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-The Project Gutenberg eBook, Greek Dress, by Ethel Beatrice Abrahams
-
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
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-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
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-
-
-
-Title: Greek Dress
-       A Study of the Costumes Worn in Ancient Greece, from Pre-Hellenic Times to the Hellenistic Age
-
-
-Author: Ethel Beatrice Abrahams
-
-
-
-Release Date: February 5, 2016  [eBook #51128]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
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-***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GREEK DRESS***
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-E-text prepared by deaurider, Ramon Pajares Box, and the Online
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-Transcriber's note:
-
-      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
-
-      Small capitals are represented in upper case as in SMALL CAPS.
-
-      Footnotes have been numbered in a single series. Each footnote
-      is placed at the end of the paragraph which includes its anchor.
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-
-
-
-GREEK DRESS
-
-A Study of the Costumes Worn in
-Ancient Greece, from Pre-Hellenic
-Times to the Hellenistic Age
-
-by
-
-ETHEL B. ABRAHAMS, M.A.
-
-With Illustrations
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-London
-John Murray, Albemarle Street, W.
-1908
-
-
-
-
-  TO MY FRIEND
-  ETHEL STRUDWICK
-
-
-
-
-PREFACE
-
-
-The object of this book is to give a continuous account of the dress
-worn by the people inhabiting Greek lands, from the earliest times
-of which we have any record down to the Hellenistic age. The first
-chapter stands somewhat apart from the rest, since it deals with the
-costume of the race which occupied the Ægean shores before the real
-Hellenic races arrived on the scene, and of which we have abundant
-remains in Crete and elsewhere within the Ægean area. The remains
-found at Mycenæ, Tiryns, and other so-called Mycenæan sites, seem to
-be the last efforts of this dying civilization, which was replaced in
-the period of invasion and conquest recorded in the Homeric poems. I
-have been unable to trace any continuous development from the dress
-of this pre-Hellenic people to that of classic Greece, and the marked
-difference in the type of costume between the two periods bears out
-the theory of a difference of race.
-
-I have endeavoured to show that the dress described in the Homeric
-poems is of the same type as the dress of classic Greece, and of
-this I have traced the historic development, classifying it into
-two main divisions, namely, Doric and Ionic. The simple and severe
-Doric dress contrasts with the more luxurious costume of the Ionian
-Greeks, although there are many instances, from the fifth century
-and onwards, in which the two styles are blended. I have noted also
-the elements which probably came in from Northern Greece; these are
-chiefly the chlamys and petasos.
-
-The bulk of the following pages constituted a thesis approved for the
-degree of Master of Arts in the University of London. In revising
-the work for the press, however, some alterations and additions have
-been made. The chief of these is the addition of the section on the
-toilet; the illustrations have been carefully selected from extant
-monuments.
-
-My sources for the chapter on pre-Hellenic dress have been mainly
-the finds of Mr A. J. Evans at Knossos, which I had the opportunity
-of seeing in the Candia Museum; these have been supplemented by the
-figures found at Petsofa, in Crete, and by various Mycenæan objects,
-notably rings and gems. The papers published by Mr Evans and Mr J. L.
-Myres in the _British School Annual_ have been of very great value.
-
-For the chapter on Homeric dress, my chief authority has been the
-poems themselves; in the absence of contemporary monuments, I
-have used the François vase to illustrate this section, since the
-figures upon it seem to tally most closely with the descriptions
-of dress found in the poems. Of modern literary authorities, the
-most valuable has been Studniczka’s _Beiträge zur Geschichte der
-Altgriechischen Tracht_.
-
-For the dress of the classical period, the evidence from extant art
-is abundant, and I have based my study chiefly upon it. Sculpture and
-vase-paintings have furnished the majority of my illustrations. I
-have noted many references to dress scattered up and down the ancient
-authors, and a passage from the fifth book of Herodotus has furnished
-a starting-point for the classification into Doric and Ionic dress.
-
-My theory as to the shape and “cut” of the himation worn by the
-archaic ladies in the Acropolis Museum at Athens is, I think, a
-new one; it is based on a very careful examination of the statues,
-supplemented by some practical experiments in draping a living model.
-
-For the sections on head-dress, materials, and footgear, I have
-referred to passages in ancient literature, and have used extant
-remains for illustrations, chiefly vase-paintings; except in the case
-of materials, for which I have cited the actual fragments of fabric
-found in Greek tombs at Kertch, in the Crimea.
-
-In describing individual garments, I have in each case suggested
-dimensions and given diagrams, which, it is hoped, may be of
-practical use to those who wish to make Greek dresses for themselves.
-
-Throughout the work, in addition to ancient authorities, I have
-consulted the various articles in the current classical dictionaries.
-These include Pauly-Wissowa’s _Real Encyclopädie_, Daremberg and
-Saglio’s _Dictionnaire des Antiquités grecques et romaines_, Smith’s
-_Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_, Gardner and Jevons’
-_Manual of Greek Antiquities_, and the _Companion to Greek Studies_.
-Other works, to which single references have been made, are mentioned
-in the footnotes.
-
-In addition to written authorities, I have received personal help
-from several scholars and friends, to whom I should like to express
-my thanks.
-
-In the first place, I should like to acknowledge my indebtedness to
-the Reid Trustees of Bedford College, who elected me to a Fellowship
-in 1905, which enabled me to work for my second degree, and to spend
-some months in Greece as a student of the British School at Athens.
-
-The suggestion that a thesis on the subject of Greek Dress might
-be of some value beyond getting me a degree, was due to Mr A. B.
-Cook, of Cambridge, under whom I had already worked for three years
-at Bedford College, and whose constant readiness to stimulate my
-leanings towards Archæology encouraged me to continue my studies in
-that direction. Mr Cook very kindly read this work in manuscript for
-me, and gave me the benefit of his criticisms. I owe a very great
-deal, also, to Professor Ernest Gardner, of University College,
-London, whose M.A. courses I attended regularly for two years, and
-from whom I constantly received help and guidance.
-
-While in Athens, I devoted my attention chiefly to the dress of the
-archaic statues in the Acropolis Museum, and had the opportunity
-of discussing this subject with Mr R. C. Bosanquet, then director
-of the British School. I must also thank Herr Fritz Röhrig, the
-German sculptor, who placed his studio in Athens at my disposal,
-and procured a model for me, for the purpose of making my first
-experiments in reproducing the archaic style of draping the himation.
-
-Special acknowledgments are due to Mr A. J. Evans, Mr J. L. Myres,
-and the Committee of the British School at Athens, for their
-courtesy in allowing me to reproduce subjects published by them in
-the _British School Annual_; to the Trustees of the British Museum,
-for permission to secure photographs of objects in the Museum for
-publication; to Mr Cecil Smith, for giving me free access to the
-library of the Department of Antiquities; and, particularly, to Mr H.
-B. Walters, who went through the illustrations with me, and greatly
-facilitated the task of securing suitable ones.
-
-Lastly, my grateful thanks are due to Mr John Murray, for undertaking
-to publish the book, and to Mr A. H. Hallam Murray, for his
-constant courtesy and assistance during the progress of the work of
-publication.
-
-    E. B. A.
-
-_July_ 1908.
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS
-
-
-                                                               PAGE
-     I. INTRODUCTION—PRE-HELLENIC                                 1
-
-    II. HOMERIC                                                  15
-
-   III. DORIC                                                    39
-
-    IV. IONIC                                                    57
-
-     V. THE MAIDENS OF THE ACROPOLIS—THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
-        IONIC HIMATION                                           73
-
-    VI. MATERIALS AND ORNAMENTATION                              97
-
-   VII. HAIR AND HEAD-DRESS                                     107
-
-  VIII. FOOTGEAR                                                115
-
-    IX. THE TOILET—CONCLUSION                                   120
-
-        ENGLISH INDEX                                           129
-
-        GREEK INDEX                                             133
-
-
-
-
-LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
-
-
-  PAGE
-
-  Fig.  1.—Cupbearer of Knossos                             _face_   6
-
-  Figs. 2 and 3.—Snake Goddess and Votary                      ”    11
-
-  Fig.  4.—Fresco of a Dancing Girl                            ”    12
-
-  Fig.  5.—Statuette from Petsofa                              ”    12
-
-  Fig.  6.—Studniczka’s Diagram                                     18
-
-  Fig.  7.—(_a_) Vase—British Museum, (_b_ and _c_) Vase-
-           paintings by Klitias and Ergotimos, Florence     _face_  26
-
-  Fig.  8.—From the François Vase                              ”    30
-
-  Fig.  9.—Diagram of the Doric Peplos                              43
-
-  Fig. 10.—Metope from the Temple of Zeus, at Olympia       _face_  44
-
-  Fig. 11.—Bronze Statue from Herculaneum, Naples              ”    45
-
-  Fig. 12.—Vase-painting—British Museum                        ”    46
-
-  Fig. 13.—Vase-painting in the Polygnotan Style—Louvre        ”    47
-
-  Fig. 14.—Vase-painting by Hieron—British Museum              ”    49
-
-  Fig. 15.—Terra-cotta Statuette—British Museum                ”    49
-
-  Fig. 16.—Vase-painting by Euxitheos—British Museum           ”    50
-
-  Fig. 17.—Vase-painting by Falerii—Rome, Villa Giulia         ”    50
-
-  Fig. 18.—Athena of Velletri                                  ”    51
-
-  Fig. 19.—Bronze Statuette—British Museum                     ”    53
-
-  Fig. 20.—Vase-painting—British Museum                        ”    54
-
-  Fig. 21.—The Doric Himation                                  ”    54
-
-  Fig. 22.—Vase-painting by Euphronios—Munich                  ”    55
-
-  Fig. 23.—The Chlamys and Petasos                             ”    55
-
-  Fig. 24.—Diagram of the Chlamys                                   55
-
-  Fig. 25.—Vase-painting from Lucania—British Museum        _face_  61
-
-  Fig. 26.—Diagram of the Ionic Chiton                              61
-
-  Fig. 27.—The Delphi Charioteer                            _face_  62
-
-  Fig. 28.—Vase-painting—Munich                                ”    63
-
-  Fig. 29.—Vase-painting by Brygos—British Museum              ”    66
-
-  Fig. 30.—Diagram of the Sleeved Chiton with Overfold              66
-
-  Fig. 31.—Archaic Statue—Athens, Acropolis Museum          _face_  75
-
-  Fig. 32.—Archaic Statue—Athens, Acropolis Museum             ”    78
-
-  Fig. 33.—Diagram of the Archaic Ionic Himation                    90
-
-  Fig. 34.—Drapery in the Style of the Archaic Statues in
-           the Acropolis Museum, Athens                     _face_  91
-
-  Fig. 35.—Vase-painting—British Museum                        ”    93
-
-  Fig. 36.—Vase-painting—Ionic Dress                           ”    94
-
-  Fig. 37.—The Artemis of Gabii—Louvre                         ”    95
-
-  Fig. 38.—Vase-painting—Dress with two Overfolds              ”    96
-
-  Fig. 39.—Fragments of a Sarcophagus Cover from Kertch        ”   103
-
-  Fig. 40.—Embroidered Fragment from Kertch                    ”   105
-
-  Fig. 41.—(_a_ and _b_) Fragments of a Sarcophagus
-           Cover from Kertch. (_c_) Embroidered Fragment
-           from Kertch                                         ”   106
-
-  Fig. 42.—Men’s Head-dress—Archaic                            ”   108
-
-  Fig. 43.—(_a_) Head of Apollo from the Temple of Zeus,
-           at Olympia. (_b_) Head of an Athlete—Athens
-           Acropolis Museum                                    ”   110
-
-  Fig. 44.—Archaic form of Petasos                                 111
-
-  Fig. 45.—Women’s Head-dress                               _face_ 112
-
-  Fig. 46.—Sandals and Shoes                                   ”   116
-
-  Fig. 47.—Boot                                                    118
-
-  Fig. 48.—(_a_) A Bronze in the British Museum.
-           (_b_) Foot of the Hermes of Praxiteles (from a
-           cast in the British Museum). (_c_) A Terra-cotta
-           Flask in the British Museum                      _face_ 118
-
-  Fig. 49.—Sandals                                                 119
-
-  Fig. 50.—Diagram of an Aryballos                                 121
-
-  Fig. 51.—Diagram of a Lekythos                                   121
-
-  Fig. 52.—(_a_) A Pyxis in the British Museum.
-           (_b_) A Toilet-box in the British Museum         _face_ 122
-
-  Fig. 53.—(_a_) Bronze Box Mirror—British Museum.
-           (_b_) Bronze Stand Mirror—British Museum         _face_ 124
-
-  Fig. 54.—Diagram of an Alabastron                                125
-
-
-
-
-GREEK DRESS
-
-
-
-
-I
-
-INTRODUCTION
-
-PRE-HELLENIC
-
-
-In seeking to conjure up a vivid picture of the life of an ancient
-people, it is the task of the archæologist to neglect no point that
-can in any way throw light on the manners and customs which that
-people practised from day to day, both in the exercise of their
-public duties and in the privacy of their own homes.
-
-Just as the habits and dress of an individual frequently give a
-true impression of his character and type of mind, so the salient
-characteristics of a nation are reflected in the external details of
-their manners and their costume. In making a careful study of the
-Greeks, therefore, whose innate feeling for beauty was part of their
-very being, and whose sense of the fitness of things rarely if ever
-played them false, we shall expect to find our efforts amply repaid,
-both by the satisfaction given to the æsthetic sense and by the
-knowledge we shall have gained of the development of the national
-character. The study of costume has, moreover, an ethnological
-significance which in itself justifies a detailed investigation of
-the subject.
-
-Professor Ridgeway, in _The Early Age of Greece_, has pointed out
-that the civilization reflected in the Homeric poems differs in many
-essential points from that which is revealed by the monuments found
-at Mycenæan sites on the mainland of Greece and in the Ægean islands.
-Confirmation has since been added to his convincing arguments by
-the discoveries of Mr Arthur Evans in Crete, which prove that the
-so-called Mycenæan remains were but the last efforts of a dying
-civilization which stretched back at least as far as the third
-millennium before our era. The culture revealed by the excavations at
-Knossos and other sites in Crete presents a striking contrast to that
-of the Greeks of the classic period; whereas the state of society
-described in the Homeric poems seems to contain analogies with both
-periods.
-
-The palace of Alcinous and the house of Odysseus, as described in the
-_Odyssey_, correspond in plan to the palace of Mycenæ excavated by
-the Greek Archæological Society in 1886, which undoubtedly belongs
-to the older stratum of civilization;[1] on the other hand, the
-methods of disposing of the dead, and the underlying principles of
-costume, are utterly different in the two cases. The Homeric heroes
-burn their dead, whereas the remains found in Mycenæan graves prove
-that in the state of society to which they belong burial was the
-common method of disposing of the dead. The difference in costume is
-equally striking; the women’s dress, illustrated by the Mycenæan gems
-and the wall-paintings and faïence statuettes from Knossos, consists
-of elaborately made garments, with tight jackets fitting closely to
-the figures at the waist, and full and frequently flounced skirts;
-there is no indication of fastening by means of brooches or fibulæ.
-In Homer the brooch is almost invariably mentioned as an essential
-detail of female costume, and the garments described are of a simple
-character, and such that they can be spread out and used for other
-purposes. For example, Aphrodite, when protecting Æneas from his
-assailants, shields him from their weapons by drawing a fold of
-her peplos over him (_Iliad_, v., 315); and again, at the funeral
-rites of Hector, the body is covered, πορφυρέοις πέπλοισι μαλακοῖσιν
-(_Iliad_, xxiv., 796), “with soft purple robes.”
-
-  [1] J. L. Myres, _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, vol. xx. Cp.
-  also, for general principles of ground plan, “The Palace at
-  Knossos,” _British School Annual_, VIII.
-
-The contrast between the forms of dress represented in Mycenæan art
-and in the Homeric poems can only be explained by supposing that
-there is a difference in race between the two peoples, and that the
-older civilization was almost entirely swept away by a great series
-of invasions carried out by men of a different race. The Homeric
-dress is closely akin to that of the Greeks of the classic period,
-whereas that represented on Mycenæan rings and gems belongs, as
-will be shown later, to the stratum of civilization revealed by the
-Cretan excavations.[2] We must suppose, then, that the Homeric heroes
-belonged to the invading race, which was full of youthful vigour and
-succeeded in superimposing its manners and customs upon those of the
-older, decadent society, and in finally ousting the older inhabitants
-from their homes altogether. The process was one which must have
-lasted over some centuries, and it is probable that the Homeric poems
-were composed whilst it was still incomplete, and that the siege
-of Troy represents one incident in the long wars which were waged
-between the two peoples. This view accounts for the fact that the
-Homeric house belongs to the older civilization, while the costume
-is that of the later. The invaders, having conquered or driven out
-the inhabitants, finding their houses strongly built and luxuriously
-decorated, would refrain from destroying them and settle themselves
-peacefully and comfortably there, naturally retaining their own style
-of dress and customs of disposing of their dead. Any new houses
-built after their settlement would be constructed after their own
-plans, and so the Homeric house would gradually give place to the
-Hellenic. The absence of brooches and fibulæ from the graves on the
-Acropolis of Mycenæ, and their presence in those of the lower city,
-adds confirmation to this theory. The Acropolis graves are earlier
-than the others, which in all probability belong to the time when the
-invaders had already imposed some of their characteristic customs
-upon their predecessors at Mycenæ and elsewhere in Greece. The use
-of the fibula is common to the early peoples of Central Europe, from
-which region it must have been introduced by the Achæan invaders into
-Greece.[3]
-
-  [2] Cp. Busolt, _Griechische Geschichte_, vol. i., 2nd ed., chap.
-  i.
-
-  [3] Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_, chap. viii.; S. Müller,
-  _Urgeschichte Europas_, pp. 95, 96.
-
-The earliest remains found on Greek soil are those which have been
-unearthed by Mr A. J. Evans, in his series of excavations at Knossos,
-in Crete. They represent earlier stages of that civilization which
-has hitherto been known as Mycenæan. The costume revealed by the art
-of this pre-Hellenic age forms a study in itself, since it presents a
-striking contrast to that of the classic period in Greece, and also
-to that of contemporary Asiatic peoples. The costume of the men is
-simple; when not entirely nude, they wear sometimes a waist-cloth
-rolled round a girdle, with a loose end hanging down like an apron in
-front;[4] in a lead statuette of the same period found near Abbia,
-in Laconia, the waist-cloth appears to take the form of a triangular
-piece of material wrapped round the girdle, the apex of the triangle
-being drawn up between the legs and tucked into the belt in front.
-In some terra-cotta figurines from Petsofa,[5] a third garment
-appears, consisting of a rectangular piece of material with the long
-side tucked into the belt all round and the short sides hanging down
-perpendicularly in front. In the later Mycenæan period, the garment
-takes the form of short breeches reaching half-way down the thigh.
-These are probably a development from the earlier waist-cloth.[6]
-
-  [4] Fig. 1, Cupbearer of Knossos. Cp. also, Vaphio Cup, gems,
-  Perrot and Chipiez, VI., 426. 21.
-
-  [5] _British School Annual_, IX., pls. ix. and x.
-
-  [6] Dagger blade from Mycenæ. Perrot and Chipiez, VI., pl.
-  xviii., 3.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 1.—Cupbearer of Knossos.
-  _Face page_ 6.]
-
-In most cases the upper part of the body appears to be quite bare,
-but in some instances a line is drawn at the neck and wrists which
-may indicate the edges of a close-fitting, long-sleeved tunic. It
-is more probable, however, that these lines are meant to represent
-a necklace and bracelets, such as have been found in considerable
-numbers in Mycenæan graves. On a siege scene represented on a
-fragment of a silver vase from Mycenæ,[7] the majority of the
-fighting warriors are represented quite nude; but in one case (at
-the lower right-hand corner) a tunic and head-dress are worn; but in
-this instance the tunic has sleeves reaching only half-way to the
-elbow, as is also the case with the inhabitants, who are watching the
-progress of the battle from behind the city wall; two figures, which
-appear to be just leaving the city, wear square cloaks fastened on
-the right shoulder and leaving both arms free; they do not appear
-to be fighting, and probably represent heralds about to make
-some proposal to the enemy. The covering here described as a cloak
-has been regarded as representing an oblong shield (ἠΰτε πύργος);
-but in view of the fact that the men carry no weapons and that both
-arms are exposed, it seems more reasonable to suppose that a mantle
-is intended. The warriors in front are fighting without protection;
-and if any shield were represented, we should expect it to be of the
-usual Mycenæan shape, which appears as a decoration on the upper
-left-hand corner of the fragment. A fragment of a wall-painting
-from Mycenæ represents a warrior wearing a short-sleeved tunic and
-having a double bracelet at the wrist; it appears, then, that when
-the pre-Hellenic man wore a tunic, it was not furnished with long
-sleeves, and even when his clothing was of the scantiest possible
-nature, he was not far enough removed from primitive barbarism to
-prevent his adorning his person with bracelet and necklace.
-
-  [7] Perrot and Chipiez, VI., fig. 365.
-
-The indication of some kind of footgear is frequent: it is
-represented on the Vaphio cups; and on a wall-painting from Tiryns
-depicting the capture of a bull, it takes the form of pointed shoes
-turned up at the toes and fastened by a series of bands above
-the ankles. Such pointed shoes were common to the Assyrians and
-the Hittites, and are worn to this day by Greeks and Turks, and
-frequently also in other rocky countries.[8]
-
-  [8] The characteristic Cretan boots may possibly be a direct
-  survival.
-
-In the wall-painting from Tiryns, and on a Mycenæan intaglio (Perrot
-and Chipiez, VI., 426. 21), a number of bands is indicated just below
-the knee. Possibly the boots were fastened by leather laces crossed
-round the legs and then passed two or three times round under the
-knees. At present these bands have only been found in cases where the
-wearer is engaged in some violent occupation, such as the bull-taming
-scene; it has been suggested that they represent a leather thong
-wound round the knees to act as a protection; on stony ground some
-such guard would be necessary.
-
-The head-dress, of conical shape, finished by a button or flattened
-knob on the top, represents a helmet, made sometimes probably of
-metal, as was the case in Assyria, but in some cases certainly of
-felt or leather, covered with rows of overlapping boar’s tusks,
-turned alternately in opposite directions. A large number of boar’s
-tusks were found by Dr Schliemann[9] at Mycenæ, flattened on one side
-and with several holes in them, which obviously served to fasten them
-to some object; such a helmet is to be seen in an ivory fragment
-from Mycenæ,[10] and would exactly correspond to that described in
-_Iliad_, X., 261.
-
-              ἀμφὶ δ᾽ οἱ κυνέην κεφαλῆφιν ἔθηκεν
-    ῥινοῦ ποιητήν· πολέσιν δ᾽ ἔντοσθεν ἱμᾶσιν
-    ἐντέτατο στερεῶς, ἔκτοσθε δὲ λευκοὶ ὄδοντες
-    ἀργιοδόντος ὑὸς. Θαμέες ἔχον ἔνθα καὶ ἔνθα
-    εὖ καὶ ἐπισταμένως.
-
-“And about his head he set a helmet made of leather; and inside it
-was stiffly wrought with many thongs, and outside the white teeth of
-a boar with shining tusks were set close together, this way and that,
-well and cunningly arranged.”
-
-  [9] Schliemann, _Mycenæ_, pp. 272, 273.
-
-  [10] Perrot and Chipiez, VI., fig. 380; Ἐφημερίς Ἀρχαιολογική,
-  1888, pl. viii.
-
-In some cases the helmet presents a strikingly Egyptian appearance,
-and may quite possibly have been derived from Egypt; evidence of
-direct intercourse between the Cretans and Egyptians is not wanting;
-indeed the clearest representation of the costume of the pre-Hellenic
-inhabitants of the Ægean shores is to be found on an Egyptian tomb
-fresco,[11] where the Kefts are depicted bringing vases as tribute
-to the Egyptian monarch, their costume is identical with that of the
-cupbearer from the Knossian fresco, and they are carrying vessels
-of the same shapes as many which have been found in Crete and on
-other Mycenæan sites. It has been pointed out by Mr H. R. Hall[12]
-that the Keftiu were the people of the Ægean islands, including
-Crete, and that sometimes the name was applied exclusively to the
-Cretans. The Keftiu were formerly mistaken for Phœnicians; but their
-whole appearance and costume on the Egyptian fresco is utterly
-unlike anything Phœnician; so we are quite justified in considering
-that they represent the Cretans faithfully as they appeared to the
-Egyptians, especially in view of their similarity to the cupbearer
-of the fresco at Knossos, a native product of Cretan art.
-
-  [11] Perrot and Chipiez, III., fig. 303.
-
-  [12] _British School Annual_, IX., “Keftiu and the Peoples of the
-  Sea.”
-
-A striking analogy to the pre-Hellenic male costume is to be observed
-in the Etruscan wall-paintings from the tombs at Corneto, now in the
-British Museum. The waist-cloth, shoes, and head-dress are there
-represented in a form almost identical with that found in Mycenæan
-art. So little is known of the origin of the Etruscans, that it is
-difficult to say whether this similarity of dress indicates any
-racial connection between the two peoples; it is interesting to note
-that among ancient authorities Hellanicus of Lesbos states that the
-Etruscans were of Pelasgian origin, and modern writers have claimed
-a Pelasgian origin for the Cretans; there is not sufficient evidence
-forthcoming at present to determine whether they are right or wrong;
-but in any case, it is not improbable that both the Etruscans and the
-Cretans were branches of a common civilization, which spread itself
-all round the shores of the Mediterranean Sea in pre-Hellenic times,
-and that the Etruscans maintained some of their early characteristics
-down to a later date than other peoples of the same race.[13]
-
-  [13] Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquités_, _s.v._
-  “Etrusci.”
-
-Turning to the female costume of the pre-Hellenic age, we find we
-have something far more complicated to deal with. The same style
-of dress is found on the early faïence figures from Knossos and
-Petsofa, and extends right on until quite late Mycenæan times.
-
-[Illustration: FIGS. 2 and 3.—Snake Goddess and Votary. (_British
-School Annual_, IX., figs. 54 and 56.)
-  _Face page_ 11.]
-
-It consists of a short-sleeved jacket, fitting closely to the figure,
-and a full skirt, standing out round the feet in a manner suggestive
-of the hoops of the early Victorian age. The juncture of the two
-garments is hidden by a thick double girdle worn round the waist,
-which is pinched into the smallest possible compass.
-
-The snake goddess and her votary[14] from Knossos have, in addition,
-a kind of apron reaching almost to the knees in front and behind,
-and rising to the hips at the sides. The costume is completed by the
-addition of a high hat or turban.
-
-  [14] Figs. 2 and 3 from _British School Annual_, IX.
-
-Looking at the snake goddess more in detail, we find that the jacket
-is cut away into a V-shape from the neck to the waist, leaving both
-the breasts quite bare; the two edges are laced across below the
-breast, the laces being fastened in a series of bows. The jacket
-is covered with an elaborate volute pattern, the apron with spots
-and bordered with a “guilloche.” The horizontal lines on the skirt
-probably represent stripes in the material, the edge being ornamented
-with a reticulated band. The girdle of the goddess is composed of two
-snakes intertwined. The head-dress here consists of a high turban,
-probably made of cloth or linen wound round some kind of framework.
-The principle of the costume is always the same, though the fashions
-vary considerably in detail: for example, the skirt of the votary
-is composed of a series of seven flounces, one above the other,
-the lower edge in each case just covering the upper edge of the
-flounce below, the whole being probably sewn on to a foundation. On
-a fresco[15] representing a lady dancing, the skirt seems to consist
-of three such flounces. On the same figure the breast is not left
-bare, but a chemisette seems to be worn under the jacket, possibly
-made of some fine linen material, the edge of which is distinctly
-indicated at the neck. In one of the statuettes from Petsofa[16]
-the jacket terminates at the back in a high “Medici” collar, and in
-another fresco, from Knossos, a high sash appears on the back, the
-loop reaching to the nape of the neck, and the fringed edge hanging
-down to the waist; at first sight this sash recalls the Japanese
-“Obi.”[17] The millinery of the Cretan ladies, as illustrated by the
-terra-cotta fragments from Petsofa, exhibits an abundant variety of
-styles. The hat seems to have consisted of a flat, circular, or oval
-piece of material pinched up into any shape to suit the taste of the
-wearer; sometimes it is fastened down towards the nape of the neck,
-and curves round the head, rising high up in front over the face; in
-one case[18] the brim has a wavy edge and is trimmed with rosettes
-underneath; frequently it is done up into a large “toque” shape,
-narrowing to a point in front; this form occurs also on late Mycenæan
-terra-cottas.
-
-  [15] Fig. 4, only a very small fragment of the skirt remains;
-  but the painting has been restored. Reproduced from the _British
-  School Annual_, VIII., fig. 28.
-
-  [16] Fig. 5 from _British School Annual_, IX., pl. viii.
-
-  [17] The large sash worn over the “Kimono” and tied rather high
-  up at the back.
-
-  [18] _British School Annual_, IX., pls. xi. and xii.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 4.—Fresco of a Dancing Girl.
-  _Face page_ 12.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 5.—Statuette from Petsofa.
-  _Face page_ 12.]
-
-On none of the examples of costume quoted above is there any
-indication of fastening; the garments are obviously constructed by
-an elaborate system of sewing, but the means by which they were held
-in place on the figure is not represented, except in the case of
-the bodices of the goddess and her votary, which are laced across
-by cords. The use of fibulæ is nowhere indicated in art; and no
-fibulæ have been found, except in the later Mycenæan graves, which
-in all probability belong to the Achæan civilization introduced into
-Greece by the invasions from Central Europe.[19] A fragmentary hand
-from Petsofa has a bracelet represented in white paint, which is
-clearly fastened by means of a button and loop; since this method of
-fastening was known to the Cretans, it is probable that the ladies’
-skirts were fastened at the waist by buttons and loops, the fastening
-being concealed by the belt, as is the case with the modern blouse
-and skirt costume.
-
-  [19] On “fibulæ,” see Sophus Müller, _Urgeschichte Europas_, p.
-  95. O. Montelius, _Civilization of Sweden in Heathen Times_.
-
-It has been pointed out by Mr J. L. Myres[20] that this jacket and
-apron type of dress is commonly worn at the present day by the
-peasants of the mountainous districts of Europe, chiefly in Italy,
-Switzerland, the Tyrol, Norway, and the Pyrenees. In Norway and
-Switzerland, moreover, we find the addition of a fan-like head-dress
-analogous to that represented in Minoan art. The appearance of the
-same kind of costume in Crete in the third millennium before our era
-merely serves to show that the type of dress need not necessarily be
-a modern development, but may possibly claim greater antiquity than
-has hitherto been supposed. The question of survival in the Ægean
-is interesting; as late as Tournefort’s[21] time, the inhabitants
-of some of the islands—for example, Mycone—appear to have worn
-a dress composed of a tight jacket and flounced skirt, with the
-addition of some Turkish elements; in the remoter islands there is a
-possibility—but it is little more than a possibility—that this may be
-a case of survival; in any case, the type seems to have disappeared
-in the eighteenth or early nineteenth century.[22]
-
-  [20] _British School Annual_, IX.
-
-  [21] Tournefort, I., 109.
-
-  [22] See also, Choiseul-Gouffier, _Voyage pittoresque de
-  la Grèce_, Paris, 1809, where the women of the islands are
-  represented wearing a tight corslet over a chemisette. A high
-  head-dress, not unlike that of the Petsofa statuettes, was
-  commonly worn by the island women as late as the eighteenth
-  century.
-
-
-
-
-II
-
-HOMERIC
-
-
-Turning to the various passages in the Homeric poems which refer to
-dress, we find that there is very little likelihood that they can
-be intended to describe the kind of costume dealt with above under
-the name of “Pre-Hellenic Dress.” The words used, and the accounts
-of the process of dressing, have no meaning, unless we suppose
-them to refer to the draped type of costume as opposed both to the
-close-fitting jacket type and to the dressing-gown type, consisting
-of a loose-sleeved garment opening down the front. The question of
-the kind of dress actually worn by the Trojan and Achæan heroes is
-not one to be entered into here; possibly it may have been the same
-as that reflected in the art of the Minoan and Mycenæan peoples;
-indeed, if the Trojans represent the older race which inhabited the
-shores of the Ægean, and the Achæans the invaders who came down upon
-them from the north, there is every probability that the former wore
-the pre-Hellenic dress, and the latter introduced the new Hellenic
-draped type. The use of the epithets βαθύκολπος and βαθύζωνος,
-“deep-bosomed” and “deep-girdled,” in the Homeric poems perhaps has
-some bearing on this point. Referring respectively to the deep hollow
-between the breasts and to the girdle cutting deep into the figure,
-they might well be applied to the wasp-waisted ladies of Knossos.
-It is significant to notice that βαθύκολπος is used only of Trojan
-women,[23] βαθύζωνος only of barbarian captives;[24] possibly the
-poet may be unconsciously referring to the difference between the
-dress of the older race and that of their Achæan conquerors.
-
-  [23] _Iliad_, 18. 122, 389, 24. 215.
-
-  [24] _Ibid._, 9. 594; _Odyssey_, 3. 154.
-
-However that may be, in most cases Homer ascribes the same kind of
-costume to Achæans and Trojans alike; he is singing of deeds that
-happened many years, perhaps even two or three centuries, before
-his day, and being no archæologist, he imagines his heroes to have
-dressed as his own contemporaries did; he is acting no differently
-from the Italian masters, who painted their Madonnas in mediæval
-costume.
-
-We find in Homer many differences in the nomenclature used when
-speaking of men’s and women’s dresses respectively. The words χιτών
-and χλαῖνα are applied exclusively to men’s costume, πέπλος and
-κρήδεμνον exclusively to women’s, whereas the word φᾶρος is the only
-one used indifferently for either; both men and women alike fasten
-their garments with brooches or pins of some kind (περόνη, ἐνετή) and
-with girdles (ζώνη, ζωστήρ). Many of the words applied to articles of
-wearing-apparel are also used to signify coverings for beds, seats,
-etc.: such are χλαῖνα, ῥήγεα, πέπλος, φᾶρος; the last is used also of
-sails and of the shroud of Laertes.[25] This being the case, we must
-infer that they were not made-up garments, but large square or oblong
-pieces of material which could be used for other purposes besides
-clothing; the Homeric dress, therefore, must belong to the draped
-type rather than to any other.
-
-  [25] _Odyssey_, xix., 137.
-
-The men’s dress in Homer regularly consists of two pieces—the χιτών,
-or under-garment, and a cloak called variously χλαῖνα, φᾶρος, or, in
-one case, λώπη.[26] Warriors sometimes wore a skin instead of the
-mantle. For example, in _Iliad_, x., 22, Agamemnon is described as
-putting on a lion’s skin, and a few lines further on Menelaus appears
-wearing a dappled leopard’s skin.
-
-  [26] _Ibid._, xiii., 22.
-
-The description of the process of dressing in the _Iliad_ is simple
-and straightforward. Agamemnon[27] awakes in the morning, and
-prepares to meet the assembly of the Achæans:
-
-    ἕζετο δ᾽ ὀρθωθεὶς μαλακὸν δ᾽ ἔνδυνε χιτῶνα
-    καλὸν νηγατέον, περὶ δὲ μέγα βάλλετο φᾶρος·
-    πόσσι δ᾽ ὑπὸ λιταροῖσιν ἐδῆσατο καλὰ πέδιλα,
-    ἀμφὶ δ᾽ ἄρ᾽ ὤμοισιν βάλετο ξίφος ἀργυρόηλον.
-
-“He sat upright and drew on his soft tunic, fair and new, and threw
-around him his great cloak: and beneath his shining feet he bound
-fair sandals, and around his shoulders he slung his silver-studded
-sword.”
-
-  [27] _Iliad_, ii., 42.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 6. Studniczka’s Diagram. The dotted lines mark the
-seams, the spaces A B, C D, E F being left open for arms and head
-respectively.]
-
-The χιτών was apparently, then, a garment which could be drawn on
-(ἔνδυνε) while in a sitting position. No mention is made, either
-in this or other similar passages, of pins or girdle to fasten the
-χιτών, so we may infer that it was a rather narrow garment sewn up at
-the two sides, with openings left for the head and arms.
-
-Studniczka[28] gives a diagram of such a garment, which he describes
-as a sack left open at the bottom, with openings in the top and
-side-seams for head and arms.
-
-  [28] _Beiträge zur Geschichte der altgriechischen Tracht_, p. 13.
-
-The words ἐνδύνω, ἐκδύνω, are commonly used for “to put on” and “to
-take off” a χιτών, which seems to imply that the garment was drawn
-over the head; although occasionally περί is used with the simple
-verb δύνω instead of the compound ἐνδύνω.[29] In no case is there any
-mention of pins or brooches in connection with the χιτών, so we are
-justified in inferring that it was a sewn garment; and in _Odyssey_,
-xxiv., 227, the χιτών of Laertes is actually described as sewn:
-
-              ῥυπόωντα δὲ ἕστο χιτῶνα
-    ῥαπτὸν ἀεικέλιον.
-
-“He wore a sewn tunic, dirty and unseemly.”
-
-  [29] _Odyssey_, xv., 60.
-
-As a rule, the χιτών was worn ungirdled, except when the wearer was
-engaged in vigorous action, when he is usually described as girding
-himself for the purpose. For example, in the _Odyssey_,[30] when
-Eumæus is going to slay pigs, he prepares himself by confining his
-χιτών with a girdle:
-
-    ὣς εἰπὼν ζωστῆρι θοῶς συνέεργε χιτῶνα.
-
-  [30] xiv. 72.
-
-Little mention is made in the Homeric poems of the length of
-the χιτών, but the distinguishing epithet of the Ionians is
-ἑλκεχίτωνες—with trailing chitons—so that trailing garments were
-evidently customary only among the Ionians; warriors while fighting
-and slaves occupied in active work would probably wear very short
-garments reaching only to the thigh, as they are to be seen on the
-earliest vase-paintings. The princes and elders of the people,
-engaged in peaceful pursuits, in all probability wore them reaching
-to the ankles. The word τερμίοεις, applied to the χιτών in _Odyssey_,
-xix., 242, is usually taken to mean “reaching to the feet,” and to be
-equivalent to ποδήρης, used by later writers.
-
-With regard to the material of which the χιτών was made, the word
-itself is connected with a Semitic root signifying linen;[31] and
-from the various epithets applied to it in Homer, it is reasonable
-to infer that the garment was ordinarily made of that material. It
-is described as σιγαλόεις, “shining” or “glossy”; and although this
-particular epithet need mean no more than “dazzlingly clean,” its
-comparison for softness and brightness with the skin of an onion[32]
-would hardly be very apt, if it were made of a stuff that did not
-present a very smooth surface; a hand-woven woollen material might
-possibly be called μαλακός, “soft,” but could hardly be described as
-shining like the sun. Two passages in Homer show clearly that oil
-was used in the weaving of linen, which would have the effect of
-producing a shiny appearance. The maidens in the palace of Alcinous
-are described as weaving linen from which the oil runs off:
-
-    καιρουσσέων δ᾽ ὀθονέων ἀπολείβεται ὑγρὸν ἔλαιον.
-                                     [_Odyssey_, vii., 107.]
-
-
-“And from the close-woven linen the liquid oil runs off,” and in
-_Iliad_, 596, the youths in the dancing place on the shield of
-Achilles are described as wearing χιτῶνας ἐϋννήτους, ἦκα στίλβοντας
-ἐλαίῳ, “well spun, shining softly with oil.”
-
-  [31] Pauly-Wissowa, _Real Encyclopädie_, _s.v._ “χιτών,”
-  Studniczka, p. 15 f.
-
-  [32] _Odyssey_, xix., 232:
-
-    τὸν δὲ χιτῶν᾽ ἐνόησα περὶ χροῒ σιγαλόεντα
-    οἷόν τε κρομύοιο λοπὸν κάτα ἰσχαλέοιο
-    τὼς μὲν ἔην μαλακὸς, λαμπρὸς δ᾽ ἦν ἠέλιος ὥς.
-
-  “And I saw the shining tunic on his body, like the skin of a
-  dried onion—so soft it was, and bright as the sun.”
-
-The epithet στρέπτος applied to the χιτών[33] requires comment; it
-was taken by Aristarchus, the grammarian, to mean a coat of chain
-mail. There is no evidence to show that such a piece of defensive
-armour was known to the early Greeks, and we find no reference to
-it until Roman times; there is, therefore, no justification for the
-inference that στρέπτος χιτών in Homer means a coat of mail.
-
-  [33] _Iliad_, v., 113; xxi., 31.
-
-The word στρέπτος means primarily “twisted,” and could be applied to
-a coarse kind of linen whose texture showed very clearly the separate
-threads of which it was woven; but other uses of the word in Homer,
-and the second of the two passages in which it is applied to a χιτών,
-suggest a different interpretation. In _Odyssey_, ii., 426, in the
-description of the rigging of a ship, the expression εὐστρέπτοισι
-βοεῦσιν occurs. The adjective here can very well retain its simple
-meaning—“well-twisted”; the noun can mean nothing else but “ropes of
-ox-hide”—that is to say, the whole expression will signify ropes made
-of well-twisted thongs of leather.
-
-The passage referred to in the _Iliad_ runs as follows:—
-
-    δῆσε δ᾽ ὀπίσσω χεῖρας εὐτμήτοισιν ἱμᾶσι
-    τοὺς αὐτοὶ φορέεσκον ἐπὶ στρεπτοῖσι χιτῶσι.
-                                        [_Iliad_, xxi., 30.]
-
-
-The subject is the sacrifice of the twelve boys at the funeral of
-Patroclus.
-
-Achilles bound their hands behind them with the well-cut thongs which
-they wore on their twisted chitons. The word ἱμᾶσι implies leather,
-and the only kind of chiton which would be likely to have leather
-thongs attached to it would be a jerkin made of leather, perhaps
-plaited in some way and fastened by means of leather laces. Such
-a garment might be worn in war under a metal breast-plate, or if
-very stoutly made might even serve as defensive armour, without the
-addition of any corslet; in any case, it would afford more protection
-than an ordinary linen chiton such as was worn by those engaged in
-the pursuits of peace.
-
-Another garment worn by men is the ζῶμα, which appears at first
-sight to mean simply a girdle, but in one or two passages signifies
-something more. The word is obviously connected with the verb
-ζώννυμι, “to gird on,” and means a “thing girt on.” The word might
-well apply to a girdle, but it might also be used of anything put
-on round the waist, and so of a waist-cloth; there can be little
-doubt that it has this meaning in _Iliad_, xxiii., 683, where a
-description is being given of the preparations for a boxing match;
-and a few lines further on the participle ζωσαμένω, applied to the
-wrestlers, in all probability means putting on their waist-cloths. In
-other passages where the word occurs, its meaning is less obvious,
-although here too there is nothing to render the same interpretation
-impossible. In _Iliad_, iv., 186, a weapon is described as not
-inflicting a mortal wound:
-
-    εἰρύσατο ζωστήρ τε παναίολος ἠδ᾽ ὑπένερθεν
-    ζῶμά τε καὶ μίτρη, τὴν χαλκῆες κάμον ἄνδρες.
-
-“But the shining belt checked it, and the waist-cloth beneath, and
-the kirtle which the coppersmiths fashioned.”
-
-Here the ζωστήρ and the μίτρη are obviously pieces of armour, and the
-ζῶμα is a garment worn under the ζωστήρ, and can very well bear the
-meaning of a waist-cloth. Such garments were worn at all periods;
-they formed the regular dress of the men of the pre-Hellenic age;
-they occur also on vases of the classical period.[34] There is no
-necessity, therefore, to suppose, as Studniczka does, that the word
-here is synonymous with χιτών. Studniczka supports his interpretation
-of this passage by another, _Odyssey_, xiv., 478 f., where Eumæus is
-describing to Odysseus an occasion when he and comrades had to sleep
-in the open air, and he felt the cold because he had foolishly left
-his cloak behind him, and had only his shield and ζῶμα φαεινόν. The
-expression could here maintain its signification of “waist-cloth”;
-only, the simple meaning is obscured by a phrase some five lines
-further on, when Eumæus continues:
-
-        οὐ γὰρ ἔχω χλαῖναν· παρὰ μ᾽ ἤπαφε δαίμων
-    οἰοχίτων᾽ ἔμεναι.
-
-“I had no cloak: some god beguiled me to go with only a single
-garment.”
-
-  [34] Cp. Fig. 7 (_a_); the human figure struggling with the
-  Minotaur.
-
-The simple meaning of οἰοχίτων is, “wearing only a chiton,” or
-under-garment; but without stretching the meaning of the expression
-very far, we can easily suppose its being applied to a man clad only
-in a waist-cloth; so that even here it is not necessary to suppose
-that ζῶμα is another word for χιτών.
-
-We must next consider the over-garment worn by the Homeric heroes,
-for which several words are used, the most common being χλαῖνα and
-φᾶρος.
-
-The χλαῖνα was used not only as an article of dress, but also as a
-blanket to sleep under;[35] as a rug to cover couches and seats;[36]
-a constant epithet is οὔλη, so that its material was evidently
-woollen; and the adjectives ἀλεξάνεμος and ἀνεμοσκεπής, “warding off
-winds,” show that it was worn for warmth, as a protection against
-cold winds.[37] It was thrown off for exercise or when speed in
-running was required.[38] The style in which the χλαῖνα was worn
-varied somewhat; the verbs regularly used for the act of putting it
-on are ἀμφιβάλλω and ἀμφιέννυμι, “to throw round”; περιβάλλω also
-occurs, and sometimes it is described as being placed ἐπ᾽ ὤμοισι,
-“upon the shoulders”; for taking it off, ἀποβάλλω and ἀποτίθημι
-are used, and in one case ἐκδύνω occurs, though this word should
-more correctly be applied to the χιτών. The constant use of ἀμφί,
-“around,” shows that the χλαῖνα was not a garment which was drawn on
-over the head, like the χιτών, but was a square or rectangular piece
-of material wrapped round the figure or laid over the shoulders. We
-read in Homer of the χλαῖνα ἁπλοΐς, “single cloak,” and the χλαῖνα
-διπλῆ, “double cloak”; the former expression must mean a cloak worn
-single, without being folded over; such a garment might possibly be
-put on as the himation was in later time, one end being laid on the
-shoulder, so that the mass of the material hung down towards the
-back; this mass of material would then be drawn across the back under
-the arm which was then left exposed, and across the chest, and the
-end would be thrown over the shoulder towards the back. The garment
-could easily be drawn up so as to cover both arms if the temperature
-required greater warmth, or it might be worn over both shoulders
-like a shawl, without being doubled, and the frequent mention of
-the shoulders in connection with the χλαῖνα seem to point to this
-style as the most common.[39] The χλαῖνα διπλῆ is mentioned twice in
-Homer—once in the _Iliad_ and once in the _Odyssey_; in both cases it
-is described as being fastened with a brooch:
-
-    ἀμφὶ δ᾽ ἄρα χλαῖναν περονήσατο φοινικόεσσαν
-    διπλῆν ἐκταδίην.
-                                         [_Iliad_, x., 133.]
-
-“And about him he fastened a purple cloak, doubled, with no folds.”
-
-    χλαῖναν πορφυρέην οὐλὴν ἔχε δῖος Ὀδυσσεύς,
-    διπλῆν· αὐτὰρ οἱ περόνη χρυσοῖο τέτυκτο
-    αὐλοῖσιν διδύμοισι.
-                                     [_Odyssey_, xix., 225.]
-
-“Goodly Odysseus had a purple cloak, woollen and doubled; and it had
-a brooch wrought of gold, with a double groove for the pins.”
-
-  [35] _Odyssey_, iii., 349.
-
-  [36] _Ibid._, xvii., 86.
-
-  [37] _Ibid._, xiv., 522.
-
-  [38] _Iliad_, ii., 183.
-
-  [39] See Fig. 7 (_a_), where the second figure from the right is
-  represented wearing only the χλαῖνα ἁπλοΐς.
-
-In these cases the χλαῖνα was obviously folded over double, though
-in what way is not expressly stated; if the garment consisted of a
-wide rectangular piece of material, it might be doubled along its
-length horizontally and fastened with a brooch on one shoulder, like
-Apollo’s himation in the Thasos relief.[40] This method, however,
-is not found on the earliest vases, which, though not contemporary
-with Homer, are yet the nearest monumental evidence obtainable;
-moreover, the additional expression, ἐκταδίην, seems to be against
-this interpretation; the meaning of ἐκταδίην seems to be “stretched
-out straight,” and the word could hardly be applied to a garment
-draped in such a way as to fall in many folds; it is reasonable,
-therefore, to suppose that the χλαῖνα διπλῆ consisted of a large
-square[41] of woollen material folded along the diagonal, so that two
-opposite corners lay on each other; it would be laid on the shoulders
-so that these two corners hung down in the middle of the back, no
-folds being formed (ἐκταδίην), and the other two points hung down
-one on each side of the front; a brooch would prevent the cloak from
-slipping off the shoulders; this shawl-like method of wearing the
-mantle is frequently represented on the black figured vases.[42] The
-δίπτυχον λώπην, “double cloak,” which Athena wears, ἀμφ᾽ ὤμοισι, when
-disguised as a shepherd,[43] is probably a garment worn in this same
-fashion, and the δίπλακες which Helen and Andromache are described
-as weaving in the _Iliad_[44] are perhaps intended for cloaks to be
-so worn.
-
-  [40] E. A. Gardner, _Handbook of Greek Sculpture_, p. 128.
-
-  [41] Unless the garment were square, the diagonally opposite
-  corners would not coincide when folded corner to corner; they are
-  invariably represented on the vases as coinciding.
-
-  [42] Fig. 7 (_b_) is taken from the “François” vase.
-
-  [43] _Odyssey_, xiii., 223.
-
-  [44] iii., 126; xxii., 440.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 7.—(_a_) Vase—British Museum. (_b_ and _c_)
-Vase-paintings by Klitias and Ergotimos, Florence.
-  Furtwängler and Reichhold, _Griechische Vasenmalerei_, I and II.
-  _Face page_ 26.]
-
-The place of the χλαῖνα is frequently taken by the φᾶρος, constant
-epithets of which are καλὸν and μέγα, “fine” and “large,” so that
-we may conclude that the φᾶρος was an ample and somewhat luxurious
-garment. The word is used not only for an article of wearing
-apparel, but also for the shroud of Laertes,[45] and for the sails
-of a ship,[46] so that Studniczka’s conjecture that it was made of
-linen is probably right, and the difference of material probably
-constitutes the chief distinction between the φᾶρος and the χλαῖνα.
-The φᾶρος is several times described as “white” and “well-washed,”
-and the epithets ἀργυφεόν, λέπτον, χαρίεν, “silvery,” “fine,”
-and “graceful,” which are used of the φᾶρος of Calypso, are more
-applicable to a linen than to a woollen garment. Φᾶρος is the only
-word used in Homer for the dress of both men and women. When worn by
-men, the φᾶρος was in all probability draped in the same fashion as
-the χλαῖνα, but the woman’s φᾶρος would be draped differently, as
-will be shown later.
-
-  [45] _Odyssey_, ii., 97; xix., 137.
-
-  [46] _Ibid._, v., 257.
-
-The χλαῖνα and the φᾶρος were not worn in battle, since they would
-encumber the wearer too much; armour was put on over the chiton,
-or in some cases warriors wore the skin of some wild beast slain
-in combat; we hear, for example, of Agamemnon wearing a lion’s
-skin,[47] and of Menelaus and Paris wearing leopards’ skins.[48] A
-man’s costume was completed by sandals, πέδιλα, which we are told
-were made of leather;[49] no mention is made of any head-covering
-worn in the pursuit of peaceful occupations; if any protection were
-needed, a fold of the mantle might easily be drawn up over the head;
-in battle, of course, some kind of helmet was worn, which was made
-usually of bronze, or sometimes of hide,[50] covered with boars’
-tusks, such as have been found at Mycenæ.
-
-  [47] _Iliad_, x., 22.
-
-  [48] _Ibid._, 29; iii., 17.
-
-  [49] _Odyssey_, xiv., 23.
-
-  [50] _Iliad_, x., 261 f.
-
-The women’s dress in Homer consists of two garments, the πέπλος and
-the κρήδεμνον or καλύπτρη, called also in one case the κάλυμμα;[51]
-the word ἑανός which is used sometimes as a substantive instead of
-πέπλος, sometimes as an adjective, simply means “something to be
-worn.”
-
-  [51] _Ibid._, xxiv., 93.
-
-The principal garment of the women was the πέπλος. The derivation
-of the word is uncertain; it is probably connected with some root
-meaning to cover or wrap; the word is used in the _Iliad_ to signify
-things other than dress; for the covering of a chariot[52] and for
-the wrappings of the vessel which held the ashes of Hector;[53] the
-πέπλος, therefore, like the χλαῖνα and φᾶρος consisted of a square
-or rectangular piece of material which could be used for various
-purposes. When worn as a garment, it was held in place by means of
-brooches or pins (περόναι, ἐνεταί) and a girdle. A passage in the
-_Iliad_[54] gives a description of an elaborate toilette made by Hera
-when she is setting out to beguile Zeus:
-
-    ἀμφὶ δ᾽ ἄρ᾽ ἀμβρόσιον ἑανὸν ἕσαθ᾽ ὅν οἱ Ἀθήνη
-    ἔξυσ᾽ ἀσκήσασα, τίθει δ᾽ ἐνὶ δαίδαλα πολλά·
-    χρυσείῃς δ᾽ ἐνετῇσι κατὰ στῆθος περονᾶτο,
-    ζώσατο δὲ ζώνην ἑκατὸν θυσάνοις ἀραρυῖαν,
-    ἐν δ᾽ ἄρα ἕρματα ἧκεν ἐϋτρήτοισι λοβοῖσιν,
-    τρίγληνα μορόεντα· χάρις δ᾽ ἀπελάμπετο πολλή.
-    κρηδέμνῳ δ᾽ ἐφύπερθε καλύψατο δία θεάων
-    καλῷ νηγατέῳ, λευκὸν δ᾽ ἦν ἠέλιος ὥς.
-    ποσσὶ δ᾽ ὑπὸ λιπαροῖσιν ἐδήσατο καλὰ πέδιλα.
-
-“Then she clad her in her fragrant robe that Athena wrought
-delicately for her, and therein set many things beautifully made, and
-fastened it over her breast with clasps of gold. And she girdled it
-with a girdle arrayed with a hundred tassels; and she set ear-rings
-in her pierced ears—ear-rings of three drops and glistering—and
-therefrom shone grace abundantly. And with a veil over all the
-peerless goddess veiled herself, a fair, new veil, bright as the sun,
-and beneath her shining feet she bound goodly sandals.”—LANG, LEAF,
-AND MYERS.
-
-  [52] _Ibid._, v., 194.
-
-  [53] _Ibid._, xxiv., 795.
-
-  [54] xiv., 178 f.
-
-We gather from this passage that the garment was fastened on the
-shoulders by brooches or pins inserted, κατὰ στῆθος, which Studniczka
-rightly explains[55] as meaning “down towards the breast,” a method
-of fastening which is represented on the François vase[56] and
-elsewhere; the material is drawn from the back, and wraps over that
-which covers the front; the pins are then inserted downwards, and
-hold the two thicknesses of material together; the dress is held
-in to the figure by a girdle worn round the waist, over which any
-superfluous length of material could be drawn, forming a κόλπος or
-pouch. No mention is made in Homer of the ἀπόπτυγμα, or overfold,
-which is a common feature of the women’s dress in historic times; but
-from its constant appearance on the earliest monuments, it is not
-unreasonable to suppose that it formed an element in women’s costume
-of the draped type from the very earliest times. It is formed by
-folding over the upper edge of the garment before it is put on, in
-such a way that a double thickness of material covers the figure from
-the neck to a distance a little above the waist in front and behind.
-The original purpose of this overfold may have been either to secure
-greater warmth, or to prevent the dress from tearing at the points
-where the brooches were inserted; such a thing might easily happen,
-if only the single stuff were used, since the whole mass of material
-hung down from the two points where it was secured on the shoulders.
-
-  [55] p. 97 f.
-
-  [56] Fig. 8.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 8.—From the François Vase.
-  _Face page_ 30.]
-
-Another question which arises in connection with the Homeric peplos
-is as to whether it was worn open or closed at the side; a passage
-which has been much discussed in this relation is the one which
-describes the peplos given by Antinous to Penelope, with its twelve
-brooches:
-
-    Ἀντινόῳ μὲν ἔνεικε μέγαν περικαλλέα πέπλον
-    ποικίλον· ἐν δ᾽ ἄρ᾽ ἔσαν περόναι δυοκαίδεκα πᾶσαι
-    χρύσειαι, κληῗσιν ἐϋγνάμπτοις ἀραρυῖαι.
-                                   [_Odyssey_, xviii., 292.]
-
-“For Antinous, his henchman, bare a broidered robe, great and very
-fair, wherein were golden brooches, twelve in all, fitted with
-well-bent clasps.”—BUTCHER AND LANG.
-
-The point in dispute is the purpose of the twelve brooches.
-Studniczka maintains that two were used to fasten the dress on
-the shoulders, and the remaining ten to hold it together down the
-open side; he states in support of this theory that sewing was not
-commonly practised by the Homeric women, although he has previously
-pointed out that the men’s chiton was always sewn; this being the
-case, it is only natural to suppose that the women applied the art
-of sewing to their own garments also where necessary. There is no
-example in early art of a peplos fastened in this way with brooches;
-it is invariably joined round, the seam being covered by a band of
-ornament either woven in the edge of the material or embroidered upon
-it afterwards. In fifth century art we sometimes find representations
-of the peplos worn open down the side; it may have been worn so also
-in Homeric times; if the garment were wide, one edge could easily be
-wrapped over the other and held in place by the girdle, so as not
-to leave the figure too much exposed. It is more probable that the
-twelve brooches in question were used to fasten the dress on the
-shoulders and down the upper arms six on each side, forming a kind of
-sleeve to the elbow. That the ample Ionic chiton was worn in this way
-in later times is manifest from the numerous vase-paintings and other
-monuments of the late sixth and early fifth centuries; it may have
-been a fashion peculiar to the East in Homeric times, but Eastern
-fashions and customs were not unknown to the author of the Homeric
-poems. We read[57] of rich robes that were the work of Sidonian women
-whom Paris brought from Sidon, and it is not unlikely that Antinous,
-wishing to offer Penelope some rich gift, would choose a luxurious
-garment brought from the East.
-
-  [57] _Iliad_, vi., 289.
-
-However, we must regard the use of twelve brooches as exceptional,
-and consider that the peplos was ordinarily fastened with only
-two, and with a girdle round the waist. That it was a fairly ample
-garment and trailed on the ground behind, is proved by the epithets
-τανυπέπλος and ἑλκεσιπέπλος, “with trailing robes,” frequently
-applied to women. Athena finds it certainly too cumbersome to fight
-in; for when she is preparing for battle, we are told that she
-lets her peplos slip to the ground, and puts on the chiton of her
-father,[58] Zeus. A very constant epithet of the peplos is ποικίλος,
-or sometimes the intensified form, παμποίκιλος,[59] The meaning of
-the adjective is, “bright, varied, covered with patterns.” Whether
-these patterns were woven in the material at the loom or embroidered
-is a question not easy to decide.[60]
-
-  [58] _Ibid._, v., 733; viii., 385.
-
-  [59] _Odyssey_, xv., 105; xviii., 292.
-
-  [60] See section on “Materials and Ornamentation.”
-
-In some cases they were apparently woven, in others probably
-embroidered.
-
-The silver-shining φᾶρος which Calypso puts on[61] takes the place
-of the peplos, and was probably worn in the same way,[62] with the
-overfold and girdle, over which the superfluous length was drawn,
-forming the κόλπος, or pouch, which varied in depth according to
-the wearer’s fancy. That it was sometimes fairly roomy is proved by
-the fact that the nurse of Eumæus was able to hide three cups ὑπὸ
-κόλπῳ[63] “under the folds of her dress.”
-
-  [61] _Odyssey_, v., 230.
-
-  [62] The passage is repeated word for word of Circe, _Odyssey_,
-  x., 543.
-
-  [63] _Odyssey_, xv., 469.
-
-The material of which the girdle (ζώνη) was made is uncertain. We
-hear of golden girdles of Calypso and Circe, and of a fringed girdle
-of Hera with a hundred tassels, but these are exceptional. The
-ordinary girdle may have been of metal, or cord, or leather; this
-last material is suggested by the magic κεστὸς ἱμᾶς of Aphrodite,
-which may have been a girdle; or, since we are told that the goddess
-took it ἀπὸ στήθησφιν,[64] “from her bosom,” and that Hera received
-it and ἑῷ ἐγκάτθετο κόλπῳ, “put it on her own bosom,” perhaps it was
-something of the nature of Athena’s ægis, which also possessed magic
-power. On a vase in the British Museum[65] a goddess is represented
-wearing an ægis, and would naturally be interpreted as Athena,
-were it not that the vase-painter has clearly written her name,
-“Aphrodite,” by her side. It has been suggested that he has made a
-slip, and meant to write “Athena”; but in all probability he knew
-what he was doing, and it was his intention to represent Aphrodite
-wearing her κεστὸς ἱμᾶς.
-
-  [64] _Iliad_, xiv., 214.
-
-  [65] B., 254.
-
-The second garment which was essential to the completion of a woman’s
-dress, at least when she appeared in public, was the κρήδεμνον or
-καλύπτρη,[66] which served both as cloak and veil. It was probably
-put on over the shoulders like a shawl, without being folded, in such
-a way that it could be drawn over the head without difficulty, and
-across the face, serving as a veil.[67] Sometimes it may have been
-doubled corner to corner diagonally and laid on the shoulder. That
-it was worn over the head is clear from _Odyssey_, v., 232, where
-Calypso puts on her φᾶρος; κεφαλῇ δ᾽ ἐρύπερθε καλύπτρην, “and over
-her head a veil.” From the description of Penelope, when she appears
-among the suitors “holding her shining veil before her cheeks,” we
-may gather that it was customary for women to veil themselves before
-men.[68] No woman would think of leaving the house without her
-κρήδεμνον. Helen, though she quits her house in haste, first veils
-herself with shining linen,[69] ἀργεννῇσι καλυψαμένη ὀθόνῃσιν, and
-it is only when they are far from the town and enjoying the quietude
-of the river bank, that Nausicaa and her attendant maidens throw off
-their veils for the ballplay.[70]
-
-  [66] The κάλυμμα κυάνεον, “dark blue veil,” of Thetis (_Iliad_,
-  xxiv., 93) is the same garment.
-
-  [67] Hera is represented wearing it so on the François vase, Fig.
-  7 (_c_), and although her head is not covered, yet, from the way
-  in which the folds lie high upon the nape of the neck, it is
-  clear that they could easily be drawn up over the head (cp. also,
-  Aphrodite, on the same vase).
-
-  [68] Thetis is represented in the François vase just about to
-  veil or unveil her face; though the head is missing, it is clear,
-  from the position of the arm, that the κρήδεμνον was worn over
-  the head.
-
-  [69] _Iliad_, iii., 141.
-
-  [70] _Odyssey_, vi., 100.
-
-From the constant use of the epithets λιπαρός and λαμπρός, “shining”
-or “bright,” we may infer that the κρήδεμνον was usually made of
-linen, and, in summer at least, it was probably a fine, light
-garment, possibly even semi-transparent. In no case are any pins or
-brooches mentioned in connection with it; and from the ease with
-which it can be slipped off,[71] it is reasonable to infer that it
-was worn without fastening of any kind, like a shawl or scarf. In
-the passage where Andromache casts off her head-dress in her anguish
-at the death of Hector,[72] Studniczka supposes that because the
-κρήδεμνον is mentioned as falling off last, the other δέσματα must
-have been worn over it and held it in place; this seems to be putting
-a too literal and even prosaic interpretation upon the lines. There
-is no occasion to suppose that the poet enumerated the various parts
-of the head-dress in the order in which they fell; and if we read in
-that spirit, we shall frequently find that the Homeric heroes put on
-their cloaks before their undergarments; for more than once the φᾶρος
-or χλαῖνα is mentioned before the χιτών.[73]
-
-  [71] Cp. _Iliad_, xxii., 406, 470.
-
-  [72] _Ibid._, xxii., 468 f.
-
-  [73] _Odyssey_, xvi., 173; xxiii., 155, etc.
-
-The various parts which composed this head-dress have given rise to
-much discussion. The passage runs:
-
-    τῆλε δ᾽ ἀπὸ κρατὸς βάλε δέσματα σιγαλόεντα,
-    ἄμπυκα κεκρύφαλόν τε ἰδὲ πλεκτὴν ἀναδέσμην
-    κρήδεμνόν θ᾽.
-                                      [_Iliad_, xxii., 468.]
-
-“And far from her head she flung the shining bonds, diadem and
-kerchief, and meshy net and veil.”
-
-The δέσματα σιγαλόεντα are explained by the words which follow, and
-which stand in apposition. No question is raised as to the nature
-of the ἄμπυξ; it was a metal diadem like the στεφάνη, worn across
-the front of the hair. The κρήδεμνον has already been explained; the
-κεκρύφαλος and the πλεκτὴ ἀναδέσμη need some comment. The former is
-sometimes taken to mean a “net,” but it will be shown later that
-this meaning is better applied to the πλεκτὴ ἀναδέσμη; the word
-κεκρύφαλος is obviously connected with the verb κρύπτω to cover,
-and therefore means “something which covers,” “a covering.” In all
-probability, then, the κεκρύφαλος is simply a kerchief worn on top of
-the head behind the ἄμπυξ. The ἀναδέσμη is obviously something which
-serves to bind up (ἀναδέω) the hair and hold it in place, which is
-the proper function of a net. The epithet πλεκτή, which Helbig[74]
-has tried to explain as “folded,” means primarily “plaited”; it is
-applied elsewhere in the Homeric poems to baskets,[75] which shows
-its perfect appropriateness to the meshes of a net. We need give no
-other meaning, then, to the πλεκτὴ ἀναδέσμη, but can easily explain
-it as a net that confined the long hair behind. This completes the
-head-dress proper, the κρήδεμνον being a separate scarf or shawl worn
-over it.
-
-  [74] _Das Homerische Epos_, p. 157, f.
-
-  [75] _Iliad_, xviii., 40.
-
-The women’s dress in Homer is completed by sandals, and for ornament
-they wore, in addition to the brooches which fastened their clothes,
-ear-rings and necklaces of varied workmanship; the γναμπταὶ ἕλικες
-and κάλυκες of which we read[76] are perhaps spiral-shaped brooches
-and ear-rings or necklaces in the shape of lilies, such as have been
-found in the later Mycenæan graves.
-
-  [76] _Odyssey_, ix., 247.
-
-Few colours are mentioned in Homer in connection with dress. The
-epithets “white” and “shining” are frequently applied to the chiton
-and κρήδεμνον and to the φᾶρος. Φοινικόεις and πορφύρεος are
-frequently used of the χλαῖνα and the δίπλαξ, the former meaning
-“red,” and the latter probably “dark purple”; the word is used also
-of the sea and of clouds. The veil of Thetis[77] is described as
-κυάνεος, indigo, probably, or blue-black, since we hear immediately
-afterwards that “no garment ever was blacker.” The dark veil may be a
-sign of mourning; but in any case, the epithet might be used of the
-garments of the sea-goddess, just as κυανοχαίτης, “blue-haired,” is
-applied to Poseidon. Only once is yellow mentioned, and that in the
-case of “saffron robed dawn.” The veil of Hera, that was “bright as
-the sun,”[78] might have been yellow-gold. Yellow is a favourite
-colour among the Greek peasant women of to-day for the kerchiefs
-with which they cover their heads; and in the clear atmosphere and
-brilliant sunshine of Greece, it is natural to wear bright colours.
-
-  [77] _Iliad_, xxiv., 93.
-
-  [78] _Iliad_, xiv., 182.
-
-The embroidered robes of the women would naturally be worked in
-various colours, among which red and blue probably predominated, as
-they do on the sixth century statues on the Acropolis at Athens, and
-also in more modern Greek embroideries.
-
-Enough has been said on the subject of Homeric dress to show that
-it differs entirely from the pre-Hellenic type of costume which
-appears on the monuments from Knossos and elsewhere. The absence of
-contemporary monumental evidence renders it impossible to make any
-very definite statements as to the details of Homeric dress; but the
-poems themselves afford sufficient proof of the fact that it was of
-the draped type, and resembled Greek dress as we know it from the
-monuments dating from historic times; the dress of the classical
-period is simply a development of that described in the Homeric
-poems, with the addition of some foreign elements which blended with
-it and somewhat transformed it in its details, while still preserving
-the main types unaltered.
-
-
-
-
-III
-
-DORIC
-
-
-When we come to the question of Greek dress during the classical
-period, we find that the literary evidence is somewhat scanty;
-however, in addition to the various casual references to dress that
-are to be found chiefly in the plays, there are a few passages which
-bear directly on the historical development of dress in Greece. The
-most important of these is a passage in Herodotus,[79] in which he
-describes a disastrous expedition against Ægina undertaken by the
-Athenians during the first half of the sixth century, probably in
-the year 568 B.C.; only one man returned alive to Athens, to meet
-with an ignominious death at the hands of the wives of those who had
-perished. Herodotus shall tell the story in his own words:
-
-  Κομισθεὶς γὰρ ἐς τὰς Ἀθήνας ἀπήγγειλε τὸ πάθος· πυθομένας
-  δὲ τὰς γυναῖκας τῶν ἐπ᾽ Αἴγιναν στρατευσαμένων ἄνδρων
-  δεινόν τι ποιησαμένας ἐκεῖνον μοῦνον ἐξ ἀπάντων σωθῆναι,
-  πέριξ τὸν ἄνθρωπον τοῦτον λαβούσας καὶ κεντεύσας τῇσι
-  περόνῃσι τῶν ἱματίων εἰρωτᾶν ἑκάστην αὐτέων ὅ κῃ εἴη ὁ
-  ἑωυτῆς ἀνήρ. Καὶ τοῦτον μὲν οὕτω διαφθαρῆναι, Ἀθηναίοισι
-  δὲ ἔτι τοῦ πάθεος δεινότερόν τι δόξαι εἶναι τὸ τῶν γυναικῶν
-  ἔργον. Ἄλλῳ μὲν δὴ οὐκ ἔχειν ὅτεω ζημιώσωσι τὰς γυναῖκας,
-  τὴν δὲ ἐσθῆτα μετέβαλον αὐτέων ἐς τὴν Ἰάδα· ἐφόρεον γὰρ δὴ
-  πρὸ τοῦ αἱ τῶν Ἀθηναίων γυναῖκες ἐσθῆτα Δωρίδα τῇ Κορινθίῃ
-  παραπλησιωτάτην· μετέβαλον ὦν ἐς τὸν λίνεον κιθῶνα, ἵνα
-  δὴ περόνῃσι μὴ χρεώνται. Ἔστι δὲ ἀληθεϊ λόγῳ χρεωμένοισι
-  οὐκ Ἰὰς αὕτη ἡ ἐσθὴς τὸ παλαιὸν, ἀλλὰ Κάειρα, ἐπεὶ ἥ γε
-  Ἑλληνικὴ ἐσθῆς πᾶσα ἡ ἀρχαίη τῶν γυναικῶν ἡ αὐτὴ ἦν τὴν νῦν
-  Δωρίδα καλεῦμεν.
-
-“When he came back to Athens bringing word of the calamity, the wives
-of those who had been sent out on the expedition took it sorely to
-heart, that he alone should have survived the slaughter of all the
-rest; they therefore crowded round the man and struck him with the
-brooches by which their dresses were fastened, each, as she struck,
-asking him where he had left her husband. And the man died in this
-way. The Athenians thought the deed of the women more horrible even
-than the fate of the troops. As, however, they did not know how else
-to punish them, they changed their dress, and compelled them to
-wear the costume of the Ionians. Till this time the Athenian women
-had worn a Dorian dress, shaped nearly like that which prevails at
-Corinth. Henceforth they were made to wear the linen tunic, which
-does not require brooches.
-
-“In very truth, however, this dress is not originally Ionian, but
-Carian; for anciently the Greek women all wore the costume which is
-now called the Dorian.”—RAWLINSON.
-
-  [79] v., 87.
-
-He goes on to say that after this the Argive and Æginetan women, out
-of rivalry with the Athenians, wore much larger brooches than before.
-
-The importance of the passage is that it tells us of the two types of
-dress worn by Greek women. We learn that down to the early years of
-the sixth century all the Greek women wore the Dorian dress fastened
-with pins of such size and strength that they could become dangerous
-weapons in the hands of women excited by grief or passion. Later the
-Athenian women adopted a different dress, which did not need these
-large pins to fasten it, and which Herodotus calls the linen Ionic
-chiton, afterwards correcting himself and explaining that this kind
-of dress was really Carian in its origin.
-
-The story of the slaying of the sole survivor of the Æginetan
-expedition, and of the punishment meted out to the Athenian women,
-seems in itself far-fetched and highly improbable; but there is
-probably some foundation of truth in it. Possibly the tale was
-invented by Herodotus, or, more probably, was current in his day
-as an explanation of a change in the style of dress which actually
-took place in Athens at the beginning of the sixth century, or more
-probably even earlier. Among the sumptuary laws introduced by Solon
-was one regulating women’s dress, and forbidding them to wear more
-than three garments when they went out to funerals or festivals.[80]
-The passing of such a law could only be necessary if the Athenian
-women had already adopted a luxurious and extravagant style of
-dress. Now, the essence of the Doric dress, as will be shown later,
-is simplicity; it did not admit of great variety or elaboration. On
-the other hand, that the Ionic dress was somewhat luxurious is clear
-from Thucydides, i., 6; so we may infer that by the time of Solon’s
-archonship, 594 B.C., the Athenian women had already adopted the
-Ionic dress, and had perhaps elaborated it by some modifications
-added by their own invention. If this is so, Herodotus’s story places
-the change at least a generation later than its actual occurrence;
-but as he is writing at a distance of more than a century from the
-event, we need not be surprised if he is a generation or so out in
-his dating.
-
-  [80] Plutarch, “Solon,” 21.
-
-The simple Doric dress mentioned by Herodotus as being universally
-worn by Greek women down to the sixth century, finds abundant
-illustration in early art, especially in the Attic black-figured
-vases. It consists of a large oblong piece of material, in length
-about 1 ft. more than the height of the wearer, in width about twice
-the distance from elbow to elbow when the wearer’s arms are held out
-horizontally at shoulder level. The additional foot in height is used
-up by folding the upper edge over so that the material is double from
-neck to waist. The garment is put on by folding it round the body and
-pinning it on the shoulders at points a third of the distance from
-the middle line and the edges respectively. A diagram will make the
-arrangement clear.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
-
-_a_, _b_, _c_, _d_ represents the original rectangular piece of
-material, _ab_ being twice the wearers distance from elbow to
-elbow—that is to say, about 5 ft. 9 in.—_ac_ being 1 ft. more than
-the wearer’s height—namely, about 6 ft. 6 in.
-
-After the upper edge _ab_ has been folded over to a width of about 1
-ft., the dress is pinned on the shoulders at the points _e e′_ and
-_f f′_; the part which covers the back is drawn slightly forward
-over the front, so that there are four thicknesses of material where
-the pins are inserted; the garment is then girded at the waist, the
-position of which is indicated by the points _g_ and _h_, and any
-superfluous length is drawn up over the girdle.
-
-The distance between the points _a′ f_, _f e_, _e′ f′_, etc., varies
-slightly, but is always approximately one-sixth of the whole width of
-the material. In practice, a better effect is produced if the width
-of stuff _e′ f′_, which covers the back of the neck, is shorter than
-the other sections.
-
-The garment is usually represented as being sewn up along the side,
-sometimes along the whole length _ac_, _bd_, sometimes only along
-the length from the waist to the feet—that is, along the edges _gc_,
-_hd_; sometimes it is left open, being held in place only by the
-girdle. On the black-figured vases it is usually the closed Doric
-dress which is represented, probably because it offered the least
-difficulty to a technique which necessarily imposed somewhat close
-limitations on the artists who practised it. A good example is to be
-found in the figures of the Fates from the François vase, which has
-already been quoted in illustration of the Homeric peplos.
-
-[Illustration: _Photo. by The English Photographic Co._
-  FIG. 10.—Metope from the Temple of Zeus, at Olympia.
-  _Face page_ 44.]
-
-A freer and more realistic representation is to be found in the
-sculptured metopes from the temple of Zeus, at Olympia. Athena in
-the metope representing the cleaning of the Augean stables wears the
-closed Doric dress; here the ἀπόπτυγμα, or overfold, falls slightly
-below the waist, and below it the kolpos is clearly visible, the
-slight pouch formed by drawing the superfluous length of the material
-over the girdle.[81] On the vases the pouch is almost invariably
-absent, and the girdle is always visible. This is also the case in
-one of the archaic statues on the Acropolis at Athens, where the
-Doric dress is worn over an Ionic chiton. A slight variation of the
-dress is to be seen on the nymph of the Atlas metope at Olympia,
-where the overfold hangs considerably below the waist and no girdle
-or pouch is visible; here the additional length of the overfold
-probably obviated the necessity of a pouch, and the girdle, which is
-hidden, simply served to hold the dress in to the figure. A bronze
-statuette from Herculaneum shows the dress sewn up only from the
-waist downwards (Fig. 11).
-
-  [81] Fig. 10.
-
-[Illustration: _Photo. by Brogi, Naples._
-  FIG. 11.—Bronze Statue from Herculaneum, Naples.
-  _Face page_ 45.]
-
-As time went on, the dimensions of the Doric dress became more ample,
-or at least were represented so in art; both pouch and overfold
-become deeper and the folds of the garment generally grow fuller; the
-distance of the shoulder pins from the points which hang immediately
-under the arms becomes proportionately larger, no longer being
-an exact sixth of the whole width of the dress. The most perfect
-examples in art of the Doric dress in its full development are to
-be found in the maidens of the Parthenon frieze and the Caryatids
-of the Erechtheum. Here the pouch is emphasized, and its graceful
-curve dipping over the hips, though idealized, is at the same
-time perfectly naturalistic, as can be shown at once by practical
-experiment.
-
-The Munich copy of Cephisodotus’s Eirene holding the infant Plutus
-presents a very good example of the closed Doric dress as it was worn
-in the fourth century; it will be seen that the folds are more ample,
-and the overfold and pouch fall to a distance considerably below the
-waist, so that the garment must be larger than that originally worn,
-if we are to accept early monuments as faithful representations of
-the style of dress actually worn.
-
-The simpler form of the Doric dress, namely, that which is unsewn
-and left open down the side, is not found represented in art before
-the fifth century; it becomes fairly common on red-figured vases,
-where it is very frequently depicted ungirt.[82] Sometimes it is the
-only garment worn; in other cases it is worn over an under-dress. A
-sculptured example is to be found in an Artemis in Dresden,[83] for
-the original of which Furtwängler claims Praxitelean authorship.
-This was probably the dress worn by Laconian girls, to whom the
-term φαινομηρίς, “showing the thigh,” was applied by some ancient
-writers.[84]
-
-  [82] Fig. 12.
-
-  [83] Furtwängler, _Masterpieces_, p. 324.
-
-  [84] Pollux, II., 187.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 12.—Vase-painting—British Museum.
-  _Face page_ 46.]
-
-A variety of this dress appears in art about the middle of the
-fifth century; it is sometimes known as the “peplos of Athena,”
-because Pheidias chose it as the style in which to drape his statue
-of the Athena Parthenos. The word “peplos” is usually reserved for
-the Doric dress whether open or closed, the word “chiton” for the
-Ionic, though the latter is frequently applied to the Doric, and
-is invariably used of the under-dress, when the two styles became
-confused. The “peplos of Athena” is similar to the ordinary open
-Doric dress, except that the overfold is longer and reaches to the
-thighs and the girdle is worn over it.[85] The material is pulled up
-very slightly over the girdle, but not sufficiently to hide it in
-front, the purpose of the slight pouch being merely to prevent the
-dress from dragging under the arms, and from trailing on the ground
-at the sides. The girdle is at first worn round the waist, but
-later it is put on higher, until, on the Athena from the frieze of
-the altar at Pergamon, it is worn immediately under the breasts. The
-clearest representation in art is to be found in the Varvakeion copy
-of the Athena Parthenos, and it occurs also in many representations
-of Athena which were obviously influenced by Pheidias. In the Dresden
-“Lemnia,”[86] the girdle is passed not only over the overfold, but
-also round the ægis; in the “torso Medici”[87] this overgirt peplos
-is worn over an under-dress of the Ionic type. The date of the
-introduction of this style of wearing the Doric dress is a point of
-some uncertainty. The question arises as to whether it was invented
-by Pheidias or was already commonly worn and adopted by him as being
-most appropriate for his great representation of the maiden goddess.
-Certainly, in sculpture we have no example of it before the time
-of Pheidias, unless we assign an earlier date to the little relief
-of the “mourning Athena,” which seems improbable; the Iris of the
-Parthenon frieze wears it; and among slightly later works the Victory
-of Pæonius at Olympia is a good example, though here the dress is
-slightly varied by being fastened only on one shoulder. Further
-evidence is afforded by the vases, but even these do not give any
-certain proof; the dress does not appear before the middle of the
-fifth century, but after that date it becomes fairly frequent, and
-is given not only to Athena but to other divine or mythological
-personages, such as Persephone,[88] Nike, Cassandra, and also to
-hand-maids attending on ladies in more elaborate costume. In some of
-these vases the work is obviously post-Pheidian, but many of them
-were probably made before the completion of the Athena Parthenos,
-and the fact that the overgirt dress is so frequently represented on
-slaves renders it likely that it was a style of dress actually worn,
-and not merely the invention of the great sculptor’s imagination; it
-was probably selected by him for the Parthenos because of its extreme
-simplicity and the possibilities of statuesque dignity which it
-contained.
-
-  [85] Fig. 13.
-
-  [86] Furtwängler, pl. ii.
-
-  [87] _Ibid._, fig. 6.
-
-  [88] B.M., E. 183.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 13.—Vase-painting in the Polygnotan Style—Louvre.
-  _Face page_ 47.]
-
-It has been mentioned incidentally that the Doric peplos is sometimes
-found worn over another garment, but it is ordinarily the only
-garment worn indoors, and for outdoor wear another is sometimes put
-on over it. The overfold of the peplos could itself be used as a veil
-by drawing the back part up over the head; it is so used by a woman
-on a red-figured vase in the British Museum.[89]
-
-  [89] E. 307.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 14.—Vase-painting by Hieron—British Museum.
-  _Face page_ 49.]
-
-The outer garment worn by women in classical times corresponds to
-the Homeric κρήδεμνον and is called the ἱματίον, although this term
-is applied by Herodotus to the Doric peplos. By derivation the word
-simply means “a piece of clothing,” being connected with εἷμα and
-ἕννυμι. It consisted of a large oblong piece of material about 7 or
-8 feet in length, and in breadth about equal to the wearer’s height.
-Considerable variety was possible in the arrangement of it. It
-could be worn both as head covering and cloak, by placing the middle
-of the upper edge over the head and letting the two sides fall down
-over the shoulders like a shawl; it is often so depicted on the vases
-both black- and red-figured; the figure of Eleusis wears it so on
-the Triptolemus vase by Hieron in the British Museum.[90] It was
-frequently worn over the shoulders in this fashion without covering
-the head, and could easily be pushed back or drawn up over the head
-at will. A second very common way of arranging the himation was to
-draw one end over the left shoulder from the back towards the front,
-so that it hung down in a point in front, then to pass the mass of
-material across the back and under the right arm and throw the other
-end over the left shoulder again, so that the second point hung
-down towards the back: this was a very common style both for men
-and women.[91] If additional warmth were required, it could easily
-be obtained by drawing the cloak up over the right shoulder, so as
-not to leave the right arm and chest exposed. A combination of these
-two styles is seen in some of the Tanagra statuettes, where the
-himation is put on over the head. Both shoulders are covered; but
-instead of the two ends being allowed to hang down symmetrically one
-on each side of the front, one is taken up and thrown over the other
-shoulder, so that the whole figure is covered in the ample folds of
-the cloak.[92]
-
-  [90] Fig. 14, the figure to the right in the upper band.
-
-  [91] See Fig. 20.
-
-  [92] Fig. 15.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 15.—Terra-cotta Statuette—British Museum.
-  _Face page_ 49.]
-
-A rather exceptional variant of the second style of wearing the
-himation is to be seen on a vase of Euxitheos in the British
-Museum,[93] where Briseis is represented wearing it with one end
-placed on the left shoulder, the mass of the cloak being drawn across
-the back; the other end is passed under the right arm, but instead of
-being thrown over the left shoulder again, is turned back over the
-right shoulder, and so leaves the front of the figure exposed.
-
-  [93] E. 258, fig. 16.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 16.—Vase-painting by Euxitheos—British Museum.
-  _Face page_ 50.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 17.—Vase-painting by Falerii—Rome, Villa Giulia.
-  Furtwängler and Reichhold, _Griechische Vasenmalerei_, 17 and 18.
-  _Face page_ 50.]
-
-A third fashion is somewhat similar to the second, except that it
-leaves the front of the figure exposed to the waist or a little
-below. Instead of being drawn across the chest and thrown over the
-left shoulder, the second end is simply thrown over the forearm and
-held in place by the bend of the elbow.[94] A cloak worn in this
-style would be very likely to slip, so another fashion was adopted,
-which produced approximately the same effect, but which prevented
-the possibility of slipping. Instead of throwing the end over the
-left arm, the wearer secured it at the waist under the arm either
-by a brooch or more probably by simply tucking it under the girdle.
-To prevent the garment from hanging down too low and dragging on
-the ground, a large corner was usually doubled over before it was
-secured at the waist. The part thus fastened was sometimes passed
-over the end which hung down from the left shoulder, sometimes under
-it. The himation is so worn by Mausolus and Artemisia in their
-portrait statues from the Mausoleum. A very good example is the
-Athena of Velletri published by Furtwängler.[95]
-
-  [94] Fig. 17.
-
-  [95] _Masterpieces_, p. 142, fig. 18.
-
-[Illustration: _Photo. by A. Giraudon._
-  FIG. 18.—Athena of Velletri.
-  _Face page_ 51.]
-
-On many of the monuments of the Pheidian period and the time
-immediately preceding it, we find that the Doric peplos is worn alone
-or with a small cloak or shawl laid on the shoulders and hanging down
-the back, as in the case of the maidens carrying sacrificial vessels
-on the Parthenon frieze. This small shawl was perhaps worn more for
-ornament than for the sake of warmth, and an ample peplos of warm
-woollen material might be found sufficient protection.
-
-It may be objected that in the majority of the examples chosen as
-illustrations the himation is worn not over the Doric peplos, but
-over the Ionic chiton, and it has indeed been sometimes regarded as
-an element of the Ionic dress rather than of the Doric.
-
-It does, however, appear over the Doric peplos, _e.g._, in Fig. 18
-and on many black-figured Attic vases,[96] and it is not difficult to
-trace its development from the Homeric κρήδεμνον worn symmetrically
-over the head and shoulders. It is an easy step in advance to throw
-one end of the cloak over the opposite shoulder, push it back off
-the head, and bring one arm out free instead of letting it remain
-covered. Fig. 15 might serve to illustrate an intermediate stage
-between those represented in Figs. 14 and 17.
-
-  [96] B.M., B. 331.
-
-An attempt will be made later to show that the Ionic himation was
-fastened with brooches, and had a different development. The wearing
-of the unpinned himation over the Ionic chiton is an instance of the
-blending of Doric and Ionic dress.
-
-The Doric dress of men was similar to that of women, both with regard
-to under-dress and cloak. The name χιτών is used for the under-dress,
-as it was in Homer, the word peplos being restricted to women’s
-garments. The outer garment of men as well as of women is called the
-himation.
-
-The Doric men’s chiton is fastened by brooches on the shoulders and
-girt in at the waist. It was a short garment reaching midway down the
-thighs, or to a distance just above the knees, had no overfold, and
-was narrower than the women’s peplos. No kolpos was worn, there being
-no superfluous length to dispose of. The side was sewn up so that the
-garment before being pinned was cylindrical in shape. This somewhat
-scanty garment was the only one worn by slaves, and men engaged in
-active pursuits and workmen frequently wore it fastened only on
-one shoulder, leaving the other bare and the arm quite free. When
-worn in this way it was called the χιτὼν ἔξωμις or ἑτερομάσχαλος;
-the god Hephaistos is usually represented wearing it in this way
-in his capacity as craftsman. We learn from Pollux, vii., 47, that
-the ἔξωμις was a περιβλῆμα as well as an ἔνδυμα, from which we may
-gather that a small cloak was sometimes worn fastened on one shoulder
-and girt round the waist, but left unsewn down the side. Fig. 19
-represents the χιτὼν ἔξωμις.
-
-Representations of Amazons and of Artemis the huntress are frequent,
-wearing the χιτὼν ἔξωμις; but in these cases it is usually a longer
-garment than that worn by men, and its superfluous length is drawn
-up over the girdle, forming a pouch; and then a second girdle is
-worn over this to prevent it from flapping in the wind. The Amazons
-of the Mausoleum frieze wear the short Doric dress without overfold
-and unsewn down the side; this, however, is perhaps merely a device
-on the part of the sculptor to afford an opportunity of displaying
-the physical forms, as well as the drapery. Various references in
-literature show that the Spartan women wore more scanty clothing than
-the Athenians; they are described as μονοχίτων, “wearing a single
-garment,” and we learn from Pausanias that the girls who competed
-in the running races at Olympia wore the short χιτὼν ἔξωμις. As
-monumental testimony to the truth of this statement, we have the
-statue of a girl runner in the Vatican Museum.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 19.—Bronze Statuette—British Museum.
-  _Face page_ 53.]
-
-The τρίβων worn by Spartans and people of austere or Laconizing
-tendencies, like Socrates and the Cynic philosophers, was probably
-a scanty Doric chiton made in some coarse homespun material; men
-of leisure and elderly men preferred to wear a longer chiton with
-sleeves either sewn or fastened with brooches; this was the case even
-after the reaction against anything savouring of Orientalism which
-followed the Persian wars. If we are to consider the monuments, both
-sculpture and vases, as giving a realistic picture of Greek life,
-we shall see that men frequently wore only the himation; but it is
-difficult to believe that this was so, except, perhaps, in the height
-of summer.
-
-The methods of draping the himation were the same for men as for
-women, except that after the period of the early black-figured vases
-we do not find men represented wearing it laid on both shoulders like
-a shawl; nor do they ever wear it drawn up over the head, although
-in the sunshine of a southern summer some such protection against
-the heat might be considered indispensable. The favourite style for
-men was that of laying the one end on the left shoulder and drawing
-the rest round the body from the back and throwing the other end
-either across the left forearm or over the shoulder.[97] This was
-called wearing the himation ἐπὶ δεξιὰ, presumably because it was
-drawn closely round the right side of the body. It was considered a
-mark of good breeding to throw it over the shoulder and let it hang
-down in such a way as to cover the left arm completely.[98] To wear
-it ἐπ᾽ ἀριστέρα, “over the left side,” was a mark of boorishness, as
-we gather from Aristophanes _Birds_,[99] where Poseidon taunts the
-barbarian Triballus for wearing it so.
-
-  [97] Figs. 20 and 21.
-
-  [98] Fig. 20.
-
-  [99] i., 1567.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 20.—Vase-painting—British Museum.
-  _Face page_ 54.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 21.—The Doric Himation.
-  _Face page_ 54.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 22.—Vase-painting by Euphronios—Munich.
-  Furtwängler and Reichhold, _Griechische Vasenmalerei_, 22.
-  _Face page_ 55.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 23.—The Chlamys and Petasos.
-  _Face page_ 55.]
-
-Another variety of over-garment worn by men is the χλάμυς, a cloak
-used for riding or travelling. It is considered to be of Macedonian
-origin,[100] another form of it being the ζειρά, a rough Thracian
-riding-cloak sometimes depicted on Greek vases.[101] It
-was probably brought into Greece from the north by the Dorian
-invaders when they came down, and in its origin may have been no
-different from the Homeric χλαῖνα. In classical times it was always
-worn over the short chiton by travellers and riders, and was the
-characteristic dress of Ephebi.[102] The Parthenon frieze affords
-abundant illustration of the way in which it was worn. Like the
-himation, it consisted of a rectangular piece of material, but was of
-a slightly different shape, being rather more oblong; in fact, when
-doubled it would form almost a perfect square. Its normal dimensions
-would be about 6 to 7 feet long by 3½ feet wide. In putting it on,
-the wearer would double it round him and stand inside it, so that
-the middle line came along the back of the left arm and shoulder;
-he would then fasten the two sides together with a brooch on the
-right shoulder, close to the neck, at the points _e_ and _f_ in the
-accompanying diagram; the corners _d_ and _b_ would hang down in
-front and behind respectively at a distance of about 1 foot from the
-ground, and the corners _a_ and _c_ would hang down together along
-the right side; the left arm which held the reins in riding would
-thus be covered, while the right would be free to hold spear or whip.
-The left could easily be freed also by swinging the cloak round so
-that the brooch came under the chin instead of on the shoulder; the
-two corners _a_ and _c_ could then be thrown back over the arms. The
-χλάμυς is frequently represented in art worn in this way, especially
-in cases where the wearer is occupied in vigorous action.
-
-  [100] Pauly-Wissowa, _Real Encyclopädie_.
-
-  [101] Fig. 22.
-
-  [102] Fig. 23.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 24.]
-
-
-
-
-IV
-
-IONIC
-
-
-We must now turn to a consideration of the Ionic dress, which
-Herodotus tells us was adopted by the Athenian women in the sixth
-century B.C. According to his account, it was Carian in its origin;
-our knowledge of the Carians is somewhat vague and indefinite.
-We learn from Thucydides[103] that they originally inhabited the
-Cyclades, but were driven out by Minos of Crete; and a little
-later on[104] he speaks of them, together with the Phœnicians, as
-islanders who practised piracy. Herodotus[105] gives a slightly
-different account, saying that the Carian inhabitants of the islands
-were subjected by Minos and used by him to man his ships, and were
-not driven out until later by the Dorian and Ionian immigrants. He
-also mentions the belief of the Carians themselves that they were
-autochthonous in Caria, and attributes to them various inventions
-afterwards adopted by the Greeks. According to Thucydides, their
-method of burying the dead seems to have differed from that of the
-Greeks; and from the various accounts of the two historians, we may
-gather that their race was different, although possibly they were
-soon hellenized by their Ionian neighbours. If, as Herodotus tells
-us, the Greeks adopted some Carian inventions, it is not unlikely
-that they may also have adopted the Carian dress, or at least may
-have modified their own by assuming some Carian elements.[106]
-
-  [103] i., 4.
-
-  [104] i., 8.
-
-  [105] i., 171.
-
-  [106] According to Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_, the Carians,
-  like the Leleges, were a Pelasgian people.
-
-In his account of the assumption of the Ionic dress by the Athenians,
-Herodotus speaks only of the women; but we know that it was worn by
-men also, partly from the evidence of the monuments and partly from
-Thucydides, who tells us[107] that not long previously to the time
-at which he is writing the elder men of the wealthy classes gave
-up wearing linen chitons and fastening their hair with the τέττιξ,
-“cicala,” a luxurious mode of dress common to them and their kinsfolk
-the Ionians. The Ionic dress was probably discarded by the Athenians
-shortly after the outbreak of the Persian war, when a reaction set in
-against Orientalism and a tendency towards greater simplicity began
-to manifest itself; Thucydides is writing more than a generation
-after the Persian wars, but his expression, οὐ πολὺς χρόνος, “no
-great length of time,” is sufficiently vague, and he probably
-recollected the change which took place in his youthful days;
-moreover, he speaks only of the elder men of the wealthy classes,
-who would naturally be of conservative tendencies and the last to
-adopt any change in their mode of life or dress. The exact period at
-which the Athenians adopted the Ionic dress is unknown; the Æginetan
-expedition of 568 B.C., of which Herodotus makes use in dating the
-change, is too late, for we know that already in Solon’s days luxury
-in dress had reached such a pitch as to necessitate the passing of a
-sumptuary law to regulate it, and such luxury could hardly have been
-reached so long as the simple Doric dress was retained. It may not
-be unreasonable to assume, then, that constant intercourse with the
-Ionians in the islands on the coast of Asia Minor led the Athenians
-to adopt their dress at some time towards the end of the seventh
-century.
-
-  [107] i., 6.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 25.—Vase-painting from Lucania—British Museum.
-  _Face page_ 61.]
-
-The Ionic chiton differed from the Doric in length, material,
-and method of fastening. We read in Homer already of the Ἰάωνες
-ἑλκεχίτωνες, “long-robed Ionians,” and Pollux tells us of the λινοῦς
-χιτών ὅν Ἀθηναίοι ἐφόρουν ποδήρη, καὶ αὖθις Ἴωνες,[108] “the linen
-tunic which the Athenians wore reaching to the feet, and the Ionians
-too.” This χιτών ποδήρης is a long chiton reaching to the feet; that
-its material was linen is testified by Thucydides and Pollux, as
-well as other writers.[109] The story of Herodotus shows that its
-fastening was different from that of the Doric, since the Athenian
-women were forced to adopt it, ἱνα δὴ περόνῃσι μὴ χρεώνται, “so as
-not to need brooches.” This expression is usually taken to mean that
-the characteristic difference between the Doric and Ionic chitons is,
-that the Doric is fastened by means of pins or brooches, the Ionic
-is always sewn on the shoulders. That this is not invariably the
-case is proved by many examples both in sculpture and vase-painting,
-where a chiton is represented, which, from its length and fulness and
-the fine texture of its material, is clearly Ionic, but which is not
-sewn on the shoulders, but fastened together down the upper arm by a
-series of small round brooches; this fastening forms a kind of loose
-sleeve which reaches frequently to the elbow. It is the formation
-of this sleeve, whether sewn or pinned, which, apart from size or
-material, distinguishes the Ionic from the Doric chiton, which is
-sleeveless. The Ionic chiton in its simplest form is cylindrical in
-shape, and varies considerably in length, but is always longer than
-the height of the wearer; the superfluous length is drawn up through
-the girdle to form a kolpos, which varies in depth according to the
-length of the chiton. The Mænad vase of Hieron gives a good idea of
-the size to which this kolpos sometimes attained.[110] Being made of
-a fine linen material, the Ionic chiton is naturally fuller than the
-coarser woollen Doric garment, and its folds are consequently more
-numerous and more delicate; it is the greater width of the garment
-which necessitates the formation of the sleeve, as a single fastening
-from the shoulder would leave too great a mass of material hanging
-down under the arms. The sleeve is made by joining the two top
-edges of the garment together and gathering them up so as to form
-regular folds; an opening is left in the middle for the neck and one
-at each end for the arms. The arm-holes were probably not formed,
-as some believe, by lateral openings in the side-seams, since this
-method produces a clumsy effect in practice; and moreover, in many
-vase-paintings[111] the ornamental border which runs along the neck
-and upper arm passes also round the arms without being continued down
-the side, which shows that it was embroidered or woven along the top
-edge of the chiton before the sleeves were made.
-
-  [108] _Poll._, vii., 49.
-
-  [109] Studniczka has pointed out that the word χιτών is of
-  Semitic origin, and connected with a root signifying “linen,”
-  _Beiträge_, p. 17 f.
-
-  [110] Cp. Fig. 14, the second figure to the right in the lower
-  band.
-
-  [111] _E.g._, B.M., E. 73; cp. Fig. 25, the two male figures.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 26.]
-
-A diagram will best show how the sleeves were formed, and the
-position of the openings for neck and arms: _ab_ represents the upper
-edge of the chiton, along which a border is frequently woven or
-embroidered; _ef_ represents the space for the neck, through which
-the head is thrust; _ad_ and _bc_ represent the arm-holes, which hang
-down parallel to the wearer’s sides when the arms are held down in a
-normal position; the side-seams _ag_ and _bh_ are sewn along their
-whole length; the distances _de_ _fc_ are joined and gathered to
-form the full sleeve. The fulness is frequently held close to the
-figure by the addition of cross-bands, either crossing both in front
-and behind and attached to the girdle at the sides, or crossing only
-at the back and passing round the front of the shoulders. A very
-excellent sculptured representation of this, the simplest form of
-the Ionic chiton, is to be found in the famous Delphi charioteer,
-where the gathering of the sleeves is very clearly marked.[112] In
-cases where the sleeve is not sewn, the spaces _de_ and _fc_ are
-joined by a series of brooches, varying in number from four to six
-on each side. The fulness is produced by taking up a little group of
-folds at each fastening and leaving the spaces between quite plain;
-the two edges are usually parted in these spaces, so as to show the
-arm through. These groups of folds are perhaps more effective than
-the continuous row of gathers which we get with the sewn sleeve. The
-Euxitheos vase reproduced above[113] will furnish an illustration of
-the chiton with pinned sleeves. A short chiton, with sleeves pinned
-in several places, was frequently worn by men, as is proved by many
-vase-paintings. We sometimes find women represented wearing a full
-chiton without overfold, fastened only once on each shoulder, like
-the Doric dress. This is one of the many modifications which the
-Ionic dress underwent when introduced into the mainland of Greece.
-We frequently find on vases figures in rapid motion wearing the long
-Ionic chiton with many folds, represented by fine close lines,
-in which the lower edge of the chiton in front is drawn up to an
-angle on one or often more places. It was supposed by Böhlau[114]
-that this was meant to indicate that the garment had been cut at the
-bottom in a series of points. The object of this cutting is difficult
-to see, and on examination it will be found that wherever the lower
-edge of the chiton is so drawn up, immediately above it the kolpos
-hangs down deeper over the girdle; the figures are usually in rapid
-motion, and the lower edge of the back of the garment, which shows
-behind the feet, is represented by a continuous curve, without
-being drawn up anywhere.[115] It is obvious, then, that the artist
-intended to indicate that the wearer had drawn the dress up through
-the girdle, so as not to impede progress. Anyone who has ever moved
-about freely wearing a chiton of this kind, will know that unless the
-girdle is uncomfortably tight the dress has a habit of slipping down,
-so that it is necessary to pull it up sometimes, so as to prevent
-treading on it in front.
-
-  [112] Fig. 27.
-
-  [113] Fig. 16.
-
-  [114] _Quæstiones vestiariæ._
-
-  [115] Fig. 28.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 27.—The Delphi Charioteer.
-  _Face page_ 62.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 28.—Vase-painting—Munich.
-  Furtwängler and Reichhold, _Griechische Vasenmalerei_, 33.
-  _Face page_ 63.]
-
-A feature of the Ionic chiton not very easy to understand is the
-overfold, which occurs very frequently, especially in vase-paintings
-of the severe red-figured class; it is not a normal feature of
-the Ionic chiton, and may very possibly have been added by the
-Athenian women when they adopted the dress, since they had always
-been accustomed to wearing it with the Doric peplos. The view that
-Herodotus (v., 87) is wrong, and that the Athenian women never
-wore the Doric dress at all, is hardly tenable in the face of such
-evidence as the François vase and others like it, which are certainly
-of Attic workmanship.
-
-The Ionic chiton with overfold is really, then, an instance of the
-blending of the two types of dress, which later became so complete
-that it is frequently difficult to decide whether a particular
-garment should more correctly be called Doric or Ionic.
-
-In some instances the overfold of the Ionic chiton is formed
-in exactly the same way as that of the Doric dress, only it is
-frequently shorter: it is turned over before the garment is put on,
-then back and front are fastened together along the arm, either by
-sewing or by brooches. In this latter case the only distinction from
-the Doric dress, in addition to those of size and material, is that
-instead of being pinned only once on each shoulder, and so being
-sleeveless, it is pinned along from shoulder to elbow, so as to form
-sleeves. An example of this is to be seen in a figure of Aphrodite
-from a vase-painting in Paris reproduced by Miss Harrison.[116] This
-style of dress, with the sleeves sewn instead of pinned, is found on
-the first of the so-called Fates of the Parthenon pediment, and on
-one of the Nereids from the Nereid monument, on a torso at Epidaurus,
-and on many vase-paintings. Although not always represented in art,
-shoulder-cords or cross-bands were probably actually worn with this
-dress, as a general rule, since without some such contrivance it
-would slip inconveniently.
-
-  [116] _Prolegomena to Greek Religion_, p. 292.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 29.—Vase-painting by Brygos—British Museum.
-  _Face page_ 66.]
-
-A type of dress very commonly found on vases is that which has full
-sleeves to the elbow and an overfold covering the chest and back,
-and passing under the arms without covering the sleeves, as was
-the case in the chiton described above. The Mænads on the famous
-Hieron vase are represented wearing this kind of dress, and numerous
-examples could be quoted from other vase-paintings.[117] Some such
-effect might be produced with the ordinary cylindrical-shaped
-chiton with overfold, if shoulder-bands were worn such as those
-worn by the Delphi Charioteer and by one of the so-called Fates of
-the east pediment of the Parthenon; but in actual practice such an
-arrangement would produce a somewhat clumsy mass of folds under
-the arm, and could not be managed at all unless the overfold were
-considerably deeper than that usually represented on the vases. We
-must look, therefore, for some other explanation; and it will not
-be far to seek, if we allow the Ionian women and their Athenian
-imitators a freer use of scissors and needle than their Doric sisters
-were accustomed to make. A close examination of the monuments will
-show that although the sleeve of the Ionic chiton was frequently
-formed in the manner described above, yet in a very large number of
-cases, in almost all of which the overfold is present, the sleeve
-is more like our modern notion of a sleeve—that is to say, it fits
-closer to the arm, as though shaped to some extent, while the rest
-of the garment fits closer to the figure. The vase-painter Brygos
-is fond of depicting women in this kind of dress: the accompanying
-illustration[118] is taken from his representation of Hera and Iris
-pursued by Silenoi. This dress is obviously not composed simply of a
-cylindrical piece of material folded over at the top and fastened on
-the arms, for the rather deep overfold leaves the sleeves quite free,
-and covers only the body of the wearer. This effect could be produced
-in two ways, in both of which, however, the sleeve-pieces must be
-sewn in separately. In the first method, we may suppose that two
-rectangular pieces of material are taken, equal in size and shape,
-represented in the diagram as _abcd_.
-
-  [117] Cp. Fig. 29.
-
-  [118] Fig. 29.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 30.]
-
-These are sewn together along the sides up to the points _e_ and _f_
-at a distance of about 5 feet from the lower edge; when the dress is
-worn, these points will come immediately under the arms. We may next
-suppose that two rectangular pieces of material measuring about 18
-by 20 inches are taken for the sleeves; these are folded double,
-so that the longer sides lie upon each other, and then sewn on to
-the body of the chiton at the points _f_, _h_, _g_, and _e_, so
-that the fold lies in the position indicated by the lines _fl_ and
-_el′_ in the diagram; the openings _kl_ and _k′l′_ will form the
-arm-holes; that part of the chiton _abgh_ which still extends above
-the sleeve-pieces is then folded over, so that it hangs down in the
-position _gha′b′_. The line _kk′_ now represents the upper edges of
-the garment, which are fastened together (leaving the space _mn_ for
-the neck) either by sewing and gathering or by groups of folds held
-in place by a series of brooches. The front and back part of the
-overfold would then hang down separately, but they could be joined
-together under the arms, provided that the space round the shoulder
-were left free for the arm to pass through into the sleeve.
-
-The second method of making this dress is nothing but a modification
-of the first. It consists of taking two smaller rectangles in the
-first place, _ghcd_, to form the body of the chiton; two pieces
-_abgh_ are sewn on back and front, after the sleeve-pieces, to form a
-sort of false overfold, which will have exactly the same effect as if
-it were in one piece with the rest of the chiton.
-
-It is possible to conceive of the sleeve-pieces being originally in
-one piece with the rest of the chiton, which would then be a dress
-composed of two cross-shaped pieces of material sewn together along
-the edges _dfl_ and _cel′_; it is more reasonable to suppose,
-however, that the sleeve-pieces were sewn on separately. That such
-sleeve-pieces were attached to the ordinary Ionic chiton without
-overfold seems likely from many vase-paintings. The addition of
-sleeves was certainly not unfamiliar to the Greeks, for we find
-slaves wearing a narrow, ungirt chiton, with tight sleeves reaching
-to the wrists. A familiar example of this is to be found in
-Hegeso’s attendant on the well-known grave relief in Athens. In an
-inscription, dating from the middle of the fourth century,[119] and
-recording a large number of garments dedicated to Artemis Brauronia,
-the expression χειριδωτός occurs, which can only mean “sleeved.” In
-the same inscription special mention is frequently made of the fact
-that the chiton, or χιτωνίσκος, is ἐμπλαισίῳ, “oblong,” from which we
-may infer that it was not always so. Now, the ordinary simple Ionic
-chiton would be oblong in shape when not worn, so that we may take
-the others, which are not described as oblong, to be chitons with
-separate sleeve-pieces attached.
-
-  [119] _C. I. A._, ii., 754.
-
-The false overfold was sometimes attached also to the simple
-cylindrical Ionic chiton. In these cases it covered the chest only,
-leaving the arms covered only by the sleeves; it was probably simply
-sewn on at the neck in front only. Kalkmann has collected and stated
-the evidence for this false overfold to the chiton in an article
-in the _Jahrbuch_, vol. xi., where he shows that it was sometimes
-applied to the over-garment also. Very clear examples of it are to
-be seen in some of the archaic female statues on the Acropolis at
-Athens, especially in those cases where the himation is worn like a
-shawl over both shoulders.[120]
-
-  [120] Nos. 687 and 688.
-
-That the long Ionic chiton with sleeves was worn by men as well as
-women, is abundantly evident from the monuments. On the vases, Zeus
-and Dionysus and other gods are almost invariably represented wearing
-it; and in sculpture also, kings, priests, and others are represented
-so dressed. Together with the himation, it probably constituted a
-sort of state dress for priests and other officials, even after it
-had been discarded for daily use, as being too luxurious.
-
-A short chiton, with or without sleeves, and made of some fine
-material, is to be found on the vases worn by men engaged in active
-pursuits. It sometimes has an overfold; although, with the long
-chiton, this feature is usually confined to women. A good example of
-the men’s short chiton with overfold is to be seen on the vase of
-Brygos representing the exploits of Theseus.
-
-The cross-bands and shoulder-cords already mentioned are, strictly
-speaking, an element of the Ionic chiton, though they are sometimes
-represented in art over the Doric peplos. Their object is to hold the
-ample folds of the full chiton close to the figure, and to prevent
-the sleeves from slipping or flapping about with every movement of
-the wearer. The cross-bands are usually attached to the girdle and
-can be of one piece with it; their place is sometimes taken by a
-second girdle, worn rather high over the kolpos, as is the case with
-the Artemis of Gabii reproduced below (Fig. 37).
-
-This high girdle was known as the ταινία, or ἀποδέσμος, whereas the
-low girdle was called περιζῶμα. A broad band, known as the στρόφιον,
-was sometimes worn by women under the breasts, to serve the purpose
-of modern corsets.[121]
-
-  [121] B.M., Vase, E. 230.
-
-A word or two must be said about the diminutives of χιτών—namely,
-χιτώνιον, χιτωνάριον, and χιτωνίσκος. We should naturally expect
-the words to mean a small or short chiton, but this does not seem
-always to be the case. The χιτώνιον and χιτωνάριον are frequently
-described as διαφανές, “transparent,”[122] and Eustathius (iii.,
-1166) explains the words as referring to a fine and luxurious dress
-worn by women. In the inscription to Artemis Brauronia[123] we read
-more than once of a χιτώνιον ἀμοργῖνον—that is, a garment made of
-linen from Amorgos, which we know was very fine and expensive; we
-may infer, then, that the diminutives χιτώνιον and χιτωνάριον refer
-to fineness of material rather than to shortness of cut. The case of
-the χιτωνίσκος is somewhat different; it is not referred to as being
-transparent, and is usually described in the inscription cited above
-as being very ornate. Women are frequently represented on vases[124]
-wearing over the long Ionic chiton a short and sometimes very ornate
-garment, which cannot be described as a himation. Possibly this short
-over-chiton is the garment indicated by the name χιτωνίσκος.[125] A
-similar garment was worn by musicians over the long ungirt chiton
-(ὀρθοστάδιος).[126] Another instance of a special dress worn for a
-special purpose is the costume worn by actors; it had long sleeves,
-and was probably padded to complete the impression of increased size
-produced by the high masks and buskins.
-
-  [122] _Ar. Lys._, 48; _Menander Meineke. frag. incert._, 141.
-
-  [123] _C. I. A._, ii., 754.
-
-  [124] _Jahrbuch_, i., pl. 102_a_; Gerhard, _Auserlesene
-  Vasenbilder_, 79, 80; Dumont and Chaplain, pl. 8; _Journal of
-  Hellenic Studies_, 1890, pl. 12.
-
-  [125] Cp. Amelung in Pauly-Wissowa’s _Real Encyclopädie_, _s.v._
-  “Chiton,” p. 2322.
-
-  [126] B.M., E. 270.
-
-The himation worn over the Ionic chiton presents considerable variety
-of shape and arrangement. In very many cases we find that the Doric
-himation is worn, whether over both shoulders or only over one.
-In the Harpy monument, where we might have looked for Ionic dress
-in its purest form, we find the Doric himation worn over the fine
-linen-sleeved chiton, and on very many of the red-figured vases of
-the severe style this is the case. There is one set of monuments,
-however, which may be considered as Ionic in origin, or at least
-of Ionizing tendencies, where a far less simple garment takes the
-place of the Doric himation. This set includes the archaic female
-statues and flying victories of the Acropolis Museum at Athens, and
-a large number of small painted terra-cotta statuettes in the same
-museum, the sculptures of the Treasury of the Cnidians at Delphi, and
-a number of other statues and reliefs from Athens, Eleusis, Delos,
-and elsewhere. The dress presents a somewhat complicated appearance
-at first sight, and has given rise to a considerable amount of
-discussion. The following section is based upon a careful study of
-the original monuments and of the literature already written on the
-subject.
-
-
-
-
-V
-
-THE MAIDENS OF THE ACROPOLIS
-
-THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE IONIC HIMATION
-
-
-The problem of the drapery of the archaic female figures in the
-Acropolis Museum has been considered by various archæologists, but
-has not yet been satisfactorily solved in all its details by any of
-them. The questions to be decided are: Firstly, are we to suppose
-that the draperies of the statues give us a faithful and realistic
-reproduction of a costume actually in fashion among the Athenian
-ladies at the close of the sixth century, or must we take into
-account the fact that the work is still archaic and the artists have
-not yet sufficiently mastered their material to be able to reproduce
-exactly what they saw before them? Secondly, what are the separate
-garments which constitute the elaborately complicated whole? And
-thirdly, how are these garments arranged so as to produce the effect
-seen in the statues?
-
-The answer to our first question is to be found in a compromise lying
-somewhere between the two hypotheses suggested. The early artist,
-struggling with the technical difficulties of his art, is always
-ready, as soon as he has solved one problem to his satisfaction,
-to pass on to something which presents still greater difficulties
-and demands the exercise of still greater skill. The makers of the
-Acropolis maidens have advanced so far as to be able to infuse some
-sort of life into their work;—witness the lively expression on some
-of the faces. Moreover, in the modelling of some parts of the human
-figure they have reached a high degree of excellence. In the few
-cases in which the feet of the statues are preserved, a great degree
-of delicacy and refinement is displayed, which shows that the artists
-had attained some considerable power over their material. Having
-advanced so far, they feel themselves equal to facing the problem of
-representing drapery in sculpture. It is not to be supposed that at
-this stage of artistic development they would invent difficulties
-which did not naturally present themselves, nor would they attempt
-to represent anything that they had not actually seen; therefore,
-we must conclude that the Athenian ladies of the period actually
-wore a dress corresponding closely to that reproduced in art. At
-the same time, it must be remembered that the Greek artist in all
-probability did not work with a model constantly before him, so that
-we must expect some slight differences in detail on that account;
-furthermore, we must make some allowance for archaism; for example,
-in all the statues under discussion, the drapery does not fall freely
-away from the figure, but follows the lines of the form beneath in
-a manner impossible in real life.
-
-[Illustration: _Photo. by English Photographic Co., Athens._
-  FIG. 31.—Archaic Statue—Athens, Acropolis Museum.
-  _Face page_ 75.]
-
-Having determined that the artists have represented a dress which
-was actually worn, we must proceed to consider the character of
-the dress as a whole, and of the parts of which it consisted. In
-giving a general description it will be best to take an example
-which exhibits all, or nearly all, the characteristics that can be
-collected from the various statues. No. 594 will serve our purpose.
-(Perrot and Chipiez, pl. xii.; Lechat, _Au Musée de l’Acropole_, fig.
-16.)[127] The under-garment which appears on the neck and left arm is
-represented by a series of fine wavy lines, running parallel to one
-another, which give a crinkled appearance, and may possibly be meant
-to indicate a material which has undergone some special treatment
-in the making. This garment is finished at the neck and down the
-upper part of the arm by an ornamental border, originally painted,
-but from which the colour has now almost entirely disappeared. The
-lower part of the figure is covered by a very long and ample garment,
-which I shall hope to prove to be the same as that which covers the
-left shoulder and upper arm. This garment is ornamented with a broad
-and elaborate meander pattern down the middle of the front; and if
-the statue were not broken, we should probably see another border
-round the bottom. So far, the costume is comparatively simple; but
-above this under-garment is worn a cloak which passes under the left
-arm and is drawn up to the right shoulder, where it is fastened so
-as to hang in heavy vertical folds down the right-hand side of the
-figure, back and front; in most cases we shall find that the cloak
-is fastened by a series of buttons along the upper part of the arm,
-as far as the curve of the elbow. The example before us now has an
-additional wrap, which conceals the fastening down the right arm. The
-rest of the cloak, passing under the left arm, hangs in a series of
-oblique but almost vertical folds, running parallel to a box-pleat
-which starts from the shoulder. These folds are apparently held in
-place by a band passing under the left arm and fixed on the other
-shoulder. The upper edge of the cloak hangs over this band in a sort
-of little frill with a zigzag edge. The mass of folds lying close to
-the figure under the left arm represents the material which forms the
-sleeve of the chiton. The additional wrap seen in one or two of the
-statues is a very simple matter; it consists of a large scarf worn
-over the shoulders, hanging down to a point on the left-hand side; it
-leaves the left arm uncovered, passes round the back, and over the
-right shoulder. Instead of hanging straight down to a point in the
-right-hand side, the end of the scarf is turned up and thrown over
-the arm. The end is broken away in No. 594, but appears in another
-instance (No. 684, Acropolis Museum; Perrot and Chipiez, fig. 297, p.
-592). Both cloak and scarf are bordered with patterns, of which the
-colour still remains to some extent.
-
-  [127] Fig. 31.
-
-Many theories have been advanced as to the various garments which
-compose the costume. It will be well to give a brief summary of
-them, and to point out wherein they fall short, and, if possible, to
-substitute one that is more satisfactory.
-
-The chief point at issue is whether the skirt part of the drapery
-belongs to the chiton—that is to say, to the garment which appears on
-the neck and left arm—or whether it is part of the cloak which passes
-under the left arm and is fastened on the right shoulder. Collignon
-even distinguishes three garments; he believes that the skirt is
-the chiton proper, and that the crinkled texture of the piece which
-appears above the himation is meant to represent some sort of woollen
-jersey worn over the chiton, which he calls the “chitoniscus.”
-
-The difference in texture comes out very plainly in those cases where
-the himation is worn over the shoulders like a shawl, or where it is
-omitted altogether; for example, in Nos. 670 and 671.[128]
-
-  [128] Lechat, figs. 8 and 9; Perrot and Chipiez, 290 and 292.
-
-At first sight it appears as though two separate garments were
-intended, but on close examination it will be found that the curved
-line which terminates the wavy lines of the upper section has not
-the appearance of an edge, but appears rather to turn under and to
-represent a pouch, formed by pulling the garment up through the
-girdle. Moreover, in some cases these parallel wavy lines appear on
-the skirt as well, and cover the whole surface with the exception
-of the mass of folds hanging down the middle of the front. This can
-clearly be seen in No. 687 (Lechat, p. 161), in a small statue of
-the same type from Eleusis, now in the National Museum, Athens, and
-in the relief of the Charites in the Acropolis Museum (Lechat, pl.
-3). Again, the same technique is found sometimes introduced into
-the rendering of the himation. Frequently on the shoulder, when the
-cloak is fastened, a succession of these wavy parallel lines begins
-to appear, then stops suddenly, and the rest of the garment presents
-a smooth surface.[129] There can be no question here of a difference
-of material, nor of a separate piece of drapery, so that we must
-look for some other explanation of the different treatment. Lechat
-has offered one which is satisfactory and which finds confirmation
-in other monuments. He says “the difference in the appearance of the
-upper and lower part of the same garment is due to this: that in the
-lower part, all the superfluous material is gathered together in a
-single mass, and the rest is drawn tightly across the legs; while
-in the upper part, the material, being left free, falls in regular
-folds all round the body.” He further suggests that the regularity of
-the folds may be meant to represent some artificial treatment of the
-dress, such as is applied to the modern _fustanella_. The archaism of
-the work, however, is sufficient to account for this regularity
-in representing a series of very full folds in a fine material held
-in rather closely to the figure. The same kind of treatment appears
-on many of the red-figured vases of the best period. One from a vase
-by Euphronios is reproduced by Kalkmann (_Jahrbuch_, vol. ix.); it
-occurs also on the well-known Troilus vase by the same artist, and
-in numerous other instances (Klein, _Euphronios_, p. 215). Above the
-girdle the folds are represented by fine parallel wavy lines drawn
-very close together below by straight lines. In these cases there is
-no questioning the fact that only one garment is intended, so that
-we may conclude that in the case of the Acropolis statues too, there
-is no need to suppose that the difference in texture represents two
-separate garments of different materials.
-
-  [129] See Fig. 32.
-
-[Illustration: _Photo. by Mansell & Co._
-  FIG. 32.—Archaic Statue—Athens, Acropolis Museum
-  _Face page_ 78.]
-
-It has been suggested that there may be an intention on the part of
-the artist to indicate some kind of material that had a crinkled
-texture, such as that of some of the modern Greek stuffs; but if this
-were so, we might reasonably expect to find the same technique all
-over the garment, and the comparison with the vases shows that the
-supposition is not necessary.
-
-We may conclude, then, that in those cases where the himation is
-omitted altogether, the figure is draped in a single garment, namely,
-the long Ionic chiton described above.
-
-In the case of these statues, the chiton is exceptionally long;
-there is still some material left trailing on the ground after the
-formation of the deep “kolpos,” which necessitates the skirt being
-held up in one hand, so as not to impede walking. We are at once
-reminded of the Ἰάονες Ἑλκεχίτωνες of the Homeric Hymn to Apollo.
-
-We have next to consider those cases—and they are in the
-majority—where another garment is worn over the chiton; and it is on
-this point that archæologists are at variance. Many maintain that the
-chiton only appears on the upper left-hand side of the figure, and
-that a very large cloak is worn over it, which covers the whole of
-the rest of the chiton, and has a deep overfold at the top and trails
-on the ground behind, being held up in front and drawn aside in the
-left hand. Studniczka supports this view, and calls the garment an
-“ionisirende Peplos.” Holwerda, in an article in the _Jahrbuch_ for
-1904, gives some drawings of some practical experiments he has made
-in draping a model in a garment of this kind. He supposes that it
-is cylindrical in shape, with a deep overfold, which is shorter on
-the shoulder than elsewhere, and so produces a zigzag line along its
-lower edge when draped; a girdle is worn underneath the overfold,
-through which the superfluous length left by shortening the overfold
-on the shoulder can be drawn. He supposes that the garment was drawn
-tightly round under the left arm, and that its upper edge formed the
-frill which we see in many of the Acropolis statues. A comparison
-between his finished model and the statue which he reproduces beside
-it serves to show the points wherein his theory falls short; it in
-no way accounts for the vertical folds of the cloak, nor for the
-tight band which appears passing under the left arm and fastened
-on the right shoulder. Amelung, writing in Pauly-Wissowa’s _Real
-Encyclopädie_, and Professor E. A. Gardner, in his _Handbook of
-Greek Sculpture_, maintain that the garment is simply a Doric peplos
-fastened on one shoulder instead of both, and held in place by a
-tight band, under which the width of the peplos is arranged in
-vertical folds. The main objections to this theory are that the Doric
-peplos is invariably fastened in one place only on the shoulder,
-whereas the fastening of the garment in question is continued by a
-series of brooches down as far as the elbow; the result would be to
-leave a very heavy and cumbersome mass of material hanging from the
-right arm, which would seriously impede any active motion. Moreover,
-it leaves out of account a piece of material which appears almost
-invariably in front, below the zigzag edge, where it is drawn up
-highest.[130] Holwerda takes it to be a girdle, but it has not the
-appearance of a girdle; it hangs over the material that falls from
-below it, and does not cut into the soft stuff in the way in which a
-girdle would. That the makers of these statues knew how to represent
-a girdle is plain from No. 679,[131] where the Doric peplos is worn
-over the Ionic chiton. In this case the peplos is considerably
-shorter than the chiton, so that the latter garment is plainly seen
-below the peplos, which only hangs down to a distance somewhat above
-the ankles. The Caryatid of the Cnidian Treasury at Delphi has the
-girdle clearly represented below the box-pleat by two parallel,
-horizontal, incised lines. On the frieze of the same building some
-of the figures are represented wearing the Doric peplos as an
-over-garment; in these cases also it is shorter than the chiton,
-which invariably appears below it at the feet. An archaic statue from
-Rhamnus, in Attica, now in the British Museum, has the crinkly chiton
-showing at the feet, and over it a himation with a deep overfold
-reaching considerably below the waist; in addition to this overfold
-a pleated frill appears over the breast, but no band is visible; the
-frill, however, is deeper than is usually the case in the Acropolis
-statues, and might be intended to conceal a band. This over-dress is
-sewn up at the side, and in that respect resembles the Doric peplos.
-It is significant that in this case, where the garment might with
-more reason be regarded as a Doric peplos let down from one shoulder,
-the chiton is seen appearing below it at the feet, and the over-dress
-does not reach to the ankles. In the few cases where the feet of the
-Acropolis statues are preserved, it will be noticed that the skirt
-is held up fairly high towards one side, so as to display the ankle.
-If a long under-garment were worn, we should expect its lower edge
-to be seen here; but in no instance is that the case, so that we
-may conclude that the skirt itself is the under-garment. Those who
-maintain that the skirt belongs to the upper garment support their
-opinion by the fact that very frequently the ornamentation on the
-two different parts is the same; the natural colour of the marble is
-left as a ground, and the decoration consists of coloured borders and
-patterns dotted somewhat sparsely over the surface. The part of the
-dress which appears on the left shoulder is frequently painted all
-over, and we might have expected that if the skirt belonged to the
-same garment it would also be painted all over. But before accepting
-this argument as conclusive, it will be well to consider the nature
-and purpose of polychromy as applied to Greek sculpture.
-
-  [130] Perrot and Chipiez, VIII., pls. 5 and 12; Lechat, 22, 29,
-  30, etc. This feature comes out clearly in fig. 31.
-
-  [131] Perrot and Chipiez, VIII., fig. 303; Lechat, fig. 31.
-
-In the early days when inferior materials were used for sculpture,
-colour was applied to them to conceal the poverty of the stone and
-to produce a more pleasing surface than that offered by the rough
-material at the artist’s disposal. These coarser materials were not
-capable of such careful finish, or of producing such a lively play
-of light and shade, as the marbles later used, and the only way to
-give them animation was by the application of colour all over the
-surface. It became, therefore, a regular practice for early Greek
-sculptors to paint their statues. When, however, they began to use
-more beautiful materials, such as marble, they recognised that it
-was a pity to conceal its texture by the extensive application of
-colour. They therefore adopted the practice of submitting the surface
-of the marble to a process of polishing, and adding colour only in
-parts, the effect being that the beauty of the marble is enhanced
-by the contrast between its polished surface and the coloured parts
-of the statue. The range of colours used is somewhat limited and
-conventional. For example, in the early pediment groups from the
-Acropolis, we find red used for human flesh; and the colours used
-in the draperies of the Acropolis female statues are limited to
-red and blue. Both eyes and hair are invariably red. We may infer,
-therefore, that colour was not added with a view to reproducing
-nature faithfully, but simply to decorate the statues. If, therefore,
-the artist felt that a white surface of marble with a few patterns
-sprinkled over it produced a more pleasing effect than a surface
-coloured all over, he would use this method of decorating his work,
-even if it were not realistic; and he would prefer to treat large
-surfaces of drapery in this way, rather than colour them all over.
-When, therefore, in these statues, we find that the small surface of
-the chiton which appears on the upper part of the figure is coloured
-all over, we need not conclude that the skirt belongs to another
-garment because it is differently ornamented; had so large a surface
-been painted all over, the effect would have been far less pleasing.
-The difference in the decoration of different parts of the same
-garment need in no way surprise us; it occurs very frequently in the
-black-figured vases, where we get purple used for the upper part of a
-garment and black for the lower, simply with the object of producing
-variety. The argument from the application of coloured ornament will
-not help us, then, in this case, especially when we find that it can
-be used to support either view. Professor Baldwin Brown has pointed
-out that some terra-cotta figures[132] in the Acropolis Museum,
-which are draped in the same style as the archaic statues, have the
-under-garment covering the shoulder and the skirt painted in one
-colour, and the part which passes round the figure under the left arm
-in another, and he uses this fact as a piece of evidence to show that
-the skirt is part of the chiton and the rest a separate garment.[133]
-It will be safer, therefore, in considering the different garments
-which constitute the dress, to leave the question of colour out of
-account altogether, and to base our arguments only on their form.
-Many who maintain that the skirt is part of the chiton, are of the
-opinion that the upper garment is the ordinary himation with a small
-overfold, fastened on the shoulder and down the arm. Lechat supposes
-that the upper edge is taken up and drawn from beneath and folded
-over on itself, so as to form a sort of thick pad at the top, and he
-suggests that the pleats were folded before the cloak was put on,
-and perhaps even ironed; but this arrangement would not produce the
-vertical folds which we find in almost all the statues.
-
-  [132] Cp. _Jahrbuch_, 1893; Arch. Anz., H. 519; Winter.
-
-  [133] Another possibility which suggests itself is that the
-  sculptor may not have painted the statue himself, but may have
-  handed it over to a painter who did not understand how the
-  drapery was constituted.
-
-Kalkmann[134] calls the garment a “stilisirte himation,” and suggests
-that the vertical lines are continued round the figure because the
-artist had great difficulty in representing the transition between
-the vertical folds which hang down from the arm and the horizontal
-ones of the overfold. This explanation, however, does not account
-for the frill-like edge which appears at the top of the himation.
-Professor Baldwin Brown[135] has published some good photographs of a
-model draped in this Ionian himation, but has not given a very full
-or satisfactory explanation of how the effect was produced. He says
-that the secret of the dress is that “the upper edge of it, with all
-the folds, is tightly rolled over so that it is shortened in the
-front, while at the same time the folds are kept in their places.”
-He admits that the folds will only keep in place on a “motionless
-wearer of imperturbable patience,” and therefore supposes that the
-dress was evolved for use on the wooden xoana. It seems unlikely that
-a special dress of such an elaborate nature should have been evolved
-to drape these early wooden images, and there is no reason to suppose
-that the series of Acropolis statues are merely reproductions of
-such images. They appear much rather to represent the grand Athenian
-ladies who dedicated themselves symbolically to their patron goddess
-by setting up statues of themselves in her honour. Since the statues
-were probably intended to be set up permanently in a conspicuous
-place, it is natural that the votaries would like to see themselves
-appearing in their best clothes.
-
-  [134] _Jahrbuch_, xi.
-
-  [135] _How Greek Women Dressed._
-
-A careful study of the statues themselves and a consideration of all
-the evidence bearing on the question leads to the conclusion that
-the complete costume consists of two garments, a long under-dress,
-which may be regarded as the usual indoor costume of the Athenian
-ladies of the sixth century, and a mantle worn over it for out
-of doors; occasionally a scarf or shawl is worn as well over the
-mantle, perhaps for additional warmth, perhaps only for ornament.
-The under-dress consists of the long linen Ionic chiton, a wide
-cylindrical garment fastened by brooches or sewn down both arms
-so as to form sleeves; a girdle is worn round the waist, and the
-superfluous length of the material is drawn up over this girdle so
-as to form a deep pouch; sometimes this pouch is worn all round the
-figure, sometimes, as is apparently the case in a large seated figure
-of Athena, the pouch is formed only in front. On some occasions[136]
-we find that the chiton, in addition to the pouch, has an overfold
-from the neck resembling the ἀπόπτυγμα of the Doric peplos. This
-overfold sometimes only covers the chest and sometimes hangs down
-considerably lower. Such an overfold is very frequently found on
-vases; in some cases its material may be of one piece with that of
-the rest of the chiton, as it appears on one of the Nereids from the
-so-called Nereid monument; but in those many cases where it only
-appears between the shoulders and does not extend also along the
-arms, it is quite possible that it may be a separate piece of stuff
-sewn on to the chiton at the neck. It is probably the edge of such
-an overfold that appears at the waist below the himation on the
-Acropolis statues; no other satisfactory explanation of this detail
-of the costume has at present been suggested. It is unlikely that
-it represents the “kolpos,” because in all cases, with one possible
-exception (No. 676; Lechat, fig. 29), a border is painted on it,
-indicating that it is an edge and not a pouch. It has been suggested
-that this overfold was sometimes made of a different kind of material
-from the chiton on to which it was sewn, and that this material was a
-silk or linen of a crinkled texture, indicated by the wavy parallel
-lines which appear on the statues. The fact that this treatment
-appears sometimes also on the skirt and on the upper part of the
-mantle, diminishes the probability of this hypothesis, and makes it
-appear more likely that this kind of technique was simply used to
-represent very full folds in a fine material. Such a treatment may
-have been suggested to the artist by familiarity with some material
-of a crinkled texture, such as that used for sheets and table-cloths
-in some Greek villages to-day.
-
-  [136] _E.g._, Lechat, fig. 12.
-
-With regard to the ornamental patterns which adorn the chiton, we
-find borders at the feet and at the edge of the overfold, also strips
-of ornamentation running round the neck and along the arms and round
-the arm-holes, and almost invariably a broad band running vertically
-down the front of the lower part of the chiton. In addition to
-these strips and borders we also get stars or small floral designs
-scattered over the whole garment. The bands which appear at the
-edges are easy to understand; they were either woven in the material
-of which they were made, or, more probably, embroidered on to it
-afterwards; but in those cases where the overfold is worn and a
-pattern appears at its edge and also along the neck and arms, we must
-suppose that this latter was applied after the sleeves were formed
-and the overfold attached. Possibly, also, the vertical band on the
-lower part of the chiton represents a separate strip of embroidery
-sewn on to the garment. The Greek women probably occupied a large
-proportion of their time in embroidery; and since a good piece of
-embroidery lasts for very many years, it is quite possible that when
-the original garment was worn out, they may have cut off the strip
-of still good work, and sewn it on to a new dress. The only other
-explanation of the numerous patterns which appear on the statues, is
-that the artist simply applied ornamentation wherever it pleased his
-fancy to do so; this is less satisfactory than to suppose that he was
-representing something which he actually saw.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 33.]
-
-Turning to the himation or mantle worn over the chiton, the simplest
-method of producing the effect seen in the Acropolis statues was
-found by experiment to be by taking a piece of material between 5
-and 6 yards long and about 18 or 20 inches wide. This was folded
-double, as in the diagram at the point _a_, so that the points _b_
-and _b′_ met. Then at the points _c_ and _c′_, at equal distances
-from the corners, and cutting off at little less than one-third of
-the wide length of the stuff, the two upper edges were fastened
-together on the model’s right shoulder, a few pleats or gathers being
-taken in the material on each side. A series of such fastenings was
-made along the upper arm, as far as the points _d_ and _d′_, which
-reached to the model’s elbow; the rest of the stuff, as far as the
-points _b_ and _b′_, was allowed to hang down from the elbow. The
-part of the material _c_ to _c′_ passed under the left arm and was
-arranged in a series of regular oblique folds running parallel to
-the box-pleat, which formed itself naturally at the first fastening
-on the shoulder—that is to say, at the points _c_ and _c′_; these
-folds were held in place by a band passing under the left breast,
-drawn rather tightly round the figure and secured firmly on the right
-shoulder. In order to make the lower edge of the cloak rise in the
-middle, as it does invariably in the statues, it was found necessary
-to draw the folds up over the band and let the upper edge fall over,
-forming a kind of frill. The frill, however, hung down too low, and
-it was this fact that suggested cutting the upper edge of the
-cloak out in a curve, or rather in two curves, one at the back and
-one at the front, leaving the part under the left arm longer than
-that in front and behind. When these curves were cut out and the
-garment once more arranged in its pleats, the little frill-like edge
-hung of itself over the band, just in the way in which it appears in
-some of the statues. The band alone held the folds fairly well in
-place; but in order to prevent the possibility of their slipping, the
-Athenian ladies probably had them stitched on to the band. It would
-be quite easy to slip the garment on and off over the head without
-even unfastening it on the shoulder.[137]
-
-  [137] Figs. 34, _a_ and _b_, are photographs of a model draped in
-  this manner.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 34.—Drapery in the Style of the Archaic Statues
-in the Acropolis Museum, Athens.
-  _Face page_ 91.]
-
-The variations in detail which appear in the different statues can
-easily be produced by arranging the folds in a slightly different
-fashion. In some cases, as for example in No. 674 (Lechat, pl. 1),
-the folds hang quite upright instead of obliquely, and the box-pleat
-appears in the middle instead of hanging from the shoulder; this can
-easily be produced by turning the folds first in one direction and
-then in the opposite. The folds of the frill sometimes hang in the
-opposite direction to those of the main part of the mantle; this is
-simply a mistake on the part of the artist. Occasionally the frill
-does not appear at all, for example in No. 686 (Lechat, fig. 37), but
-the cloak hangs straight down from the broad band. In this instance
-we must suppose that the overhanging mass of material has been cut
-away entirely before the folds were attached to the band.
-
-Sometimes the two ends were sewn together along the lines _be_ and
-_b′e′_, and in this case the last fastening, indicated by the letters
-_d_ and _d′_, approached nearer to the points _b_ and _b′_, so as to
-leave an opening only sufficient for the arm to pass through.
-
-The detail of the cloak which presents most variety is the little
-frill-like edge which falls over the band. Sometimes it appears to be
-a natural continuation of the vertical folds which hang down below
-it, and it falls over the band so as almost to hide it; sometimes
-it is shorter, and reveals the band and forms a sort of leaf-like
-pattern above it; in other cases it disappears entirely. Its most
-realistic representation is in one of the Victories in the Acropolis
-Museum, where the corners _c_ and _c′_, formed by cutting the curves,
-are actually indicated on the shoulder, and the frill lies in an
-irregular zigzag, almost exactly as it was found to fall in practice.
-
-In two cases in the Acropolis Museum at Athens, and in a statue at
-Delphi, the band does not pass under the arm, but from shoulder
-to shoulder, and the cloak covers both arms symmetrically, being
-fastened down both alike with a series of brooches. In these cases
-the box-pleat falls in the middle, and the curve must necessarily
-have been considerably smaller, since the upper edge lies much higher
-up towards the neck. When the cloak was worn in this way, it was
-probably sewn up down both sides, and the curves for the neck,
-back and front, were naturally equidistant from the two side-seams.
-The openings for the arms would come at the ends of the top edge, as
-in the case of the Ionic chiton.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 35.—Vase-painting—British Museum.
-  _Face page_ 93.]
-
-The style of dress represented by this set of monuments is certainly
-the most luxurious which we find in Greek art at any period. Now the
-date of the Acropolis maidens can be fixed at some period certainly
-not later than the last quarter of the sixth century. Solon’s
-sumptuary law regulating women’s dress must have been enacted during
-the first years of the sixth century, so that we may conclude that
-these dainty ladies with their chitons, cloaks, and scarfs represent
-the height of luxury in dress which was possible after the passing of
-that law: their self-satisfied smile seems to be inviting approval of
-the degree of elegance to which their ingenuity could attain, even
-though a stern law-giver had limited the number of their garments to
-three.
-
-This style of dress seems to have passed out of fashion at the end of
-the sixth century, or in the early years of the fifth, for we find it
-only in the early works of sculpture already mentioned. An attempt to
-render it is frequently made by the artists of the early red-figured
-vases—sometimes with some success; but more often the attempt results
-in a confusion between this somewhat elaborate style of cloak and
-the simpler development which it took later. Fig. 35 shows a fairly
-successful attempt to represent the dress. Here we have the band
-passing round the right shoulder and the vertical folds falling from
-it, but the frill and the fastening down the right arm are omitted.
-Possibly they taxed the artist’s skill too greatly; possibly the
-style had already passed out of fashion in real life. But he would
-be moderately familiar with the maidens on the Acropolis, although
-perhaps not sufficiently so to be able to reproduce their costume
-in detail. Working daily in his little shop down below in the
-Cerameicus, perhaps he did not very frequently mount the citadel,
-where he might study the art treasures that adorned it. Possibly
-even the vase is not earlier than 480 B.C., and the picture is but a
-reminiscence of the statues that the artist had seen on the Acropolis
-previous to their burial at the coming of the Persians. Very often on
-the vases we find the vertical folds represented falling from beneath
-a series of horizontal folds obviously formed by turning over the
-top of the cloak before fastening it on the shoulder. Here the band
-and fastening down the arm are omitted.[138] The place of the frill
-is taken by an overfold of the cloak before it is put on, and it is
-fastened by a single brooch on the shoulder; the material is allowed
-to hang in natural folds, and the necessity of cutting a curve in
-the upper edge is obviated by the fact that no band is worn, and the
-stuff is not arranged in artificial vertical folds. This style of
-cloak appears already on the figure of Apollo, on the relief from
-Thasos in the Louvre; it is seen most clearly in the Artemis
-of Gabii.[139] It was probably developed from the earlier and more
-elaborate form of cloak by gradual stages, first by omitting the
-artificial folds and the band which held them in place, and then by
-omitting the numerous fastenings on the arm. This would necessitate
-an alteration in the shape of the cloak; it would naturally become
-more square. Kalkmann, in the article already referred to, fig. 17,
-represents an intermediate stage in this development, where a large
-cloak is worn without band or frill, and is fastened by a series of
-several brooches down one arm. Were it not for this representation
-of the transition stage, we might be inclined to class the cloak of
-the Artemis of Gabii as a development of the Doric peplos, which it
-resembles in having an overfold and being fastened by a single large
-brooch on the shoulder; and indeed these two elements are probably
-due to the influence of the Doric dress, and we should therefore,
-perhaps, more rightly call the final form of the cloak a blending of
-the two styles rather than a development of either the one or the
-other.
-
-  [138] Fig. 36.
-
-  [139] Fig. 37.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 36.—Vase-painting—Ionic Dress.
-  _Face page_ 94.]
-
-[Illustration: _Photo by Mansell & Co._
-  FIG. 37.—The Artemis of Gabii—Louvre.
-  _Face page_ 95.]
-
-As early as the beginning of the fifth century we find the two styles
-becoming confused and mingled together. The Doric peplos is worn as
-an over-dress over the Ionic chiton, even by one of the “Maidens”
-of the Acropolis, and later on the commonest form of outdoor dress
-for women was the Ionic chiton with the Doric himation over it. This
-combination appears in the so-called Fates of the Parthenon pediment.
-Frequently we find this blending of the two styles in a single
-garment; we find also on vases the overgirt Doric peplos with sleeves
-formed by a number of brooches;[140] and again, with cross-bands,
-which belong properly to the Ionic chiton.[141] Some authorities,
-pinning their faith entirely to Herodotus, consider that the brooch
-is an element which belongs strictly only to the Doric dress; they
-therefore regard the chiton with pinned sleeves as a mixture of the
-two. An over-garment not very simple in form, which can be regarded
-as neither Doric nor Ionic, but a mixture of both, is illustrated by
-Fig. 38. Kalkmann regards it as a number of overfolds or flounces
-sewn separately on to the chiton. It seems more reasonable, however,
-to regard the part of the dress which appears on the arms and at
-the feet, and which is made of a plain material, as the chiton,
-and the rest which is ornamented with a pattern, as a separate
-over-garment. This garment has three edges, at the waist, hips, and
-ankles, so that it is obviously not merely an ordinary rectangular
-himation, nor a simple Doric peplos with overfold. It seems simplest
-to explain it as a Doric peplos with deep overfold, ungirt, having a
-short false overfold to the waist sewn on over the real one at the
-neck. Such over-garments never occur in sculpture and only rarely
-on the vases, and may possibly be an error or invention on the part
-of the vase-painter; if commonly worn, they would probably be more
-frequently represented in art.
-
-  [140] B.M., E. 336.
-
-  [141] Athens Central Museum, 1285.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 38.—Vase-painting—Dress with two Overfolds.
-  _Face page_ 96.]
-
-
-
-
-VI
-
-MATERIALS AND ORNAMENTATION
-
-
-The fabrics in use for Greek dresses presented considerable variety.
-The commonest materials were naturally woollen, but linen and silk
-were used for more luxurious garments, and a kind of leather jerkin
-known as διφθέρα[142] was sometimes worn by peasants.
-
-  [142] Aristophanes, _The Clouds_, 72; Plato, _Crito_, 53 D.
-
-That the woollen materials used themselves varied considerably in
-texture, is proved by some fragments actually found in a tomb at
-Kertch in the Crimea, and published in the _Comptes rendus_ in 1878.
-These date for the most part from the fourth century B.C., but one
-at least probably goes back to the fifth century. They are in most
-cases rather loosely woven, so that the separate threads are clearly
-visible, and a bright object could be seen through the material.
-The oldest piece is composed of such fine threads that it is almost
-transparent; other pieces have a texture not unlike that of woollen
-crêpe. A somewhat coarser piece, the threads of which are very
-strong, has a portion of a seam remaining, which is oversewn with
-strong woollen thread. In addition to very finely woven woollen
-materials, the more luxurious of the Greeks wore also many varieties
-of linen, and in some cases even silk. Pollux tells us that the
-long linen chiton was worn by the Athenians and Ionians, and many
-references are to be found in ancient literature to different kinds
-of linen, coming from places usually in Asia or the more easterly of
-the Ægean islands. Of these the most commonly mentioned are ἀμόργινα,
-garments made of linen from the flax of Amorgos, and βύσσινα,
-made of βύσσος, a yellowish kind of flax, coming especially from
-India and Egypt. We learn from Aristophanes[143] that the χιτώνιον
-ἀμόργινον was transparent, so that we may conclude that the linen
-from which it was made was very fine indeed; perhaps it resembled
-a very fine cambric. That βύσσος was a linen of some kind, we are
-told by Pausanias,[144] and Pollux gives us the information that
-it came from India. That it was known in Egypt also, is testified
-by Herodotus,[145] who tells us of its use for mummy-cloths. It
-was probably rather a mark of luxury when worn by the Greeks, for
-Simætha[146] tells us that she wore a χιτών of it when going out on a
-festive occasion.
-
-  [143] _Lys._, 150.
-
-  [144] VI., 21.
-
-  [145] II., 86.
-
-  [146] Theocritus, II., 73.
-
-Of materials which come under the heading of silk, three kinds were
-known to the ancients. We read in Latin authors of _vestes coæ_,
-_bombycinæ_, and _sericæ_, and these were also known to the Greeks.
-Aristotle[147] is the first of the ancient writers who tells us
-anything of the production of silk. After describing the various
-changes undergone by the worm before becoming a moth, he gives us the
-following information:—
-
-  Ἐκ δὲ τούτου τοῦ ζῴου καὶ τὰ βουβύκια ἀναλύουσι τῶν
-  γυναικῶν τινές ἀναπηνιζόμεναι, κἄπειτα ὑφαίνουσιν· πρώτη δὲ
-  λέγεται ὑφῆναι ἐν Κῷ Παμφίλη Πλάτεω θυγάτηρ.
-
-“Some women undo the cocoons of this creature, winding off the
-silk, and then weave it; and Pamphile, daughter of Plateus, is said
-to have been the first to weave it in Cos.” This implies that the
-manufacture of silk was carried on in Cos, but no information is
-given as to whether the worm was reared in that island or whether
-the raw silk was imported. Pliny[148] tells us more on the subject;
-he seems to distinguish the three kinds of silk mentioned above. Of
-these three, only “sericum” is, strictly speaking, silk—that is to
-say, a material made by unwinding the cocoon of the silkworm reared
-on the mulberry tree. This worm is first mentioned by Pausanias.[149]
-It was the Chinese who discovered this method of procuring the silk,
-and it was apparently unknown to the Greeks and Romans. The “coa” and
-“bombycina” were procured by piercing and carding the cocoon instead
-of unwinding them entire; the result was a substance coarser and less
-brilliant than silk. Pliny draws a distinction between “coa” and
-“bombycina,” telling us that the latter was a product of Assyria and
-came from the ordinary mulberry worm, whereas the worm from which
-coan silk was procured was reared on other trees, notably the oak,
-ash, and cypress.[150]
-
-  [147] _Hist. Anim._, v., 19.
-
-  [148] _Hist. Nat._, xi.
-
-  [149] VI., xxvi., 6.
-
-  [150] For silk generally, see Daremberg and Saglio, _s.v._ “coa”;
-  Smith, _Dictionary of Antiquities_, _s.v._ “sericum”; Yates,
-  _Textrinum Antiquorum_, pp. 160 f.; Pariset, _Histoire de la
-  Soie_, Part I., chap. i.
-
-_Coæ vestes_ are frequently mentioned by the Latin poets, chiefly
-Horace, Tibullus, and Propertius, and from them we learn that
-they were chiefly worn by _Hetairæ_ and were of a transparent
-texture;[151] sometimes they were purple and had gold threads
-interwoven or embroidered.[152] One piece of silk was found amongst
-other materials at Kertch. In colour it is a bronze-gold, and is
-woven in a lozenge pattern.
-
-  [151] Propertius, I., 2; Horace, _Satires_, I., ii., 101.
-
-  [152] Horace, _Odes_, IV., xiii.; Tibullus, II., 6.
-
-If Greek dress lacked variety of cut and material, the deficiency
-was to some extent made up by considerable gaiety of colour and
-ornamentation. Probably none but slaves and artisans would wear
-garments of one colour without pattern or ornamentation of any kind,
-and even they would sometimes have their dresses adorned with a
-simple border, such as a broad stripe. From the numerous references
-scattered up and down through extant literature, it appears that the
-favourite colours were purple, red, and yellow. Pollux[153] gives
-us a list of the colours most commonly used. This list includes
-green (βατραχίς) and gray (κίλλιον, ὀνάγρινον), in addition to those
-mentioned above, but strangely enough no mention is made of blue. The
-word κυάνεος, “dark blue,” is seldom if ever applied to garments,
-yet it is scarcely likely that the colour was unknown to the Greeks.
-Possibly some shades described as πορφύρεος approached a violet,
-or blue, as distinguished from ἁλοῦργος, “true purple.” For red we
-find the word φοινίκεος, “dark red,” used especially of the military
-cloak of the Lacedæmonians,[154] and κοκκοβαφής, “scarlet”; for
-yellow κροκωτός and θάψινος. Βατραχίς, “frog-coloured,” is the word
-applied to a green garment, and this is probably the colour described
-as ὀμφάνικος, “like unripe grapes.” Pollux[155] tells us that for
-mourning the Greeks wore φαιὸν καὶ μέλαν ἀλλήλοις ἔγγυς, “gray and
-black, very like each other.” From this we learn that φαιός was a
-very dark colour, probably gray or dun.
-
-  [153] Chap. lviii.
-
-  [154] Aristophanes, _Pax_, 1173; _Lys._, 1140.
-
-  [155] 58.
-
-The ornamentation applied to dress by the Greeks was very varied in
-character; it is comparatively rare to find on Greek vases a dress
-that is entirely free from decorations, and the patterns represented
-are very numerous. Sometimes the ornament consists of a simple
-border, often of a pattern distributed all over the dress, and these
-designs are frequently of a very elaborate character, including
-animal and even human forms. In sculpture, too, this feature was
-not neglected; the maidens of the Acropolis at Athens all have some
-pattern on their draperies added in colour, and one of them has no
-less than seven different designs distributed over her costume. We
-know that the himation of the Olympian Zeus by Pheidias was richly
-decorated, and the fragment from Damophon’s great group at Lycosura
-will serve as a later example of sculptured drapery highly ornamented
-with patterns in relief. This has not only geometric and floral
-designs as borders, but the whole surface is covered with fantastic
-dancing figures of human and hybrid forms.
-
-References in literature are not very frequent; the most noteworthy
-occurs in the _Iliad_,[156] where Helen is described as working at a
-great loom:
-
-                      ἣ δὲ μέγαν ἱστὸν ὕφαινεν
-    δίπλακα πορφυρέην, πολέας δ᾽ ἐνέπασσεν ἀέθλους
-    Τρώων θ᾽ ἱπποδάμων καὶ Ἀχαιῶν χαλκοχιτώνων.
-
-“She was weaving a great purple web of double fold, and over it she
-spread many battles of horse-taming Trojans and bronze-clad Achæans.”
-
-  [156] iii., 125.
-
-The epithet ποικίλος, applied to dress, undoubtedly means “richly
-decorated,” and the ἀνθινά, “flowered garments,” frequently mentioned
-in inscriptions, presumably refers to garments ornamented with floral
-designs. In connection with the passage in Homer, the question has
-been raised as to whether these complex designs were woven into the
-material or embroidered afterwards. It seems hardly likely that they
-were woven in, unless the work were a heavy tapestry, such as would
-hardly be suitable for a costume; moreover, the word ἐμπάσσω means
-“to sprinkle on,” and is more easily applicable to the distribution
-of a design over a piece of material already woven than to the
-formation of a pattern in the course of the weaving. The words μέγαν,
-ἱστὸν, and ὔφαινεν would still be applicable, because when the
-garment was at this stage, it would still be regarded as incomplete,
-and the designs, however applied, would probably be at least sketched
-out while it was still on the loom.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 39.—Fragments of a Sarcophagus Cover from Kertch.
-  _Face page_ 103.]
-
-Among the fragments of materials found at Kertch were some which
-were embroidered, others which had simple geometrical designs woven
-into the borders; in addition to these there were some considerable
-fragments of a large sarcophagus cover, the ornamentation of which is
-strongly reminiscent of Greek vase-painting of the fourth century.
-The ground is black and is covered with designs in red and light
-terra-cotta; the ornamentation is divided into bands, and consists of
-battle scenes with chariots, and birds and beasts scattered about the
-field of the design; the bands are separated by different patterns,
-many of which are frequently met with on vases. These include the egg
-and dart pattern, ivy and laurel wreaths, large palmettes, and many
-others.[157] Names are inscribed against some of the figures, among
-others ΝΙΚΗ, ΑΘΗΝΑΙΗ ΙΟΚΑΣΤΗ, (Ι)ΓΓΟΜΕΔΩΝ, etc.
-
-  [157] Figs. 39 and 41 _a_ and _b_.
-
-These designs are not embroidered, nor are they produced in the
-course of weaving the cloth; they are apparently drawn out by means
-of some pigment applied after the material was woven. Herodotus
-tells us[158] that the people of the Caucasus used to paint animals
-on their clothes with some vegetable pigment which they mixed with
-water. Some such procedure, then, must have been practised by the
-Greeks of the fourth century, which is the date assignable to the
-fragment in question, on the evidence of the inscriptions.
-
-  [158] I., 203.
-
-The designs applied to Greek dresses presented abundant variety, as
-is evidenced by extant monuments, especially by the vases; they may
-be roughly classed as geometric, floral, and those containing animal
-and human forms. Of the geometric designs some are rectilinear,
-others curvilinear. The favourite rectilinear borders are broad
-lines, parallel rows of zigzag lines, the mæander or key pattern
-in very many forms varying from the simple running mæander to a
-complicated double fret, broken at intervals by stars or chequers.
-In addition to these borders we frequently find a chequer pattern
-covering the whole surface of a garment. A kind of net pattern,
-often seen on vases, was very probably used in dresses also. Of
-the curvilinear designs the most common are the “guilloche” or
-plait-band, the simple spiral, and the κυμάτιον or wave pattern. On
-the black-figured vases a kind of scale pattern frequently occurs
-covering a wide surface.
-
-A very great variety of floral designs was used by the Greeks for
-ornamentation of all kinds; they are very frequent as part of the
-scheme of decoration of vases, especially of those of Ionic origin.
-A favourite pattern is a simple laurel wreath like that depicted
-in Fig. 39; the ivy also forms the basis of more than design.
-Sometimes it takes the form of a row of leaves on either side of a
-straight line; more often the leaves alternate with tendrils and
-berries. By far the commonest and the most beautiful of floral
-designs are those made up of lotus buds and flowers and palmettes.
-Sometimes we find the lotus alone forming the motive of the design,
-sometimes it alternates with palmettes. A very graceful pattern is
-composed of oblique palmettes turned in opposite directions and
-connected by spirals.[159] That these designs so commonly used for
-the decoration of pottery were employed also in the textile arts is
-proved by some of the fragments found at Kertch. Quite considerable
-remains were found of a piece of woollen material elaborately
-embroidered with a large floral design (Fig. 40), the main motive
-of which is a graceful palmette, from the base of which spring
-spirals terminating in heart-shaped leaves and flowers. The design is
-executed in gold and green on a violet ground.[160]
-
-  [159] For patterns generally, see H. B. Walters, _History of
-  Ancient Pottery_, ii., 209-235; Riegl, _Stilfragen_.
-
-  [160] For colouring, see _Comptes rendus_, 1878.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 40.—Embroidered Fragment from Kertch.
-  _Face page_ 105.]
-
-Animal and human forms are naturally less common than geometric and
-floral designs. Mention has already been made of the wonderful diplax
-woven by Helen, in which she represented scenes of battle between
-Trojans and Achæans. In art we find that goddesses are frequently
-depicted wearing garments covered with elaborate ornamentation
-of this kind. The François vase will afford several examples,
-and in later art the dress of Demeter on the Triptolemus vase by
-Hieron,[161] and the sculptured drapery from Damophon’s group at
-Lycosura, may be quoted. That mortals also indulged in such luxurious
-ornamentation is proved again by the Kertch fragments. One of the
-most charming pieces found there had a very naturalistic design of
-ducks embroidered in gold and green on a dark-brown ground (Fig. 41
-_c_); another piece had a figure of an Amazon riding on horseback;
-and mention has already been made of the sarcophagus cloth covered
-with battle scenes.
-
-  [161] British Museum, E. 140. Fig. 14, above.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 41.—(_a_ and _b_) Fragments of a Sarcophagus
-Cover from Kertch. (_c_) Embroidered Fragment from Kertch.
-  _Face page_ 106.]
-
-
-
-
-VII
-
-HAIR AND HEAD-DRESS
-
-
-The manner of wearing the hair seems to have varied considerably at
-different periods, both for men and women. In pre-Hellenic times it
-was, for the most part, if not invariably, allowed to grow long.
-On the frescoes from Knossos we find the cupbearer and other male
-figures represented wearing their hair in long, wavy tresses reaching
-to the waist or thereabouts. On Mycenæan gems and rings, where
-warriors are represented wearing helmets, the hair is frequently
-concealed, so that it is impossible to determine whether it was worn
-short or bound up in some manner, so as to be out of the way. The
-ivory statuettes of athletes from Knossos have long hair,[162] so
-that in all probability that was the prevailing fashion among men in
-Crete. Among women in pre-Hellenic times, the fashion was to wear the
-hair long; the snake goddess and her votary have hair that reaches
-far past the waist, and in almost all extant art of the period the
-hair of the women is represented as being abundant. It is frequently
-worn in long tresses down the back (compare the dancing girl, Fig.
-4) and arranged rather elaborately in front in curls, which sometimes
-suggest artificial treatment; sometimes the hair is done up at the
-back or top of the head, in modern fashion.
-
-  [162] See _British School Annual_, 1901-2, VIII., 72, fig. 37.
-
-In the Homeric poems we read of the “long-haired Achæans,”[163] so
-that the sight of men with long hair was obviously familiar to the
-poet. From the passage which describes Andromache’s swoon,[164]
-however, it is clear that the women of the poet’s day bound their
-hair up, using nets and kerchiefs and other appurtenances both useful
-and ornamental.
-
-  [163] _Iliad_, ii., 443, 472.
-
-  [164] _Ibid._, xxii., 468 f.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 42.—Men’s Head-dress—Archaic.
-  _Face page_ 108.]
-
-Coming down to historic times, we find that before the Persian
-wars both men and women wore their hair long. After the middle of
-the fifth century a change took place, the men cutting their hair
-short for the most part, the women binding it up. The story of the
-Lacedæmonians combing their long hair when the Persians were close
-upon them is familiar (Herodotus, VII., 208). Extant monuments show
-us that before the Persian wars the men adopted various methods of
-disposing of their long hair: sometimes we see it worn loose with a
-simple fillet tied round the head;[165] sometimes the long ends are
-turned up and tucked in under the fillet;[166] sometimes they are
-turned up and held together by an additional band. This is the case
-with a bronze head from Olympia,[167] where, however, some locks
-seem to have been left free on the neck. A relief in Athens,
-representing a Discobolus holding the “discus” behind his head,[168]
-shows the hair probably divided and twisted together in two coils
-fastened tightly at a little distance from the end by a ribbon, or
-possibly by a metal spiral.[169] The golden τέττιξ mentioned by
-Thucydides (I., 6) was obviously some kind of ornament inserted
-in the hair to hold the “chignon” in place. It has been shown by
-Helbig[170] that this was probably a metal spiral or series of rings
-used to bind together the ends of the long hair; such a style is
-frequently represented in the art of the end of the sixth century and
-beginning of the fifth. The bands represented in Fig. 42 (_c_) are
-possibly intended for such metal rings. Helbig’s view is supported
-and confirmed by Studniczka.[171]
-
-  [165] Fig. 42 (_a_).
-
-  [166] Fig. 42 (_b_).
-
-  [167] Fig. 42 (_c_).
-
-  [168] Fig. 42 (_d_).
-
-  [169] The hair of Euphorbus, described in _Iliad_, xvi., 52, was
-  possibly dressed in this fashion.
-
-  [170] _Das Homerische Epos_, 166-170; cp. _Mittheilungen des
-  Deutschen Instituts in Athen_, vi., pl. 7, p. 186.
-
-  [171] _Jahrbuch des kaiserlich Deutschen Instituts_, xi., 1896,
-  pp. 284-291.
-
-Probably the knot of hair bound up on the nape of the neck, as in
-the above examples, represents the κρωβύλος or κόρυμβος mentioned
-in Thucydides and elsewhere in literature. In later times this name
-was applied to the knot of hair on the top of the head which occurs
-so frequently in statues of Apollo; but there is no evidence to show
-that it was worn in this position before the fourth century at the
-earliest.
-
-A style very commonly exemplified by extant statues of Apollo, dating
-from the early part of the fifth century, is to tie a fillet round
-the head and roll the long hair tightly over it, tucking the ends
-in usually behind the ears.[172] These ends are, however, sometimes
-allowed to hang down on the neck. Athletes very frequently disposed
-of their long hair by braiding it into two plaits from behind; these
-they crossed or brought round the head, fastening the two ends
-together in front.[173] Sometimes the short hair in front was combed
-down over the plaits, so as to conceal their union.
-
-  [172] Fig. 43 (_a_).
-
-  [173] Fig. 43 (_b_). It is interesting to note that little
-  Athenian schoolgirls of to-day wear their hair in this fashion.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 43.—(_a_) Head of Apollo from the Temple of Zeus,
-at Olympia. (_b_) Head of an Athlete—Athens Acropolis Museum.
-  _Face page_ 110.]
-
-The date of the change of fashion is impossible to fix. We find the
-athletes of Myron and Polycleitus represented with short hair, but
-long-haired Apollos are found considerably after their date. The
-change took place, in all probability, shortly after the Persian
-wars; it then became the fashion for Ephebi to cut off their
-long hair, which they consecrated to Apollo and Artemis or to a
-river god.[174] When once the change had come about, long hair
-was considered, in Athens at least, as a mark of affectation or
-effeminacy. In _The Wasps_ of Aristophanes,[175] Amynias, the typical
-fop, is designated by the name of οὑκ τῶν Κρωβύλου, “he of the
-‘chignon,’” and in _The Clouds_ the wearing of the τέττιξ is spoken
-of as a fashion quite out of date, or, as we might say, antediluvian.
-There is some uncertainty as to whether the Lacedæmonians wore their
-hair short or long; some authorities state that even in the fourth
-century they still wore it long as a mark of freedom, and since they
-were more conservative than the rest of the Greeks, it is quite
-possible that this was the case. With this possible exception, the
-custom of wearing the hair short continued, though Alexander probably
-set the fashion of wearing rather long and mane-like hair.
-
-  [174] Pausanias, I., xxxvii., 2; _Æsch. Choeph._, 6.
-
-  [175] 1267.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 44.]
-
-A covering for the head was rarely worn by men, except when riding
-or travelling long distances; in these cases the πέτασος was worn as
-a protection against sun and rain. This consisted of a felt hat with
-broad brim, which could be turned up or down. Figs. 44, 22, and 23
-represent its various shapes, Fig. 44 being the earliest form. The
-πέτασος, like the χλάμυς, which it almost invariably accompanies,
-probably came originally from Northern Greece, Thrace, or Thessaly,
-where more protection was needed against cold and inclement weather.
-Another head-covering, worn by sailors and by the god Hephaistos, is
-the πῖλος, a felt cap of conical shape resembling the modern fez.[176]
-
-  [176] Fig. 19.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 45.—Women’s Head-dress.
-  _Face page_ 112.]
-
-Extant monuments show that before the Persian wars women for the
-most part wore their hair down, although instances occur where it is
-fastened up with bands or fillets. When worn down it was usually held
-in place by a fillet, and frequently a metal ornament, rather high
-in front and narrowing towards the back, was added. This was known
-as the ἄμπυξ, or στεφάνη, and was probably made of gold; almost all
-the “Maidens” of the Acropolis wear it, and in several instances it
-is adorned with floral patterns.[177] The high πόλος or crown worn
-by Hera (Fig. 45 (_a_)) was probably also made of metal. Sometimes
-when the hair was worn down, the ends were prevented from flying in
-the wind by being tied together in a kind of little bag,[178] which
-reminds one of the many fashions adopted by men in the Georgian
-period in England. Sometimes, like the men, the women tucked the long
-ends up under the fillet, and let them hang out over it at the back.
-The fillet itself frequently assumed the dimensions of a scarf, the
-ends of which were tucked up at the sides and allowed to hang down
-behind the ears. When the hair was done up, the “chignon” was at
-first worn low on the nape of the neck and held in place by bands
-variously arranged.[179] Sometimes the στεφάνη alone was worn,[180]
-and very often the hair was held up by a kerchief or snood (μίτρα,
-σάκκος). The styles in which it was worn present abundant variety:
-sometimes it covered the hair completely,[181] except for a curl or
-two allowed to escape in front of the ears; sometimes it left the
-hair visible over the forehead only;[182] sometimes over the forehead
-and on the crown of the head, and the ends of the kerchief might
-be tucked through at the side and allowed to hang down in front of
-the ears.[183] Fig. 45 (_f_) gives an example of the στεφάνη worn
-in addition to the snood. In the fourth century fashion seems to
-have dictated that the “chignon” should be worn higher up at the back
-of the head, and a small kerchief was used to hold it up, folded in
-such a way that it narrowed almost to a point over the forehead.[184]
-Apparently a net was sometimes worn over the back of the hair. Fig.
-45 (_l_), from the Meidias vase, furnishes an illustration of this.
-In Hellenistic and Roman times the styles of dressing the hair became
-very numerous. The snood seems to have been discarded altogether,
-and adornment by means of artificial waving and curling apparently
-took its place. The modes of “coiffure” of the Alexandrian Greeks
-are as varied as those of modern Europe. Probably cosmetics were
-used for the hair and paint and powder for the face; for we learn
-from Xenophon’s _Œconomicus_ that as far back as his date, not only
-hetairæ but married women resorted to artificial means of beautifying
-the complexion.
-
-  [177] Fig. 32.
-
-  [178] Fig. 45 (_b_).
-
-  [179] Fig. 45 (_c_ and _d_).
-
-  [180] Fig. 45 (_e_).
-
-  [181] Fig. 45 (_g_).
-
-  [182] Fig. 45 (_h_).
-
-  [183] Fig. 45 (_i_ and _j_).
-
-  [184] Fig. 45 (_k_).
-
-More than one allusion is made in literature to some kind of hat worn
-by women; in Theocritus (_Idyll_, xv., 39), Praxinoa, when going out
-to the festival of Adonis, asks her maid for her wrap and hat (θολία).
-
-In the _Œdipus Coloneus_[185] Antigone recognises Ismene from a
-distance by the Thessalian hat which she wears as a protection
-against the heat of the sun. The words used are κυνῆ Θεσσαλίς, which
-seem to imply that the hat was made of some kind of skin, probably
-felt, and resembled the men’s “petasos,” which originated in
-Thessaly or Thrace; its shape may have been slightly different. The
-Tanagra statuettes frequently represent women wearing a broad-brimmed
-hat with high pointed crown.[186]
-
-  [185] 313.
-
-  [186] Fig. 15.
-
-
-
-
-VIII
-
-FOOTGEAR
-
-
-The practice of covering the feet seems to have varied somewhat among
-the Greeks. In all probability it was the custom to go barefoot
-indoors, and the habit prevailed among certain classes of going
-always unshod in the street also. It was a mark of hardihood in the
-Spartan youths always to go barefoot, and at Athens, in addition to
-the lower orders, who probably never wore shoes, philosophers and
-those who affected a simple life were in the habit of going unshod.
-That Socrates rarely covered his feet is proved by more than one
-reference in Plato’s Dialogues;—Phædrus[187] speaks of him as ἀεὶ
-ἀνυπόδητος, “always unshod,” and in the _Symposium_[188] we learn
-that for the occasion of Agathon’s banquet Socrates has washed and
-put on his shoes, ἃ ὀλιγάκις ἐποίει, “which he seldom did.”
-
-  [187] Plato, _Phædrus_, 229 A.
-
-  [188] 174 A.
-
-Other references in literature show that he was not the only
-philosopher who preferred to have his feet untrammelled.[189]
-
-  [189] Aristophanes, _The Clouds_, 103; Theocritus, XIV., 6.
-
-The normal fashion, however, for people of good breeding was to wear
-sandals or shoes out of doors, and we learn from Aristophanes[190]
-that the Athenians at least were particular about the fit;—to “swim
-about” in large boots was a mark of boorishness. Xenophon[191]
-notices the division of labour in the shoemakers’ trade, where he
-mentions at least four different hands employed in making a pair of
-shoes.
-
-  [190] _Knights_, 321.
-
-  [191] _Cyropædia_, xviii., 2, 5.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 46.—Sandals and Shoes.
-  _Face page_ 117.]
-
-The simplest form of footgear was the sandal, the πέδιλον of Homer,
-the ὑπόδημα of later times; this consisted of a leather sole cut
-to the shape of the foot and fastened on by means of straps or
-thongs, passing sometimes round the instep, sometimes between the
-toes and round the heel and ankle.[192] At times a piece of skin was
-attached to the sandal at the back, so as to cover the back of the
-heel, or even to wrap round the instep entirely, leaving only the
-toes bare;[193] from this form of sandal the ἔμβας, or slipper, was
-probably developed. This is described by Pollux[194] as εὐτελὲς μὲν
-ὑπόδεμα, Θράκιον δὲ τὸ εὕρημα, “a cheap shoe, of Thracian invention.”
-Its name suffices to show that the foot was inserted into the ἔμβας,
-in contradistinction to the sandal, which was bound under the foot;
-and the epithet signifies that it covered the foot completely.
-This description could be applied to many varieties of shoes and
-boots represented in extant art. Fig. 46 (_e_ and _f_) gives two
-examples of shoes—_e_ being an ordinary soft shoe covering the
-foot completely to the ankle, _f_ is turned up at the toes, like a
-modern Greek shoe, and reaches above the ankle at the back. A vase
-at the British Museum represents a woman cleaning a shoe of this
-shape. We learn from Aristophanes[195] that shoes were cleaned with
-blacking made of pitch and applied with a sponge; they were usually
-black, except when the leather was allowed to retain its natural
-colour. The word ἔμβας seems to have been used for various kinds of
-foot-covering; in Aristophanes it refers sometimes to a kind of easy
-slipper worn by old men,[196] and in other instances it is used of
-any ordinary shoe or boot. The mention by Pollux of its Thracian
-origin perhaps refers to the high boot turned over at the top,
-frequently represented on vase-paintings as being worn by horsemen
-with the Thracian cloak and petasos.[197] Different varieties of this
-kind of boot are to be seen in Fig. 46 (_g_, _h_, _i_, and _j_).
-
-  [192] Fig. 46 (_a_ and _b_); Fig. 48 (_c_).
-
-  [193] Fig. 46 (_c_ and _d_).
-
-  [194] VII., 85.
-
-  [195] _The Wasps_, 600.
-
-  [196] _The Wasps_, 274; _The Clouds_, 719.
-
-  [197] Fig. 22.
-
-An article in Daremberg and Saglio’s _Dictionnaire_ suggests an
-Asiatic origin, and indeed the resemblance between Greek boots and
-those represented on Assyrian monuments is striking. A comparison is
-actually made by Herodotus[198] between Assyrian boots and Bœotian
-ἐμβάδες.
-
-  [198] I., 195.
-
-It is quite possible that boots of this kind may have come to Greece
-from the East by way of Thrace, and the fact that Dionysus is very
-frequently represented wearing them seems to add confirmation to
-this conjecture.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 47.]
-
-A variety of the ἐμβάδες is to be found in the ἐνδρομίδες, a kind of
-boot worn by runners, as also by Hermes, Artemis, and the Amazons.
-They seem to have had no flap at the top, and to have been laced over
-a tongue either through holes or round buttons.[199] Another kind
-seems to have consisted of strips of cloth or leather, or possibly
-felt, wound round the legs like the modern puttees.
-
-  [199] Figs. 47 and 48 (_a_).
-
-The word κρηπίδες is frequently used of some kind of foot-covering,
-and we learn from Theocritus[200] and from Pollux[201] that these
-were worn by soldiers. The κρῆπις was probably some kind of sandal
-with a thick sole and stout straps interlacing one another in such a
-way as to form a protection for the heel and instep.[202] Pliny[203]
-tells us that sometimes they had nails in them.
-
-  [200] XV., 6.
-
-  [201] VII., 85.
-
-  [202] Figs. 48 (_b_) and 49 (_a_ and _b_).
-
-  [203] XXXV., 25.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 48.—(_a_) A Bronze in the British Museum. (_b_)
-Foot of the Hermes of Praxiteles (from a cast in the British Museum).
-(_c_) A Terra-cotta Flask in the British Museum.
-  _Face page_ 118.]
-
-Many varieties of shoes or boots are mentioned by Pollux[204] and
-other ancient writers. We read of ἀρβύλαι, ἀρβυλίδες, a cheap kind
-of boot worn on journeys; βλαυταί, light sandals with latchets,
-called also κονιπόδες, from the fact that they allowed the feet to
-get covered with dust; εὐμάριδες, Persian slippers of yellow kid;
-Περσικαί, cheap white shoes worn by women, especially by hetairæ;
-Λακωνικαί, distinguished by their red colour—these were probably
-the same as the Ἁμυκλαί mentioned by Theocritus. One of the archaic
-female statues in the Acropolis Museum at Athens wears red shoes.
-Wood was sometimes used for sandals. Pollux tells us that κρουπέζια
-were a special kind of wooden sandal used for dancing, and that
-Pheidias represented Athene Parthenos wearing Τυρρηνικά, sandals with
-high rectangular wooden soles and gold latchets.
-
-  [204] VII., 84-93.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 49.]
-
-Other shoes are too numerous to mention, and cannot be identified
-with certainty.
-
-
-
-
-IX
-
-THE TOILET
-
-CONCLUSION
-
-
-The toilet of the ancient Greeks was quite as elaborate as that of
-any modern people, and much time and care was bestowed upon it. That
-of the men was usually performed at the barber’s shop (Κουρεῖον),
-which became, as we gather from frequent allusions in Aristophanes,
-a regular resort for lounging and picking up news and scraps of
-gossip of all kinds. A fashionable Athenian would probably spend a
-whole morning at the barber’s shop, where, in addition to having his
-hair cut and beard clipped or shaved, he could submit to the various
-operations of manicure and chiropody. An epigram in the palatine
-anthology[205] gives a list of barber’s implements, some of which
-have survived in a few examples, and may be seen in our museums. The
-list includes: scissors (ψάλις), razor (ξυρόν), some sharp, pointed
-instrument for paring and cleaning the nails (στόνυξ). Mention is
-also made of a scraper (ψήκτρα), which was probably used after
-bathing. An ancient razor differs from a modern one, in that it is
-crescent shaped.
-
-  [205] _Anth. Pal._, vi., 307.
-
-In addition to these implements, various ointments were used, one
-of which, ψίλωθρον, containing arsenic, was employed for removing
-superfluous hairs.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 50.]
-
-When repairing to the wrestling school or the gymnasium, a Greek
-would invariably be provided with an oil-flask (ἀρύβαλλος, λήκυθος)
-and a strigil (ξύστρα). The aryballos (Fig. 50) was a small globular
-vessel, with an opening just large enough to allow the oil to trickle
-slowly out, the lekythos being a long narrow bottle with a foot and
-a narrow neck.[206] Both were used to carry the olive oil with which
-athletes were accustomed to anoint themselves. The strigil was a
-curved metal instrument used for scraping the oil and sand from the
-body after wrestling. The famous statue of the Apoxyomenos in the
-Vatican Museum represents an athlete engaged in this operation.
-
-  [206] Fig. 51.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 51.]
-
-The processes and requisites of the feminine toilet were many
-and various, and toilet scenes are frequently represented in
-vase-paintings. Sometimes we may see the process of the bath: an
-attendant slave pouring water from a large vessel over the crouching
-figure of the bather; in other instances we find a lady engaged in
-binding her hair with a fillet, tying her girdle, or fastening her
-sandal. There is almost invariably a maid in attendance, who assists
-in the operations, holding a scent-bottle, or a casket from which her
-mistress selects jewels.[207] One vase-painting shows a lady applying
-powder or colour to her cheeks with a brush.
-
-  [207] Fig. 52 (_a_).
-
-Many allusions in literature, and especially in Aristophanes, show
-that paint and cosmetics of various kinds were in use in Athens in
-the fifth century B.C. It is not surprising to learn that hetairæ
-made use of these artificial aids to beauty; but from a passage in
-Xenophon’s _Œconomicus_[208] we gather that the wives and daughters
-of respected citizens did not despise such means of enhancing and
-preserving their appearance. The passage describes how Ischomachus
-found his young wife ἐντετριμμένην πολλῷ μὲν ψιμυθίῳ ὅπως λευκοτέρα
-ἔτι δοκοίη εἶναι ἢ ἦν, πολλῇ δ᾽ ἐγχούσῃ ὅπως ἐρυθροτέρα φαίνοιτο
-τῆς ἀληθείας, ὑποδήματα δ᾽ ἔχουσαν ὑψηλά, ὅπως μείζων δοκοίη εἶναι
-ἢ ἐπεφύκει, “with much white lead rubbed into her skin, to make her
-look fairer than she was; and with much rouge, to make her appear
-rosier; and wearing high sandals, to add to her natural height.”
-
-  [208] x., 2.
-
-Ischomachus persuades her to give up these vanities, asking her if
-she will like him better if he goes about μίλτρῳ ἀλειφόμενος καὶ τοὺς
-ὀφθαλμοὺς ὑπαλειφόμενος, “anointed with red ochre, and with pigment
-under his eyes.”
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 52.—(_a_) A Pyxis in the British Museum. (_b_) A
-Toilet-box in the British Museum.
-  _Face page_ 122.]
-
-White lead was commonly used for producing a fair complexion; it was
-prepared by laying lead in vinegar, scraping off, powdering, and
-heating the white rust thus formed.[209] Various substances were used
-for producing rouge—some mineral, some vegetable; of the latter,
-the root of a plant (ἔγχουσα or ἄγχουσα), certain kinds of seaweed
-(φῦκος), and mulberry juice (συκάμινον), were common. That some kind
-of pigment was used for darkening the eyelids is further testified
-by Pollux[210] and Aristophanes.[211] Lamp-black and a sulphuret of
-antimony (στίμμις), were used for blackening eyebrows and eyelids.
-Perfumed powders and unguents were used for skin and hair, scented
-with myrrh or roses or other products. The simplest and most common
-unguent was, of course, olive oil. In addition to artificial
-complexions, we learn that false hair and wigs (πηνίκη, προκομίον),
-were not unknown, and that these came from the East.[212]
-
-  [209] _Theophr. de Lapidibus_, 56.
-
-  [210] VII., 95.
-
-  [211] Fragment 695.
-
-  [212] See Xenophon’s _Cyropædia_, I., iii., 2.
-
-Many examples have survived of the various articles pertaining to
-the equipment of a Greek lady’s toilet-table. Combs, hair-pins,
-mirrors, boxes, and bottles are numerous in our museums. Combs are
-usually made of ivory or bone, with a double row of rather fine
-teeth. Hair-pins of bone, ivory, or metal consist of a single pin
-with an ornamental head. Mirrors are of highly polished metal,
-usually bronze, though some have been found in silver. The mirrors
-may be divided into two classes—disk-mirrors and box-mirrors. The
-former consists of a single disk polished on one side, the reverse
-being usually engraved. The disk is furnished with a handle, which
-is sometimes so constructed that it can serve also as a foot; the
-mirror can so be made to stand on a table. The handle of a mirror of
-this kind very frequently takes the form of a human figure.[213] The
-box-mirror consists of two disks, the lower one, with its polished
-upper surface, serving as the mirror, the upper one as a cover to
-protect it. The two are sometimes quite separate and fit closely on
-to one another, but more often they are joined by a hinge; the cover
-is usually ornamented with relief work, a favourite subject being
-Aphrodite and Eros, although other mythological scenes are also
-found.[214]
-
-  [213] Fig. 53 (_b_).
-
-  [214] Fig. 53 (_a_).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 53.—(_a_) Bronze Box Mirror—British Museum. (_b_)
-Bronze Stand Mirror—British Museum.
-  _Face page_ 124.]
-
-Of the various receptacles used for containing trinkets, hair-bands,
-cosmetics, and so on, the commonest is the pyxis, although we find
-also baskets and little square caskets represented in vase-paintings
-and on the Attic grave reliefs. A box for cosmetics in the British
-Museum is in the shape of a bird.[215] The pyxis is a circular box
-with a lid; its sides are sometimes straight, but more often concave,
-and it is frequently raised on a foot. Its material was originally
-boxwood, hence its name, πύξις; but the majority of those which
-are extant are terra-cotta, though they are known also in ivory,
-alabaster, and precious metals. A common subject on a terra-cotta
-pyxis is a toilet scene or a marriage procession.[216]
-
-  [215] Fig. 52 (_b_).
-
-  [216] Fig. 52 (_a_).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 54.]
-
-The alabastron used to contain unguents or perfumes is a long narrow
-bottle with a spreading neck and small opening; it has no foot, and
-is round at the bottom, so that some kind of stand must have been
-necessary to hold it upright when not in use.[217] It was usually
-made of stone, alabaster, or terra-cotta. The lekythos also was
-sometimes used for the same purpose.
-
-  [217] Fig. 54.
-
-That Greek ladies wore abundant jewellery is proved by frequent
-representations both in sculpture and vase-paintings, as also by
-actual finds of jewellery, notably in the Greek graves of the fourth
-century at Kertch. These objects have been described and discussed by
-Mr A. B. Walters, in his book on _The Art of the Greeks_.[218] Rings,
-bracelets, necklaces, brooches, and ear-rings, were commonly worn,
-as well as ornamental hair-pins and metal diadems for the hair. Many
-examples of goldsmith’s work are extant including some gold ornaments
-set with precious stones.
-
-  [218] Page 259 ff.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-In summing up the results of the foregoing enquiry, we find that
-the nature and development of the costume of the Greeks is entirely
-in accordance with what we know of the nature and development of
-the national character. The chief characteristics of the Doric
-dress, which was probably worn in early days by all the inhabitants
-of the mainland alike, is a certain broad simplicity; that of
-the Ionic dress, which was worn by the Asiatic Greeks, and for a
-short period at least by the Athenians also, is graceful elegance.
-These characteristics distinguish the Doric and Ionic temperaments
-as exhibited in art also, notably in architecture, and to some
-extent also in sculpture. Athens appears to have occupied a middle
-position between the Peloponnese and Ionia. The Peloponnesians seem
-to have clung throughout their history to the Dorian dress, as the
-Ionians probably did to the Ionic; but in Athens we find change and
-development most strongly marked. In very early days the Athenians
-wore the Doric dress; then in the course of the seventh and sixth
-centuries their intercourse with the East brought them into contact
-with Eastern ideas and Eastern customs, and they appear to have
-caught something of the luxury which was characteristic of the East.
-At any rate, for a time at least they adopted the Ionic dress,
-and carried it to a great degree of luxury and extravagance. Then
-with the Persian wars came a reaction against anything savouring
-of Orientalism, and a return to greater simplicity. This led to a
-resumption of the Doric dress, with certain modifications and the
-retention of some Ionic elements.
-
-It can hardly be questioned that the freedom and simplicity of their
-dress was to a great extent the cause of the development of the
-splendid physique which the Greeks undoubtedly enjoyed. Their loose
-draperies allowed their limbs perfect freedom, and their bodies
-were unhampered by constraint of any kind. In the palæstra and the
-gymnasium, air and sunlight were allowed to exercise their salutary
-influence, for the Greeks were not “ashamed of their own naked skin,”
-and so discarded their clothing when in pursuit of their athletic
-occupations. The healthy state of body thus preserved no doubt had
-its share in fostering that healthy state of mind to which are due
-the sanity and sobriety that characterise all Greek thought, whether
-expressed in literature, art, or philosophy.
-
-
-
-
-ENGLISH INDEX
-
-
-  Abbia, statuette from, 5
-
-  Achæans, 5, 13, 15, 16, 17, 102, 105, 108
-
-  Achilles, 21;
-    shield of, 20
-
-  Acropolis of Athens, 38, 78;
-    archaic statues from, 44, 69, 71, 73-96, 101, 112, 119
-
-  Actor’s dress, 71
-
-  Ægean islands, 2, 9, 14, 98
-
-  Ægina, 39, 41
-
-  Ægis, 33, 34, 47
-
-  Agamemnon, 17, 28
-
-  Alabastron, 125
-
-  Alcinous, palace of, 2, 20
-
-  Alexander, 111
-
-  Amazons, 53, 106, 118
-
-  Andromache, 27;
-    head-dress of, 35, 108
-
-  Antinous, 31, 32
-
-  Aphrodite, 3, 33, 34, 64, 124
-
-  Apollo, 26, 80, 94, 109, 110
-
-  Apron, 5, 11, 13
-
-  Argive women, 40
-
-  Aristarchus, 20
-
-  Aristophanes, 54, 98, 101, 110, 115, 116, 117, 120, 122, 123
-
-  Aristotle, 98, 99
-
-  Arsenic, 121
-
-  Artemis, Brauronia, 68, 70;
-    in Dresden, 46, 53;
-    of Gabii, 70, 95
-
-  Artemisia, 50
-
-  Aryballos, 121
-
-  Assyria, 7, 8, 99, 117
-
-  Athena, 26, 29, 32, 33, 44, 46, 47, 48, 51, 87, 119
-
-  Athenians, 39, 40, 41, 42, 53, 57, 58, 59, 63, 65, 73, 74, 86, 91,
-    98, 116, 120, 126
-
-
-  Barber, 120
-
-  Bombycina, 99
-
-  Boots, 8, 116, 117, 118, 119
-
-  Bottles, 121, 123
-
-  Bracelets, 6, 7, 13, 125
-
-  Breeches, 6
-
-  Briseis, 50
-
-  Brooches, 3, 4, 16, 18, 25, 26, 28, 29, 31, 32, 35, 37, 40, 41, 52,
-    53, 56, 60, 62, 64, 67, 81, 87, 92, 94, 95, 125
-
-  Brygos, 66, 69
-
-  Bull-taming, 7, 8
-
-  Buttons, 13, 76
-
-
-  Calypso, 27, 33, 34
-
-  Carians, 40, 41, 57, 58
-
-  Cassandra, 48
-
-  Charites, relief of the, 78
-
-  Chiton, Homeric, 18, 21, 22, 27, 31, 32, 37;
-    Doric, 51, 52, 53, 60;
-    Ionic, 19, 32, 41, 44, 46, 51, 58, 59-70, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82,
-      84, 87, 89, 93, 96, 98
-
-  Chitoniscus, 77
-
-  Chlamys, 54
-
-  Circe, 33
-
-  Cloak, 6, 7, 17, 24, 26, 34, 49, 52, 55, 76, 77, 78, 80, 92, 93, 95
-
-  _Coa_, 99
-
-  _Coæ vestes_, 98, 100
-
-  Colour, applied to sculpture, 83, 84, 85
-
-  Colours, 37, 100, 101
-
-  Combs, 123
-
-  Corsets, 70
-
-  Cos, silk from, 99
-
-  Cosmetics, 113, 122
-
-  Crete, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 14, 57, 107
-
-  Crossbands, 62, 64, 69, 70, 96
-
-  Cupbearer of Knossos, 3, 9, 107
-
-
-  Delphi charioteer, 62, 65
-
-  Demeter, 106
-
-  Dionysus, 69, 117
-
-  Doric dress, 39-56, 59;
-    blended with Ionic, 52, 64, 95
-
-  Draped type, 15, 17, 38
-
-  Dressing-gown type, 15
-
-
-  Ear-rings, 29, 37, 125
-
-  Egypt, 9, 98;
-    tomb fresco from, 9
-
-  Eirene and Plutus, 45
-
-  Eleusis, 49, 72, 78
-
-  Embroidery, 31, 32, 38, 61, 89, 100, 102, 103
-
-  Ephebi, 55, 110
-
-  Etruscans, 10
-
-  Euphronius, 79
-
-  Eustathius, 70
-
-  Euxitheos, 50, 62
-
-
-  False hair, 123
-
-  Fibulæ, 3, 4, 5, 13
-
-  Fillets, 108, 110, 111, 112, 122
-
-  Flounces, 3, 12, 14, 96
-
-  Footgear, 7, 115-119
-
-  Frills, 76, 80, 82, 86, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95
-
-  Fringes, 12, 29, 33
-
-  Fustanella, 78
-
-
-  Girdles, 5, 11, 16, 19, 22, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 43, 44, 45, 46, 50,
-    53, 62, 63, 70, 77, 79, 80, 81, 87, 122
-
-  Gold, 29, 31, 33, 34, 100, 112, 119, 125
-
-
-  Hair nets, 36, 37, 108, 113
-
-  Hair-pins, 123, 125
-
-  Hats, 11, 12, 111, 113
-
-  Head-dress, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 28, 36, 37, 107-114
-
-  Hector, 3, 28, 35
-
-  Helen, 27, 35, 102
-
-  Hellanicus of Lesbos, 10
-
-  Helmets, 8, 9, 28, 107
-
-  Hephaistos, 52, 111
-
-  Hera, 29, 33, 37, 66, 112
-
-  Hermes, 118
-
-  Herodotus, 39, 41, 42, 48, 57, 58, 59, 64, 96, 98, 103, 108, 117
-
-  Hieron, 49, 60, 65, 106
-
-  Himation, Homeric, 24, 25;
-    Doric, 48-52, 54, 95;
-    Ionic, 52, 69, 71, 73-96
-
-  Hittites, 7
-
-  Homeric civilization, 2
-
-  Homeric dress, 4, 15-38
-
-  Homeric house, 4
-
-
-  _Iliad_, 3, 8, 17, 20, 21, 22, 25, 27, 28, 29, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37,
-    102, 108, 109
-
-  India, 98
-
-  Ionians, 19, 57, 58, 59, 65, 98, 126
-
-  Ionic dress, 40, 42, 51, 57-72, 73-96
-
-
-  Jacket type, 3, 11, 12, 13, 15
-
-  Jewellery, 122, 125
-
-
-  Kefts, 9
-
-  Kerchief, 36, 38, 113
-
-  Kertch, fragments of fabrics from, 97, 103, 105, 106;
-    jewellery from, 125
-
-  Kimono, 12
-
-  Knossos, 2, 3, 5, 10, 11, 12, 16, 38, 107
-
-  Kolpos, 44, 52, 60, 63, 70, 80, 88
-
-
-  Laertes, 18; shroud of, 17, 27
-
-  Leather, 8, 9, 21, 28, 33, 97, 98, 116, 117
-
-  Lekythos, 121, 125
-
-  Linen, 11, 12, 19, 20, 21, 22, 27, 35, 40, 41, 58, 59, 60, 70, 88,
-    97, 98
-
-
-  Materials, 19, 60, 70, 75, 79, 88, 97-99, 100, 105
-
-  Mausoleum, 51, 53
-
-  Mausolus, 50
-
-  Medici collar, 12
-
-  Menelaus, 17, 28
-
-  Men’s dress, pre-Hellenic, 5-10;
-    Homeric, 17-28;
-    Doric, 52-56;
-    Ionic, 58-72
-
-  Minoan art, 13, 15
-
-  Mirrors, 123, 124
-
-  Modern Greeks, 7, 38
-
-  Mourning, 37, 101
-
-  Mycenæan dress, 3, 7, 107
-
-  Mycenæan remains, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 13, 15, 28, 37, 107
-
-  Mycone, 14
-
-
-  Nausicaa, 35
-
-  Necklaces, 6, 7, 37, 125
-
-  Nereids, 64, 87
-
-  Nike, 48, 103
-
-
-  Obi, 12
-
-  Odysseus, 23;
-    house of, 2
-
-  Odyssey, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37
-
-  Oil-flasks, 121
-
-  Ointments, 121
-
-  Olive-oil, 121, 123
-
-  Open Doric dress, 31, 44, 46
-
-  Ornamentation, 101-106
-
-  Overfold, 30, 33, 44, 45, 46, 48, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 80,
-    82, 85, 87, 88, 89, 94, 96
-
-
-  Pæonius, 47
-
-  Paris, 28, 32
-
-  Parthenon, 45, 47, 51, 55, 64, 65, 95
-
-  Patroclus, funeral of, 21
-
-  Patterns, 11, 32, 33, 61, 75, 77, 83, 88, 89, 96, 100-106, 112
-
-  Pausanias, 53, 98, 99, 110
-
-  Pelasgians, 10, 58
-
-  Penelope, 31, 32, 34
-
-  Peplos, 3, 28-33, 44, 48, 51, 52, 63, 69, 80, 81, 82, 87, 96;
-    of Athena, 46, 47
-
-  Perfume, 123
-
-  Pergamon, 47
-
-  Persephone, 48
-
-  Petasos, 111, 114, 117
-
-  Petsofa, terra-cottas from, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14
-
-  Pheidias, 46, 47, 102, 119
-
-  Phœnicians, 9, 57
-
-  Pigments, 104, 122, 123
-
-  Pins, 16, 18, 28, 29, 30, 35, 43, 45
-
-  Plaits, 110
-
-  Plato, 115
-
-  Pollux, 46, 52, 59, 96, 100, 101, 116, 118, 123
-
-  Poseidon, 37, 38, 54
-
-  Powder, 113, 122
-
-  Pre-Hellenic dress, 1-14, 15, 23, 38, 107
-
-  Pyxis, 124
-
-
-  Razors, 120, 121
-
-  Red ochre, 122
-
-  Rouge, 122, 123
-
-  Rings, 4, 109, 125
-
-
-  Sandals, 17, 28, 29, 37, 116, 118, 119, 122
-
-  Sash, 12
-
-  Scarf, 37, 76, 87, 93, 112
-
-  Scissors, 65, 120
-
-  Scraper, 120
-
-  Seaweed, rouge prepared from, 123
-
-  Sericum, 99
-
-  Sewn garments, 12, 18, 31, 52, 60, 64, 66, 67, 87, 91, 96, 97
-
-  Shoes, 7, 10, 115, 116, 117, 119
-
-  Silk, 88, 97, 98, 99
-
-  Silkworm, 99
-
-  Skins, 17, 27
-
-  Skirt, 3, 11, 12, 13, 83, 88
-
-  Sleeves, 6, 11, 32, 53, 60, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 87
-
-  Slippers, 116, 118
-
-  Snake-goddess, 11, 107
-
-  Snood, 113
-
-  Socrates, 53, 115
-
-  Solon, 41, 42, 59, 93
-
-  Spartans, 53
-
-  Strigil, 121
-
-  Sulphuret of antimony, 123
-
-  Sumptuary laws, 41, 59, 93
-
-  Survivals, 8, 13
-
-
-  Tanagra statuettes, 49, 114
-
-  Theocritus, 98, 114, 115, 118, 119
-
-  Thessaly, 111, 114
-
-  Thessalian cloak, 54
-
-  Thetis, 34, 37
-
-  Thrace, 54, 111, 116, 117
-
-  Thucydides, 42, 57, 58, 59, 109
-
-  Tiryns, wall-painting from, 7
-
-  Toilet, 120-125
-
-  Toilet-boxes, 123, 124
-
-  Toilet scenes on vases, 121, 122, 125
-
-  Trojans, 15, 16, 102, 105
-
-  Tunic, 6, 7, 17
-
-  Turks, 7
-
-
-  Unguents, 123
-
-
-  Vaphio cups, 7
-
-  Veil, 29, 34, 35, 36, 37, 48
-
-  Velletri, Athena of, 51
-
-  Victory, 47, 92
-
-
-  Waistcloth, 5, 6, 10, 22, 23
-
-  White lead, 122, 123
-
-  Wigs, 123
-
-  Women’s dress, pre-Hellenic, 10-14;
-    Homeric, 28-38;
-    Doric, 39-52;
-    Ionic, 57-96
-
-  Woollen garments, 24, 25, 26, 27, 51, 60, 97, 98, 105
-
-
-  Xenophon, 113, 116, 122
-
-  Xoana, 86
-
-
-  Zeus, 29, 32, 44, 69, 102
-
-
-
-
-GREEK INDEX
-
-
-  ἄγχουσα, 123
-
-  ἀλεξάνεμος, 24
-
-  ἁλοῦργος, 101
-
-  ἀμοργῖνον, 70, 98
-
-  ἄμπυξ, 36, 112
-
-  ἀμφιβάλλω, 17, 24
-
-  ἀμφιέννυμι, 24, 29
-
-  ἀνεμοσκεπής, 24
-
-  ἀνθινά, 102
-
-  ἁπλοΐς, 24
-
-  ἀποβάλλω, 24, 36
-
-  ἀποδέσμος, 70
-
-  ἀποπτύγμα, 30, 44, 87
-
-  ἀποτίθημι, 24
-
-  ἀρβύλαι, 118
-
-  ἀρβυλίδες, 118
-
-  ἀρύβαλλος, 121
-
-
-  βαθύζωνος, 15, 16
-
-  βαθύκολπος, 15, 16
-
-  βατραχίς, 100, 101
-
-  βλαυταί, 118
-
-  βύσσινα, 98
-
-  βύσσος, 98
-
-
-  δέσματα, 35
-
-  διαφανές, 70
-
-  δίπλαξ, 27, 37, 102
-
-  διπλῆ, 24, 25, 26
-
-  διπτύχον, 26
-
-  διφθέρα, 97
-
-
-  ἕανος, 28, 29
-
-  ἔγχουσα, 122, 123
-
-  εἷμα, 48
-
-  ἐκδύνω, 18, 24
-
-  ἐκταδίην, 25, 26
-
-  ἕλικες, 37
-
-  ἑλκεσιπέπλος, 32
-
-  ἑλκεχίτωνες, 19, 59, 80
-
-  ἔμβας, 116, 117, 118
-
-  ἐμπάσσω, 102
-
-  ἐμπλαισίῳ, 68
-
-  ἐνδρομίδες, 118
-
-  ἔνδυμα, 52
-
-  ἐνδύνω, 17, 18
-
-  ἐνετή, 16, 29
-
-  ἕννυμι, 48
-
-  ἔξωμις, 52, 53
-
-  ἑτερομάσχαλος, 52
-
-  εὐμάριδες, 118
-
-  εὐστρέπτοισι βοεῦσιν, 21
-
-
-  ζειρά, 54
-
-  ζῶμα, 22, 23
-
-  ζώνη, 16, 29, 33
-
-  ζώννυμι, 22, 29
-
-  ζωστήρ, 16, 29, 23
-
-
-  θάψινος, 101
-
-  θολία, 113
-
-
-  ἵμαντες, 21
-
-  ἱματίον, 39, 48
-
-
-  κάλυκες, 37
-
-  κάλυμμα, 28
-
-  κάλυπτρη, 28, 34
-
-  κατὰ στῆθος, 29
-
-  κεκρύφαλος, 36
-
-  κεστὸς ἱμᾶς, 34
-
-  κίλλιον, 100
-
-  κοκκοβαφής, 101
-
-  κόλπος, 30, 33
-
-  κονιπόδες, 118
-
-  κόρυμβος, 109
-
-  κουρεῖον, 120
-
-  κρήδεμνον, 16, 28, 29, 34, 35, 36, 37, 48, 51
-
-  κρηπίδες, 118
-
-  κροκωτός, 101
-
-  κρουπέζια, 119
-
-  κρωβύλος, 109, 110
-
-  κυάνεος, 37, 101
-
-  κυανοχαίτης, 37
-
-  κυμάτιον, 104
-
-  κυνῆ Θεσσαλίς, 113
-
-
-  λαμπρός, 29, 35
-
-  λιπαρός, 35
-
-  λήκυθος, 121
-
-  λώπη, 17, 26
-
-
-  μαλακός, 20
-
-  μίτρη, 23, 112
-
-  μονοχίτων, 53
-
-
-  ξυρόν, 120
-
-  ξύστρα, 121
-
-
-  ὀθόνη, 20, 35
-
-  οἰοχίτων, 23
-
-  ὀμφάκινος, 101
-
-  ὀνάγρινος, 100
-
-  ὀρθοστάδιος, 71
-
-  οὔλη, 24, 25
-
-
-  παμποικίλος, 32
-
-  πέδιλον, 17, 28, 29, 116
-
-  πέπλος, 16, 17, 28, 29, 31
-
-  περιβάλλω, 17, 24
-
-  περιβλῆμα, 52
-
-  περιζῶμα, 70
-
-  περόνη, 16, 29, 31, 39, 59
-
-  περσικαί, 118
-
-  πέτασος, 111
-
-  πηνίκη, 123
-
-  πῖλος, 111
-
-  πλεκτὴ ἀναδέσμη, 36
-
-  ποδήρης, 19, 59
-
-  ποικίλος, 32, 102
-
-  πόλος, 112
-
-  πορφύρεος, 3, 25, 37, 101, 102
-
-  προκομίον, 123
-
-  πύξις, 124
-
-
-  ῥήγεα, 17
-
-
-  σάκκος, 112
-
-  σιγαλόεις, 19, 36
-
-  στεφάνη, 36, 112
-
-  στίμμις, 123
-
-  στόνυξ, 120
-
-  στρέπτος χιτών, 20, 21
-
-  στρόφιον, 70
-
-  συκάμινον, 123
-
-
-  ταινία, 70
-
-  τανυπέπλος, 32
-
-  τερμίοεις, 19
-
-  τέττιξ, 58, 109, 110
-
-  τρίβων, 53
-
-  τυρρηνικά, 119
-
-
-  ὑπόδημα, 116
-
-
-  φαινομηρίς, 46
-
-  φαιός, 101
-
-  φᾶρος, 16, 17, 24, 27, 28, 33, 35, 37
-
-  φοινίκεος, 101
-
-  φοινικόεις, 25, 37
-
-  φῦκος, 123
-
-
-  χειριδωτός, 68
-
-  χιτὼν, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 35, 52, 59, 70, 98
-
-  χιτῶν ἔξωμις, 52, 53
-
-  χιτωνάριον, 70
-
-  χιτώνιον, 70, 98
-
-  χιτωνίσκος, 68, 70, 71
-
-  χλαῖνα, 16, 17, 23, 24-28, 35, 37, 55
-
-  χλάμυς, 54, 56, 111
-
-
-  ψάλις, 120
-
-  ψήκτρα, 120
-
-  ψίλωθρον, 121
-
-  ψιμυθίον, 122
-
-
-
-
-PRINTED BY
-
-OLIVER AND BOYD,
-
-EDINBURGH.
-
-
-
-
-      *      *      *      *      *      *
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber's note:
-
-  * Original spelling was kept, but variant spellings were made
-    consistent when a predominant usage was found.
-
-  * Obvious printer errors have been silently corrected.
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-  * Illustrations have been slightly moved so that they do not
-    break up paragraphs while remaining close to the text they
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-
-  * Other emendations made:
-
-    page   7:         “ἤυτε” → “ἠΰτε”
-    page   8:       “ἰμᾶσιν” → “ἱμᾶσιν”
-    note  10:     “Ἐφήμερις” → “Ἐφημερίς”
-    page  16:       “χαλῖνα” → “χλαῖνα”
-    page  19:  “ἑλκεχιτῶνες” → “ἑλκεχίτωνες”
-    page  20:    “εὐννήτους” → “ἐϋννήτους”
-    page  21:   “στρέπτοῖσι” → “στρεπτοῖσι”
-    note  32:         “κατά” → “κάτα”
-    page  29:   “εὐτρήτοισι” → “ἐϋτρήτοισι”
-    page  29:      “λαμπρὸν” → “λευκὸν”
-    note  54: “xiv., 175 f.” → “xiv., 178 f.”
-    page  31:  “εὐγνάμπτοις” → “ἐϋγνάμπτοις”
-    page  34:      “v., 229” → “v., 232”
-    note  74:        “_Die_” → “_Das_”
-    page  59:  “ἑλκεχίτῶνες” → “ἑλκεχίτωνες”
-    page  80:  “Ἑλκεχιτῶνες” → “Ἑλκεχίτωνες”
-    note 170:        “_Die_” → “_Das_”
-    page 115:       “ἔποίει” → “ἐποίει”
-    page 122:        “πόλλῳ” → “πολλῇ”
-    note 212: “_Cyropædeia_” → “_Cyropædia_”
-    page 133:  “ἑλκεχιτῶνες” → “ἑλκεχίτωνες”
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