscachas, xii, 289; - acquisitiveness of, 292-3; - prey of boas, 215 - - Viscera, emotion effects, xi, 134-5; - insensible to pain, 118 - - Visceral Senses, xi, 63-4 - - Vishnu's Temple, Grand Canyon, xiv, 84 - - Visibility, i, 384; in aviation, 303; - scale, 314 - - Vision, (sense) xi, 83-97; - compared with hearing, 98; - defects of, ix, 112-14; - distance of distinct, iv, 342, 343; - limits (wave lengths), 360, 361; - motions connected with, ix, 82; - operation, vi, 271-3; - persistency of, iv, 346-7, v, 329, vi, 155 - (see also Sight) - - Vis Plastica, iii, 14 - - Visual Hallucinations, x, 358, xi, 91 - - Visual Purple, of retina, xi, 96 - - Vital Capacity, defined, x, 339 - - Vital Function, tests of, x, 376-9 - - Vitality, of infants, ix, 352 - - Vital Knot, ix, 257 - - Vital Processes, chemical nature of, viii, 353, 355, ix, 34; - chemical control of, 167-72; - control of breathing, 256-7; - functional metabolism of, 295-6; - no energy consumed in, viii, 367; - past theories of, x, 69, 76-7, 84, 85, 86 - - Vitamines, viii, 362, 369-70, ix, 33-4, 35-6, 347, x, 256-68 - - Vitreous Electricity, iv, 258 - - Vitruvius, work on architecture, xvi, 98 - - Vividness, in associations, xi, 205 - - Vlacq, Adrian, xvi, 104 - - Vladivostok, harbor of, xiv, 267 - - Vocal Cords, ix, 83 - - Vocal Organs (see Speech Organs) - - Vocations, avocations and, xi, 375-7; - choice, 276, 358-61 - - Vocational Guidance, xi, 358-61 - - Vocational Training, of veterans, x, 190 - - Voice, evolution of, in amphibians, xii, 170, 178; - expressiveness of tone of, xv, 144; - fear effects on, xi, 132; - modulations of, iv, 209, 232; - pitch in public speaking, 232; - quality of, to what due, 233; - range of human, ix, 99; - sound of, in dense atmosphere, 31-2; - use of, in communication, xv, 151-2 - - Voice Organs, in birds, xii, 248-9 - - Voice Production, motions of, ix, 83 - - Volatile Liquids, iv, 174 - - Volcanic Activity, distribution, iii, 100 (map), 227 (map), xiv, 314-21; - hot springs and, 143, 144; - of past ages, iii, 177, 191, 196, 197, 203, 219, 226-9 - - Volcanic Belts, xiv, 314-17 - - Volcanic Bombs, xiv, 323 - - Volcanic Cones, xiv, 100-2, 225; - oceanic, 277, 289 - - Volcanic Dust, xiv, 324; - from Krakatoa, i, 18, 57-8, iii, 101, xiv, 325; - from Tomboro, i, 360; - from various eruptions, iii, 102-3; - in atmosphere, i, 53, 57-8, 360; - in ocean, iii, 54-5, xiv, 325; - soils of, xiv, 69, 329; - temperature effects, i, 58-9, 360; - thick deposit in Colorado, iii, 229; - wind carried, xiv, 327, xiii, 344 - - Volcanic Earthquakes, xiv, 338-9 - - Volcanic Eruptions, iii, 99-103, xiv, 321-9; - earthquakes and, iii, 93-4, xiv, 338-9; - temperature effects, i, 58-9 - - Volcanic Islands, xiv, 277, 289, 314, 316; - new, 319 - - Volcanic Necks, iii, 111; - of Mount Pelee, 103 - - Volcanic Rocks, iii, 13, 384, xiv, 99-100; - distribution in western America, iii, 227 (map); - extrusive, xiv, 105; - land forms in, 100-5 - - Volcanic Soil, xiv, 69, 329 - - Volcanoes, iii, 99-110, xiv, 312-29; - carbon dioxide from, i, 13; - distribution of active, iii, 100 (fig.), 227 (map), xiv, 314-21; - earthquakes and, iii, 93-4, xiv, 331, 338; - energy stores and harnessing of, v, 178-80; - fire source, xv, 230; - in sea, xiv, 285-6; - materials from, 104, 323-4 - - Voles, xii, 285, 290 - - Volga River, base level of, xiv, 164; - continental character, 153 - - Volition, xi, 259-67 (see Will) - - Volkmann, on tedium, xi, 195; - pupil of Muller, x, 118 - - Volta, Alessandro, vi, 18-19, xvi, 122 - - Voltaic Cells, iv, 272, 295-6 - - Voltaic Pile, vi, 18-19, 61-2, 72; - invention, xvi, 122, 189 - - Voltaire, messengers, xvi, 11; - naturalism of, 111, 117 - - Volterra, soffioni of, v, 179 - - Volt-coulomb, iv, 294 - - Voltmeters, vi, 62, vii, 153-65, 376; - ammeters used as, 167-8; - electromagnetic, 171; - galvanometers as, 179; - invention, vi, 23; - Kelvin's, 24 - - Volt Ratings, vi, 53; - importance, 9, 72 - - Volts, Voltage, iv, 280-1, 284, vi, 53-4, 57, vii, 376; - amperage, resistance and, (see Ohm's Law); - changed by converters, vi, 345-8; - dangers of excessive, 9, 72; - decrease in transmission, vii, 189; - direct current, 164; - high, in smoke precipitation, vi, 164; - high, in transmission, 159-61, 331-2, vii, 10-11; - induced and generated, 370; - magnitude, on what dependent, 139, 144-5; - measurement (see Voltmeters); - regulation, vi, 188, 328-9, 346; - regulation in automobiles, vii, 144-50; - regulation in motors, vi, 226-8; - residual, 191; - stepped up and down, 309-10; - terminal and generated, 186; - transformation, 159-61 (see Transformers); - watt-seconds in relation to, 82, 85 - (see also Electromotive Force) - - Voltage Regulators, vi, 188, 328-9, 346 - - Volume, metric units of, viii, 28; - of gases, laws, 106-8 - - Volumetric Analysis, viii, 291, 292-5 - - Voluntary Actions, factors, xi, 260-5 - - Vomiting, cause, xi, 39 - - Von Kluck, course of, xiv, 92 - - Vortices, atmospheric, i, 134-5; - Descartes' theory of, ii, 60 - - Vosges Mountains, xiv, 87 (map), 90, 117 - - Vowel Sounds, nature of, xi, 104; - photograph record of, iv, 234 - - Vries, Hugo de, on mutants, xiii, 333, 334 - - V-shaped Depression, i, 238, 384 - - Vulcan (planet), ii, 189 - - Vulcanizing of Rubber, xiii, 245; - sulphur used in, viii, 77, 257-8 - - Vulcano, dormant volcano, xiv, 317 - - Vulcanology, science of, xvi, 38 - - Vultures, xii, 260 - - - Waialeale, Mount, rainfall on, i, 112 - - Waiting, slowness of time in, xi, 194, 195, 196 - - Wakefulness, causes of, ix, 218-19 - (see also Insomnia) - - Wake Robin, xiii, 176, 183 (fig.) - - Wales, Britons in, xiv, 243; - geology of, 271-2; - marriage by capture in, xv, 283 - - Walking, act and processes, ix, 89-90, 156-8; - balance, how maintained, xi, 31; - chain reflex in, 250; - correct carriage in, x, 305, 306; - as exercise, 304, 317; - high heel effects on, ix, 69; - of children, 351; - of men and apes, xv, 58; - work equivalent, x, 305 - - Walking Ferns, xiii, 65 - - Walking Machines, v, 215-16 - - Walking Stick, ix, 9, xii, 107-8 - - Wallabies, xii, 278-9, 280 - - Wall, Dr., on lightning, vi, 14 - - Wallace, A. R., on distribution of animals, xvi, 140; - on Martian life, ii, 248 - - Wallis J., mathematician, xvi, 113-14, 115 - - Wallpack Ridge, xiv, 51 - - Walnut Tree, antiquity of species, xiii, 324-5; - family, 191; - petals absent, 190; - sexes in, 46, 191; - in U. S. forests, xiv, 373 - - Walpurgis Night, i, 184 - - Walruses, xii, 334-5; - in glacial period, xiv, 376 - - Walschaerts Gear, v, 210 - - Walter, Dr. B., i, 147 - - Walter Reed Hospital, x, 189 - - Walther, patron of Regiomontanus, ii, 40, 41 - - Wapiti, xii, 317-18; - antlers of, 316 - - War, "art" of, i, 306; - chemistry in, viii, 262-4; - crowd psychology in, xi, 330-1; - destructiveness of modern, v, 359; - engines of, 359-75; - inventions and, 12, 350-60, 375; - meteorology in, i, 306-15; - science and, xvi, 9; - topographical considerations in, xiv, 92-3 - - Warblers, colors of, xii, 245-6 - - War Dances, xv, 307 - - Warm-blooded Animals, diseases of, x, 206; - temperature regulation in, x, 250, ix, 305 - - Warm-bloodedness, ix, 305; - advantages, 306-7; - importance of, xii, 244, 271 - - Warmth, sense of, ix, 93-4, 319-20, xi, 109, 112, 113, 114 - - Warping (geological), xiv, 35-6, 37, 38-9 - - Warp Threads, v, 278-9, 281, xv, 244-5, 246 (fig.) - - Warren, Dr., x, 125 - - Wart-hog, xii, 310 - - War Vessels, first steam, v, 378 - - Wasatch Mountains, faulting in, iii, 89, 90-2, 152; - fault scarp of, xiv, 117, 122, 124, 230; - parallel beach lines on, 207; - recent uplift, iii, 39 - - Washing Machines, Electric, vii, 78-82, 90 - - Washing Soda, viii, 135 - - Washington, (city), malaria reduction in, x, 300 - - Washington, (State), earthquakes in, xiv, 331; - forests in, 374; - lava formations, 102, 104, 318 - - Washington Monument, diurnal gyration, v, 71 - - Washington Thorn, xiii, 198 (fig.) - - Wasps, xii, 125-6; - appearance in Tertiary, 104; - nests of, xv, 266 - - Watches, balance wheel construction, iv, 148; - historical development, v, 57, 65, 379; - mechanism, 68-72; - precision of modern, 67-8; - radium dials, iv, 380; - screened from magnetism, vi, 32 - - Watchung Mts., xiv, 111 - - Water, atmospheric content, viii, 67; - basic element (Thales), xvi, 77; - body needs and uses of, viii, 355-6, 357, 358, ix, 37-8, 173, 233, - 246-7, 262, 272, 273, 274, 276; - body percentage of, viii, 348 - boiling of, by cooling, iv, 168-9; - boiling point, i, 73, iv, 136, 137, 141, 168, 178; - boiling point and pressure, 170, v, 354, viii, 303; - buoyant power of, iv, 104, 105; - capillarity, viii, 37; - catalyzing power, 103; - chemical composition, 26, 39-40, ix, 26; - chemical properties, viii, 38-40, 355-6; - cleansing agent, 142; - color and taste, 40; - compounds of, 38-9, 70, 79-80, 89, 152-3; - compressibility, v, 106, 107; - cooling by evaporation of, iv, 174, v, 349-50; - critical temperature and pressure, iv, 171-2, 173; - decomposition, viii, 21, 39, 101-2, 134, 184; - density of, iv, 113; - density standard, 111, 112, 149; - distribution of, on earth, xiv, 20-5; - drinking of, and obesity, x, 275; - drinking of, at meals, ix, 229; - electrical conductivity of, iv, 296; - electrolysis of, viii, 30-1; - expansion on freezing, iv, 149-51, 163, viii, 38, xiv, 75; - fire extinguishing by, viii, 57; - fluid temperatures, ii, 244; - foreign substances in, viii, 40-1; - forest requirements, xiv, 377-8; - formed by body tissues, ix, 262; - formed as by-product of salts, viii, 115, 116-17; - freezing of, warming process, iv, 161; - freezing of, while boiling, 169; - freezing point, i, 73, 136, 137, 141, 173; - freezing point, lowered by alcohol, viii, 299-300; - geological work (see Streams, Rivers, Lakes, Ocean); - grass requirements, xiv, 381; - ground (see Ground Water); - hardness of, viii, 151-2, 318, 377, iii, 126, xiv, 147; - heat capacity of, iv, 155, 162-3, 186; - heat conductivity, 176, 179; - heat convection in, 177-8; - heat developed in formation, viii, 95-6; - heating of, mechanical equivalent, iv, 49-50, v, 350; - height of rise in vacuum, iv, 27; - hydrogen produced from, viii, 30-2; - hydrolysis, 39, 217-18; - imperviousness of clay to, xiv, 137; - importance, viii, 36; - in animal body and plants, 348, 355-6; - in carbohydrates, 223, 224; - in carbon-hydrogen cycle, 350; - in protoplasm, ix, 37-8, 282; - in various foods, viii, 362, 363, 364, 365; - infant's need of, ix, 350; - interestingness of, xvi, 14; - ionization of, viii, 123; - "juvenile," xiv, 151-2; - kinetic energy, v, 84-5; - latent heat of, iv, 161, 174, 188, v, 169, 353-4, viii, 38; - laws of, widely known, vi, 106; - mechanical uses (see Hydraulic Machinery); - machines for raising, iv, 26-7; - men's need of, xiii, 101-2; - metabolism affected by, ix, 37-8; - metric measurements of, iv, 111, 112; - a mineral, iii, 308; - mixtures at different temperatures, iv, 153-4; - mixtures with ice, 160-1, v, 353-4; - necessity of, to life, x, 275, ix, 37-8, xi, 66, xiii, 101-2; - of chemical union, viii, 38-9; - of crystallization, 38; - of limestone regions, xiv, 147; - ore deposition by, viii, 199; - origin of life in, ii, 243, 244, xvi, 78; - origin on earth, iii, 160, 163; - oxygen in solution, viii, 35, ix, 182; - photographing objects under, i, 47-8; - physical properties, viii, 37-8, 40-1, 355; - plant fertilization by, xiii, 123, 149-52, 158-9, 160, 161, 165; - plants' storage of, 28, 41-2, 106-7, 378, 379, 380; - plants' use of, viii, 335, 337-8, 347, xiii, 90-6, 101-9, xiv, 65, - 377-8, 381, ix, 26-7; - power in atoms, vi, 115; - pressure of, iv, 117-19, v, 94-5, vi, 47-9, 56; - produced by combustion or decay, viii, 61; - produced by volcanoes, iii, 107; - purified by ozone, vii, 354-5; - purification by dissolved oxygen, viii, 40, 111; - purity of flowing, iii, 121; - rate of flow, vi, 68-9, 70-1; - reflection of light by, iv, 373-4; - reflection of objects in, 337; - refraction of light by, 323, 326-7, 331, 373-4; - resistance, v, 190-2; - rock-weathering by, iii, 22-3, 24-6, viii, 194-5; - seed dispersal by, xiii, 346-8; - softening of, viii, 135, 152, 323-4; - soil, xiii, 92; - solvent action and solutions in, viii, 37, 111-13, 120-1, 217; - sound transmission by, v, 107, 108; - sound velocity in, iv, 201; - specific gravity basis, 109, 111; - specific heat of, 155, viii, 37; - states of, iv, 22, 131, 139, 151-2; - supercooled, viii, 113; - temperature in steam engines, v, 139-40; - temperature of greatest density, iv, 149, v, 350; - terrestrial, circulation and sources, xiv, 134-5, 151; - therapeutic uses of, x, 85, 383; - transparency in Lake Tahoe, iii, 154; - weight of, iv, 117, 149, v, 94, vi, 80-1, 147; - within the earth, iii, 109-10, 113-29 - - Water-bearing Strata, excavating through, v, 116-17 - - Water Birds, xii, 250-9; - feathers of, 244; - sleeping of, xi, 287 - - Water Boa, xii, 216 - - Water Boatmen (insects), xii, 114 - - Water Bugs, xii, 114 - - Water Chestnut, source, xiii, 266 - - Water Clocks, ancient, v, 59-63 - - Water-cooled Engines, v, 159-61 - - Water Cress, taste, xiii, 197 - - Water Dogs, xii, 171 - - Water-dripping Plants, xiii, 107-8 - - Water Drops, atmospheric, i, 91-2, 93, 95; - phenomena due to, 150, 166, 175, 177, 183 - - "Wateree," U. S. S., xiv, 337 - - Waterfalls, caused by Ice Age, iii, 242-3; - energy of, iv, 81; - in glacial valleys, xiv, 57; - in homogeneous rock, 132-3; - in old and new regions, iii, 33-4, xiv, 48, 49, 57, 159; - types, iii, 44-50 - - Water Gaps, xiv, 98 - - Water Glass, viii, 141 - - Water Hammer, in pipes, v, 84, vi, 254, 364 - - Water Hemlock, seeds, xiii, 201 - - Water Jets, digging with, v, 88; - dredging with, 258; - power, 80; - propulsion of boats by, 190; - vena contracta of, 89-90 - - Water Lilies, Amazon, xiii, 359-60; - class of, 196 - - Waterloo, Napoleon's indigestion before, ix, 238; - weather conditions, i, 307 - - Watermelon, xiii, 54, 227; - water content, viii, 365 - - Water Meters, v, 87-8 - - Water Organ, v, 110-11 - - Water Pipes, bamboo stems as, xiii, 183; - bursting of, iv, 151, xiv, 75; - electrical thawing, vii, 336-9; - electrolysis, 188; - rate of flow in, vi, 71; - water hammer in, 254, 364, v, 84 - - Watering Places, xiv, 145 - - Water Plethysmograph, xi, 284 - - Water Power, coal and, xiv, 31, 191; - compressing air with, v, 89-93; - discovery of, xv, 240-1; - early and present use, v, 75-6, 173, xiv, 31; - electricity from, vi, 162-3, 351-2, 361-70; - future possibilities, v, 83-4; - gravity the real power, 76-7, 139; - growing use of, viii, 267, 283; - high head importance, v, 77; - in mountain countries, xiv, 242; - use on farms, vii, 233-4; - "White Coal," v, 174 - (see also Hydraulic Machinery, Hydroelectric Plants, Water Jets, Water - Wheels) - - Waterproofing, by rubber, xiii, 245 - - Water Ram, v, 84-6 - - Water Scorpions, xii, 114 - - Watersheds, Atlantic-Pacific, xiv, 189-90; - in young and old regions, 158, 161 - - Water Snakes, xii, 217-18 - - Water Solubles (vitamines), x, 260, 261, 262 - - Waterspouts, i, 138, 384; - cores, 299; - lifting power, 356; - superstitions, 335 - - Water Supply, common sources, viii, 317-18; - from wells, iii, 118, viii, 317-18, xiv, 139-40; - of American cities, viii, 317, 318, 320, 322, xiv, 140-1; - pollution and purification, viii, 41, 317-24, xiv, 139-41; - purification by chlorine, viii, 86, 321; - purified by compressed air, iv, 130-1; - snow sources, i, 118; - typhoid contamination of, x, 287 - - Water Table, iii, 113, 118, xiv, 136; - rise of, i, 355 - - Water-tube Boilers, v, 140 - - Water Turbines, v, 82-3, vi, 361-2, 363-4; - efficiency, v, 170; - at Keokuk Plant, 81-2, 82-3; - of Niagara Power Plant, vi, 372-3, 374-5 - - Water Vapor, atmospheric, i, 10, 11, 14-15, 76, iv, 183; - precipitation, i, 90-6, 113, 115, 120, 121; - need of nuclei for condensation, viii, 113; - saturated pressure of, iv, 168, 169 - - Water Wheels, early use, v, 19, 75, 76; - energy used by, iv, 181; - former and modern types, v, 76-7; - invention of, xv, 240-1 - (see also Pelton Wheels, Water Turbines) - - "Waterwitch," steamboat, v, 190 - - Water Witches, iii, 123, 124 - - Water Yam, xiii, 89-90 - - Watkins Glen, iii, 44, 243 - - Watson, Sir Thomas, x, 112 - - Watson, Prof., asteroids of, ii, 256-7 - - Watt, James, power unit named for, iv, 285; - steam engine, v, 44, 47, 144-6, 376, 377, xvi, 125 - - Watt, Sir George, book on Indian plants, xiii, 266 - - Watt, power unit, iv, 80, 285, 310, 312, vi, 84-5, vii, 376; - method of ascertaining, vii, 166; - value in candlepower, iv, 352 - - Watt-hour, iv, 312, vi, 82; - erg and calorie equivalents, vii, 382 - - Watt-hour Meters, vii, 174-7 - - Wattmeters, vii, 172-4, 376; - electromagnetic, 171 - - Watt-second, vi, 82, 84, 85 - (see also Joule) - - Wave Length, iv, 196, 213, 214 (fig.), 384 - - Wave Meters, vii, 292-5 - - Waves, Ocean (see Ocean Waves) - - Waves (vibrations), defined, iv, 196, 384 - (see also Light Waves, Sound Waves, etc.) - - Wax Candles, viii, 246, 247 - - Waxes, viii, 245-6, 350 - - Weak-Mindedness, facial expressions of, xv, 63, 64 (fig.) - - "Weaning" Treatments, xi, 248 - - Weapon Salve, x, 79 - - Weapons, evolution of, v, 12-13, xv, 102-10, 190-2, 205-21 - - Weariness, indigestion from, ix, 241 - - Weasel Family, xii, 347-51 - - Weasels, xii, 348-9; - storing of food by, 292 - - Weather, aeronautics and, i, 284, 285; - atmospheric pressure and, 237-8, 241-2; - business dependence on, 261-70; - climate and, 199; - clothing in relation to, x, 309-10; - "comes from west," xiv, 350; - control of animal and plant life, i, 254; - correlation studies, 253; - crops and, 245-50, 252-3; - cycles, 242; - elements and how observed, 70-89; - heights of phenomena, 17, 18; - human effects, 316, 323-4, 330-1; - military importance, 306-15; - modern commenting on, 66; - moon's influence, ii, 201; - predictions for future eclipses, 217; - pressure areas and, i, 135, 218, 237-8, xiv, 349-50; - "recurrence," i, 363; - solar radiation and, 218-19, ii, 186-7, iv, 194; - sun-spots and, i, 16, 242, ii, 186; - variety in relation to efficiency, xiv, 357; - world-wide interrelations, i, 218, 241-2 - - Weather Bureau (see U. S. Weather Bureau) - - Weather Forecasts and Forecasting, i, 224-6, 236-44; - advertising and, 265-6; - aeronautical, 18, 304-5; - agricultural, 256-7; - basis, 135; - frost, i, 260; - history of, xvi, 102, 177; - kites and balloons in, i, 22; - "odds," 314; - rainbows in, 177; - small progress in art, 382; - sunrise and sunsets in, 166; - United States, 216-17 - (see also Weather Predictions) - - Weather Glass, i, 70 - - Weather Instruments, i, 68-89 - - Weather Insurance, i, 269-70 - - Weather-Making, i, 332-45 - - Weather Maps, i, 225-36; - "flat," 239, 372; - marine, 273-6; - shipboard, 281; - winds on, 125-6, 134 - - Weather Observations and Reports, i, 66-89, 213-23; - aeronautical, 304-5, 314; - earliest instrumental, 201; - humidity in, xiv, 353-4; - marine, i, 274-6, 280-2; - used in crop forecasting, 251-2; - World War, 310, 314 - - Weather Predictions, long range, i, 241-4; - value to farmers, 249-50 - - Weather Prophets, distribution, i, 243 - - Weather Proverbs, i, 106, 177 - - Weather Vanes, ancient, i, 68; - common and scientific, 82 - - Weather Wells, i, 354, 384 - - Weathering of Rocks, iii, 22, 384, viii, 194-5, 338; - agencies and processes, iii, 22-9, xiv, 41-3, 62-4, 75-9, 105-6; - determined by character and arrangement of rocks, 44, 79, 130, 133; - in deserts and arid regions, iii, 23, 72, xiv, 41-2, 62, 69, 77-9; - on mountains, iii, 23-4, xiv, 40, 233; - plutonic rocks, 105-6, 107, 110, 112-13 - - Weaving, historical development of, xv, 243, 244-7; - pattern-making, v, 280-2; - threads, 276, 278-80 - - Weber's Law, xi, 184-5 - - Webs, of spiders, xii, 94, 95-6 - - Webster, Daniel, brain weight, xv, 39 - - Wedding Presents, xv, 285 - - Weddings, attendants at, origin of, xv, 282 - - Wedge, v, 37; - discovery of use, 15; - form of inclined plane, iv, 90; - friction in, 93 - - Wedge (meteorology), i, 238, 384 - - Weeds, origin in U. S., xiii, 353-4 - - Weedy Plantain, xiii, 88 - - "Weeping Trees," i, 351 - - Weeping Willow, xiii, 271-2 - - Weft Threads, v, 278, 280 - - Wegener, Dr. A., i, 192 - - Weight, iv, 58, 74, 99, 101; - defined, vi, 81, xvi, 130; - diminished by earth's rotation, iv, 74-5; - errors in perception of, xi, 184-5; - latitude and, ii, 69, iv, 101, 102, xvi, 130; - loss of, in fluids, iv, 104, 105, 106, (fig.), 107; - mass and, 84-5, 110, xvi, 130; - measured by spring balance, iv, 102; - measurement of, by displacement, 103-4, 105; - of gases, gram-molecular method, viii, 109; - units of, iv, 46, 283-4, viii, 28 - - Weight (bodily), at different ages, ix, 31, 32 (diagram); - metabolism in relation to, x, 271, ix; - reduction of, 302; - rate of reduction by fasting, x, 275 - - Weight Arm, in machines, v, 22, 26, 31, 32, 33 - - Weights and Measures, British and metric units, iv, 45-6, 69-70; - practical units, 283-4; - scientific standards, xvi, 129-30 - (see also Units) - - Weismann, germ plasm theory, x, 230; - on adaptations, xvi, 152 - - Welding of Metals, i, 33; - electric, iv, 312; - Goldschmidt method, viii, 155 - - Wells, airlifts in, iv, 130; - artesian, iii, 118-19, xiv, 12, 138; - blowing, i, 353-5, 368; - drilling of deep, iii, 119-21; - drying of, xiv, 136; - gases and minerals in water, 141-2; - Green's drive, v, 380; - locating of, iii, 123-6; - pumping systems for deep, v, 114-15; - sanitary aspects, iii, 121-3, xiv, 139-40; - source of, 138-9; - sunk in granite, 137; - water supply from, iii, 118-19, viii, 317-18 - - Wells, E. I., on railroads, i, 267 - - Wells, Horace, x, 124, 125, xvi, 185 - - Wells, Spencer, xvi, 184 - - Welsbach Gas Mantles, vi, 264, viii, 252; - invisible rays, xvi, 192 - - Welsh Language, xv, 162 - - Welsh People, in Mediterranean Group, xvi, 49; - mountain isolation of, xv, 130 - - Welts, hypnotic production, xi, 317 - - Welwitschia Mirabilis, xiii, 380-1 - - Wentletraps, xii, 71 - - West Africa, beetles of, xii, 124; - crocodiles of, 199-200; - coast of, xv, 136; - forests of, xiv, 366, 368-9; - hanging valleys in, 58; - harmattan of, i, 134; - monkeys of, xii, 379; - monsoons, i, 131; - python of, xii, 214; - river shrew of, 367; - sleeping sickness, x, 169; - tornadoes of, i, 137 - - Western American Volcanic Belt, xiv, 315 - - Western Forest (U. S.), xiv, 373-4 - - Western Pacific Volcanic Belt, xiv, 315-16 - - Western Union Telegraph Co., vii, 107-8, 112; - early weather forecasts, i, 216 - - West Indies, boa constrictor of, xii, 215; - clove production, xiii, 262; - coffee in, 233; - concordant coasts of, xiv, 249; - coral reefs in, 305; - earthquakes in, 331; - hurricanes, i, 136, 375; - hurricane reports, 280-2, 309; - mongooses in, xii, 352; - nutmeg production, xiii, 262; - poisonous snakes, xii, 234; - sea-shells of, 73; - sharks of, 143; - sponges of, 32; - spurge, xiii, 30-1; - vanilla production, 259; - volcanoes of, xiv, 316 - - Westerly Winds, region of prevailing, i, 128, 129 - - Westinghouse, George, air-brake, v, 130, 380 - - Westinghouse Electric Co., machinery for Niagara Plant, vi, 374, 375, 376 - - Westminster Abbey, weathering effects, iii, 22 - - West Virginia, natural gas, iii, 355 - - Wet Bulb Thermometer, i, 78-9, 318, 384 - - Wetness, exposure to, effects of, x, 239; - sensation of, xi, 128 - - Wet Steam, v, 140 - - Whalebone, xii, 298 - - Whales, xii, 297-9; - sawfish and, 149; - squids and, 80 - - Whale's Food, xii, 19 - - Whaling Industry, aerial patrol in, i, 48 - - Wheat, ancestral home, xiii, 182, 221; - economic importance, i, 263, xiii, 208; - food value, viii, 364, x, 259, 261, 262, 267, 278, 279; - fruit for seed dispersal, xiii, 56; - germination of seeds, ix, 16-17, xiii, 211; - history and forms, 210-11; - in grass family, 179; - Mediterranean source, xiv, 382; - phosphate requirements, 67; - protein in, xiii, 95; - rust, 13; - snow and, i, 253; - stalk stiffening, viii, 337; - starch made from, 243; - time required to produce, v, 249; - vitamines in hulls, ix, 35, 36 - (see also Winter Wheat) - - Wheatstone Bridge, iv, 301, vi, 80 - - Wheel and Axle, v, 31-3; - action of, like lever, iv, 89 - - Wheel Lock, xv, 217 - - Wheeled Vehicles, use on farms, v, 215 - - Wheels, centrifugal force of, iv, 71; - discovery and development of, xv, 241-3; - evolution of, v, 16-17, 205; - form of lever, 21, 28; - friction, 204; - friction-saving by, 205-6; - large and small, 206; - not found in nature, 16, 215; - tendency to turn on center of gravity, 150; - in transportation, 214-15 - - Whelks, xii, 72 - - Whippoorwills, family of, xii, 267; - feathers about mouth, 244 - - Whirlwinds, dust, i, 60 - - Whiskey, making of, viii, 250 - - Whispering Galleries, iv, 239 - - Whistles, policeman's, iv, 220; - siren, 205 - - Whistling, impossible in caissons, iv, 32 - - White (color), reflection of light by, x, 309 - - White, Andrew D., on comets, ii, 84 - - White, Charles, x, 92 - - White, D., quoted, iii, 202, 343 - - White, I. C., anticlinal theory, iii, 352 - - White, Maunsel, v, 55, 383 - - White, Orlando E., xiii, 221 - - White Ants, xii, 110 - - White-blood, metabolism in, x, 272 - - "White Coal," v, 76, 174 - - White Corpuscles, ix, 182 (fig.), 184-8; - germ destruction by, 185-7, x, 197, 209-10; - passage through capillary walls, ix, 194 - - Whiteface, Mount, spring on, iii, 117 - - Whitefish, xii, 154, 159 - - White Flies, xii, 112 - - White Flour, vitamines absent in, x, 267, ix, 35 - - Whitehead Torpedo, v, 380 - - White Heat, temperature of, iv, 361 - - White Lead, viii, 162, 265 - - White Light, iv, 364; - composition, Colors, i, 165, iv, 357-9, 366-7, vi, 282, viii, 301, ix, - 115, 3579, xvi, 119; - hands and face in, iv, 364-5 - - White Mts., Arctic species in, xiv, 377; - club mosses of, xiii, 305; - in Mesozoic Era, iii, 232 - - White Pine, in northern forests, xiv, 372; - region of, xiii, 368 - - White Plague, x, 290, 294 - - White Race, xv, 32; - beards in, 38; - brain weight, 41; - characteristics indefinite, 35-6; - disease immunity and susceptibility, 48, 49-50; - eyes, color of, 37; - facial angle in, 45; - hair, color and form of, 37, 38; - in tropics, i, 327, xiv, 344, 356-7, xv, 49-50; - jaw angle of, 44; - language relationships, 161-3; - light and dark divisions, 37; - measles in, 48; - nose index and nostril shapes, 45, 46; - savages' ideas of, 334; - separate origin theory, 70; - skull index in, 42; - skull capacity, 41 - - White Rainbows, i, 176, 384 - - White Rats, protein experiments on, ix, 287-8, 288 - - White Swelling, x, 78 - - "White Way" Lighting, vi, 279, vii, 339-40 - - White Whales, xii, 297 - - Whitman, Walt, "Song of Myself," xi, 336 - - Whitney, Eli, v, 269; - cotton gin, 269-71, 376, xiii, 237-8; - milling machine, v, 47, 378; - standard muskets, 49-50 - - Whitney, Mount, observatories on, ii, 144, 149 - - Whitney, Professor, on emphasis, xv, 144; - on language changes, 157 - - Whittlesey, Lake, iii, 148 - - Whole Wheat Bread, vitamines in, x, 267 - - Whooping Cough, consumption from, x, 292; - germ of, 216 - - Wickam, H. A., "botanical specimens" of, xiii, 247 - - Widal Reaction, x, 216 - - Wilberforce Spring, iv, 83-5 - - Wilcox & Gibbs Machine, v, 285 - - Wild Arum, fertilization, xiii, 153 - - Wild Asses, xii, 308 - - Wild Boar, xii, 310; - in Cro-Magnon paintings, xv, 114 - - Wildcats, xii, 356 - - Wild Dogs, xii, 345 - - Wild Ducks, seed dispersal by, xiii, 340-1 - - Wilderness of Judæa, xiv, 121 - - Wild Horse, xii, 306-7 - - Wild Mustard, origin in U.S., xiii, 353-4 - - Wild Ox, xii, 330-1 - - Willets, xii, 262 - - Will or Volition, xi, 259-67; - hypnosis and, 317, 318; - motor character, 61; - source of energy of, 33 - - William the Conqueror, at Salerno, x, 36, 37 - - Willamette River, navigability of, xiv, 195 - - Williams, Prof. Samuel, ii, 211; - quoted, i, 201 - - Williams, Wells, on Chinese astronomy, ii, 21 - - Williamson, chemical work, xvi, 133-4, 162, 165 - - Willis, Thomas, xvi, 108 - - Will-o'-the-Wisp, i, 346-9 - - Willow Trees, antiquity of species, xiii, 324-5; - family, 191; - fertilization, 122; - origin and product, 244; - petals absent, 190; - seed dispersal, 343; - sexes in, 47, 191; - sprouting of, 166 - - Willughby, xvi, 126 - - Wilson, A. B., sewing machine, v, 284-5, 379 - - Wilson, T. L., xvi, 190-1 - - Wimhurst Influence Machine, vi, 301 - - Winch, iv, 90-1 - - Winchell, A. N., i, 55 - - Winchester, James, quoted, i, 360 - - Wincing, origin, xi, 133 - - Wind, Winds, cause and general system, i, 124-9, xiv, 347-51; - climate determined by, 345-7; - complex structure, i, 292-8; - defined, x, 384; - direction, how observed, 82; - drying power, 77; - due to sun, v, 177, xiv, 32; - dust-carrying by, i, 52-5, iii, 71, 73-5, xiv, 77, 327; - eddies and updrafts, i, 53; - force measurement, 83-4, 294-6; - force in relation to isobars and altitudes, i, 126; - geological work, iii, 71-5; - gusts, i, 295; - human control, i, 332, 333; - in aeronautics, 284-6, 289-300; - lifting effort on kites, iv, 76 (fig.); - lightning and, i, 148; - local names, 132; - ocean, 271-6; - ocean currents caused by, xiv, 303; - plant fertilization by, xiii, 118, 123, 148-9; - power to blow objects aloft, i, 356; - pressure areas and, i, 124-6, 127-9, 134-5, 218, xiv, 349-50; - pressure due to inertia, v, 234; - projectiles and, i, 312-13; - rainfall and, 111; - rock destruction by, iii, 72-3, xiv, 41, 45, 62, 77, 233; - sailing against, iv, 77 (fig.), v, 182, 186-8; - seed dispersal by, xiii, 58-9, 156, 340, 343-6; - soils deposited by, iii, 73-4, xiv, 71-5; - sound and, i, 187, iv, 210-11; - superstitions, i, 334-5; - topography and, 292, 294 (fig.), 296-7; - types, 130-9; - use of power, 37-8, v, 75, 111, 173, 182; - velocity and force, i, 83, 84, 137, 138; - vertical, 293; - waves caused by, xiv, 299; - weather and, i, 237-8, xiv, 349-50; - worship of, by Polynesians, xv, 342 - - Wind Aloft, i, 384 - - Wind Aloft Maps, i, 230, 231, 233 - - Wind Charts, i, 206, 271-3 - - Wind Gaps, iii, 39, 38 (fig.), xiv, 58, 98, 169 - - Wind Instruments, iv, 231; - development of, xv, 316-17 - - Windmills, v, 75, 111; - modern use, i, 37-8 - - Windpipe, cartilage in, ix, 57; - connections and parts, 255 - - Wind Rose, i, 273-4, 384 - - Wine, alcohol in, how measured, iv, 113; - flavors of, viii, 248-9; - pasteurization of, x, 139-40; - religious uses, primitive, xv, 352 - - Wine Making, viii, 248-9; - Pasteur's discoveries, x, 138, 139-40 - - Wine Palm, xiii, 53 - - Winged Fruit and Seed, xiii, 58, 345-6 - - Wings, of birds, xii, 247 - - Wings, of flowers, xiii, 47-8 - - Wing Shells, xii, 73-4 - - Winkles (shellfish), xii, 72 - - Winnepeg, Lake, iii, 144 - - Winter, effects on life, xi, 51; - human efficiency in, i, 323; - keeping warm in, ix, 309, 312; - land and sea winds in, xiv, 346; - mild and severe, how determined, 350; - "old fashioned," i, 200-2; - thunderstorms, danger of, 156 - - Winter-Days, temperature, i, 205, 384 - - Wintergreen, origin, xiii, 255 - - Wintergreen Plants, xiii, 202 - - Winter Provender, of rodents, xii, 292-3 - - Winter Wheat, best time to plant, i, 256; - snow and, 253 - - Wireless Communication, vii, 258-98; - condensers in, vi, 303, 304; - dependent on simultaneous reactance, 171; - hot-wire ammeters in, vii, 163, 164 - (see also Radio) - - Wireless Control, of aeroplanes and ships, vii, 283-4 - - Wireless Signals, in aeronautics, i, 291, 292, 302 - - Wireless Telegraphy, iv, 313-16; - alternating currents in, vi, 168; - conditions of transmission, vii, 272-3; - detectors, 268, xvi, 191-2; - history, 191; - induction coils in, iv, 305, 313, 314; - resonance in, 226; - strays or static, i, 162-3; - theory for amateurs, vii, 285-98; - vacuum tubes in, vi, 125, vii, 276-80; - weather reporting by, i, 257, 269, 280-2, 315; - in World War, vii, 283 - (see also Wireless Communication) - - Wireless Telephony, iv, 315-16; - aeronautical uses, i, 44-5, 302; - alternating currents in, vi, 163; - current conversion, 339-41; - development of, vii, 280-3; - distress signals, 284; - theory for amateurs, 285-98; - vacuum tubes in, vi, 125, 339-41, vii, 276, 278, 279, 280; - weather reporting by, i, 257; - in World War, vii, 282-3 - (see also Wireless Communication) - - Wires, current-capacity table, vii, 58; - leakage, 10-11; - measure (circular mils), iv, 282-3; - measure (mils), vi, 77, vii, 373; - resistance of, iv, 281, 282-3, vi, 79; - sizes and kinds in transmission, vii, 20-4; - standard tables, (copper), 378-81; - types of insulation, 58 - - Wireworms, xii, 124 - - Wiring, interior, vii, 51-72; - exterior (see Overhead, Underground Transmission) - - Wishbone, of birds, xii, 247 - - Wisby, in Hanseatic League, xiv, 282 - - Wisconsin, drainage studies in, xiv, 131; - drumlins of, iii, 69, xiv, 60; - Ice Age in, iii, 239; - lakes of, xiv, 200; - terminal moraines in, 59 - - Wise, John, rip panel inventor, v, 224 - - Wiseman, Richard, x, 78 - - Wishes, dreams from, xi, 293, 299-300, 301-2; - suppression of, 140-2, 257 - - Wistar, Casper, x, 116 - - Wit, psychology of, xi, 350-7 - - Witchcraft, former theories of, x, 357, 360 - - Witches, colonial ordeals for, xv, 373 - - Witchhazel, origin, xiii, 255 - - Witch-Hazel Plant, seed dispersal, xiii, 339 - - Witnesses, influence of forms of questions, xi, 308-10; - untrustworthiness, 103, 168 - - Woevre, France, xiv, 91 - - Wöhler, Friedrich, x, 126 - - Wolf, astronomer, ii, 134 - - Wolff, Caspar F., xvi, 118 - - Wolf-Rayet Stars, ii, 116 - - Wollaston, William Hyde, xvi, 122, 162; - spectrum studies, ii, 111, 112 - - Wolverine, xii, 348-9 - - Wolves, xii, 340-2; - dogs and, 344; - ears of, 346; - in Great Britain, xiv, 273; - Tasmanian, xii, 277 - - Wombat, xii, 278 - - Women, basal metabolism of, x, 271; - bearing of pain by, ix, 87; - brain weight in, xv, 39; - color-blindness in, ix, 116, 340-1; - dress of, x, 309; - ear-rings of, xv, 259; - food requirements, viii, 367; - heart rate in, x, 334; - height of, xv, 38; - modesty and immodesty in dress, 254-5; - painting of, 256; - skull capacity, 40; - susceptibility to temperature changes, x, 240; - voice tones of, ix, 99 - - Wonder, in various sentiments, xi, 146, 147 - - Wood, chemical material of, viii, 44; - decay of, xiii, 71; - distillation for wood alcohol, viii, 214; - electrical conductivity, iv, 259; - flame of burning, viii, 57; - heat conductivity, iv, 176, 177; - percentage of carbon in, viii, 44; - petrified, iii, 15-16; - sound velocity in, iv, 201; - storage appliance of plants, xiii, 96; - use as food, ix, 24 - (see also Heartwood, Sap wood) - - Wood, Henry Wise, v, 383 - - Wood Alcohol, viii, 214; - flame of, 60; - used as denaturant, 250 - - Wood Ashes, lye from, viii, 276; - potash in, 279, 343, 344, xiv, 67 - - Woodchucks, xii, 295 - - Woodcocks, xii, 263 - - Wood Lice, xii, 82 - - Woodpeckers, xii, 267; - mating of, xv, 276-7; - toes of, xii, 265; - use of tools, v, 11 - - Wood Pulp, in paper making, v, 290, 292-5, 380 - - Wood Sorrels, leaves, xiii, 88-9, 113 - - Woodward, Dr. Robert S., ii, 147, xvi, 126 - - Woody Tissue, composition, xiv, 65 - - Woof, of woven goods, v, 278, xv, 244 - - Wool, as clothing material, x, 307, 308, 309, ix, 311; - chemical properties and manufacture, viii, 256; - dyes of, 259; - electrification of, iv, 257, 258, 259; - humidity effects in manufacture, i, 78; - removal of cotton from, viii, 255; - warmth, to what due, iv, 178 - - Wool Grass, xiii, 182 (fig.) - - Wool-pack Clouds, i, 101-2, 384 - - Woolwich Observatory, founding, xvi, 127 - - Woolworth Building, elevator system, v, 134-5; - height of tower, 79; - flood lighting, vi, 283 - - Wordsworth, paradox of, xi, 247 - - Words, changes in meanings of, xv, 157; - double meanings, 158-9; - inadequacy in feelings, 143; - origin of various, 153-4, 157, 161 - - Work (labor), conditions of, importance, xi, 361-2; - daily amount in calories, ix, 297; - daily amount in foot-tons, x, 305; - effect of distractions, xi, 277; - fatigue and capacity for, x, 246, 247; - fatigue from new, ix, 81; - fatigue in pleasant and unpleasant, xi, 274-6, 277-8; - food energy consumed by, viii, 367; - planning of, xi, 377-8; - rest periods and efficiency, 363 - (see also Vocations) - - Work (mechanics), iv, 37, 38; - accomplished by inequalities, viii, 168; - energy and, iv, 37-40, 78-88; - heat relations to, 189-91, 193; - measurement and units, 78, 79-80, 189-90, vi, 81-2, 84; - rate of, iv, 80 - (see Power) - - Workers, food requirements and energy of, viii, 367; - instruction of beginners, xi, 363-5; - interest of, 376; - jobs and, 358-61; - tool adjustment to, 362 - - World War, aeronautical development, i, 40-1, 284, 285, iv, 10, 107; - aeronautical weather services, i, 304-5; - aeroplane accidents, x, 246; - aeroplane machine guns, v, 107; - aeroplane mapping, i, 45; - aeroplanes, luminous glories seen, 185; - aftermath of, x, 188-9; - artillery phenomena, i, 193-4; - artillery vs. armor, v, 368; - big guns, v, 368-71; - bombardment of Antwerp, i, 191; - cannonading heard at distances, 188; - care of disabled, (U. S.), x, 188-91; - chemical warfare, viii, 262-4, x, 186-8; - chemical warfare service device, viii, 283; - chemistry in, xvi, 159; - commerce destruction in, xiv, 306; - cultural setback by, xv, 30; - dried foods in, viii, 371; - dye industry in, 253; - electricity in, vi, 10; - flood lighting, 283; - flying machines, v, 233; - French forests in, xiv, 239; - gas masks, viii, 48; - German aircraft at beginning, x, 40; - German lack of jute bags, xiii, 241; - German plans on two fronts, xiv, 91-2; - German torpedoes, v, 374; - Germans called Huns, xi, 22; - Germany's nitrate needs, xiv, 66; - helmets and armor in, xv, 221; - hysterical phenomena in, x, 363; - ignorance of southern mountaineers in, xv, 131; - influenza pandemic, x, 294-5; - Italy in, xiv, 244-5, 252-3, Italy in, xv, 138; - invasion of France and Belgium, topographical considerations, xiv, - 88-93; - inventions, v, 360, 384; - jaundice in trenches, x, 201; - Liberty engines, v, 53-4; - machine guns, 363-8; - Marne retreat incidents, xi, 286-7; - medical achievements of, x, 176-91, 384; - meteorology in, i, 290-1, 307-15; - mirages in Mesopotamia, 173; - motors used, direct current, vi, 239; - nitrogen needs and production, i, 34, 36, viii, 246, xiv, 66; - pilot balloons, i, 22; - potash dearth and supplies, viii, 143-4, 279, 344, xiv, 67; - projectiles and shells, v, 372; - rain in battles, i, 338; - Russian bison destroyed in, xii, 329; - Russian elk destruction in, 318; - scientific progress in, iv, 10-11, xvi, 9, 195; - scurvy in, x, 265; - searchlights on fleets, iv, 352; - sleeping sickness epidemic, x, 301; - smoke screens, viii, 87; - sound-ranging, i, 313, iv, 201-2; - sphagnum use in, xiii, 160-1; - stereograms in, xi, 180-1; - submarines, v, 198, 200-1; - submarine spotting, i, 47; - sulphuric acid importance, viii, 78-9, 80; - surgery in, x, 181-3, 381-2; - Switzerland in, xiv, 243-4; - tanks, v, 218; - tetanus infection in, x, 299; - trench fever in, 202; - tuberculosis in France, 175; - typhoid fever in, 217, 288; - vitamine foods lacking in certain countries, 260; - volcanic power in Italy, v, 179-80; - well-poisoning in, xv, 228; - wheat in rationing, viii, 364; - wireless operations, vii, 282-3; - "Who won it?," v, 300; - wood as food in, ix, 24; - Zeppelins and captive balloons, v, 227 - - World Weather Bureau, i, 221 - - Worm Gears, v, 37 (fig.), 88 - - Worms, xii, 44-5, 50-6; - classification, iii, 259; - earliest tracks, 263, 270; - power of distinguishing light, ix, 105; - regeneration in, xii, 170; - sea, 18, 23 - - Worms (disease), x, 200 - - Worry, feeling of, ix, 153-4, 167; - hardened arteries from, x, 335; - indigestion from, ix, 165, 167, 240-1 - - Wound-Rotor Induction Motor, vi, 245, 248, 256 - - Wounds, antiseptic treatment of, x, 145-6, xvi, 182-3; - Carrel-Dakin treatment of infected, x, 181-3, 382; - former treatment, 40, 43, 54-5, 59, 78-9; - healing of modern surgical, 123; - painlessness to soldiers, xi, 119, 120; - Paré's treatment of, 55, xvi, 108; - radiation treatment of septic, x, 384 - - Wound Suckers, x, 91, 105 - - Wove Paper, v, 296 - - Woven Fabrics, threads of, v, 276, 278 - - Wright, Sir Almroth, x, 218 - - Wright, Orville and Wilbur, v, 231-2, 237-8, 383-4; - early flights, i, 300 - - Wright, Thomas, ii, 350, 367, 380 - - Wright Machines, v, 232, 236, 237-8 - - Wrigley Triplets Sign, N. Y., vii, 340-1 - - Wrist, bones of, ix, 67, 68 (fig.); - pulse in, 211 - - Writing, development of, xv, 164-79, 325, xvi, 60; - by telegraph, vi, 98; - remarks on art of, ii, 10; - reflex actions in, ix, 157 - - Written Language, association principle in, ix, 152; - importance to man, 153 - - Wrong, original meaning, xi, 190 - - Wrought Iron, v, 317, viii, 158-9 - - Wyberd, on corona, ii, 221 - - Wye Connections, vi, 209, 318, 325 - - Wyoming, badlands of, xiv, 82; - cattle ranges, 222-3; - dike systems, 106-7; - marine fossils in, iii, 82; - volcanic fields, xiv, 318 - - - Xanthine, viii, 230 - - Xenon, in atmosphere, i, 11, 12; - symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Xenophanes, on fossils, iii, 14 - - Xiphosura, xii, 81 - - X-ray Analysis, of crystals, viii, 313 - - X-ray Photography, iv, 55, 320-1; - uses of, vii, 253-4, x, 222, 372-4 - - X-rays, iv, 317-21, vii, 249-57, x, 184-6, 254, 383; - discovery of, iv, 55, 317, x, 183-4, xvi, 192-3; - fluorescence produced by, iv, 320, 378-9; - invisibility, 319, 378; - transmitted through æther, vi, 119, 269; - vibration frequency, iv, 379, vii, 260 - - X-ray Spectra, viii, 183, 309 - - X-ray Tube, iv, 319, vii, 251-2; - operated by induction coils, 244; - static generators for, 245 - - Xylene, from coal tar, viii, 253 - - Xylols, viii, 235 - - Xylophone, iv, 224 - - - Yaks, xii, 330 - - Yakutat Bay, Alaska, xiv, 334-5; - faulting in, 114, 334-5 - - Yakutsk, Siberia, i, 210 - - Yale College, founding, xvi, 127 - - Yampa River, xiv, 166, 168, 175 - - Yams, origin and antiquity, xiii, 224; - water, of Madagascar, 89-90 - - Yapocks, xii, 276 - - Yard, unit of length, iv, 45, 69; - value in meters, 46, 70 - - Yarn, grading of, v, 272; - making and weaving of, 268, 272-82 - - Yawning, as fear effect, xi, 132 - - Yaws, racial susceptibility to, xv, 50, 51 - - Y-connections (see Wye) - - Year, beginning of, in ancient Egypt, ii, 26; - in Cæsar's calendar, xvi, 98; - length fixed by Hipparchus, 11, 32; - length in ancient Egypt, xvi, 70; - measurement of, iv, 15; - without a Summer, i, 359-61, 361-2 - - "Yearning of Bowels," xi, 64, 131, 160 - - Yeast, cells of, xvi, 142-3; - disease-producing, x, 196; - fermentation in dough, ix, 248; - fermentation by pure and other cultures, x, 138; - leavening powers of, viii, 50; - non-flowering plant, xiii, 13, 14, 43; - origin of power, 71; - reproduction, 164; - vitamines in, ix, 36, x, 260, 261 - - Yellow, complementary color of, iv, 367; - photographic action of,366; - soothing effects, vi, 274; - wave length of, iv, 359, 365 - - Yellow Days, cause, i, 57 - - Yellow Fever, x, 159-63; - campaign against, 162, 172-3, xiv, 356-7; - discovery of cause, x, 160-3, 173, 200; - immunity to, 207, xiv, 357; - virus of, x, 161, 200 - - Yellow Race, xv, 32; - brain and skull capacity in, 41; - diseases of, 51; - facial angle in, 45; - jaw angle of, 44; - nose index and nostril shape, 46; - peoples of, 37; - separate origin theory, 70; - skull index, 42 - - Yellowstone Lake, xiv, 180; - altitude, 205 - - Yellowstone National Park, freaks of nature in, vii, 202; - geysers in, iii, 129; - Hayden Relief model, xiv, 10; - hot springs, 143; - jointed rocks, 129; - petrified forests, iii, 126-7; - travertine terraces, xiv, 146; - uncooled lava masses, 313-14 - - Yellowstone River, canyon of (see Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone); - falls of, iii, 48-9; - geological history, xiv, 180 - - Yerkes Telescope, ii, 98, 202; - magnification by, iv, 346 - - Yersin, bubonic plague work, x, 164, 165; - pupil of Pasteur, 143 - - Yew Tree, ancestors of, xiii, 317; - a conifer, 174; - in landscaping, 270; - of Tasmania, 30 - - Yorkshire Coast, recession of, xiv, 47, 301 - - Yosemite Falls, iii, 47-8, 65 - - Yosemite Valley, air currents, i, 296, 297; - formation, iii, 44, 64-6, 225; - granite walls, 112, 214; - impressiveness, vii, 202 - - Young, Prof., astronomical work, ii, 120, 128, 142, 181, 183, 201, - 222-3, 307 - - Young, Thomas, x, 96-7, xvi, 174 - - Young's Modulus, iv, 157, 158 - - Yperman, Jean, x, 41 - - Ypres, chemical warfare at, x, 186 - - Yssel River, xiv, 45 - - Ytterbium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Yttrium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Yucatan, chocolate cultivation, xiii, 234; - sisal production, 240-1 - - Yucca Plant, pollination of, xvi, 152-3 - - Yukon River, use of, xiv, 191 - - - Zambezi, crocodiles of, xii, 200 - - Zambezi River, gorge and falls of, xiv, 131-2, - (see also Victoria Falls); - lava field of, 317; - varied course, 155 - - Zanzibar, clove production, xiii, 262, 263 - - Zebras, xii, 307-8 - - Zeno, Greek philosopher, xvi, 84-5 - - Zeolites, in softening water, viii, 324 - - Zeppelin, Friedrich von, v, 225-6, 228, 382 - - Zeppelins, v, 225-6, 228-9, 382; - development by Germany, i, 40; - in World War, 310 - - Zero, invention of, xvi, 184 - - Ziczac, Egyptian, xii, 263 - - Zinc, affinity intensity, viii, 128; - atomic weight and symbol, 383; - extraction from ores, 270, 271; - in electric cells, vi, 59, 61, viii, 167; - in heavy metal group, 126-7, 154; - melting point and requirements, iv, 162, viii, 384; - occurrence and production, iii, 363-4, viii, 129, 198; - specific gravity, 384; - test for, 287, 289; - uses, iii, 363, viii, 155-6; - used in hydrogen preparation, 32-3 - - Zinc Carbonate, viii, 130 - - Zinc Sulphate, viii, 96 - - Zircon, iii, 341; - axis ratio, 317 - - Zirconium, symbol and atomic weight, viii, 383 - - Zodiac, ii, 254 - - Zodiacon, i, 192 - - Zoetrope, v, 329 - - Zone of Flowage, iii, 84 - - Zone of Fracture, iii, 84; - action of rocks in, 86 - - Zones, Climatic, earliest distinction, iii, 220; - not marked in oldest times, 173, 178, 184, 202 - - Zones of Silence, i, 189-92 - - Zoögonidia, movements, xvi, 166 - - Zooids, xii, 34 - - ZOÖLOGY, Volume xii - - Zoölogy, binomial nomenclature in, x, 84; - daily interest, xvi, 15-16, 22, 25-6; - defined, xvi, 36; - history of development, 116, 126, 140-8 - - Zoöpraxiscope, v, 330 - - Zorilla, xii, 348 - - Zuider Zee, formation of present, xiv, 45-6 - - Zulus, ideas of future life, xv, 333; - musical instruments of, 317; - polygamy among, 288 - - Zuni Indians, pottery-making by, xv, 250 (fig.) - - - - - Revision Service - - POPULAR SCIENCE LIBRARY - - [Illustration] - - ~How To Send For It~ - - -Between March 1, 1924 and May 1, 1924, and in the corresponding period -of each succeeding year, fill out and mail to the Publishers, P. 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