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diff --git a/old/51106-0.txt b/old/51106-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index d787725..0000000 --- a/old/51106-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1692 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Mentor: The Story of Coal, vol. 6, Num. -6, Serial No. 154, May 1, 1918, by Charles Fitzhugh Talman - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Mentor: The Story of Coal, vol. 6, Num. 6, Serial No. 154, May 1, 1918 - -Author: Charles Fitzhugh Talman - -Release Date: February 2, 2016 [EBook #51106] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MENTOR: STORY OF COAL *** - - - - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - THE MENTOR 1918.05.01, No. 154, - The Story of Coal - - - - - LEARN ONE THING - EVERY DAY - - MAY 1 1918 SERIAL NO. 154 - - THE - MENTOR - - THE STORY OF - COAL - - By - CHARLES FITZHUGH TALMAN - - Editorial Writer for the - Scientific American - - DEPARTMENT OF VOLUME 6 - SCIENCE NUMBER 6 - - TWENTY CENTS A COPY - - - - -THE MINER - -By BERTON BRALEY - - - Grimy, and caked with dust of coal he stands, - Grasping his pick within his mighty hands; - The arbiter of destiny and fate, - Greater by far than king or potentate. - - Shops may not run except at his behest, - At forge and blast his strength is manifest. - The rolls that rumble and the shears that scream - And all the million miracles of steam - - Depend on him for fuel that will turn - The wheels that urge them and the belts that churn. - Guns that will shatter fortresses of steel, - Ships that will plow the waves on steady keel - - Bearing munitions for an army’s need - Must wait the miner’s orders and take heed - That he who toils within the coal mine’s murk - Gives them the coal with which they do their work. - - Behind the men who battle in the trench - There stand the workmen at the lathe and bench, - But back of them and master of them all - The miner stands and holds the world in thrall. - - Not soon again shall any man forget - How much the world is in the miner’s debt, - For we shall read upon fame’s honor roll - “He won the war--his labor gave us coal!” - -Reprinted by courtesy of Publishers of “Coal Age.” - - - - -[Illustration: COURTESY U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY - -FOSSIL FERN FROM COAL MINE] - - - - -_THE STORY OF COAL_ - -_The Origin of Coal_ - -ONE - - -While the vegetable origin of coal is beyond question, two rival views -are current among geologists to account for the deposit of ancient -plant material in the form of coal-beds, such as we now find in the -earth. One school of geologists holds that the coal plants grew in -great lagoons and swamps, like the mangrove swamps of today, and that -the modern coal-beds mark the locations of these swamps. From time to -time these areas subsided and were flooded with water to such a depth -that the plants were killed. Eventually the decayed vegetation of the -former swamps was covered with a layer of mud or sand. Later a slow -upheaval of the ground brought these regions again to the surface; a -new swamp formed, only to be submerged again at a later period; and the -same process was repeated several times in the course of hundreds of -thousands of years. - -The bulk of evidence seems to favor this view, but there is another. -Perhaps the coal-beds are not the sites of former swamps, but of -estuaries and ocean shores where the plant material settled down, -in still water, after a long drift down the ancient rivers from its -place of origin. It is not impossible that both explanations are -correct; some coal-beds having been formed in one way, and some in the -other. With the progress of time the deposits of sand were compacted -into sandstone, and the mud and clay into shale; while the layers of -vegetation were solidified by pressure, some of their constituents were -vaporized and expelled by heat, and the final product was coal. - -The coal-measures abound in fossil plants of species long ago extinct, -and we also find the molds or casts of plants that have themselves -disappeared, leaving only their impressions in the mud by which they -were once enveloped. These records of ancient vegetation are mostly -found in the rocks just above and below the coal-beds, and not in the -coal itself. - -The plants of the Carboniferous Period, during which most but not all -of the coal-beds were formed, bore a family likeness to certain kinds -of plants that flourish today. Many of them were ferns, ranging in size -from the smallest species up to great tree-ferns. Others resembled our -modern horsetails or scouring-rushes, with their fluted and jointed -stems, but these _calamites_, as the geologists call them, grew to -the size of trees, sometimes eighty or ninety feet in height. Some -plants of the coal age were like the modern cycads (intermediate in -appearance between tree-ferns and palms); some were like the ginkgo, a -tree with leaves like those of maidenhair fern, widely introduced into -this country from China and Japan. One of the commonest and largest -trees was the _lepidodendron_, closely resembling, except in its vastly -greater size, the club-moss or ground pine which we know so well as a -Christmas decoration. - -The animal life of the period, of which, also, abundant fossil remains -are found, included mollusks, fishes, crustaceans, insects, spiders, -thousand-legs, snails, reptiles and lizards. Some of the insects were a -foot or more in length. Of cockroaches, alone, more than five hundred -species have been found in the coal-measures. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR. VOL. 6, No. 6, SERIAL No. 154 - COPYRIGHT, 1918. BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: COURTESY U. S. BUREAU OF MINES - -TIPPLE AT BITUMINOUS COAL MINE GARY, WEST VIRGINIA] - - - - -_THE STORY OF COAL_ - -_The Coal Fields of the United States_ - -TWO - - -When a coal famine is upon us there is a grain of comfort in the -reflection that beneath the soil of this country, and within 3,000 -feet of the surface, there still lies 3,538,554,000,000 tons of coal. -This is the estimate of the United States Geological Survey. We have -mined coal wastefully and used it prodigally, yet we have taken from -the ground, up to the present time, only a fraction of one per cent. of -the total amount at our disposal. The whole of our “coal reserves,” if -they could be extracted and placed in a great cubical pile, would form -a mass 8.4 miles long, 8.4 miles wide and 8.4 miles high. If the coal -thus far mined were piled up in the same way, the cube would be 7,200 -feet long, 7,200 feet wide, and 7,200 feet high.[1] - - [1] These figures were furnished by Mr. M. R. Campbell, of the - U. S. Geological Survey. They differ materially from figures - previously published by the Survey. - -The coal-producing areas of the country are divided into six great -divisions, known as the Eastern Province, the Interior Province, the -Gulf Province, the Northern Great Plains Province, the Rocky Mountain -Province, and the Pacific Coast Province. The Eastern Province -contains probably nine-tenths of the high-rank coal of the country. -It is made up of the anthracite regions of Pennsylvania and Rhode -Island, the Atlantic coast region of Virginia and North Carolina, and -the great Appalachian region, which embraces all the bituminous and -semi-bituminous coal of what is called the “Appalachian trough.” The -state of Pennsylvania produces 47 per cent. of all the coal mined in -the country, and nearly all of the anthracite. - -The Appalachian region is the greatest storehouse of high-rank coal -in the United States, if not in the world. “This near-by and almost -inexhaustible supply of high-grade fuel,” says the Geological Survey, -“has been the foundation of the development of the blast furnaces, the -great iron and steel mills, and the countless manufacturing enterprises -of the Eastern states.” - -The Interior Province includes all the bituminous coal fields and -regions near the Great Lakes, in the Mississippi Valley, and in Texas, -and is made up of four distinct sections--the northern (Michigan), -eastern (Illinois, Indiana and western Kentucky), western (Iowa, -Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma and Arkansas), and southwestern (Texas). The -coal of this province is not, in general, of as high a quality as that -of the Eastern Province, but it is very extensively mined, and is used -for heating and for generating power in the many cities and towns of -the Mississippi valley and the Great Lakes region. Indeed, extensive -coal fields in proximity to rich agricultural lands have made possible -the existence of such manufacturing centers as Chicago, St. Louis and -Kansas City, and have been a leading factor in the development of the -vast railway systems of the Middle West. - -The Gulf Province is at present of little commercial importance. Its -coal is mined only at a few places in Texas, and is mostly lignite. - -The Northern Great Plains Province includes all the coal fields in the -Great Plains east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. The coals -are of low rank, being either lignite or sub-bituminous, except in a -few of the basins near the mountains. The largest coal region in this -province is the Fort Union region, lying in the Dakotas, Montana and -Wyoming. The amount of unmined coal in this region is estimated to be -twice as great as that lying in the rich Appalachian region, but it has -been little worked, as it is generally of poor quality. - -The Rocky Mountain Province contains a greater variety of coal than -any other province in the United States. It includes all ranks, from -lignite to anthracite, but the prevailing ranks are sub-bituminous and -low-grade bituminous. - -The coal of the Pacific Coast Province is mined chiefly in the state -of Washington, where it has aided in developing the industries of the -Puget Sound region. Oregon and California have small fields, but the -coal is of poor quality, and little mining has been attempted. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR. VOL. 6, No. 6, SERIAL No. 154 - COPYRIGHT, 1918. BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: COURTESY BROWN HOISTING MACHINERY CO. CLEVELAND, O. - -COAL CAR DUMPER IN OPERATION] - - - - -_THE STORY OF COAL_ - -_Handling Coal_ - -THREE - - -In times gone by coal was carried out of the mines on the shoulders -of men and women, and then transferred in wheelbarrows to the -sailing-vessels or wagons in which it was taken to market. In -progressive mines of today the coal is loaded in the mine into small -mine cars, which are hauled and hoisted to the surface by electricity -or steam. The mine cars are dumped on an elevated platform called -the “tipple,” and the coal passes through chutes or conveyors to the -railway cars waiting underneath to receive it. On its way downward it -undergoes a more or less elaborate process of screening, breaking, -picking, washing, etc., according to the kind of coal and the purpose -for which it is to be used. - -The coal reaches the market by three general methods of transportation: -(1) All-rail; (2) rail to the seaports, where it is used for bunkering -steamers or carried by vessels to other ports, foreign and domestic; -(3) rail to the Great Lakes, especially Lake Erie ports, from which -it is carried to ports on the upper lakes, and from the latter again -by rail to markets in the interior. The railroads themselves use -about one-fourth of all the coal mined in this country. The coastwise -coal-carrying trade is mainly by wooden barges towed by steamers, -though much coal is also carried by schooners, some of which can carry -a cargo of 5,000 tons or more. About four per cent. of the bituminous -coal output goes to foreign countries. - -“The consumption of coal,” says the United States Geological Survey, -“is a measure of the industrial activity of a people, for as yet coal -is the main source of mechanical energy. In this respect the United -States is the foremost nation, its average annual consumption of coal -for all purposes being about five tons per capita. Prior to the present -war in Europe the consumption of coal per capita in England, Belgium -and Germany was about four tons, in Russia a quarter of a ton, and in -France about 1.6 tons.” - -Marvelous forms of labor-saving machinery have been introduced to -facilitate the loading and unloading of coal. The principal form of -apparatus for transferring coal either to or from a vessel is the -“bridge tramway plant,” which consists of long steel bridges mounted -side by side on suitable rails so that they can be moved into place -over the hatchway of a vessel. Huge buckets, which load and unload -themselves, are carried on a “trolley,” suspended from the bridge, -and transfer coal at high speed from the vessel to the stock pile or -railway cars, or _vice versa_. The cost of loading coal by this method -is only a cent or two a ton. - -Another ingenious device is the “car-dumper.” This powerful machine -picks up bodily from the railway track a car loaded with a hundred tons -of coal, overturns it, and discharges its contents into the hold of a -vessel; after which it returns the car to the track. It is capable of -handling fifty cars an hour. It is equipped with special apparatus to -prevent the coal from being discharged too violently, and thus being -badly broken up. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR. VOL. 6, No. 6, SERIAL No. 154 - COPYRIGHT, 1918. BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: COURTESY POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY - -CHARGING COAL IN A MODERN GAS PLANT] - - - - -_THE STORY OF COAL_ - -_Coal Products_ - -FOUR - - -The story of the coal products forms one of the most romantic chapters -in the history of applied science. The marvels of fairyland are -surpassed by the achievements of the modern manufacturer in obtaining -from mere black rocks dug out of the ground not only heat and light, -but a bewildering variety of useful gases, liquids and solids--drugs, -chemicals, dyestuffs, and so forth. - -For hundreds of years it has been known that when coal is covered -or enclosed, to keep out the air, and then heated for a certain -length of time, instead of burning to ash it is converted into a -porous grayish-black substance called “coke.” This material, which -burns without smoke or flame, is a valuable fuel for many purposes; -especially for use in blast-furnaces for the smelting of ore. Nowadays -coke is made on a vast scale from certain grades of bituminous and -semi-bituminous coal. The coal is heated in “coking-ovens,” of which -there are several kinds. The most common form of oven in this country -is the “bee-hive oven,” which produces coke only. Another type of -coking-oven, more generally used in Europe than in America, is the -“flue-oven,” which produces, besides coke, a number of valuable -by-products. - -When coal is converted into coke it gives off combustible gases. The -idea of saving these gases and using them for illuminating purposes -was first practically applied in the latter part of the eighteenth -century. “Coal-gas” is made by heating coal in a closed vessel, called -a “retort.” It is a mixture of hydrogen and methane (a compound of -hydrogen and carbon), with small amounts of several other gases. Most -of the carbon in the coal remains in the retort as coke, which is, -therefore, a by-product in the process of making coal-gas. After the -gas is given off from the coal it passes through a series of vessels, -where, by chemical and other methods, it is freed from ingredients -which would impair its value as an illuminant, but which are saved and -used for other purposes; the most important of these are “coal-tar” -and “ammoniacal liquor.” The purified coal-gas is finally conveyed -to a gas-holder or “gasometer,” from which it is distributed to the -consumers. - -In recent times other methods of gas-making have come into use. In one -of these nearly all the carbon in the fuel is turned into a combustible -gas by passing air through the hot coal. The product is known as -“producer-gas,” and is very valuable for use as fuel and as a motive -power in gas-engines, but it is not an illuminant. A modification of -this process, in which steam is passed over the heated fuel, gives -a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, known as “water-gas.” -This is also a valuable source of heat and power; but for use as an -illuminant it must be mixed with a gas made from oil. It is then known -as “carburetted water-gas,” and is very extensively used for lighting -purposes; either by itself or mixed with ordinary coal-gas. - -Of the by-products of gas-making, ammoniacal liquor was, until -recently, the only commercial source of ammonia. Coal-tar, formerly -thrown away as worthless, is today the source of innumerable substances -of immense value to science and the industries. From coal-tar are -obtained benzine, toluene, xylene, phenol (carbolic acid), naphthalene, -anthracene, etc., and these more direct products are combined with -one another or with other chemicals to produce coloring matters, -explosives, perfumes, flavoring materials, sweetening substances, -disinfectants, medicines, photographic developers--in short, a little -of everything. The total number of coal-tar products runs into the -thousands, and is constantly being increased by fresh discoveries. - -In Germany, just before the war, the industries engaged in making these -products (no longer _by_-products, but far more important than coke and -gas) were capitalized at $750,000,000. One firm made no less than 1,800 -coal-tar dyes, besides 120 pharmaceutical and photographic preparations. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR. VOL. 6, No. 6, SERIAL No. 154 - COPYRIGHT, 1918. BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: SMOKE PROBLEM--SCENE IN PITTSBURGH BEFORE AND AFTER THE -SMOKE CURE] - - - - -_THE STORY OF COAL_ - -_The Smoke Problem_ - -FIVE - - -Smoking is a costly and injurious habit. This is not the beginning of -an appeal on behalf of the anti-cigarette crusade, but the introduction -to a few facts in regard to the far-reaching effects of smoky chimneys. -The smoke nuisance is as old as the use of coal. In the fourteenth -century a man was executed in London for befouling the air of that -city with the fumes of “sea-coal,” as ordinary mineral coal was once -called in England, because it was brought to London by sea. Under -Queen Elizabeth a law was passed forbidding the burning of coal while -Parliament was in session, as the legislators believed their health was -likely to be impaired by the smoky air of the city. What would these -bygone gentlemen say if they could see modern London enveloped in one -of its famous “pea-soup” fogs--the color and denseness of which are -entirely due to coal-smoke? - -Smoke is injurious to health, destructive to vegetation, and fatal -to architectural beauty; and, along with all this, it is enormously -expensive. In the first place, a smoky chimney means imperfect -combustion, and a waste of part of the heating value of fuel. Then a -smoky atmosphere entails big laundry and dry-cleaning bills; frequent -repainting of houses; injury to metal work; damage to goods in shops; -excessive artificial lighting in the daytime. Pittsburgh was once -the most famous American example of all these evils, but it has -recently reformed. Before the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research -carried out its elaborate smoke investigation in that city, and, in -consequence, stringent smoke-abatement ordinances were adopted, the -annual smoke bill of Pittsburgh was estimated at nearly ten million -dollars. The city was the paradise of the laundryman, and light-colored -clothing was so little worn by the inhabitants that it was known as -“the mourning town.” - -Throughout the United States it is said that smoke causes an annual -waste and damage amounting to half a billion dollars. No wonder -numerous societies have been formed to mitigate this evil, and a great -many laws have been enacted on the subject. With a gradual increase in -the use of gas, coke and other smokeless fuels, and improved methods of -stoking furnaces, the smoke nuisance is now happily abating. - -The pollution of the air by smoke is the subject of systematic -investigation and measurement at certain places in this country and -abroad. Measurements of the “soot-fall” made in Pittsburgh a few years -ago indicated an annual average deposit of soot in that city amounting -to 1,031 tons per square mile. London’s average is 248 tons per square -mile for the whole city and 426 tons in the central districts. In the -heart of Glasgow the annual soot-fall is 820 tons per square mile. - -In Great Britain there is a Committee for the Investigation of -Atmospheric Pollution, which has installed standard measuring apparatus -in sixteen English and Scotch towns. The soot is collected in a -“pollution gauge,” consisting of a large cast-iron funnel, enameled -on the inside. Projecting above the gauge is a wire screen, open at -the top, to prevent birds from settling on the edge of the vessel. -The gauge communicates at the bottom with one or more bottles for -collecting rain-water, with its solid contents. The bottles are emptied -once a month, when their contents are weighed and analyzed. - -Smoke is injurious to the respiratory organs, conducive to eye-strain -and responsible for a lowering of human vitality. The gloominess of a -smoke-laden atmosphere also has a depressing effect upon the minds of -many people. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR. VOL. 6, No. 6, SERIAL No. 154 - COPYRIGHT, 1918. BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: COURTESY U. S. BUREAU OF MINES - -RESCUE PARTY ENTERING MINE AFTER EXPLOSION] - - - - -_THE STORY OF COAL_ - -_Safety in Coal Mines_ - -SIX - - -Since the year 1870, some 60,000 men have lost their lives as a result -of coal mining accidents in this country. This is approximately one -fatality for every 180,000 tons of coal mined. Gradually this bad -record is being improved, thanks to the combined efforts of the United -States Bureau of Mines, the mining departments of the various states, -the operators and the miners themselves; but coal mining remains a -hazardous pursuit. - -Falls of the roof are responsible for more accidents than any other -single cause. These are likely to occur wherever the roof is not fully -timbered; especially in the “rooms,” where the coal is being blasted -out. Many accidents also occur in mine shafts, notwithstanding the -various safety devices with which the “cage” or elevator is nowadays -provided. - -Fires and explosions attract a greater amount of public attention than -other mining disasters on account of the large number of victims so -often involved in a single occurrence of this kind. In the explosion -at the Courrières colliery, in France, March 10, 1906, more than -1,100 miners perished. This mine had previously been renowned for its -freedom from accidents. Coal mine explosions are due to two principal -causes, which may act either separately or in combination--fire-damp -and coal-dust. Accumulations of fire-damp, or methane, locked up in -the coal seams, are liberated by the removal of the coal. Frequently -streams of this gas gush forth with a hissing noise, and are known -as “blowers.” Fire-damp is explosive when combined with certain -proportions of air. Apart from ventilation, which dilutes the gas below -the danger limit, the principal precaution against explosives is the -use of safety-lamps, so constructed that the gas cannot come in contact -with a naked flame. An excessive amount of coal-dust in the air of the -mine may also give rise to explosions. Such explosions may be prevented -by wetting the dust, moistening the air, or powdering the walls, roof -and floor with a non-explosive “rock-dust.” - -After an explosion the air of a mine contains a large amount of the -deadly gas carbon monoxide, and this “after-damp,” as it is called, -makes rescue work extremely dangerous. Wherever suitable apparatus -is available, the rescuers carry with them a supply of oxygen, by -breathing which they are able to live for some hours in a poisonous -atmosphere. The Bureau of Mines has established a number of rescue -stations in the coal-mining districts and maintains several mine -safety cars for hurrying rescue crews to the scene of a disaster. The -Bureau also instructs the miners in first-aid and rescue work, and is -directing a national campaign in behalf of “safety first” in mines. - -Of the many methods that have been devised for testing the air of -mines for noxious gases none is more interesting than the use of caged -canaries. These birds are much more susceptible than human beings to -the effects of carbon monoxide, and show signs of distress before a -man begins to feel any discomfort from the gas. In many mines they -are carried in routine inspections. After an explosion the number of -rescuers equipped with oxygen apparatus is always limited. These form -the advance guard, and are followed by men without apparatus, who -carry canaries, by observing the behavior of which they can tell how -far they may safely penetrate into the mine. The Bureau of Mines has -devised a special form of cage in which the canary may be revived with -oxygen after being overcome with gas. Experiments show that the bird -may be asphyxiated and revived again and again without suffering any -ill-effects; neither does he acquire an immunity to poisoning which -would make him a less reliable indicator. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR. VOL. 6, No. 6, SERIAL No. 154 - COPYRIGHT, 1918. BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -THE MENTOR · DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE - -MAY 1, 1918 - -[Illustration: Courtesy of Brown Hoisting Machinery Co. - -COAL-HANDLING MACHINERY ON PITTSBURGH COAL CO. DOCKS, DULUTH, MINN. - -An electric trolley, with 5½-ton bucket, travels on each bridge, -carrying coal from the boat to storage, or to railroad car, or to -screening apparatus in the rear] - -THE STORY OF COAL - -By CHARLES FITZHUGH TALMAN - -_Editorial Writer for the Scientific American_ - -_MENTOR GRAVURES_ - -FOSSIL FERN FROM COAL MINE · TIPPLE AT BITUMINOUS COAL MINE · COAL -CAR DUMPER IN OPERATION · CHARGING COAL IN A MODERN GAS PLANT · SMOKE -PROBLEM, SCENE IN PITTSBURGH BEFORE AND AFTER SMOKE CURE · RESCUE PARTY -ENTERING MINE AFTER EXPLOSION - -Entered as second-class matter March 10, 1913, at the postoffice at New -York, N. Y., under the act of March 3, 1879. Copyright, 1913, by The -Mentor Association, Inc. - - -Were it possible for the lump of coal that we burn in our stove, grate -or furnace to tell its story, it would take us back millions of years -to a time when vast areas of the earth’s surface were covered with -swamps, supporting a luxuriant vegetation. No human being, mammal -or bird yet existed. Animal life included fish, shellfish and other -aquatic species, besides reptiles and insects. The vegetal forms -resembled our modern ferns, horsetails, club-mosses and evergreens. -The atmosphere was heavily charged with moisture, and a mild climate -prevailed even in the polar regions. Such were the conditions under -which, during the great Carboniferous Age, most of the existing -coal-beds were deposited in the earth. - -[Illustration: FOREST SWAMP OF THE CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD (Coal Age). - -From a drawing by Potonié and Gothan] - -Coal is the litter of primeval swamps and forests. Year after year the -débris of the humid jungles accumulated in shallow water or in the -boggy soil, where it underwent partial decay, and was thus converted, -first of all, into the slimy or spongy material known as “peat.” -Similar deposits are in process of formation in the swamps of the -present day, and the peat obtained from them is dried and used as fuel -on an extensive scale in some parts of the world; especially Ireland, -Holland, Germany and Scandinavia. - -[Illustration: CONCRETE PORTAL OF A “DRIFT” MINE] - -Gradual changes in the elevation of the land led to the submergence -of the prehistoric peat bogs, during successive intervals of time, by -lakes or shallow seas. Thus their vegetation was killed, and they were -overspread with layers of mud or sand, above which, during a subsequent -period of elevation, a new peat bog would form; and this process was -repeated several times. The conversion of the peat into coal appears -to have resulted from the pressure of the overlying strata, probably -aided by the internal heat of the earth. Much of its moisture was -squeezed and evaporated out; the proportions of its component gases -were reduced; and the result was a hard mineral, which has earned -the popular name of “black diamond” because consisting chiefly of -carbon--the same chemical element which, in a pure and crystalline -form, constitutes the true diamond. Chemically, coal consists of -carbon; the gases hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen; sulphur; and ash (the -mineral matter that remains after combustion). - -[Illustration: Courtesy of United States National Museum - -Comparative coal supplies of the world. The nick in the smallest cube -shows how much hard coal has been used up. Soft coal cube has hardly -been scratched] - -The record of these long-ago events is found when we sink a shaft -through typical coal-bearing strata. We pass through not one, but -several, layers of coal, which may vary in thickness from a fraction of -an inch to a hundred feet or more, and are separated by generally much -thicker layers of sandstone or shale (solidified clay). The layers of -coal are known as “coal-beds.” Unless a coal-bed is at least two feet -thick it is hardly worth working, and, ordinarily, the thickness of a -bed does not exceed eight or ten feet. The shale or sandstone above a -bed is very commonly found to contain the remains or the impressions -of the ancient plants from which the coal was formed. A study of these -remains and casts has made it possible to classify hundreds of species -of plants now extinct. Fragments of plants are also sometimes found in -the coal itself, and thin slices of coal frequently show a vegetable -structure under the microscope. Finally, to furnish conclusive proof -of the vegetable origin of coal, we find under the coal-bed a layer -known as the “underclay,” which is a fossil soil filled with the roots -and rootlets of the coal-producing plants. Different conditions of -formation, and also, probably, differences in the character of the -original vegetation, have resulted in the production of different kinds -of coal. The most important heat-producing constituent in coal is the -elementary substance called “carbon,” and the simplest classification -of solid fuels depends upon the percentages of fixed (non-volatile) -carbon they contain, the average percentages running as follows: Wood, -50%; peat, 55%; lignite, 73%; bituminous coal, 84%; anthracite coal, -93%. When fuel is burned the greater part of it unites chemically with -the oxygen of the air to form certain invisible gases--especially -carbon dioxide and water-vapor--and only the ash remains. - -[Illustration: From “Geology, Physical and Historical,” by H. P. -Cleland. American Book Co., N. Y. - -Section of coal-bearing strata in Pennsylvania, showing relative amount -of coal and barren rock in a rich field] - -In the popular mind coal is classified as hard or soft, while hard coal -is further classified according to the size of the lumps. For both -scientific and industrial purposes more elaborate classifications are -necessary, and several have been used or proposed. - -[Illustration: COAL FIELDS OF THE UNITED STATES] - - -_Kinds of Coal_ - -The United States Geological Survey classifies coals, first of all, -according to “rank,” depending upon both chemical and physical -characteristics. Anthracite, which contains the largest percentage of -carbon, ranks highest, and lignite, with the smallest percentage of -carbon, lowest. Coals of the same rank are said to be of high or low -“grade,” according to whether they contain a relatively small or large -percentage, respectively, of ash and sulphur. The ranks recognized -by the Survey are: Anthracite, semi-anthracite, semi-bituminous, -bituminous, sub-bituminous, and lignite. - -[Illustration: Courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Mines - -AN “ENTRY” IN A COAL MINE - -Showing timbered roof] - -[Illustration: Courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Mines - -COATING WALLS OF A MINE WITH CEMENT - -To prevent coal-dust explosions] - -[Illustration: DRILLING IN COAL FOR BLASTING] - -“Anthracite” is the hardest of coals. It was formed from bituminous -coal under the crushing pressure due to the upheaval of mountains or by -the intense heat of adjacent molten rocks. Most American anthracite is -mined in eastern Pennsylvania. The largest deposits in the world are -found in China. Anthracite burns slowly, with little smoke. It is well -adapted for domestic use on account of its cleanness, but is not an -economical fuel for steam-raising or general manufacturing. - -[Illustration: Press Illustrating Service - -MODERN ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE - -Used for hauling coal from the mines] - -“Semi-anthracite” also ranks as a hard coal, though it is less hard -than anthracite. Very little is mined in this country, and it is -generally sold as anthracite. - -“Semi-bituminous” coal is a softer coal, which, when properly burned, -gives off but little smoke. The best semi-bituminous coal ranks highest -among the coals in heating value. It is the most valuable fuel for -manufacturing purposes; also for steamships, as it requires less bunker -space per unit of heat than any other coal. - -“Bituminous” coal, or ordinary “soft coal,” burns readily, with a smoky -flame, and is the coal most commonly used for manufacturing purposes; -in fact, the bulk of the coal mined throughout the world belongs -to this rank. It includes a good many varieties, some of which are -extensively used in making coke, while others, such as “cannel” coal, -have been in great demand for use in gas-works. Nowadays, however, the -widespread introduction of “water-gas,”[2] which does not require any -particular kind of coal, has diminished the demand for “gas coals.” - - [2] Made by forcing steam over glowing coal or coke. See Monograph - No. 4. - -“Sub-bituminous” coal, or “black lignite,” is common in some of our -western coal fields. It is a clean and useful domestic fuel when used -near the mines, but is not very satisfactory for shipment, as it -shrinks and crumbles under the effects of “weathering” and is liable to -spontaneous combustion. - -“Lignite” is the least valuable of coals, and is the form of coal which -is the least altered from the original peat. The Geological Survey -applies this name only to those coals which are distinctly brown and -either markedly woody or claylike in appearance. Lignite, as it comes -from the mine, contains from thirty to forty per cent. of moisture, and -it “slacks” or falls to pieces much more rapidly than sub-bituminous -coal when exposed to the air. It is hardly suitable for transportation. - -For commercial purposes coal is also classified according to size. -The coal as it comes out of the mine, without any sorting into -sizes, is known as “run of mine,” and the semi-bituminous coals are -commonly shipped in this form. Most coals, however, are passed over -bars or gratings, which constitute screens of different degrees of -fineness; each screen permits all the lumps below a certain size to -fall through, and thus the coal is divided into the different standard -sizes. The sizes of anthracite, from the smallest to the largest, -are: rice, buckwheat, pea, chestnut (or nut), stove, egg, broken (or -grate), steamboat, and lump. Bituminous coal is divided into slack, -nut and lump (the largest size). A mixture of lump and nut is called -three-quarter coal. - - -_The Modern History of Coal_ - -[Illustration: Press Illustrating Service - -MODERN MINING MACHINE - -for undercutting coal. The “cutter bar” is shown in front, filled with -“cutting teeth” set in a chain that travels around. - -See illustration opposite] - -[Illustration: Press Illustrating Service - -SHAKER SCREENS IN A TIPPLE HOUSE - -The coal passing over screens is graded according to size] - -[Illustration: “CUTTER BAR” AT WORK - -The bar, with its cutting chain of teeth, makes a horizontal cut deep -into the bottom of the seam of coal. Blasting then does the rest] - -The age of the steam-engine is also the age in which the use of coal -has become widespread, and the output of coal is a faithful index of -industrial progress. Although the Greek writer Theophrastus (about -300 B. C.) mentions the use of coal as a fuel, and its use was also -known to the ancient Britons and the Chinese, it was virtually unknown -throughout the Middle Ages. The first record of coal mining in England -is of the year 1180 A. D., and coal was first shipped to London in -the year 1240. It was long known as stone-coal, pit-coal, etc., to -distinguish it from charcoal; also as sea-coal, on account of being -carried to London by sea. Bituminous coal was first mined in America -in 1750, near Richmond, Virginia. Anthracite was discovered in Rhode -Island in 1760, and in Pennsylvania in 1766, but for many years its -value was not recognized. As late as the year 1812 Colonel George -Shoemaker, of Pottsville, was treated as an impostor and threatened -with arrest for attempting to sell a few wagon-loads of anthracite in -Philadelphia; methods of burning it were not understood, and it was -declared to be merely “black stone.” In the year 1820 only 365 tons -of anthracite were sold in this country, as compared with the present -annual output of about 90,000,000 tons. - -Before the days of the railway coal was shipped mostly by water in -rough boats called “arks,” which floated down the rivers to the -seaboard towns. As it was impossible to return against the current, -the ark was sold with the coal at its destination. A great many arks -were wrecked in transit, and the whole process of transportation was -a costly one. Only with the introduction of steamboats, canals and -railways, did the coal industry assume serious proportions. - -The production of coal in America has grown at an amazing rate. In the -year 1868 Great Britain produced 3.6 times as much coal as the United -States, and the output was also exceeded by that of Germany. In 1899, -the United States took the lead. At the present time, with an estimated -production for the year 1917 of 643,600,000 tons, the United States is -producing nearly half of all the coal mined in the world. Great Britain -ranks second, closely followed by Germany. - - -_How Coal is Mined_ - -A relatively small amount of coal is quarried near the surface of the -ground from open pits. The overlying soil is removed by steam-shovels, -and the coal is then blasted out and shoveled into cars. - -Most coal is mined underground. Access to the coal-beds is obtained -either by sinking a vertical “shaft” or by driving a tunnel, according -to the location of the beds. A tunnel driven at a steep angle is called -a “slope.” A horizontal tunnel leading into a coal-seam is called a -“drift.” In this country few coal mines are more than 300 or 400 feet -below the surface, and the deepest is about 1,600 feet. Much deeper -mines are found in Europe, especially in Belgium. - -[Illustration: Press Illustrating Service - -ROTARY DUMP IN A TIPPLE - -Showing a coal car half turned over in order to dump contents] - -[Illustration: Courtesy of “Coal Age” - -SPIRALIZING MACHINES - -which, by rotating motion, separate the coal from slate] - -[Illustration: Courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Mines - -MODERN HEADFRAME, BINS AND TRESTLE - -Of fireproof construction. Anthracite coal mine] - -American mine shafts are generally rectangular and are divided into two -or more compartments. Where a shaft passes through water-bearing strata -it must be provided with a tight lining, or “tubbing,” to prevent the -mine from being flooded. All water that enters the mine collects in an -excavation, or “sump,” at the bottom of the shaft, and must be pumped -to the surface. - -The method of working coal-seams most commonly practiced in this -country is known as the “room-and-pillar” system. One or more tunnels, -or “entries,” are first driven from the bottom of the shaft or the -mouth of the drift. These are the main thoroughfares of the mine, and -are usually provided with tracks, over which the mine cars are hauled -by mules or by some other method of traction--locomotives, endless -chains, etc. Secondary entries (“headings,” “butt entries,” etc.) -branch off from the main entries. Finally, the work of extracting the -coal consists of excavating open spaces, or “rooms,” adjoining the -entries. - -[Illustration: Courtesy of “Coal Age” - -MODEL COAL BREAKER - -Note the neat and careful “upkeep” of the place] - -The actual mining is done in the rooms, and different methods are in -use. Anthracite is generally “shot from the solid”; that is, blasted -out from the face of the coal without any preliminary cutting. This -method is objectionable, especially in bituminous mines (where it -is, however, much practiced), because the large charges of powder it -requires produce a great deal of coal-dust and weaken the roof and -pillars, often leading to falls of coal and fatal accidents. A better -plan consists of “undercutting” the coal before it is blasted out. A -long groove is made at the level of the floor, either with a pick or -with a coal-cutting machine. Holes are then drilled some distance above -the groove for the insertion of the blasting charges, and the coal is -blasted down. A single shot will sometimes dislodge a ton or two of -coal. - -The next step is to shovel the coal from the floor into a mine car, -which is then pushed into the adjacent entry. The miner attaches a -numbered tag to the car, so that he will be duly credited for his work, -which is paid for by the ton. The loaded cars are eventually hoisted or -hauled out of the mine, to be weighed and discharged above ground. - -The final step in working a coal-seam by the room-and-pillar method is -to mine out the thick walls or pillars of coal, which are originally -left between adjacent rooms to support the roof. As this work proceeds -the worked-out sections are filled with waste rock, or the roof is -allowed to fall. The object is to leave as little coal in the mine as -possible, but practically it is rare that more than 60 or 70 per cent. -is recovered. - -One feature of a coal mine that must be carefully planned is the -system of ventilation. This is provided not merely for the comfort of -the miners, but to prevent, as far as possible, the accumulation of -poisonous and explosive gases. There are always at least two airways -leading into the mine (one or both of which may also be used for -hoisting or other purposes), known as the “upcast” and the “downcast,” -according to the direction in which the air passes through them. A -current of air is maintained either by keeping a fire burning at the -bottom of the upcast or by the use of powerful fans or blowers. A -system of tight trap-doors prevents the air from taking a short cut -between the downcast and the upcast, and thus leaving the greater part -of the mine unventilated. - -[Illustration: Courtesy of “Coal Age” - -MINING FROM THE OUTSIDE - -Stripping the surface of a coal-bed with steam shovel, at Pittsburg, -Kans.] - -[Illustration: Courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Mines - -WATCHING THE CANARY - -for indications of poisonous coal gas. Reserves testing the air of a -mine after an explosion] - -[Illustration: Courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Mines - -MEMBERS OF RESCUE TEAM - -Showing apparatus worn on entering mines after explosions. This device -sustains a man for two hours] - -The coal in the mine constantly gives off various gases, one of which, -the notorious “fire-damp” (methane or marsh-gas), is responsible for -many explosions. In recent years it has been discovered that coal-dust -itself, when mixed with the right proportion of air, is violently -explosive. Mine explosions may be minimized by requiring the use of -“safety-lamps” (oil, gasoline, or electric); by providing devices to -prevent sparking in electrical apparatus; and by using for blasting -operations only so-called “permissible” explosives, which give a -shorter and cooler flame than black powder. Coal-dust explosions can -be largely prevented by wetting the walls of the mine, or by the new -process of “rock-dusting,” which consists of applying dry incombustible -powdered rock to all surfaces. Unfortunately, none of these precautions -are employed as generally as they should be. - -[Illustration: Press Illustrating Service - -SAFETY DEVICE IN COAL BUNKER - -In case of a “coal slide,” a man may be pulled out before he is buried -and stifled] - - -The elevator used for hoisting in the mine shaft is called a “cage.” -After the mine cars reach the surface they pass upon an elevated -structure called the “tipple.” This is generally the most conspicuous -feature of a mining property above ground, and provides facilities for -screening and otherwise “preparing” the coal as it passes down chutes -to the railway cars underneath. The more elaborate structure used for -anthracite is called a “breaker”; it includes machinery for crushing -the coal and arrangements for removing “slate” and other waste rock by -hand picking or otherwise. - -Coal mining in this country gives employment to an army of 765,000 men. -The word “army” has a sinister appropriateness in this connection, -since out of every thousand men employed in the industry three are -killed and one hundred and eighty injured annually. - - -_The World’s Coal Resources_ - -In order of output, the leading coal-producing countries of the world -are: United States, Great Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, -Russia, Belgium, Japan, China, India, and Canada. The total production -during the latest year for which data are available was about -1,346,000,000 tons. - -How long will the world’s coal supply last? This is a question to which -various answers have been given. Geologists are able to furnish a rough -estimate of the amount of coal now in the ground and near enough to -the surface to be mined; but with the growth of the world’s industries -the demand for coal is increasing by leaps and bounds, and nobody can -safely predict how much will be needed at any future time. - -The world’s “coal reserves”--that is, the amount of coal remaining -unmined--are estimated at 8,154,322,500,000 tons. In the United States -it is estimated that we have used only four-tenths of one per cent. of -our available coal supply. At the _present_ rate of consumption the -coal in this country would last about 4,000 years; but if the present -rate of _increase_ in consumption should be maintained, it would last -only 100 years! - -Fortunately for posterity there are sources of heat, light and power -which are not, like the fuels, exhaustible. Water-power, for example, -is a permanent asset, and there are other inexhaustible sources of -energy, such as solar heat and the internal heat of the earth, which -Man’s ingenuity will someday turn to good account. - -[Illustration: Courtesy of “Coal Age” - -CARS FOR CARRYING EXPLOSIVES INTO MINES] - - -_SUPPLEMENTARY READING_ - - COAL CATECHISM _By W. J. Nicholls_ - - THE STORY OF AMERICAN COALS _By W. J. Nicholls_ - - A YEAR IN A COAL MINE _By Joseph Husband_ - - YEAR BOOK OF THE U. S. BUREAU OF MINES - STORY OF A PIECE OF COAL _By E. A. Martin_ - - THE COAL FIELDS OF THE UNITED STATES - (U. S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper 100) _By M. R. Campbell_ - -⁂ Information concerning these books may be had on application to the -Editor of The Mentor. - - - - -_THE OPEN LETTER_ - - -Coal is “a burning question,” that has to be met and answered every -day. It supplies heat, light and power--and a thousand and one useful -by-products--and it is an ever-present, ever-fruitful subject of -public and private discussion. We average folk know something of the -varied uses of coal in the big affairs of the world, but we know it -more intimately and vitally in the forms in which it ministers to our -own personal welfare. Coal, in our everyday--and night--life, means -heat and light. It means home comfort--and if this “coal comfort” is -denied us, or even curtailed, we raise an immediate and mighty outcry. -And why not? The health of a community can be fatally affected by a -few heatless days. The experience of the past winter has shown us how -dependent we are on fuel, not only for luxury and comfort, but for life -itself. - - * * * * * - -Why do we need so much heat? Many of the peoples of the earth get along -comfortably with much less heat than we consider necessary. Europeans -and South Americans call us a “steam-heated nation.” Why do we have -to surrender so completely and abjectly to the domination of Old King -Coal? It is true, as Owen Meredith said: “Civilized man cannot live -without cooks”; and light is all important in turning night hours to -advantage; but why must we be so warm? Humanity was not created in -a warm room, nor was the human race nurtured, in its infancy, by a -coal fire or a gas stove. Primitive man was his own heater. He had to -_discover_ fire, and then exploit its uses. He was originally supplied -by nature with a warm body, and he now finds artificial ways of making -it warmer. Has not civilization pampered us to a point that has -impaired our original heat-giving resources and substituted a forced -warmth that has enervated us? The doctors tell us that many diseases -come out of artificial heat--indoor diseases, they might be called--the -diseases that are treated, and sometimes cured today, by foregoing -artificial heat and going back to nature. - - * * * * * - -Does this mean that I suggest reverting to primitive conditions and -giving up heat? No, indeed. I suffered enough last winter. I do -not advocate giving up heat--suddenly. But letting up gradually on -artificial heat, I do most earnestly advocate. Most of us live an -over-heated existence--to the depletion of our health. The steam pipe, -like a huge python, is closing its coils about us, and gradually -stifling our native vital resources. - - * * * * * - -On the coldest days of winter a white-haired man, nearly seventy years -of age, may be seen walking New York streets, without a hat, clad only -in light “Palm Beach” trousers, and a silk negligée shirt, open at the -throat. “He is crazy,” you say. “Perhaps,” I answer, “but at any rate -he is healthy--and immune from cold.” Heatless days mean nothing to -him. On a raw, drizzling day in November last a slender man was playing -golf in a light woolen suit. A companion player, weighing over 200 -pounds, full blooded and hearty in appearance, and bundled up in two -heavy sweaters, asked the lightly clad player if he was not afraid of -catching a fatal cold. “No,” he answered, “_you_ are the one that gives -me concern. If I had your clothing on I would be a sick man. _I am not -healthy enough_ to wear all those things.” - - * * * * * - -Which means that we would be better off in health if we could accustom -ourselves to less heat; if we could live as the people of some other -nations do--comfortable and content with heat enough to take the chill -off the air, and not demanding that we shall be “kept going” by means -of artificial heat outside of our own natural heat-giving apparatus. -We make caloric cripples of ourselves by giving crutches to nature in -the form of roaring furnaces and hissing steam pipes. Fresh cold air is -better for us than hot air--in winter as well as in summer. Would it -not be worth while to form a national Fresh Air Fraternity, based on -the principle of foregoing artificial heat and developing the original -body caloric? We would then leave artificial heat largely to infants, -weaklings and invalids; we would abolish several diseases altogether, -improve the mortality rate, and be healthy, happy and vigorous. -Incidentally, too, we would have more coal for cooking and other really -necessary purposes. - -[Illustration: W. D. Moffat - -EDITOR] - - - - -IN THE HIGH SCHOOL - - -The Mentor is a part of our High School. Each day 192 pupils and 11 -teachers have opportunity to partake of its splendid contents. Think of -a big family of 200 enjoying it daily. I say daily because I have all -the back numbers, and each day a new Mentor with all its gravures is -displayed on a specially constructed rack in my recitation room. The -important features to be found in it are enumerated on the blackboard, -and after having pursued this method for a year I am anxious to tell -you something about it. - -One sixth of the members of the graduating class at the end of the year -chose Mentor subjects for their theses, and, from the supplementary -reading list given, selected books, which were obtained by mail from -the Carnegie Library at Pittsburgh, with a result that all the theses -were most excellent. - -The Mentor is not filled with current material, which changes -constantly and is good only for a short time. All you print will bear -being assimilated and preserved. It is your small statements that make -The Mentor big. - -It isn’t the “new” but the old things it tells, that are not generally -known, that gives The Mentor permanent value. It creates a permanent -interest in Music, Art, Literature, History, etc., in a High School -away from the polish of a big city in such a way as nothing else but a -Mentor could. I can’t see how a High School can afford to be without a -complete set. Make it known to the schools. It will do a great work. - -J. B. SHEETZ, Principal, McClellandtown, Penn. - - -THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - -ESTABLISHED FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A POPULAR INTEREST IN ART, -LITERATURE, SCIENCE, HISTORY, NATURE, AND TRAVEL - -THE MENTOR IS PUBLISHED TWICE A MONTH - -BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC., AT 114-116 EAST 16TH STREET, NEW -YORK, N. Y. SUBSCRIPTION, FOUR DOLLARS A YEAR. FOREIGN POSTAGE 75 -CENTS EXTRA. CANADIAN POSTAGE 50 CENTS EXTRA. SINGLE COPIES TWENTY -CENTS. PRESIDENT, THOMAS H. BECK; VICE-PRESIDENT, WALTER P. TEN EYCK; -SECRETARY. W. D. MOFFAT; TREASURER, J. S. CAMPBELL; ASSISTANT TREASURER -AND ASSISTANT SECRETARY, H. A. CROWE. - -THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, Inc., 114-116 East 16th Street, New York, N. Y. - - Statement of the ownership, management, circulation, etc., required - by the Act of Congress of August 24, 1912, of The Mentor, published - semi-monthly at New York, N. Y., for April 1, 1918. State of New - York, County of New York. Before me, a Notary Public, in and for - the State and county aforesaid, personally appeared Thomas H. Beck, - who, having been duly sworn according to law, deposes and says - that he is the Publisher of The Mentor, and that the following is, - to the best of his knowledge and belief, a true statement of the - ownership, management, etc., of the aforesaid publication for the - date shown in the above caption, required by the Act of August 24, - 1912, embodied in section 443, Postal Laws and Regulations, to wit: - (1) That the names and addresses of the publisher, editor, managing - editor, and business manager are: Publisher, Thomas H. Beck, 52 - East 19th Street, New York; Editor, W. D. 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