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diff --git a/old/51110-0.txt b/old/51110-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 35f03bf..0000000 --- a/old/51110-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1758 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Mentor: Julius Caesar, Vol. 6, Num. 2, -Serial No. 150, March 1, 1918, by George Willis Botsford - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Mentor: Julius Caesar, Vol. 6, Num. 2, Serial No. 150, March 1, 1918 - -Author: George Willis Botsford - -Release Date: February 2, 2016 [EBook #51110] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MENTOR: JULIUS CAESAR *** - - - - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - - THE MENTOR 1918.03.01, No. 150, - Julius Cæsar - - - - - LEARN ONE THING - EVERY DAY - - MARCH 1 1918 SERIAL NO. 150 - - THE - - MENTOR - - JULIUS CÆSAR - - By - GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD - - DEPARTMENT OF VOLUME 6 - BIOGRAPHY NUMBER 2 - - TWENTY CENTS A COPY - - - - -The Real Julius Cæsar - - -In person Cæsar was tall and slight. His features were more refined -than was usual in Roman faces; the forehead was wide and high, the nose -large and thin, the lips full, the eyes dark gray like an eagle’s, the -neck extremely thick and sinewy. His complexion was pale. His hair was -short and naturally scanty, falling off toward the end of his life and -leaving him partially bald. His voice, especially when he spoke in -public, was high and shrill. - - * * * * * - -His health was uniformly strong until his last year, when he became -subject to epileptic fits. He was scrupulously clean in all his habits, -abstemious in his food, rarely or never touching wine, and noting -sobriety as the highest of qualities when describing any new people. -He was an athlete in early life, admirable in all manly exercises, -and especially in riding. From his boyhood it was observed of him -that he was the truest of friends, that he avoided quarrels, and -was most easily appeased when offended. In manner he was quiet and -gentlemanlike, with the natural courtesy of high-breeding. - - * * * * * - -He was singularly careful of his soldiers. He allowed his legions -rest, though he allowed none to himself. He rarely fought a battle at -a disadvantage. He never exposed his men to unnecessary danger, and -the loss by wear and tear in the campaigns in Gaul was exceptionally -and even astonishingly slight. When a gallant action was performed, he -knew by whom it had been done, and every soldier, however humble, might -feel assured that if he deserved praise he would have it. The army was -Cæsar’s family. - -JAMES ANTHONY FROUDE - - - - -[Illustration: IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM, NAPLES - -JULIUS CÆSAR] - - - - -_JULIUS CÆSAR_ - -_The Career of Cæsar_ - -ONE - - -Gaius Julius Cæsar was born in 100 B. C. of old patrician stock. In -youth he received from Greek masters the elements of their culture, -including astronomy, philosophy, and rhetoric. To complete his -oratorical studies he sailed for Rhodes, but on the way was taken -captive by pirates and held for ransom. This mishap would have -subjected him to ridicule, had he not, on his release, manned a ship -and punished his captors. Returning to Rome, he entered politics, the -most ambitious career open to fashionable young men. In this vocation -he had to pay his respects to men of influence, plead cases at court, -and render financial or other assistance to unfortunate clients; he had -to call by name and compliment all whom he met, to entertain lavishly, -and attend the various social functions of all classes. Above all he -had to maintain a permanent coterie of supporters to act as agents in -time of need. - -In 68 B. C. he reached the lowest rung in the political ladder. This -was the office of quæstor, who had the handling of public funds. -Soon afterward as ædile, commissioner of public works and games, his -magnificent entertainments won the good will of the voters, and brought -about his election to the Supreme Pontificate. In this capacity he -directed the state religion, and his person was esteemed sacred. It was -a great political advantage. Next he was elected prætor, whose chief -duty was to preside over one of the criminal courts. After a man had -held the prætorship or the consulship the Senate usually appointed -him as a proprætor or proconsul to the government of a province. As -proprætor accordingly Cæsar governed Spain in 61-60. Returning home -in the latter year, he formed a political ring, known as the First -Triumvirate, with Pompey, a general who had gained splendid victories -in the Orient, and Crassus, the wealthiest capitalist of the empire. -This combination secured the consulship for Cæsar for the year 59. His -opposition to the Senate during this year, and his legislation in the -interest of the people made him very popular. As proconsul (58-50) he -conquered Gaul. Meanwhile Crassus was killed in battle; and Pompey, -adopting the cause of the Senate, prepared nominally to defend the -Republic; in fact, to rid himself of a powerful rival. In the civil war -that followed the seasoned veterans of the popular hero proved superior -to the forces of the Senate, most of them hastily gathered from the -farms. Thereupon the Senate, shifting about, heaped honors and triumphs -upon the victor. As consul, dictator, and supreme pontiff Cæsar was -virtually, though not in name, a king (49-44). The power of the -aristocracy was broken, but its hatred lived and generated a plot to -kill the “enemy of the Republic.” On March 15, 44, Cæsar fell, stabbed -with twenty-three wounds, at the hands of erstwhile friends. - -Cæsar began his career as a politician, but ended it as a statesman. -His courage, clemency, and personal charm won countless friends. While -costly entertainments were a political necessity, his moderation in -private life earned the respect of Roman society. A blue-blooded -patrician, he steadfastly championed the popular cause. This policy -alienated his own class, and finally resulted in his death. His -political understanding developed hand in hand with his patriotism. -Better than his contemporaries, he saw the economic and social decay -of the Republic, and felt that inefficiency and corruption could be -eradicated in no other way than by a strong monarchy. His own supremacy -he brought about with the minimum of bloodshed. When once in power he -vigorously swept away the weaknesses and oppression of aristocratic -rule, and laid a solid foundation for the future peace and prosperity -of the empire. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: THE RIVER TIBER--IN THE TIME OF CÆSAR] - - - - -_JULIUS CÆSAR_ - -_The Roman Empire_ - -TWO - - -Through nearly four centuries of conquest and alliance (400-44 B. C.) -the Roman empire came to embrace the entire Mediterranean region. -After Cæsar’s conquest of Gaul, it extended from the Atlantic to the -Euphrates, from the North Sea and Alps to the Sahara. This vast area -was organized into administrative divisions, called provinces. Its very -size meant a heterogeneous population, scores of peoples, each with its -own language and customs. In the east Greek had replaced local tongues -for literary, diplomatic, and business purposes. In the west many -dialects remained: for Latin, though official, was but gradually coming -into universal use. - -Life in the empire was mainly agricultural. Tools were simple, if not -primitive; and only after a struggle could the peasant produce enough -to last until the next harvest. Industries were largely domestic, -carried on at home, or in small shops for local use. The eastern -parts--Egypt, Asia Minor, and western Asia--were far wealthier. Here -commerce and skilled industries were more flourishing, though by any -modern estimate, on a small scale. As there were no machines in the -modern sense, goods had to be made by hand. The imperial roads were -in excellent condition but distances were long, travel was slow, and -transportation expensive, save by water. - -When a new territory was incorporated into the empire, it became -a province. It was placed in charge of a quæstor, who controlled -financial matters, and a general executive called proprætor or -proconsul--both appointed annually by the imperial government. The -governor commanded the army and acted as the highest judge in his -territory. The province was divided into city-states, each of which -retained its laws and customs, its magistrates, council, and popular -assembly. They managed their local affairs, and no attempt was made -to interfere in their religion. Instead of rendering military service -they had to pay annual tribute. At auction the highest bidders received -contracts for collecting taxes in the several cities. - -Unfortunately, abuses crept into provincial rule. In the first place, -Rome favored her citizens at the expense of her subjects. Native -merchants were superseded by greedy speculators and traders, who, -reducing the people to poverty, drove the peasants from their farms and -built up vast estates of their own. The evil of “farming” taxes became -intolerable, for avaricious contractors made the peasants pay far more -than their due. In his year of service, too, the typical governor -expected to accumulate a fortune sufficient (1) to pay political debts, -(2) to bribe judges in case of prosecution, (3) to live in luxury the -remainder of his life. Few governors were honest enough to check these -wrongs. Furthermore, the wealthier provinces were heavily overtaxed -to help pay the expense of governing the newly acquired frontier -provinces, which as a rule were financial failures. - -These evils Cæsar went far in remedying. He curtailed the system -of “farming” taxes, and placed it under strict supervision. Thus -capitalists were prevented from openly plundering the subjects. He -appointed able, honest governors, and held them to account. Legionary -commanders, too, appointed by him to serve under the governor, and -revenue officials--his own servants and freedmen--saw that his will -was everywhere enforced. The provinces, especially the poorer ones, -were to be cultivated and improved. An attempt was made to equalize the -burden of taxation, and the heavy drain on the eastern provinces was -lessened. Lastly, in order to abolish class and national distinctions, -and to weld together the empire, Cæsar allowed himself to be worshipped -as a god, and adopted the policy of rapidly granting citizenship -to provincials. In aiming to bring about such an empire devoid of -nationality Cæsar followed the procedure of the great Alexander, and -set an example for his successor, Napoleon. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: THE ROMAN FORUM--IN THE TIME OF CÆSAR] - - - - -_JULIUS CÆSAR_ - -_Rome and Egypt_ - -THREE - - -Early in his career of conquest Alexander the Great subdued Egypt and -founded Alexandria (332 B. C.) This country proved the most valuable -part of his vast realm, and afterward of the Roman Empire. The valley -of the Nile is exceedingly fertile, well watered as it is from the -river, and continually enriched by the alluvial deposits from the -yearly overflow. The people were patient and laborious. For thousands -of years they had toiled like slaves for their Pharaohs, whom they -looked upon as gods, and who owned all the land and most of the wealth -of the kingdom. Naturally Alexander usurped the property rights and -the divine rights of the Pharaohs; and ultimately when Egypt fell as -a kingdom, to his general, Ptolemy, the latter succeeded to all these -advantages. For nearly three centuries Egypt was ruled by the dynasty -thus founded, in which each king bore the name Ptolemy, inherited from -his father. The king was proprietor, not only of all the land but also -of the extensive industrial plants and shipping. As Alexandria was the -greatest manufacturing and commercial center of the world, Ptolemy was -far the wealthiest capitalist. His military and civil officers were -Greeks; his soldiers were Greeks and other foreigners; so that with -his complex military and administrative machine he was able to govern -the Egyptians as a conquered people. In the eyes of the kings they -were mere producers of wealth; the official language was Greek, and -the majority of sovereigns did not take the pains to learn the native -speech. - -At first remarkably competent, the Ptolemies gradually declined in -ability, and even before the birth of Cæsar had come to be subservient -to Rome. We may imagine with what longing the greedy Roman oligarchs -viewed this kingdom, and how persistent was the agitation for its -conquest. - -Such an object Cæsar undoubtedly had in view when he sailed against -Alexandria with the pretext of settling a dispute between Ptolemy -and his sister Cleopatra. This fascinating woman convinced the Roman -general of the justice of her cause, and was accordingly placed on the -throne. Their mutual infatuation became the gossip of Rome when she -afterward visited that city. Though not beautiful, the Egyptian queen -was a charming woman. A talented linguist, she could dispense with an -interpreter in dealing with her subjects and with foreign princes. Fond -of music, literature, and art, she made a pleasing hostess, while her -gorgeous entertainments captivated her guests. She was gifted, too, -with an instinct for the various paths to men’s affections; and her -melodious voice and pretty ways won her desires from the strongest of -rulers. This demoniac fascination, coupled with an ambition to found a -great empire, made her one of the most powerful women in all history. - -After Cæsar’s death Octavianus (Octavius--called Cæsar Augustus) -remained at Rome, while Antony governed the eastern half of the -empire. Soon he fell under the spell of Cleopatra, and gladly married -her that he might become, without conquest, king of Egypt. Political -motives underlay this romance: he wanted to add Egypt with its vast -wealth to his domain, while she, no less ambitious, viewed the chaos -at Rome as an opportunity to secure for herself Antony’s share of -the empire. Octavianus saw the will of Antony bending before his -consort’s superhuman fascination. Appreciating the danger to Rome, -he defeated Antony in a naval battle, 31 B. C., sailed to Egypt, and -with little trouble captured Alexandria. Seeing that all was lost, the -royal lovers committed suicide. Thus fell the last glorious remnant -of the Alexandrian kingdom. Henceforth it was but a part of the Roman -world-state. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: ON EXHIBITION AT STERN BROS., N. Y. CITY. - -CÆSAR CROSSING THE RUBICON, BY J. L. GÉRÔME] - - - - -_JULIUS CÆSAR_ - -_Cæsar as Author and General_ - -FOUR - - -Nowhere is the versatility of Julius Cæsar more clearly in evidence -than in his literary accomplishments, the majority of which -unfortunately have been lost. His scientific spirit is manifest in an -astronomical work, “Concerning the Stars,” which we do not have, but -which was doubtless connected with his reform of the calendar. As an -orator Cæsar was famed for his precise use of language, good taste, -and vivacious, forcible style of delivery, qualities as necessary to -his political career as to success in authorship. The “Dialogue on -Orators,” however, though highly praised by Cicero, has disappeared, -likewise his treatise on Grammar. The world no longer has his -collection of despatches and letters, many of them in cipher, or his -political pamphlets against Cato, who had been eulogized as “the martyr -of the Republic,” or his “Collective Sayings,” a veritable store-house -of satirical witticisms, or his many poems, with the exception of a -well-known criticism of Terence, the playwright. - -We can only judge his varied literary talents by his “Commentaries -On the Gallic War” in seven books, and “On the Civil War” in three, -known to all schoolboys and college students. The former dictated -amidst anxiety and distraction were intended to show his ability and -courage as a general, to justify the moderation of his Gallic policy, -and to forestall attacks by political opponents. Written in the third -person, their modesty dispels the suspicion of egoism, yet the author -knew how, without violating the truth and without boasting, to display -his merits to the greatest possible advantage. The language is simple -and restrained yet vigorous and clear. There are thrilling moments, -for example, in the description of the ever-threatening danger of -Sabinus, or the exciting escape of Cicero, when the fort of Aduatuca -was endangered by a swoop of German marauders. Throughout the story -the natives, with their inferior civilization, their perfidies and -duplicities, are mere pigmies in the clutches of a giant. Like an -irresistible force of nature, the great Roman tramples down everything -in his path. - -The same impassive restraint is shown in the “Civil War.” The work -contains fewer thrilling events; but dramatic movements like the -crossing of the Rubicon, grievances at the hands of his enemies, and -his frequent overtures for peace seldom fail to awaken the reader’s -sympathy. The word “commentaries,” applied to these books, signifies -merely “notes,” as the author himself regarded them; but in the -judgment of after ages they are model historical narratives. - -From the “Commentaries,” too, we may form an estimate of Cæsar the -general. In knowledge of the technical departments of warfare he has -had few superiors. He knew how to enroll and organize vast numbers -of raw recruits, and to transform them rapidly into trained military -units. The ease with which he overcame the dangers and difficulties -constantly confronting him testify to his consummate tactics and -strategy. He was without a peer in practical psychology--a prime -factor in successful generalship. This quality enabled him to read and -understand the feelings of adversaries as well as of his own men. He -possessed coolness, too, and self-control to an extraordinary degree, -which served to win the confidence and affection of his troops, and to -discourage panic and disaster. He was, moreover, a just critic, eager -to praise, slow to blame. His inherent generosity willingly recognized -and rewarded merit in officers and men. Cæsar was especially fond of -his centurions--the flower of those who had risen from the ranks. Often -without political or family ties, they fought and died for him alone. -Though of slight physique and generally in poor health, through simple -living and sheer force of will Cæsar bore many arduous campaigns, -often marching on foot with his men. It was this unfailing vigor and -resolution, manifesting itself in acts of heroic daring, which gave -courage and moral determination to his forces. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: PHOTOGRAPHED FROM A PRINT - -THE DEATH OF CÆSAR, BY J L. GÉRÔME.] - - - - -_JULIUS CÆSAR_ - -_Cæsar’s Associates and Opponents_ - -FIVE - - -The most distinguished of Cæsar’s contemporaries was Cicero. With an -exceptional education, he entered politics, where, in spite of scant -means and ignoble ancestry, he finally attained to the consulship, -63 B. C. Throughout his career, an ardent supporter of the Republic, -he opposed the arbitrary rule of Cæsar; and in the Civil War he -favored the Senatorial party. In the troubles following Cæsar’s -murder Cicero heroically defended the Republic in many a brilliant -oration; and in this cause he sacrificed his life. Though possessed -of many noble qualities, his vacillation, artistic temperament, and -supersensitiveness unfitted him for statesmanship. - -Cicero’s chief claims to greatness lie in the fields of literature and -philosophy. He was a poet of no mean ability. His “Orations,” with -their kaleidoscopic range of mood and choice of words, are the most -brilliant in the Latin language. The painstaking labor required for -this supreme mastery of speech is shown in his rhetorical works. His -“Letters,” written in simple style, lay bare a human heart, with all -its shortcomings and aspirations, while through their wide range of -topics they bring the reader into intimate touch with the spirit of the -age. Of farther-reaching influence are his works on political science -and philosophy. His “Republic” aims to discover the best form of -government, and to examine into the foundations of national prosperity. -His many philosophic writings set forth the various Greek schools of -thought, especially the Platonic and the Stoic. Through the medium of a -diction so perfect as to make Latin the universal language of culture -for centuries to come, Cicero successfully transplanted Greek thought -to Latin soil. Nor did his influence cease there; from his philosophy -the Church fathers drew inspiration; and in it centuries later the -scholars of the Renaissance first found the vitalizing spark of Greek -culture. - -Of Cæsar’s immediate associates, Cassius, Brutus, and Antony are most -interesting, if only for their important rôles in Shakespeare’s “Julius -Cæsar.” Though showered with offices, Cassius, a malcontent, bore a -grudge against Cæsar for being his master, and began to plot against -him. He found many influential men, who, jealous of Cæsar’s power, were -themselves anxious to divide the spoils of government. To give the plot -an air of respectability, he won over Brutus, ostensibly a student and -man of letters, but at heart an unfeeling usurer. Appointed by Cæsar -governor of Cisalpine Gaul and prætor, Brutus became an assassin of his -benefactor. - -Among the three near associates of Cæsar, Mark Antony was far the -ablest, and possessed the merit of remaining faithful till the death -of the benefactor. He had filled many military and civil offices with -distinction, and was Cæsar’s colleague in the consulship at the time -of the murder. Shortly before this event, at a public festival, Antony -offered Cæsar a crown, alleging that it was from the people. Although -Cæsar would gladly have welcomed any device for legitimizing his rule, -he refused the kingly title because of its unpopularity. - -The assassination left Antony sole consul. Having control of Cæsar’s -papers and property, he skilfully used these advantages to make himself -absolute. In a clever oration at the funeral he turned the feelings of -the populace against the murderers, who thereupon fled from Rome. With -young Octavianus (Octavius) he patched up a temporary alliance, and in -combination they defeated the armies of Brutus and Cassius in the two -battles of Philippi, 42 B. C. The beaten generals committed suicide, -and the victors divided the empire between them, Antony taking the -East and Octavianus the West. The later history of Antony is told in -connection with Cleopatra. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: RUINS OF THE TEMPLE OF THE DEIFIED JULIUS CÆSAR--ROMAN -FORUM] - - - - -_JULIUS CÆSAR_ - -_The Portrait Sculpture and the Reproduction of Buildings in this -Number of The Mentor_ - -SIX - - -In the Rome of Cæsar Hellenic influence was active, not only in -literature and philosophy, but also in art. The Roman portrait -sculpture of this period reveals Greek knowledge and skill; but its -essential character was determined by native tradition. The earliest -Roman portraits were waxen death masks formed from a moulding over -the face. Hence they were mechanically accurate but utterly devoid -of animation. Though this material has perished, the visitor to the -museums of Rome will find in relief many a family group in which -the faces retain the mask-like quality. Only in a slighter degree -does the principle apply to portrait sculpture in the round. At -its best the Republican face accordingly is intensely realistic -yet with no intimation of the inner spirit. Commonly the hair is -indicated by parallel scratches made by firm chisel strokes. By these -characteristics many busts and statues may be easily dated. It should -be noticed, too, that in the Republican age the portrait heads, as -distinguished from statues, include in addition to the head scarcely -more than the neck, and that the bust is a gradual development during -the subsequent period. With this criterion we are able to assign the -Brutus of this number of The Mentor to the administration of Claudius, -41-54 A. D. In the colossal portrait of Cæsar of the National Museum -at Naples the bust is a modern restoration, and we may only cherish -the reasonable faith that the head is genuine, though somewhat later -than his lifetime. The famous Cæsar of the British Museum, comprising -head and neck, would satisfy the criterion here formulated, but fails -to pass another even more important test. The indication of the -pupil in the eye was not devised till after Hadrian, 117-138 A. D., -and accordingly this head could be no earlier. Recently it has been -suggested, with some reason, that the work is a modern study. If so, it -is a great success, as it most admirably expresses the physique and the -character of the famous man. - -Another aid to identification is the circumstance that a colossus could -represent no one but a preéminent person; and this criterion favors -the Neapolitan head of Cæsar mentioned above. The colossus statue in -the Conservatori Palace seems to be authentic, but was made a half -century or more after his death. The face is fuller than the literary -description or the coins would warrant, but the difference may well be -due to idealization. The images on coins are doubtless true likenesses, -but in the case of his sculptured portraits we can only deal in -probabilities. - -For Pompey we are in a less fortunate condition. The colossal statue -in the Palazzo Spada, a detail of which is given in this number, has -long passed as the image at the feet of which Cæsar met his death; -but the proof is insufficient, and it seems at least as likely that -it represents an emperor. Other portraits are equally uncertain. -The Madrid bust of Cicero is genuine, and well represents the -orator’s great intelligence with a momentary expression of scorn. -The better-known Vatican head, the bust of which is modern, is also -genuine and stands second in merit. For Cleopatra there are no certain -sculptural portraits. The reclining woman of the Ariadne type has been -mistaken for her because of the snake, as she is known to have died by -the bite of an asp. The illustration is given merely because it long -passed for Cleopatra and is a Greek work of rare beauty. Her true image -is shown on coins. - -The various reproductions of edifices are not creations of the fancy, -but have been carefully worked out by archæologists from remains of -buildings according to the well established principles of architecture. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -THE MENTOR · DEPARTMENT OF BIOGRAPHY - -MARCH 1, 1918 - -JULIUS CÆSAR - -By GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD - -_Late Professor of History, Columbia University. Author of “Story of -Rome,” “History of Rome,” etc._ - - _MENTOR GRAVURES_ - - JULIUS CÆSAR - - THE ROMAN FORUM IN THE TIME OF CÆSAR - - THE RIVER TIBER IN THE TIME OF CÆSAR - - _MENTOR GRAVURES_ - - CÆSAR CROSSING THE RUBICON - - DEATH OF CÆSAR - - RUINS OF THE TEMPLE OF THE DEIFIED CÆSAR - -[Illustration: From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The Macmillan -Co., Publishers - -JULIUS CÆSAR] - -Entered as second-class matter March 10, 1913, at the postoffice at New -York, N. Y., under the act of March 3, 1879. Copyright, 1918, by The -Mentor Association, Inc. - - -_Rome’s Conquest of the Civilized World_ - -To understand the world in which Cæsar lived it is necessary first to -review the growth of the Roman Empire. Four hundred years before the -beginning of the Christian era Rome was a small city, an independent -state, it is true, but in possession of a territory no larger than an -American county. In a succession of wars lasting through a century and -a third (400-264 B. C.), she gained control of the whole peninsula of -Italy. In another century (264-167 B. C.), through a new series of -wars, she built up an empire that nearly surrounded the Mediterranean -Sea. This rapid expansion of power is one of the most notable events in -the world’s history. In the present number of The Mentor, however, we -are less concerned with the process of conquest than with its result. -When Rome subdued a foreign state, she exercised her right of war in -depriving it of a great part of its wealth, including money, land, -and art treasures, not only paintings and marbles, but works of great -intrinsic value in bronze, silver, and gold. These confiscations and -the subsequent taxes levied by the imperial government, together with -the illegal exactions of officials, tended to impoverish the world for -the enrichment of Rome and of the few citizens who monopolized the -offices. The conquest differentiated the freemen of the empire into -three distinct classes: the few wealthy Romans, who governed the world, -the masses of Roman citizens who, though in possession of the right to -vote had gained no advantage by the conquest, and the subjects, barred -from all share in the imperial government and greatly oppressed by its -officials. - -[Illustration: JULIUS CÆSAR - -In the Capitoline Museum, Rome] - -Rome became a great city with a population of about a million, who -had gathered from all parts of the empire. Some had come as slaves, -others to seek their fortunes, while others had been driven from the -surrounding districts by the pinch of poverty. As freemen could find -little work in the city, there grew up a great mob of idlers, who lived -in large part on food doled out to them by the state as the price of -their votes. - -The ruling class was represented by the Senate, which was the chief -governing body. Generally the senators were the most cultured and -intelligent people at Rome; but they had all the faults of a narrow -plutocracy; through long enjoyment of wealth and power the class was -thoroughly corrupted and enfeebled. Hence the Senate proved incapable -of governing and protecting the empire and even of preventing the -frequent outbreaks of anarchy in the capital. - -[Illustration: TEMPLE OF JUPITER--CAPITOLINE - -As it appeared in the time of Cæsar] - - -_Early Life of Cæsar_ - -Such in brief was the world in which Gaius Julius Cæsar lived (100-44 -B. C.) Belonging to the bluest-blooded aristocracy, he began life -with all the advantages of wealth and family repute. As a boy and -youth he enjoyed the best education of the time. It consisted mainly -in the study and imitation of Greek writers, especially orators, -in preparation for a career as public speaker and statesman. Rome -had derived her civilization from Greece; and every business man or -diplomatist had to speak the Greek language, which was the chief medium -of communication throughout the Mediterranean world. - -In company with other young aristocrats Cæsar in early life indulged -in all the dissipations and vices of his class. The foppish negligence -of his attire proclaimed him a rake, while exorbitant luxuries, costly -entertainments, forbidden love-intrigues, gambling--in brief, the -indulging of a great variety of expensive tastes--exhausted his fortune -and loaded him with debts so portentous that he could never hope to pay -them by legal means. Through all these immoralities he kept a sound -mind and a body capable of extreme activity and endurance, though in -his later years he was subject to fainting and to epileptic fits. - -The clearness and quickness of his intelligence was such that he could -carry on several lines of thought and keep a number of stenographers[1] -occupied simultaneously with his dictations. These extraordinary mental -powers enabled him to master the most complex political situations -and on the battlefield to turn many a defeat into victory. For the -knowledge necessary to his manifold activities he devoured the contents -of a multitude of books on a great variety of subjects. He was an -orator of splendid power, a writer of clear and simple Latin, a man -of scientific taste, interested in the customs and character of the -peoples with whom he came in contact, and in the phenomena of nature; -a general with few equals in the world’s history, and a statesman -variously estimated by modern historians. - - [1] In that age stenography was a well-developed art, essential to - the work of a secretary. - -[Illustration: THE ROMAN FORUM (restored), northwest side] - -[Illustration: From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The Macmillan -Co., Publishers - -A ROMAN FEAST] - -At the beginning of his career he cast his lot with the popular party. -This policy meant little more than a preference for dealing with the -Assembly rather than with the Senate. In theory the Assembly comprised -all the citizens; practically it was attended by the idler members of -the populace. There was no democracy; for those citizens that lived too -far from Rome to attend the Assembly had no voice in the government, -and the vast majority of people in the empire were subjects. It was -expected that a leader of the popular party should propose to the -Assembly bills for the benefit of the masses of citizens, particularly -of the populace, and for checking the powers and privileges of the -aristocracy. - -Cæsar was by no means a believer in human equality. Speaking in early -life at the funeral of an aunt, he gave the following account of his -family’s genealogy: “My aunt Julia derived her lineage on her mother’s -side from a race of kings, and on her father’s side from the immortal -gods; for her mother’s family trace their origin to King Ancus Marcius, -and her father’s to Venus, of whose stock we are a branch. We unite in -our pedigree, accordingly, the sacred majesty of kings, who are the -most exalted among men, and the divine majesty of gods, to whom kings -themselves are subject.” Men of such pretensions could never descend to -the level of peasants and artisans, nor believe that the world would -benefit by popular rule. - -[Illustration: POMPEY - -In the Palazzo Spada, Rome] - - -_His Wars and His Consulship_ - -Through an attractive personality, political intrigue sometimes verging -dangerously on conspiracy, and the lavish use of borrowed money, Cæsar -rapidly made his way upward through the higher offices in the routine -order. In those times the surest avenue to political power was success -in military command; and for the years 61-60 B. C. Cæsar was appointed -governor of “Farther Spain.” On his arrival he found his province -at peace; but he managed to stir up trouble with some neighboring -tribes of mountaineers who were beyond the border of the empire. After -imposing upon them orders that they could not obey, he made war upon -them. They had little wealth to plunder, but he took captive great -numbers, whom he sold into slavery. As governor he found other ways -of making money, mostly illegal; so that he was able to reward his -soldiers, pay his huge debts, and have something left for the future. -In this policy he acted like former governors, but with greater -cleverness. - -[Illustration: JULIUS CÆSAR - -In the National Museum, Naples] - -Returning to Rome, he gained the Consulship, which was the highest -standing office (59 B. C.) There were two consuls; and his colleague -was Bibulus, a stupid person, who chanced to be a political -adversary. For the first time Cæsar was in a position to display -his statesmanship. Two great problems were pressing, the economic -improvement of the masses throughout the empire and their protection -from the greedy oppression of Roman officials. Against the obstruction -of his colleague Cæsar carried a law through the Assembly for the -division of large tracts of public land among the needier citizens--a -measure which brought him great popularity. Although it did nothing to -benefit the subjects, it was a step in the right direction. Another -law, worked out in great detail, aimed to prevent officers of the -empire from committing extortion upon the subjects. Though doubtless -well intended, this law proved ineffective because no one in power -cared to enforce it. Most of his consular year, however, he devoted to -winning influential friends and to securing for himself an opportunity -for further military exploits after the expiration of his Consulship. -The territory placed under his government for this purpose included -especially Cisalpine Gaul--substantially the Po Basin--and Narbonensis, -a strip of land extending along the southern coast of Gaul, now France. - -Disturbances beyond his borders gave him a pretext for war, which -lasted eight years (58-50 B. C.), and which resulted in the conquest -of Gaul. In accomplishing this end Cæsar employed his most brilliant -generalship, including lightning-like movements and daring strategy. -When we consider that he had had little experience in warfare, we must -regard his achievements as marvellous. The conquest was accompanied -by great cruelty to the conquered. On one occasion more than fifty -thousand captives were sold into slavery; on another he beheaded the -senators of a conquered community and sold all the people as slaves. -At another time he massacred an entire tribe, numbering more than four -hundred thousand men, women, and children. The plunder, and especially -the sale of captives, brought the victor enormous wealth, a part of -which he devoted to buying supporters at Rome. After overawing Gaul -with terrorism he adopted a policy of conciliation, by which he won the -fidelity of the survivors. Although in entering upon the conquest Cæsar -had merely his own aggrandizement in mind, he must in the end have come -to an appreciation of the value of the new province to the empire. Even -after the vast slaughter and enslavement of the bravest Gauls, the -survivors were full of vitality. The country was rich in agricultural -and mineral resources, and the Rhone River formed a convenient outlet -for the country’s products in the direction of Rome. This acquisition -added great strength to the empire, and prepared the ground for the -extension of Roman civilization into western and central Europe. The -conquest was, in fact, the greatest achievement of Cæsar’s genius. - -[Illustration: From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The Macmillan -Co., Publishers - -WARFARE IN CÆSAR’S TIME] - -[Illustration: ROMAN LEGIONARY SOLDIER - -From Duruy’s “History of Rome”] - -[Illustration: GALLIC SOLDIER] - -No sooner had he finished this work than he came to blows with the -Senate, which feared his towering ambition. A civil war ensued (49-45 -B. C.) The champion of the Senate was Pompey, who also had met with -great success in war. Though in appearance the struggle was between -Cæsar and the Republic, its real object was to determine which of the -two leading generals should be master of the Roman world. Pompey was -defeated and killed; and in the end Cæsar subdued the whole empire -to his will. He ruled as Dictator, appointed to that office by the -submissive Senate. - - -_His Reforms as Dictator_ - -[Illustration: ROMAN WORKS OF APPROACH - -Showing parts of a Gallic wall in which stones are intermixed with -beams] - -During the civil war and the year following its close Cæsar gave -attention to internal reforms. Humanely and prudently he forgave -political offenders, and associated with himself in the government -many who had fought against him in the war. He sought to reconcile old -hatreds and to introduce an era of good feeling. There can be no doubt -of his sympathy with the subject peoples. Those in authority in the -provinces were no longer to enrich themselves and their friends by -oppression, but were held strictly accountable to the Dictator. Roman -citizenship was a highly-prized possession, as it meant justice and an -enviable social standing to the possessor. Cæsar granted it freely to -individuals and to entire communities. Obviously, his aim was the rapid -equalization of all freemen of the empire. - -He took especial interest in public improvements at Rome. Among these -works was the completion of the temple to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva -on the Capitoline Hill. The earlier temple had been destroyed by fire, -and the construction of the new building required about thirty-six -years. This was the largest and most stately temple in the city. Cæsar -laid out a public square, named after his family the Julian Forum, in -which he erected a temple to Venus Genetrix (ancestress), from whom -he claimed descent. In it he placed a graceful statue of the goddess, -carved by Arcesilaus, the most famous sculptor of the age. It is a -remarkable example of clinging transparent drapery. In this public -exhibition of his descent from a goddess Cæsar boldly displayed his -egotism, which was further exalted by decrees of the Senate proclaiming -him a god. It was not till after his death, however, that a temple -was actually erected, at the east end of the Roman Forum, for his -worship.[2] The Curia, Senate House, Cæsar began to rebuild, but its -completion was left to Augustus, who named it the Curia Julia, after -the Julian family, to which Cæsar, and by adoption Augustus, belonged. -On the south side of the Forum he began the construction of the -Basilica Julia, afterward finished by Augustus. It was a great hall -intended for judicial and mercantile business. These are but a small -part of the vast improvements that he planned for Rome, Italy, and -the empire. The greater number remained mere schemes. To us the most -interesting was the cutting of a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth, -a work that has had to await the skill of the modern engineer. - - [2] The temple of the deified Cæsar, the ruins of which is pictured - in this number. - -As supreme pontiff Cæsar was the head of the state religion and -guardian of the sacred lore. In this capacity he reformed the -calendar, which in his day had fallen into dire confusion. The -improvement consisted essentially in the adoption of the Egyptian solar -year of 365¼ days. The Julian calendar remained in force throughout -the civilized world till 1582, when it was superseded by that of Pope -Gregory XIII, who introduced a more exact system. - -[Illustration: ROMAN FASCES - -Bundle of rods and axe bound together and borne before emperors and -other rulers as symbols of power] - -[Illustration: THE BASILICA JULIA--Roman Forum (restored)] - -[Illustration: A DENARIUS - -Stamped with the head of Cæsar. A denarius was a silver coin worth -about 20 cents] - - -_Personal Appearance, Friends and Character_ - -The Romans as a people belonged to the Mediterranean race, and the -great majority, therefore, were short and dark, like the Sicilians of -today. Cæsar, however, was tall and fair, with round, well-proportioned -limbs and black piercing eyes. His portraits on coins and in sculpture -show a spare face with a high, broad forehead inclined to baldness, -representing a physique too delicate to sustain the enormous activities -of his brain. To the end of his days he paid, perhaps, an excessive -attention to his personal appearance, and was especially gratified when -the Senate in his honor decreed him the privilege of wearing a laurel -wreath; for he found it a means of covering his baldness. There was in -his face and manner a frank sympathy that won the hearts of all those -that came into close touch with him; and in spite of brutal conquests -he developed an expression of gentleness and clemency mentioned by -writers of his age. - -The greatest of his contemporaries was Cicero, who by sheer energy and -ability had worked his way to the highest offices, and had rescued the -state from a dangerous conspiracy. Though he was a consummate political -orator, Cicero’s tastes lay chiefly in the direction of literary -and philosophic composition, pleasant country life, and association -with intellectual men. Cæsar tried to win him as a political ally; -but Cicero and those intimate associates that loved the Republic -feared Cæsar’s autocratic methods and ambition. This aloofness of the -intellectual class drove Cæsar to seek friends and helpers in the lower -ranks of society and among his subordinate military officers. Although -a few of these people served him faithfully, the great majority were -incompetent to fill the offices that he gave them, and were bent only -on shirking duty and enriching themselves. On such a basis no man, -however great, can build up a just and efficient system of government. - -[Illustration: CICERO - -In the Vatican Museum, Rome] - -[Illustration: CICERO - -In the Madrid Museum. Considered the most authentic marble portrait of -the great orator] - -[Illustration: From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The Macmillan -Co., Publishers - -POMPEY] - -In spite of many admirable qualities Cæsar shared fully in the moral -looseness of the age, which set at naught all marriage relations. -Not even his friends at Rome, nor friendly kings who gave him their -hospitality, could trust their wives to his honor. With Cleopatra, -queen of Egypt, he had associated in her capital; but he shocked even -his dissolute countrymen by bringing her to Rome and into his own house. - - -_An Imitation of Alexander_ - -[Illustration: POMPEY’S THEATER (restored) - -First theater in Rome built of stone] - -That Cæsar desired absolute power, not merely for his own enjoyment -but in the conviction that with it he could best serve the empire, -can hardly be disputed; but whether or not he wished the kingly title -no one can know. While he was in the Orient the glamor of Alexander’s -achievements seems to have overcome him; and under this spell he -neglected the work of improving the empire to plan the conquest of the -great Parthian kingdom, Rome’s only surviving rival. In this scheme the -conqueror got the better of the statesman. A motive to the new war, -in itself unnecessary, was to escape from the situation at Rome--from -flattery, intrigue, the incompetence of officials, from deadly though -silent envy and hatred, which were making his life every day more -unendurable. As the conqueror of Parthia he could overwhelm all -opposition and mold the empire as clay in the potter’s hands. For the -remainder of his days he could dwell serene on the pinnacle of glory; -and at his death, having no son of his own, he could bequeath the -regenerated world to his grandnephew Octavius, a youth of great promise -whom he had adopted as a son. - -[Illustration: CLEOPATRA - -In the Vatican Museum, Rome] - -From all that we can learn, however, success in the Parthian war -would have been a catastrophe to European civilization. In wealth and -population, in the resources of war and peace, the Oriental part of -the empire would have overbalanced the European. The capital would -have shifted to Alexandria or farther east; and Oriental absolutism -would have dominated the civilized world. Three centuries after Cæsar, -autocracy was to come even to Europe. It came with its bureaucratic -accompaniment to destroy the little that remained of economic strength -and intellectual freedom, and to drag to ruin the decaying civilization -of the ancient world. - -Cæsar, however, was not destined even to set out for Parthia. On March -15 (44 B. C.), the Senate met to take the last measures preparatory -to his departure. The place of session was the Senate House which -Pompey had built near his theater. Scarcely had Cæsar entered and taken -his seat when a throng of about sixty senators gathered round him, -pretending to greet him and to offer a petition. They were conspirators -who had engaged in a plot for his assassination, through no especial -love for the Republic, but for various personal reasons. Many had -gained office and wealth under his patronage; but in their greed for -greater wealth and political glory they lost all sense of gratitude. -The best among them was Marcus Brutus, in his own social circle a -philosopher and an idealist, but in business a hard, relentless usurer. -Caius Cassius, the brain of the conspiracy, was a plunderer of the -provinces and a robber of temples, whom envy drove into the plot. By -such men was Cæsar slain. It was a crime perpetrated upon the civilized -world, which had to endure thirteen more years of desolating civil -war (44-31 B. C.), before Octavius, the young heir to Cæsar, could -gain the mastery and bring the empire to peace. This young man, known -to history as Augustus, though less brilliant than his granduncle, -possessed a far greater degree of practical wisdom. It was he, rather -than Cæsar, who gave the Roman world an organization under which it was -to enjoy more than two centuries of prosperity and happiness. Viewed in -this light, the wisest act of the great Cæsar was the choice of this -youth of delicately modeled features and frail body as his son and -successor. - -[Illustration: OCTAVIUS - -Called “Augustus.” In the Vatican Museum, Rome] - -[Illustration: MARCUS BRUTUS - -In the National Museum, Naples. Found at Pompeii] - - * * * * * - -THE PASSING OF CÆSAR--“On March 15 (the Ides of March), 44 B. C., -Cæsar entered the Senate Chamber and took his seat. His presence awed -men, in spite of themselves, and the conspirators had determined to -act at once, lest they should lose courage to act at all. He was -familiar and easy of access. They gathered round him. He knew them -all. There was not one from whom he had not a right to expect some -sort of gratitude, and the movement suggested no suspicion. One had a -story to tell him; another some favor to ask. Tullius Cimber, whom he -had just made governor of Bithynia, then came close to him with some -request which he was unwilling to grant. Cimber caught his gown, as -if in entreaty, and dragged it from his shoulders. Cassius, who was -standing behind, stabbed him in the throat. He started up with a cry, -and caught Cassius’s arm. Another poinard entered his breast, giving a -mortal wound. He looked round, and seeing not one friendly face, but -only a ring of daggers pointing at him, he drew his gown over his head, -gathered the folds about him that he might fall decently, and sank -down without uttering another word. Cicero was present. Brutus, waving -his dagger, shouted to Cicero, congratulating him that liberty was -restored. The Senate rose with shrieks and confusion, and rushed into -the Forum. The crowd outside caught the words that Cæsar was dead and -scattered to their houses. The murderers, some of them bleeding from -wounds which they had given one another in their eagerness, followed, -crying that the tyrant was dead, and that Rome was free.”--_James -Anthony Froude._ - -[Illustration: THE FALLEN CONQUEROR - -A reproduction of the pen drawing of the figure of Cæsar made by the -painter Gérôme as a preliminary sketch for his great picture of the -assassination of Cæsar] - - -_SUPPLEMENTARY READING_: JULIUS CÆSAR, by G. Ferrero; JULIUS CÆSAR, -a sketch, by J. A. Froude; JULIUS CÆSAR, by W. W. Fowler (Heroes of -the Nations Series); JULIUS CÆSAR, by J. Abbott; LIFE OF CÆSAR, in -Plutarch’s Lives. - -⁂ Information concerning these books may be had on application to the -Editor of The Mentor. - - - - -_THE CONQUERORS_ - - -[Illustration: Copyright by Braun, Clement & Co. Original painting -owned by John Wanamaker - -THE CONQUERORS - -This powerful painting by Pierre Fritel pictures the grim progress of -the great conquerors of the world through an avenue of death lined by -the victims of the world’s wars. Cæsar rides in the center--beside and -behind are Tamerlane, Alexander, Attila, Charlemagne, Napoleon and -other world conquerors.] - -It is Human Desire that makes world history--desire for conquest, -possession, and control. The Conqueror of the World must have his will. -He treads the peoples of the earth under his feet, and spreads ruin in -his path. He knows no social distinctions--this Re-molder of Humanity. -The habitations of poor and rich alike are demolished, and the -treasured possessions of city and town desecrated. Monuments of revered -memory are razed to the ground, and new monuments to the Conqueror are -raised to the sky. Nations are subjugated; governments are revised; -territory is re-assigned; new laws are made. The people bow under the -yoke; the Conqueror is enthroned with pomp and ceremony, and hailed as -Master of the World. - -And then--something happens that saves the world for the people. Some -call it the “Hand of Fate”; those that live in the faith call it the -“Will of God.” But history tells us that final defeat awaits the man -that aspires to be Conqueror of the World. - - * * * * * - -Tamerlane, the Tartar tyrant, called “the Scourge of God,” swept the -hordes of Asia before him in world conquest. He died suddenly while -preparing to invade China. Alexander of Macedon, called “the Great,” -made himself master of the world of his day. He forestalled Fate by -dissipating his young life away, and died broken-hearted, sighing for -more worlds to conquer. Hannibal, the Carthaginian, carried the spirit -of conquest across the Mediterranean to Spain, Italy, and over the -Alps. He threatened Rome itself, and aspired to the overlordship of -land and sea. Finally, defeated by Scipio Africanus, he was exiled to -Syria, where, dishonored and deserted, he committed suicide. Julius -Cæsar conquered all Gaul, and carried the standards of Rome to far-off -Britain. The name of Cæsar became synonymous with conquest, so that -it has been borne by successive emperors for centuries, and is, even -in this day, the title of Imperialism. But Cæsar crossed the Rubicon, -“and Rome was free no more.” In the very fullness of his power he was -assassinated by his own senators, his friend Brutus among them. - -“As he was ambitious,” said Brutus, “I slew him. There is joy for his -fortune; honor for his valor; and _death_ for his ambition.” - -Napoleon Bonaparte gained leadership in France at a critical time, -reconstructed her shattered institutions, and built up a military -power that dominated all Europe. His ambition contemplated a personal -supremacy of the Continent, with vassal nations paying tribute to -his sovereignty. Beyond the bounds of Europe he carried conquest -into Egypt, riding his charger to the foot of the Pyramids. But his -over-weening ambition tempted him too far. As the crossing of the -Rubicon sealed the fate of Cæsar, the crossing of the Niemen marked the -beginning of Napoleon’s downfall. With the Grand Army of more than half -a million men, he invaded Russia, penetrating as far as Moscow. In a -few months, with a pitiful, broken and ragged remnant of his forces, -he recrossed the Niemen, minus glory and minus the trophies of war. -Soon after, Napoleon met his Waterloo, and ended his days in lonely -brooding, like an eagle chained to a rock, on the desolate island of -St. Helena. - - * * * * * - -_Sic transit gloria mundi_--“so passes away the glory of the world”; so -ends the career of the Conqueror. - -[Illustration: W. D. 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Adams. - 20 Makers of American Humor, by Burges Johnson. - 21 American Sea Painters, by Arthur Hoeber. - 22 The Explorers, by Hart. - 23 Sporting Vacations, by Beard. - 24 Switzerland, the Land of Scenic Splendors, by Elmendorf. - 25 American Novelists, by Mabie. - 26 American Landscape Painters, by Samuel Isham. - 27 Venice, the Island City, by Elmendorf. - 28 The Wife in Art, by Kobbé. - 29 Great American Inventors, by Bruce. - 30 Furniture and Its Makers, by Richards. - 31 Spain and Gibraltar, by Elmendorf. - 32 Historic Spots of America, by McElroy. - 33 Beautiful Buildings of the World, by Ward. - 34 Game Birds of America, by E. H. Forbush. - 35 The Contest for North America, by Hart. - 36 Famous American Sculptors, by Lorado Taft. - 37 The Conquest of the Poles, by Rear Admiral Peary. - 38 Napoleon, by Ida M. Tarbell. - 39 The Mediterranean, by Elmendorf. - 40 Angels In Art, by Van Dyke. - 41 Famous Composers, by Henry T. Finck. - 42 Egypt, the Land of Mystery, by Elmendorf. - 43 The Revolution, by Albert Bushnell Hart. - 44 Famous English Poets, by Mabie. - 45 Makers of American Art, by J. T. Willing. - 46 The Ruins of Rome, by Botsford. - 47 Makers of Modern Opera, by H. E. Krehbiel. - 48 Two Early German Painters--Dürer and Holbein, by F. J. Mather, Jr. - 49 Vienna, the Queen City, by Elmendorf. - 50 Ancient Athens, by Botsford. - 51 The Barbizon School, by Hoeber. - 52 Abraham Lincoln, by Hart. - 53 George Washington, by McElroy. - 54 Mexico, by Frederick Palmer. - 55 Famous American Women Painters, by Arthur Hoeber. - 56 The Conquest of the Air, by Woodhouse. - 57 Court Painters of France, by Coffin, N. A. - 58 Holland, by Elmendorf. - 59 Our Feathered Friends, by E. H. Forbush. - 60 Glacier National Park, by Hornaday. - 61 Michelangelo, by Cox. - 62 American Colonial Furniture, by Esther Singleton. - 63 American Wild Flowers, by Eaton. - 64 Gothic Architecture, by Ward. - 65 The Story of the Rhine, by Elmendorf. - 66 Shakespeare, by Mabie. - 67 American Mural Painters, by Hoeber. - 68 Celebrated Animal Characters, by Hornaday. - 69 Japan, by Elmendorf. - 70 The Story of the French Revolution, by Albert Bushnell Hart. - 71 Rugs and Rug Making, by Mumford. - 72 Alaska, by Browne. - 73 Charles Dickens, by Mabie. - 74 Grecian Masterpieces, by Lorado Taft. - 75 Fathers of the Constitution, by Albert Bushnell Hart. - 76 Masters of the Piano, by Finck. - 77 American Historic Homes, by Esther Singleton. - 78 Beauty Spots of India, by Elmendorf. - 79 Etchers and Etching, by Frank Weitenkampf. - 80 Oliver Cromwell, by Albert Bushnell Hart. - 81 China, by Elmendorf. - 82 Favorite Trees, by Hornaday. - 83 Yellowstone National Park, by Elmendorf. - 84 Famous Women Writers of England, by Mabie. - 85 Painters of Western Life, by Hoeber. - 86 China and Pottery of Our Forefathers, by Esther Singleton. - 87 The Story of The American Railroad, by Albert Bushnell Hart. - 88 Butterflies, by Holland. - 89 The Philippine Islands, by Worcester. - 90 Great Galleries of the World--the Louvre, by Van Dyke. - 91 William M. Thackeray, by Mabie. - 92 The Grand Canyon, by Elmendorf. - 93 Architecture in American Country Homes, by Embury. - 94 The Story of the Danube, by Albert Bushnell Hart. - 95 Animals in Art, by Kobbé. - 96 The Holy Land, by Elmendorf. - 97 John Milton, by Mabie. - 98 Joan of Arc, by Ida M. Tarbell. - 99 Furniture of the Revolutionary Period, by Esther Singleton. - 100 The Ring of the Nibelung, by Finck. - 101 The Golden Age of Greece, by Botsford. - 102 Chinese Rugs, by Mumford. - 103 The War of 1812, by Albert Bushnell Hart. - 104 Great Galleries of the World--The National Gallery, London, - by Van Dyke. - 105 Masters of the Violin, by Finck. - 106 American Pioneer Prose Writers, by Mabie. - 107 Old Silver, by Esther Singleton. - 108 Shakespeare’s Country, by William Winter. - 109 Historic Gardens of New England, by Mary H. Northend. - 110 The Weather, by C. F. Talman. - 111 American Poets of the Soil, by Johnson. - 112 Argentina, by Newman. - 113 Game Animals of America, by Hornaday. - 114 Raphael, by Van Dyke. - 115 Walter Scott, by Mabie. - 116 The Yosemite Valley, by Elmendorf. - 117 John Paul Jones, by Albert Bushnell Hart. - 118 Russian Music, by Finck. - 119 Chile, by Newman. - 120 Rembrandt, by Van Dyke. - 121 Southern California, by C. F. Lummis. - 122 Keeping Time, by Talman. - 123 American Miniature Painting, by Mrs. Elizabeth Lounsbery. - 124 Gems, by Esther Singleton. - 125 The Orchestra, by Henderson. - 126 The Madonna and Child in Art, by Van Dyke. - 127 The American Triumvirate, by Albert Bushnell Hart. - 128 Brazil, by Newman. - 129 American Water Colors, by Kobbé. - 130 The Planets, by Prof. Jacoby. - 131 American Water Color Painters, by Gustav Kobbé, Author and Critic. - 132 Peru, by E. M. Newman, Lecturer and Traveler. - 133 The Story of The American Army, by Albert Bushnell Hart. - 134 Our Planet Neighbors, by Harold Jacoby. - 135 The Story of Russia, by Leo Pasvolsky. - 136 The Story of the Hudson, by Albert Bushnell Hart. - 137 Prehistoric Animal Life, by Dr. W. D. Matthew. - 138 Hawaii, by E. M. Newman. - 139 Earthquakes and Volcanoes, by C. F. Talman. - 140 The Canadian Rockies, by Ruth Kedzie Wood. - 141 Corot, by Elliott Daingerfield. - 142 Bolivia, by E. M. Newman. - 143 Russian Art, by William A. Coffin, N. A. - 144 The American Government, by Albert Bushnell Hart. - 145 Christmas in Picture and Story, by Esther Singleton. - 146 The Picture on the Wall, by Frank Weitenkampf. - 147 Lafayette, by Albert Bushnell Hart. - 148 American Composers, by W. J. Henderson. - 149 Luxembourg Gallery, by William A. 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