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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Mentor: The Story of Coal, vol. 6, Num. 6, Serial No. 154, May 1, 1918 - -Author: Charles Fitzhugh Talman - -Release Date: February 2, 2016 [EBook #51106] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MENTOR: STORY OF COAL *** - - - - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - THE MENTOR 1918.05.01, No. 154, - The Story of Coal - - - - - LEARN ONE THING - EVERY DAY - - MAY 1 1918 SERIAL NO. 154 - - THE - MENTOR - - THE STORY OF - COAL - - By - CHARLES FITZHUGH TALMAN - - Editorial Writer for the - Scientific American - - DEPARTMENT OF VOLUME 6 - SCIENCE NUMBER 6 - - TWENTY CENTS A COPY - - - - -THE MINER - -By BERTON BRALEY - - - Grimy, and caked with dust of coal he stands, - Grasping his pick within his mighty hands; - The arbiter of destiny and fate, - Greater by far than king or potentate. - - Shops may not run except at his behest, - At forge and blast his strength is manifest. - The rolls that rumble and the shears that scream - And all the million miracles of steam - - Depend on him for fuel that will turn - The wheels that urge them and the belts that churn. - Guns that will shatter fortresses of steel, - Ships that will plow the waves on steady keel - - Bearing munitions for an army’s need - Must wait the miner’s orders and take heed - That he who toils within the coal mine’s murk - Gives them the coal with which they do their work. - - Behind the men who battle in the trench - There stand the workmen at the lathe and bench, - But back of them and master of them all - The miner stands and holds the world in thrall. - - Not soon again shall any man forget - How much the world is in the miner’s debt, - For we shall read upon fame’s honor roll - “He won the war--his labor gave us coal!” - -Reprinted by courtesy of Publishers of “Coal Age.” - - - - -[Illustration: COURTESY U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY - -FOSSIL FERN FROM COAL MINE] - - - - -_THE STORY OF COAL_ - -_The Origin of Coal_ - -ONE - - -While the vegetable origin of coal is beyond question, two rival views -are current among geologists to account for the deposit of ancient -plant material in the form of coal-beds, such as we now find in the -earth. One school of geologists holds that the coal plants grew in -great lagoons and swamps, like the mangrove swamps of today, and that -the modern coal-beds mark the locations of these swamps. From time to -time these areas subsided and were flooded with water to such a depth -that the plants were killed. Eventually the decayed vegetation of the -former swamps was covered with a layer of mud or sand. Later a slow -upheaval of the ground brought these regions again to the surface; a -new swamp formed, only to be submerged again at a later period; and the -same process was repeated several times in the course of hundreds of -thousands of years. - -The bulk of evidence seems to favor this view, but there is another. -Perhaps the coal-beds are not the sites of former swamps, but of -estuaries and ocean shores where the plant material settled down, -in still water, after a long drift down the ancient rivers from its -place of origin. It is not impossible that both explanations are -correct; some coal-beds having been formed in one way, and some in the -other. With the progress of time the deposits of sand were compacted -into sandstone, and the mud and clay into shale; while the layers of -vegetation were solidified by pressure, some of their constituents were -vaporized and expelled by heat, and the final product was coal. - -The coal-measures abound in fossil plants of species long ago extinct, -and we also find the molds or casts of plants that have themselves -disappeared, leaving only their impressions in the mud by which they -were once enveloped. These records of ancient vegetation are mostly -found in the rocks just above and below the coal-beds, and not in the -coal itself. - -The plants of the Carboniferous Period, during which most but not all -of the coal-beds were formed, bore a family likeness to certain kinds -of plants that flourish today. Many of them were ferns, ranging in size -from the smallest species up to great tree-ferns. Others resembled our -modern horsetails or scouring-rushes, with their fluted and jointed -stems, but these _calamites_, as the geologists call them, grew to -the size of trees, sometimes eighty or ninety feet in height. Some -plants of the coal age were like the modern cycads (intermediate in -appearance between tree-ferns and palms); some were like the ginkgo, a -tree with leaves like those of maidenhair fern, widely introduced into -this country from China and Japan. One of the commonest and largest -trees was the _lepidodendron_, closely resembling, except in its vastly -greater size, the club-moss or ground pine which we know so well as a -Christmas decoration. - -The animal life of the period, of which, also, abundant fossil remains -are found, included mollusks, fishes, crustaceans, insects, spiders, -thousand-legs, snails, reptiles and lizards. Some of the insects were a -foot or more in length. Of cockroaches, alone, more than five hundred -species have been found in the coal-measures. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR. VOL. 6, No. 6, SERIAL No. 154 - COPYRIGHT, 1918. BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: COURTESY U. S. BUREAU OF MINES - -TIPPLE AT BITUMINOUS COAL MINE GARY, WEST VIRGINIA] - - - - -_THE STORY OF COAL_ - -_The Coal Fields of the United States_ - -TWO - - -When a coal famine is upon us there is a grain of comfort in the -reflection that beneath the soil of this country, and within 3,000 -feet of the surface, there still lies 3,538,554,000,000 tons of coal. -This is the estimate of the United States Geological Survey. We have -mined coal wastefully and used it prodigally, yet we have taken from -the ground, up to the present time, only a fraction of one per cent. of -the total amount at our disposal. The whole of our “coal reserves,” if -they could be extracted and placed in a great cubical pile, would form -a mass 8.4 miles long, 8.4 miles wide and 8.4 miles high. If the coal -thus far mined were piled up in the same way, the cube would be 7,200 -feet long, 7,200 feet wide, and 7,200 feet high.[1] - - [1] These figures were furnished by Mr. M. R. Campbell, of the - U. S. Geological Survey. They differ materially from figures - previously published by the Survey. - -The coal-producing areas of the country are divided into six great -divisions, known as the Eastern Province, the Interior Province, the -Gulf Province, the Northern Great Plains Province, the Rocky Mountain -Province, and the Pacific Coast Province. The Eastern Province -contains probably nine-tenths of the high-rank coal of the country. -It is made up of the anthracite regions of Pennsylvania and Rhode -Island, the Atlantic coast region of Virginia and North Carolina, and -the great Appalachian region, which embraces all the bituminous and -semi-bituminous coal of what is called the “Appalachian trough.” The -state of Pennsylvania produces 47 per cent. of all the coal mined in -the country, and nearly all of the anthracite. - -The Appalachian region is the greatest storehouse of high-rank coal -in the United States, if not in the world. “This near-by and almost -inexhaustible supply of high-grade fuel,” says the Geological Survey, -“has been the foundation of the development of the blast furnaces, the -great iron and steel mills, and the countless manufacturing enterprises -of the Eastern states.” - -The Interior Province includes all the bituminous coal fields and -regions near the Great Lakes, in the Mississippi Valley, and in Texas, -and is made up of four distinct sections--the northern (Michigan), -eastern (Illinois, Indiana and western Kentucky), western (Iowa, -Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma and Arkansas), and southwestern (Texas). The -coal of this province is not, in general, of as high a quality as that -of the Eastern Province, but it is very extensively mined, and is used -for heating and for generating power in the many cities and towns of -the Mississippi valley and the Great Lakes region. Indeed, extensive -coal fields in proximity to rich agricultural lands have made possible -the existence of such manufacturing centers as Chicago, St. Louis and -Kansas City, and have been a leading factor in the development of the -vast railway systems of the Middle West. - -The Gulf Province is at present of little commercial importance. Its -coal is mined only at a few places in Texas, and is mostly lignite. - -The Northern Great Plains Province includes all the coal fields in the -Great Plains east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. The coals -are of low rank, being either lignite or sub-bituminous, except in a -few of the basins near the mountains. The largest coal region in this -province is the Fort Union region, lying in the Dakotas, Montana and -Wyoming. The amount of unmined coal in this region is estimated to be -twice as great as that lying in the rich Appalachian region, but it has -been little worked, as it is generally of poor quality. - -The Rocky Mountain Province contains a greater variety of coal than -any other province in the United States. It includes all ranks, from -lignite to anthracite, but the prevailing ranks are sub-bituminous and -low-grade bituminous. - -The coal of the Pacific Coast Province is mined chiefly in the state -of Washington, where it has aided in developing the industries of the -Puget Sound region. Oregon and California have small fields, but the -coal is of poor quality, and little mining has been attempted. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR. VOL. 6, No. 6, SERIAL No. 154 - COPYRIGHT, 1918. BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: COURTESY BROWN HOISTING MACHINERY CO. CLEVELAND, O. - -COAL CAR DUMPER IN OPERATION] - - - - -_THE STORY OF COAL_ - -_Handling Coal_ - -THREE - - -In times gone by coal was carried out of the mines on the shoulders -of men and women, and then transferred in wheelbarrows to the -sailing-vessels or wagons in which it was taken to market. In -progressive mines of today the coal is loaded in the mine into small -mine cars, which are hauled and hoisted to the surface by electricity -or steam. The mine cars are dumped on an elevated platform called -the “tipple,” and the coal passes through chutes or conveyors to the -railway cars waiting underneath to receive it. On its way downward it -undergoes a more or less elaborate process of screening, breaking, -picking, washing, etc., according to the kind of coal and the purpose -for which it is to be used. - -The coal reaches the market by three general methods of transportation: -(1) All-rail; (2) rail to the seaports, where it is used for bunkering -steamers or carried by vessels to other ports, foreign and domestic; -(3) rail to the Great Lakes, especially Lake Erie ports, from which -it is carried to ports on the upper lakes, and from the latter again -by rail to markets in the interior. The railroads themselves use -about one-fourth of all the coal mined in this country. The coastwise -coal-carrying trade is mainly by wooden barges towed by steamers, -though much coal is also carried by schooners, some of which can carry -a cargo of 5,000 tons or more. About four per cent. of the bituminous -coal output goes to foreign countries. - -“The consumption of coal,” says the United States Geological Survey, -“is a measure of the industrial activity of a people, for as yet coal -is the main source of mechanical energy. In this respect the United -States is the foremost nation, its average annual consumption of coal -for all purposes being about five tons per capita. Prior to the present -war in Europe the consumption of coal per capita in England, Belgium -and Germany was about four tons, in Russia a quarter of a ton, and in -France about 1.6 tons.” - -Marvelous forms of labor-saving machinery have been introduced to -facilitate the loading and unloading of coal. The principal form of -apparatus for transferring coal either to or from a vessel is the -“bridge tramway plant,” which consists of long steel bridges mounted -side by side on suitable rails so that they can be moved into place -over the hatchway of a vessel. Huge buckets, which load and unload -themselves, are carried on a “trolley,” suspended from the bridge, -and transfer coal at high speed from the vessel to the stock pile or -railway cars, or _vice versa_. The cost of loading coal by this method -is only a cent or two a ton. - -Another ingenious device is the “car-dumper.” This powerful machine -picks up bodily from the railway track a car loaded with a hundred tons -of coal, overturns it, and discharges its contents into the hold of a -vessel; after which it returns the car to the track. It is capable of -handling fifty cars an hour. It is equipped with special apparatus to -prevent the coal from being discharged too violently, and thus being -badly broken up. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR. VOL. 6, No. 6, SERIAL No. 154 - COPYRIGHT, 1918. BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: COURTESY POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY - -CHARGING COAL IN A MODERN GAS PLANT] - - - - -_THE STORY OF COAL_ - -_Coal Products_ - -FOUR - - -The story of the coal products forms one of the most romantic chapters -in the history of applied science. The marvels of fairyland are -surpassed by the achievements of the modern manufacturer in obtaining -from mere black rocks dug out of the ground not only heat and light, -but a bewildering variety of useful gases, liquids and solids--drugs, -chemicals, dyestuffs, and so forth. - -For hundreds of years it has been known that when coal is covered -or enclosed, to keep out the air, and then heated for a certain -length of time, instead of burning to ash it is converted into a -porous grayish-black substance called “coke.” This material, which -burns without smoke or flame, is a valuable fuel for many purposes; -especially for use in blast-furnaces for the smelting of ore. Nowadays -coke is made on a vast scale from certain grades of bituminous and -semi-bituminous coal. The coal is heated in “coking-ovens,” of which -there are several kinds. The most common form of oven in this country -is the “bee-hive oven,” which produces coke only. Another type of -coking-oven, more generally used in Europe than in America, is the -“flue-oven,” which produces, besides coke, a number of valuable -by-products. - -When coal is converted into coke it gives off combustible gases. The -idea of saving these gases and using them for illuminating purposes -was first practically applied in the latter part of the eighteenth -century. “Coal-gas” is made by heating coal in a closed vessel, called -a “retort.” It is a mixture of hydrogen and methane (a compound of -hydrogen and carbon), with small amounts of several other gases. Most -of the carbon in the coal remains in the retort as coke, which is, -therefore, a by-product in the process of making coal-gas. After the -gas is given off from the coal it passes through a series of vessels, -where, by chemical and other methods, it is freed from ingredients -which would impair its value as an illuminant, but which are saved and -used for other purposes; the most important of these are “coal-tar” -and “ammoniacal liquor.” The purified coal-gas is finally conveyed -to a gas-holder or “gasometer,” from which it is distributed to the -consumers. - -In recent times other methods of gas-making have come into use. In one -of these nearly all the carbon in the fuel is turned into a combustible -gas by passing air through the hot coal. The product is known as -“producer-gas,” and is very valuable for use as fuel and as a motive -power in gas-engines, but it is not an illuminant. A modification of -this process, in which steam is passed over the heated fuel, gives -a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, known as “water-gas.” -This is also a valuable source of heat and power; but for use as an -illuminant it must be mixed with a gas made from oil. It is then known -as “carburetted water-gas,” and is very extensively used for lighting -purposes; either by itself or mixed with ordinary coal-gas. - -Of the by-products of gas-making, ammoniacal liquor was, until -recently, the only commercial source of ammonia. Coal-tar, formerly -thrown away as worthless, is today the source of innumerable substances -of immense value to science and the industries. From coal-tar are -obtained benzine, toluene, xylene, phenol (carbolic acid), naphthalene, -anthracene, etc., and these more direct products are combined with -one another or with other chemicals to produce coloring matters, -explosives, perfumes, flavoring materials, sweetening substances, -disinfectants, medicines, photographic developers--in short, a little -of everything. The total number of coal-tar products runs into the -thousands, and is constantly being increased by fresh discoveries. - -In Germany, just before the war, the industries engaged in making these -products (no longer _by_-products, but far more important than coke and -gas) were capitalized at $750,000,000. One firm made no less than 1,800 -coal-tar dyes, besides 120 pharmaceutical and photographic preparations. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR. VOL. 6, No. 6, SERIAL No. 154 - COPYRIGHT, 1918. BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: SMOKE PROBLEM--SCENE IN PITTSBURGH BEFORE AND AFTER THE -SMOKE CURE] - - - - -_THE STORY OF COAL_ - -_The Smoke Problem_ - -FIVE - - -Smoking is a costly and injurious habit. This is not the beginning of -an appeal on behalf of the anti-cigarette crusade, but the introduction -to a few facts in regard to the far-reaching effects of smoky chimneys. -The smoke nuisance is as old as the use of coal. In the fourteenth -century a man was executed in London for befouling the air of that -city with the fumes of “sea-coal,” as ordinary mineral coal was once -called in England, because it was brought to London by sea. Under -Queen Elizabeth a law was passed forbidding the burning of coal while -Parliament was in session, as the legislators believed their health was -likely to be impaired by the smoky air of the city. What would these -bygone gentlemen say if they could see modern London enveloped in one -of its famous “pea-soup” fogs--the color and denseness of which are -entirely due to coal-smoke? - -Smoke is injurious to health, destructive to vegetation, and fatal -to architectural beauty; and, along with all this, it is enormously -expensive. In the first place, a smoky chimney means imperfect -combustion, and a waste of part of the heating value of fuel. Then a -smoky atmosphere entails big laundry and dry-cleaning bills; frequent -repainting of houses; injury to metal work; damage to goods in shops; -excessive artificial lighting in the daytime. Pittsburgh was once -the most famous American example of all these evils, but it has -recently reformed. Before the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research -carried out its elaborate smoke investigation in that city, and, in -consequence, stringent smoke-abatement ordinances were adopted, the -annual smoke bill of Pittsburgh was estimated at nearly ten million -dollars. The city was the paradise of the laundryman, and light-colored -clothing was so little worn by the inhabitants that it was known as -“the mourning town.” - -Throughout the United States it is said that smoke causes an annual -waste and damage amounting to half a billion dollars. No wonder -numerous societies have been formed to mitigate this evil, and a great -many laws have been enacted on the subject. With a gradual increase in -the use of gas, coke and other smokeless fuels, and improved methods of -stoking furnaces, the smoke nuisance is now happily abating. - -The pollution of the air by smoke is the subject of systematic -investigation and measurement at certain places in this country and -abroad. Measurements of the “soot-fall” made in Pittsburgh a few years -ago indicated an annual average deposit of soot in that city amounting -to 1,031 tons per square mile. London’s average is 248 tons per square -mile for the whole city and 426 tons in the central districts. In the -heart of Glasgow the annual soot-fall is 820 tons per square mile. - -In Great Britain there is a Committee for the Investigation of -Atmospheric Pollution, which has installed standard measuring apparatus -in sixteen English and Scotch towns. The soot is collected in a -“pollution gauge,” consisting of a large cast-iron funnel, enameled -on the inside. Projecting above the gauge is a wire screen, open at -the top, to prevent birds from settling on the edge of the vessel. -The gauge communicates at the bottom with one or more bottles for -collecting rain-water, with its solid contents. The bottles are emptied -once a month, when their contents are weighed and analyzed. - -Smoke is injurious to the respiratory organs, conducive to eye-strain -and responsible for a lowering of human vitality. The gloominess of a -smoke-laden atmosphere also has a depressing effect upon the minds of -many people. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR. VOL. 6, No. 6, SERIAL No. 154 - COPYRIGHT, 1918. BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: COURTESY U. S. BUREAU OF MINES - -RESCUE PARTY ENTERING MINE AFTER EXPLOSION] - - - - -_THE STORY OF COAL_ - -_Safety in Coal Mines_ - -SIX - - -Since the year 1870, some 60,000 men have lost their lives as a result -of coal mining accidents in this country. This is approximately one -fatality for every 180,000 tons of coal mined. Gradually this bad -record is being improved, thanks to the combined efforts of the United -States Bureau of Mines, the mining departments of the various states, -the operators and the miners themselves; but coal mining remains a -hazardous pursuit. - -Falls of the roof are responsible for more accidents than any other -single cause. These are likely to occur wherever the roof is not fully -timbered; especially in the “rooms,” where the coal is being blasted -out. Many accidents also occur in mine shafts, notwithstanding the -various safety devices with which the “cage” or elevator is nowadays -provided. - -Fires and explosions attract a greater amount of public attention than -other mining disasters on account of the large number of victims so -often involved in a single occurrence of this kind. In the explosion -at the Courrières colliery, in France, March 10, 1906, more than -1,100 miners perished. This mine had previously been renowned for its -freedom from accidents. Coal mine explosions are due to two principal -causes, which may act either separately or in combination--fire-damp -and coal-dust. Accumulations of fire-damp, or methane, locked up in -the coal seams, are liberated by the removal of the coal. Frequently -streams of this gas gush forth with a hissing noise, and are known -as “blowers.” Fire-damp is explosive when combined with certain -proportions of air. Apart from ventilation, which dilutes the gas below -the danger limit, the principal precaution against explosives is the -use of safety-lamps, so constructed that the gas cannot come in contact -with a naked flame. An excessive amount of coal-dust in the air of the -mine may also give rise to explosions. Such explosions may be prevented -by wetting the dust, moistening the air, or powdering the walls, roof -and floor with a non-explosive “rock-dust.” - -After an explosion the air of a mine contains a large amount of the -deadly gas carbon monoxide, and this “after-damp,” as it is called, -makes rescue work extremely dangerous. Wherever suitable apparatus -is available, the rescuers carry with them a supply of oxygen, by -breathing which they are able to live for some hours in a poisonous -atmosphere. The Bureau of Mines has established a number of rescue -stations in the coal-mining districts and maintains several mine -safety cars for hurrying rescue crews to the scene of a disaster. The -Bureau also instructs the miners in first-aid and rescue work, and is -directing a national campaign in behalf of “safety first” in mines. - -Of the many methods that have been devised for testing the air of -mines for noxious gases none is more interesting than the use of caged -canaries. These birds are much more susceptible than human beings to -the effects of carbon monoxide, and show signs of distress before a -man begins to feel any discomfort from the gas. In many mines they -are carried in routine inspections. After an explosion the number of -rescuers equipped with oxygen apparatus is always limited. These form -the advance guard, and are followed by men without apparatus, who -carry canaries, by observing the behavior of which they can tell how -far they may safely penetrate into the mine. The Bureau of Mines has -devised a special form of cage in which the canary may be revived with -oxygen after being overcome with gas. Experiments show that the bird -may be asphyxiated and revived again and again without suffering any -ill-effects; neither does he acquire an immunity to poisoning which -would make him a less reliable indicator. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR. VOL. 6, No. 6, SERIAL No. 154 - COPYRIGHT, 1918. BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -THE MENTOR · DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE - -MAY 1, 1918 - -[Illustration: Courtesy of Brown Hoisting Machinery Co. - -COAL-HANDLING MACHINERY ON PITTSBURGH COAL CO. DOCKS, DULUTH, MINN. - -An electric trolley, with 5½-ton bucket, travels on each bridge, -carrying coal from the boat to storage, or to railroad car, or to -screening apparatus in the rear] - -THE STORY OF COAL - -By CHARLES FITZHUGH TALMAN - -_Editorial Writer for the Scientific American_ - -_MENTOR GRAVURES_ - -FOSSIL FERN FROM COAL MINE · TIPPLE AT BITUMINOUS COAL MINE · COAL -CAR DUMPER IN OPERATION · CHARGING COAL IN A MODERN GAS PLANT · SMOKE -PROBLEM, SCENE IN PITTSBURGH BEFORE AND AFTER SMOKE CURE · RESCUE PARTY -ENTERING MINE AFTER EXPLOSION - -Entered as second-class matter March 10, 1913, at the postoffice at New -York, N. Y., under the act of March 3, 1879. Copyright, 1913, by The -Mentor Association, Inc. - - -Were it possible for the lump of coal that we burn in our stove, grate -or furnace to tell its story, it would take us back millions of years -to a time when vast areas of the earth’s surface were covered with -swamps, supporting a luxuriant vegetation. No human being, mammal -or bird yet existed. Animal life included fish, shellfish and other -aquatic species, besides reptiles and insects. The vegetal forms -resembled our modern ferns, horsetails, club-mosses and evergreens. -The atmosphere was heavily charged with moisture, and a mild climate -prevailed even in the polar regions. Such were the conditions under -which, during the great Carboniferous Age, most of the existing -coal-beds were deposited in the earth. - -[Illustration: FOREST SWAMP OF THE CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD (Coal Age). - -From a drawing by Potonié and Gothan] - -Coal is the litter of primeval swamps and forests. Year after year the -débris of the humid jungles accumulated in shallow water or in the -boggy soil, where it underwent partial decay, and was thus converted, -first of all, into the slimy or spongy material known as “peat.” -Similar deposits are in process of formation in the swamps of the -present day, and the peat obtained from them is dried and used as fuel -on an extensive scale in some parts of the world; especially Ireland, -Holland, Germany and Scandinavia. - -[Illustration: CONCRETE PORTAL OF A “DRIFT” MINE] - -Gradual changes in the elevation of the land led to the submergence -of the prehistoric peat bogs, during successive intervals of time, by -lakes or shallow seas. Thus their vegetation was killed, and they were -overspread with layers of mud or sand, above which, during a subsequent -period of elevation, a new peat bog would form; and this process was -repeated several times. The conversion of the peat into coal appears -to have resulted from the pressure of the overlying strata, probably -aided by the internal heat of the earth. Much of its moisture was -squeezed and evaporated out; the proportions of its component gases -were reduced; and the result was a hard mineral, which has earned -the popular name of “black diamond” because consisting chiefly of -carbon--the same chemical element which, in a pure and crystalline -form, constitutes the true diamond. Chemically, coal consists of -carbon; the gases hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen; sulphur; and ash (the -mineral matter that remains after combustion). - -[Illustration: Courtesy of United States National Museum - -Comparative coal supplies of the world. The nick in the smallest cube -shows how much hard coal has been used up. Soft coal cube has hardly -been scratched] - -The record of these long-ago events is found when we sink a shaft -through typical coal-bearing strata. We pass through not one, but -several, layers of coal, which may vary in thickness from a fraction of -an inch to a hundred feet or more, and are separated by generally much -thicker layers of sandstone or shale (solidified clay). The layers of -coal are known as “coal-beds.” Unless a coal-bed is at least two feet -thick it is hardly worth working, and, ordinarily, the thickness of a -bed does not exceed eight or ten feet. The shale or sandstone above a -bed is very commonly found to contain the remains or the impressions -of the ancient plants from which the coal was formed. A study of these -remains and casts has made it possible to classify hundreds of species -of plants now extinct. Fragments of plants are also sometimes found in -the coal itself, and thin slices of coal frequently show a vegetable -structure under the microscope. Finally, to furnish conclusive proof -of the vegetable origin of coal, we find under the coal-bed a layer -known as the “underclay,” which is a fossil soil filled with the roots -and rootlets of the coal-producing plants. Different conditions of -formation, and also, probably, differences in the character of the -original vegetation, have resulted in the production of different kinds -of coal. The most important heat-producing constituent in coal is the -elementary substance called “carbon,” and the simplest classification -of solid fuels depends upon the percentages of fixed (non-volatile) -carbon they contain, the average percentages running as follows: Wood, -50%; peat, 55%; lignite, 73%; bituminous coal, 84%; anthracite coal, -93%. When fuel is burned the greater part of it unites chemically with -the oxygen of the air to form certain invisible gases--especially -carbon dioxide and water-vapor--and only the ash remains. - -[Illustration: From “Geology, Physical and Historical,” by H. P. -Cleland. American Book Co., N. Y. - -Section of coal-bearing strata in Pennsylvania, showing relative amount -of coal and barren rock in a rich field] - -In the popular mind coal is classified as hard or soft, while hard coal -is further classified according to the size of the lumps. For both -scientific and industrial purposes more elaborate classifications are -necessary, and several have been used or proposed. - -[Illustration: COAL FIELDS OF THE UNITED STATES] - - -_Kinds of Coal_ - -The United States Geological Survey classifies coals, first of all, -according to “rank,” depending upon both chemical and physical -characteristics. Anthracite, which contains the largest percentage of -carbon, ranks highest, and lignite, with the smallest percentage of -carbon, lowest. Coals of the same rank are said to be of high or low -“grade,” according to whether they contain a relatively small or large -percentage, respectively, of ash and sulphur. The ranks recognized -by the Survey are: Anthracite, semi-anthracite, semi-bituminous, -bituminous, sub-bituminous, and lignite. - -[Illustration: Courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Mines - -AN “ENTRY” IN A COAL MINE - -Showing timbered roof] - -[Illustration: Courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Mines - -COATING WALLS OF A MINE WITH CEMENT - -To prevent coal-dust explosions] - -[Illustration: DRILLING IN COAL FOR BLASTING] - -“Anthracite” is the hardest of coals. It was formed from bituminous -coal under the crushing pressure due to the upheaval of mountains or by -the intense heat of adjacent molten rocks. Most American anthracite is -mined in eastern Pennsylvania. The largest deposits in the world are -found in China. Anthracite burns slowly, with little smoke. It is well -adapted for domestic use on account of its cleanness, but is not an -economical fuel for steam-raising or general manufacturing. - -[Illustration: Press Illustrating Service - -MODERN ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE - -Used for hauling coal from the mines] - -“Semi-anthracite” also ranks as a hard coal, though it is less hard -than anthracite. Very little is mined in this country, and it is -generally sold as anthracite. - -“Semi-bituminous” coal is a softer coal, which, when properly burned, -gives off but little smoke. The best semi-bituminous coal ranks highest -among the coals in heating value. It is the most valuable fuel for -manufacturing purposes; also for steamships, as it requires less bunker -space per unit of heat than any other coal. - -“Bituminous” coal, or ordinary “soft coal,” burns readily, with a smoky -flame, and is the coal most commonly used for manufacturing purposes; -in fact, the bulk of the coal mined throughout the world belongs -to this rank. It includes a good many varieties, some of which are -extensively used in making coke, while others, such as “cannel” coal, -have been in great demand for use in gas-works. Nowadays, however, the -widespread introduction of “water-gas,”[2] which does not require any -particular kind of coal, has diminished the demand for “gas coals.” - - [2] Made by forcing steam over glowing coal or coke. See Monograph - No. 4. - -“Sub-bituminous” coal, or “black lignite,” is common in some of our -western coal fields. It is a clean and useful domestic fuel when used -near the mines, but is not very satisfactory for shipment, as it -shrinks and crumbles under the effects of “weathering” and is liable to -spontaneous combustion. - -“Lignite” is the least valuable of coals, and is the form of coal which -is the least altered from the original peat. The Geological Survey -applies this name only to those coals which are distinctly brown and -either markedly woody or claylike in appearance. Lignite, as it comes -from the mine, contains from thirty to forty per cent. of moisture, and -it “slacks” or falls to pieces much more rapidly than sub-bituminous -coal when exposed to the air. It is hardly suitable for transportation. - -For commercial purposes coal is also classified according to size. -The coal as it comes out of the mine, without any sorting into -sizes, is known as “run of mine,” and the semi-bituminous coals are -commonly shipped in this form. Most coals, however, are passed over -bars or gratings, which constitute screens of different degrees of -fineness; each screen permits all the lumps below a certain size to -fall through, and thus the coal is divided into the different standard -sizes. The sizes of anthracite, from the smallest to the largest, -are: rice, buckwheat, pea, chestnut (or nut), stove, egg, broken (or -grate), steamboat, and lump. Bituminous coal is divided into slack, -nut and lump (the largest size). A mixture of lump and nut is called -three-quarter coal. - - -_The Modern History of Coal_ - -[Illustration: Press Illustrating Service - -MODERN MINING MACHINE - -for undercutting coal. The “cutter bar” is shown in front, filled with -“cutting teeth” set in a chain that travels around. - -See illustration opposite] - -[Illustration: Press Illustrating Service - -SHAKER SCREENS IN A TIPPLE HOUSE - -The coal passing over screens is graded according to size] - -[Illustration: “CUTTER BAR” AT WORK - -The bar, with its cutting chain of teeth, makes a horizontal cut deep -into the bottom of the seam of coal. Blasting then does the rest] - -The age of the steam-engine is also the age in which the use of coal -has become widespread, and the output of coal is a faithful index of -industrial progress. Although the Greek writer Theophrastus (about -300 B. C.) mentions the use of coal as a fuel, and its use was also -known to the ancient Britons and the Chinese, it was virtually unknown -throughout the Middle Ages. The first record of coal mining in England -is of the year 1180 A. D., and coal was first shipped to London in -the year 1240. It was long known as stone-coal, pit-coal, etc., to -distinguish it from charcoal; also as sea-coal, on account of being -carried to London by sea. Bituminous coal was first mined in America -in 1750, near Richmond, Virginia. Anthracite was discovered in Rhode -Island in 1760, and in Pennsylvania in 1766, but for many years its -value was not recognized. As late as the year 1812 Colonel George -Shoemaker, of Pottsville, was treated as an impostor and threatened -with arrest for attempting to sell a few wagon-loads of anthracite in -Philadelphia; methods of burning it were not understood, and it was -declared to be merely “black stone.” In the year 1820 only 365 tons -of anthracite were sold in this country, as compared with the present -annual output of about 90,000,000 tons. - -Before the days of the railway coal was shipped mostly by water in -rough boats called “arks,” which floated down the rivers to the -seaboard towns. As it was impossible to return against the current, -the ark was sold with the coal at its destination. A great many arks -were wrecked in transit, and the whole process of transportation was -a costly one. Only with the introduction of steamboats, canals and -railways, did the coal industry assume serious proportions. - -The production of coal in America has grown at an amazing rate. In the -year 1868 Great Britain produced 3.6 times as much coal as the United -States, and the output was also exceeded by that of Germany. In 1899, -the United States took the lead. At the present time, with an estimated -production for the year 1917 of 643,600,000 tons, the United States is -producing nearly half of all the coal mined in the world. Great Britain -ranks second, closely followed by Germany. - - -_How Coal is Mined_ - -A relatively small amount of coal is quarried near the surface of the -ground from open pits. The overlying soil is removed by steam-shovels, -and the coal is then blasted out and shoveled into cars. - -Most coal is mined underground. Access to the coal-beds is obtained -either by sinking a vertical “shaft” or by driving a tunnel, according -to the location of the beds. A tunnel driven at a steep angle is called -a “slope.” A horizontal tunnel leading into a coal-seam is called a -“drift.” In this country few coal mines are more than 300 or 400 feet -below the surface, and the deepest is about 1,600 feet. Much deeper -mines are found in Europe, especially in Belgium. - -[Illustration: Press Illustrating Service - -ROTARY DUMP IN A TIPPLE - -Showing a coal car half turned over in order to dump contents] - -[Illustration: Courtesy of “Coal Age” - -SPIRALIZING MACHINES - -which, by rotating motion, separate the coal from slate] - -[Illustration: Courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Mines - -MODERN HEADFRAME, BINS AND TRESTLE - -Of fireproof construction. Anthracite coal mine] - -American mine shafts are generally rectangular and are divided into two -or more compartments. Where a shaft passes through water-bearing strata -it must be provided with a tight lining, or “tubbing,” to prevent the -mine from being flooded. All water that enters the mine collects in an -excavation, or “sump,” at the bottom of the shaft, and must be pumped -to the surface. - -The method of working coal-seams most commonly practiced in this -country is known as the “room-and-pillar” system. One or more tunnels, -or “entries,” are first driven from the bottom of the shaft or the -mouth of the drift. These are the main thoroughfares of the mine, and -are usually provided with tracks, over which the mine cars are hauled -by mules or by some other method of traction--locomotives, endless -chains, etc. Secondary entries (“headings,” “butt entries,” etc.) -branch off from the main entries. Finally, the work of extracting the -coal consists of excavating open spaces, or “rooms,” adjoining the -entries. - -[Illustration: Courtesy of “Coal Age” - -MODEL COAL BREAKER - -Note the neat and careful “upkeep” of the place] - -The actual mining is done in the rooms, and different methods are in -use. Anthracite is generally “shot from the solid”; that is, blasted -out from the face of the coal without any preliminary cutting. This -method is objectionable, especially in bituminous mines (where it -is, however, much practiced), because the large charges of powder it -requires produce a great deal of coal-dust and weaken the roof and -pillars, often leading to falls of coal and fatal accidents. A better -plan consists of “undercutting” the coal before it is blasted out. A -long groove is made at the level of the floor, either with a pick or -with a coal-cutting machine. Holes are then drilled some distance above -the groove for the insertion of the blasting charges, and the coal is -blasted down. A single shot will sometimes dislodge a ton or two of -coal. - -The next step is to shovel the coal from the floor into a mine car, -which is then pushed into the adjacent entry. The miner attaches a -numbered tag to the car, so that he will be duly credited for his work, -which is paid for by the ton. The loaded cars are eventually hoisted or -hauled out of the mine, to be weighed and discharged above ground. - -The final step in working a coal-seam by the room-and-pillar method is -to mine out the thick walls or pillars of coal, which are originally -left between adjacent rooms to support the roof. As this work proceeds -the worked-out sections are filled with waste rock, or the roof is -allowed to fall. The object is to leave as little coal in the mine as -possible, but practically it is rare that more than 60 or 70 per cent. -is recovered. - -One feature of a coal mine that must be carefully planned is the -system of ventilation. This is provided not merely for the comfort of -the miners, but to prevent, as far as possible, the accumulation of -poisonous and explosive gases. There are always at least two airways -leading into the mine (one or both of which may also be used for -hoisting or other purposes), known as the “upcast” and the “downcast,” -according to the direction in which the air passes through them. A -current of air is maintained either by keeping a fire burning at the -bottom of the upcast or by the use of powerful fans or blowers. A -system of tight trap-doors prevents the air from taking a short cut -between the downcast and the upcast, and thus leaving the greater part -of the mine unventilated. - -[Illustration: Courtesy of “Coal Age” - -MINING FROM THE OUTSIDE - -Stripping the surface of a coal-bed with steam shovel, at Pittsburg, -Kans.] - -[Illustration: Courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Mines - -WATCHING THE CANARY - -for indications of poisonous coal gas. Reserves testing the air of a -mine after an explosion] - -[Illustration: Courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Mines - -MEMBERS OF RESCUE TEAM - -Showing apparatus worn on entering mines after explosions. This device -sustains a man for two hours] - -The coal in the mine constantly gives off various gases, one of which, -the notorious “fire-damp” (methane or marsh-gas), is responsible for -many explosions. In recent years it has been discovered that coal-dust -itself, when mixed with the right proportion of air, is violently -explosive. Mine explosions may be minimized by requiring the use of -“safety-lamps” (oil, gasoline, or electric); by providing devices to -prevent sparking in electrical apparatus; and by using for blasting -operations only so-called “permissible” explosives, which give a -shorter and cooler flame than black powder. Coal-dust explosions can -be largely prevented by wetting the walls of the mine, or by the new -process of “rock-dusting,” which consists of applying dry incombustible -powdered rock to all surfaces. Unfortunately, none of these precautions -are employed as generally as they should be. - -[Illustration: Press Illustrating Service - -SAFETY DEVICE IN COAL BUNKER - -In case of a “coal slide,” a man may be pulled out before he is buried -and stifled] - - -The elevator used for hoisting in the mine shaft is called a “cage.” -After the mine cars reach the surface they pass upon an elevated -structure called the “tipple.” This is generally the most conspicuous -feature of a mining property above ground, and provides facilities for -screening and otherwise “preparing” the coal as it passes down chutes -to the railway cars underneath. The more elaborate structure used for -anthracite is called a “breaker”; it includes machinery for crushing -the coal and arrangements for removing “slate” and other waste rock by -hand picking or otherwise. - -Coal mining in this country gives employment to an army of 765,000 men. -The word “army” has a sinister appropriateness in this connection, -since out of every thousand men employed in the industry three are -killed and one hundred and eighty injured annually. - - -_The World’s Coal Resources_ - -In order of output, the leading coal-producing countries of the world -are: United States, Great Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, -Russia, Belgium, Japan, China, India, and Canada. The total production -during the latest year for which data are available was about -1,346,000,000 tons. - -How long will the world’s coal supply last? This is a question to which -various answers have been given. Geologists are able to furnish a rough -estimate of the amount of coal now in the ground and near enough to -the surface to be mined; but with the growth of the world’s industries -the demand for coal is increasing by leaps and bounds, and nobody can -safely predict how much will be needed at any future time. - -The world’s “coal reserves”--that is, the amount of coal remaining -unmined--are estimated at 8,154,322,500,000 tons. In the United States -it is estimated that we have used only four-tenths of one per cent. of -our available coal supply. At the _present_ rate of consumption the -coal in this country would last about 4,000 years; but if the present -rate of _increase_ in consumption should be maintained, it would last -only 100 years! - -Fortunately for posterity there are sources of heat, light and power -which are not, like the fuels, exhaustible. Water-power, for example, -is a permanent asset, and there are other inexhaustible sources of -energy, such as solar heat and the internal heat of the earth, which -Man’s ingenuity will someday turn to good account. - -[Illustration: Courtesy of “Coal Age” - -CARS FOR CARRYING EXPLOSIVES INTO MINES] - - -_SUPPLEMENTARY READING_ - - COAL CATECHISM _By W. J. Nicholls_ - - THE STORY OF AMERICAN COALS _By W. J. Nicholls_ - - A YEAR IN A COAL MINE _By Joseph Husband_ - - YEAR BOOK OF THE U. S. BUREAU OF MINES - STORY OF A PIECE OF COAL _By E. A. Martin_ - - THE COAL FIELDS OF THE UNITED STATES - (U. S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper 100) _By M. R. Campbell_ - -⁂ Information concerning these books may be had on application to the -Editor of The Mentor. - - - - -_THE OPEN LETTER_ - - -Coal is “a burning question,” that has to be met and answered every -day. It supplies heat, light and power--and a thousand and one useful -by-products--and it is an ever-present, ever-fruitful subject of -public and private discussion. We average folk know something of the -varied uses of coal in the big affairs of the world, but we know it -more intimately and vitally in the forms in which it ministers to our -own personal welfare. Coal, in our everyday--and night--life, means -heat and light. It means home comfort--and if this “coal comfort” is -denied us, or even curtailed, we raise an immediate and mighty outcry. -And why not? The health of a community can be fatally affected by a -few heatless days. The experience of the past winter has shown us how -dependent we are on fuel, not only for luxury and comfort, but for life -itself. - - * * * * * - -Why do we need so much heat? Many of the peoples of the earth get along -comfortably with much less heat than we consider necessary. Europeans -and South Americans call us a “steam-heated nation.” Why do we have -to surrender so completely and abjectly to the domination of Old King -Coal? It is true, as Owen Meredith said: “Civilized man cannot live -without cooks”; and light is all important in turning night hours to -advantage; but why must we be so warm? Humanity was not created in -a warm room, nor was the human race nurtured, in its infancy, by a -coal fire or a gas stove. Primitive man was his own heater. He had to -_discover_ fire, and then exploit its uses. He was originally supplied -by nature with a warm body, and he now finds artificial ways of making -it warmer. Has not civilization pampered us to a point that has -impaired our original heat-giving resources and substituted a forced -warmth that has enervated us? The doctors tell us that many diseases -come out of artificial heat--indoor diseases, they might be called--the -diseases that are treated, and sometimes cured today, by foregoing -artificial heat and going back to nature. - - * * * * * - -Does this mean that I suggest reverting to primitive conditions and -giving up heat? No, indeed. I suffered enough last winter. I do -not advocate giving up heat--suddenly. But letting up gradually on -artificial heat, I do most earnestly advocate. Most of us live an -over-heated existence--to the depletion of our health. The steam pipe, -like a huge python, is closing its coils about us, and gradually -stifling our native vital resources. - - * * * * * - -On the coldest days of winter a white-haired man, nearly seventy years -of age, may be seen walking New York streets, without a hat, clad only -in light “Palm Beach” trousers, and a silk negligée shirt, open at the -throat. “He is crazy,” you say. “Perhaps,” I answer, “but at any rate -he is healthy--and immune from cold.” Heatless days mean nothing to -him. On a raw, drizzling day in November last a slender man was playing -golf in a light woolen suit. A companion player, weighing over 200 -pounds, full blooded and hearty in appearance, and bundled up in two -heavy sweaters, asked the lightly clad player if he was not afraid of -catching a fatal cold. “No,” he answered, “_you_ are the one that gives -me concern. If I had your clothing on I would be a sick man. _I am not -healthy enough_ to wear all those things.” - - * * * * * - -Which means that we would be better off in health if we could accustom -ourselves to less heat; if we could live as the people of some other -nations do--comfortable and content with heat enough to take the chill -off the air, and not demanding that we shall be “kept going” by means -of artificial heat outside of our own natural heat-giving apparatus. -We make caloric cripples of ourselves by giving crutches to nature in -the form of roaring furnaces and hissing steam pipes. Fresh cold air is -better for us than hot air--in winter as well as in summer. Would it -not be worth while to form a national Fresh Air Fraternity, based on -the principle of foregoing artificial heat and developing the original -body caloric? We would then leave artificial heat largely to infants, -weaklings and invalids; we would abolish several diseases altogether, -improve the mortality rate, and be healthy, happy and vigorous. -Incidentally, too, we would have more coal for cooking and other really -necessary purposes. - -[Illustration: W. D. Moffat - -EDITOR] - - - - -IN THE HIGH SCHOOL - - -The Mentor is a part of our High School. Each day 192 pupils and 11 -teachers have opportunity to partake of its splendid contents. Think of -a big family of 200 enjoying it daily. I say daily because I have all -the back numbers, and each day a new Mentor with all its gravures is -displayed on a specially constructed rack in my recitation room. The -important features to be found in it are enumerated on the blackboard, -and after having pursued this method for a year I am anxious to tell -you something about it. - -One sixth of the members of the graduating class at the end of the year -chose Mentor subjects for their theses, and, from the supplementary -reading list given, selected books, which were obtained by mail from -the Carnegie Library at Pittsburgh, with a result that all the theses -were most excellent. - -The Mentor is not filled with current material, which changes -constantly and is good only for a short time. All you print will bear -being assimilated and preserved. It is your small statements that make -The Mentor big. - -It isn’t the “new” but the old things it tells, that are not generally -known, that gives The Mentor permanent value. It creates a permanent -interest in Music, Art, Literature, History, etc., in a High School -away from the polish of a big city in such a way as nothing else but a -Mentor could. I can’t see how a High School can afford to be without a -complete set. Make it known to the schools. It will do a great work. - -J. B. SHEETZ, Principal, McClellandtown, Penn. - - -THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - -ESTABLISHED FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A POPULAR INTEREST IN ART, -LITERATURE, SCIENCE, HISTORY, NATURE, AND TRAVEL - -THE MENTOR IS PUBLISHED TWICE A MONTH - -BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC., AT 114-116 EAST 16TH STREET, NEW -YORK, N. Y. SUBSCRIPTION, FOUR DOLLARS A YEAR. FOREIGN POSTAGE 75 -CENTS EXTRA. CANADIAN POSTAGE 50 CENTS EXTRA. SINGLE COPIES TWENTY -CENTS. PRESIDENT, THOMAS H. BECK; VICE-PRESIDENT, WALTER P. TEN EYCK; -SECRETARY. W. D. MOFFAT; TREASURER, J. S. CAMPBELL; ASSISTANT TREASURER -AND ASSISTANT SECRETARY, H. A. CROWE. - -THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, Inc., 114-116 East 16th Street, New York, N. Y. - - Statement of the ownership, management, circulation, etc., required - by the Act of Congress of August 24, 1912, of The Mentor, published - semi-monthly at New York, N. Y., for April 1, 1918. State of New - York, County of New York. Before me, a Notary Public, in and for - the State and county aforesaid, personally appeared Thomas H. Beck, - who, having been duly sworn according to law, deposes and says - that he is the Publisher of The Mentor, and that the following is, - to the best of his knowledge and belief, a true statement of the - ownership, management, etc., of the aforesaid publication for the - date shown in the above caption, required by the Act of August 24, - 1912, embodied in section 443, Postal Laws and Regulations, to wit: - (1) That the names and addresses of the publisher, editor, managing - editor, and business manager are: Publisher, Thomas H. Beck, 52 - East 19th Street, New York; Editor, W. D. Moffat, 114-116 East - 16th Street, New York; Managing Editor, W. D. Moffat, 114-116 East - 16th St., New York; Business Manager, Thomas H. Beck, 52 East 19th - Street, New York. (2) That the owners are: American Lithographic - Company, 52 East 19th Street, New York; C. Eddy, L. Ettlinger, - J. P. Knapp, C. K. Mills, 52 East 19th Street, New York; M. C. - Herczog, 28 West 10th Street, New York; William T. Harris, Villa - Nova, Pa.; Mrs. M. E. Heppenheimer, 51 East 58th Street, New York; - Emilie Schumacher, Executrix for Luise E. Schumacher and Walter L. - Schumacher, Mount Vernon, N. Y.; Samuel Untermyer, 120 Broadway, - New York. (3) That the known bondholders, mortgagees, and other - security holders, owning or holding 1 per cent. or more of total - amount of bonds, mortgages, or other securities, are: None. (4) - That the two paragraphs next above, giving the names of the owners, - stockholders, and security holders, if any, contain not only the - list of stockholders and security holders as they appear upon the - books of the Company, but also, in cases where the stockholder or - security holder appears upon the books of the Company as trustee - or in any other fiduciary relation, the name of the person or - corporation for whom such trustee is acting, is given; also that - the said two paragraphs contain statements embracing affiant’s full - knowledge and belief as to the circumstances and conditions under - which stockholders and security holders who do not appear upon the - books of the Company as trustees, hold stock and securities in a - capacity other than that of a bona fide owner; and this affiant - has no reason to believe that any other person, association, or - corporation has any interest direct or indirect in the said stock, - bonds, or other securities than as so stated by him. Thomas H. - Beck, Publisher. Sworn to and subscribed before me this 18th day - of March, 1918. J. S. Campbell, Notary Public, Queens County. - Certificate filed in New York County. My commission expires March - 30, 1919. - -THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, Inc., 114-116 East 16th St., New York, N.Y. - - - - -THE MENTOR - - -Every Reader of The Mentor - -will be interested in knowing that during the past twelve months more -than 400,000 back copies of The Mentor were sold to the members of The -Mentor Association, which shows, more than anything we might say, the -enduring value of every issue of the periodical that is published. - -In no other place is it possible to get such a vast amount of -information in such condensed, interesting form--and the wonderful -gravures that accompany each number are found in no other work. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Mentor: The Story of Coal, vol. 6, Num. 6, Serial No. 154, May 1, 1918 - -Author: Charles Fitzhugh Talman - -Release Date: February 2, 2016 [EBook #51106] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MENTOR: STORY OF COAL *** - - - - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<h1>THE MENTOR 1918.05.01, No. 154,<br /> -The Story of Coal</h1> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 488px;"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="488" height="700" alt="Cover page" /> -</div> - -<div class="bbox" style="width: 25em; margin: auto;"> - -<p class="center gesperrt smaller">LEARN ONE THING<br /> -EVERY DAY</p> - -<p class="smaller noindent">MAY 1 1918</p> - -<p class="right smaller noindent" style="margin-top: -2em;">SERIAL NO. 154</p> - -<p class="center"><span class="larger">THE<br /> -MENTOR</span><br /> -<br /> -THE STORY OF COAL</p> - -<p class="center smaller">By<br /> -CHARLES FITZHUGH TALMAN</p> - -<p class="center smaller">Editorial Writer for the<br /> -Scientific American</p> - -<p class="smaller noindent">DEPARTMENT OF<br /> -SCIENCE</p> - -<p class="right smaller noindent" style="margin-top: -3em;">VOLUME 6<br /> -NUMBER 6</p> - -<p class="center smaller">TWENTY CENTS A COPY</p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="bbox-dashed"> - -<div class="bordered2"> - -<h2>THE MINER</h2> - -</div> - -<p class="line"><span class="linebg">By BERTON BRALEY</span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse">Grimy, and caked with dust of coal he stands,</div> -<div class="verse">Grasping his pick within his mighty hands;</div> -<div class="verse">The arbiter of destiny and fate,</div> -<div class="verse">Greater by far than king or potentate.</div> -</div> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse">Shops may not run except at his behest,</div> -<div class="verse">At forge and blast his strength is manifest.</div> -<div class="verse">The rolls that rumble and the shears that scream</div> -<div class="verse">And all the million miracles of steam</div> -</div> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse">Depend on him for fuel that will turn</div> -<div class="verse">The wheels that urge them and the belts that churn.</div> -<div class="verse">Guns that will shatter fortresses of steel,</div> -<div class="verse">Ships that will plow the waves on steady keel</div> -</div> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse">Bearing munitions for an army’s need</div> -<div class="verse">Must wait the miner’s orders and take heed</div> -<div class="verse">That he who toils within the coal mine’s murk</div> -<div class="verse">Gives them the coal with which they do their work.</div> -</div> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse">Behind the men who battle in the trench</div> -<div class="verse">There stand the workmen at the lathe and bench,</div> -<div class="verse">But back of them and master of them all</div> -<div class="verse">The miner stands and holds the world in thrall.</div> -</div> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse">Not soon again shall any man forget</div> -<div class="verse">How much the world is in the miner’s debt,</div> -<div class="verse">For we shall read upon fame’s honor roll</div> -<div class="verse">“He won the war—his labor gave us coal!”</div> -</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="smaller">Reprinted by courtesy of Publishers of “Coal Age.”</p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 475px;"> - -<img src="images/plate1.jpg" width="475" height="650" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">COURTESY U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY</p> - -<p class="caption">FOSSIL FERN FROM COAL MINE</p> - -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><i>THE STORY OF COAL</i><br /> -<i>The Origin of Coal</i></h2> -</div> - -<p class="line"><span class="linebg">ONE</span></p> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-plain-w.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">While the vegetable origin of coal is beyond question, -two rival views are current among geologists to -account for the deposit of ancient plant material in -the form of coal-beds, such as we now find in the -earth. One school of geologists holds that the coal plants -grew in great lagoons and swamps, like the mangrove swamps -of today, and that the modern coal-beds -mark the locations of these swamps. -From time to time these areas subsided -and were flooded with water to such a -depth that the plants were killed. Eventually -the decayed vegetation of the former -swamps was covered with a layer of mud -or sand. Later a slow upheaval of the -ground brought these regions again to the -surface; a new swamp formed, only to be -submerged again at a later period; and the -same process was repeated several times -in the course of hundreds of thousands of -years.</p> - -<p>The bulk of evidence seems to favor -this view, but there is another. Perhaps -the coal-beds are not the sites of former -swamps, but of estuaries and ocean shores -where the plant material settled down, in -still water, after a long drift down the -ancient rivers from its place of origin. It -is not impossible that both explanations -are correct; some coal-beds having been -formed in one way, and some in the other. -With the progress of time the deposits of -sand were compacted into sandstone, and -the mud and clay into shale; while the -layers of vegetation were solidified by -pressure, some of their constituents were -vaporized and expelled by heat, and the -final product was coal.</p> - -<p>The coal-measures abound in fossil -plants of species long ago extinct, and we -also find the molds or casts of plants that -have themselves disappeared, leaving only -their impressions in the mud by which -they were once enveloped. These records -of ancient vegetation are mostly found in -the rocks just above and below the coal-beds, -and not in the coal itself.</p> - -<p>The plants of the Carboniferous Period, -during which most but not all of the coal-beds -were formed, bore a family likeness -to certain kinds of plants that flourish -today. Many of them were ferns, ranging -in size from the smallest species up to -great tree-ferns. Others resembled our -modern horsetails or scouring-rushes, -with their fluted and jointed stems, but -these <i>calamites</i>, as the geologists call them, -grew to the size of trees, sometimes eighty -or ninety feet in height. Some plants of -the coal age were like the modern cycads -(intermediate in appearance between tree-ferns -and palms); some were like the -ginkgo, a tree with leaves like those of -maidenhair fern, widely introduced into -this country from China and Japan. One -of the commonest and largest trees was -the <i>lepidodendron</i>, closely resembling, except -in its vastly greater size, the club-moss -or ground pine which we know so -well as a Christmas decoration.</p> - -<p>The animal life of the period, of which, -also, abundant fossil remains are found, -included mollusks, fishes, crustaceans, insects, -spiders, thousand-legs, snails, reptiles -and lizards. Some of the insects -were a foot or more in length. Of cockroaches, -alone, more than five hundred -species have been found in the coal-measures.</p> - -<p class="center smaller">PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION<br /> -ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR. VOL. 6, No. 6, SERIAL No. 154<br /> -COPYRIGHT, 1918. BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 475px;"> - -<img src="images/plate2.jpg" width="475" height="650" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">COURTESY U. S. BUREAU OF MINES</p> - -<p class="caption">TIPPLE AT BITUMINOUS COAL MINE GARY, WEST VIRGINIA</p> - -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><i>THE STORY OF COAL</i><br /> -<i>The Coal Fields of the United States</i></h2> -</div> - -<p class="line"><span class="linebg">TWO</span></p> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-plain-w.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">When a coal famine is upon us there is a grain of -comfort in the reflection that beneath the soil of -this country, and within 3,000 feet of the surface, -there still lies 3,538,554,000,000 tons of coal. This -is the estimate of the United States Geological Survey. We -have mined coal wastefully and used it prodigally, yet we -have taken from the ground, up to the -present time, only a fraction of one per -cent. of the total amount at our disposal. -The whole of our “coal reserves,” if they -could be extracted and placed in a great -cubical pile, would form a mass 8.4 miles -long, 8.4 miles wide and 8.4 miles high. If -the coal thus far mined were piled up in -the same way, the cube would be 7,200 feet -long, 7,200 feet wide, and 7,200 feet high.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> These figures were furnished by Mr. M. R. -Campbell, of the U. S. Geological Survey. They -differ materially from figures previously published -by the Survey.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The coal-producing areas of the country -are divided into six great divisions, known -as the Eastern Province, the Interior -Province, the Gulf Province, the Northern -Great Plains Province, the Rocky -Mountain Province, and the Pacific -Coast Province. The Eastern Province -contains probably nine-tenths of the high-rank -coal of the country. It is made -up of the anthracite regions of Pennsylvania -and Rhode Island, the Atlantic -coast region of Virginia and North Carolina, -and the great Appalachian region, -which embraces all the bituminous and -semi-bituminous coal of what is called the -“Appalachian trough.” The state of -Pennsylvania produces 47 per cent. of all -the coal mined in the country, and nearly -all of the anthracite.</p> - -<p>The Appalachian region is the greatest -storehouse of high-rank coal in the United -States, if not in the world. “This near-by -and almost inexhaustible supply of -high-grade fuel,” says the Geological Survey, -“has been the foundation of the development -of the blast furnaces, the great -iron and steel mills, and the countless -manufacturing enterprises of the Eastern -states.”</p> - -<p>The Interior Province includes all the -bituminous coal fields and regions near -the Great Lakes, in the Mississippi Valley, -and in Texas, and is made up of four distinct -sections—the northern (Michigan), -eastern (Illinois, Indiana and western -Kentucky), western (Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, -Oklahoma and Arkansas), and southwestern -(Texas). The coal of this province -is not, in general, of as high a quality -as that of the Eastern Province, but it is -very extensively mined, and is used for -heating and for generating power in the -many cities and towns of the Mississippi -valley and the Great Lakes region. Indeed, -extensive coal fields in proximity to -rich agricultural lands have made possible -the existence of such manufacturing centers -as Chicago, St. Louis and Kansas -City, and have been a leading factor in the -development of the vast railway systems -of the Middle West.</p> - -<p>The Gulf Province is at present of little -commercial importance. Its coal is mined -only at a few places in Texas, and is mostly -lignite.</p> - -<p>The Northern Great Plains Province -includes all the coal fields in the Great -Plains east of the Front Range of the -Rocky Mountains. The coals are of low -rank, being either lignite or sub-bituminous, -except in a few of the basins near -the mountains. The largest coal region -in this province is the Fort Union region, -lying in the Dakotas, Montana and Wyoming. -The amount of unmined coal in -this region is estimated to be twice as -great as that lying in the rich Appalachian -region, but it has been little worked, as it -is generally of poor quality.</p> - -<p>The Rocky Mountain Province contains -a greater variety of coal than any -other province in the United States. It -includes all ranks, from lignite to anthracite, -but the prevailing ranks are sub-bituminous -and low-grade bituminous.</p> - -<p>The coal of the Pacific Coast Province -is mined chiefly in the state of Washington, -where it has aided in developing the -industries of the Puget Sound region. -Oregon and California have small fields, -but the coal is of poor quality, and little -mining has been attempted.</p> - -<p class="center smaller">PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION<br /> -ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR. VOL. 6, No. 6, SERIAL No. 154<br /> -COPYRIGHT, 1918. BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> - -<img src="images/plate3.jpg" width="650" height="460" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">COURTESY BROWN HOISTING MACHINERY CO. CLEVELAND, O.</p> - -<p class="caption">COAL CAR DUMPER IN OPERATION</p> - -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><i>THE STORY OF COAL</i><br /> -<i>Handling Coal</i></h2> -</div> - -<p class="line"><span class="linebg">THREE</span></p> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-plain-i.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">In times gone by coal was carried out of the mines on -the shoulders of men and women, and then transferred -in wheelbarrows to the sailing-vessels or -wagons in which it was taken to market. In progressive -mines of today the coal is loaded in the mine into small -mine cars, which are hauled and hoisted to the surface by -electricity or steam. The mine cars are -dumped on an elevated platform called the -“tipple,” and the coal passes through chutes -or conveyors to the railway cars waiting -underneath to receive it. On its way downward -it undergoes a more or less elaborate -process of screening, breaking, picking, -washing, etc., according to the kind of coal -and the purpose for which it is to be used.</p> - -<p>The coal reaches the market by three -general methods of transportation: (1) -All-rail; (2) rail to the seaports, where it -is used for bunkering steamers or carried -by vessels to other ports, foreign and -domestic; (3) rail to the Great Lakes, especially -Lake Erie ports, from which it is -carried to ports on the upper lakes, and -from the latter again by rail to markets in -the interior. The railroads themselves -use about one-fourth of all the coal mined -in this country. The coastwise coal-carrying -trade is mainly by wooden barges -towed by steamers, though much coal is -also carried by schooners, some of which -can carry a cargo of 5,000 tons or more. -About four per cent. of the bituminous -coal output goes to foreign countries.</p> - -<p>“The consumption of coal,” says the -United States Geological Survey, “is a -measure of the industrial activity of a -people, for as yet coal is the main source -of mechanical energy. In this respect the -United States is the foremost nation, its -average annual consumption of coal for all -purposes being about five tons per capita. -Prior to the present war in Europe the -consumption of coal per capita in England, -Belgium and Germany was about four -tons, in Russia a quarter of a ton, and in -France about 1.6 tons.”</p> - -<p>Marvelous forms of labor-saving machinery -have been introduced to facilitate -the loading and unloading of coal. The -principal form of apparatus for transferring -coal either to or from a vessel is the -“bridge tramway plant,” which consists of -long steel bridges mounted side by side -on suitable rails so that they can be moved -into place over the hatchway of a vessel. -Huge buckets, which load and unload -themselves, are carried on a “trolley,” suspended -from the bridge, and transfer coal -at high speed from the vessel to the stock -pile or railway cars, or <i>vice versa</i>. The cost -of loading coal by this method is only a -cent or two a ton.</p> - -<p>Another ingenious device is the “car-dumper.” -This powerful machine picks -up bodily from the railway track a car -loaded with a hundred tons of coal, overturns -it, and discharges its contents into -the hold of a vessel; after which it returns -the car to the track. It is capable -of handling fifty cars an hour. It is -equipped with special apparatus to prevent -the coal from being discharged too -violently, and thus being badly broken up.</p> - -<p class="center smaller">PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION<br /> -ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR. VOL. 6, No. 6, SERIAL No. 154<br /> -COPYRIGHT, 1918. BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> - -<img src="images/plate4.jpg" width="650" height="460" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">COURTESY POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY</p> - -<p class="caption">CHARGING COAL IN A MODERN GAS PLANT</p> - -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><i>THE STORY OF COAL</i><br /> -<i>Coal Products</i></h2> -</div> - -<p class="line"><span class="linebg">FOUR</span></p> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-plain-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The story of the coal products forms one of the most -romantic chapters in the history of applied science. -The marvels of fairyland are surpassed by the -achievements of the modern manufacturer in obtaining -from mere black rocks dug out of the ground not only heat -and light, but a bewildering variety of useful gases, liquids -and solids—drugs, chemicals, dyestuffs, -and so forth.</p> - -<p>For hundreds of years it has been known -that when coal is covered or enclosed, to -keep out the air, and then heated for a -certain length of time, instead of burning -to ash it is converted into a porous grayish-black -substance called “coke.” This -material, which burns without smoke or -flame, is a valuable fuel for many purposes; -especially for use in blast-furnaces for the -smelting of ore. Nowadays coke is made -on a vast scale from certain grades of -bituminous and semi-bituminous coal. -The coal is heated in “coking-ovens,” of -which there are several kinds. The most -common form of oven in this country is -the “bee-hive oven,” which produces coke -only. Another type of coking-oven, more -generally used in Europe than in America, -is the “flue-oven,” which produces, besides -coke, a number of valuable by-products.</p> - -<p>When coal is converted into coke it gives -off combustible gases. The idea of saving -these gases and using them for illuminating -purposes was first practically applied -in the latter part of the eighteenth century. -“Coal-gas” is made by heating coal in -a closed vessel, called a “retort.” It is a mixture -of hydrogen and methane (a compound -of hydrogen and carbon), with -small amounts of several other gases. -Most of the carbon in the coal remains in -the retort as coke, which is, therefore, a -by-product in the process of making coal-gas. -After the gas is given off from the -coal it passes through a series of vessels, -where, by chemical and other methods, it -is freed from ingredients which would impair -its value as an illuminant, but which -are saved and used for other purposes; the -most important of these are “coal-tar” and -“ammoniacal liquor.” The purified coal-gas -is finally conveyed to a gas-holder or “gasometer,” -from which it is distributed to the -consumers.</p> - -<p>In recent times other methods of gas-making -have come into use. In one of -these nearly all the carbon in the fuel is -turned into a combustible gas by passing -air through the hot coal. The product is -known as “producer-gas,” and is very valuable -for use as fuel and as a motive power -in gas-engines, but it is not an illuminant. -A modification of this process, in which -steam is passed over the heated fuel, -gives a mixture of hydrogen and carbon -monoxide, known as “water-gas.” This is -also a valuable source of heat and power; -but for use as an illuminant it must be -mixed with a gas made from oil. It is then -known as “carburetted water-gas,” and is -very extensively used for lighting purposes; -either by itself or mixed with ordinary -coal-gas.</p> - -<p>Of the by-products of gas-making, ammoniacal -liquor was, until recently, the -only commercial source of ammonia. Coal-tar, -formerly thrown away as worthless, -is today the source of innumerable substances -of immense value to science and -the industries. From coal-tar are obtained -benzine, toluene, xylene, phenol (carbolic -acid), naphthalene, anthracene, etc., and -these more direct products are combined -with one another or with other chemicals -to produce coloring matters, explosives, -perfumes, flavoring materials, sweetening -substances, disinfectants, medicines, photographic -developers—in short, a little of -everything. The total number of coal-tar -products runs into the thousands, and is -constantly being increased by fresh discoveries.</p> - -<p>In Germany, just before the war, the -industries engaged in making these products -(no longer <i>by</i>-products, but far -more important than coke and gas) were -capitalized at $750,000,000. One firm -made no less than 1,800 coal-tar dyes, besides -120 pharmaceutical and photographic -preparations.</p> - -<p class="center smaller">PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION<br /> -ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR. VOL. 6, No. 6, SERIAL No. 154<br /> -COPYRIGHT, 1918. BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> - -<img src="images/plate5.jpg" width="650" height="460" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">SMOKE PROBLEM—SCENE IN PITTSBURGH BEFORE AND AFTER THE SMOKE CURE</p> - -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><i>THE STORY OF COAL</i><br /> -<i>The Smoke Problem</i></h2> -</div> - -<p class="line"><span class="linebg">FIVE</span></p> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-plain-s.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Smoking is a costly and injurious habit. This is -not the beginning of an appeal on behalf of the anti-cigarette -crusade, but the introduction to a few -facts in regard to the far-reaching effects of smoky -chimneys. The smoke nuisance is as old as the use of coal. -In the fourteenth century a man was executed in London for -befouling the air of that city with the -fumes of “sea-coal,” as ordinary mineral -coal was once called in England, because -it was brought to London by sea. Under -Queen Elizabeth a law was passed forbidding -the burning of coal while Parliament -was in session, as the legislators believed -their health was likely to be impaired by -the smoky air of the city. What would -these bygone gentlemen say if they could -see modern London enveloped in one of -its famous “pea-soup” fogs—the color and -denseness of which are entirely due to coal-smoke?</p> - -<p>Smoke is injurious to health, destructive -to vegetation, and fatal to architectural -beauty; and, along with all this, it is -enormously expensive. In the first place, -a smoky chimney means imperfect combustion, -and a waste of part of the heating -value of fuel. Then a smoky atmosphere -entails big laundry and dry-cleaning bills; -frequent repainting of houses; injury to -metal work; damage to goods in shops; excessive -artificial lighting in the daytime. -Pittsburgh was once the most famous -American example of all these evils, but -it has recently reformed. Before the Mellon -Institute of Industrial Research carried -out its elaborate smoke investigation -in that city, and, in consequence, stringent -smoke-abatement ordinances were -adopted, the annual smoke bill of Pittsburgh -was estimated at nearly ten million -dollars. The city was the paradise of the -laundryman, and light-colored clothing -was so little worn by the inhabitants that -it was known as “the mourning town.”</p> - -<p>Throughout the United States it is said -that smoke causes an annual waste and -damage amounting to half a billion dollars. -No wonder numerous societies have been -formed to mitigate this evil, and a great -many laws have been enacted on the subject. -With a gradual increase in the use -of gas, coke and other smokeless fuels, -and improved methods of stoking furnaces, -the smoke nuisance is now happily -abating.</p> - -<p>The pollution of the air by smoke is the -subject of systematic investigation and -measurement at certain places in this country -and abroad. Measurements of the -“soot-fall” made in Pittsburgh a few years -ago indicated an annual average deposit -of soot in that city amounting to 1,031 -tons per square mile. London’s average -is 248 tons per square mile for the whole -city and 426 tons in the central districts. -In the heart of Glasgow the annual soot-fall -is 820 tons per square mile.</p> - -<p>In Great Britain there is a Committee -for the Investigation of Atmospheric Pollution, -which has installed standard measuring -apparatus in sixteen English and -Scotch towns. The soot is collected in a -“pollution gauge,” consisting of a large -cast-iron funnel, enameled on the inside. -Projecting above the gauge is a wire screen, -open at the top, to prevent birds from settling -on the edge of the vessel. The gauge -communicates at the bottom with one or -more bottles for collecting rain-water, with -its solid contents. The bottles are emptied -once a month, when their contents are -weighed and analyzed.</p> - -<p>Smoke is injurious to the respiratory -organs, conducive to eye-strain and responsible -for a lowering of human vitality. -The gloominess of a smoke-laden atmosphere -also has a depressing effect upon the -minds of many people.</p> - -<p class="center smaller">PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION<br /> -ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR. VOL. 6, No. 6, SERIAL No. 154<br /> -COPYRIGHT, 1918. BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> - -<img src="images/plate6.jpg" width="650" height="460" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">COURTESY U. S. BUREAU OF MINES</p> - -<p class="caption">RESCUE PARTY ENTERING MINE AFTER EXPLOSION</p> - -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><i>THE STORY OF COAL</i><br /> -<i>Safety in Coal Mines</i></h2> -</div> - -<p class="line"><span class="linebg">SIX</span></p> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-plain-s.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Since the year 1870, some 60,000 men have lost their -lives as a result of coal mining accidents in this -country. This is approximately one fatality for -every 180,000 tons of coal mined. Gradually this -bad record is being improved, thanks to the combined efforts -of the United States Bureau of Mines, the mining departments -of the various states, the operators and -the miners themselves; but coal mining -remains a hazardous pursuit.</p> - -<p>Falls of the roof are responsible for more -accidents than any other single cause. -These are likely to occur wherever the -roof is not fully timbered; especially in -the “rooms,” where the coal is being -blasted out. Many accidents also occur -in mine shafts, notwithstanding the -various safety devices with which the -“cage” or elevator is nowadays provided.</p> - -<p>Fires and explosions attract a greater -amount of public attention than other -mining disasters on account of the large -number of victims so often involved in a -single occurrence of this kind. In the explosion -at the Courrières colliery, in France, -March 10, 1906, more than 1,100 miners -perished. This mine had previously been -renowned for its freedom from accidents. -Coal mine explosions are due to two principal -causes, which may act either separately -or in combination—fire-damp and -coal-dust. Accumulations of fire-damp, -or methane, locked up in the coal seams, -are liberated by the removal of the coal. -Frequently streams of this gas gush forth -with a hissing noise, and are known as -“blowers.” Fire-damp is explosive when -combined with certain proportions of air. -Apart from ventilation, which dilutes the -gas below the danger limit, the principal -precaution against explosives is the use of -safety-lamps, so constructed that the gas -cannot come in contact with a naked -flame. An excessive amount of coal-dust -in the air of the mine may also give rise to -explosions. Such explosions may be prevented -by wetting the dust, moistening -the air, or powdering the walls, roof and -floor with a non-explosive “rock-dust.”</p> - -<p>After an explosion the air of a mine contains -a large amount of the deadly gas -carbon monoxide, and this “after-damp,” -as it is called, makes rescue work extremely -dangerous. Wherever suitable apparatus -is available, the rescuers carry with them -a supply of oxygen, by breathing which -they are able to live for some hours in a -poisonous atmosphere. The Bureau of -Mines has established a number of rescue -stations in the coal-mining districts and -maintains several mine safety cars for -hurrying rescue crews to the scene of a -disaster. The Bureau also instructs the -miners in first-aid and rescue work, and is -directing a national campaign in behalf -of “safety first” in mines.</p> - -<p>Of the many methods that have been -devised for testing the air of mines for -noxious gases none is more interesting than -the use of caged canaries. These birds are -much more susceptible than human beings -to the effects of carbon monoxide, and -show signs of distress before a man begins -to feel any discomfort from the gas. In -many mines they are carried in routine -inspections. After an explosion the number -of rescuers equipped with oxygen apparatus -is always limited. These form -the advance guard, and are followed by -men without apparatus, who carry canaries, -by observing the behavior of which -they can tell how far they may safely -penetrate into the mine. The Bureau of -Mines has devised a special form of cage -in which the canary may be revived with -oxygen after being overcome with gas. -Experiments show that the bird may be -asphyxiated and revived again and again -without suffering any ill-effects; neither -does he acquire an immunity to poisoning -which would make him a less reliable -indicator.</p> - -<p class="center smaller">PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION<br /> -ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR. VOL. 6, No. 6, SERIAL No. 154<br /> -COPYRIGHT, 1918. BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="bordered"> - -<p class="center larger">THE MENTOR · DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE<br /> -MAY 1, 1918</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> - -<img src="images/illus15.jpg" width="500" height="241" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">Courtesy of Brown Hoisting Machinery Co.</p> - -<p class="caption">COAL-HANDLING MACHINERY ON PITTSBURGH COAL CO. DOCKS, DULUTH, MINN.</p> - -<p class="captionsmall">An electric trolley, with 5½-ton bucket, travels on each bridge, carrying coal from the boat to storage, or to -railroad car, or to screening apparatus in the rear</p> - -</div> - -<h2>THE STORY OF COAL</h2> - -<p class="center">By CHARLES FITZHUGH TALMAN</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Editorial Writer for the Scientific American</i></p> - -<p class="center"><i>MENTOR GRAVURES</i></p> - -<p class="center">FOSSIL FERN FROM COAL MINE · TIPPLE AT BITUMINOUS COAL MINE · COAL CAR -DUMPER IN OPERATION · CHARGING COAL IN A MODERN GAS PLANT · SMOKE -PROBLEM, SCENE IN PITTSBURGH BEFORE AND AFTER SMOKE CURE · RESCUE PARTY -ENTERING MINE AFTER EXPLOSION</p> - -<p class="center smaller">Entered as second-class matter March 10, 1913, at the postoffice at New York, N. Y., under the act of March 3, 1879. Copyright, 1913, -by The Mentor Association, Inc.</p> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-italic-w.jpg" width="110" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Were it possible for the lump of coal that we burn in our -stove, grate or furnace to tell its story, it would take us -back millions of years to a time when vast areas of the earth’s -surface were covered with swamps, supporting a luxuriant vegetation. -No human being, mammal or bird yet existed. Animal -life included fish, shellfish and other aquatic species, besides -reptiles and insects. The vegetal forms resembled our modern ferns, horsetails, -club-mosses and evergreens. The atmosphere was heavily charged -with moisture, and a mild climate prevailed even in the polar regions. -Such were the conditions under which, during the great Carboniferous -Age, most of the existing coal-beds were deposited in the earth.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus16a.jpg" width="300" height="223" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">FOREST SWAMP OF THE CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD -(Coal Age). From a drawing by Potonié and Gothan</p> - -</div> - -<p>Coal is the litter of primeval swamps and forests. Year after year -the débris of the humid jungles accumulated in shallow water or in the -boggy soil, where it underwent partial decay, and was thus converted, -first of all, into the slimy or -spongy material known as “peat.” -Similar deposits are in process -of formation in the swamps of -the present day, and the peat -obtained from them is dried and -used as fuel on an extensive scale -in some parts of the world; especially -Ireland, Holland, Germany -and Scandinavia.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus16b.jpg" width="300" height="216" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">CONCRETE PORTAL OF A “DRIFT” MINE</p> - -</div> - -<p>Gradual changes in the elevation -of the land led to the submergence -of the prehistoric peat -bogs, during successive intervals -of time, by lakes or shallow seas. -Thus their vegetation was killed, and they were overspread with -layers of mud or sand, above which, during a subsequent period of -elevation, a new peat bog would form; and this process was repeated -several times. The conversion of the peat into coal appears to have -resulted from the pressure of the overlying strata, probably aided by -the internal heat of the earth. Much of its moisture was squeezed and -evaporated out; the proportions of its component gases were reduced; -and the result was a hard mineral, which has earned the popular name of -“black diamond” because consisting chiefly of carbon—the same chemical -element which, in a pure and crystalline form, constitutes the true diamond. -Chemically, coal consists of carbon; the gases hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen; -sulphur; and ash (the mineral matter that remains after combustion).</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 135px;"> - -<img src="images/illus17a.jpg" width="135" height="500" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">Courtesy of United States National Museum</p> - -<p class="caption">Comparative coal supplies of the world. The nick in the -smallest cube shows how much hard coal has been used -up. Soft coal cube has hardly been scratched</p> - -</div> - -<p>The record of these long-ago events is found when we sink a shaft -through typical coal-bearing strata. We pass through not one, but several, -layers of coal, which may vary in thickness from a fraction of an inch to -a hundred feet or more, and are separated by generally much thicker -layers of sandstone or shale (solidified clay). The layers of coal are known -as “coal-beds.” Unless a coal-bed is at least two feet thick it is hardly -worth working, and, ordinarily, the -thickness of a bed does not exceed -eight or ten feet. The shale or sandstone -above a bed is very commonly -found to contain the remains or the -impressions of the ancient plants -from which the coal was formed. A -study of these remains and casts -has made it possible to classify hundreds -of species of plants now extinct. -Fragments of plants are also sometimes -found in the coal itself, and -thin slices of coal frequently show a -vegetable structure -under the -microscope. Finally, -to furnish -conclusive proof of -the vegetable origin -of coal, we find -under the coal-bed -a layer known as -the “underclay,” -which is a fossil -soil filled with the -roots and rootlets -of the coal-producing plants. Different conditions of -formation, and also, probably, differences in the character -of the original vegetation, have resulted in the -production of different kinds of coal. The most important -heat-producing constituent in coal is the elementary -substance called “carbon,” and the simplest -classification of solid fuels depends upon the percentages -of fixed (non-volatile) carbon they contain, the -average percentages running as follows: Wood, 50%; -peat, 55%; lignite, 73%; bituminous coal, 84%; anthracite -coal, 93%. When fuel is burned the greater part -of it unites chemically with the oxygen of the air to -form certain invisible gases—especially carbon dioxide -and water-vapor—and only the ash remains.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus17b.jpg" width="300" height="193" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">From “Geology, Physical and -Historical,” by H. P. Cleland. -American Book Co., N. Y.</p> - -<p class="caption">Section of coal-bearing -strata in Pennsylvania, -showing relative amount -of coal and barren rock -in a rich field</p> - -</div> - -<p>In the popular mind coal is classified as hard or -soft, while hard coal is further classified according to -the size of the lumps. -For both scientific and -industrial purposes -more elaborate classifications -are necessary, -and several have -been used or proposed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> - -<img src="images/illus17c.jpg" width="500" height="342" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">COAL FIELDS OF THE UNITED STATES</p> - -</div> - -<h3><i>Kinds of Coal</i></h3> - -<p>The United States -Geological Survey -classifies coals, first of -all, according to -“rank,” depending -upon both chemical -and physical characteristics. -Anthracite, -which contains the largest -percentage of carbon, ranks -highest, and lignite, with the -smallest percentage of carbon, -lowest. Coals of the same -rank are said to be of high or -low “grade,” according to -whether they contain a relatively -small or large percentage, -respectively, of ash and -sulphur. The ranks recognized -by the Survey are: Anthracite, -semi-anthracite, -semi-bituminous, bituminous, -sub-bituminous, and lignite.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus18a.jpg" width="300" height="227" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">Courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Mines</p> - -<p class="caption">AN “ENTRY” IN A COAL MINE</p> - -<p class="captionsmall">Showing timbered roof</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus18b.jpg" width="300" height="232" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">Courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Mines</p> - -<p class="caption">COATING WALLS OF A MINE WITH CEMENT</p> - -<p class="captionsmall">To prevent coal-dust explosions</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus19a.jpg" width="300" height="253" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">DRILLING IN COAL FOR BLASTING</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<p>“Anthracite” is the hardest -of coals. It was formed from -bituminous coal under the -crushing pressure due to the -upheaval of mountains or by -the intense heat of adjacent -molten rocks. Most American -anthracite is mined in eastern -Pennsylvania. The largest deposits -in the world are found -in China. Anthracite burns -slowly, with little smoke. It -is well adapted for domestic -use on account of its cleanness, -but is not an economical -fuel for steam-raising or general -manufacturing.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 227px;"> - -<img src="images/illus19b.jpg" width="227" height="300" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">Press Illustrating Service</p> - -<p class="caption">MODERN ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE</p> - -<p class="captionsmall">Used for hauling coal from the mines</p> - -</div> - -<p>“Semi-anthracite” also -ranks as a hard coal, though it is less hard than anthracite. Very little -is mined in this country, and it is generally sold as anthracite.</p> - -<p>“Semi-bituminous” coal is a softer coal, which, when properly burned, -gives off but little smoke. The best semi-bituminous coal ranks highest -among the coals in heating value. It is the most valuable fuel for manufacturing -purposes; also for steamships, as it requires less bunker space -per unit of heat than any other coal.</p> - -<p>“Bituminous” coal, or ordinary “soft coal,” burns readily, with a -smoky flame, and is the coal most commonly used for manufacturing purposes; -in fact, the bulk of the coal mined throughout the world belongs -to this rank. It includes a good many varieties, some of which are -extensively used in making coke, while others, such as “cannel” coal, -have been in great demand for use -in gas-works. Nowadays, however, -the widespread introduction of -“water-gas,”<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> which does not require -any particular kind of coal, has diminished -the demand for “gas coals.”</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Made by forcing steam over glowing coal or coke. See -Monograph No. 4.</p></div> - -<p>“Sub-bituminous” coal, or “black -lignite,” is common in some of our -western coal fields. It is a clean and -useful domestic fuel when used near -the mines, but is not very satisfactory -for shipment, as it shrinks -and crumbles under the effects of -“weathering” and is liable to spontaneous -combustion.</p> - -<p>“Lignite” is the least valuable of coals, and is the form of coal which -is the least altered from the original peat. The Geological Survey applies -this name only to those coals which are distinctly brown and either -markedly woody or claylike in appearance. Lignite, as it comes from -the mine, contains from thirty to forty per cent. of moisture, and it -“slacks” or falls to pieces much more rapidly than sub-bituminous coal -when exposed to the air. It is hardly suitable for transportation.</p> - -<p>For commercial purposes coal is also classified according to size. -The coal as it comes out of the mine, -without any sorting into sizes, is -known as “run of mine,” and the -semi-bituminous coals are commonly -shipped in this form. Most coals, -however, are passed over bars or -gratings, which constitute screens of -different degrees of fineness; each -screen permits all the lumps below -a certain size to fall through, and -thus the coal is divided into the -different standard sizes. The sizes -of anthracite, from the smallest -to the largest, are: rice, buckwheat, -pea, chestnut (or nut), -stove, egg, broken (or grate), -steamboat, and lump. Bituminous -coal is divided into slack, nut and -lump (the largest size). A mixture -of lump and nut is called three-quarter -coal.</p> - -<h3><i>The Modern History of -Coal</i></h3> - -<div class="figcenter"> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus20a.jpg" width="300" height="242" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">Press Illustrating Service</p> - -<p class="caption">MODERN MINING MACHINE</p> - -<p class="captionsmall">for undercutting coal. The “cutter bar” is shown in front, -filled with “cutting teeth” set in a chain that travels around. See illustration opposite</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus20b.jpg" width="300" height="235" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">Press Illustrating Service</p> - -<p class="caption">SHAKER SCREENS IN A TIPPLE HOUSE</p> - -<p class="captionsmall">The coal passing over screens is graded according to size</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus21a.jpg" width="300" height="239" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">“CUTTER BAR” AT WORK</p> - -<p class="captionsmall">The bar, with its cutting chain of teeth, makes a horizontal -cut deep into the bottom of the seam of coal. Blasting then -does the rest</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<p>The age of the steam-engine -is also the age in which the use -of coal has become widespread, -and the output of coal is a faithful -index of industrial progress. -Although the Greek writer -Theophrastus (about 300 B. C.) -mentions the use of coal as a -fuel, and its use was also known -to the ancient Britons and the -Chinese, it was virtually unknown -throughout the Middle -Ages. The first record of coal -mining in England is of the year -1180 A. D., and coal was first -shipped to London in the year 1240. It was long known as stone-coal, -pit-coal, etc., to distinguish it from charcoal; also as sea-coal, on account -of being carried to London by sea. Bituminous coal was first mined in -America in 1750, near Richmond, Virginia. Anthracite was discovered -in Rhode Island in 1760, and in Pennsylvania in 1766, but for many -years its value was not recognized. As late as the year 1812 Colonel -George Shoemaker, of Pottsville, was treated as an impostor and -threatened with arrest for attempting to sell a few wagon-loads of anthracite -in Philadelphia; methods of burning it were not understood, and -it was declared to be merely “black stone.” In the year 1820 only 365 -tons of anthracite were -sold in this country, as -compared with the present -annual output of about -90,000,000 tons.</p> - -<p>Before the days of the -railway coal was shipped -mostly by water in rough -boats called “arks,” which -floated down the rivers to -the seaboard towns. As -it was impossible to return -against the current, the -ark was sold with the coal -at its destination. A great -many arks were wrecked -in transit, and the whole -process of transportation -was a costly one. Only with the -introduction of steamboats, canals -and railways, did the coal -industry assume serious proportions.</p> - -<p>The production of coal in -America has grown at an amazing -rate. In the year 1868 Great -Britain produced 3.6 times as -much coal as the United States, -and the output was also exceeded -by that of Germany. In 1899, -the United States took the -lead. At the present time, with an -estimated production for the year -1917 of 643,600,000 tons, the -United States is producing nearly half of all the coal mined in the -world. Great Britain ranks second, closely followed by Germany.</p> - -<h3><i>How Coal is Mined</i></h3> - -<p>A relatively small amount of coal is quarried near the surface of the -ground from open pits. The overlying soil is removed by steam-shovels, -and the coal is then blasted out and shoveled into cars.</p> - -<p>Most coal is mined underground. Access to the coal-beds is obtained -either by sinking a vertical “shaft” or by driving a tunnel, according to -the location of the beds. A tunnel driven at a steep angle is called a -“slope.” A horizontal tunnel leading into a coal-seam is called a “drift.” -In this country few coal -mines are more than 300 -or 400 feet below the surface, -and the deepest is -about 1,600 feet. Much -deeper mines are found in -Europe, especially in Belgium.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus21b.jpg" width="300" height="228" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">Press Illustrating Service</p> - -<p class="caption">ROTARY DUMP IN A TIPPLE</p> - -<p class="captionsmall">Showing a coal car half turned over in order to dump contents</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus22a.jpg" width="300" height="236" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">Courtesy of “Coal Age”</p> - -<p class="caption">SPIRALIZING MACHINES</p> - -<p class="captionsmall">which, by rotating motion, separate the coal from slate</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus22b.jpg" width="300" height="238" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">Courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Mines</p> - -<p class="caption">MODERN HEADFRAME, BINS AND TRESTLE</p> - -<p class="captionsmall">Of fireproof construction. Anthracite coal mine</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<p>American mine shafts -are generally rectangular -and are divided into two -or more compartments. -Where a shaft passes -through water-bearing -strata it must be provided -with a tight lining, or -“tubbing,” to prevent -the mine from being -flooded. All water that enters -the mine collects in an excavation, -or “sump,” at the bottom -of the shaft, and must be -pumped to the surface.</p> - -<p>The method of working -coal-seams most commonly -practiced in this country is -known as the “room-and-pillar” -system. One or more -tunnels, or “entries,” are first -driven from the bottom of -the shaft or the mouth of the -drift. These are the main -thoroughfares of the mine, -and are usually provided with -tracks, over which the mine -cars are hauled by mules or by some other method of traction—locomotives, -endless chains, etc. Secondary entries (“headings,” “butt entries,” -etc.) branch off from the main entries. Finally, the work of extracting -the coal consists of excavating open spaces, or “rooms,” adjoining -the entries.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 230px;"> - -<img src="images/illus23a.jpg" width="230" height="300" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">Courtesy of “Coal Age”</p> - -<p class="caption">MODEL COAL BREAKER</p> - -<p class="captionsmall">Note the neat and careful “upkeep” of the place</p> - -</div> - -<p>The actual mining is done in the rooms, and different methods are in -use. Anthracite is generally “shot from the solid”; that is, blasted -out from the face of the coal without any preliminary cutting. This -method is objectionable, especially in bituminous mines (where it is, however, -much practiced), because the large charges of powder it requires -produce a great deal of coal-dust and weaken the roof and pillars, often -leading to falls of coal and -fatal accidents. A better plan -consists of “undercutting” -the coal before it is blasted -out. A long groove is made -at the level of the floor, either -with a pick or with a coal-cutting -machine. Holes are -then drilled some distance -above the groove for the insertion -of the blasting charges, -and the coal is blasted down. -A single shot will sometimes -dislodge a ton or two of coal.</p> - -<p>The next step is to shovel -the coal from the floor into a -mine car, which is then pushed -into the adjacent entry. The miner attaches a numbered tag to the car, -so that he will be duly credited for his work, which is paid for by the ton. -The loaded cars are eventually hoisted or hauled out of the mine, to be -weighed and discharged above ground.</p> - -<p>The final step in working a coal-seam by the room-and-pillar method -is to mine out the thick walls or pillars of coal, which are originally left -between adjacent rooms to support -the roof. As this work proceeds the -worked-out sections are filled with -waste rock, or the roof is allowed -to fall. The object is to leave as -little coal in the mine as possible, but -practically it is rare that more than -60 or 70 per cent. is recovered.</p> - -<p>One feature of a coal mine that -must be carefully planned is the system -of ventilation. This is provided -not merely for the comfort of the -miners, but to prevent, as far as -possible, the accumulation of poisonous -and explosive gases. There are -always at least two airways leading -into the mine (one or both of which -may also be used for hoisting or -other purposes), known as the -“upcast” and the “downcast,” according -to the direction in which the -air passes through them. A current -of air is maintained either by keeping -a fire burning at the bottom -of the upcast or by the use -of powerful fans or blowers. -A system of tight -trap-doors prevents the -air from taking a short cut -between the downcast and -the upcast, and thus leaving -the greater part of the -mine unventilated.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus23b.jpg" width="300" height="211" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">Courtesy of “Coal Age”</p> - -<p class="caption">MINING FROM THE OUTSIDE</p> - -<p class="captionsmall">Stripping the surface of a coal-bed with steam shovel, at Pittsburg, Kans.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus24a.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">Courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Mines</p> - -<p class="caption">WATCHING THE CANARY</p> - -<p class="captionsmall">for indications of poisonous coal gas. Reserves testing the air -of a mine after an explosion</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 198px;"> - -<img src="images/illus24b.jpg" width="198" height="300" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">Courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Mines</p> - -<p class="caption">MEMBERS OF RESCUE TEAM</p> - -<p class="captionsmall">Showing apparatus worn on entering mines -after explosions. This device sustains a man -for two hours</p> - -</div> - -<p>The coal in the mine -constantly gives off various -gases, one of which, the -notorious “fire-damp” -(methane or marsh-gas), is -responsible for many -explosions. In recent years it -has been discovered that coal-dust -itself, when mixed with the -right proportion of air, is violently -explosive. Mine explosions -may be minimized by requiring -the use of “safety-lamps” (oil, -gasoline, or electric); by providing -devices to prevent sparking -in electrical apparatus; and by -using for blasting operations only -so-called “permissible” explosives, -which give a shorter and -cooler flame than black powder. -Coal-dust explosions can be -largely prevented by wetting the -walls of the mine, or by the new -process of “rock-dusting,” which consists of applying dry incombustible -powdered rock to all surfaces. Unfortunately, none of these precautions -are employed as generally as they should be.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 213px;"> - -<img src="images/illus25a.jpg" width="213" height="300" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">Press Illustrating Service</p> - -<p class="caption">SAFETY DEVICE IN COAL BUNKER</p> - -<p class="captionsmall">In case of a “coal slide,” a man may be pulled -out before he is buried and stifled</p> - -</div> - -<p>The elevator used for hoisting in the mine shaft is called a “cage.” -After the mine cars reach the surface they pass upon an elevated structure -called the “tipple.” This is generally the most conspicuous feature of a -mining property above ground, and provides -facilities for screening and otherwise -“preparing” the coal as it passes down -chutes to the railway cars underneath. The -more elaborate structure used for anthracite -is called a “breaker”; it includes -machinery for crushing the coal and arrangements -for removing “slate” and other waste -rock by hand picking or otherwise.</p> - -<p>Coal mining in this country gives employment -to an army of 765,000 men. The -word “army” has a sinister appropriateness -in this connection, since out of every thousand -men employed in the industry three -are killed and one hundred and eighty -injured annually.</p> - -<h3><i>The World’s Coal Resources</i></h3> - -<p>In order of output, the leading coal-producing -countries of the world are: -United States, Great Britain, Germany, -Austria-Hungary, France, Russia, Belgium, -Japan, China, India, and Canada. The -total production during the latest year -for which data are available was about -1,346,000,000 tons.</p> - -<p>How long will the world’s coal supply -last? This is a question to which various -answers have been given. Geologists are -able to furnish a rough estimate of the -amount of coal now in the ground and near -enough to the surface to be mined; but -with the growth of the world’s industries -the demand for coal is increasing by -leaps and bounds, and nobody can safely -predict how much will be needed at any -future time.</p> - -<p>The world’s “coal reserves”—that is, -the amount of coal remaining unmined—are -estimated at 8,154,322,500,000 tons. -In the United States it is estimated that we -have used only four-tenths of one per cent. -of our available coal supply. At the <i>present</i> rate of consumption the coal in -this country would last about 4,000 years; but if the present rate of <i>increase</i> -in consumption should be -maintained, it would last only -100 years!</p> - -<p>Fortunately for posterity -there are sources of heat, light -and power which are not, like -the fuels, exhaustible. Water-power, -for example, is a permanent -asset, and there are other -inexhaustible sources of energy, -such as solar heat and the -internal heat of the earth, -which Man’s ingenuity will -someday turn to good account.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> - -<img src="images/illus25b.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="" /> - -<p class="captionleft">Courtesy of “Coal Age”</p> - -<p class="caption">CARS FOR CARRYING EXPLOSIVES INTO MINES</p> - -</div> - -<h3><i>SUPPLEMENTARY READING</i></h3> - -<table summary="books"> - <tr> - <td>COAL CATECHISM</td><td class="tdr"><i>By W. J. Nicholls</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>THE STORY OF AMERICAN COALS</td><td class="tdr"><i>By W. J. Nicholls</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>A YEAR IN A COAL MINE</td><td class="tdr"><i>By Joseph Husband</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>YEAR BOOK OF THE U. S. BUREAU OF MINES</td><td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>STORY OF A PIECE OF COAL</td><td class="tdr"><i>By E. A. Martin</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>THE COAL FIELDS OF THE UNITED STATES<br /> (U. S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper 100)</td><td class="tdr"><i>By M. R. Campbell</i></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class="center">⁂ Information concerning these books may be had on application to the Editor of The Mentor.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="bordered"> - -<h2><i>THE OPEN LETTER</i></h2> - -</div> - -<p>Coal is “a burning question,” that has -to be met and answered every day. It -supplies heat, light and power—and a -thousand and one useful by-products—and -it is an ever-present, ever-fruitful -subject of public and private discussion. -We average folk know something of the -varied uses of coal in the big affairs of the -world, but we know it more intimately -and vitally in the forms in which it ministers -to our own personal welfare. Coal, -in our everyday—and night—life, means -heat and light. It means home comfort—and -if this “coal comfort” is denied us, -or even curtailed, we raise an immediate -and mighty outcry. And why not? The -health of a community can be fatally -affected by a few heatless days. The -experience of the past winter has shown -us how dependent we are on fuel, not only -for luxury and comfort, but for life itself.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> -<img src="images/stars.jpg" width="100" height="19" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p>Why do we need so much heat? Many -of the peoples of the earth get along comfortably -with much less heat than we consider -necessary. Europeans and South -Americans call us a “steam-heated nation.” -Why do we have to surrender so -completely and abjectly to the domination -of Old King Coal? It is true, as -Owen Meredith said: “Civilized man cannot -live without cooks”; and light is all -important in turning night hours to advantage; -but why must we be so warm? -Humanity was not created in a warm room, -nor was the human race nurtured, in its infancy, -by a coal fire or a gas stove. Primitive -man was his own heater. He had to -<i>discover</i> fire, and then exploit its uses. He -was originally supplied by nature with a -warm body, and he now finds artificial -ways of making it warmer. Has not -civilization pampered us to a point that -has impaired our original heat-giving resources -and substituted a forced warmth -that has enervated us? The doctors tell -us that many diseases come out of artificial -heat—indoor diseases, they might -be called—the diseases that are treated, -and sometimes cured today, by foregoing -artificial heat and going back to nature.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> -<img src="images/stars.jpg" width="100" height="19" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p>Does this mean that I suggest reverting -to primitive conditions and giving up -heat? No, indeed. I suffered enough -last winter. I do not advocate giving up -heat—suddenly. But letting up gradually -on artificial heat, I do most earnestly -advocate. Most of us live an over-heated -existence—to the depletion of our -health. The steam pipe, like a huge -python, is closing its coils about us, and -gradually stifling our native vital resources.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> -<img src="images/stars.jpg" width="100" height="19" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p>On the coldest days of winter a -white-haired man, nearly seventy years -of age, may be seen walking New York -streets, without a hat, clad only in light -“Palm Beach” trousers, and a silk negligée -shirt, open at the throat. “He is -crazy,” you say. “Perhaps,” I answer, -“but at any rate he is healthy—and immune -from cold.” Heatless days mean -nothing to him. On a raw, drizzling day -in November last a slender man was -playing golf in a light woolen suit. A -companion player, weighing over 200 -pounds, full blooded and hearty in appearance, -and bundled up in two heavy sweaters, -asked the lightly clad player if he -was not afraid of catching a fatal cold. -“No,” he answered, “<i>you</i> are the one that -gives me concern. If I had your clothing -on I would be a sick man. <i>I am not -healthy enough</i> to wear all those things.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> -<img src="images/stars.jpg" width="100" height="19" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p>Which means that we would be better -off in health if we could accustom ourselves -to less heat; if we could live as -the people of some other nations do—comfortable -and content with heat enough -to take the chill off the air, and not demanding -that we shall be “kept going” -by means of artificial heat outside of our -own natural heat-giving apparatus. We -make caloric cripples of ourselves by giving -crutches to nature in the form of -roaring furnaces and hissing steam pipes. -Fresh cold air is better for us than hot -air—in winter as well as in summer. -Would it not be worth while to form -a national Fresh Air Fraternity, based -on the principle of foregoing artificial -heat and developing the original body caloric? -We would then leave artificial heat -largely to infants, weaklings and invalids; -we would abolish several diseases altogether, -improve the mortality rate, and be -healthy, happy and vigorous. Incidentally, -too, we would have more coal for cooking -and other really -necessary purposes.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/signature.jpg" width="200" height="94" alt="(signature)" /> - -<p class="caption">W. D. Moffat<br /> -<span class="smcap">Editor</span></p> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="bbox"> - -<h2>IN THE HIGH SCHOOL</h2> - -<p>The Mentor is a part of our High School. Each day 192 pupils and 11 teachers -have opportunity to partake of its splendid contents. Think of a big family of -200 enjoying it daily. I say daily because I have all the back numbers, and each -day a new Mentor with all its gravures is displayed on a specially constructed rack -in my recitation room. The important features to be found in it are enumerated -on the blackboard, and after having pursued this method for a year I am anxious to tell -you something about it.</p> - -<p>One sixth of the members of the graduating class at the end of the year chose Mentor -subjects for their theses, and, from the supplementary reading list given, selected books, -which were obtained by mail from the Carnegie Library at Pittsburgh, with a result that all -the theses were most excellent.</p> - -<p>The Mentor is not filled with current material, which changes constantly and is good -only for a short time. All you print will bear being assimilated and preserved. It is your -small statements that make The Mentor big.</p> - -<p>It isn’t the “new” but the old things it tells, that are not generally known, that gives The -Mentor permanent value. It creates a permanent interest in Music, Art, Literature, History, -etc., in a High School away from the polish of a big city in such a way as nothing else -but a Mentor could. I can’t see how a High School can afford to be without a complete set. -Make it known to the schools. It will do a great work.</p> - -<p class="right">J. B. SHEETZ, Principal, McClellandtown, Penn.</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2><span class="smcap">The Mentor Association</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="noindent">ESTABLISHED FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A POPULAR INTEREST -IN ART, LITERATURE, SCIENCE, HISTORY, NATURE, AND TRAVEL</p> - -</div> - -<p class="center">THE MENTOR IS PUBLISHED TWICE A MONTH</p> - -<p class="noindent">BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC., AT 114-116 EAST 16TH STREET, NEW YORK, N. Y. SUBSCRIPTION, -FOUR DOLLARS A YEAR. FOREIGN POSTAGE 75 CENTS EXTRA. CANADIAN -POSTAGE 50 CENTS EXTRA. SINGLE COPIES TWENTY CENTS. PRESIDENT, THOMAS H. -BECK; VICE-PRESIDENT, WALTER P. TEN EYCK; SECRETARY. W. D. MOFFAT; TREASURER, -J. S. CAMPBELL; ASSISTANT TREASURER AND ASSISTANT SECRETARY, H. A. CROWE.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p class="center">THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, Inc., 114-116 East 16th Street, New York, N. Y.</p> - -<p class="noindent smaller">Statement of the ownership, management, -circulation, etc., required by the Act of Congress of August 24, 1912, -of The Mentor, published semi-monthly at New York, N. Y., for April -1, 1918. State of New York, County of New York. Before me, a Notary -Public, in and for the State and county aforesaid, personally appeared -Thomas H. Beck, who, having been duly sworn according to law, deposes -and says that he is the Publisher of The Mentor, and that the following -is, to the best of his knowledge and belief, a true statement of the -ownership, management, etc., of the aforesaid publication for the -date shown in the above caption, required by the Act of August 24, -1912, embodied in section 443, Postal Laws and Regulations, to wit: -(1) That the names and addresses of the publisher, editor, managing -editor, and business manager are: Publisher, Thomas H. Beck, 52 East -19th Street, New York; Editor, W. D. Moffat, 114-116 East 16th Street, -New York; Managing Editor, W. D. Moffat, 114-116 East 16th St., New -York; Business Manager, Thomas H. Beck, 52 East 19th Street, New York. -(2) That the owners are: American Lithographic Company, 52 East 19th -Street, New York; C. Eddy, L. Ettlinger, J. P. Knapp, C. K. Mills, 52 -East 19th Street, New York; M. C. Herczog, 28 West 10th Street, New -York; William T. Harris, Villa Nova, Pa.; Mrs. M. E. Heppenheimer, 51 -East 58th Street, New York; Emilie Schumacher, Executrix for Luise -E. Schumacher and Walter L. Schumacher, Mount Vernon, N. Y.; Samuel -Untermyer, 120 Broadway, New York. (3) That the known bondholders, -mortgagees, and other security holders, owning or holding 1 per cent. -or more of total amount of bonds, mortgages, or other securities, are: -None. (4) That the two paragraphs next above, giving the names of the -owners, stockholders, and security holders, if any, contain not only -the list of stockholders and security holders as they appear upon the -books of the Company, but also, in cases where the stockholder or -security holder appears upon the books of the Company as trustee or in -any other fiduciary relation, the name of the person or corporation -for whom such trustee is acting, is given; also that the said two -paragraphs contain statements embracing affiant’s full knowledge and -belief as to the circumstances and conditions under which stockholders -and security holders who do not appear upon the books of the Company -as trustees, hold stock and securities in a capacity other than that -of a bona fide owner; and this affiant has no reason to believe that -any other person, association, or corporation has any interest direct -or indirect in the said stock, bonds, or other securities than as so -stated by him. Thomas H. Beck, Publisher. Sworn to and subscribed -before me this 18th day of March, 1918. J. S. Campbell, Notary Public, -Queens County. Certificate filed in New York County. My commission -expires March 30, 1919.</p> - -<p class="center">THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, Inc., 114-116 East 16th St., New York, N.Y.</p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p class="center larger">THE MENTOR</p> - -<p class="center larger">Every Reader of The Mentor</p> - -<p class="noindent">will be interested in knowing that during the past twelve -months more than 400,000 back copies of The Mentor were -sold to the members of The Mentor Association, which shows, -more than anything we might say, the enduring value of -every issue of the periodical that is published.</p> - -<p class="noindent">In no other place is it possible to get such a vast amount of -information in such condensed, interesting form—and the -wonderful gravures that accompany each number are found -in no other work. The previous numbers of The Mentor -when bound make an invaluable library of knowledge.</p> - -<p class="noindent">We have just received from the -binders a number of sets, finished -in a beautiful three-quarter morocco. -It is complete in five handy -volumes, containing all the material -that has been published up to and -including issue 120. It contains -2,000 text pages, 720 full page -gravures, and over 1,800 other rare -illustrations. The sets that have -just come in are especially well-bound; -so strong, in fact, that they -will last for years. The leather is -an extra fine skin, the clear cut lettering -and the cover decorations are -in gold—making a set that will prove -a handsome addition to any library.</p> - -<p class="noindent">As a member of The Mentor Association -you appreciate the value of -possessing a work that has the merit -of the material that makes up The -Mentor Library. Each subject is -complete in every detail—and you -have the privilege of possessing all -subsequent volumes as fast as they -are issued, which in time will be -the most complete, the most authoritative, -and the most interesting -set ever published. It is a -series that you will be proud to -pass on to your children and to -your children’s children; and the -price is so low, and the terms so -easy, that you surely must take -advantage of it.</p> - -<p class="noindent">YOU NEED SEND NO MONEY -NOW. Simply send us your name -and address with the request to forward -them to you. We will send the -five attractive volumes, all charges -paid. You can then send us only -$1.00 within ten days after receipt -of bill and $3.00 a month until $36.25 -has been paid—or five per cent. discount -for cash, should you choose.</p> - -<p class="noindent">If you will send us a post card or a -letter at once we will extend your -subscription for one year without -additional cost, to begin at the expiration -of your present membership; -also you will receive, without -additional charge (regular price, -25c.), the new cross-reference index, -which makes every subject in the -library at your instant command.</p> - -<p class="center">You Save $4.25 If You Act Promptly</p> - -<p class="noindent">Several hundred sets of The Mentor Library have been sold during -the past two or three weeks, and as we have but a few sets of the -present edition on hand, we are making this very unusual offer. -It is necessary that you write us promptly that you may take -advantage of the present low prices. We urge you to act today.</p> - -<p class="center">THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION<br /> -114-116 East Sixteenth Street, New York City</p> - -<p class="center larger">MAKE THE SPARE<br /> -MOMENT COUNT</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 492px;"> -<img src="images/back.jpg" width="492" height="700" alt="Back cover page: The Mentor" /> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Mentor: The Story of Coal, vol. 6, -Num. 6, Serial No. 154, May 1, 1918, by Charles Fitzhugh Talman - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MENTOR: STORY OF COAL *** - -***** This file should be named 51106-h.htm or 51106-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/1/1/0/51106/ - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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