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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Mentor: Julius Caesar, Vol. 6, Num. 2, Serial No. 150, March 1, 1918 - -Author: George Willis Botsford - -Release Date: February 2, 2016 [EBook #51110] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MENTOR: JULIUS CAESAR *** - - - - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - - THE MENTOR 1918.03.01, No. 150, - Julius Cæsar - - - - - LEARN ONE THING - EVERY DAY - - MARCH 1 1918 SERIAL NO. 150 - - THE - - MENTOR - - JULIUS CÆSAR - - By - GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD - - DEPARTMENT OF VOLUME 6 - BIOGRAPHY NUMBER 2 - - TWENTY CENTS A COPY - - - - -The Real Julius Cæsar - - -In person Cæsar was tall and slight. His features were more refined -than was usual in Roman faces; the forehead was wide and high, the nose -large and thin, the lips full, the eyes dark gray like an eagle’s, the -neck extremely thick and sinewy. His complexion was pale. His hair was -short and naturally scanty, falling off toward the end of his life and -leaving him partially bald. His voice, especially when he spoke in -public, was high and shrill. - - * * * * * - -His health was uniformly strong until his last year, when he became -subject to epileptic fits. He was scrupulously clean in all his habits, -abstemious in his food, rarely or never touching wine, and noting -sobriety as the highest of qualities when describing any new people. -He was an athlete in early life, admirable in all manly exercises, -and especially in riding. From his boyhood it was observed of him -that he was the truest of friends, that he avoided quarrels, and -was most easily appeased when offended. In manner he was quiet and -gentlemanlike, with the natural courtesy of high-breeding. - - * * * * * - -He was singularly careful of his soldiers. He allowed his legions -rest, though he allowed none to himself. He rarely fought a battle at -a disadvantage. He never exposed his men to unnecessary danger, and -the loss by wear and tear in the campaigns in Gaul was exceptionally -and even astonishingly slight. When a gallant action was performed, he -knew by whom it had been done, and every soldier, however humble, might -feel assured that if he deserved praise he would have it. The army was -Cæsar’s family. - -JAMES ANTHONY FROUDE - - - - -[Illustration: IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM, NAPLES - -JULIUS CÆSAR] - - - - -_JULIUS CÆSAR_ - -_The Career of Cæsar_ - -ONE - - -Gaius Julius Cæsar was born in 100 B. C. of old patrician stock. In -youth he received from Greek masters the elements of their culture, -including astronomy, philosophy, and rhetoric. To complete his -oratorical studies he sailed for Rhodes, but on the way was taken -captive by pirates and held for ransom. This mishap would have -subjected him to ridicule, had he not, on his release, manned a ship -and punished his captors. Returning to Rome, he entered politics, the -most ambitious career open to fashionable young men. In this vocation -he had to pay his respects to men of influence, plead cases at court, -and render financial or other assistance to unfortunate clients; he had -to call by name and compliment all whom he met, to entertain lavishly, -and attend the various social functions of all classes. Above all he -had to maintain a permanent coterie of supporters to act as agents in -time of need. - -In 68 B. C. he reached the lowest rung in the political ladder. This -was the office of quæstor, who had the handling of public funds. -Soon afterward as ædile, commissioner of public works and games, his -magnificent entertainments won the good will of the voters, and brought -about his election to the Supreme Pontificate. In this capacity he -directed the state religion, and his person was esteemed sacred. It was -a great political advantage. Next he was elected prætor, whose chief -duty was to preside over one of the criminal courts. After a man had -held the prætorship or the consulship the Senate usually appointed -him as a proprætor or proconsul to the government of a province. As -proprætor accordingly Cæsar governed Spain in 61-60. Returning home -in the latter year, he formed a political ring, known as the First -Triumvirate, with Pompey, a general who had gained splendid victories -in the Orient, and Crassus, the wealthiest capitalist of the empire. -This combination secured the consulship for Cæsar for the year 59. His -opposition to the Senate during this year, and his legislation in the -interest of the people made him very popular. As proconsul (58-50) he -conquered Gaul. Meanwhile Crassus was killed in battle; and Pompey, -adopting the cause of the Senate, prepared nominally to defend the -Republic; in fact, to rid himself of a powerful rival. In the civil war -that followed the seasoned veterans of the popular hero proved superior -to the forces of the Senate, most of them hastily gathered from the -farms. Thereupon the Senate, shifting about, heaped honors and triumphs -upon the victor. As consul, dictator, and supreme pontiff Cæsar was -virtually, though not in name, a king (49-44). The power of the -aristocracy was broken, but its hatred lived and generated a plot to -kill the “enemy of the Republic.” On March 15, 44, Cæsar fell, stabbed -with twenty-three wounds, at the hands of erstwhile friends. - -Cæsar began his career as a politician, but ended it as a statesman. -His courage, clemency, and personal charm won countless friends. While -costly entertainments were a political necessity, his moderation in -private life earned the respect of Roman society. A blue-blooded -patrician, he steadfastly championed the popular cause. This policy -alienated his own class, and finally resulted in his death. His -political understanding developed hand in hand with his patriotism. -Better than his contemporaries, he saw the economic and social decay -of the Republic, and felt that inefficiency and corruption could be -eradicated in no other way than by a strong monarchy. His own supremacy -he brought about with the minimum of bloodshed. When once in power he -vigorously swept away the weaknesses and oppression of aristocratic -rule, and laid a solid foundation for the future peace and prosperity -of the empire. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: THE RIVER TIBER--IN THE TIME OF CÆSAR] - - - - -_JULIUS CÆSAR_ - -_The Roman Empire_ - -TWO - - -Through nearly four centuries of conquest and alliance (400-44 B. C.) -the Roman empire came to embrace the entire Mediterranean region. -After Cæsar’s conquest of Gaul, it extended from the Atlantic to the -Euphrates, from the North Sea and Alps to the Sahara. This vast area -was organized into administrative divisions, called provinces. Its very -size meant a heterogeneous population, scores of peoples, each with its -own language and customs. In the east Greek had replaced local tongues -for literary, diplomatic, and business purposes. In the west many -dialects remained: for Latin, though official, was but gradually coming -into universal use. - -Life in the empire was mainly agricultural. Tools were simple, if not -primitive; and only after a struggle could the peasant produce enough -to last until the next harvest. Industries were largely domestic, -carried on at home, or in small shops for local use. The eastern -parts--Egypt, Asia Minor, and western Asia--were far wealthier. Here -commerce and skilled industries were more flourishing, though by any -modern estimate, on a small scale. As there were no machines in the -modern sense, goods had to be made by hand. The imperial roads were -in excellent condition but distances were long, travel was slow, and -transportation expensive, save by water. - -When a new territory was incorporated into the empire, it became -a province. It was placed in charge of a quæstor, who controlled -financial matters, and a general executive called proprætor or -proconsul--both appointed annually by the imperial government. The -governor commanded the army and acted as the highest judge in his -territory. The province was divided into city-states, each of which -retained its laws and customs, its magistrates, council, and popular -assembly. They managed their local affairs, and no attempt was made -to interfere in their religion. Instead of rendering military service -they had to pay annual tribute. At auction the highest bidders received -contracts for collecting taxes in the several cities. - -Unfortunately, abuses crept into provincial rule. In the first place, -Rome favored her citizens at the expense of her subjects. Native -merchants were superseded by greedy speculators and traders, who, -reducing the people to poverty, drove the peasants from their farms and -built up vast estates of their own. The evil of “farming” taxes became -intolerable, for avaricious contractors made the peasants pay far more -than their due. In his year of service, too, the typical governor -expected to accumulate a fortune sufficient (1) to pay political debts, -(2) to bribe judges in case of prosecution, (3) to live in luxury the -remainder of his life. Few governors were honest enough to check these -wrongs. Furthermore, the wealthier provinces were heavily overtaxed -to help pay the expense of governing the newly acquired frontier -provinces, which as a rule were financial failures. - -These evils Cæsar went far in remedying. He curtailed the system -of “farming” taxes, and placed it under strict supervision. Thus -capitalists were prevented from openly plundering the subjects. He -appointed able, honest governors, and held them to account. Legionary -commanders, too, appointed by him to serve under the governor, and -revenue officials--his own servants and freedmen--saw that his will -was everywhere enforced. The provinces, especially the poorer ones, -were to be cultivated and improved. An attempt was made to equalize the -burden of taxation, and the heavy drain on the eastern provinces was -lessened. Lastly, in order to abolish class and national distinctions, -and to weld together the empire, Cæsar allowed himself to be worshipped -as a god, and adopted the policy of rapidly granting citizenship -to provincials. In aiming to bring about such an empire devoid of -nationality Cæsar followed the procedure of the great Alexander, and -set an example for his successor, Napoleon. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: THE ROMAN FORUM--IN THE TIME OF CÆSAR] - - - - -_JULIUS CÆSAR_ - -_Rome and Egypt_ - -THREE - - -Early in his career of conquest Alexander the Great subdued Egypt and -founded Alexandria (332 B. C.) This country proved the most valuable -part of his vast realm, and afterward of the Roman Empire. The valley -of the Nile is exceedingly fertile, well watered as it is from the -river, and continually enriched by the alluvial deposits from the -yearly overflow. The people were patient and laborious. For thousands -of years they had toiled like slaves for their Pharaohs, whom they -looked upon as gods, and who owned all the land and most of the wealth -of the kingdom. Naturally Alexander usurped the property rights and -the divine rights of the Pharaohs; and ultimately when Egypt fell as -a kingdom, to his general, Ptolemy, the latter succeeded to all these -advantages. For nearly three centuries Egypt was ruled by the dynasty -thus founded, in which each king bore the name Ptolemy, inherited from -his father. The king was proprietor, not only of all the land but also -of the extensive industrial plants and shipping. As Alexandria was the -greatest manufacturing and commercial center of the world, Ptolemy was -far the wealthiest capitalist. His military and civil officers were -Greeks; his soldiers were Greeks and other foreigners; so that with -his complex military and administrative machine he was able to govern -the Egyptians as a conquered people. In the eyes of the kings they -were mere producers of wealth; the official language was Greek, and -the majority of sovereigns did not take the pains to learn the native -speech. - -At first remarkably competent, the Ptolemies gradually declined in -ability, and even before the birth of Cæsar had come to be subservient -to Rome. We may imagine with what longing the greedy Roman oligarchs -viewed this kingdom, and how persistent was the agitation for its -conquest. - -Such an object Cæsar undoubtedly had in view when he sailed against -Alexandria with the pretext of settling a dispute between Ptolemy -and his sister Cleopatra. This fascinating woman convinced the Roman -general of the justice of her cause, and was accordingly placed on the -throne. Their mutual infatuation became the gossip of Rome when she -afterward visited that city. Though not beautiful, the Egyptian queen -was a charming woman. A talented linguist, she could dispense with an -interpreter in dealing with her subjects and with foreign princes. Fond -of music, literature, and art, she made a pleasing hostess, while her -gorgeous entertainments captivated her guests. She was gifted, too, -with an instinct for the various paths to men’s affections; and her -melodious voice and pretty ways won her desires from the strongest of -rulers. This demoniac fascination, coupled with an ambition to found a -great empire, made her one of the most powerful women in all history. - -After Cæsar’s death Octavianus (Octavius--called Cæsar Augustus) -remained at Rome, while Antony governed the eastern half of the -empire. Soon he fell under the spell of Cleopatra, and gladly married -her that he might become, without conquest, king of Egypt. Political -motives underlay this romance: he wanted to add Egypt with its vast -wealth to his domain, while she, no less ambitious, viewed the chaos -at Rome as an opportunity to secure for herself Antony’s share of -the empire. Octavianus saw the will of Antony bending before his -consort’s superhuman fascination. Appreciating the danger to Rome, -he defeated Antony in a naval battle, 31 B. C., sailed to Egypt, and -with little trouble captured Alexandria. Seeing that all was lost, the -royal lovers committed suicide. Thus fell the last glorious remnant -of the Alexandrian kingdom. Henceforth it was but a part of the Roman -world-state. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: ON EXHIBITION AT STERN BROS., N. Y. CITY. - -CÆSAR CROSSING THE RUBICON, BY J. L. GÉRÔME] - - - - -_JULIUS CÆSAR_ - -_Cæsar as Author and General_ - -FOUR - - -Nowhere is the versatility of Julius Cæsar more clearly in evidence -than in his literary accomplishments, the majority of which -unfortunately have been lost. His scientific spirit is manifest in an -astronomical work, “Concerning the Stars,” which we do not have, but -which was doubtless connected with his reform of the calendar. As an -orator Cæsar was famed for his precise use of language, good taste, -and vivacious, forcible style of delivery, qualities as necessary to -his political career as to success in authorship. The “Dialogue on -Orators,” however, though highly praised by Cicero, has disappeared, -likewise his treatise on Grammar. The world no longer has his -collection of despatches and letters, many of them in cipher, or his -political pamphlets against Cato, who had been eulogized as “the martyr -of the Republic,” or his “Collective Sayings,” a veritable store-house -of satirical witticisms, or his many poems, with the exception of a -well-known criticism of Terence, the playwright. - -We can only judge his varied literary talents by his “Commentaries -On the Gallic War” in seven books, and “On the Civil War” in three, -known to all schoolboys and college students. The former dictated -amidst anxiety and distraction were intended to show his ability and -courage as a general, to justify the moderation of his Gallic policy, -and to forestall attacks by political opponents. Written in the third -person, their modesty dispels the suspicion of egoism, yet the author -knew how, without violating the truth and without boasting, to display -his merits to the greatest possible advantage. The language is simple -and restrained yet vigorous and clear. There are thrilling moments, -for example, in the description of the ever-threatening danger of -Sabinus, or the exciting escape of Cicero, when the fort of Aduatuca -was endangered by a swoop of German marauders. Throughout the story -the natives, with their inferior civilization, their perfidies and -duplicities, are mere pigmies in the clutches of a giant. Like an -irresistible force of nature, the great Roman tramples down everything -in his path. - -The same impassive restraint is shown in the “Civil War.” The work -contains fewer thrilling events; but dramatic movements like the -crossing of the Rubicon, grievances at the hands of his enemies, and -his frequent overtures for peace seldom fail to awaken the reader’s -sympathy. The word “commentaries,” applied to these books, signifies -merely “notes,” as the author himself regarded them; but in the -judgment of after ages they are model historical narratives. - -From the “Commentaries,” too, we may form an estimate of Cæsar the -general. In knowledge of the technical departments of warfare he has -had few superiors. He knew how to enroll and organize vast numbers -of raw recruits, and to transform them rapidly into trained military -units. The ease with which he overcame the dangers and difficulties -constantly confronting him testify to his consummate tactics and -strategy. He was without a peer in practical psychology--a prime -factor in successful generalship. This quality enabled him to read and -understand the feelings of adversaries as well as of his own men. He -possessed coolness, too, and self-control to an extraordinary degree, -which served to win the confidence and affection of his troops, and to -discourage panic and disaster. He was, moreover, a just critic, eager -to praise, slow to blame. His inherent generosity willingly recognized -and rewarded merit in officers and men. Cæsar was especially fond of -his centurions--the flower of those who had risen from the ranks. Often -without political or family ties, they fought and died for him alone. -Though of slight physique and generally in poor health, through simple -living and sheer force of will Cæsar bore many arduous campaigns, -often marching on foot with his men. It was this unfailing vigor and -resolution, manifesting itself in acts of heroic daring, which gave -courage and moral determination to his forces. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: PHOTOGRAPHED FROM A PRINT - -THE DEATH OF CÆSAR, BY J L. GÉRÔME.] - - - - -_JULIUS CÆSAR_ - -_Cæsar’s Associates and Opponents_ - -FIVE - - -The most distinguished of Cæsar’s contemporaries was Cicero. With an -exceptional education, he entered politics, where, in spite of scant -means and ignoble ancestry, he finally attained to the consulship, -63 B. C. Throughout his career, an ardent supporter of the Republic, -he opposed the arbitrary rule of Cæsar; and in the Civil War he -favored the Senatorial party. In the troubles following Cæsar’s -murder Cicero heroically defended the Republic in many a brilliant -oration; and in this cause he sacrificed his life. Though possessed -of many noble qualities, his vacillation, artistic temperament, and -supersensitiveness unfitted him for statesmanship. - -Cicero’s chief claims to greatness lie in the fields of literature and -philosophy. He was a poet of no mean ability. His “Orations,” with -their kaleidoscopic range of mood and choice of words, are the most -brilliant in the Latin language. The painstaking labor required for -this supreme mastery of speech is shown in his rhetorical works. His -“Letters,” written in simple style, lay bare a human heart, with all -its shortcomings and aspirations, while through their wide range of -topics they bring the reader into intimate touch with the spirit of the -age. Of farther-reaching influence are his works on political science -and philosophy. His “Republic” aims to discover the best form of -government, and to examine into the foundations of national prosperity. -His many philosophic writings set forth the various Greek schools of -thought, especially the Platonic and the Stoic. Through the medium of a -diction so perfect as to make Latin the universal language of culture -for centuries to come, Cicero successfully transplanted Greek thought -to Latin soil. Nor did his influence cease there; from his philosophy -the Church fathers drew inspiration; and in it centuries later the -scholars of the Renaissance first found the vitalizing spark of Greek -culture. - -Of Cæsar’s immediate associates, Cassius, Brutus, and Antony are most -interesting, if only for their important rôles in Shakespeare’s “Julius -Cæsar.” Though showered with offices, Cassius, a malcontent, bore a -grudge against Cæsar for being his master, and began to plot against -him. He found many influential men, who, jealous of Cæsar’s power, were -themselves anxious to divide the spoils of government. To give the plot -an air of respectability, he won over Brutus, ostensibly a student and -man of letters, but at heart an unfeeling usurer. Appointed by Cæsar -governor of Cisalpine Gaul and prætor, Brutus became an assassin of his -benefactor. - -Among the three near associates of Cæsar, Mark Antony was far the -ablest, and possessed the merit of remaining faithful till the death -of the benefactor. He had filled many military and civil offices with -distinction, and was Cæsar’s colleague in the consulship at the time -of the murder. Shortly before this event, at a public festival, Antony -offered Cæsar a crown, alleging that it was from the people. Although -Cæsar would gladly have welcomed any device for legitimizing his rule, -he refused the kingly title because of its unpopularity. - -The assassination left Antony sole consul. Having control of Cæsar’s -papers and property, he skilfully used these advantages to make himself -absolute. In a clever oration at the funeral he turned the feelings of -the populace against the murderers, who thereupon fled from Rome. With -young Octavianus (Octavius) he patched up a temporary alliance, and in -combination they defeated the armies of Brutus and Cassius in the two -battles of Philippi, 42 B. C. The beaten generals committed suicide, -and the victors divided the empire between them, Antony taking the -East and Octavianus the West. The later history of Antony is told in -connection with Cleopatra. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: RUINS OF THE TEMPLE OF THE DEIFIED JULIUS CÆSAR--ROMAN -FORUM] - - - - -_JULIUS CÆSAR_ - -_The Portrait Sculpture and the Reproduction of Buildings in this -Number of The Mentor_ - -SIX - - -In the Rome of Cæsar Hellenic influence was active, not only in -literature and philosophy, but also in art. The Roman portrait -sculpture of this period reveals Greek knowledge and skill; but its -essential character was determined by native tradition. The earliest -Roman portraits were waxen death masks formed from a moulding over -the face. Hence they were mechanically accurate but utterly devoid -of animation. Though this material has perished, the visitor to the -museums of Rome will find in relief many a family group in which -the faces retain the mask-like quality. Only in a slighter degree -does the principle apply to portrait sculpture in the round. At -its best the Republican face accordingly is intensely realistic -yet with no intimation of the inner spirit. Commonly the hair is -indicated by parallel scratches made by firm chisel strokes. By these -characteristics many busts and statues may be easily dated. It should -be noticed, too, that in the Republican age the portrait heads, as -distinguished from statues, include in addition to the head scarcely -more than the neck, and that the bust is a gradual development during -the subsequent period. With this criterion we are able to assign the -Brutus of this number of The Mentor to the administration of Claudius, -41-54 A. D. In the colossal portrait of Cæsar of the National Museum -at Naples the bust is a modern restoration, and we may only cherish -the reasonable faith that the head is genuine, though somewhat later -than his lifetime. The famous Cæsar of the British Museum, comprising -head and neck, would satisfy the criterion here formulated, but fails -to pass another even more important test. The indication of the -pupil in the eye was not devised till after Hadrian, 117-138 A. D., -and accordingly this head could be no earlier. Recently it has been -suggested, with some reason, that the work is a modern study. If so, it -is a great success, as it most admirably expresses the physique and the -character of the famous man. - -Another aid to identification is the circumstance that a colossus could -represent no one but a preéminent person; and this criterion favors -the Neapolitan head of Cæsar mentioned above. The colossus statue in -the Conservatori Palace seems to be authentic, but was made a half -century or more after his death. The face is fuller than the literary -description or the coins would warrant, but the difference may well be -due to idealization. The images on coins are doubtless true likenesses, -but in the case of his sculptured portraits we can only deal in -probabilities. - -For Pompey we are in a less fortunate condition. The colossal statue -in the Palazzo Spada, a detail of which is given in this number, has -long passed as the image at the feet of which Cæsar met his death; -but the proof is insufficient, and it seems at least as likely that -it represents an emperor. Other portraits are equally uncertain. -The Madrid bust of Cicero is genuine, and well represents the -orator’s great intelligence with a momentary expression of scorn. -The better-known Vatican head, the bust of which is modern, is also -genuine and stands second in merit. For Cleopatra there are no certain -sculptural portraits. The reclining woman of the Ariadne type has been -mistaken for her because of the snake, as she is known to have died by -the bite of an asp. The illustration is given merely because it long -passed for Cleopatra and is a Greek work of rare beauty. Her true image -is shown on coins. - -The various reproductions of edifices are not creations of the fancy, -but have been carefully worked out by archæologists from remains of -buildings according to the well established principles of architecture. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -THE MENTOR · DEPARTMENT OF BIOGRAPHY - -MARCH 1, 1918 - -JULIUS CÆSAR - -By GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD - -_Late Professor of History, Columbia University. Author of “Story of -Rome,” “History of Rome,” etc._ - - _MENTOR GRAVURES_ - - JULIUS CÆSAR - - THE ROMAN FORUM IN THE TIME OF CÆSAR - - THE RIVER TIBER IN THE TIME OF CÆSAR - - _MENTOR GRAVURES_ - - CÆSAR CROSSING THE RUBICON - - DEATH OF CÆSAR - - RUINS OF THE TEMPLE OF THE DEIFIED CÆSAR - -[Illustration: From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The Macmillan -Co., Publishers - -JULIUS CÆSAR] - -Entered as second-class matter March 10, 1913, at the postoffice at New -York, N. Y., under the act of March 3, 1879. Copyright, 1918, by The -Mentor Association, Inc. - - -_Rome’s Conquest of the Civilized World_ - -To understand the world in which Cæsar lived it is necessary first to -review the growth of the Roman Empire. Four hundred years before the -beginning of the Christian era Rome was a small city, an independent -state, it is true, but in possession of a territory no larger than an -American county. In a succession of wars lasting through a century and -a third (400-264 B. C.), she gained control of the whole peninsula of -Italy. In another century (264-167 B. C.), through a new series of -wars, she built up an empire that nearly surrounded the Mediterranean -Sea. This rapid expansion of power is one of the most notable events in -the world’s history. In the present number of The Mentor, however, we -are less concerned with the process of conquest than with its result. -When Rome subdued a foreign state, she exercised her right of war in -depriving it of a great part of its wealth, including money, land, -and art treasures, not only paintings and marbles, but works of great -intrinsic value in bronze, silver, and gold. These confiscations and -the subsequent taxes levied by the imperial government, together with -the illegal exactions of officials, tended to impoverish the world for -the enrichment of Rome and of the few citizens who monopolized the -offices. The conquest differentiated the freemen of the empire into -three distinct classes: the few wealthy Romans, who governed the world, -the masses of Roman citizens who, though in possession of the right to -vote had gained no advantage by the conquest, and the subjects, barred -from all share in the imperial government and greatly oppressed by its -officials. - -[Illustration: JULIUS CÆSAR - -In the Capitoline Museum, Rome] - -Rome became a great city with a population of about a million, who -had gathered from all parts of the empire. Some had come as slaves, -others to seek their fortunes, while others had been driven from the -surrounding districts by the pinch of poverty. As freemen could find -little work in the city, there grew up a great mob of idlers, who lived -in large part on food doled out to them by the state as the price of -their votes. - -The ruling class was represented by the Senate, which was the chief -governing body. Generally the senators were the most cultured and -intelligent people at Rome; but they had all the faults of a narrow -plutocracy; through long enjoyment of wealth and power the class was -thoroughly corrupted and enfeebled. Hence the Senate proved incapable -of governing and protecting the empire and even of preventing the -frequent outbreaks of anarchy in the capital. - -[Illustration: TEMPLE OF JUPITER--CAPITOLINE - -As it appeared in the time of Cæsar] - - -_Early Life of Cæsar_ - -Such in brief was the world in which Gaius Julius Cæsar lived (100-44 -B. C.) Belonging to the bluest-blooded aristocracy, he began life -with all the advantages of wealth and family repute. As a boy and -youth he enjoyed the best education of the time. It consisted mainly -in the study and imitation of Greek writers, especially orators, -in preparation for a career as public speaker and statesman. Rome -had derived her civilization from Greece; and every business man or -diplomatist had to speak the Greek language, which was the chief medium -of communication throughout the Mediterranean world. - -In company with other young aristocrats Cæsar in early life indulged -in all the dissipations and vices of his class. The foppish negligence -of his attire proclaimed him a rake, while exorbitant luxuries, costly -entertainments, forbidden love-intrigues, gambling--in brief, the -indulging of a great variety of expensive tastes--exhausted his fortune -and loaded him with debts so portentous that he could never hope to pay -them by legal means. Through all these immoralities he kept a sound -mind and a body capable of extreme activity and endurance, though in -his later years he was subject to fainting and to epileptic fits. - -The clearness and quickness of his intelligence was such that he could -carry on several lines of thought and keep a number of stenographers[1] -occupied simultaneously with his dictations. These extraordinary mental -powers enabled him to master the most complex political situations -and on the battlefield to turn many a defeat into victory. For the -knowledge necessary to his manifold activities he devoured the contents -of a multitude of books on a great variety of subjects. He was an -orator of splendid power, a writer of clear and simple Latin, a man -of scientific taste, interested in the customs and character of the -peoples with whom he came in contact, and in the phenomena of nature; -a general with few equals in the world’s history, and a statesman -variously estimated by modern historians. - - [1] In that age stenography was a well-developed art, essential to - the work of a secretary. - -[Illustration: THE ROMAN FORUM (restored), northwest side] - -[Illustration: From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The Macmillan -Co., Publishers - -A ROMAN FEAST] - -At the beginning of his career he cast his lot with the popular party. -This policy meant little more than a preference for dealing with the -Assembly rather than with the Senate. In theory the Assembly comprised -all the citizens; practically it was attended by the idler members of -the populace. There was no democracy; for those citizens that lived too -far from Rome to attend the Assembly had no voice in the government, -and the vast majority of people in the empire were subjects. It was -expected that a leader of the popular party should propose to the -Assembly bills for the benefit of the masses of citizens, particularly -of the populace, and for checking the powers and privileges of the -aristocracy. - -Cæsar was by no means a believer in human equality. Speaking in early -life at the funeral of an aunt, he gave the following account of his -family’s genealogy: “My aunt Julia derived her lineage on her mother’s -side from a race of kings, and on her father’s side from the immortal -gods; for her mother’s family trace their origin to King Ancus Marcius, -and her father’s to Venus, of whose stock we are a branch. We unite in -our pedigree, accordingly, the sacred majesty of kings, who are the -most exalted among men, and the divine majesty of gods, to whom kings -themselves are subject.” Men of such pretensions could never descend to -the level of peasants and artisans, nor believe that the world would -benefit by popular rule. - -[Illustration: POMPEY - -In the Palazzo Spada, Rome] - - -_His Wars and His Consulship_ - -Through an attractive personality, political intrigue sometimes verging -dangerously on conspiracy, and the lavish use of borrowed money, Cæsar -rapidly made his way upward through the higher offices in the routine -order. In those times the surest avenue to political power was success -in military command; and for the years 61-60 B. C. Cæsar was appointed -governor of “Farther Spain.” On his arrival he found his province -at peace; but he managed to stir up trouble with some neighboring -tribes of mountaineers who were beyond the border of the empire. After -imposing upon them orders that they could not obey, he made war upon -them. They had little wealth to plunder, but he took captive great -numbers, whom he sold into slavery. As governor he found other ways -of making money, mostly illegal; so that he was able to reward his -soldiers, pay his huge debts, and have something left for the future. -In this policy he acted like former governors, but with greater -cleverness. - -[Illustration: JULIUS CÆSAR - -In the National Museum, Naples] - -Returning to Rome, he gained the Consulship, which was the highest -standing office (59 B. C.) There were two consuls; and his colleague -was Bibulus, a stupid person, who chanced to be a political -adversary. For the first time Cæsar was in a position to display -his statesmanship. Two great problems were pressing, the economic -improvement of the masses throughout the empire and their protection -from the greedy oppression of Roman officials. Against the obstruction -of his colleague Cæsar carried a law through the Assembly for the -division of large tracts of public land among the needier citizens--a -measure which brought him great popularity. Although it did nothing to -benefit the subjects, it was a step in the right direction. Another -law, worked out in great detail, aimed to prevent officers of the -empire from committing extortion upon the subjects. Though doubtless -well intended, this law proved ineffective because no one in power -cared to enforce it. Most of his consular year, however, he devoted to -winning influential friends and to securing for himself an opportunity -for further military exploits after the expiration of his Consulship. -The territory placed under his government for this purpose included -especially Cisalpine Gaul--substantially the Po Basin--and Narbonensis, -a strip of land extending along the southern coast of Gaul, now France. - -Disturbances beyond his borders gave him a pretext for war, which -lasted eight years (58-50 B. C.), and which resulted in the conquest -of Gaul. In accomplishing this end Cæsar employed his most brilliant -generalship, including lightning-like movements and daring strategy. -When we consider that he had had little experience in warfare, we must -regard his achievements as marvellous. The conquest was accompanied -by great cruelty to the conquered. On one occasion more than fifty -thousand captives were sold into slavery; on another he beheaded the -senators of a conquered community and sold all the people as slaves. -At another time he massacred an entire tribe, numbering more than four -hundred thousand men, women, and children. The plunder, and especially -the sale of captives, brought the victor enormous wealth, a part of -which he devoted to buying supporters at Rome. After overawing Gaul -with terrorism he adopted a policy of conciliation, by which he won the -fidelity of the survivors. Although in entering upon the conquest Cæsar -had merely his own aggrandizement in mind, he must in the end have come -to an appreciation of the value of the new province to the empire. Even -after the vast slaughter and enslavement of the bravest Gauls, the -survivors were full of vitality. The country was rich in agricultural -and mineral resources, and the Rhone River formed a convenient outlet -for the country’s products in the direction of Rome. This acquisition -added great strength to the empire, and prepared the ground for the -extension of Roman civilization into western and central Europe. The -conquest was, in fact, the greatest achievement of Cæsar’s genius. - -[Illustration: From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The Macmillan -Co., Publishers - -WARFARE IN CÆSAR’S TIME] - -[Illustration: ROMAN LEGIONARY SOLDIER - -From Duruy’s “History of Rome”] - -[Illustration: GALLIC SOLDIER] - -No sooner had he finished this work than he came to blows with the -Senate, which feared his towering ambition. A civil war ensued (49-45 -B. C.) The champion of the Senate was Pompey, who also had met with -great success in war. Though in appearance the struggle was between -Cæsar and the Republic, its real object was to determine which of the -two leading generals should be master of the Roman world. Pompey was -defeated and killed; and in the end Cæsar subdued the whole empire -to his will. He ruled as Dictator, appointed to that office by the -submissive Senate. - - -_His Reforms as Dictator_ - -[Illustration: ROMAN WORKS OF APPROACH - -Showing parts of a Gallic wall in which stones are intermixed with -beams] - -During the civil war and the year following its close Cæsar gave -attention to internal reforms. Humanely and prudently he forgave -political offenders, and associated with himself in the government -many who had fought against him in the war. He sought to reconcile old -hatreds and to introduce an era of good feeling. There can be no doubt -of his sympathy with the subject peoples. Those in authority in the -provinces were no longer to enrich themselves and their friends by -oppression, but were held strictly accountable to the Dictator. Roman -citizenship was a highly-prized possession, as it meant justice and an -enviable social standing to the possessor. Cæsar granted it freely to -individuals and to entire communities. Obviously, his aim was the rapid -equalization of all freemen of the empire. - -He took especial interest in public improvements at Rome. Among these -works was the completion of the temple to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva -on the Capitoline Hill. The earlier temple had been destroyed by fire, -and the construction of the new building required about thirty-six -years. This was the largest and most stately temple in the city. Cæsar -laid out a public square, named after his family the Julian Forum, in -which he erected a temple to Venus Genetrix (ancestress), from whom -he claimed descent. In it he placed a graceful statue of the goddess, -carved by Arcesilaus, the most famous sculptor of the age. It is a -remarkable example of clinging transparent drapery. In this public -exhibition of his descent from a goddess Cæsar boldly displayed his -egotism, which was further exalted by decrees of the Senate proclaiming -him a god. It was not till after his death, however, that a temple -was actually erected, at the east end of the Roman Forum, for his -worship.[2] The Curia, Senate House, Cæsar began to rebuild, but its -completion was left to Augustus, who named it the Curia Julia, after -the Julian family, to which Cæsar, and by adoption Augustus, belonged. -On the south side of the Forum he began the construction of the -Basilica Julia, afterward finished by Augustus. It was a great hall -intended for judicial and mercantile business. These are but a small -part of the vast improvements that he planned for Rome, Italy, and -the empire. The greater number remained mere schemes. To us the most -interesting was the cutting of a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth, -a work that has had to await the skill of the modern engineer. - - [2] The temple of the deified Cæsar, the ruins of which is pictured - in this number. - -As supreme pontiff Cæsar was the head of the state religion and -guardian of the sacred lore. In this capacity he reformed the -calendar, which in his day had fallen into dire confusion. The -improvement consisted essentially in the adoption of the Egyptian solar -year of 365¼ days. The Julian calendar remained in force throughout -the civilized world till 1582, when it was superseded by that of Pope -Gregory XIII, who introduced a more exact system. - -[Illustration: ROMAN FASCES - -Bundle of rods and axe bound together and borne before emperors and -other rulers as symbols of power] - -[Illustration: THE BASILICA JULIA--Roman Forum (restored)] - -[Illustration: A DENARIUS - -Stamped with the head of Cæsar. A denarius was a silver coin worth -about 20 cents] - - -_Personal Appearance, Friends and Character_ - -The Romans as a people belonged to the Mediterranean race, and the -great majority, therefore, were short and dark, like the Sicilians of -today. Cæsar, however, was tall and fair, with round, well-proportioned -limbs and black piercing eyes. His portraits on coins and in sculpture -show a spare face with a high, broad forehead inclined to baldness, -representing a physique too delicate to sustain the enormous activities -of his brain. To the end of his days he paid, perhaps, an excessive -attention to his personal appearance, and was especially gratified when -the Senate in his honor decreed him the privilege of wearing a laurel -wreath; for he found it a means of covering his baldness. There was in -his face and manner a frank sympathy that won the hearts of all those -that came into close touch with him; and in spite of brutal conquests -he developed an expression of gentleness and clemency mentioned by -writers of his age. - -The greatest of his contemporaries was Cicero, who by sheer energy and -ability had worked his way to the highest offices, and had rescued the -state from a dangerous conspiracy. Though he was a consummate political -orator, Cicero’s tastes lay chiefly in the direction of literary -and philosophic composition, pleasant country life, and association -with intellectual men. Cæsar tried to win him as a political ally; -but Cicero and those intimate associates that loved the Republic -feared Cæsar’s autocratic methods and ambition. This aloofness of the -intellectual class drove Cæsar to seek friends and helpers in the lower -ranks of society and among his subordinate military officers. Although -a few of these people served him faithfully, the great majority were -incompetent to fill the offices that he gave them, and were bent only -on shirking duty and enriching themselves. On such a basis no man, -however great, can build up a just and efficient system of government. - -[Illustration: CICERO - -In the Vatican Museum, Rome] - -[Illustration: CICERO - -In the Madrid Museum. Considered the most authentic marble portrait of -the great orator] - -[Illustration: From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The Macmillan -Co., Publishers - -POMPEY] - -In spite of many admirable qualities Cæsar shared fully in the moral -looseness of the age, which set at naught all marriage relations. -Not even his friends at Rome, nor friendly kings who gave him their -hospitality, could trust their wives to his honor. With Cleopatra, -queen of Egypt, he had associated in her capital; but he shocked even -his dissolute countrymen by bringing her to Rome and into his own house. - - -_An Imitation of Alexander_ - -[Illustration: POMPEY’S THEATER (restored) - -First theater in Rome built of stone] - -That Cæsar desired absolute power, not merely for his own enjoyment -but in the conviction that with it he could best serve the empire, -can hardly be disputed; but whether or not he wished the kingly title -no one can know. While he was in the Orient the glamor of Alexander’s -achievements seems to have overcome him; and under this spell he -neglected the work of improving the empire to plan the conquest of the -great Parthian kingdom, Rome’s only surviving rival. In this scheme the -conqueror got the better of the statesman. A motive to the new war, -in itself unnecessary, was to escape from the situation at Rome--from -flattery, intrigue, the incompetence of officials, from deadly though -silent envy and hatred, which were making his life every day more -unendurable. As the conqueror of Parthia he could overwhelm all -opposition and mold the empire as clay in the potter’s hands. For the -remainder of his days he could dwell serene on the pinnacle of glory; -and at his death, having no son of his own, he could bequeath the -regenerated world to his grandnephew Octavius, a youth of great promise -whom he had adopted as a son. - -[Illustration: CLEOPATRA - -In the Vatican Museum, Rome] - -From all that we can learn, however, success in the Parthian war -would have been a catastrophe to European civilization. In wealth and -population, in the resources of war and peace, the Oriental part of -the empire would have overbalanced the European. The capital would -have shifted to Alexandria or farther east; and Oriental absolutism -would have dominated the civilized world. Three centuries after Cæsar, -autocracy was to come even to Europe. It came with its bureaucratic -accompaniment to destroy the little that remained of economic strength -and intellectual freedom, and to drag to ruin the decaying civilization -of the ancient world. - -Cæsar, however, was not destined even to set out for Parthia. On March -15 (44 B. C.), the Senate met to take the last measures preparatory -to his departure. The place of session was the Senate House which -Pompey had built near his theater. Scarcely had Cæsar entered and taken -his seat when a throng of about sixty senators gathered round him, -pretending to greet him and to offer a petition. They were conspirators -who had engaged in a plot for his assassination, through no especial -love for the Republic, but for various personal reasons. Many had -gained office and wealth under his patronage; but in their greed for -greater wealth and political glory they lost all sense of gratitude. -The best among them was Marcus Brutus, in his own social circle a -philosopher and an idealist, but in business a hard, relentless usurer. -Caius Cassius, the brain of the conspiracy, was a plunderer of the -provinces and a robber of temples, whom envy drove into the plot. By -such men was Cæsar slain. It was a crime perpetrated upon the civilized -world, which had to endure thirteen more years of desolating civil -war (44-31 B. C.), before Octavius, the young heir to Cæsar, could -gain the mastery and bring the empire to peace. This young man, known -to history as Augustus, though less brilliant than his granduncle, -possessed a far greater degree of practical wisdom. It was he, rather -than Cæsar, who gave the Roman world an organization under which it was -to enjoy more than two centuries of prosperity and happiness. Viewed in -this light, the wisest act of the great Cæsar was the choice of this -youth of delicately modeled features and frail body as his son and -successor. - -[Illustration: OCTAVIUS - -Called “Augustus.” In the Vatican Museum, Rome] - -[Illustration: MARCUS BRUTUS - -In the National Museum, Naples. Found at Pompeii] - - * * * * * - -THE PASSING OF CÆSAR--“On March 15 (the Ides of March), 44 B. C., -Cæsar entered the Senate Chamber and took his seat. His presence awed -men, in spite of themselves, and the conspirators had determined to -act at once, lest they should lose courage to act at all. He was -familiar and easy of access. They gathered round him. He knew them -all. There was not one from whom he had not a right to expect some -sort of gratitude, and the movement suggested no suspicion. One had a -story to tell him; another some favor to ask. Tullius Cimber, whom he -had just made governor of Bithynia, then came close to him with some -request which he was unwilling to grant. Cimber caught his gown, as -if in entreaty, and dragged it from his shoulders. Cassius, who was -standing behind, stabbed him in the throat. He started up with a cry, -and caught Cassius’s arm. Another poinard entered his breast, giving a -mortal wound. He looked round, and seeing not one friendly face, but -only a ring of daggers pointing at him, he drew his gown over his head, -gathered the folds about him that he might fall decently, and sank -down without uttering another word. Cicero was present. Brutus, waving -his dagger, shouted to Cicero, congratulating him that liberty was -restored. The Senate rose with shrieks and confusion, and rushed into -the Forum. The crowd outside caught the words that Cæsar was dead and -scattered to their houses. The murderers, some of them bleeding from -wounds which they had given one another in their eagerness, followed, -crying that the tyrant was dead, and that Rome was free.”--_James -Anthony Froude._ - -[Illustration: THE FALLEN CONQUEROR - -A reproduction of the pen drawing of the figure of Cæsar made by the -painter Gérôme as a preliminary sketch for his great picture of the -assassination of Cæsar] - - -_SUPPLEMENTARY READING_: JULIUS CÆSAR, by G. Ferrero; JULIUS CÆSAR, -a sketch, by J. A. Froude; JULIUS CÆSAR, by W. W. Fowler (Heroes of -the Nations Series); JULIUS CÆSAR, by J. Abbott; LIFE OF CÆSAR, in -Plutarch’s Lives. - -⁂ Information concerning these books may be had on application to the -Editor of The Mentor. - - - - -_THE CONQUERORS_ - - -[Illustration: Copyright by Braun, Clement & Co. Original painting -owned by John Wanamaker - -THE CONQUERORS - -This powerful painting by Pierre Fritel pictures the grim progress of -the great conquerors of the world through an avenue of death lined by -the victims of the world’s wars. Cæsar rides in the center--beside and -behind are Tamerlane, Alexander, Attila, Charlemagne, Napoleon and -other world conquerors.] - -It is Human Desire that makes world history--desire for conquest, -possession, and control. The Conqueror of the World must have his will. -He treads the peoples of the earth under his feet, and spreads ruin in -his path. He knows no social distinctions--this Re-molder of Humanity. -The habitations of poor and rich alike are demolished, and the -treasured possessions of city and town desecrated. Monuments of revered -memory are razed to the ground, and new monuments to the Conqueror are -raised to the sky. Nations are subjugated; governments are revised; -territory is re-assigned; new laws are made. The people bow under the -yoke; the Conqueror is enthroned with pomp and ceremony, and hailed as -Master of the World. - -And then--something happens that saves the world for the people. Some -call it the “Hand of Fate”; those that live in the faith call it the -“Will of God.” But history tells us that final defeat awaits the man -that aspires to be Conqueror of the World. - - * * * * * - -Tamerlane, the Tartar tyrant, called “the Scourge of God,” swept the -hordes of Asia before him in world conquest. He died suddenly while -preparing to invade China. Alexander of Macedon, called “the Great,” -made himself master of the world of his day. He forestalled Fate by -dissipating his young life away, and died broken-hearted, sighing for -more worlds to conquer. Hannibal, the Carthaginian, carried the spirit -of conquest across the Mediterranean to Spain, Italy, and over the -Alps. He threatened Rome itself, and aspired to the overlordship of -land and sea. Finally, defeated by Scipio Africanus, he was exiled to -Syria, where, dishonored and deserted, he committed suicide. Julius -Cæsar conquered all Gaul, and carried the standards of Rome to far-off -Britain. The name of Cæsar became synonymous with conquest, so that -it has been borne by successive emperors for centuries, and is, even -in this day, the title of Imperialism. But Cæsar crossed the Rubicon, -“and Rome was free no more.” In the very fullness of his power he was -assassinated by his own senators, his friend Brutus among them. - -“As he was ambitious,” said Brutus, “I slew him. There is joy for his -fortune; honor for his valor; and _death_ for his ambition.” - -Napoleon Bonaparte gained leadership in France at a critical time, -reconstructed her shattered institutions, and built up a military -power that dominated all Europe. His ambition contemplated a personal -supremacy of the Continent, with vassal nations paying tribute to -his sovereignty. Beyond the bounds of Europe he carried conquest -into Egypt, riding his charger to the foot of the Pyramids. But his -over-weening ambition tempted him too far. As the crossing of the -Rubicon sealed the fate of Cæsar, the crossing of the Niemen marked the -beginning of Napoleon’s downfall. With the Grand Army of more than half -a million men, he invaded Russia, penetrating as far as Moscow. In a -few months, with a pitiful, broken and ragged remnant of his forces, -he recrossed the Niemen, minus glory and minus the trophies of war. -Soon after, Napoleon met his Waterloo, and ended his days in lonely -brooding, like an eagle chained to a rock, on the desolate island of -St. Helena. - - * * * * * - -_Sic transit gloria mundi_--“so passes away the glory of the world”; so -ends the career of the Conqueror. - -[Illustration: W. D. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Mentor: Julius Caesar, Vol. 6, Num. 2, Serial No. 150, March 1, 1918 - -Author: George Willis Botsford - -Release Date: February 2, 2016 [EBook #51110] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MENTOR: JULIUS CAESAR *** - - - - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<h1>THE MENTOR 1918.03.01, No. 150,<br /> -Julius Cæsar</h1> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 480px;"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="480" height="700" alt="Cover page" /> -</div> - -<div class="bbox" style="width: 25em; margin: auto;"> - -<p class="center gesperrt smaller">LEARN ONE THING<br /> -EVERY DAY</p> - -<p class="smaller noindent">MARCH 1 1918</p> - -<p class="right smaller noindent" style="margin-top: -2em;">SERIAL NO. 150</p> - -<p class="center"><span class="larger">THE<br /> -MENTOR</span><br /> -<br /> -JULIUS CÆSAR</p> - -<p class="center smaller">By<br /> -GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD</p> - -<p class="smaller noindent">DEPARTMENT OF<br /> -BIOGRAPHY</p> - -<p class="right smaller noindent" style="margin-top: -3em;">VOLUME 6<br /> -NUMBER 2</p> - -<p class="center smaller">TWENTY CENTS A COPY</p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="bbox-dashed"> - -<h2>The Real Julius Cæsar</h2> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> -<img src="images/book-small.jpg" width="30" height="30" alt="(decorative)" /> -<img src="images/book-small.jpg" width="30" height="30" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p>In person Cæsar was tall and slight. His features were -more refined than was usual in Roman faces; the -forehead was wide and high, the nose large and thin, -the lips full, the eyes dark gray like an eagle’s, the neck -extremely thick and sinewy. His complexion was pale. -His hair was short and naturally scanty, falling off toward -the end of his life and leaving him partially bald. His -voice, especially when he spoke in public, was high and shrill.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> -<img src="images/book-small.jpg" width="30" height="30" alt="(decorative)" /> -<img src="images/book-small.jpg" width="30" height="30" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p>His health was uniformly strong until his last year, -when he became subject to epileptic fits. He was -scrupulously clean in all his habits, abstemious in his -food, rarely or never touching wine, and noting sobriety -as the highest of qualities when describing any new -people. He was an athlete in early life, admirable in -all manly exercises, and especially in riding. From his -boyhood it was observed of him that he was the truest -of friends, that he avoided quarrels, and was most easily -appeased when offended. In manner he was quiet and -gentlemanlike, with the natural courtesy of high-breeding.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> -<img src="images/book-small.jpg" width="30" height="30" alt="(decorative)" /> -<img src="images/book-small.jpg" width="30" height="30" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p>He was singularly careful of his soldiers. He allowed his -legions rest, though he allowed none to himself. He -rarely fought a battle at a disadvantage. He never exposed -his men to unnecessary danger, and the loss by wear and tear -in the campaigns in Gaul was exceptionally and even astonishingly -slight. When a gallant action was performed, he -knew by whom it had been done, and every soldier, however -humble, might feel assured that if he deserved praise he -would have it. The army was Cæsar’s family.</p> - -<p class="right">JAMES ANTHONY FROUDE</p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 475px;"> - -<img src="images/plate1.jpg" width="475" height="650" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM, NAPLES</p> - -<p class="caption">JULIUS CÆSAR</p> - -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><i>JULIUS CÆSAR<br /> -<span class="smaller">The Career of Cæsar</span></i></h2> -</div> - -<p class="line"><span class="linebg">ONE</span></p> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-plain-g.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Gaius Julius Cæsar was born in 100 B. C. of old -patrician stock. In youth he received from Greek -masters the elements of their culture, including -astronomy, philosophy, and rhetoric. To complete -his oratorical studies he sailed for Rhodes, but on the way was -taken captive by pirates and held for ransom. This mishap -would have subjected him to ridicule, had -he not, on his release, manned a ship and -punished his captors. Returning to Rome, -he entered politics, the most ambitious -career open to fashionable young men. In -this vocation he had to pay his respects -to men of influence, plead cases at court, -and render financial or other assistance to -unfortunate clients; he had to call by -name and compliment all whom he met, -to entertain lavishly, and attend the -various social functions of all classes. -Above all he had to maintain a permanent -coterie of supporters to act as agents in -time of need.</p> - -<p>In 68 B. C. he reached the lowest rung -in the political ladder. This was the office -of quæstor, who had the handling of public -funds. Soon afterward as ædile, commissioner -of public works and games, his -magnificent entertainments won the good -will of the voters, and brought about his -election to the Supreme Pontificate. In -this capacity he directed the state religion, -and his person was esteemed sacred. It -was a great political advantage. Next he -was elected prætor, whose chief duty was -to preside over one of the criminal courts. -After a man had held the prætorship or -the consulship the Senate usually appointed -him as a proprætor or proconsul -to the government of a province. As proprætor -accordingly Cæsar governed Spain -in 61-60. Returning home in the latter -year, he formed a political ring, known as -the First Triumvirate, with Pompey, a -general who had gained splendid victories -in the Orient, and Crassus, the wealthiest -capitalist of the empire. This combination -secured the consulship for Cæsar for -the year 59. His opposition to the Senate -during this year, and his legislation in -the interest of the people made him very -popular. As proconsul (58-50) he conquered -Gaul. Meanwhile Crassus was -killed in battle; and Pompey, adopting the -cause of the Senate, prepared nominally -to defend the Republic; in fact, to rid -himself of a powerful rival. In the civil -war that followed the seasoned veterans -of the popular hero proved superior to the -forces of the Senate, most of them hastily -gathered from the farms. Thereupon the -Senate, shifting about, heaped honors and -triumphs upon the victor. As consul, -dictator, and supreme pontiff Cæsar was -virtually, though not in name, a king -(49-44). The power of the aristocracy -was broken, but its hatred lived and generated -a plot to kill the “enemy of the -Republic.” On March 15, 44, Cæsar fell, -stabbed with twenty-three wounds, at the -hands of erstwhile friends.</p> - -<p>Cæsar began his career as a politician, -but ended it as a statesman. His courage, -clemency, and personal charm won countless -friends. While costly entertainments -were a political necessity, his moderation -in private life earned the respect of Roman -society. A blue-blooded patrician, he -steadfastly championed the popular cause. -This policy alienated his own class, and -finally resulted in his death. His political -understanding developed hand in hand -with his patriotism. Better than his contemporaries, -he saw the economic and -social decay of the Republic, and felt that -inefficiency and corruption could be eradicated -in no other way than by a strong -monarchy. His own supremacy he -brought about with the minimum of -bloodshed. When once in power he vigorously -swept away the weaknesses and -oppression of aristocratic rule, and laid a -solid foundation for the future peace and -prosperity of the empire.</p> - -<p class="center smaller">PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION<br /> -ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150<br /> -COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> - -<img src="images/plate2.jpg" width="650" height="460" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">THE RIVER TIBER—IN THE TIME OF CÆSAR</p> - -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><i>JULIUS CÆSAR<br /> -<span class="smaller">The Roman Empire</span></i></h2> -</div> - -<p class="line"><span class="linebg">TWO</span></p> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-plain-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Through nearly four centuries of conquest and alliance -(400-44 B. C.) the Roman empire came to embrace -the entire Mediterranean region. After -Cæsar’s conquest of Gaul, it extended from the -Atlantic to the Euphrates, from the North Sea and Alps to the -Sahara. This vast area was organized into administrative -divisions, called provinces. Its very size -meant a heterogeneous population, scores -of peoples, each with its own language and -customs. In the east Greek had replaced -local tongues for literary, diplomatic, and -business purposes. In the west many dialects -remained: for Latin, though official, -was but gradually coming into universal -use.</p> - -<p>Life in the empire was mainly agricultural. -Tools were simple, if not primitive; -and only after a struggle could the peasant -produce enough to last until the next -harvest. Industries were largely domestic, -carried on at home, or in small shops -for local use. The eastern parts—Egypt, -Asia Minor, and western Asia—were far -wealthier. Here commerce and skilled -industries were more flourishing, though -by any modern estimate, on a small scale. -As there were no machines in the modern -sense, goods had to be made by hand. -The imperial roads were in excellent condition -but distances were long, travel was -slow, and transportation expensive, save -by water.</p> - -<p>When a new territory was incorporated -into the empire, it became a province. It -was placed in charge of a quæstor, who -controlled financial matters, and a general -executive called proprætor or proconsul—both -appointed annually by the -imperial government. The governor commanded -the army and acted as the highest -judge in his territory. The province was -divided into city-states, each of which retained -its laws and customs, its magistrates, -council, and popular assembly. -They managed their local affairs, and no attempt -was made to interfere in their religion. -Instead of rendering military service -they had to pay annual tribute. At auction -the highest bidders received contracts for -collecting taxes in the several cities.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately, abuses crept into provincial -rule. In the first place, Rome favored -her citizens at the expense of her subjects. -Native merchants were superseded -by greedy speculators and traders, who, -reducing the people to poverty, drove the -peasants from their farms and built up -vast estates of their own. The evil of -“farming” taxes became intolerable, for -avaricious contractors made the peasants -pay far more than their due. In his year -of service, too, the typical governor expected -to accumulate a fortune sufficient -(1) to pay political debts, (2) to bribe -judges in case of prosecution, (3) to live -in luxury the remainder of his life. Few -governors were honest enough to check -these wrongs. Furthermore, the wealthier -provinces were heavily overtaxed to help -pay the expense of governing the newly -acquired frontier provinces, which as a -rule were financial failures.</p> - -<p>These evils Cæsar went far in remedying. -He curtailed the system of “farming” -taxes, and placed it under strict -supervision. Thus capitalists were prevented -from openly plundering the subjects. -He appointed able, honest governors, -and held them to account. Legionary -commanders, too, appointed by him to -serve under the governor, and revenue -officials—his own servants and freedmen—saw -that his will was everywhere enforced. -The provinces, especially the -poorer ones, were to be cultivated and -improved. An attempt was made to -equalize the burden of taxation, and the -heavy drain on the eastern provinces was -lessened. Lastly, in order to abolish class -and national distinctions, and to weld together -the empire, Cæsar allowed himself -to be worshipped as a god, and adopted -the policy of rapidly granting citizenship -to provincials. In aiming to bring about -such an empire devoid of nationality -Cæsar followed the procedure of the great -Alexander, and set an example for his successor, -Napoleon.</p> - -<p class="center smaller">PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION<br /> -ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150<br /> -COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> - -<img src="images/plate3.jpg" width="650" height="460" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">THE ROMAN FORUM—IN THE TIME OF CÆSAR</p> - -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><i>JULIUS CÆSAR<br /> -<span class="smaller">Rome and Egypt</span></i></h2> -</div> - -<p class="line"><span class="linebg">THREE</span></p> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-plain-e.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Early in his career of conquest Alexander the Great -subdued Egypt and founded Alexandria (332 B. C.) -This country proved the most valuable part of his -vast realm, and afterward of the Roman Empire. -The valley of the Nile is exceedingly fertile, well watered as it -is from the river, and continually enriched by the alluvial -deposits from the yearly overflow. The -people were patient and laborious. For -thousands of years they had toiled like -slaves for their Pharaohs, whom they -looked upon as gods, and who owned all -the land and most of the wealth of the -kingdom. Naturally Alexander usurped -the property rights and the divine rights of -the Pharaohs; and ultimately when Egypt -fell as a kingdom, to his general, Ptolemy, -the latter succeeded to all these advantages. -For nearly three centuries Egypt -was ruled by the dynasty thus founded, -in which each king bore the name Ptolemy, -inherited from his father. The king was -proprietor, not only of all the land but -also of the extensive industrial plants and -shipping. As Alexandria was the greatest -manufacturing and commercial center -of the world, Ptolemy was far the wealthiest -capitalist. His military and civil officers -were Greeks; his soldiers were Greeks and -other foreigners; so that with his complex -military and administrative machine -he was able to govern the Egyptians as a -conquered people. In the eyes of the -kings they were mere producers of wealth; -the official language was Greek, and the -majority of sovereigns did not take the -pains to learn the native speech.</p> - -<p>At first remarkably competent, the -Ptolemies gradually declined in ability, -and even before the birth of Cæsar had -come to be subservient to Rome. We may -imagine with what longing the greedy -Roman oligarchs viewed this kingdom, -and how persistent was the agitation for -its conquest.</p> - -<p>Such an object Cæsar undoubtedly had -in view when he sailed against Alexandria -with the pretext of settling a dispute between -Ptolemy and his sister Cleopatra. -This fascinating woman convinced the -Roman general of the justice of her cause, -and was accordingly placed on the throne. -Their mutual infatuation became the gossip -of Rome when she afterward visited -that city. Though not beautiful, the -Egyptian queen was a charming woman. -A talented linguist, she could dispense -with an interpreter in dealing with her -subjects and with foreign princes. Fond of -music, literature, and art, she made a -pleasing hostess, while her gorgeous entertainments -captivated her guests. She was -gifted, too, with an instinct for the various -paths to men’s affections; and her melodious -voice and pretty ways won her desires -from the strongest of rulers. This -demoniac fascination, coupled with an ambition -to found a great empire, made her one -of the most powerful women in all history.</p> - -<p>After Cæsar’s death Octavianus (Octavius—called -Cæsar Augustus) remained at -Rome, while Antony governed the eastern -half of the empire. Soon he fell under the -spell of Cleopatra, and gladly married her -that he might become, without conquest, -king of Egypt. Political motives underlay -this romance: he wanted to add Egypt with -its vast wealth to his domain, while she, no -less ambitious, viewed the chaos at Rome as -an opportunity to secure for herself Antony’s -share of the empire. Octavianus -saw the will of Antony bending before his -consort’s superhuman fascination. Appreciating -the danger to Rome, he defeated -Antony in a naval battle, 31 B. C., sailed -to Egypt, and with little trouble captured -Alexandria. Seeing that all was lost, the -royal lovers committed suicide. Thus -fell the last glorious remnant of the Alexandrian -kingdom. Henceforth it was but -a part of the Roman world-state.</p> - -<p class="center smaller">PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION<br /> -ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150<br /> -COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> - -<img src="images/plate4.jpg" width="650" height="460" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">ON EXHIBITION AT STERN BROS., N. Y. CITY.</p> - -<p class="caption">CÆSAR CROSSING THE RUBICON, <span class="smcap">by J. L. Gérôme</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><i>JULIUS CÆSAR<br /> -<span class="smaller">Cæsar as Author and General</span></i></h2> -</div> - -<p class="line"><span class="linebg">FOUR</span></p> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-plain-n.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Nowhere is the versatility of Julius Cæsar more -clearly in evidence than in his literary accomplishments, -the majority of which unfortunately have -been lost. His scientific spirit is manifest in an -astronomical work, “Concerning the Stars,” which we do not -have, but which was doubtless connected with his reform of -the calendar. As an orator Cæsar was -famed for his precise use of language, good -taste, and vivacious, forcible style of delivery, -qualities as necessary to his political -career as to success in authorship. -The “Dialogue on Orators,” however, -though highly praised by Cicero, has disappeared, -likewise his treatise on Grammar. -The world no longer has his collection of -despatches and letters, many of them in -cipher, or his political pamphlets against -Cato, who had been eulogized as “the -martyr of the Republic,” or his “Collective -Sayings,” a veritable store-house of satirical -witticisms, or his many poems, with -the exception of a well-known criticism of -Terence, the playwright.</p> - -<p>We can only judge his varied literary -talents by his “Commentaries On the -Gallic War” in seven books, and “On the -Civil War” in three, known to all schoolboys -and college students. The former -dictated amidst anxiety and distraction -were intended to show his ability and -courage as a general, to justify the moderation -of his Gallic policy, and to forestall -attacks by political opponents. Written -in the third person, their modesty dispels -the suspicion of egoism, yet the author -knew how, without violating the truth and -without boasting, to display his merits to -the greatest possible advantage. The -language is simple and restrained yet -vigorous and clear. There are thrilling -moments, for example, in the description -of the ever-threatening danger of Sabinus, -or the exciting escape of Cicero, when the -fort of Aduatuca was endangered by a -swoop of German marauders. Throughout -the story the natives, with their inferior -civilization, their perfidies and duplicities, -are mere pigmies in the clutches -of a giant. Like an irresistible force of -nature, the great Roman tramples down -everything in his path.</p> - -<p>The same impassive restraint is shown -in the “Civil War.” The work contains -fewer thrilling events; but dramatic -movements like the crossing of the Rubicon, -grievances at the hands of his enemies, -and his frequent overtures for peace -seldom fail to awaken the reader’s sympathy. -The word “commentaries,” applied -to these books, signifies merely -“notes,” as the author himself regarded -them; but in the judgment of after ages -they are model historical narratives.</p> - -<p>From the “Commentaries,” too, we may -form an estimate of Cæsar the general. -In knowledge of the technical departments -of warfare he has had few superiors. -He knew how to enroll and organize vast -numbers of raw recruits, and to transform -them rapidly into trained military units. -The ease with which he overcame the -dangers and difficulties constantly confronting -him testify to his consummate -tactics and strategy. He was without a peer -in practical psychology—a prime factor in -successful generalship. This quality enabled -him to read and understand the feelings -of adversaries as well as of his own men. -He possessed coolness, too, and self-control -to an extraordinary degree, which -served to win the confidence and affection -of his troops, and to discourage panic and -disaster. He was, moreover, a just critic, -eager to praise, slow to blame. His inherent -generosity willingly recognized and -rewarded merit in officers and men. Cæsar -was especially fond of his centurions—the -flower of those who had risen from the -ranks. Often without political or family -ties, they fought and died for him alone. -Though of slight physique and generally -in poor health, through simple living and -sheer force of will Cæsar bore many -arduous campaigns, often marching on -foot with his men. It was this unfailing -vigor and resolution, manifesting itself in -acts of heroic daring, which gave courage -and moral determination to his forces.</p> - -<p class="center smaller">PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION<br /> -ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150<br /> -COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> - -<img src="images/plate5.jpg" width="650" height="380" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">PHOTOGRAPHED FROM A PRINT</p> - -<p class="caption">THE DEATH OF CÆSAR, <span class="smcap">by J L. Gérôme.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><i>JULIUS CÆSAR<br /> -<span class="smaller">Cæsar’s Associates and Opponents</span></i></h2> -</div> - -<p class="line"><span class="linebg">FIVE</span></p> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-plain-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The most distinguished of Cæsar’s contemporaries -was Cicero. With an exceptional education, he entered -politics, where, in spite of scant means and -ignoble ancestry, he finally attained to the consulship, -63 B. C. Throughout his career, an ardent supporter of -the Republic, he opposed the arbitrary rule of Cæsar; and in -the Civil War he favored the Senatorial -party. In the troubles following Cæsar’s -murder Cicero heroically defended the -Republic in many a brilliant oration; and -in this cause he sacrificed his life. Though -possessed of many noble qualities, his -vacillation, artistic temperament, and -supersensitiveness unfitted him for statesmanship.</p> - -<p>Cicero’s chief claims to greatness lie in -the fields of literature and philosophy. -He was a poet of no mean ability. His -“Orations,” with their kaleidoscopic range -of mood and choice of words, are the most -brilliant in the Latin language. The -painstaking labor required for this supreme -mastery of speech is shown in his rhetorical -works. His “Letters,” written in simple -style, lay bare a human heart, with -all its shortcomings and aspirations, while -through their wide range of topics they -bring the reader into intimate touch with -the spirit of the age. Of farther-reaching -influence are his works on political science -and philosophy. His “Republic” aims to -discover the best form of government, -and to examine into the foundations of -national prosperity. His many philosophic -writings set forth the various Greek -schools of thought, especially the Platonic -and the Stoic. Through the medium of -a diction so perfect as to make Latin the -universal language of culture for centuries -to come, Cicero successfully transplanted -Greek thought to Latin soil. Nor did his -influence cease there; from his philosophy -the Church fathers drew inspiration; and -in it centuries later the scholars of the -Renaissance first found the vitalizing -spark of Greek culture.</p> - -<p>Of Cæsar’s immediate associates, Cassius, -Brutus, and Antony are most interesting, -if only for their important rôles in -Shakespeare’s “Julius Cæsar.” Though -showered with offices, Cassius, a malcontent, -bore a grudge against Cæsar for being -his master, and began to plot against -him. He found many influential men, -who, jealous of Cæsar’s power, were themselves -anxious to divide the spoils of government. -To give the plot an air of -respectability, he won over Brutus, ostensibly -a student and man of letters, but at -heart an unfeeling usurer. Appointed -by Cæsar governor of Cisalpine Gaul and -prætor, Brutus became an assassin of his -benefactor.</p> - -<p>Among the three near associates of -Cæsar, Mark Antony was far the ablest, -and possessed the merit of remaining faithful -till the death of the benefactor. He -had filled many military and civil offices -with distinction, and was Cæsar’s colleague -in the consulship at the time of the -murder. Shortly before this event, at a -public festival, Antony offered Cæsar a -crown, alleging that it was from the people. -Although Cæsar would gladly have -welcomed any device for legitimizing his -rule, he refused the kingly title because of -its unpopularity.</p> - -<p>The assassination left Antony sole consul. -Having control of Cæsar’s papers and -property, he skilfully used these advantages -to make himself absolute. In a -clever oration at the funeral he turned the -feelings of the populace against the murderers, -who thereupon fled from Rome. -With young Octavianus (Octavius) he -patched up a temporary alliance, and in -combination they defeated the armies of -Brutus and Cassius in the two battles of -Philippi, 42 B. C. The beaten generals -committed suicide, and the victors -divided the empire between them, Antony -taking the East and Octavianus the West. -The later history of Antony is told in -connection with Cleopatra.</p> - -<p class="center smaller">PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION<br /> -ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150<br /> -COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> - -<img src="images/plate6.jpg" width="650" height="460" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">RUINS OF THE TEMPLE OF THE DEIFIED JULIUS CÆSAR—<span class="smcap">Roman Forum</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><i>JULIUS CÆSAR<br /> -<span class="smaller">The Portrait Sculpture and the Reproduction of Buildings in this -Number of The Mentor</span></i></h2> -</div> - -<p class="line"><span class="linebg">SIX</span></p> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-plain-i.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">In the Rome of Cæsar Hellenic influence was active, -not only in literature and philosophy, but also in -art. The Roman portrait sculpture of this period -reveals Greek knowledge and skill; but its essential -character was determined by native tradition. The earliest -Roman portraits were waxen death masks formed from a -moulding over the face. Hence they were -mechanically accurate but utterly devoid -of animation. Though this material has -perished, the visitor to the museums of -Rome will find in relief many a family -group in which the faces retain the mask-like -quality. Only in a slighter degree -does the principle apply to portrait sculpture -in the round. At its best the Republican -face accordingly is intensely realistic -yet with no intimation of the inner spirit. -Commonly the hair is indicated by parallel -scratches made by firm chisel strokes. -By these characteristics many busts and -statues may be easily dated. It should -be noticed, too, that in the Republican -age the portrait heads, as distinguished -from statues, include in addition to the -head scarcely more than the neck, and -that the bust is a gradual development -during the subsequent period. With this -criterion we are able to assign the Brutus -of this number of The Mentor to the -administration of Claudius, 41-54 A. D. -In the colossal portrait of Cæsar of the -National Museum at Naples the bust is a -modern restoration, and we may only cherish -the reasonable faith that the head is -genuine, though somewhat later than his -lifetime. The famous Cæsar of the British -Museum, comprising head and neck, would -satisfy the criterion here formulated, but -fails to pass another even more important -test. The indication of the pupil in the eye -was not devised till after Hadrian, 117-138 -A. D., and accordingly this head could be -no earlier. Recently it has been suggested, -with some reason, that the work is a modern -study. If so, it is a great success, as -it most admirably expresses the physique -and the character of the famous man.</p> - -<p>Another aid to identification is the circumstance -that a colossus could represent -no one but a preéminent person; and this -criterion favors the Neapolitan head of -Cæsar mentioned above. The colossus -statue in the Conservatori Palace seems -to be authentic, but was made a half century -or more after his death. The face is -fuller than the literary description or the -coins would warrant, but the difference -may well be due to idealization. The images -on coins are doubtless true likenesses, -but in the case of his sculptured portraits -we can only deal in probabilities.</p> - -<p>For Pompey we are in a less fortunate -condition. The colossal statue in the -Palazzo Spada, a detail of which is given -in this number, has long passed as the -image at the feet of which Cæsar met his -death; but the proof is insufficient, and it -seems at least as likely that it represents -an emperor. Other portraits are equally -uncertain. The Madrid bust of Cicero is -genuine, and well represents the orator’s -great intelligence with a momentary expression -of scorn. The better-known Vatican -head, the bust of which is modern, is -also genuine and stands second in merit. -For Cleopatra there are no certain sculptural -portraits. The reclining woman of -the Ariadne type has been mistaken for -her because of the snake, as she is known -to have died by the bite of an asp. The -illustration is given merely because it long -passed for Cleopatra and is a Greek work -of rare beauty. Her true image is shown -on coins.</p> - -<p>The various reproductions of edifices -are not creations of the fancy, but have -been carefully worked out by archæologists -from remains of buildings according to -the well established principles of architecture.</p> - -<p class="center smaller">PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION<br /> -ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150<br /> -COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="bordered"> - -<p class="center larger">THE MENTOR · DEPARTMENT OF BIOGRAPHY<br /> -MARCH 1, 1918</p> - -</div> - -<h2>JULIUS CÆSAR</h2> - -<p class="center">By GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Late Professor of History, Columbia University. Author of “Story of Rome,” -“History of Rome,” etc.</i></p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 30%;"> - -<p class="center"><i>MENTOR -GRAVURES</i></p> - -<p class="center smaller">JULIUS CÆSAR</p> - -<p class="center smaller">THE ROMAN FORUM -IN THE TIME OF -CÆSAR</p> - -<p class="center smaller">THE RIVER TIBER -IN THE TIME OF -CÆSAR</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> -<img src="images/book-small.jpg" width="30" height="30" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 30%;"> - -<p class="center"><i>MENTOR -GRAVURES</i></p> - -<p class="center smaller">CÆSAR CROSSING THE -RUBICON</p> - -<p class="center smaller">DEATH OF CÆSAR</p> - -<p class="center smaller">RUINS OF THE TEMPLE -OF THE DEIFIED -CÆSAR</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> -<img src="images/book-small.jpg" width="30" height="30" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 209px;"> - -<img src="images/illus15.jpg" width="209" height="300" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The Macmillan Co., Publishers</p> - -<p class="caption">JULIUS CÆSAR</p> - -</div> - -<p class="center smaller clearboth">Entered as second-class matter March 10, 1913, at the postoffice at New York, N. Y., under the act of March 3, 1879. Copyright, 1918, -by The Mentor Association, Inc.</p> - -<h3><i>Rome’s Conquest of the Civilized World</i></h3> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-italic-t.jpg" width="113" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">To understand the world in which Cæsar lived it is necessary -first to review the growth of the Roman Empire. Four hundred -years before the beginning of the Christian era Rome was a small -city, an independent state, it is true, but in possession of a territory -no larger than an American county. In a succession of wars -lasting through a century and a third (400-264 B. C.), she gained control -of the whole peninsula of Italy. In another century (264-167 B. C.), -through a new series of wars, she built up an empire that nearly surrounded -the Mediterranean Sea. This rapid expansion of power is one of the most -notable events in the world’s history. In the present number of The Mentor, -however, we are less concerned with the process of conquest than with its -result. When Rome subdued a foreign state, she exercised her right of war -in depriving it of a great part of its wealth, including money, land, and art -treasures, not only paintings and marbles, but -works of great intrinsic value in bronze, silver, -and gold. These confiscations and the subsequent -taxes levied by the imperial government, -together with the illegal exactions of officials, -tended to impoverish the world for the enrichment -of Rome and of the few citizens who monopolized -the offices. The conquest differentiated -the freemen of the empire into three distinct -classes: the few wealthy Romans, who governed -the world, the masses of Roman citizens who, -though in possession of the right to vote had -gained no advantage by the conquest, and the -subjects, barred from all share in the imperial -government and greatly oppressed by its officials.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 170px;"> - -<img src="images/illus16a.jpg" width="170" height="300" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">JULIUS CÆSAR</p> - -<p class="caption">In the Capitoline Museum, Rome</p> - -</div> - -<p>Rome became a great city with a population -of about a million, who had gathered from all -parts of the empire. Some had come as slaves, -others to seek their fortunes, while others had -been driven from the surrounding districts by the pinch of poverty. As -freemen could find little work in the city, there grew up a great mob of -idlers, who lived in large part on food doled out to them by the state as -the price of their votes.</p> - -<p>The ruling class was represented by the Senate, which was the chief -governing body. Generally the senators were the most cultured and -intelligent people at Rome; but they had all the faults of a narrow -plutocracy; through long enjoyment of wealth and power the class was -thoroughly corrupted and enfeebled. Hence the Senate proved incapable -of governing and protecting the empire and even of preventing -the frequent outbreaks of -anarchy in the capital.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus16b.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">TEMPLE OF JUPITER—CAPITOLINE</p> - -<p class="caption">As it appeared in the time of Cæsar</p> - -</div> - -<h3><i>Early Life of Cæsar</i></h3> - -<p>Such in brief was the -world in which Gaius Julius -Cæsar lived (100-44 -B. C.) Belonging to the -bluest-blooded aristocracy, -he began life with -all the advantages of -wealth and family repute. -As a boy and youth he -enjoyed the best education -of the time. It consisted -mainly in the study and -imitation of Greek writers, especially orators, in preparation for a -career as public speaker and statesman. Rome had derived her civilization -from Greece; and every business man or diplomatist had to speak -the Greek language, which was the chief medium of communication -throughout the Mediterranean world.</p> - -<p>In company with other young aristocrats Cæsar in early life indulged -in all the dissipations and vices of his class. The foppish negligence of -his attire proclaimed him a rake, while exorbitant luxuries, costly entertainments, -forbidden love-intrigues, gambling—in brief, the indulging of -a great variety of expensive tastes—exhausted his fortune and loaded -him with debts so portentous that he could never hope to pay them by -legal means. Through all these immoralities he kept a sound mind and -a body capable of extreme activity and endurance, though in his later -years he was subject to fainting and to epileptic fits.</p> - -<p>The clearness and quickness of his intelligence was such that he -could carry on several -lines of thought and -keep a number of stenographers<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> -occupied -simultaneously with -his dictations. These -extraordinary mental -powers enabled him -to master the most -complex political situations -and on the battlefield -to turn many a -defeat into victory. -For the knowledge -necessary to his manifold -activities he devoured -the contents of a multitude of books on a great variety of -subjects. He was an orator of splendid power, a writer of clear and -simple Latin, a man of scientific taste, interested in the customs and -character of the peoples with whom he came in contact, and in the -phenomena of nature; a general with few equals in the world’s history, -and a statesman variously estimated by modern historians.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> In that age stenography was a well-developed art, essential to the work of a secretary.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 400px;"> - -<img src="images/illus17.jpg" width="400" height="259" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">THE ROMAN FORUM (restored), northwest side</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 400px;"> - -<img src="images/illus18a.jpg" width="400" height="295" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The Macmillan Co., Publishers</p> - -<p class="caption">A ROMAN FEAST</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<p>At the beginning of his career he cast his lot with the popular party. -This policy meant little more than a preference for dealing with the -Assembly rather than with the Senate. In theory the Assembly comprised -all the citizens; practically it was attended by the idler members of the -populace. There was no democracy; for those citizens that lived too -far from Rome to attend the Assembly had no voice in the government, -and the vast majority of people in the empire were subjects. It was -expected that a leader of the popular party should propose to the Assembly -bills for the benefit -of the masses of citizens, -particularly of the populace, -and for checking -the powers and privileges -of the aristocracy.</p> - -<p>Cæsar was by no -means a believer in -human equality. Speaking -in early life at the -funeral of an aunt, he -gave the following account -of his family’s genealogy: -“My aunt Julia -derived her lineage on -her mother’s side from a -race of kings, and on -her father’s side from the immortal gods; -for her mother’s family trace their origin to -King Ancus Marcius, and her father’s to -Venus, of whose stock we are a branch. We -unite in our pedigree, accordingly, the sacred -majesty of kings, who are the most exalted -among men, and the divine majesty of gods, -to whom kings themselves are subject.” Men -of such pretensions could never descend to -the level of peasants and artisans, nor believe -that the world would benefit by popular rule.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 237px;"> - -<img src="images/illus18b.jpg" width="237" height="300" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">POMPEY</p> - -<p class="caption">In the Palazzo Spada, Rome</p> - -</div> - -<h3><i>His Wars and His Consulship</i></h3> - -<p>Through an attractive personality, political -intrigue sometimes verging dangerously on conspiracy, -and the lavish use of borrowed money, -Cæsar rapidly made his way upward through the higher offices in the -routine order. In those times the surest avenue to political power was -success in military command; and for the years 61-60 B. C. Cæsar was -appointed governor of “Farther Spain.” On his arrival he found his province -at peace; but he managed to stir up trouble with some neighboring -tribes of mountaineers who were beyond the border of the empire. After -imposing upon them orders that they could not obey, he made war upon -them. They had little wealth to plunder, but he took captive great -numbers, whom he sold into slavery. As governor he found other ways -of making money, mostly illegal; so that he was able to reward his -soldiers, pay his huge debts, and have something left for the future. In -this policy he acted like former governors, but with greater cleverness.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 175px;"> - -<img src="images/illus19a.jpg" width="175" height="300" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">JULIUS CÆSAR</p> - -<p class="caption">In the National Museum, Naples</p> - -</div> - -<p>Returning to Rome, he gained the Consulship, which was the highest -standing office (59 B. C.) There were two consuls; and his colleague -was Bibulus, a stupid person, who chanced to be a political adversary. -For the first time Cæsar was in a position to display his statesmanship. -Two great problems were pressing, the economic improvement of the -masses throughout the empire and their protection from the greedy -oppression of Roman officials. Against the obstruction of his colleague -Cæsar carried a law through the Assembly for the division of large tracts -of public land among the needier citizens—a measure which brought him -great popularity. Although it did nothing to benefit the subjects, it -was a step in the right direction. Another law, -worked out in great detail, aimed to prevent officers -of the empire from committing extortion upon the -subjects. Though doubtless well intended, this -law proved ineffective because no one in power -cared to enforce it. Most of his consular year, -however, he devoted to winning influential friends -and to securing for himself an opportunity for -further military exploits after the expiration of -his Consulship. The territory placed under his -government for this purpose included especially -Cisalpine Gaul—substantially the Po Basin—and -Narbonensis, a strip of land extending along the -southern coast of Gaul, now France.</p> - -<p>Disturbances beyond his borders gave him a -pretext for war, which lasted eight years (58-50 -B. C.), and which resulted in the conquest of -Gaul. In accomplishing this end Cæsar employed -his most brilliant generalship, -including lightning-like -movements and -daring strategy. When -we consider that he had -had little experience in -warfare, we must regard -his achievements as marvellous. -The conquest -was accompanied by -great cruelty to the conquered. -On one occasion -more than fifty thousand -captives were sold into -slavery; on another he -beheaded the senators of -a conquered community -and sold all the people as slaves. At another -time he massacred an entire tribe, numbering -more than four hundred thousand men, -women, and children. The plunder, and -especially the sale of captives, brought the -victor enormous wealth, a part of which he -devoted to buying supporters at Rome. -After overawing Gaul with terrorism he -adopted a policy of conciliation, by which -he won the fidelity of the survivors. Although -in entering upon the conquest Cæsar -had merely his own aggrandizement in mind, -he must in the end have come to an appreciation -of the value of the new province to -the empire. Even after the vast slaughter -and enslavement of the bravest Gauls, the -survivors were full of vitality. The country -was rich in agricultural and mineral resources, -and the Rhone River formed a convenient -outlet for the country’s products in the direction of Rome. This acquisition -added great strength to the empire, and prepared the ground for the -extension of Roman civilization into western and central Europe. The -conquest was, in fact, the greatest achievement of Cæsar’s genius.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 400px;"> - -<img src="images/illus19b.jpg" width="400" height="300" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The Macmillan Co., Publishers</p> - -<p class="caption">WARFARE IN CÆSAR’S TIME</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 211px;"> - -<img src="images/illus20a.jpg" width="211" height="300" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">ROMAN LEGIONARY SOLDIER</p> - -<p class="caption">From Duruy’s “History of Rome”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus20b.jpg" width="300" height="274" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">GALLIC SOLDIER</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<p>No sooner had he finished this work than he came to blows with -the Senate, which feared his towering ambition. A civil war ensued -(49-45 B. C.) The champion of the Senate was Pompey, who also -had met with great success in war. Though in appearance the struggle -was between Cæsar and the Republic, its real object was to determine -which of the two leading generals should be master of the Roman -world. Pompey was defeated and killed; and in the end Cæsar subdued -the whole empire to his will. He ruled as Dictator, appointed to -that office by the submissive Senate.</p> - -<h3><i>His Reforms as Dictator</i></h3> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus21a.jpg" width="300" height="251" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">ROMAN WORKS OF APPROACH</p> - -<p class="caption">Showing parts of a Gallic wall in which stones are intermixed -with beams</p> - -</div> - -<p>During the civil war and the year -following its close Cæsar gave attention -to internal reforms. Humanely and -prudently he forgave political offenders, -and associated with himself in the government -many who had fought against -him in the war. He sought to reconcile -old hatreds and to introduce an era of -good feeling. There can be no doubt of -his sympathy with the subject peoples. -Those in authority in the provinces were -no longer to enrich themselves and their -friends by oppression, but were held strictly accountable to the Dictator. -Roman citizenship was a highly-prized possession, as it meant justice and -an enviable social standing to the possessor. Cæsar granted it freely to -individuals and to entire communities. Obviously, his aim was the rapid -equalization of all freemen of the empire.</p> - -<p>He took especial interest in public improvements at Rome. Among -these works was the completion of the temple to Jupiter, Juno, and -Minerva on the Capitoline Hill. The earlier temple had been destroyed -by fire, and the construction of the new building required about thirty-six -years. This was the largest and most stately temple in the city. -Cæsar laid out a public square, named after his family the Julian Forum, -in which he erected a temple to Venus -Genetrix (ancestress), from whom he -claimed descent. In it he placed a -graceful statue of the goddess, carved -by Arcesilaus, the most famous sculptor -of the age. It is a remarkable -example of clinging transparent -drapery. In this public exhibition -of his descent from a goddess Cæsar -boldly displayed his egotism, which -was further exalted by decrees of the -Senate proclaiming him a god. It -was not till after his death, however, -that a temple was actually erected, -at the east end of the Roman Forum, -for his worship.<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> The Curia, Senate -House, Cæsar began to rebuild, but -its completion was left to Augustus, who named it the Curia Julia, after -the Julian family, to which Cæsar, and by adoption Augustus, belonged. On -the south side of the Forum he began the construction of the Basilica Julia, -afterward finished by Augustus. It was a great hall intended for judicial -and mercantile business. These -are but a small part of the vast -improvements that he planned -for Rome, Italy, and the empire. -The greater number remained -mere schemes. To us the most interesting -was the cutting of a canal -through the Isthmus of Corinth, -a work that has had to await the -skill of the modern engineer.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The temple of the deified Cæsar, the ruins of which -is pictured in this number.</p> - -</div> - -<p>As supreme pontiff Cæsar was -the head of the state religion and -guardian of the sacred lore. In -this capacity he reformed the calendar, -which in his day had fallen into -dire confusion. The improvement -consisted essentially in the adoption -of the Egyptian solar year of 365¼ -days. The Julian calendar remained -in force throughout the civilized -world till 1582, when it was superseded -by that of Pope Gregory XIII, -who introduced a more exact system.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus21b.jpg" width="300" height="196" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">ROMAN FASCES</p> - -<p class="caption">Bundle of rods and axe bound together and borne before -emperors and other rulers as symbols of power</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus22a.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">THE BASILICA JULIA—Roman Forum (restored)</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 200px;"> - -<img src="images/illus22b.jpg" width="200" height="200" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">A DENARIUS</p> - -<p class="caption">Stamped with the head -of Cæsar. A denarius -was a silver coin worth -about 20 cents</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<h3><i>Personal Appearance, Friends -and Character</i></h3> - -<p>The Romans as a people belonged to the Mediterranean -race, and the great majority, therefore, were short -and dark, like the Sicilians of today. Cæsar, however, -was tall and fair, with round, well-proportioned limbs -and black piercing eyes. His portraits on coins and in -sculpture show a spare face with a high, broad forehead -inclined to baldness, representing a physique too delicate -to sustain the enormous activities of his brain. To the -end of his days he paid, perhaps, an excessive attention -to his personal appearance, and was especially gratified -when the Senate in his honor decreed him the privilege of wearing a laurel -wreath; for he found it a means of covering his baldness. There was in -his face and manner a frank sympathy that won the hearts of all those -that came into close touch with him; and in spite of brutal conquests -he developed an expression of gentleness and clemency mentioned by -writers of his age.</p> - -<p>The greatest of his contemporaries was Cicero, who by sheer energy -and ability had worked his way to the highest offices, and had rescued the -state from a dangerous conspiracy. Though -he was a consummate political orator, Cicero’s -tastes lay chiefly in the direction of literary -and philosophic composition, pleasant country -life, and association with intellectual men. -Cæsar tried to win him as a political ally; -but Cicero and those intimate associates that -loved the Republic feared Cæsar’s autocratic -methods and ambition. This aloofness of -the intellectual class drove Cæsar to seek -friends and helpers in the lower ranks of society -and among his subordinate military officers. -Although a few of these people served him -faithfully, the great majority were incompetent -to fill the offices that he gave them, and -were bent only on shirking duty and enriching -themselves. On such a basis no man, however -great, can build up a just and efficient system of -government.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 256px;"> - -<img src="images/illus22c.jpg" width="256" height="300" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">CICERO</p> - -<p class="caption">In the Vatican Museum, Rome</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 173px;"> - -<img src="images/illus23a.jpg" width="173" height="300" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">CICERO</p> - -<p class="caption">In the Madrid Museum. Considered -the most authentic marble -portrait of the great orator</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 200px;"> - -<img src="images/illus23b.jpg" width="200" height="300" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The -Macmillan Co., Publishers</p> - -<p class="caption">POMPEY</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<p>In spite of many admirable qualities Cæsar -shared fully in the moral looseness of the age, -which set at naught all marriage relations. Not -even his friends at Rome, nor friendly kings -who gave him their hospitality, could trust their -wives to his honor. With Cleopatra, queen of -Egypt, he had associated in her capital; but -he shocked even his dissolute countrymen by -bringing her to Rome and into his own house.</p> - -<h3><i>An Imitation of -Alexander</i></h3> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus23c.jpg" width="300" height="207" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">POMPEY’S THEATER (restored)</p> - -<p class="caption">First theater in Rome built of stone</p> - -</div> - -<p>That Cæsar desired -absolute power, not -merely for his own enjoyment -but in the conviction that with it he -could best serve the empire, can hardly be disputed; -but whether or not he wished the kingly -title no one can know. While he was in the -Orient the glamor of Alexander’s achievements -seems to have overcome him; and under this -spell he neglected the work of improving the -empire to plan the conquest of the great Parthian -kingdom, Rome’s only surviving rival. In this -scheme the conqueror got the better of the -statesman. A motive to the new war, in itself -unnecessary, was to escape -from the situation at Rome—from -flattery, intrigue, the incompetence -of officials, from -deadly though silent envy and -hatred, which were making his -life every day more unendurable. -As the conqueror of Parthia -he could overwhelm all -opposition and mold the empire -as clay in the potter’s -hands. For the remainder of -his days he could dwell serene -on the pinnacle of glory; and -at his death, having no son of -his own, he could bequeath -the regenerated world to his -grandnephew Octavius, a -youth of great promise whom -he had adopted as a son.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus24a.jpg" width="300" height="191" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">CLEOPATRA</p> - -<p class="caption">In the Vatican Museum, Rome</p> - -</div> - -<p>From all that we can learn, -however, success in the Parthian -war would have been a -catastrophe to European civilization. -In wealth and population, -in the resources of war -and peace, the Oriental part -of the empire would have -overbalanced the European. -The capital would have shifted to Alexandria or farther east; and Oriental -absolutism would have dominated the civilized world. Three centuries -after Cæsar, autocracy was to come even to Europe. It came with its -bureaucratic accompaniment to destroy the little that remained of economic -strength and intellectual freedom, and to drag to ruin the decaying -civilization of the ancient world.</p> - -<p>Cæsar, however, was not destined even to set out for Parthia. On -March 15 (44 B. C.), the Senate met to take the last measures preparatory -to his departure. The place of session was the Senate House which Pompey -had built near his theater. Scarcely had Cæsar entered and taken -his seat when a throng of about sixty senators gathered round him, pretending -to greet him and to offer a petition. They were conspirators -who had engaged in a plot for his assassination, -through no especial love for the Republic, -but for various personal reasons. Many -had gained office and wealth under his -patronage; but in their greed for greater -wealth and political glory they lost all sense -of gratitude. The best among them was -Marcus Brutus, in his own social circle a -philosopher and an idealist, but in business -a hard, relentless usurer. Caius Cassius, -the brain of the conspiracy, was a plunderer -of the provinces and a robber of temples, -whom envy drove into the plot. By such -men was Cæsar slain. It was a crime -perpetrated upon the civilized world, which -had to endure thirteen more years of desolating -civil war (44-31 B. C.), before Octavius, -the young heir to Cæsar, could gain -the mastery and bring the empire to peace. -This young man, known to history as Augustus, -though less brilliant than his granduncle, possessed -a far greater degree of practical wisdom. It was -he, rather than Cæsar, who gave the Roman world -an organization under which it was to enjoy more -than two centuries of prosperity and happiness. -Viewed in this light, the wisest act of the great Cæsar -was the choice of this youth of delicately modeled -features and frail body as his son and successor.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 230px;"> - -<img src="images/illus24b.jpg" width="230" height="300" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">OCTAVIUS</p> - -<p class="caption">Called “Augustus.” In the Vatican Museum, -Rome</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 188px;"> - -<img src="images/illus25a.jpg" width="188" height="300" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">MARCUS BRUTUS</p> - -<p class="caption">In the National Museum, Naples. -Found at Pompeii</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/stars.jpg" width="100" height="19" alt="(decorative)" /> -<img src="images/stars.jpg" width="100" height="19" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Passing of Cæsar</span>—“On March 15 (the Ides of -March), 44 B. C., Cæsar entered the Senate Chamber and -took his seat. His presence awed men, in spite of themselves, -and the conspirators had determined to act at once, lest they -should lose courage to act at all. He was familiar and easy -of access. They gathered round him. He knew them all. -There was not one from whom he had not a right to expect -some sort of gratitude, and the movement suggested no -suspicion. One had a story to tell him; another some favor -to ask. Tullius Cimber, whom he had just made governor of Bithynia, then came close to -him with some request which he was unwilling to grant. Cimber caught his gown, as if in -entreaty, and dragged it from his shoulders. Cassius, who was standing behind, stabbed -him in the throat. He started up with a cry, and caught Cassius’s arm. Another -poinard entered his breast, giving a mortal wound. He looked round, and seeing not one -friendly face, but only a ring of daggers pointing at him, he drew his gown over his -head, gathered the folds about him that he might fall decently, and sank down without -uttering another word. Cicero was present. Brutus, waving his dagger, shouted to -Cicero, congratulating him that liberty was restored. The Senate rose with shrieks -and confusion, and rushed into the Forum. The crowd outside caught the words that -Cæsar was dead and scattered to their houses. The murderers, some of them bleeding -from wounds which they had given one another in their eagerness, followed, crying -that the tyrant was dead, and that Rome was free.”—<i>James Anthony Froude.</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> - -<img src="images/illus25b.jpg" width="500" height="191" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">THE FALLEN CONQUEROR</p> - -<p class="caption">A reproduction of the pen drawing of the figure of Cæsar made by the painter Gérôme as a preliminary -sketch for his great picture of the assassination of Cæsar</p> - -</div> - -<div class="smaller"> - -<p class="noindent"><i>SUPPLEMENTARY READING</i>: JULIUS CÆSAR, by G. Ferrero; JULIUS CÆSAR, a sketch, by -J. A. Froude; JULIUS CÆSAR, by W. W. Fowler (Heroes of the Nations Series); JULIUS CÆSAR, -by J. Abbott; LIFE OF CÆSAR, in Plutarch’s Lives.</p> - -<p class="center">⁂ Information concerning these books may be had on application to the Editor of The Mentor.</p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="bordered"> - -<h2 class="gesperrt"><i>THE CONQUERORS</i></h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> - -<img src="images/illus26.jpg" width="400" height="261" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">Copyright by Braun, Clement & Co. Original painting owned by John Wanamaker</p> - -<p class="caption">THE CONQUERORS</p> - -<p class="caption">This powerful painting by Pierre Fritel pictures the grim progress -of the great conquerors of the world through an avenue of death -lined by the victims of the world’s wars. Cæsar rides in the center—beside -and behind are Tamerlane, Alexander, Attila, Charlemagne, -Napoleon and other world conquerors.</p> - -</div> - -<p>It is Human Desire that makes world -history—desire for conquest, possession, -and control. The Conqueror of the World -must have his will. He treads the peoples -of the earth under his feet, and spreads -ruin in his path. He knows no social distinctions—this -Re-molder of Humanity. -The habitations of poor and rich alike are -demolished, and the treasured possessions -of city and town desecrated. Monuments -of revered -memory are -razed to the -ground, and new -monuments to -the Conqueror -are raised to the -sky. Nations are -subjugated; governments -are revised; -territory -is re-assigned; -new laws are -made. The people -bow under -the yoke; the -Conqueror is enthroned -with -pomp and ceremony, -and hailed -as Master of the -World.</p> - -<p>And then—something happens that saves -the world for the people. Some call it the -“Hand of Fate”; those that live in the faith -call it the “Will of God.” But history tells -us that final defeat awaits the man that -aspires to be Conqueror of the World.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> -<img src="images/stars.jpg" width="100" height="19" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p>Tamerlane, the Tartar tyrant, called -“the Scourge of God,” swept the hordes -of Asia before him in world conquest. -He died suddenly while preparing to invade -China. Alexander of Macedon, -called “the Great,” made himself master -of the world of his day. He forestalled -Fate by dissipating his young life away, -and died broken-hearted, sighing for -more worlds to conquer. Hannibal, the -Carthaginian, carried the spirit of conquest -across the Mediterranean to Spain, -Italy, and over the Alps. He threatened -Rome itself, and aspired to the overlordship -of land and sea. Finally, defeated by -Scipio Africanus, he was exiled to Syria, -where, dishonored and deserted, he committed -suicide. Julius Cæsar conquered all -Gaul, and carried the standards of Rome -to far-off Britain. The name of Cæsar became -synonymous with conquest, so that -it has been borne by successive emperors -for centuries, and is, even in this day, -the title of Imperialism. But Cæsar crossed -the Rubicon, “and Rome was free no -more.” In the very fullness of his -power he was assassinated by his own -senators, his friend Brutus among them.</p> - -<p>“As he was -ambitious,” said -Brutus, “I slew -him. There is joy -for his fortune; -honor for his -valor; and <i>death</i> -for his ambition.”</p> - -<p>Napoleon -Bonaparte -gained leadership -in France at -a critical time, -reconstructed -her shattered institutions, -and -built up a military -power that -dominated all -Europe. His ambition -contemplated -a personal -supremacy of the Continent, with -vassal nations paying tribute to his -sovereignty. Beyond the bounds of -Europe he carried conquest into Egypt, -riding his charger to the foot of the Pyramids. -But his over-weening ambition -tempted him too far. As the crossing of -the Rubicon sealed the fate of Cæsar, -the crossing of the Niemen marked the -beginning of Napoleon’s downfall. With -the Grand Army of more than half a -million men, he invaded Russia, penetrating -as far as Moscow. In a few -months, with a pitiful, broken and ragged -remnant of his forces, he recrossed -the Niemen, minus glory and minus the -trophies of war. Soon after, Napoleon -met his Waterloo, and ended his days in -lonely brooding, like an eagle chained to -a rock, on the desolate island of St. Helena.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> -<img src="images/stars.jpg" width="100" height="19" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p><i>Sic transit gloria mundi</i>—“so passes -away the glory of the world”; so ends -the career of the -Conqueror.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/signature.jpg" width="200" height="94" alt="(signature)" /> - -<p class="caption">W. D. Moffat<br /> -<span class="smcap">Editor</span></p> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="bbox-dashed"> - -<p class="center larger">Let Your Friends Share the -Privilege of Membership in -The Mentor Association</p> - -<p class="center">The Course for One Year Provides:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="hanging">1—A growing library of the world’s knowledge—twenty-four -numbers a year.</p> - -<p class="hanging">2—A beautiful art collection for the home—one -hundred and forty-four art prints -in sepia gravure and color.</p> - -<p class="hanging">3—One hundred and forty-four crisp monographs—one -to accompany each Mentor -Gravure.</p> - -<p class="hanging">4—A reading course throughout the year.</p> - -<p class="hanging">5—An education for all the family, under -the direction of the foremost educators -in this country—in art, literature, science, -history, nature, and travel.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="center">Send the names of three friends whom you wish -to nominate for membership, and to whom you -would like to have us send presentation copies of -THE MENTOR.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p class="center larger"><span class="smcap">The Mentor Association</span></p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="noindent">ESTABLISHED FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A POPULAR INTEREST -IN ART, LITERATURE, SCIENCE, HISTORY, NATURE, AND TRAVEL</p> - -</div> - -<p class="center">THE MENTOR IS PUBLISHED TWICE A MONTH</p> - -<p class="noindent">BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC., AT 114 EAST 16TH STREET, NEW YORK, N. Y. -SUBSCRIPTION, FOUR DOLLARS A YEAR. FOREIGN POSTAGE 75 CENTS EXTRA. -CANADIAN POSTAGE 50 CENTS EXTRA. SINGLE COPIES TWENTY CENTS. PRESIDENT, -THOMAS H. BECK; VICE-PRESIDENT, WALTER P. TEN EYCK; SECRETARY, W. -D. MOFFAT; TREASURER, J. S. CAMPBELL; ASSISTANT TREASURER AND ASSISTANT -SECRETARY, H. A. CROWE.</p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p class="center larger">THE MENTOR</p> - -<p class="noindent">DO YOU KNOW During the past few months more than 400,000 previous issues -of The Mentor have been purchased by the members of the -rapidly growing Mentor Association. The idea of “Learning One Thing Every Day” is conveyed -just as much through the previous issues of The Mentor, as it is through the current -numbers. The foundation of The Mentor has been laid on things that are worth while, -which gives them great permanent value. In reading through the list you are going to find -a very large number of titles covering subjects that are of the keenest interest to you.</p> - -<p class="noindent">It would be next to impossible for you to obtain this compact information with the -attractive illustrations, from any other source.</p> - -<p class="noindent">If you will make a selection at once of ten numbers that appeal to you most strongly—giving -the serial numbers only (on a post-card) we will send them to you immediately—all -charges paid—and send you a bill for the full amount, $2.00—which you can pay -any time within 30 days. We urge you to act NOW.</p> - -<ul> -<li>1 Beautiful Children in Art, by Kobbé.</li> -<li>2 Makers of American Poetry, by Mable.</li> -<li>3 Washington the Capital, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>4 Beautiful Women in Art, by Willing.</li> -<li>5 Romantic Ireland, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>6 Masters of Music, by Henderson.</li> -<li>7 Natural Wonders of America, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>8 Pictures We Love to Live With, by Huneker.</li> -<li>9 The Conquest of the Peaks, by Fay.</li> -<li>10 Scotland, the Land of Song and Scenery, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>11 Cherubs in Art, by Kobbé.</li> -<li>12 Statues with a Story, by Lorado Taft.</li> -<li>13 The Discoverers, by Albert Bushnell Hart.</li> -<li>14 London, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>15 The Story of Panama, by Bonsal.</li> -<li>16 American Birds of Beauty, by E. H. Forbush.</li> -<li>17 Dutch Masterpieces, by Van Dyke.</li> -<li>18 Paris, the Incomparable, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>19 Flowers of Decoration, by H. S. Adams.</li> -<li>20 Makers of American Humor, by Burges Johnson.</li> -<li>21 American Sea Painters, by Arthur Hoeber.</li> -<li>22 The Explorers, by Hart.</li> -<li>23 Sporting Vacations, by Beard.</li> -<li>24 Switzerland, the Land of Scenic Splendors, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>25 American Novelists, by Mabie.</li> -<li>26 American Landscape Painters, by Samuel Isham.</li> -<li>27 Venice, the Island City, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>28 The Wife in Art, by Kobbé.</li> -<li>29 Great American Inventors, by Bruce.</li> -<li>30 Furniture and Its Makers, by Richards.</li> -<li>31 Spain and Gibraltar, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>32 Historic Spots of America, by McElroy.</li> -<li>33 Beautiful Buildings of the World, by Ward.</li> -<li>34 Game Birds of America, by E. H. Forbush.</li> -<li>35 The Contest for North America, by Hart.</li> -<li>36 Famous American Sculptors, by Lorado Taft.</li> -<li>37 The Conquest of the Poles, by Rear Admiral Peary.</li> -<li>38 Napoleon, by Ida M. Tarbell.</li> -<li>39 The Mediterranean, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>40 Angels In Art, by Van Dyke.</li> -<li>41 Famous Composers, by Henry T. Finck.</li> -<li>42 Egypt, the Land of Mystery, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>43 The Revolution, by Albert Bushnell Hart.</li> -<li>44 Famous English Poets, by Mabie.</li> -<li>45 Makers of American Art, by J. T. Willing.</li> -<li>46 The Ruins of Rome, by Botsford.</li> -<li>47 Makers of Modern Opera, by H. E. Krehbiel.</li> -<li>48 Two Early German Painters—Dürer and Holbein, by F. J. Mather, Jr.</li> -<li>49 Vienna, the Queen City, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>50 Ancient Athens, by Botsford.</li> -<li>51 The Barbizon School, by Hoeber.</li> -<li>52 Abraham Lincoln, by Hart.</li> -<li>53 George Washington, by McElroy.</li> -<li>54 Mexico, by Frederick Palmer.</li> -<li>55 Famous American Women Painters, by Arthur Hoeber.</li> -<li>56 The Conquest of the Air, by Woodhouse.</li> -<li>57 Court Painters of France, by Coffin, N. A.</li> -<li>58 Holland, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>59 Our Feathered Friends, by E. H. Forbush.</li> -<li>60 Glacier National Park, by Hornaday.</li> -<li>61 Michelangelo, by Cox.</li> -<li>62 American Colonial Furniture, by Esther Singleton.</li> -<li>63 American Wild Flowers, by Eaton.</li> -<li>64 Gothic Architecture, by Ward.</li> -<li>65 The Story of the Rhine, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>66 Shakespeare, by Mabie.</li> -<li>67 American Mural Painters, by Hoeber.</li> -<li>68 Celebrated Animal Characters, by Hornaday.</li> -<li>69 Japan, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>70 The Story of the French Revolution, by Albert Bushnell Hart.</li> -<li>71 Rugs and Rug Making, by Mumford.</li> -<li>72 Alaska, by Browne.</li> -<li>73 Charles Dickens, by Mabie.</li> -<li>74 Grecian Masterpieces, by Lorado Taft.</li> -<li>75 Fathers of the Constitution, by Albert Bushnell Hart.</li> -<li>76 Masters of the Piano, by Finck.</li> -<li>77 American Historic Homes, by Esther Singleton.</li> -<li>78 Beauty Spots of India, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>79 Etchers and Etching, by Frank Weitenkampf.</li> -<li>80 Oliver Cromwell, by Albert Bushnell Hart.</li> -<li>81 China, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>82 Favorite Trees, by Hornaday.</li> -<li>83 Yellowstone National Park, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>84 Famous Women Writers of England, by Mabie.</li> -<li>85 Painters of Western Life, by Hoeber.</li> -<li>86 China and Pottery of Our Forefathers, by Esther Singleton.</li> -<li>87 The Story of The American Railroad, by Albert Bushnell Hart.</li> -<li>88 Butterflies, by Holland.</li> -<li>89 The Philippine Islands, by Worcester.</li> -<li>90 Great Galleries of the World—the Louvre, by Van Dyke.</li> -<li>91 William M. Thackeray, by Mabie.</li> -<li>92 The Grand Canyon, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>93 Architecture in American Country Homes, by Embury.</li> -<li>94 The Story of the Danube, by Albert Bushnell Hart.</li> -<li>95 Animals in Art, by Kobbé.</li> -<li>96 The Holy Land, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>97 John Milton, by Mabie.</li> -<li>98 Joan of Arc, by Ida M. Tarbell.</li> -<li>99 Furniture of the Revolutionary Period, by Esther Singleton.</li> -<li>100 The Ring of the Nibelung, by Finck.</li> -<li>101 The Golden Age of Greece, by Botsford.</li> -<li>102 Chinese Rugs, by Mumford.</li> -<li>103 The War of 1812, by Albert Bushnell Hart.</li> -<li>104 Great Galleries of the World—The National Gallery, London, by Van Dyke.</li> -<li>105 Masters of the Violin, by Finck.</li> -<li>106 American Pioneer Prose Writers, by Mabie.</li> -<li>107 Old Silver, by Esther Singleton.</li> -<li>108 Shakespeare’s Country, by William Winter.</li> -<li>109 Historic Gardens of New England, by Mary H. Northend.</li> -<li>110 The Weather, by C. F. Talman.</li> -<li>111 American Poets of the Soil, by Johnson.</li> -<li>112 Argentina, by Newman.</li> -<li>113 Game Animals of America, by Hornaday.</li> -<li>114 Raphael, by Van Dyke.</li> -<li>115 Walter Scott, by Mabie.</li> -<li>116 The Yosemite Valley, by Elmendorf.</li> -<li>117 John Paul Jones, by Albert Bushnell Hart.</li> -<li>118 Russian Music, by Finck.</li> -<li>119 Chile, by Newman.</li> -<li>120 Rembrandt, by Van Dyke.</li> -<li>121 Southern California, by C. F. Lummis.</li> -<li>122 Keeping Time, by Talman.</li> -<li>123 American Miniature Painting, by Mrs. Elizabeth Lounsbery.</li> -<li>124 Gems, by Esther Singleton.</li> -<li>125 The Orchestra, by Henderson.</li> -<li>126 The Madonna and Child in Art, by Van Dyke.</li> -<li>127 The American Triumvirate, by Albert Bushnell Hart.</li> -<li>128 Brazil, by Newman.</li> -<li>129 American Water Colors, by Kobbé.</li> -<li>130 The Planets, by Prof. Jacoby.</li> -<li>131 American Water Color Painters, by Gustav Kobbé, Author and Critic.</li> -<li>132 Peru, by E. M. Newman, Lecturer and Traveler.</li> -<li>133 The Story of The American Army, by Albert Bushnell Hart.</li> -<li>134 Our Planet Neighbors, by Harold Jacoby.</li> -<li>135 The Story of Russia, by Leo Pasvolsky.</li> -<li>136 The Story of the Hudson, by Albert Bushnell Hart.</li> -<li>137 Prehistoric Animal Life, by Dr. W. D. Matthew.</li> -<li>138 Hawaii, by E. M. Newman.</li> -<li>139 Earthquakes and Volcanoes, by C. F. Talman.</li> -<li>140 The Canadian Rockies, by Ruth Kedzie Wood.</li> -<li>141 Corot, by Elliott Daingerfield.</li> -<li>142 Bolivia, by E. M. Newman.</li> -<li>143 Russian Art, by William A. Coffin, N. A.</li> -<li>144 The American Government, by Albert Bushnell Hart.</li> -<li>145 Christmas in Picture and Story, by Esther Singleton.</li> -<li>146 The Picture on the Wall, by Frank Weitenkampf.</li> -<li>147 Lafayette, by Albert Bushnell Hart.</li> -<li>148 American Composers, by W. J. Henderson.</li> -<li>149 Luxembourg Gallery, by William A. Coffin.</li> -</ul> - -<p class="center">THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, 114 East 16th Street, New York City</p> - -<p class="center larger">MAKE THE SPARE<br /> -MOMENT COUNT</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 483px;"> -<img src="images/back.jpg" width="483" height="700" alt="Back cover page: The Mentor issue list" /> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Mentor: Julius Caesar, Vol. 6, -Num. 2, Serial No. 150, March 1, 1, by George Willis Botsford - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MENTOR: JULIUS CAESAR *** - -***** This file should be named 51110-h.htm or 51110-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/1/1/1/51110/ - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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