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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #51026 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/51026)
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-Project Gutenberg's Germany's Fighting Machine, by Ernest Flagg Henderson
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Germany's Fighting Machine
-       Her Army, her Navy, her Airships and Why She Arrayed Them
-       Against the Allied Powers of Europe
-
-Author: Ernest Flagg Henderson
-
-Release Date: January 24, 2016 [EBook #51026]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GERMANY'S FIGHTING MACHINE ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Brian Coe, David Tipple and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
-
-
-
-
-
-[Transcriber's Notes
-
-Underscores are used for italic markup; the three words that end this
-sentence _are in italics_.
-
-The spelling and hyphenation are as found in the original text.
-
-There is one spelling mistake that deserves mention. Although
-“dreadnaught” can be accepted as an older spelling of “dreadnought”,
-Henderson's use of it to denote a certain type of battleship is
-incorrect. Battleships of this type were called dreadnoughts after
-_H.M.S. Dreadnought_, the first example of this type of ship.
-
-There is only one footnote: it has been left inline, that is,
-immediately after its flag.]
-
-
-
-
-                      GERMANY’S FIGHTING MACHINE
-
-
-[Illustration: Kaiser Wilhelm II]
-
-
-                               GERMANY’S
-                           FIGHTING MACHINE
-
-                _Her Army, Her Navy, Her Air-ships, and
-                   Why She Arrayed Them Against the
-                       Allied Powers of Europe_
-
-
-                                  BY
-                          ERNEST F. HENDERSON
-
-                              _Author of_
-
-                       SHORT HISTORY OF GERMANY
-                 HISTORY OF GERMANY IN THE MIDDLE AGES
-                          BLÜCHER, ETC., ETC.
-
-
-                        WITH MANY ILLUSTRATIONS
-
-
-                             INDIANAPOLIS
-                       THE BOBBS-MERRILL COMPANY
-                              PUBLISHERS
-
-
-
-
-                            COPYRIGHT 1914
-                       THE BOBBS-MERRILL COMPANY
-
-
-                    CHARLES FRANCIS PRESS, NEW YORK
-
-
-
-
-                      GERMANY’S FIGHTING MACHINE
-
-
-
-
-                      GERMANY’S FIGHTING MACHINE
-
-
-                                PART I
-
-                                THE WAR
-
-
-But a few weeks ago the author of this little book was in Germany
-studying the land and its institutions and full of admiration for its
-achievements in every field. Two days after he had taken ship for
-America Germany was practically at war with France and Russia. England
-soon joined in the conflict, and the splendid Hamburg liner on which
-the author was a passenger was a hunted thing on the ocean, owing her
-safety at last to a friendly fog. The great shipping company, with its
-nearly two hundred vessels, was out of the running as a commercial
-enterprise, a symbol of the paralyzed industries of the whole country.
-
-To the ordinary observer the conflict came like a bolt from the blue,
-but to the historian and to the man who reads the foreign newspapers it
-was not unexpected. The historians recognized that it was the appointed
-time for a war between the great nations. The Franco-Prussian War took
-place forty-three years ago. When, since the days of the grandsons
-of Charlemagne, have the chief powers kept out of war for so long a
-time? In the ninth and tenth centuries the question of Lorraine was
-as troublesome as it has been in the nineteenth and twentieth; in the
-eleventh and twelfth an expedition against Italy was in the day’s work
-of almost every German emperor; and England and Sicily were conquered
-by the Normans; in 1215 took place the first general international
-battle; in 1250 the final expeditions against the Emperor Frederick
-II; in 1272 the Sicilian wars of the house of Anjou. The Guelphs
-and Ghibellines carry us on to the Hundred Years’ War; the Hapsburg
-struggles against Italy and the Turks bring us down to the invasion of
-Italy by Charles VIII of France, to the campaigns of Maximilian, to the
-Field of the Cloth of Gold, to the religious wars of Charles V. Close
-on the heels of the latter struggles came not only the French religious
-wars but the invasion of England by Philip II’s great armada. The
-Thirty Years’ War, Louis XIV’s war of conquest, the Spanish Succession,
-the Silesian and the Seven Years’ Wars fill the seventeenth and
-eighteenth centuries; the Napoleonic, Crimean and Franco-Prussian Wars
-the nineteenth. Yes, it was time for a new struggle.
-
-When a great and extraordinary event takes place it is easy, somewhere
-in the world, to point to omens and prophecies that have heralded it.
-But in the case of the present war we can see in the German newspapers
-how, from month to month of the present year, the struggle was felt to
-be more and more imminent and how Russia, the power that eventually
-precipitated the catastrophe, was felt to be the center of real
-danger. “In well-informed diplomatic circles,” writes the _Magdeburger
-Zeitung_ in January, 1914, “the impression can not be concealed that
-in Russia at present there prevails a thoroughly hostile attitude to
-Germany and Austria-Hungary, and that the agitation in the czar’s realm
-is greater even than during the last Balkan crisis. … It looks as
-though Russia were preparing to make an extraordinarily great show of
-strength against a specific, not far distant date.” And the _Deutsche
-Tageszeitung:_ “What is Russia’s purpose in building a mighty fleet
-of dreadnaughts for the Baltic? Surely not merely to coerce Sweden.”
-Again the Madgeburg paper: “The Russian government, which already owes
-French capitalists twelve billions, has received a new loan of two
-billions five hundred millions, of which five million are yearly to be
-issued in Paris. This whole gigantic sum is exclusively to be spent
-for building strategic railways along the German-Russian boundary. …
-France compelled Russia to do this. The French general staff thinks
-that Russia, because of her clumsiness in mobilizing, but especially
-for lack of tracks leading to the German frontier, will not be able, in
-a new war with Germany, to bring help to France in time. Russia has now
-fulfilled France’s wishes in this regard. Thus does the Franco-Russian
-alliance, which of late seemed to be falling into oblivion, celebrate
-its resurrection.”
-
-In February the _Hallesche Zeitung_ writes: “To keep friendship with
-Russia is one of the chief aims of our foreign policy, but it is
-sometimes made very hard for us indeed. … They keep the peace because
-it is to the advantage of the czar’s empire to do so; but they are
-to be had for every combination directed against Germany.” And the
-_Dresdener Nachrichten:_ “The Russian-German relations leave very much
-to be desired at the moment. The Russian government fails to show the
-least approachableness in foreign questions and Russian society and
-the press are in an extremely anti-German mood. Evidences of the same
-thing are to be seen in their attitude to Austria. … The Russian policy
-lets itself be taken more and more in tow by the French desires, and
-has nothing but polite speeches left for Germany.” The _Weser Zeitung_
-finds the explanation of the hostility in Germany’s efforts to help the
-Turks reorganize their army, and declares, “Here we have touched
-one of the weakest spots in Russia’s world-policy, her endeavor to
-get to the Mediterranean.” The _Fränkische Kurier_ thinks that Russia
-intends to form a protectorate over the Balkan states as a military
-weapon against Austria and her allies: “The soul of this endeavor is
-the Russian diplomacy and the Servian minister-president, Pasitsch.”
-The _Dresdener Anzeiger_ observes that the influence of the Pan-Slavist
-party over the Russian government is steadily growing and that the
-extraordinary activity in military matters ill suits the constant peace
-assurances: “The measures are pointed against Austria-Hungary.”
-
-[Illustration: The Crown Prince and Crown Princess]
-
-[Illustration: Prince Henry of Prussia, the Emperor’s Brother]
-
-On March second an article in the _Kölnische Zeitung_ aroused great
-excitement all over Germany. It declared that Russia was not yet in a
-position to supplement political threats by military action, however
-much France might “rattle with the Russian saber.” But in three years
-all the enormous preparations would be completed, and already “it is
-openly said even in official military periodicals, that Russia is
-arming for war against Germany.” There is no immediate danger, the
-article continued, but the legend of the historical German-Russian
-friendship had better be thrown to the dogs.
-
-The papers took different attitudes toward this article, but there
-were not wanting those who considered the warnings of the _Kölnische
-Zeitung_ justified. General Keim, in the _Tag_, declares that the
-German-Russian boundary is one huge camp, that the underlying thought
-of the whole armament is an offensive war against Germany, that France
-had proceeded in the same way just before 1870 and that the recent
-visit to St. Petersburg of President Poincaré and his chief of staff
-Joffre had not been merely a pleasure jaunt. Had not a French general,
-only last summer, declared in a treatise published anonymously that
-the tension between Russia and Austria was ground for a European war
-“perhaps in the near future”? And had not this French officer even
-gone so far as to spread the legend that in case of war Germany would
-disregard the neutrality of Belgium and Luxemburg in order to be able
-to envelop the French left wing?
-
-Several of the March newspapers bring the Russian hostility into
-connection with the commercial treaty that has only about two years
-more to run. Russia, by making a bold front, can gain from Germany
-better terms than she has had in the past. “Russia, with her military
-preparations,” writes the _Pester Lloyd_, “wishes to put Austria
-and Germany under military pressure in order to achieve diplomatic
-successes and harm her neighbors economically.” The idea that
-France is behind it all crops out repeatedly. The _Neue Preussische
-Zeitung_ speaks of the pressure “ever stronger, that the French
-need for revenge is exercising on the Russian ally and debtor.” The
-_Hannöverische Courier_ accuses the French press of having first caused
-the agitation of public opinion in Russia, on which it afterward
-comments as so remarkable. As far back as March 10th, 1913, the
-_Kölnische Zeitung_ had written: “Never was our relation to our western
-neighbor so strained as to-day, never has the idea of vengeance shown
-itself so openly and never has it been made so evident that in France
-the Russian alliance, the English friendship, are claimed only for the
-purpose of reconquering Alsace-Lorraine. In whatever corner of the
-world the flame starts up it is quite certain that we shall have to
-cross swords with France. When that will be, no one can tell.”
-
-The Russian military preparations cause the German papers much concern
-in the month of April also. The _Vossische Zeitung_ considers them a
-gigantic bluff, and declares that they have been worth millions to the
-Russian government. “For only because France thinks that in Russia she
-possesses an ally ready for war has she heaped billions and billions
-on her in the form of loans. … That the latest French loans to Russia
-were accompanied by instructions seriously to take up the anti-Austrian
-and anti-German preparations no one doubts. Just as little is it
-doubted that Pan-Slavism is not pleased with the latest changes in the
-Balkans or that the freedom of the Dardanelles and the seizure of
-Constantinople still present themselves as the goal of Russian policy.
-Hatred of the Germans is increasing. … One thing is certain: Russia is
-arming to a gigantic extent. She wishes to throw a heavy weight into
-the scale of the national quarrels. Germany and Austria have every
-reason to be on their guard.” The _Allgemeine Zeitung_, of Chemnitz,
-writes that “The goals of French and Russian policy are unattainable
-without world-shattering callings-to-account,” and the _Weser Zeitung_,
-after speaking of Pan-Slavism as threatening the existence of the
-Austrian-Hungarian monarchy, finally exclaims, “It neither can nor
-should be concealed that if—which God forbid!—this direction gain
-the upper hand in Russian politics it would mean the very war-danger
-against which we sought and found refuge in the Triple Alliance.”
-
-[Illustration: The Unworldly Kaiserin as the Protectress of the
-Fatherless]
-
-[Illustration: Princess Victoria Louise, the Emperor’s Only Daughter]
-
-The newspapers of May have a somewhat calmer tone than those of March
-and April. “There is, to be sure,” writes the _Tag_, “danger for peace
-in the possibility that the anti-German tendency in Russia may prove so
-strong that the government will not be able to check it. Another danger
-lies in the relations of Russia and Austria. … Although there is much
-talk to the effect that we shall once more be compelled to fight for
-our national existence, it is not absolutely necessary that such a
-war shall come.” On the other hand, Admiral Breusing, in the _Tägliche
-Rundschau_ of May the seventh, writes: “The striving of the Slavic and
-Mongolian races to extend their power and possessions will surely lead
-to an encounter with the German race.” The _Rheinisch-Westphälische
-Zeitung_ declares of France that “public sentiment in military and
-political circles has long gone over from the defensive to the
-offensive. Apparently the aim is to create a situation where Germany
-will have to choose between receding or attacking.” The _Dresdener
-Anzeiger_, too, thinks that the “relations between Germany and France
-give the key to the grouping of the European powers,” and the _Berliner
-Tageblatt_ says, “The future and salvation of Europe and its culture
-lies solely in a German-French-English rapprochement; that alone will
-guarantee the world-peace.” Toward the end of the month the _Dresdener
-Anzeiger_ writes: “The German-Russian relations have latterly taken a
-remarkable change for the worse. Certainly the nationalistic elements
-in Russia are once more conspicuously active. … Should the whole mass
-of the Russian people once become conscious of its nationality the
-world will see the most mighty movement both as regards extent and
-elemental intensity. … For Russia, Pan-Slavism is the idea of the
-Russian leadership over all Slavs.”
-
-Already in May, more than two months before there is a sign that the
-conflict is at hand, doubts begin to be expressed whether Italy’s
-alliance would be of any value in case of war. The Berlin _Neueste
-Nachrichten_ has to acknowledge that as far as Austria is concerned the
-alliance is “more a matter of the intellect than of the heart;” while
-the _Rheinisch-Westphälische Zeitung_ reports on May twelve that “in
-more than ten years such a senseless agitation against Austria has not
-been seen in Italy. … The Italian government is by no means master of
-the difficult situation in which it is placed by the demonstrations
-of protest against Austria-Hungary. … _Were war to break out to-day
-the easily excited Italian people would compel any government of
-theirs, however friendly to the Triple Alliance, to declare against
-Austria-Hungary._”
-
-The nearer we approach to the crisis the more serious is the situation
-regarded by the better newspapers. The _Neue Preussische Zeitung_ in
-June tells of the surprising spirit of sacrifice there is in France and
-of the quiet efforts that are being made to strengthen the army: “If
-the revenge cries have almost ceased that does not in the least mean
-that the idea has been given up; on the contrary, they already reckon
-on the war as on a sure thing.” Of the Russian military preparations,
-the Vienna _Neue Freie Presse_ writes on June twelve: “About two
-months ago it became known that Russia had set aside two hundred
-sixteen million _kronen_ (a _krone_ is about a franc) for military
-exercises and especially for a ‘mobilization.’ The great amount of
-this sum will be realized when one remembers that Austria spends about
-ten millions for all of its military exercises put together. Under the
-harmless title of ‘trial-mobilization’ and the still more harmless
-one of ‘exercises for the reserves’ Russia, then, for a period of six
-weeks, is placing its giant army practically on a war-footing. Think
-of 1,800,000 men holding military exercises at a time when Austria has
-200,000, Germany from 300,000 to 400,000 trained men at her immediate
-disposal! Whether it be intentional or not this implies so imminent a
-threat that the neighbors will need the greatest ‘cold-bloodedness’
-to allow these ‘military exercises’ to pass without friction. _These
-exercises signify the most colossal endangering of the peace that was
-ever attempted under the form of a periodically recurring measure of
-organization_, and it would not be surprising if all those who long for
-a peaceful turn of political affairs were to be completely embittered….
-_To add to this dark aspect comes the relatively enormous credit
-demanded by the Servian military administration_—123,000,000. It is as
-much in proportion as though Austria were to demand a billion and a
-half. Since 1908 Servia has been arming uninterruptedly, and now again
-spends this sum on military purposes the tendency of which practically
-amounts to a direct threatening of her neighbors.” The _Hallesche
-Zeitung_ on the twenty-third of June discusses the various alliances:
-“Originally the Russian-French alliance was a military convention,
-in the last few months there has been added a naval agreement. It is
-desired to enter with united forces into the great decisive struggle
-for the division of the world. Russia wants elbow-room as far as the
-North Atlantic Ocean and the Southern Baltic, besides free entry into
-the Mediterranean.”
-
-I have quoted all these newspaper extracts because they seem to me
-absolutely indicative of the sentiment that prevailed in Germany just
-before the war broke out, whether that sentiment be based on correct
-impressions or not. We have the Russian side of it in an article
-written by Professor Maxim Kowaleski, for the _Frankfurter Zeitung_:
-“In Russia people believe that Germany and Austria are arming against
-Russia, in Germany and Austria they take for granted that the opposite
-is the case.”
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration: General von Heeringen]
-
-[Illustration: General von Eichhorn]
-
-[Illustration: General von Bülow]
-
-[Illustration: General von Prittwitz]
-
-To the unprejudiced observer it looks very much as though Servia,
-thinking her hour had come and feeling sure of Russia’s support,
-had instigated the murder of the heir to the Austrian throne with
-the deliberate intention of starting a great conflagration. The
-preliminary inquiry into the matter, which was carried on very
-deliberately by Austria, with no sensational charges or accusations,
-revealed a great plot reaching to the very steps of the Servian
-throne. Around that throne, as the world well knows, were the men who
-had deliberately murdered their own previous king and queen and who
-had been rewarded with high positions for their share in that dark
-transaction. It was proved to Austria’s satisfaction—and she had so
-much to lose by a war of aggression that no ulterior motive could
-have influenced her—that the royal Servian arsenal had provided the
-weapons of death and that a high official in the army had been directly
-concerned. Servia’s attitude during the preliminary investigation had
-been provocative. Then Austria hurled her ultimatum.
-
-It was an unheard-of ultimatum—that much an Austrian friend
-acknowledged to me at the time. But, he added, the whole situation
-was equally unheard of. In Germany, except in the ranks of the social
-democrats, who glory in having no national sentiments, Austria’s act
-met with the most complete approval. Truth to tell, no one had expected
-such firmness and decision. The seriousness of the matter was not for
-a moment overlooked. In my own immediate neighborhood and, I imagine,
-from end to end of Germany, the first impulse on hearing the news
-was to sing national hymns. One heard them throughout that whole
-night—especially the solemn “_Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser_” and
-“_Deutschland, Deutschland über alles_.” There was a resigned feeling,
-too, a feeling that Servia had been such a menace since 1908 that the
-time had come when something must be done. My Austrian friend believed
-that the powers would sympathize with his country’s desire to chastise
-a band of assassins; that the Russian czar especially would never take
-sides with regicides; that England would see fair play.
-
-To blame the German emperor for what followed is the attitude of the
-uninformed. Germany has foreseen the struggle, as our extracts from
-the newspapers show, but her one idea has been self-defense. The worst
-that can be said of her is that her wonderful prosperity has made her
-a little boastful and that she has talked too much about her share
-in world politics and her own “place in the sun.” That indeed was
-an unfortunate remark of his imperial majesty. In general, however,
-he has honestly tried to keep the peace, and that Germany, with her
-blooming trade, her model educational system and her splendid fleet and
-army should have a larger voice in the affairs of nations was not an
-unreasonable aim. Those who accuse her of greed for territory should
-look at the history of their own country and see if they are entitled
-to throw stones. Nor should they attribute her recent army-increase to
-a mere spirit of aggression. So hemmed in is Germany, so exposed are
-her frontiers in every direction, that she can not help taking alarm
-at the movements of her neighbors. Actually touching her borders are
-nations with a total population more than doubling her own, not to
-speak of England with her enormous fleet.
-
-England of late has stood for the restriction of armaments provided her
-own naval superiority be preserved in the present proportions. Germans
-believe, probably falsely, that before making such a proposition
-England hastily ordered the laying of the keels of three new
-battle-ships which in the ordinary course of events would not have been
-begun until later. At any rate England leads in the matter of supplying
-other countries with deadly instruments of war and her attitude is not
-unlike that of her own rich beer-brewing families to the temperance
-question. They preach against the use of alcohol, but go on deriving
-their income from it. The largest factory of Whitehead torpedoes is at
-Fiume, in Austria; Armstrong and Vickers have branches in Italy and
-supply that government with naval guns; while the British Engineers’
-Association, with a capital of $350,000,000, is endeavoring to corner
-the trade of the world in firearms. England introduced dreadnaughts
-and not only builds them for herself but also furnishes them on
-demand to Japan and South America. With a cannon factory on the Volga
-and an arsenal equipped by Armstrong and Vickers on the Golden Horn,
-England has fairly fattened of late on war. By building the first
-dreadnaught, indeed, she did herself a poor service. Previously Germany
-was out of the running as regards the number of ships; now, where
-only dreadnaughts count, she is becoming a good second. Was there not
-something more than naïvete in Sir Edward Grey’s serious proposal that
-Germany and England should restrict the number of their battle-ships
-but always preserve the proportion of ten to six in England’s favor?
-We have here, I think, the whole gist of the differences between
-the two countries. England has steadily preserved her attitude of
-superiority everywhere its basis was disappearing. She has been jealous
-of Germany’s commerce, of her colonial progress. These Germans are to
-England upstarts who need to be kept in their place and are not to
-be allowed to have a word in the larger world-policies. Almost every
-Englishman feels that a German is his social inferior. Such assumptions
-provoke bumptiousness and self-assertion, which, I do not deny, have
-at times been evidenced. Just before this war broke out, indeed, the
-feeling of mutual antagonism seemed to be lessening. The English fleet
-was welcomed at Kiel, the English trade delegation in Berlin. The
-press of both countries had softened and sweetened.
-
-[Illustration: The Kaiser with the Bürgemeister of Aix-la-Chapelle on
-the Balcony of the Town Hall]
-
-[Illustration: The Emperor at Maneuvers]
-
-[Illustration: Duke Albert of Württemberg]
-
-[Illustration: Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria]
-
-[Illustration: Grand Duke Frederick II of Baden]
-
-As for England’s present alliance with Russia against Germany, it is
-the most monumental act of folly in modern history. Has Britannia been
-attacked by sclerosis? At home a maudlin sentiment keeps her from
-enforcing obedience to her laws and abroad she allows her real enemies
-to pull her about by the nose. It is as though in the middle ages a
-Henry or an Edward had joined hands with a Genghis Khan or a Timour the
-Tartar. Can England gain anything whatever by humiliating Germany and
-furthering Pan-Slavism? A little commercial advantage, possibly, though
-America will be correspondingly strengthened and the final result will
-be no better. Britannia, wake up! It is less far from the Mediterranean
-to the Atlantic than it is from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean.
-Gibraltar will soon be as irksome to Pan-Slavism as are now the forts
-on the Dardanelles. Your own race is made up mainly of Angles and
-Saxons—all your ideals, all your real interests are far closer to
-those of the Germans than they are to those of the Russians. The time
-may come, and very soon, when you are only too glad to throw yourself
-around Germany’s neck and beg her aid in opposing the hordes from the
-East. In Russia’s wake are your allies, the Japanese, who now for
-the first time have taken a hand in European affairs. Japan has been
-likened by a bright American girl to a man who has never been invited
-to dinner in certain circles but who at last has invited himself and
-simply can not be turned out of the house.
-
-Germany, though drawn into the matter merely by the plain terms of her
-alliance with Austria, stands virtually alone, for Italy is faithless
-and Austria, as usual, is only half prepared. We may see a recurrence
-of those exciting days when for seven years Frederick the Great of
-Prussia—of a Prussia less than half the size that it is now—held his
-own not only against the great powers of Europe but against the rest
-of Germany as well. The help that he had from England was not greater
-than may be expected from Austria to-day, and even the English deserted
-him at last. Again and again Frederick risked, even as our contemporary
-Hohenzollern is likely to do, _le tout pour le tout_. And like
-Frederick, I think that William, because of better equipment, better
-discipline and better strategy, is likely to prevail even over the many
-millions arrayed against him.
-
-England to-day throws the whole blame for the terrible war on Germany,
-who was lukewarm, so England declares, in counseling Austria not
-to let her strained relations with Servia develop into war; and in
-the English press at least there are no words too scathing for the
-violation by Germany of Belgium neutrality. The average Englishman, I
-am sure, considers that the reason for England joining in the struggle.
-Yet what are we to think of Sir Edward Grey’s own words in the
-“Correspondence respecting the European Crisis” laid before the Houses
-of Parliament and received here from London August twenty-fifth.
-
- _July 31._—The German ambassador asked me to urge the Russian
- government to show good-will in the discussions and to suspend their
- military preparations. … I informed the German ambassador that, as
- regards military preparations, I did not see how Russia could be urged
- to suspend them unless some limit were put by Austria to the advance
- of her troops into Servia.
-
- _August 1._—I told the German ambassador to-day … if there were a
- violation of the neutrality of Belgium by one combatant while the
- other respected it it would be extremely difficult to restrain public
- feeling in this country. … He asked me whether, if Germany gave a
- promise not to violate Belgium neutrality, we would engage to remain
- neutral. I replied that I could not say that. … The ambassador pressed
- me as to whether I could not formulate conditions on which we would
- remain neutral. He even suggested that the integrity of France and her
- colonies might be guaranteed. I said that I felt obliged to refuse
- definitely any promise to remain neutral on similar terms, and I could
- only say that we must keep our hands free.
-
-So England, directly from the first, took sides with Servia in a matter
-that concerned only Servia and Austria. She “could not see how Russia
-could be urged to suspend preparations” and would not, even for the
-sake of Belgium, state the terms on which she would agree to remain
-neutral in the new German-Russian mobilization dispute. Why Germany
-finally did violate Belgian neutrality is explained by a telegram from
-the German foreign office to the German ambassador in London, Prince
-Lichnowsky, on August four. … “Please impress upon Sir E. Grey that
-German army could not be exposed to French attack across Belgium, which
-was planned according to absolutely unimpeachable information. Germany
-had consequently to disregard Belgian neutrality, it being for her a
-question of life or death to prevent French advance.”
-
-All eyes then are likely for the next few months to be fixed on the
-German army and it has seemed worth while to me hastily to collect and
-publish all the items concerning the land, naval and aerial forces
-that will be of general interest in America. No one will look, I hope,
-for much originality in a work of this kind. My information is taken
-from Major von Schreibershofen’s excellent book _Das deutsche Heer_,
-from Colonel von Bremen’s _Das deutsche Heer nach der Neuordnung von
-1913_; from Lieutenant Neumann’s _Luftschiffe_ and his _Flugzeuge_;
-from Count Reventlow’s interesting _Deutschland zur See_; Troetsch’s
-_Deutschland’s Flotte im Entscheidungskampf_ and Toeche-Mittler:
-_Die deutsche Kriegsflotte_. The three last mentioned works, and
-also Von Bremen’s, are absolutely new, having been published in 1914;
-Schreibershofen’s dates from 1913. The two others have no date but one
-can see that they have appeared very recently. The large new works _Das
-Jahr 1913_, _Deutschland unter Kaiser Wilhelm II_, and the _Handbuch
-der Politik_ have also been of use to me. For the last six months I
-have followed very carefully in the _Zeitungs-Archiv_ all the newspaper
-extracts bearing on our subject. The war has doubtless interrupted the
-publication of the _Archiv_, so that I shall remain “up to date” for
-some little time to come.
-
-
-
-
-                                PART II
-
-                               THE ARMY
-
-
-The great military authority, Bernhardi, in an article in _Das Jahr
-1913_, points out various ways in which military science has developed
-since the Franco-Prussian War and shows how completely we have had to
-abandon many of the conceptions gained by a study of earlier campaigns.
-Responsible in the main for the changes are the increased size of the
-armies and the new technical inventions of our age.
-
-[Illustration: Bird’s-eye View Berlin Parade Grounds]
-
-Almost all the states of continental Europe have gone over to the
-principle of universal military service, with the result that the
-armies are greater now in time of peace than ever before in time of
-war, and that when mobilization is called for and the reserves are
-summoned, the number of men in the field amounts to millions. The first
-result has been that far other means of transporting and concentrating
-such masses have to be employed than used to be the case and that
-networks of railroads have had to be built for purely strategic
-purposes. In the maneuvers that were to have taken place this coming
-autumn at Münster in Germany it had been intended to make a record in
-the matter of quick transportation and to dispose of 120,000 men in
-the course of a single morning without interrupting the regular
-passenger traffic. The old method of victualing armies, too, has had to
-be changed, for it is impossible for such hordes to nourish themselves
-by what they chance to find in the enemy’s country. Problems of another
-kind have arisen. Modern armies are composed of regulars and reservists
-alike: the reservists are not so hardened as the regulars and often
-not so efficient, so that it has become a custom to distribute them
-in such a way as to achieve the best results. As a rule, the regulars
-must be spared for decisive actions and reservists must occasionally be
-sacrificed, apparently needlessly. There may be cases, for instance,
-where the reserves must expose themselves to a murderous fire while the
-regulars are engaged in the more difficult but less dangerous task of
-cutting off the enemy’s line of retreat.
-
-[Illustration: Arrival of Recruits]
-
-[Illustration: The Field Kitchen]
-
-Technical improvements, such as the longer range and quicker fire of
-the guns, swifter means of communication and of signaling and the
-like, not to speak of other considerations due to experience, have so
-changed the old tactics that a line of battle is now more than ten
-times as long as it was only a few years ago. At Sadowa, with 215,000
-men, the Austrians had a front of only 10 kilometers; at Mukden the
-attacking line of the Japanese, who had only 170,000 men, extended
-for 110 kilometers. “The broken line,” writes Bernhardi, “is to-day
-the only battle formation of the infantry.” To-day, officers and men
-fight in trenches and take every advantage of the inequalities of the
-ground; in 1870 it was considered disgraceful to take such advantages
-and the officers stood erect in the most deadly fire. In consequence of
-the length of the lines a check in one quarter is no longer so serious
-a matter as it used to be; a modern battle is a succession of single
-engagements of which the victor only needs to win a good majority.
-The commander no longer takes up a position, as Napoleon did at
-Leipzig, where he can oversee the whole field of operations; the best
-place for him is some railroad junction or central telephone station,
-with wireless and ordinary telegraph equipment, where messages can
-constantly be sent and received, and to and from which he can despatch
-troops, automobiles, motor-wagons or aeroplanes. One of the chief
-modern problems is supplying sufficient ammunition for quick-firing
-guns—the baggage trains must not be so long as to hinder the advance of
-the troops, yet where there are many guns and each shoots off hundreds
-of shots a minute, great quantities of ammunition are needed.
-
-[Illustration: Transmitting and Receiving Orders by Telephone]
-
-[Illustration: Telegrams]
-
-[Illustration: Giving Orders]
-
-I have spoken of military service being almost universally compulsory
-in Europe. This means that every man of a certain age and with the
-requisite health and strength is obliged to report for duty. It has not
-hitherto meant that every eligible recruit was obliged to serve. In
-Germany a large contingent, even of the capable, was formerly excused.
-In 1910, for instance, nearly 235,000 were declared more or less
-unfit for service, although in France they would probably nearly all
-have been accepted. By the German army bills of 1911, 1912 and 1913
-indeed the numbers of those required for active service were steadily
-increased: 9,482 in the first named year, some 29,000 in the second,
-and then the great increase of 63,000 in the third. But there were
-still, up to the present mobilization, some thirty thousand able-bodied
-recruits who could not be placed.
-
-In the Prussian military-service law of 1814, and again in the
-constitution of the North German Confederation of 1867, the principle
-was laid down that the army should consist of one per cent. of the
-population. This had long been disregarded as the population increased,
-and the proportion had sunk as low as eight-tenths of one per cent.
-It has now been raised to a little over the original figure. The
-population as given officially in 1913 was 64,925,993, while the number
-of common soldiers (I quote the figures given by Stavenhagen in the
-_Handbuch der Politik_) was 647,811.[A]
-
-[Footnote A: It may be worth giving the exact strength of the
-German army on October 1, 1913: Total 790,788 and 157,816 horses.
-Of these: officers, 30,253; sanitary officers, 2,483; veterinaries,
-865; non-commissioned officers, 104,377; common soldiers, 647,811.
-(Infantry, 515,216; cavalry, 85,593; field artillery, 126,042; sappers
-and miners, 24,010; communication troops, 18,949; army service,
-11,592.)]
-
-The cost of the German army has been enormous—more than twenty-five
-billion marks between 1872 and 1910, and in 1913 alone, 1,608,653,300
-marks. The extraordinary defense contribution for 1913, 1914 and
-1915, a tax, not on income but on capital direct, is estimated to
-bring nearly 1,300,000,000 marks. Strange to say, the tax was very
-popular—every party in the Reichstag voted for it, even the social
-democrats, whose delight in a measure that fell most heavily on the
-rich (small properties were exempted) made them swallow the fact that
-the money was for national and military purposes. The yearly sums that
-the sudden increase in the army entails are to be paid by a curious tax
-on the increase of property value to be estimated every three years.
-
-The estimates as to how much the army numbers when on a war footing
-varies between two and three-fourths millions and four millions.
-Austria’s army, on paper at least, numbers 380,000 men in time of
-peace, which number gradually was to have risen to 410,000 in the next
-few years. In war-time it is estimated at 1,300,000 men. Curiously
-enough Italy, with a peace army of only 300,000, estimates her war army
-officially at 3,400,000, or about as much as either Germany or France.
-
-[Illustration: Telegraph Battalion]
-
-[Illustration: Military Telephone Station]
-
-[Illustration: Putting up Campaign Tents]
-
-[Illustration: Death’s-head Hussars]
-
-[Illustration: The Crown Prince]
-
-[Illustration: The Crown Prince at Mess]
-
-For the armies of the Triple Entente we have an estimate published by
-the _Deutsche Tageszeitung_ in January, 1914, which is worth quoting
-at some length, as it is from a well-known military writer, Lieutenant
-Colonel von Bremen:
-
- The basis of France’s military increase in 1913 is the reintroduction
- of the three years’ term of service. By retaining these third-year
- men the peace-showing is increased by almost a third. This year
- 185,000 men are to be called in. The peace strength of the French
- army will, from the autumn of 1916 on, amount to 33,000 officers and
- officials and some 833,000 men, while up to that period we can reckon
- with 780,000 men. One must add to this, 28,000 gendarmes, customs
- and forest officials, who likewise belong to the territorial army
- (like the _Landwehr_). In Germany we have for 1913 and 1914, counting
- officers, non-commissioned officers and men, 802,000, to which, in
- 1915, will be added 13,000 men. Deducting from the present strength
- of both armies the mere laborers who have to do with supplies, etc.,
- Germany’s peace force is momentarily the higher, but not if we reckon
- France’s gendarmerie, etc. Counting in this, France, with 40,000,000
- inhabitants, has a larger army in time of peace than Germany, with
- 65,000,000. The French army has further advantages in the longer
- training and in the increased readiness for war. The troops covering
- the eastern frontiers have two hundred men to a company (four-fifths
- of the war strength) and even at the time when the recruits are being
- mustered in, one hundred forty trained men; while our companies at
- the same time can dispose of only half so strong a number. And what
- it means in case of war to have at hand two fully trained years’
- contingents (especially in the cavalry) during the period of training
- the recruits is self-evident. Further advantages in the French army
- lie in the longer training of the inactive officers and in the good
- provision for officers and non-commissioned officers. In the house of
- deputies negotiations are pending regarding advancement regulations
- tending to lower the age limit of the whole body of officers. And,
- above all, it has been made possible to create a new, twenty-first
- army corps. So we see that France, in 1913, has made a very great step
- forward.
-
- The Russian armaments of 1913 are also significant. The most important
- event was the appearance in October of the draft of a law to prolong
- the term of active service by three months and that in the decisive
- time from January first (fourteenth) to April first (fourteenth). As
- in Russia, the recruits are called in at latest by November fifteenth.
- Russia will, until spring, still have under arms, besides the
- recruits, the trained contingents of three years in the infantry—four,
- indeed, in the cavalry. That considerably increases her readiness for
- war. And in addition to lengthening the term of service the number
- of recruits is still further increased by twenty thousand men. The
- momentary military strength of the Russian empire is about one and
- one-half millions, of which about 1,200,000 concern Europe (thirty
- army corps and twenty-four cavalry divisions). But already for 1914 we
- can reckon on the formation of from two to three new army corps and on
- a considerable increase of the artillery by at least forty batteries,
- for which purpose three hundred twenty million marks have been called
- for. To make mobilization speedier and to facilitate the march to the
- west boundary railroads are to be built. The estimates for this are
- about two hundred sixty million marks. The following stretches are
- under consideration: 1. Nowogeorgiewsk to Plozk on the Vistula. 2.
- Cholm—Tomoschow—Belzek. 3. Schepetowka—Proskurow—Larga. In addition a
- number of lines are planned of which one is to encircle our province
- of East Prussia. Along the German frontier, too, the erection of
- wireless stations has energetically been taken in hand. Likewise they
- have begun to modernize their fort and field artillery. Side by side
- with these endeavors go intended improvements in military education
- and training and organized changes in the situation of the officers’
- corps and general staff in the way of raising salaries and of quicker
- advancement. Thus for the Russian army, too, and its capacity for
- service the year 1913 is to be looked upon as important.
-
- Furthest in arrears of the armies of the Triple Entente is the
- English, which made no progress worth speaking of in 1913. England
- in her war plans against us long reckoned with landing an army of
- invasion on our coast. The idea has been given up because it was
- declared that probably the weak, active army would be more needed
- elsewhere, especially as its maximum of about 130,000 men could not
- play a decisive part against the millions-of-men armies of Germany.
- Nor has the “territorial army,” destined for protection at home,
- shown any progress; of its required strength there were still lacking
- in October, 1913, seventy thousand men and all efforts to bring it
- to the intended height of 314,000 men have failed. The thought of
- tunnel connection with France, however, in spite of the dislike of the
- Britisher, so proud of the isolation the sea offers him, has found
- more adherents than was formerly the case.
-
- If now we draw our conclusions from our military review of the year
- 1913 the armaments of Austria and Italy on the one hand and Russia
- and England on the other are insignificant as compared with those of
- Germany and France. The two latter remain well in the foreground, and
- indeed in a European war, too, it is they who first and foremost would
- have to try conclusions with each other.
-
-These observations, made by an expert at the beginning of 1914,
-are exceedingly interesting in view of what is now going on. Since
-Von Bremen wrote, however, there have been several interesting
-developments. In February it became known that of the French soldiers
-no less than 265,000 had died, were on the sick-list, or had been
-discharged during the previous month. The explanation is, that in
-order to raise the figures even the poorest kind of material had
-been accepted, that old unhealthy barracks were overcrowded and that
-new ones had been occupied while the plaster was still wet on the
-walls; that the army was short of physicians to the extent of many
-hundreds. An official note in a Paris paper declares that two-thirds
-of the recruits arrive in a tuberculous condition. Together with these
-revelations comes a book, by a French military aeronaut, complaining of
-the utter neglect of the air fleet, and declaring that at the moment
-France has not one serviceable hydroplane. The whole appropriation for
-air-ships in connection with the navy was but 400,000 francs in 1913,
-as compared with millions appropriated by the rival powers. At the same
-time come revelations regarding the regular navy itself. Although there
-are nine dreadnaughts building, but two are ready, and no cruisers.
-
-In March appeared the “general annual report of the British army,”
-published by the War Office, which showed that Von Bremen’s statement
-as to the shortage of men was not only not exaggerated but greatly
-underestimated. The regular army is 9,211 men short, the territorial
-army 66,969, the special reserve 29,370. The explanation lies in the
-greater attractiveness of the navy and in the high emigration figures
-(178,468 males in 1913).
-
-[Illustration: Line Infantry]
-
-[Illustration: Rear Guard in Ambush]
-
-[Illustration: Artillery Patrol]
-
-In April we hear of great appropriations in Austria both for the army
-and the navy. Official estimates place the strength of the army at
-390,250 men, but a German critic points out that of these 60,000 are
-_Landwehr_, or reserves, and ought not to be counted. There is to
-be a yearly increase of 31,300 recruits, but the measure is not to
-take full effect until 1918. For the navy, 427,000,000 _kronen_ are
-appropriated, of which 4,000,000 are to go for military air-ships; but
-the expenditures are to be extended over a period of five years. It has
-been Austria’s fate throughout the centuries always to be several years
-behind.
-
-In June, finally, we learn that Russia has set aside for military
-expenditures in 1914 alone the monstrous sum of 2,500,000,000 marks,
-and by 1916 will have _added_ 400,000 men—more than Austria’s whole
-force—to her standing army, which will amount, in the winter months
-at least, to 2,200,000 men. “Characteristic,” writes the _Tägliche
-Rundschau_ in commenting on it, “is the strengthening of the western
-boundary-strip and the improvement of the strategic network of
-railroads in order to hasten the forwarding of troops.” On the other
-hand, attention is drawn in the _Danziger Zeitung_ to the fact
-that Russia has at the moment in the Baltic but four battle-ships,
-all old-fashioned, although by 1915 it is hoped to have ready four
-dreadnaughts.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-We shall hear much in the next few months of infantry and cavalry, of
-field artillery and foot artillery, of pioneers, of _Verkehrstruppen_
-or communication troops, and of the _Train_ or transport division. I
-therefore preface this section with the definition of these terms given
-by a staff officer in the newest book of instructions for the one-year
-volunteers.
-
-[Illustration: Infantry on the March]
-
- The infantry represent the main troops of the army. Their value lies
- in their endurance when marching, in their correct shooting and in
- their brave dashing against the enemy. The infantry is armed with the
- ninety-eight gun and bayonet; the sword-knot non-commissioned officers
- (_Portepeeunteroffiziere_), battalion-drummers and ambulance-men carry
- revolvers.
-
- To the infantry belong the sharpshooter battalions
- (_Jägerbataillone_), the guard sharpshooter battalion
- (_Gardejägerbataillon_) and the guard rifle-battalion
- (_Gardeschützenbataillon_). The infantrymen are known as grenadiers,
- musketeers and fusileers.
-
- The cavalry is armed with lance, saber and carbine. Its chief value is
- for scouting and for precautionary service, but it is also used for
- riding down the enemy and piercing him with the lance. The cavalry may
- also dismount and fight on foot like the infantry. For shooting it
- uses the carbine.
-
- The cavalry consists of cuirassiers, uhlans, hussars, dragoons
- and mounted riflemen. (In Saxony guard-riders (_Gardereiter_) and
- carbineers; in Bavaria heavy riders and light horse (_Chevaulegers_).)
-
- The field artillery is effective through the swiftness with which
- it rides up and through the certainty of aim of its quick-firing
- guns. The field artillery carries batteries of cannon for firing
- against visible goals and light howitzer batteries, for shooting at
- objects behind cover and for demolishing light field fortifications.
- The drivers carry a sword and revolver, the cannoneers a dagger and
- revolver. Every man of the horse-drawn division is mounted and carries
- sword and revolver.
-
- The foot artillery has to serve the fort and siege artillery as well
- as the heavy artillery guns of the field army; in attacking a fortress
- it must silence the enemy’s heavy fort guns and make breaches in
- the fortifications; when defending it must overcome the enemy’s heavy
- siege guns. The men are called cannoneers; they carry the carbine and
- the ninety-eight bayonet.
-
- The pioneers see to the throwing up of entrenchments, the building and
- destroying of bridges, obstructions, etc.; they are armed like the
- infantrymen.
-
- The communication troops consist of the railroad regiments, which in
- time of war have to see to the building and running of railroads;
- of the telegraph battalions, which put up telegraph lines; of the
- fortress telephone companies, which attend to all telephone matters
- in the fortress; of the air-ship and aeroplane battalions, who are
- entrusted with spying out the land and the enemy’s positions by means
- of balloons, air-ships and aeroplanes.
-
- The communication troops are armed like the infantry.
-
- The transport service (_Train_) supplies every kind of column of the
- army with bridge materials, food, ammunition, etc. Its weapons are
- swords, carbines and revolvers.
-
-[Illustration: Floating the Pontoons]
-
-[Illustration: Machine Guns Being Loaded on Pontoons]
-
-It is not worth while here to enter into the question of uniforms.
-In time of peace the blue coats and red collars of the infantry, the
-varied colored _attilas_ and fur caps of the hussars, the helms with
-the flying eagles of the guards, the tresses, the gleaming epaulettes,
-the scarves, the waving plumes, are all interesting enough, especially
-to the other sex; but in war that is all laid aside. In order to be as
-invisible as possible to the enemy all categories of troops wear the
-same ashen gray—a comparatively recent adaptation of the principle of
-protective coloring.
-
-In the German army the cavalry is merely an adjunct of the infantry. It
-is the infantry which decides battles—not the cavalry, not even the
-artillery. However, the infantry of to-day is something very different
-from the infantry of the eighteenth and even from that of a great part
-of the nineteenth century. German military writers acknowledge that
-the world learned new tactics from the sharpshooters and riflemen of
-the American war of the rebellion. The whole modern battle formation
-rests on the idea of giving more play to the individual. In spite of
-the technical progress that has made of armies great machines, more
-weight than ever before is laid on quick judgment, on good shooting, on
-physical bravery and endurance. I know that an idea quite contrary to
-this prevails, that many consider war reduced to the art of setting off
-the greatest quantities of explosives within a given time. But this is
-very far from the truth. The battles of the past were of much shorter
-duration than are those of the present. Wagram was won in two hours,
-Mukden took three days.
-
-One learns to adapt one’s self even to quick-firing guns and incredible
-rifle-ranges. It has been mathematically demonstrated that, with the
-rifles now in the hands of the German infantry, a bullet fired from
-a distance of three hundred yards will pass right through five men
-standing closely one behind the other and lodge in the body of the
-sixth. But men in battle line no longer stand closely one behind the
-other, nor even closely side by side. Even in what is considered a
-thick firing line they stand about three feet apart.
-
-[Illustration: Mountain Earthworks]
-
-[Illustration: Pursuit]
-
-[Illustration: Infantry Embarking]
-
-I have said that the modern idea is to give more play to the
-individual. Within certain limits the men choose their own position,
-find the proper rests for their rifles, get each the range for himself,
-determine the speed of their own fire and use their own judgment in the
-economizing of ammunition. They are expected to advance according as
-they see their opportunity.
-
-A glance at the methods of training the infantry will give some
-idea of the care and thoroughness with which the Germans have made
-their preparations for war. The old drill has not been entirely
-abandoned—indeed, some military critics think that there is still too
-much of the goose-step marching and of the parade tricks. But these
-have lost their old importance and the tendency of late years is toward
-the most realistic representation of the circumstances and problems of
-actual combat. The parade-ground has given place to the maneuvering
-field, acres and miles in extent. For the first time in Germany, this
-autumn, whole army corps were to have engaged in mock combat with one
-another.
-
-In the ordinary rifle practise the men are taught first to shoot well
-individually, then in groups and detachments, next in whole troops
-and companies and finally in conjunction with cavalry and artillery.
-They are made to adapt themselves to the most unfamiliar and unusual
-surroundings. Even the targets are of the most varied description:
-targets that fall to the ground when hit, targets that burst, targets
-surrounded by smoking objects or colored fires so that there will be
-some of the semblance of battle, fixed targets and targets that move or
-that float in the air, targets that have been lying flat on the ground
-but that suddenly appear here and there like an enemy issuing from the
-bushes. The rifleman must learn never to be surprised at anything, but
-to keep his eyes open in all directions.
-
-The German army rifle is of a type first introduced in 1888, and so
-much improved in 1898 that it is now known as the ninety-eight gun.
-All the infantry carry the same, for there is no longer any essential
-distinction between musketeers, fusileers and grenadiers. It is a
-quick-loading rifle which renders it possible to take aim and shoot
-as many as twenty-five times a minute. The caliber is seven and
-nine-tenths millimeters, a fact which may not at first seem to the
-American reader of great importance, but which becomes more interesting
-when it is realized that this is the smallest caliber which will
-inflict sufficient injury on an enemy to make its use profitable. In
-other words, if it does not kill him at once it will put him out of the
-fight and keep him out for a reasonable time. It was found in the
-Russian-Japanese War that a smaller bullet could, and in a number of
-cases did, pass through a foeman’s body without rendering him _hors de
-combat_, and that no less than forty per cent. of all wounded were back
-with their troops in three months.
-
-[Illustration: Building a Pontoon Bridge]
-
-[Illustration: Cannon for Shooting Air-ships]
-
-[Illustration: Combination Hydro and Aeroplane]
-
-There are Maxim rifles which can fire as many as a hundred shots a
-minute and which have other advantages too; but the German government
-is well satisfied with its own gun, considers it superior to that of
-any of its neighbors’ and has never seriously considered the question
-of changing. It has a smokeless powder, the process of manufacture of
-which is a carefully guarded secret.
-
-A recent innovation is the supplying of the infantry—for that matter of
-the cavalry also—with so-called machine guns. They are the Gatling guns
-of our own country, and every German infantry regiment now—since the
-army reform of 1913—has a machine-gun company. It consists of ninety
-men and forty horses, with six guns and three ammunition wagons. As the
-newest guns can fire at the rate of six hundred shots a minute, and as
-there are more than two hundred infantry regiments, not to speak of the
-cavalry and artillery, which also have their companies of “Gatlings,”
-one can gain some impression of the deadliness of modern campaigning.
-Many of the quick-firing guns now are supplied with stands on pivots so
-that they can be pointed in the air against balloons and aeroplanes.
-But their chief use will be in guarding bridges and narrow passes.
-Their bullets carry for two miles, but they can be silenced by heavy
-artillery far beyond this range, nor can they carry enough ammunition
-for long-continued use. Altogether, however, a comparison of their fire
-with the simple flames of the traditional hell makes the latter place
-seem a mere pleasure-resort.
-
-The training of a soldier has of late years become more and more humane
-and rational, and is no longer confined to manning guns, shooting
-rifles and performing long marches. Those Germans with whom I have
-spoken on the subject look back to their term of service with pleasure,
-and my general conviction is that the army in time of peace is the most
-perfect educational institution in existence. With school learning
-every boy when he comes to “serve” is more or less equipped. What he
-learns is _esprit de corps_, manly bearing, endurance and the feeling
-that his tasks must be quickly and faultlessly performed—in other
-words, regularity and discipline. The mere change of surroundings and
-interests is a benefit, and the outlook on the world is immeasurably
-broadened. The old argument against compulsory military training—that,
-namely, young men in their best years are withdrawn from productive
-work, does not amount to much in an age where the general complaint
-is of overcrowdedness in almost every calling and profession. The
-German boy does his work all the better for his military training and
-the nation has thoroughly adjusted itself to the falling out of these
-two years. There are dispensations for cases where the boy’s presence
-at home is a vital matter for the support of others, and, as a rule, a
-place that he filled before is kept open for him against his return.
-
-[Illustration: War Dogs Used as Messengers]
-
-[Illustration: Covered Field Artillery]
-
-[Illustration: A Howitzer Battery Crossing a Pontoon Bridge]
-
-One of the pleasantest recent developments has been the enthusiasm for
-sport that had taken hold of the army. The authorities encouraged it in
-every way, for it was in keeping with the new tactics of training the
-individual to be efficient and independent. The author had the pleasure
-of attending the first great military athletic meet that has ever taken
-place. It was held in June, 1914, in the great stadium that has been
-erected near Berlin for the Olympic games of 1916, and that army which
-is now fighting so strenuously for the very existence of its country
-was represented in all its pomp and glory. On an elevated terrace
-was the emperor with his court. Next came the _logen_ or boxes which
-were blue with the uniforms of the officers. A large majority of the
-spectators were soldiers, for whom whole sections had been reserved;
-they marched in in seemingly unending lines, looking very neat in
-their summer undress uniforms. The exercises began with gymnastics
-or _turnen_, to which, all over Germany, the greatest importance
-is attached. There was the usual running, jumping and throwing of
-weights—with us it is a shot, with them it is a discus. There was a
-cross-country run of four miles which started and ended in the stadium,
-and in which some fifty or sixty officers took part. It was won by a
-splendid young prince of the royal house, Prince Frederick Leopold. The
-best comment that I heard on him was that he looked like a first-class
-American.
-
-But most interesting of all was the obstacle race for the common
-soldiers. A part of their regular training consists in climbing walls
-and trees; and on their parade grounds you will find special tracks
-with ditches, walls and palisades; while occasionally the obstacles
-are of the most serious kind—iron railings with twisted spikes through
-which they must make their way. In the stadium games the soldiers lined
-up on the farther side of a great swimming-pool that runs along one
-end of the field below the spectators. At a given signal they plunged
-into the water, swam for dear life to the other side, climbed the low
-protecting wall and were off helter-skelter for the hurdles and other
-obstacles. Behind one of the hurdles, concealed by green boughs, was a
-slimy watery hole, but it detained them but for a moment. Across the
-track a high straight impromptu wall was held in place by soldiers
-and up it all the contestants had to clamber. One almost stuck at
-the top; you watched him breathlessly to see if he could achieve it,
-but there was no jeering, as I fear there would have been at home.
-The whole race, in which were some fifty or more participants, was
-run with a wonderful freshness, joyousness and what the Germans call
-_schneidigkeit_, which corresponds to our American slang expression
-“toniness.”
-
-[Illustration: Rough Riding]
-
-[Illustration: Effect of Two Shells on a Six-Foot Reinforced Concrete
-Wall]
-
-[Illustration: Scaling Barricades]
-
-Even in the ordinary practise on the parade-ground an adjutant keeps
-a record of the time that the soldiers need to overcome the different
-obstacles. Whole companies have to pass the required tests. The whole
-thing is already reduced to such a system that in war an officer will
-know to the smallest detail what he can expect of his men. Great
-importance is attached to swimming, for occasions are sure to arise in
-a campaign when streams are to be forded or where the pontoon divisions
-have to be assisted.
-
-On the whole the rise of sport has had a great leveling influence in
-the army. Soldiers and officers do not, indeed, compete with each other
-as a rule; but they take part in the same meets, and I have observed
-that the soldier seems to rise in importance while the tendency of the
-officer is to forget himself in the excitement of the moment. I have a
-vision of non-participants flying across the field with the tails of
-their long coats flapping behind them to carry tidings or encouragement
-to some tired runner—which denotes a very great change from the
-unswervingly dignified bearing of other days. Soldiers and officers
-now are encouraged to join athletic associations, which makes for less
-exclusiveness.
-
-If the infantry is the mainstay of the German army, the cavalry is
-indispensable for reconnoitering, for making raids and for pursuit.
-Each cavalryman, as has been said, carries a lance, a sword and a
-carbine. Much time is spent in training the men to the use of the
-lance, which is of hollow steel. Men of straw, for instance, are placed
-on the ground and the lancer, riding by, has to inflict a wound in
-exactly the place designated. Or a straw head is placed on a stake and
-must be knocked off in passing. The carbines, which are stuck in the
-saddle, are of a perfected modern type and are but little inferior to
-the muskets of the infantry.
-
-Cavalry regiments, with which speed of progress is the first
-consideration, carry their own bridge-wagons, so that they can either
-repair bridges that have been destroyed, or construct entirely new
-ones. It has been found that rafts made of fodder-bags stuffed with
-straw and held together by lances, boards, logs, etc., can carry
-comparatively heavy weights. Six such bags as I have described can, at
-a pinch, carry six men. Barrels and chests are still more useful if
-they happen to be at hand. Needless to say, the cavalry bridge-wagons
-also carry explosives for destroying the enemy’s bridges and other
-defenses.
-
-[Illustration: Lancer Practising with Straw Man]
-
-[Illustration: Cavalry Patrol]
-
-[Illustration: Building a Bridge with Sacks]
-
-It has been thought in some quarters that aeroplanes and other
-contrivances for scouting and communication would supersede cavalry,
-but the German army administration evidently does not think so, as it
-has more than 150,000 horses in use even in time of peace. In time
-of war all private horses are subject to requisition, as are also
-automobiles, motor-trucks, motor-wheels and aeroplanes. The better
-riders in a regiment train the horses for the rest, and there is a
-constant mustering out of the inferior ones in favor of others that are
-stronger or younger or more docile. There are military riding schools
-at Hanover, Dresden and Munich, where officers are taught not only to
-ride well and to instruct others but also to break in young horses.
-
-Prussia has her own stud-farms in which the royal family, since the
-days of Frederick William I, has taken the greatest interest. There
-is a regular Prussian type, small and tough. The theory has lately
-been advanced that Asiatic horses are more free from disease and that
-they proved more enduring in the recent Turkish-Bulgarian War, while
-the Prussian horse, through faults in the manner of raising, has
-degenerated during the long period of unbroken peace. This, however,
-is simply an academic question and nothing short of war itself can
-demonstrate that under all conditions another type of horse will be
-preferable.
-
-The Russian-Japanese War brought the old cavalry raid, such as we
-associate with the names of Sheridan and Wilson, once more to honor,
-and an expedition of Mischtschenko’s in February, 1905, though not
-wholly successful, aroused much interest in cavalry circles in Europe.
-It is considered not unlikely that such “raids” will play a great part
-in the present war. The Germans use the American word for the maneuver.
-
-If cavalry is merely an adjunct of infantry, this is still more true of
-artillery. Its function, according to the latest German writers, is to
-facilitate the advance of the infantry, or, in other words, to break
-and open the path by which the infantry shall storm. It has sometimes
-been thought of the battle of the future that it would consist of two
-parts: the great artillery duel and the infantry struggle; and that the
-infantry would have to stand aside until the artillery duel was over.
-The contrary is the case. The two, in this coming war, will fight side
-by side: the artillery opening the breach, the infantry coming in.
-
-[Illustration: A Field Gun]
-
-[Illustration: Wheel Belt for Cannon]
-
-[Illustration: A Howitzer Battery]
-
-German batteries consist of six guns, while those of the French have
-only four. Good authorities, even in Germany, prefer the French
-system, but the change would mean more expense than was considered
-warrantable. A novelty is that the guns now have great steel shields
-that protect the gunners. Another most useful innovation is the
-so-called wheel belt. A number of flat blocks or shoes, wider than the
-tire and hinged so as to form a great chain, protect the wheels of the
-gun-carriage and prevent them from sinking into the mud. Formerly a
-supply of beams, jackscrews and the like had to be carried along for
-use in extricating the cannon when they stuck fast. Now every large
-gun in the army has its belt, which can be removed and put on again at
-will, the operation lasting but six minutes.
-
-The largest guns accompanying the infantry have a bore of twenty-one
-centimeters, which is much less, of course, than the fixed guns in
-fortresses or those used for coast defense. The size of these is ever
-increasing, and there is already talk of forty centimeter guns. The
-field guns fire shells and shrapnel and there is a so-called “unit
-charge” which is a combination of the two. A shrapnel is a thin metal
-ball filled with explosive bullets and can be discharged either by
-ignition or percussion. It is considered preferable to have it burst in
-the air, just above the point aimed at, as the shock is downward. Krupp
-has patented a shell that explodes by clock-work.
-
-One further fact concerning artillery may interest those who follow
-the present campaigns. In all the older famous battles the greatest
-efforts were made to drag the artillery up the hills and have it crown
-the heights. According to recent strategy it chooses rather low-lying
-protected spots. Howitzers can shoot right over a hill and have the
-shell curve and descend on the other side. The calculations as to just
-where it will strike are made with astounding accuracy, even though the
-goal itself may be invisible. The guns are being constantly improved,
-but the greatest secrecy is observed with regard to them. They are
-shrouded as they pass through the streets and no one can inspect them
-without a written order.
-
-The low situation has its great advantages as well as its
-disadvantages, but the latter can be counteracted. In order to be able
-to overlook the field, each battery now has an observation ladder or
-column, of which the parts can be telescoped into short space and
-carried between two wheels. When desired it is projected into the air.
-One advantage of this new invention is that the wheeled observation
-ladder can be sent off to quite a distance carrying a portable
-telephone by means of which it is possible at all times to communicate
-with the gunners.
-
-[Illustration: Observation Column]
-
-[Illustration: Observation Ladder]
-
-Many cannon now have telescopes attached to them to assist the gunner
-in taking aim. When we reflect that some of the guns can shoot five
-and six miles, the necessity of this will be apparent.
-
-[Illustration: Covered Field Artillery]
-
-For storming fortifications there are special heavy siege guns. A
-modern fortress is something very different from a medieval or even
-from an early nineteenth century one. The old city walls, however
-solidly built, are now regarded as mere pleasant bits of antiquity, and
-in dozens of German towns have been razed to the ground and converted
-into rings or boulevards. So in the city of Cologne, in Ulm. In their
-place we now have groups of sunken guns, of protected batteries and
-of underground bomb-proof rooms with walls of reinforced concrete
-twelve and fifteen feet thick. Here and there armored turrets project
-a few feet above the ground. Some of the rooms are large enough for
-a whole company of infantry. The sunken guns can rise from their
-resting-places, fire their charges and sink back into their beds.
-Germany has twenty-eight land forts in all, of which nine are modern in
-every regard, and eight coast fortifications. Should the Russians enter
-Prussia we may hear much of the great forts at Königsberg, Graudenz and
-Thorn, at Danzig, Kulm and Marienburg, or of the Silesian forts Glogau,
-Neisse and Glatz, which played a part already in the wars of Frederick
-the Great. In the west, Metz and Strasburg have been immeasurably
-strengthened since they passed into German hands, and Mainz, Coblenz,
-Cologne, Germersheim and Wesel are all formidable. To the south are Ulm
-and Ingolstadt, while in the north are Kustrin and Spandau, the latter
-but a few miles from Berlin. In Saxony is the Königstein, which, by
-reason of its natural position, is considered as impregnable as any
-fortress can be.
-
-Whether the Germans will ever be forced back into these strong
-positions remains to be seen. Their policy is to keep to the offensive
-and spare their own land as much as possible. However, what strength
-of arms may fail to accomplish may be reserved for famine. With her
-commerce entirely cut off, the food supply for the nation at large will
-be but scanty, and of all the criticisms I have read on the German army
-during the last six months those on the commissariat department have
-been the most severe. A change in the whole administration was ordered
-a few months before the war broke out, but it has scarcely as yet had
-time to go into full effect.
-
-
-_The Army of the Air_
-
-Probably the greatest difference between ancient and modern warfare
-lies in the systematic use that is now made of balloons, air-ships,
-aeroplanes and kites, also of telegraphy, both fixed and wireless, and
-of the telephone. I should add to these, automobiles, motor-trucks,
-motorcycles and simple bicycles.
-
-[Illustration: Military Airdome at Cologne Showing _Zeppelin Number II_]
-
-[Illustration: Cabin of the Zeppelin Airship _Hansa_]
-
-It may not be generally known that as far back as 1870 Germany
-attempted to make regular use of military balloons, and that two
-balloons and equipment were purchased from an English aeronaut.
-Several ascents were successfully made with a member of the general
-staff as passengers. Before Paris, however, it proved impossible to
-obtain the gas for inflation, and the whole balloon detachment was
-dissolved. Fourteen years later, in 1884, regular experiments regarding
-the taking of observations and the exchanging of signals were begun.
-Fifty thousand marks a year were set aside for the purpose, and so
-satisfactory were the results that in 1887 a regular balloon corps
-was organized with a major, a captain, three lieutenants and fifty
-non-commissioned officers and men. The discovery that the gas could be
-transported in steel cases in a greatly condensed form placed military
-ballooning on a much securer basis and the corps, greatly increased,
-has taken part in the yearly maneuvers since 1893. The captive balloon
-is still used as a sort of training-ship for recruits, but the free
-balloon has been practically superseded.
-
-The first Zeppelin and the first Parseval air-ships were acquired in
-1907 and, in spite of frequent accidents, have become as much a part
-of the armed forces as have batteries or battle-ships. There are now
-no less than five air-ship battalions under the “general board of
-inspection of military, air and power transport matters.” The combined
-appropriations of Prussia, Bavaria and Württemberg for their air
-fleets in 1913 amounted to 70,000,000 marks. The recent ships, which
-are not necessarily confined to the Zeppelin type, though built along
-the same lines, are almost as large as ocean steamships. Last year the
-“L II” carried twenty-eight passengers on its trial trip. It exploded
-in mid-air and twenty-seven were killed, among them almost all of
-Germany’s chief military aeronautic experts. “L III,” which is nearly
-completed, will have a displacement of 32,000 cubic meters. The largest
-and newest ship at present, the Schütte-Lanz II, has a displacement
-of between 23,000 and 24,000 cubic meters, is run by four Maybach
-motors, each of one hundred seventy horse-power, and beats the previous
-Zeppelin record for speed (seventy-nine kilometers or forty-nine and
-three-eighths miles an hour) by six kilometers. No other country has
-any air-ship that can in any way compare with this. Under construction
-is the twenty-fifth Zeppelin, which will have a length of some four
-hundred fifty feet. All modern air-ships are equipped with wireless
-telegraphy having a range of about four hundred kilometers, and can
-carry light Gatling guns. They can lift a weight of some 16,000
-pounds and their cost is from 700,000 marks upward. The Germans have
-practised very industriously with their air-ships—only the other day a
-pilot completed his seven hundredth trip.
-
-[Illustration: Military Airship in Process of Construction]
-
-[Illustration: Gondola of the _Schütte-Lanz I_ Airship]
-
-[Illustration: Airship _Parseval_]
-
-Whether in war the Zeppelins will come up to the expectations that have
-been formed of them remains of course to be seen. One can conceive
-of a single ship, under favorable conditions, throwing down enough
-explosives on an army to put it completely to rout. But the Zeppelin is
-a very big target and its motors make enough noise to warn a whole city
-of its approach. Russia and Germany herself now have many vertical guns
-for shooting air-ships. On the other hand, a Zeppelin can fly very high
-and can take refuge behind a cloud. Its chief objects of attack will
-doubtless be arsenals, dockyards, bridges and tunnel-mouths, though no
-fleet near the shore and no camp can feel quite safe from it in future.
-It would be so tempting to drop a shell in the midst of an enemy’s
-general staff and thus bring confusion into the whole guidance of the
-army!
-
-The Zeppelin has dangerous enemies in the ordinary aeroplanes. A
-Frenchman has just vowed to run the nose of his “plane” into the first
-air-ship that appears over Paris. It is possible for the airman to
-shoot, too, at close range, or to fly above the monster and let down
-ropes with hooks that shall tear its sides. The new ships, however,
-as I have said, can carry Gatling guns, and it is only a question of
-how they can best trail them on the enemy. The latest idea is a shaft
-that shall extend right through the body of the Zeppelin and come out
-on the upper surface. This arrangement has been tried on the newest
-Schütte-Lanz.
-
-To the value of aeroplanes as instruments of war Germany awakened
-late. Not until after an exhibition of the American, Orville Wright,
-on the Templehof field near Berlin in 1910 was the matter taken very
-seriously. Now there are four flying battalions in the army with nearly
-fifteen hundred men, and it is believed that the machines are more
-solid and stable than those of the French. All records were broken
-by German machines during the past year, and the great Prince Henry
-races in May, though fatal accidents occurred, demonstrated very well
-about what may be expected from a troop of airmen in time of war. The
-conditions were extremely severe and the weather was not favorable, yet
-twelve out of twenty-nine starters achieved the final goal within the
-time limit.
-
-[Illustration: Austrian Military Airship _Parseval_]
-
-[Illustration: Marine Airship]
-
-[Illustration: A Zeppelin over the Kiel Bay]
-
-The favorite machine in the German army is the Albatross-Taube, which
-looks quite warlike with its metal armor covering motor and all. Both
-monoplanes and biplanes are used. In case of war all aeroplanes, even
-the stock in trade of the manufacturer, are commandeered. These
-aeroplanes are easily transportable by rail so that a number of them
-can be concentrated close to the scene of action. They will be used for
-scouting, carrying despatches and dropping bombs, and undoubtedly will
-have a great effect upon warfare. It is likely that more maneuvering
-will be done under the cover of night than formerly in order to escape
-the spying eyes of the birdmen, that false marches and maneuvers will
-be undertaken, that bivouac fires will be lighted in unoccupied places
-merely for the purpose of deceiving. It will be easy to conceal cannon
-by covering them with green boughs.
-
-The German soldiers are already being trained for these new night
-operations which the aeroplane and air-ship will necessitate. They are
-taught to make their way by the moon and stars, to place their ears
-to the ground and catch and interpret sounds. It is possible for a
-finely trained ear to tell in the case of a passing horse whether it
-is running free or whether it is carrying a load, also to estimate the
-approximate number of a passing troop. Silent marching is practised,
-too, the greatest care being taken that the objects carried shall not
-clash or rattle. The enemy carries powerful electric search-lights
-against aeroplanes; a single apparatus requires several vehicles,
-each drawn by four horses. There must be a motor, a dynamo, a great
-mirror, a water wagon and a portable tower thirty feet high. The
-infantry carries lighter apparatus, too, that can now be loaded on an
-automobile, the motor of which can be used for running the dynamo.
-Aeroplanes, too, now carry search-lights.
-
-An enormous number of automobiles are used in the army. The German
-government has a special arrangement with motor-truck owners (the same
-is done with steamship companies) by which it pays a subsidy for new
-trucks on the understanding that they shall be at its disposal in time
-of need. It has been estimated that nine motor-wagons can replace one
-hundred thirty-nine horses and will need thirty instead of one hundred
-two men. Such a wagon will carry easily four tons of baggage.
-
-
-_The Officers_
-
-With all the technical aids and inventions, however, the decisive
-factor in a war remains the men and more especially the officers.
-
-[Illustration: Albatross-Taube Model 1914]
-
-[Illustration: Albatross-Taube Packed for Shipping]
-
-[Illustration: Double Monoplane]
-
-[Illustration: Albatross Hydro and Aeroplane]
-
-I recently overheard a well-known Boston woman teacher holding
-forth with the positiveness of complete conviction on the subject
-of the German officer and commiserating him on the life of idleness
-circumstances forced him to lead “except, of course, during the three
-or four hours a day when he is obliged to exercise.” The remark was
-addressed to a distinguished Harvard professor—anti-military,
-however, to the core—who had no contradiction to offer. I should have
-marked both of these great people zero for flat ignorance of the
-subject had I had them in a class. The German officer, I grant, may
-occasionally seem as idle and as frivolous as the son of a new American
-millionaire: the only difference would be that the American conceals
-his idleness under a show of industriousness, sending telegrams when
-he has nothing else to do, while the German conceals the fact that he
-has been up since four in the morning training a mass of raw recruits,
-that he has spent several hours at the _Kriegsakademie_ studying
-languages, geography, political economy and the like and that he has as
-a permanent job some important problem in tactics to work out. Those
-who know the methods of the Prussian government could never accuse it
-of giving its employees too little work. A list is kept of all officers
-in which their industry, their interest in their work and their general
-good conduct is noted. The ideal that is kept before them may not be
-exactly our ideal, but it is a wonderful one of knightly virtue all the
-same. The man may never forget that he is a leader of men; he must grip
-his standard of honor, such as it is, like grim death and be willing
-unhesitatingly to lay down his life for it. If he flinch or falter in
-physical encounter or in any way is “guilty of conduct unbecoming an
-officer” he has to resign his position. He has to conform not only to
-the rule of his superiors but also to the code of his fellow officers.
-There are things in that code that one would like not to see there and
-one misses much that might well be included, but to down the profession
-as a sinecure “except, of course, during the three or four hours a day”
-is the purest folly.
-
-And peace-time is the mere waiting-period, the period of training
-for the real work. In war-time the fate of the whole country hangs
-on the officer. An Italian, Mangiarotti, recently inquired of some
-two thousand soldiers who had just taken part in the African campaign
-regarding their sensations when facing the enemy. “The great ideals
-of God, king and fatherland,” he writes, “incorporate themselves in
-one single personality, the officer.” The lieutenant who does his
-duty in the firing line is an absolute hero to his men. But only real
-superiority of mind and body can keep him at this height.
-
-There are more than thirty thousand officers in the regular standing
-army, the great majority of them belonging to the nobility, who feel
-that they have a hereditary right to these positions. I am inclined to
-think that this feeling of caste will not be disadvantageous in war.
-The military career from youth up has been the one serious object and
-occupation in life. The memory of Jena has been preventative of
-pride and an incentive to hard work. The habit of commanding gained as
-lord of the manor—as _Herr Graf_ or as _Herr Baron_—will not be useless
-in the field.
-
-[Illustration: A Taube over the Military Flying Grounds at
-Johannisthal, near Berlin]
-
-[Illustration: Biplane]
-
-[Illustration: Airship Transportation Wagon]
-
-Price Collier, in his _Germany and the Germans_, gives the officer a
-bad character for arrogance and instances the fact that an officer will
-crowd a woman off the sidewalk. Such cases are very rare to-day, much
-rarer than they were some thirty years ago. The Zabern affair, however,
-has thrown a glaring light on a certain presumptuousness in the army
-and aroused at the time very bitter passions. There was a contempt for
-the ordinary laws of justice connected with the trial that is likely
-to avenge itself in time if it has not already done so. But no human
-institution is perfect, and the officer has at present far other things
-to think of than presumptuousness.
-
-In time of war many more officers are needed than in time of peace.
-This is provided for in Germany by a different and less perfect
-system than in France. From the one-year volunteers, of whom there
-are about 15,000 yearly, are taken the “officer aspirants,” who then
-undergo supplementary training, returning at intervals in later life
-for further instruction and practise. The general structure of the
-army does not change in time of war. Instead of numbering five or
-six hundred men the size of a battalion is raised to eleven hundred
-or more. There are supplementary troops in all branches, consisting
-partly of retired soldiers and partly of raw recruits, who must be
-licked into shape as quickly as possible, but who serve mainly to fill
-up the ranks at the front as they become depleted. Every able-bodied
-man must leave his occupation and take to the ranks whether he has had
-military training or not. Even a German in foreign lands, if he fail to
-report for duty to his consul, is liable on his return to a sentence
-of six years in the penitentiary. How many will hasten to naturalize
-themselves in other countries is one of the problems of the war.
-
-Horses, too, are called in in great numbers as soon as mobilization is
-ordered. In time of peace the twenty-five army corps, each numbering
-about forty thousand men, require 157,000 horses; in time of war the
-demand, of course, will be much larger, and this is provided for by
-instant requisition. But not at random. A list or census is regularly
-kept of practically all the horses in the country; it is revised at
-stated intervals and commissioners note the adaptability of every
-animal to this or that purpose. In times of mobilization the animals
-are brought before final commissions, consisting partly of military,
-partly of civilian members, who appraise their value and declare them
-confiscate. The transferring of horses to the rallying centers is
-one of the chief difficulties of the railroads, which, as is well
-known, belong to the state and are altogether closed to general traffic
-during the mobilization period.
-
-[Illustration: Uhlans Crossing River]
-
-[Illustration: Patrol of Uhlans]
-
-[Illustration: Uhlans Fording River]
-
-[Illustration: Easily Upset]
-
-Germany is putting, so it is estimated, some four million men into the
-field. And behind them, should the war last long, are nearly a million
-boys who belong to the Prussian _Jung Deutschland_ and to the Bavarian
-_Wehrkraftverein_. Boy scouts, we should call them in our country,
-but in Germany they are regularly trained by officers in the army—an
-occupation of these sinecure-holders that I omitted to mention. They
-are taken in squads on long tramps, are trained to use their eyes
-and ears and enjoy the life of the hills and woods. They carry their
-cooking utensils and prepare their own meals. The government encourages
-the institution by large grants and often places barracks and tents at
-the disposal of the boys for longer expeditions. Public and private
-generosity, too, has provided homes in out-of-the-way places where the
-boys can take shelter over night.
-
-How deadly an instrument for war is the German army remains to be seen.
-That it has already accomplished many fine things in time of peace is
-undoubted. Not the least of these is the spread of hygienic knowledge
-and the encouragement of manliness.
-
-By the terms of the German constitution the Kaiser is head and chief
-of the whole German army and, notwithstanding concessions made to
-Bavaria, Württemberg and Saxony for the period when it remains on
-a peace-footing, is absolute commander in time of war. Whether he
-will personally take the field or not is another question. If he
-does he will be upheld by an enormous wave of loyalty, but, on the
-other hand, the presence of a monarch in camp is often a hindrance to
-the operations. His own great-grandfather, and at the same time the
-Austrian emperor, made life very bitter for Blücher and the other real
-fighters in 1814.
-
-The real business of commanding a modern army is done by the chief of
-the general staff. It is of good augury that the present holder of
-that position is again a Moltke. On him falls the planning and the
-responsibility for carrying out of the plans, though he has under him a
-huge staff of subordinates—more than two hundred in all—whose duty is
-to collect information, make reports and even tender advice. The older
-Moltke once wrote: “The make-up of the headquarters of an army is of an
-importance not always sufficiently realized. Some commanders need no
-advice, but weigh and decide things for themselves. Their subordinates
-have merely to carry out instructions. But such stars of first radiance
-are only to be found about once in a century. Only a Frederick the
-Great takes counsel with no one and determines everything himself. As
-a rule the leader of an army can not do without advice.” The old plan
-was to hold a council of war and abide by its decisions; the new one is
-for the commanding general to use every aid from others but to take the
-whole responsibility himself.
-
-Headquarters travels with the army and with it goes the imperial
-chancellor, ready to take advantage of every happening in the field
-to influence the course of negotiations. The minister of war remains
-at home to see to the prompt forwarding of troops and supplies. In
-1870 and 1871 Bismarck had much to suffer from female influences—royal
-ladies who objected to the bombardment of beautiful cities and the
-like. There are at present no royal ladies in Germany who are likely to
-interfere. Blücher used to insist that the most merciful way of making
-war was to be absolutely relentless in pursuit—to the last man and to
-the last horse. The worst thing that can happen is to have the campaign
-drag on slowly with necessity of renewing battles. This phase of the
-matter royal ladies do not always understand.
-
-If the example of the Franco-Prussian War is followed the Germans will
-put as many as six different armies into the field, each with some four
-army-corps. There are twenty-five army-corps, and the fighting part
-of a single army-corps, which numbers some 41,000 men, strings out on
-an ordinary road to a distance of twenty-six kilometers or more than
-sixteen miles. As the food supplies, medical and surgical apparatus
-and ammunition wagons have to follow at a considerable distance we
-may estimate the length of the whole column at more than double this
-amount. Were the whole standing army (not to speak of the reserves)
-to travel along the same road it would take twenty-five days to pass
-a fixed point. It may be said here that the number of direct roads
-passing from Germany into France is small and that for purposes of
-invasion the possession of Belgium was a strategic necessity. Its
-occupation meant victory or defeat in the great struggle and the devil
-take the consequences. Belgium and France are so at one that the French
-have so trusted to the forts of Liege and Namur, which they believed to
-be impregnable, that they have done little to fortify their own borders
-in that direction.
-
-Who the commanding generals of the German army are to be has not yet
-been made public in America. Judging by the holders of high positions
-in peace-time they will be Grand Duke Frederick II of Baden, Duke
-Albert of Württemberg, Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria and the generals
-Bülow, Eichhorn, Heeringen and Prittwitz. Whether or not the German
-crown-prince will be given a command is doubtful. He is brave and
-dashing but impetuous and unbalanced, and his relations with his father
-have been somewhat strained. I am told that at maneuvers he expects
-far too much from his men and horses, though his pleasant manners and
-his joking way make him very popular. He may, of course, prove the
-Frederick the Great of the campaign should it last sufficiently long
-for him to gain the proper experience.
-
-
-
-
-                               PART III
-
-                               THE NAVY
-
-
-In 1848 the German Confederation was at war with Denmark on account
-of Schleswig-Holstein. The national parliament voted six million
-thalers for the creation of a fleet; it might as well have voted
-sixty millions as far as the possibility of collecting it in such
-disordered circumstances was concerned. But on June fourth, 1849, a
-squadron of three steamships, the _Barbarossa_, the _Hamburg_ and the
-_Lübeck_ did set out from the mouth of the Elbe, with decks cleared for
-action. The admiral was a Saxon, Rudolph Bromme. It was known that a
-Danish corvette was becalmed in the neighborhood of Helgoland. She was
-sighted and some shots had already been sent through her rigging, when
-suddenly from another direction, from Helgoland itself, then a British
-possession, a shot was fired. It signified that the ships were within
-the three-mile limit over which then and now a state’s sovereignty
-extended, and that England was forbidding the fray. The “fleet”
-complied with the order and Lord Palmerston took occasion to send a
-diplomatic note to the German Confederation stating that ships had
-been seen in the North Sea flying a black-red-gold flag and conducting
-themselves as war-ships; that England would not recognize such ships
-with a black-red-gold flag as war-ships, but would treat them, if need
-be, as pirates.
-
-England has more or less preserved this attitude to the present day and
-has been righteously indignant whenever Germany increased her fleet.
-A first lord of the admiralty once publicly declared that Britain’s
-rule of the sea was part of the common treasure of mankind and that
-England could never endure that another power should be able to weaken
-her political influence by exerting naval pressure. Such a position, he
-said, would unquestionably lead to war.
-
-The attempts to weld Germany into a nation having failed, the fleet
-was put up at auction and sold in 1852. The state of Prussia, however,
-which was one of the purchasers, had by this time started her own fleet
-and soon began to build the harbor in the _Jadebucht_, which is now
-called _Wilhelmshaven_. One of the royal princes, Adalbert, was made
-admiral and furthered the cause of the fleet in every way. Himself an
-intrepid leader, he was wounded in an encounter with Morocco pirates,
-who fired on one of the small boats of the _Danzig_. In 1863, however,
-the fleet consisted of but four corvette cruisers, the _Arkona_,
-_Gazelle_ and _Vineta_, which had each twenty-eight cannon, and the
-_Nymphe_, which had but seventeen. Add to these twenty-one cannon
-boats, four of which carried three cannon, the rest but two. In 1867
-the Prussian fleet merged in that of the North German Confederation,
-which in turn, in 1871, merged into that of the new German Empire.
-
-In the war with France the German fleet played no rôle whatever, there
-being but five ironclads in all, two of them small coast defenders, to
-oppose to France’s fifty-five. There were but one or two insignificant
-encounters between small single ships—one between the _Grille_ and the
-_Hirondelle_ in the Baltic, and one between the _Meteor_, whose whole
-crew numbered sixty-three, and the French despatch-boat _Bouvet_, with
-eighty-three. The two had come upon each other in the harbor of Havana
-and then tried conclusions on the high seas. But the German victories
-on land had been so quick and decisive that the fleet as a whole never
-came into action.
-
-Even the successful outcome of the war did not spur Germany on to
-build up a strong navy. A general, not a seaman, was made chief of the
-admiralty and, although Von Stosch brought in a building plan according
-to which the navy, by 1882, would have had fourteen large ironclads,
-seven monitors, twenty cruisers and twenty-eight torpedo-boats, it
-was carried out only in part. Stosch deserves credit, however, for
-insisting that Germany should build all her own ships. The sinking of
-the _Grosse Kurfürst_ in 1879, which was run into by one of her own
-sister ships, was a great calamity for the navy, and the loss of her
-two hundred sixty-five officers and men caused wide-spread grief.
-
-Caprivi, the later chancellor, followed Von Stosch in 1883 as head of
-the admiralty. He was conscientious, but, it would seem, altogether
-without fruitful ideas. He placed all his hopes in the torpedo-boat,
-and from 1883 to 1887 not a single battle-ship was built. It was
-not so much to be credited to Caprivi, but to a young officer, Von
-Tirpitz, now grand admiral and state secretary for the navy office,
-that the German torpedo-boat fleet became the best in the world.
-Tirpitz made a new weapon of it, one that could be used not merely
-for coast-defense, but also for fighting on the high seas. But the
-fact remains that the torpedo-boat under Caprivi’s régime was greatly
-overestimated and that its usefulness has more and more been checked by
-new inventions—search-lights, Gatling guns, torpedo-boat-destroyers and
-the like.
-
-Toward the end of his term indeed Caprivi began to see the importance
-of a strong fleet and the idea gained ground that “a navy which has its
-center of gravity on or near shore is not worthy of the name.” In 1887
-was begun the Kaiser Wilhelm canal between the Baltic and the North
-Sea, which enables the one fleet to operate in both waters without fear
-of being intercepted. Meanwhile Germany had started on her career as
-a colonial power, having acquired by purchase and by treaty tracts in
-Africa and islands in the Pacific Ocean more than twice the size of her
-possessions in Europe. Some of her little cruisers and cannon boats
-had even seen service against unruly natives. The Reichstag, however,
-showed little interest in the government’s colonial policy and was not
-to be won for the building of large war-ships.
-
-A change came soon after the accession of the present emperor, William
-II. One of his first acts was to reorganize the whole naval system,
-separating the administrative part from the purely military. At present
-Admiral von Tirpitz is at the head of the former and Prince Henry of
-Prussia, subject to the emperor’s own commands, of the latter. Four
-great battle-ships, all of the Brandenburg class, were begun in 1889.
-England responded by ordering ten new battle-ships, but in 1890, by
-ceding Helgoland in return for a correction of boundaries in East
-Africa, she gave Germany an advantage worth fifty dreadnaughts. And
-almost before there was any tangible fleet at all Germany was at work
-scientifically, learning both by theory and by practise how a fleet
-should be managed and maneuvered.
-
- “How few these ships were,” writes a vice admiral, “and how little in
- accord with modern warfare on the high seas, we all know. Imagination
- often had to substitute what was lacking. School-ships, still with all
- their old full rigging, represented ironclads; torpedo-boats served
- as cruisers, and the _Mars_, built to be an artillery training-ship,
- acted as flag-ship. In those next few years we went through a period
- which—we can say it without boasting—is unique in the history of
- fleets. Not but that we made mistakes—much that then seemed to us
- indubitably right has since been superseded—but the German fleet,
- which had fewer and less available ships than many other countries,
- has outdistanced them all in tactical development. … The stake, it
- is true, became greater as ships representing a capital of millions
- and carrying hundreds of men took the place of the little boats, but
- the method remained the same. Commander and crew, by progressing from
- easier to more difficult and more warlike maneuvers, achieved that
- feeling of security which is not a foolish scorn of danger but the
- knowledge of power to cope with it. That is the state of mind which
- makes for success in war and which enables one to win all by risking
- all.”
-
-The fleet legislation of 1898 for the first time looked ahead and
-established rules as to the future number of ships and the time-limit
-within which they should be built, and also laid down principles as to
-the tasks that the fleet was intended to accomplish. Two squadrons, of
-eight battle-ships each, were to be in constant readiness and were to
-have a flag-ship at their head. Six large and sixteen small cruisers
-were to act as scouts, three large and ten small cruisers as a “foreign
-fleet”; two battle-ships, three large cruisers and four small ones were
-to form the reserve, and the whole reorganization was to be completed
-in six years—that is, by 1904. It had heretofore been provided that
-in case of war each ship should give up half of its trained men as a
-nucleus for the new crews of the reserve ships. This greatly weakened
-the fighting power of the ships at the crucial moment, and the
-legislation of 1898 abolished the compulsion for one at least of the
-two squadrons.
-
-Between 1898 and 1900 came events which greatly disquieted Germany: the
-Spanish-American and Boer Wars and disturbances in Samoa. Off Manila
-there were amenities between the German and American admirals which
-might have ended more creditably for the former had he been able to
-display more force. The legislation of 1900 was influenced by all these
-factors and has a wider perspective than any that had gone before. The
-preamble declared that “Germany must have a battle-fleet so strong
-that even for the most powerful naval opponent a war is connected
-with such dangers that that opponent’s own position as a power may
-be impaired.” And further: “For this purpose it is not imperative
-that the German battle-fleet be as strong as that of the greatest
-maritime power, for, as a rule, a great maritime power will not be in a
-position to concentrate its whole fighting force against us. But even
-though it should succeed in opposing us with greatly superior forces
-the subjection of a strong German fleet would so weaken an enemy
-that, in spite of any victory he may win, his fleet will no longer be
-sufficiently powerful to assure his own predominant position.” “For
-the first time,” writes Mittler, “the so-called _risk idea_ which was
-henceforth to be a determining factor in our fleet development was
-clearly expressed.”
-
-The legislation of 1900 amounted to a doubling of the fleet provided
-for only two years previously. Seventeen battle-ships, four large
-cruisers and sixteen small cruisers were to be in constant readiness,
-while exactly as many more ships of each of the three types were to
-be kept, partially manned, in reserve. In 1906, in addition to a
-number of submarines, six cruisers for the “foreign squadron” were
-provided for, and it was voted to raise the number of torpedo-boats
-and also to provide automatically for their renewal, the life of a
-torpedo-boat being estimated at twelve years. This meant that twelve
-torpedo-boats would have to be built each year. England’s example in
-building dreadnaughts necessitated greatly raising the appropriation
-for battle-ships and also influenced the legislation of 1908, by which
-the normal life of a battle-ship was declared reduced from twenty-five
-to twenty years. The legislation of 1912, finally, increased the number
-of active battle-ships by eight, of large cruisers by four and of small
-cruisers by six, not to mention that the number of submarines is to be
-brought up to seventy-two, fifty-four of which are to be always ready
-for service. But as the period for finishing all the new ships is 1920
-they will play little part in the present war. The reserve ships, of
-course, will all now be called into action.
-
-To resume, then, and to be more specific, the actual German fleet,
-counting ships expected to be ready in the course of 1914, numbers
-thirty-eight ships of the line, fourteen armored cruisers, thirty-eight
-protected cruisers, two hundred twenty-four torpedo-boats and thirty
-submarines. There are no torpedo-boat-destroyers as in other navies,
-the small cruisers being supposed to take their place. The battle-ships
-are ranged in classes. There are three of the “King class” (the
-_König_, the _Grosser Kurfürst_ and the _Markgraf_), which have a
-displacement of nearly 26,000 tons and are equipped with every possible
-modern improvement, such as net protection against torpedoes, turbine
-engines, provision for oil-fuel, torpedo tubes, etc. It is from these
-monsters, of which each carries ten of the largest guns, not to speak
-of the smaller ones, that we shall probably hear most in the course
-of the war, though not perhaps in the beginning, as they are not
-fully completed. They are to be joined in 1915 by a sister-ship, the
-_Kronprinz_.
-
-[Illustration: H. M. Man-of-War _Wittelsbach_ Passing under a High
-Bridge in the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal]
-
-[Illustration: H. M. Ship _Seydlitz_ in Dry-Dock]
-
-[Illustration: Signaling on Submarine]
-
-The _König_ class is to be larger in dimension, in horse-power and in
-displacement, though not in speed or armament than the _Kaiser_
-class, of which there are five ships: The _Kaiser_, the _Kaiserin_,
-the _Friedrich der Grosse_, the _Prinzregent Luitpold_ and the _König
-Albert_. Next come the _Helgoland_ class (_Helgoland_, _Ostfriesland_,
-_Thüringen_, _Oldenburg_) and the _Nassau_ class (_Nassau_,
-_Westfalen_, _Rheinland_, _Posen_) after which, with the _Deutschland_
-class (13,200 tons), we are out of the region of the dreadnaughts.
-
-There is a dreadnaught cruiser, the _Derfflinger_, just ready, with a
-greater displacement (28,000 tons), and of course, with far greater
-speed than any of the battle-ships. Next comes the _Seydlitz_ (25,000
-tons), then the _Moltke_ and the _Goeben_ (23,000 tons), and the _Von
-der Tann_ (19,500 tons). The _Goeben_ has already been practically
-captured, as has also the _Breslau_ (4,550 tons). They are now in the
-Dardanelles, and the Turkish government is considering their purchase.
-Twenty-three of the protected cruisers bear the names of German cities
-(like the _Breslau_, _Colberg_, _Dresden_, _Königsberg_), while the
-rest for the most part have such names as the _Gazelle_, the _Medusa_,
-the _Niobe_, the _Undine_.
-
-Some fifteen of the largest and best-known passenger ships of the
-Hamburg and Bremen lines were to have served as auxiliary cruisers,
-but a number of these now are in foreign ports and far from the needed
-protection of their fleets. It remains to be seen what use will be
-made of the _Imperator_, which is still at Cuxhaven or Hamburg.
-
-In concluding our list of ships in the German navy it may interest
-Americans to know that there is one called the _Alice Roosevelt_. It is
-not likely to influence the progress of the war or even to come into
-action. Its special title is _Stationsjacht_, and it is at the service
-of the general inspector of the navy, Prince Henry of Prussia.
-
-Germany’s ally, Austria, although in May, 1914, she appropriated more
-than 400,000,000 _kronen_ for her fleet, makes at present a very
-weak showing. She has fifteen ships of the line, of which three are
-dreadnaughts, two armored cruisers and seven protected cruisers.
-
-England, Germany’s chief naval opponent, has sixty-three ships of the
-line as compared to her own thirty-eight, and of these twenty-four
-are dreadnaughts, as compared to seventeen. England has forty-four
-armored cruisers, of which ten are dreadnaughts; Germany has but
-fourteen armored cruisers, and but five of them are dreadnaughts. In
-protected cruisers the ratio is still more in England’s favor, while
-with torpedo-boats Germany is comparatively well provided—one hundred
-fifty-four as against one hundred ninety. It may be mentioned here,
-as a bit of interesting history, that the majority of great naval
-victories have been won over numerically superior fleets.
-
-France has ten dreadnaught battle-ships, on paper, but no dreadnaught
-cruisers, and is said to have had difficulty in officering the ships
-that she has. Moreover, of the ten dreadnaughts six are only what are
-called half-dreadnaughts and only three of the others are ready for
-service. Russia is practically without a fleet, though she has four
-battle-ships and fourteen cruisers in the Baltic and four battle-ships
-and two cruisers in the Black Sea. Next year she expects to have ready
-for use in the Baltic four new dreadnaughts.
-
-Naval warfare has been so far from our thoughts these many years, its
-terms have become so unfamiliar that it is worth dwelling for a while
-on the different types of ships and showing their special uses and
-their special tasks in battle.
-
-Most important of all, with their supremacy unassailed by any of the
-newly invented types, are the battle-ships or ships of the line.
-They are called _of the line_ because that is their natural position
-in battle, the position that renders the fire of their guns most
-effective. This does not mean that their bows are to be all in a line,
-though that position may sometimes have to be adopted; but rather that
-they are to string out, one behind the other at stated intervals,
-so as to be able to fire a vast broadside often miles in length. It
-may be that the line must be slanting or again that the position must
-be constantly changed as new exigencies arise. The ruling idea, of
-course, is to strike the right balance between the amount of surface
-presented as a target for the enemy’s guns and the ability to keep
-up the most effective running fire. All this is diligently practised
-in time of peace in the so-called maneuvers. The utmost exactness of
-calculation is required, for the nearer together the ships the more
-effective is their fire; indeed the great distinction between modern
-naval encounters and those of former times lies in this team work, if
-we may call it so. The great dreadnaughts, with their turbine engines
-and carefully adjusted steering apparatus, are much more manageable
-and can be brought much closer to one another than was the case with
-old-fashioned battle-ships. The distance between the bow of one ship
-and the stern of the next one is reckoned in practise at a hundred
-yards or less; one can see what an advantage it is to have the eight
-ships of a squadron all of about the same size and speed. This idea
-has been carried so far in the German fleet that, even after the
-superiority of the turbine engine had been demonstrated the ships
-required to complete a squadron were built in the old style. Single
-encounters like those which make up such thrilling pages in history
-are not likely often to occur again, and if they do, will not come to
-boardings and to hand-to-hand conflicts.
-
-[Illustration: For Raising Sunken Submarines]
-
-[Illustration: The Second Squadron Passing the Friedrichsort Light]
-
-[Illustration: H. M. Cruiser _Breslau_]
-
-[Illustration: H. M. Royal Yacht _Hohenzollern_ with His Majesty on
-Board in the Lock at Kiel]
-
-The range at which the great naval battles of the future will be
-fought will be very great, all the way up to ten thousand yards. The
-great guns can easily shoot that distance, while a reason for not
-coming nearer until, at least, the heavy ammunition is gone, is that
-at that range each fleet will be practically safe from the torpedoes
-of the other. The German fleet often practises at that range, firing
-at a moving target which is dragged along by another boat. On each
-modern gun is a telescope, and there are instruments for determining
-the distance at any given moment, as well as complicated adjustments
-for sighting and aiming. The projectiles used in the biggest guns
-weigh each nearly a ton and cost well up into the thousands, so every
-precaution is taken not to waste them. We can no longer speak of a
-cannon-ball, for the modern charges are cylindrical, pointed and filled
-with explosives so as to inflict the utmost damage for the money.
-Experience has shown that at very close range they will pass through
-blocks of steel more than a yard thick!
-
-The bore of the greatest guns in the German navy has hitherto
-been a little over thirty centimeters, but is fast reaching the
-forty centimeter mark; the guns themselves are from forty-five to
-fifty-eight feet long and weigh correspondingly. The best are from
-the foundries of Krupp, who, when he died, left his daughter the
-richest woman in Germany. The Krupps have a special steel of the
-utmost toughness and resistance. The gun-barrel is made of a single
-block, which is regularly excavated or bored; it is then protected
-by innumerable rings, which are put on when red-hot, and sit firmly
-ever after. The “kick” of the gun has been entirely eliminated by an
-ingenious contrivance. Altogether the cannon of to-day have become
-so complicated and so perfect as instruments that it takes longer to
-manufacture them than it does to construct the ship, and the English
-navy gives its orders for them about six months before even the keel
-is laid. And the life of such a gun is short. It is said that some of
-the guns on the new English, Japanese and Italian ships will be useless
-after they have fired eighty shots; on the American, French and German
-after from one hundred and fifty to two hundred. The difference lies
-in the construction of the gun-barrel, and there are controversies
-and rivalries over which methods are the best, just as there are over
-almost everything else that pertains to warfare: over the best shells,
-the best powder, the best mechanical contrivances for loading, for
-getting the range, etc. Dreadnaughts have scarcely yet been tried in
-actual warfare, and the nation that has made mistakes in theory may
-live to rue them bitterly in practise.
-
-The guns are placed, two and two, in turrets on the battle-ships,
-and can be turned in any direction; if need be they can fire a whole
-broadside; while, as two turrets are elevated above the rest, a volley
-can be fired of four guns direct from the bow or stern. The turrets
-are armored with tough hard steel and their surface is curved so that
-a shot will glance off. The _King_ and the _Kaiser_ classes carry ten
-great guns, the _Helgoland_ and _Nassau_ classes even twelve, but the
-latter are no more effective, as they have not the two elevated turrets
-for shooting over the other guns. Some of the new French and American
-ships are to have three and even four guns to a turret, but the German
-navy is conservative enough not to wish to try the experiment.
-
-Theoretically at least a great dreadnaught is almost unsinkable. Not
-only is its hull divided into a great number of cells and compartments
-but many of the cells themselves are armored, so that even if a torpedo
-penetrates to them it will not have things all its own way. All
-vulnerable places, too, are heavily armored with plates that extend
-away below the water line; while the powder magazines and torpedo tubes
-are well down in the depths of the ship.
-
-It is the heavy armament that has conditioned the size of the ships,
-for they have few other advantages than the ability to carry the extra
-weight, and they have increased the cost of navies enormously. The
-appropriations of eight great powers for 1914-1915 come to not far
-from three billion five hundred million marks, England leading with
-more than one billion. And the expenses do not cease with the building
-of the ships, for docks, dry docks, canals, etc., have to be enlarged
-accordingly. The Kaiser Wilhelm canal, built between the years 1887 and
-1895, at a cost of one hundred fifty-six million marks, had already
-outgrown its usefulness ten years after its opening. Its widening,
-which will not be fully completed until 1915, is to cost two hundred
-twenty-three millions in addition.
-
-We have thus far spoken only of ships of the line, and, although we
-shall have to return to them in a moment, a few words must first be
-said as to the use of the other categories of ships in actual warfare.
-Armored cruisers in themselves are nothing new. England has forty-four
-of them, France nineteen, Japan fifteen and Germany and the United
-States each fourteen. But _great armored battle-cruisers_ have existed
-only since 1907 and are possessed as yet by only three powers: England
-has ten; Germany has, or had, five (for the _Goeben_ is out of the
-running), and Japan has two.
-
-The big battle-cruiser is as long as a battle-ship, or even longer;
-it, also, is called a dreadnaught. It has guns as large, but fewer
-of them; eight instead of ten. Where, then, is the difference? The
-difference is in the lines, which are long and slender, like those of
-a yacht, and in the speed, which is from twenty-eight to thirty knots
-instead of twenty-two or twenty-three. The cruiser has been described
-as a sort of naval cavalry that can fly to any weak point of the enemy,
-can chase a single ship or can outflank a line of ships, bring them
-between two fires, thus deciding the battle. The cruisers can also
-fight each other. A new instrument of war has thus been introduced that
-may, after all, once more make naval contests thrilling and dramatic
-instead of being mere pounding competitions.
-
-The small cruiser, in contradistinction to the large armored one, has
-but a light iron belt and carries only light guns and deck torpedo
-tubes. Its purpose is not to engage in battle, unless it be with a
-torpedo-boat, but rather to avoid it. It combines the qualities of
-scout and of torpedo-boat-destroyer, which latter type is altogether
-lacking in the German navy. Its chief quality is swiftness, and a swarm
-of small cruisers accompanies the fleet when it puts to sea, darting
-here and there to make sure that none of the much-dreaded little
-enemies is approaching.
-
-Of large torpedo-boats the German fleet has one hundred fifty-four,
-all of its own special type. The value of the type has at times been
-overestimated, at times underestimated, but the recent gains in
-speed and in seaworthiness have made it no contemptible adversary.
-Practically its only weapon is the torpedo, for projecting which it
-carries four tubes on deck; its small guns are merely for use against
-other torpedo-boats. Its chief defense is its extreme swiftness, for
-some of the boats have a speed of thirty-eight miles an hour. It can
-turn, too, incredibly quickly, for it has a rudder in the bow as
-well as in the stern. It is unarmored, but is painted black for its
-protection. For it is a creature of the night, stealing up in the
-darkness with its deadly weapon and scarcely ever exposing itself to
-the enemy’s guns by the light of day. It has one enemy, to be dreaded
-above all others, the search-light.
-
-[Illustration: H. M. Cruiser _Goeben_]
-
-There are hundreds of the little black devils in the navy, and they
-have every sort of trick for concealment and escape. By running very
-swiftly they can keep the smoke from rising vertically from their
-funnels and thus betraying their presence. They often go forth in
-flotillas and if an enemy start to chase them they scatter, having
-previously arranged where they are to meet again. They come bow on to
-the ship they mean to injure, for the distance between them will then
-increase more rapidly. If brought to bay a torpedo-boat turns its
-own search-light on the commander of the other vessel and tries to
-blind him with its glare. It is a risky business, that of torpedo-boat
-commander, and requires men of the very highest training and courage.
-The reason there are such numbers of the little craft is that many are
-sure to go to the bottom in the course of a campaign. Germany expects
-that her flotilla will be of great help in a war with England, for
-when a torpedo hits the damage is apt to be severe. Dynamite is mild
-compared to the new melanite and lyddite that are used in charging.
-
-[Illustration: Submarine Fleet in Harbor at Kiel]
-
-[Illustration: Armored Cruiser _Moltke_]
-
-If the torpedo-boat is a fiend that works mainly at night, its sister,
-the submarine, works only by day. If the submarine has not, as was
-at one time expected, completely revolutionized naval warfare, it
-has at least so far asserted itself that it can never be left wholly
-out of the reckoning. Its improvement has kept pace with that of the
-torpedo-boat in stability, in size and in manageableness. The newest
-boats have a displacement of a thousand tons, and long sea voyages are
-now possible. Germany has far fewer torpedo-boats than has England, but
-claims that hers are much stronger and much better adapted for service
-in rough weather and on the high seas.
-
-When there is no enemy in the immediate vicinity the submarine rides
-the waves like any other boat; when there is danger she dives like
-a duck. Just before firing her torpedo she comes to the surface for
-an instant to get one last good look. She is helpless at that moment,
-of course, but trusts to not being seen in time. When under water
-her speed is only about ten miles an hour, as the pressure is very
-great; on the surface she can travel about sixteen. Her slowness is
-a disadvantage, for she can only lurk for and intercept a fleet, not
-pursue and overtake it. She labors under another disadvantage, too,
-for she has to carry two motors and can not use the same one above and
-under water. Why? Because the one is an oil motor and generates gases
-which would be fatal when all outlets are closed. The other is run by
-an electric storage battery, the filling of which requires time and
-patience.
-
-How can the submarine communicate with its own fleet? It has wireless
-telegraphy and also deep-water signals, but these do not work so well
-as might be desired. It has one other connection with the visible
-world as wonderful as anything described by Jules Verne in his _Twenty
-Thousand Leagues Under the Sea_, the periscope, or literally the
-“looker round.” I can not do better than describe it in the words of a
-naval officer, Count Ernest zu Reventlow:
-
-Roughly speaking, the apparatus consists in this: If the boat is under
-water and yet wishes to see what is going on above, it pushes up a
-long thin pipe until the surface is reached and a little beyond. At the
-farther end of this pipe is a contrivance with glass prisms, or mirrors
-and lenses. This throws down the image reflected from the surface of
-the water, through the vertical pipe, into the interior of the boat.
-The image is caught on a plate and the commander of the submarine,
-although he may be several yards under water, can see everything that
-is floating and happening on the surface and consequently can make his
-attack with the sole guidance of this image and steer the boat until it
-is at the right distance for firing the torpedo.
-
-It sounds like magic, and indeed the witches were not in it when it
-comes to the achievements of modern science. But Reventlow has to
-confess that in practise the periscope is not so wonderful as it sounds
-in theory. The splashing of the salt water, unless the sea be perfectly
-calm, which it seldom is, soon dims and even effaces the image. It was
-long before the inventors could bring the periscope to reflect more
-than a small section of the horizon, but that difficulty seems to have
-been overcome.
-
-It is possible, with map, clock and compass, to take reckonings and
-keep on a course even when deep down under water. Deeper than ninety
-feet the submarine seldom goes. It has found a new and unexpected
-enemy in the air-ship or aeroplane, for it is a well-known fact that
-from a height on a clear day, at least, you can see very far into the
-water. But what, one will ask, can the aeroplane do about it even if it
-sights a submarine far down beneath the surface? Projectiles would not
-be likely to do much damage. At the same time it can warn ships and can
-pursue and worry the submarine.
-
-That the latter is not a perfect instrument goes without saying;
-indeed, when it darts about blindly it becomes a menace to its own
-ships. Its arrangements are so complicated, too, with all the letting
-in and out of water, the diving and coming up, the changing of motors
-and providing artificial air that things are very apt to go wrong. The
-service is extremely exhausting for the men and extremely dangerous.
-
-Yet all the same the value of submarines is universally acknowledged
-and every great navy has them. They will probably prove useful in
-planting that new instrument of destruction, the floating mine, about
-which a few words must be said here: “It is to be presumed,” writes
-Reventlow, “that in the next naval war [how little he dreamed in
-November, 1913, that that war was so close at hand!] mines will play an
-important part not merely in coast defense but also in sea fights as a
-weapon with the same justification as artillery and torpedoes and that
-their use will materially influence the tactics to be employed.” As
-such a weapon of attack mines were first used in the Japanese-Russian
-War.
-
-[Illustration: A Submarine Flotilla]
-
-[Illustration: Torpedo Boat]
-
-[Illustration: Search Lights]
-
-[Illustration: A Submarine About to Dive]
-
-A mine, as the reader probably knows, is a cask filled with high
-explosives and fastened by means of weights and anchors so that it
-floats some feet below the surface. Mines can be planted in fields,
-as it were, by torpedo-boats or submarine and then a hostile fleet
-can be lured or chased in among them. The North Sea, as we know, is
-at present thickly strewn with them and fatal results have already
-been chronicled. Air-ships and aeroplanes can help by finding the
-whereabouts of the hostile fleet and designating by wireless the spots
-where the mines should be planted.
-
-Air-ships and aeroplanes will possibly find their chief use as
-coast-defenders. They need refuges to which they can retire, which
-limits their use on the high seas. But along the shore they can scout
-for hostile ships and also can detect submarines and mines. They can
-throw down explosives and, if they are near enough to the enemy’s
-harbors, can destroy docks and demoralize shipping. Already there is
-talk of specially armored decks and of great iron grills for protecting
-the openings of funnels.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-More than six months ago a thoughtful German, Rudolf Troetsch, wrote a
-book called _Germany’s Fleet in the Decisive Struggle_, in which he
-weighs the different tasks the fleet will be called upon to perform in
-case of war, and comes ever and again to the conclusion that a battle
-on the high seas is the only possible option—a battle _im grossen
-Stile_, in the grand style. Even if the enemy’s fleet is not conquered
-it can be greatly weakened and strategy and tactics will go far to make
-up for want of numbers.
-
-Troetsch begins by showing the different methods an enemy will be
-likely to pursue; and one sees throughout that he has England in mind.
-First of all will come—as has already happened—the so-called cruiser
-war or attempt to destroy the country’s commerce by snapping up her
-merchant ships. This can eventually end the war by the starvation
-process; that is, by cutting off all food and other supplies. According
-to the Paris international agreement of 1856 there shall be no
-privateering, which means that individuals may not fit out ships and
-take prizes, but does not mean that the property of individuals, if
-they are subjects of one or other of the warring powers, may not be
-seized. Prizes of war may either be towed into the nearest port or,
-after the crews and passengers have been taken off, may be sent to the
-bottom with all their cargo. To be effective, however, this method of
-warfare must be methodically pursued, which means regularly employing
-a force of swift cruisers. The method had its warm advocates in naval
-circles, especially in France about thirty years ago. There is a strong
-feeling at present that the game is not worth the candle and that
-there are other tasks for the cruisers to perform which are of more
-importance. For a country which has few foreign coaling stations into
-which the prizes can be towed but very little is to be gained; while a
-naval battle is greatly to be preferred to having an enemy try these
-tactics.
-
-Another method that may be applied against Germany is the blockading
-of her North Sea coast. A blockade, according to the Paris declaration
-of 1856 and again according to the London conference of 1908, must
-be effective in order to be binding; a country may not, in other
-words, simply declare an enemy’s coasts in a state of blockade, but
-must have enough ships there to enforce the regulations. A successful
-blockade hinders even neutral ships from landing and is the best
-way of preventing the entry of contraband of war and of paralyzing
-all commerce. The form of Germany’s coast line fairly invites to a
-blockade, much more than do the coasts either of England or France.
-A line drawn from Holland to Denmark would form the hypothenuse of
-a triangle including the mouths of Germany’s chief rivers, her main
-seaports as well as all her North Sea islands. The Baltic, too, could
-be easily shut off from the ocean, and with the enemy’s ships all
-bottled up there would be no fear of a descent on the coasts of England.
-
-This sounds well in theory, but in practise the difficulties will be
-well-nigh insuperable. Those who know the coast will remember the
-miles and miles of shallows—the so-called _Wattenmeer_ so difficult to
-navigate. In time of war all lighthouses and buoys are removed and, if
-they approach the shore, the English ships will inevitably run aground,
-while the German torpedo-boats and submarines will be in their very
-element. Floating mines, too, will get in their deadly work, as will
-also the strings of fixed mines which are ignited not by percussion but
-by means of an electric current controlled from the shore. The German
-fleet can retire well up the great streams and menace the enemy there;
-while it must not be forgotten that the great cannon of the coast
-defenses can shoot fifteen kilometers (nine and three-eighths miles)
-or more. Finally the islands in the neighborhood, notably Borkum and
-Wangerood, are fortified, and last but not least, there is Helgoland
-far out in the sea. A whole fleet could not take this Gibraltar of
-the North. The rocky walls are very hard; indeed, with true German
-thoroughness, they have been tested to see if they would successfully
-withstand bombardment. Under their shelter a harbor for torpedo-boats
-and submarines has been built at a cost of thirty million marks. From
-here they can issue forth and here, protected from afar by the great
-guns, they can take refuge and form new projects.
-
-Troetsch considers it more than likely that England will proceed to
-a blockade, but a blockade not in the narrow but in a broader sense.
-One objection to the narrower blockade would be that her naval bases,
-necessary for repairs, fuel and ammunition, would be very far away. But
-this can be obviated if the blockading line begin somewhere between
-Dover and Calais, extend along the east coast of Scotland, with bases
-at Rosyth and Scapa Flow, and end near the southernmost point of
-Norway, Cape Lindesnaes. This would shut every exit from the North Sea
-to the Atlantic and at the same time encircle all the exits from the
-Baltic: the Skager Rak and Cattegat and the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal. Here
-England could carry on what is known as an “observation blockade,”
-biding her time to fall upon the enemy’s fleet.
-
-The great disadvantage is that the blockading line will have to be so
-very long. The surface of the North Sea is about equal to that of the
-whole German Empire, and such a line as we have traced would extend
-for two hundred fifty or three hundred miles. It is a question if even
-England’s enormous fleet can spare the requisite number of ships. Such
-a blockading fleet consists not only of a long chain of vessels close
-together but also of a supporting fleet and, behind that, of the real
-battle squadrons. The whole force must be nearly double that of the
-enemy, as it operates on a much broader line. The foggy stormy weather
-that is apt to prevail in the North Sea will also render the blockade
-less efficient.
-
-Germany is likely to attempt to break it and to bring about a great
-naval battle at the earliest opportunity. But that opportunity may not
-come so very soon. Reventlow, speaking indeed of a hypothetical war,
-declares that such a blockade may last a year or longer. Germany has
-too much at stake to risk her small but excellent fleet before the
-tactical moment has come. Will her Zeppelins help her to victory? That
-is the question that all are asking now. They are but fragile toys
-in a stormy sea, but, with circumstances in their favor, may achieve
-wonderful results.
-
-When it does come to the battle on the high seas into which Germany
-will surely force England, we shall see modern tactics put to their
-supreme test, for only by tactical superiority can Germany hope to win.
-In an old-fashioned battle in which the ships rushed at each other
-pellmell, or in one in which the rival fleets simply lie to and pound
-each other she would be sure to lose. A modern battle is much more a
-game of skill in which the victory is not to the strongest but to the
-cleverest.
-
-In a modern battle the ships are ever and always moving. Not that the
-maneuvers are necessarily complicated, but there goes on the whole time
-a constant thrust and parry. There are different kinds of encounters.
-First there is the running fight, in which the two fleets, the vessels
-one behind the other, run in the same direction, firing all the while.
-Here the strength of the ships, the power of the guns and the quickness
-of the gunners play the decisive part. The more turrets, funnels,
-engine-rooms and stearing gear put out of commission, so much the
-better. The so-called passing fight, where the fleets run not in the
-same but in opposite directions, is apt to be preferred by a fleet
-that is numerically weaker. The agony is less prolonged and escape is
-easier. Then there is the circular fight, in which the fleets are like
-great serpents trying to catch one another’s tails. The circular fight
-can follow directly after the passing fight when the fleets have not
-been seriously crippled.
-
-But the crown and acme of all fleet maneuvers is the so-called crossing
-of the T.
-
- “The maneuver of the crossing of the T,” writes Troetsch, “consists in
- endeavoring to bring one’s own line at right angles across the head,
- or also across the tail, of the hostile line—of enfilading it, as the
- expression goes, so that the opposing lines come into the relative
- positions of the two bars of the Latin T…. Such a movement renders it
- possible to concentrate the entire fire of one’s own broadsides on
- the ship that is at the head of the enemy’s fleet. In this way one
- increases the effectiveness of one’s own fire to the very highest
- degree, inasmuch as all the shots which go too far to one side will
- strike the hinder ships of the long hostile line. The ships at its
- head must gradually succumb to the concentrated fire, while one’s own
- line is exposed only to the guns in the opponent’s bow and to the
- fire of the few guns which can be pointed from the sides at such an
- angle as still to reach the enfilading ships. This position signifies
- for the fleet that succeeds in shoving itself across the head of the
- enemy’s line the most effective application of the principle of the
- concentration of power, which is based on the endeavor always to bring
- into play when attacking the enemy a greater number of guns than he
- in his momentary position has at his disposal. If one can open fire
- in this position it may prove of the greatest significance for the
- whole battle. … There are cases where the advantage of this position
- is gained by mere chance, as when the two fleets come upon each other
- in that formation in thick or foggy weather. … It is difficult to
- assume the position of crossing the T when the fighting is already in
- progress. …
-
- The fleet against which the crossing of the T is attempted can seek
- to lessen its effect by various counter maneuvers. It can turn in the
- same direction and take a parallel course with the enveloping fleet,
- whereby if it be swift enough it has the advantage of being on the
- inner or shorter line: the battle then becomes a simple running fight,
- or it can simply turn and follow the tail of the hostile line or
- engage with the head of the line in a passing fight.”
-
-We can even imagine the line of ships, the bow of which has been
-crossed, executing a sort of dance with its opponent in order to bring
-its broadsides into play—the first ship turning to the right, the
-second to the left, the third to the right again and so on until all
-are opposite and parallel to the enemy.
-
-And so the war is on which brings Germany’s fleet and army into play—to
-the last man and to the last gun. We have suddenly found ourselves in
-the midst of a struggle which makes even the wars of Napoleon seem
-trifling.
-
-As many men are now engaged simultaneously as were then called out
-in the course of years. And the instruments of death are a hundred
-times more deadly. From the skies above destruction rains down; from
-subterranean forts and from the depths of the sea it wells up. The
-difference between hand labor and machinery has been transmitted into
-terms of killing; we have artificial earthquakes and eruptions.
-
-How shall we name the war? The War of 1914? But it may last on into the
-next year, and the next and the next. As I know Germany she will never
-now submit to being conquered unless the social democrats gain the
-upper hand. And even then I am not sure that the social democrats are
-prepared to draw the last consequences of their long agitation against
-the imperial, or against any national government. Our descendants may
-look back on it as the Thousand Years’ War, for one fails to see how
-the passions now unchained can ever again be calmed. And there are
-signs that we are at the beginning of a colossal shoving around of
-races that will make our children mock at the awe with which their
-fathers read of the so-called wandering of the nations. All the Suevi
-and Allemanni and Goths, Vandals and Visigoths that ever overran Gaul
-would have made but a few corps in the great Teuton army that is now
-pressing into France.
-
-Russia, with her one hundred sixty millions, is likely to claim a much
-vaster influence than she has yet had. Napoleon would once have been
-willing to share Europe with Czar Alexander; will some such partition
-enter into the new treaty of peace? Will it perhaps be between Teuton
-and Slav and will England have to move to Canada and France to
-Africa? I can not believe, in any case, that Germany will succumb.
-She is reproached now by sentimental ladies with having devoted such
-serious study to the work of destruction. She devotes serious study to
-everything that she attempts. Only recently I was initiated into the
-splendid methods by which she runs her labor-exchanges and also into
-the workings of her prisons and penitentiaries. Everything is foreseen,
-everything provided for. And so it is with her fighting force. Every
-single problem is attacked theoretically as well as practically, and in
-almost every regard we other nations are but as untrained children to
-her.
-
-Once more, who is to blame for the horrible war? A clever writer,
-such as we have for detective stories, would have little difficulty
-in convincingly foisting the guilt on each of the great powers in
-succession. Austria is to blame for her ultimatum to Servia, Russia
-for mobilizing against Austria, France for entering the conflict when
-the matter did not concern her at all, Germany for demanding Russian
-demobilization, England for stabbing Germany in the back when she was
-already struggling with enemies on either side, Japan for her bumptious
-self-assertion.
-
-It is the twilight of the gods. Is Germany the Walhalla that is to
-fall in ruins? Or is she merely about to build a Walhalla that shall
-project over all other political edifices? The moment is a serious one
-for us Americans. Where shall we stand in the new order of things? Will
-a Japan that has conquered a China, a Russia and a Germany submit to
-American exclusion acts? Her fleet already outnumbers ours in ships of
-all types except ships of the line, and her naval appropriations are
-progressing more steadily than our own. And when Japan secures what she
-wishes from us, China will be ready to make the same demands. It is a
-far cry since Austria interpreted the five vowels in her favor: _Alles
-Erdreich ist Österreich unterthan_ (all earthly kingdoms are subject to
-Austria). Which will be the next world-power?
-
-
-                                THE END
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Germany's Fighting Machine, by 
-Ernest Flagg Henderson
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-
-Project Gutenberg's Germany's Fighting Machine, by Ernest Flagg Henderson
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Germany's Fighting Machine
-       Her Army, her Navy, her Airships and Why She Arrayed Them
-              Against the Allied Powers of Europe
-
-Author: Ernest Flagg Henderson
-
-Release Date: January 24, 2016 [EBook #51026]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GERMANY'S FIGHTING MACHINE ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Brian Coe, David Tipple and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-
-<div class="transnote">
-<p>
-Transcriber's notes
-</p>
-<ul>
-<li class="lspace">There is only one footnote: it has been placed at
-the end of Part II.</li>
-
-<li class="lspace">The spelling and hyphenation are as found in the
-original text.</li>
-
-<li class="lspace"> There is one spelling mistake that deserves
-mention. Although “dreadnaught” is an accepted spelling of
-"dreadnought” when used to mean “fearless”, Henderson's use of it to
-denote a certain type of warship is incorrect. Warships of this type
-were called dreadnoughts after <i>H.M.S. Dreadnought</i>, the first
-example of its type.
-</li>
-
-<li class="lspace">The table of contents was not part of the original
-text.</li>
-
-<li class="lspace">
-There are 87 illustrations in this book. These illustrations, with a
-link to each of them, are listed in the Appendix. This Appendix was not
-in the original text.
-</li>
-
-<li class="lspace">
-The captions of all the illustrations have been left as they appear in
-the book. Six of them, however, contain a numbered link to a note in
-the Appendix that explains why and how the caption should be changed.
-</li>
-
-</ul>
-</div>
-
-<p class="title1 break-before">GERMANY’S FIGHTING MACHINE</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fpc">
-<img alt="Kaiser Wilhelm II"
-       src="images/frontispiece.jpg" />
-<div class="caption">Kaiser Wilhelm II.</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h1>
-GERMANY’S<br />
-FIGHTING MACHINE</h1>
-<p class="subtitle">Her Army, Her Navy, Her Air-ships, and<br />
-
-Why She Arrayed Them Against the<br />
-Allied Powers of Europe</p>
-
-<p class="books">By</p>
-
-<p class="author">
-ERNEST F. HENDERSON</p>
-
-<p class="author2">Author of</p>
-
-<p class="books">
-Short History of Germany<br />
-History of Germany in the Middle Ages<br />
-Blücher, Etc., Etc.</p>
-
-<p class="illus">WITH MANY ILLUSTRATIONS</p>
-
-<p class="center">INDIANAPOLIS<br />
-THE BOBBS-MERRILL COMPANY<br />
-PUBLISHERS
-</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p class="center break-before">C<span class="smaller">OPYRIGHT</span> 1914<br />
-T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
-  B<span class="smaller">OBBS</span>-M<span class="smaller">ERRILL</span>
-  C<span class="smaller">OMPANY</span></p>
-
-
-<p class="press">CHARLES FRANCIS PRESS, NEW YORK</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p class="center break-before">
-GERMANY’S FIGHTING MACHINE
-</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p class="tabtitle break-before">TABLE OF CONTENTS</p>
-
-<table summary="A short table of contents" class="toc">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="part"><a href="#part_i">Part I</a></td>
-    <td class="name">The War</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="part"><a href="#part_ii">Part II</a></td>
-    <td class="name">The Army</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="part"><a href="#part_iii">Part III</a></td>
-    <td class="name">The Navy</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="part"><a href="#appendix">Appendix</a></td>
-    <td class="name">List of Illustrations</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-
-<hr class="full" />
-
-<p class="pagenum">[Pg 1]</p>
-
-<p class="title2 break-before">
-GERMANY’S<br />FIGHTING MACHINE</p>
-
-<h2 id="part_i">PART I</h2>
-
-<p class="part">THE WAR</p>
-
-
-<p>But a few weeks ago the author of this little book
-was in Germany studying the land and its institutions
-and full of admiration for its achievements in every
-field. Two days after he had taken ship for America
-Germany was practically at war with France and Russia.
-England soon joined in the conflict, and the splendid
-Hamburg liner on which the author was a passenger
-was a hunted thing on the ocean, owing her safety at
-last to a friendly fog. The great shipping company,
-with its nearly two hundred vessels, was out of the running
-as a commercial enterprise, a symbol of the paralyzed
-industries of the whole country.</p>
-
-<p>To the ordinary observer the conflict came like a bolt
-from the blue, but to the historian and to the man who
-reads the foreign newspapers it was not unexpected.
-The historians recognized that it was the appointed time
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 2]</span>
-for a war between the great nations. The Franco-Prussian
-War took place forty-three years ago. When,
-since the days of the grandsons of Charlemagne, have
-the chief powers kept out of war for so long a time? In
-the ninth and tenth centuries the question of Lorraine
-was as troublesome as it has been in the nineteenth and
-twentieth; in the eleventh and twelfth an expedition
-against Italy was in the day’s work of almost every
-German emperor; and England and Sicily were conquered
-by the Normans; in 1215 took place the first general
-international battle; in 1250 the final expeditions
-against the Emperor Frederick II; in 1272 the Sicilian
-wars of the house of Anjou. The Guelphs and Ghibellines
-carry us on to the Hundred Years’ War; the Hapsburg
-struggles against Italy and the Turks bring us
-down to the invasion of Italy by Charles VIII of
-France, to the campaigns of Maximilian, to the Field
-of the Cloth of Gold, to the religious wars of Charles V.
-Close on the heels of the latter struggles came not only
-the French religious wars but the invasion of England
-by Philip II’s great armada. The Thirty Years’ War,
-Louis XIV’s war of conquest, the Spanish Succession,
-the Silesian and the Seven Years’ Wars fill the seventeenth
-and eighteenth centuries; the Napoleonic, Crimean
-and Franco-Prussian Wars the nineteenth. Yes,
-it was time for a new struggle.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 3]</span>When a great and extraordinary
-event takes place it is easy, somewhere in the world, to point to omens
-and prophecies that have heralded it. But in the case of the present
-war we can see in the German newspapers how, from month to month of the
-present year, the struggle was felt to be more and more imminent and
-how Russia, the power that eventually precipitated the catastrophe, was
-felt to be the center of real danger. “In well-informed diplomatic
-circles,” writes the <i>Magdeburger Zeitung</i> in January, 1914, “the
-impression can not be concealed that in Russia at present there
-prevails a thoroughly hostile attitude to Germany and Austria-Hungary,
-and that the agitation in the czar’s realm is greater even than during
-the last Balkan crisis. … It looks as though Russia were preparing to
-make an extraordinarily great show of strength against a specific, not
-far distant date.” And the <i>Deutsche Tageszeitung:</i> “What is
-Russia’s purpose in building a mighty fleet of dreadnaughts for the
-Baltic? Surely not merely to coerce Sweden.” Again the Madgeburg paper:
-“The Russian government, which already owes French capitalists twelve
-billions, has received a new loan of two billions five hundred
-millions, of which five million are yearly to be issued in Paris. This
-whole gigantic sum is exclusively to be spent for building strategic
-railways along the German-Russian boundary. … France compelled Russia
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 4]</span>
-to do this. The French general staff thinks that Russia, because of her
-clumsiness in mobilizing, but especially for lack of tracks leading to
-the German frontier, will not be able, in a new war with Germany, to
-bring help to France in time. Russia has now fulfilled France’s wishes
-in this regard. Thus does the Franco-Russian alliance, which of late
-seemed to be falling into oblivion, celebrate its resurrection.”</p>
-
-<p>In February the <i>Hallesche Zeitung</i> writes: “To keep
-friendship with Russia is one of the chief aims of our
-foreign policy, but it is sometimes made very hard for
-us indeed. … They keep the peace because it is to
-the advantage of the czar’s empire to do so; but they are
-to be had for every combination directed against Germany.”
-And the <i>Dresdener Nachrichten:</i> “The Russian-German
-relations leave very much to be desired at
-the moment. The Russian government fails to show the
-least approachableness in foreign questions and Russian
-society and the press are in an extremely anti-German
-mood. Evidences of the same thing are to be seen in
-their attitude to Austria. … The Russian policy
-lets itself be taken more and more in tow by the French
-desires, and has nothing but polite speeches left for
-Germany.” The <i>Weser Zeitung</i> finds the explanation
-of the hostility in Germany’s efforts to help the Turks
-reorganize their army, and declares, “Here we have
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 5]</span>
-touched one of the weakest spots in Russia’s world-policy,
-her endeavor to get to the Mediterranean.” The
-<i>Fränkische Kurier</i> thinks that Russia intends to form
-a protectorate over the Balkan states as a military
-weapon against Austria and her allies: “The soul of
-this endeavor is the Russian diplomacy and the Servian
-minister-president, Pasitsch.” The <i>Dresdener Anzeiger</i>
-observes that the influence of the Pan-Slavist party over
-the Russian government is steadily growing and that
-the extraordinary activity in military matters ill suits
-the constant peace assurances: “The measures are
-pointed against Austria-Hungary.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig01">
-<img src="images/fig01.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">The Crown Prince and Crown Princess</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>On March second an article in the <i>Kölnische Zeitung</i>
-aroused great excitement all over Germany. It declared
-that Russia was not yet in a position to supplement political
-threats by military action, however much France
-might “rattle with the Russian saber.” But in three
-years all the enormous preparations would be completed,
-and already “it is openly said even in official military
-periodicals, that Russia is arming for war against Germany.”
-There is no immediate danger, the article continued,
-but the legend of the historical German-Russian
-friendship had better be thrown to the dogs.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig02">
-<img src="images/fig02.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Prince Henry of Prussia, the Emperor’s Brother</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The papers took different attitudes toward this article,
-but there were not wanting those who considered the
-warnings of the <i>Kölnische Zeitung</i> justified. General
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 6]</span>
-Keim, in the <i>Tag</i>, declares that the German-Russian
-boundary is one huge camp, that the underlying thought
-of the whole armament is an offensive war against Germany,
-that France had proceeded in the same way just
-before 1870 and that the recent visit to St. Petersburg
-of President Poincaré and his chief of staff Joffre had
-not been merely a pleasure jaunt. Had not a French
-general, only last summer, declared in a treatise published
-anonymously that the tension between Russia and
-Austria was ground for a European war “perhaps in
-the near future”? And had not this French officer even
-gone so far as to spread the legend that in case of war
-Germany would disregard the neutrality of Belgium
-and Luxemburg in order to be able to envelop the
-French left wing?</p>
-
-<p>Several of the March newspapers bring the Russian
-hostility into connection with the commercial treaty that
-has only about two years more to run. Russia, by making
-a bold front, can gain from Germany better terms
-than she has had in the past. “Russia, with her military
-preparations,” writes the <i>Pester Lloyd</i>, “wishes to put
-Austria and Germany under military pressure in order
-to achieve diplomatic successes and harm her neighbors
-economically.” The idea that France is behind it all
-crops out repeatedly. The <i>Neue Preussische Zeitung</i>
-speaks of the pressure “ever stronger, that the French
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 7]</span>
-need for revenge is exercising on the Russian ally and
-debtor.” The <i>Hannöverische Courier</i> accuses the
-French press of having first caused the agitation of
-public opinion in Russia, on which it afterward comments
-as so remarkable. As far back as March 10th,
-1913, the <i>Kölnische Zeitung</i> had written: “Never was
-our relation to our western neighbor so strained as to-day,
-never has the idea of vengeance shown itself so
-openly and never has it been made so evident that in
-France the Russian alliance, the English friendship, are
-claimed only for the purpose of reconquering Alsace-Lorraine.
-In whatever corner of the world the flame
-starts up it is quite certain that we shall have to cross
-swords with France. When that will be, no one can tell.”</p>
-
-<p>The Russian military preparations cause the German
-papers much concern in the month of April also. The
-<i>Vossische Zeitung</i> considers them a gigantic bluff, and
-declares that they have been worth millions to the Russian
-government. “For only because France thinks
-that in Russia she possesses an ally ready for war has
-she heaped billions and billions on her in the form of
-loans. … That the latest French loans to Russia
-were accompanied by instructions seriously to take up
-the anti-Austrian and anti-German preparations no one
-doubts. Just as little is it doubted that Pan-Slavism is
-not pleased with the latest changes in the Balkans or that
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 8]</span>
-the freedom of the Dardanelles and the seizure of Constantinople
-still present themselves as the goal of Russian
-policy. Hatred of the Germans is increasing. …
-One thing is certain: Russia is arming to a gigantic
-extent. She wishes to throw a heavy weight into
-the scale of the national quarrels. Germany and Austria
-have every reason to be on their guard.” The
-<i>Allgemeine Zeitung</i>, of Chemnitz, writes that “The
-goals of French and Russian policy are unattainable
-without world-shattering callings-to-account,” and the
-<i>Weser Zeitung</i>, after speaking of Pan-Slavism as
-threatening the existence of the Austrian-Hungarian
-monarchy, finally exclaims, “It neither can nor should
-be concealed that if—which God forbid!—this direction
-gain the upper hand in Russian politics it would mean
-the very war-danger against which we sought and found
-refuge in the Triple Alliance.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig03">
-<img src="images/fig03.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">The Unworldly Kaiserin as the
-                             Protectress of the Fatherless</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The newspapers of May have a somewhat calmer
-tone than those of March and April. “There is, to be
-sure,” writes the <i>Tag</i>, “danger for peace in the possibility
-that the anti-German tendency in Russia may prove
-so strong that the government will not be able to check
-it. Another danger lies in the relations of Russia and
-Austria. … Although there is much talk to the effect
-that we shall once more be compelled to fight for our
-national existence, it is not absolutely necessary that
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 9]</span>
-such a war shall come.” On the other hand, Admiral
-Breusing, in the <i>Tägliche Rundschau</i> of May the seventh,
-writes: “The striving of the Slavic and Mongolian
-races to extend their power and possessions will
-surely lead to an encounter with the German race.” The
-<i>Rheinisch-Westphälische Zeitung</i> declares of France
-that “public sentiment in military and political circles
-has long gone over from the defensive to the offensive.
-Apparently the aim is to create a situation where Germany
-will have to choose between receding or attacking.”
-The <i>Dresdener Anzeiger</i>, too, thinks that the “relations
-between Germany and France give the key to
-the grouping of the European powers,” and the <i>Berliner
-Tageblatt</i> says, “The future and salvation of Europe
-and its culture lies solely in a German-French-English
-rapprochement; that alone will guarantee the world-peace.”
-Toward the end of the month the <i>Dresdener
-Anzeiger</i> writes: “The German-Russian relations have
-latterly taken a remarkable change for the worse. Certainly
-the nationalistic elements in Russia are once more
-conspicuously active. … Should the whole mass of
-the Russian people once become conscious of its nationality
-the world will see the most mighty movement both
-as regards extent and elemental intensity. … For
-Russia, Pan-Slavism is the idea of the Russian leadership
-over all Slavs.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig04">
-<img src="images/fig04.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Princess Victoria Louise,
-                          the Emperor’s Only Daughter</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 10]</span>Already in May, more than two
-months before there is a sign that the conflict is at hand, doubts
-begin to be expressed whether Italy’s alliance would be of any value in
-case of war. The Berlin <i>Neueste Nachrichten</i> has to acknowledge
-that as far as Austria is concerned the alliance is “more a matter of
-the intellect than of the heart;” while the <i>Rheinisch-Westphälische
-Zeitung</i> reports on May twelve that “in more than ten years such a
-senseless agitation against Austria has not been seen in Italy. … The
-Italian government is by no means master of the difficult situation in
-which it is placed by the demonstrations of protest against
-Austria-Hungary. … <i>Were war to break out to-day the easily excited
-Italian people would compel any government of theirs, however friendly
-to the Triple Alliance, to declare against Austria-Hungary.</i>”</p>
-
-<p>The nearer we approach to the crisis the more serious
-is the situation regarded by the better newspapers. The
-<i>Neue Preussische Zeitung</i> in June tells of the surprising
-spirit of sacrifice there is in France and of the quiet
-efforts that are being made to strengthen the army: “If
-the revenge cries have almost ceased that does not in the
-least mean that the idea has been given up; on the contrary,
-they already reckon on the war as on a sure thing.”
-Of the Russian military preparations, the Vienna <i>Neue
-Freie Presse</i> writes on June twelve: “About two months
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 11]</span>
-ago it became known that Russia had set aside two hundred
-sixteen million <i>kronen</i> (a <i>krone</i> is about a franc)
-for military exercises and especially for a ‘mobilization.’
-The great amount of this sum will be realized
-when one remembers that Austria spends about ten millions
-for all of its military exercises put together. Under
-the harmless title of ‘trial-mobilization’ and the still
-more harmless one of ‘exercises for the reserves’ Russia,
-then, for a period of six weeks, is placing its giant army
-practically on a war-footing. Think of 1,800,000 men
-holding military exercises at a time when Austria has
-200,000, Germany from 300,000 to 400,000 trained men
-at her immediate disposal! Whether it be intentional or
-not this implies so imminent a threat that the neighbors
-will need the greatest ‘cold-bloodedness’ to allow these
-‘military exercises’ to pass without friction. <i>These exercises
-signify the most colossal endangering of the
-peace that was ever attempted under the form of a
-periodically recurring measure of organization</i>, and it
-would not be surprising if all those who long for a
-peaceful turn of political affairs were to be completely
-embittered…. <i>To add to this dark aspect comes
-the relatively enormous credit demanded by the Servian
-military administration</i>—123,000,000. It is as much in
-proportion as though Austria were to demand a billion
-and a half. Since 1908 Servia has been arming uninterruptedly,
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 12]</span>
-and now again spends this sum on military
-purposes the tendency of which practically amounts to
-a direct threatening of her neighbors.” The <i>Hallesche
-Zeitung</i> on the twenty-third of June discusses the various
-alliances: “Originally the Russian-French alliance
-was a military convention, in the last few months there
-has been added a naval agreement. It is desired to enter
-with united forces into the great decisive struggle for
-the division of the world. Russia wants elbow-room as
-far as the North Atlantic Ocean and the Southern Baltic,
-besides free entry into the Mediterranean.”</p>
-
-<p>I have quoted all these newspaper extracts because
-they seem to me absolutely indicative of the sentiment
-that prevailed in Germany just before the war broke
-out, whether that sentiment be based on correct impressions
-or not. We have the Russian side of it in an article
-written by Professor Maxim Kowaleski, for the
-<i>Frankfurter Zeitung</i>: “In Russia people believe that
-Germany and Austria are arming against Russia, in
-Germany and Austria they take for granted that the
-opposite is the case.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig05">
-<img src="images/fig05.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-<!--   <div class="caption">A Portrait of the Emperor
-                               bearing his signature</div> -->
-</div>
-
-<p>To the unprejudiced observer it looks very much as
-though Servia, thinking her hour had come and feeling
-sure of Russia’s support, had instigated the murder of
-the heir to the Austrian throne with the deliberate intention
-of starting a great conflagration. The preliminary
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 13]</span>
-inquiry into the matter, which was carried on very deliberately
-by Austria, with no sensational charges or
-accusations, revealed a great plot reaching to the very
-steps of the Servian throne. Around that throne, as the
-world well knows, were the men who had deliberately
-murdered their own previous king and queen and who
-had been rewarded with high positions for their share in
-that dark transaction. It was proved to Austria’s satisfaction—and
-she had so much to lose by a war of aggression
-that no ulterior motive could have influenced
-her—that the royal Servian arsenal had provided the
-weapons of death and that a high official in the army had
-been directly concerned. Servia’s attitude during the
-preliminary investigation had been provocative. Then
-Austria hurled her ultimatum.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig06">
-<img src="images/fig06.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">General von Heeringen</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It was an unheard-of ultimatum—that much an Austrian
-friend acknowledged to me at the time. But, he
-added, the whole situation was equally unheard of. In
-Germany, except in the ranks of the social democrats,
-who glory in having no national sentiments, Austria’s
-act met with the most complete approval. Truth to tell,
-no one had expected such firmness and decision. The
-seriousness of the matter was not for a moment overlooked.
-In my own immediate neighborhood and, I
-imagine, from end to end of Germany, the first impulse
-on hearing the news was to sing national hymns. One
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 14]</span>
-heard them throughout that whole night—especially the
-solemn “<i>Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser</i>” and “<i>Deutschland,
-Deutschland über alles</i>.” There was a resigned
-feeling, too, a feeling that Servia had been such a menace
-since 1908 that the time had come when something
-must be done. My Austrian friend believed that the
-powers would sympathize with his country’s desire to
-chastise a band of assassins; that the Russian czar especially
-would never take sides with regicides; that England
-would see fair play.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig07">
-<img src="images/fig07.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">General von Eichhorn</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>To blame the German emperor for what followed is
-the attitude of the uninformed. Germany has foreseen
-the struggle, as our extracts from the newspapers show,
-but her one idea has been self-defense. The worst that
-can be said of her is that her wonderful prosperity has
-made her a little boastful and that she has talked too
-much about her share in world politics and her own
-“place in the sun.” That indeed was an unfortunate
-remark of his imperial majesty. In general, however,
-he has honestly tried to keep the peace, and that Germany,
-with her blooming trade, her model educational
-system and her splendid fleet and army should have a
-larger voice in the affairs of nations was not an unreasonable
-aim. Those who accuse her of greed for territory
-should look at the history of their own country and
-see if they are entitled to throw stones. Nor should they
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 15]</span>
-attribute her recent army-increase to a mere spirit of
-aggression. So hemmed in is Germany, so exposed are
-her frontiers in every direction, that she can not help
-taking alarm at the movements of her neighbors. Actually
-touching her borders are nations with a total population
-more than doubling her own, not to speak of
-England with her enormous fleet.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig08">
-<img src="images/fig08.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">General von Bülow</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>England of late has stood for the restriction of armaments
-provided her own naval superiority be preserved
-in the present proportions. Germans believe, probably
-falsely, that before making such a proposition England
-hastily ordered the laying of the keels of three new battle-ships
-which in the ordinary course of events would not
-have been begun until later. At any rate England leads
-in the matter of supplying other countries with deadly
-instruments of war and her attitude is not unlike that of
-her own rich beer-brewing families to the temperance
-question. They preach against the use of alcohol, but
-go on deriving their income from it. The largest factory
-of Whitehead torpedoes is at Fiume, in Austria;
-Armstrong and Vickers have branches in Italy and supply
-that government with naval guns; while the British
-Engineers’ Association, with a capital of $350,000,000,
-is endeavoring to corner the trade of the world in firearms.
-England introduced dreadnaughts and not only
-builds them for herself but also furnishes them on
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 16]</span>
-demand to Japan and South America. With a cannon
-factory on the Volga and an arsenal equipped by Armstrong
-and Vickers on the Golden Horn, England has
-fairly fattened of late on war. By building the first
-dreadnaught, indeed, she did herself a poor service.
-Previously Germany was out of the running as regards
-the number of ships; now, where only dreadnaughts
-count, she is becoming a good second. Was there not
-something more than naïvete in Sir Edward Grey’s
-serious proposal that Germany and England should restrict
-the number of their battle-ships but always preserve
-the proportion of ten to six in England’s favor?
-We have here, I think, the whole gist of the differences
-between the two countries. England has steadily preserved
-her attitude of superiority everywhere its basis
-was disappearing. She has been jealous of Germany’s
-commerce, of her colonial progress. These Germans are
-to England upstarts who need to be kept in their place
-and are not to be allowed to have a word in the larger
-world-policies. Almost every Englishman feels that a
-German is his social inferior. Such assumptions provoke
-bumptiousness and self-assertion, which, I do not
-deny, have at times been evidenced. Just before this
-war broke out, indeed, the feeling of mutual antagonism
-seemed to be lessening. The English fleet was welcomed
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 17]</span>
-at Kiel, the English trade delegation in Berlin.
-The press of both countries had softened and sweetened.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig09">
-<img src="images/fig09.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">General von Prittwitz</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>As for England’s present alliance with Russia against
-Germany, it is the most monumental act of folly in
-modern history. Has Britannia been attacked by sclerosis?
-At home a maudlin sentiment keeps her from enforcing
-obedience to her laws and abroad she allows her
-real enemies to pull her about by the nose. It is as
-though in the middle ages a Henry or an Edward had
-joined hands with a Genghis Khan or a Timour the Tartar.
-Can England gain anything whatever by humiliating
-Germany and furthering Pan-Slavism? A little
-commercial advantage, possibly, though America will
-be correspondingly strengthened and the final result will
-be no better. Britannia, wake up! It is less far from
-the Mediterranean to the Atlantic than it is from the
-Black Sea to the Mediterranean. Gibraltar will soon be
-as irksome to Pan-Slavism as are now the forts on the
-Dardanelles. Your own race is made up mainly of
-Angles and Saxons—all your ideals, all your real interests
-are far closer to those of the Germans than they
-are to those of the Russians. The time may come, and
-very soon, when you are only too glad to throw yourself
-around Germany’s neck and beg her aid in opposing the
-hordes from the East. In Russia’s wake are your allies,
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 18]</span>
-the Japanese, who now for the first time have taken a
-hand in European affairs. Japan has been likened by
-a bright American girl to a man who has never been invited
-to dinner in certain circles but who at last has invited
-himself and simply can not be turned out of the
-house.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig10">
-<img src="images/fig10.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">The Kaiser with the Bürgemeister of
-Aix-la-Chapelle<br /> on the Balcony of the Town Hall</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Germany, though drawn into the matter merely by
-the plain terms of her alliance with Austria, stands virtually
-alone, for Italy is faithless and Austria, as usual,
-is only half prepared. We may see a recurrence of
-those exciting days when for seven years Frederick the
-Great of Prussia—of a Prussia less than half the size
-that it is now—held his own not only against the great
-powers of Europe but against the rest of Germany as
-well. The help that he had from England was not
-greater than may be expected from Austria to-day, and
-even the English deserted him at last. Again and again
-Frederick risked, even as our contemporary Hohenzollern
-is likely to do, <i>le tout pour le tout</i>. And like Frederick,
-I think that William, because of better equipment,
-better discipline and better strategy, is likely to
-prevail even over the many millions arrayed against him.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig11">
-<img src="images/fig11.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">The Emperor at Maneuvers</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>England to-day throws the whole blame for the terrible
-war on Germany, who was lukewarm, so England
-declares, in counseling Austria not to let her strained
-relations with Servia develop into war; and in the
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 19]</span>
-English press at least there are no words too scathing for the
-violation by Germany of Belgium neutrality. The average
-Englishman, I am sure, considers that the reason
-for England joining in the struggle. Yet what are we
-to think of Sir Edward Grey’s own words in the “Correspondence
-respecting the European Crisis” laid before
-the Houses of Parliament and received here from London
-August twenty-fifth.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig12">
-<img src="images/fig12.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Duke Albert of Württemberg</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>July 31.</i>—The German ambassador asked me to urge the Russian
-government to show good-will in the discussions and to suspend their
-military preparations. … I informed the German ambassador
-that, as regards military preparations, I did not see how Russia
-could be urged to suspend them unless some limit were put by
-Austria to the advance of her troops into Servia.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig13">
-<img src="images/fig13.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>August 1.</i>—I told the German ambassador to-day … if
-there were a violation of the neutrality of Belgium by one combatant
-while the other respected it it would be extremely difficult to restrain
-public feeling in this country. … He asked me whether, if
-Germany gave a promise not to violate Belgium neutrality, we would
-engage to remain neutral. I replied that I could not say that. …
-The ambassador pressed me as to whether I could not formulate conditions
-on which we would remain neutral. He even suggested that
-the integrity of France and her colonies might be guaranteed. I
-said that I felt obliged to refuse definitely any promise to remain
-neutral on similar terms, and I could only say that we must keep
-our hands free.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig14">
-<img src="images/fig14.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Grand Duke Frederick II of Baden</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>So England, directly from the first, took sides with
-Servia in a matter that concerned only Servia and Austria.
-She “could not see how Russia could be urged to
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 20]</span>
-suspend preparations” and would not, even for the sake
-of Belgium, state the terms on which she would agree
-to remain neutral in the new German-Russian mobilization
-dispute. Why Germany finally did violate Belgian
-neutrality is explained by a telegram from the German
-foreign office to the German ambassador in London,
-Prince Lichnowsky, on August four. … “Please
-impress upon Sir E. Grey that German army could not
-be exposed to French attack across Belgium, which was
-planned according to absolutely unimpeachable information.
-Germany had consequently to disregard Belgian
-neutrality, it being for her a question of life or
-death to prevent French advance.”</p>
-
-<p>All eyes then are likely for the next few months to
-be fixed on the German army and it has seemed worth
-while to me hastily to collect and publish all the items
-concerning the land, naval and aerial forces that will be
-of general interest in America. No one will look, I
-hope, for much originality in a work of this kind. My
-information is taken from Major von Schreibershofen’s
-excellent book <i>Das deutsche Heer</i>, from Colonel von
-Bremen’s <i>Das deutsche Heer nach der Neuordnung
-von 1913</i>; from Lieutenant Neumann’s <i>Luftschiffe</i> and
-his <i>Flugzeuge</i>; from Count Reventlow’s interesting
-<i>Deutschland zur See</i>; Troetsch’s <i>Deutschland’s Flotte
-im Entscheidungskampf</i> and Toeche-Mittler: <i>Die
-deutsche Kriegsflotte</i>. The three last mentioned works,
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 21]</span>
-and also Von Bremen’s, are absolutely new, having been
-published in 1914; Schreibershofen’s dates from 1913.
-The two others have no date but one can see that they
-have appeared very recently. The large new works
-<i>Das Jahr 1913</i>, <i>Deutschland unter Kaiser Wilhelm II</i>,
-and the <i>Handbuch der Politik</i> have also been of use to
-me. For the last six months I have followed very carefully
-in the <i>Zeitungs-Archiv</i> all the newspaper extracts
-bearing on our subject. The war has doubtless interrupted
-the publication of the <i>Archiv</i>, so that I shall remain
-“up to date” for some little time to come.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p class="pagenum">[Pg 22]</p>
-
-<h2 class="break-before" id="part_ii">PART II</h2>
-
-<p class="part">THE ARMY</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig15">
-<img src="images/fig15.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Bird’s-eye View Berlin Parade Grounds</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The great military authority, Bernhardi, in an article
-in <i>Das Jahr 1913</i>, points out various ways in which military
-science has developed since the Franco-Prussian
-War and shows how completely we have had to abandon
-many of the conceptions gained by a study of earlier
-campaigns. Responsible in the main for the changes are
-the increased size of the armies and the new technical
-inventions of our age.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig16">
-<img src="images/fig16.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Arrival of Recruits</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Almost all the states of continental Europe have gone
-over to the principle of universal military service, with
-the result that the armies are greater now in time of
-peace than ever before in time of war, and that when
-mobilization is called for and the reserves are summoned,
-the number of men in the field amounts to millions. The
-first result has been that far other means of transporting
-and concentrating such masses have to be employed than
-used to be the case and that networks of railroads have
-had to be built for purely strategic purposes. In the
-maneuvers that were to have taken place this coming
-autumn at Münster in Germany it had been intended to
-make a record in the matter of quick transportation and
-to dispose of 120,000 men in the course of a single morning
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 23]</span>
-without interrupting the regular passenger traffic.
-The old method of victualing armies, too, has had to be
-changed, for it is impossible for such hordes to nourish
-themselves by what they chance to find in the enemy’s
-country. Problems of another kind have arisen. Modern
-armies are composed of regulars and reservists alike:
-the reservists are not so hardened as the regulars and
-often not so efficient, so that it has become a custom to
-distribute them in such a way as to achieve the best results.
-As a rule, the regulars must be spared for decisive
-actions and reservists must occasionally be sacrificed,
-apparently needlessly. There may be cases, for
-instance, where the reserves must expose themselves to
-a murderous fire while the regulars are engaged in the
-more difficult but less dangerous task of cutting off the
-enemy’s line of retreat.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig17">
-<img src="images/fig17.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">The Field Kitchen</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Technical improvements, such as the longer range and
-quicker fire of the guns, swifter means of communication
-and of signaling and the like, not to speak of other
-considerations due to experience, have so changed the old
-tactics that a line of battle is now more than ten times as
-long as it was only a few years ago. At Sadowa, with
-215,000 men, the Austrians had a front of only 10 kilometers;
-at Mukden the attacking line of the Japanese,
-who had only 170,000 men, extended for 110 kilometers.
-“The broken line,” writes Bernhardi, “is to-day the only
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 24]</span>
-battle formation of the infantry.” To-day, officers and
-men fight in trenches and take every advantage of the
-inequalities of the ground; in 1870 it was considered
-disgraceful to take such advantages and the officers
-stood erect in the most deadly fire. In consequence of
-the length of the lines a check in one quarter is no longer
-so serious a matter as it used to be; a modern battle is
-a succession of single engagements of which the victor
-only needs to win a good majority. The commander
-no longer takes up a position, as Napoleon did at Leipzig,
-where he can oversee the whole field of operations;
-the best place for him is some railroad junction or central
-telephone station, with wireless and ordinary telegraph
-equipment, where messages can constantly be
-sent and received, and to and from which he can despatch
-troops, automobiles, motor-wagons or aeroplanes. One
-of the chief modern problems is supplying sufficient
-ammunition for quick-firing guns—the baggage trains
-must not be so long as to hinder the advance of the
-troops, yet where there are many guns and each shoots
-off hundreds of shots a minute, great quantities of ammunition
-are needed.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig18">
-<img src="images/fig18.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Transmitting and Receiving Orders by Telephone</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>I have spoken of military service being almost universally
-compulsory in Europe. This means that every
-man of a certain age and with the requisite health and
-strength is obliged to report for duty. It has not hitherto
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 25]</span>
-meant that every eligible recruit was obliged to serve.
-In Germany a large contingent, even of the capable,
-was formerly excused. In 1910, for instance, nearly
-235,000 were declared more or less unfit for service, although
-in France they would probably nearly all have
-been accepted. By the German army bills of 1911, 1912
-and 1913 indeed the numbers of those required for active
-service were steadily increased: 9,482 in the first
-named year, some 29,000 in the second, and then the
-great increase of 63,000 in the third. But there were
-still, up to the present mobilization, some thirty thousand
-able-bodied recruits who could not be placed.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig19">
-<img src="images/fig19.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Telegrams</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the Prussian military-service law of 1814, and
-again in the constitution of the North German Confederation
-of 1867, the principle was laid down that the
-army should consist of one per cent. of the population.
-This had long been disregarded as the population increased,
-and the proportion had sunk as low as eight-tenths
-of one per cent. It has now been raised to a little
-over the original figure. The population as given officially
-in 1913 was 64,925,993, while the number of common
-soldiers (I quote the figures given by Stavenhagen
-in the <i>Handbuch der Politik</i>) was 647,811.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[*]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig20">
-<img src="images/fig20.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Giving Orders</div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 26]</span>The cost of the German army has
-been enormous—more than twenty-five billion marks between 1872 and
-1910, and in 1913 alone, 1,608,653,300 marks. The extraordinary defense
-contribution for 1913, 1914 and 1915, a tax, not on income but on
-capital direct, is estimated to bring nearly 1,300,000,000 marks.
-Strange to say, the tax was very popular—every party in the Reichstag
-voted for it, even the social democrats, whose delight in a measure
-that fell most heavily on the rich (small properties were exempted)
-made them swallow the fact that the money was for national and military
-purposes. The yearly sums that the sudden increase in the army entails
-are to be paid by a curious tax on the increase of property value to be
-estimated every three years.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig21">
-<img src="images/fig21.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Telegraph Battalion</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The estimates as to how much the army numbers when
-on a war footing varies between two and three-fourths
-millions and four millions. Austria’s army, on paper at
-least, numbers 380,000 men in time of peace, which number
-gradually was to have risen to 410,000 in the next
-few years. In war-time it is estimated at 1,300,000 men.
-Curiously enough Italy, with a peace army of only 300,000,
-estimates her war army officially at 3,400,000, or
-about as much as either Germany or France.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig22">
-<img src="images/fig22.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Military Telephone Station</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>For the armies of the Triple Entente we have an estimate
-published by the <i>Deutsche Tageszeitung</i> in January,
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 27]</span>
-1914, which is worth quoting at some length, as it
-is from a well-known military writer, Lieutenant
-Colonel von Bremen:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>The basis of France’s military increase in 1913 is the reintroduction
-of the three years’ term of service. By retaining these third-year
-men the peace-showing is increased by almost a third. This year
-185,000 men are to be called in. The peace strength of the French
-army will, from the autumn of 1916 on, amount to 33,000 officers and
-officials and some 833,000 men, while up to that period we can
-reckon with 780,000 men. One must add to this, 28,000 gendarmes,
-customs and forest officials, who likewise belong to the territorial
-army (like the <i>Landwehr</i>). In Germany we have for 1913 and
-1914, counting officers, non-commissioned officers and men, 802,000,
-to which, in 1915, will be added 13,000 men. Deducting from the
-present strength of both armies the mere laborers who have to do
-with supplies, etc., Germany’s peace force is momentarily the higher,
-but not if we reckon France’s gendarmerie, etc. Counting in this,
-France, with 40,000,000 inhabitants, has a larger army in time of
-peace than Germany, with 65,000,000. The French army has further
-advantages in the longer training and in the increased readiness
-for war. The troops covering the eastern frontiers have two hundred
-men to a company (four-fifths of the war strength) and even
-at the time when the recruits are being mustered in, one hundred
-forty trained men; while our companies at the same time can dispose
-of only half so strong a number. And what it means in case of war
-to have at hand two fully trained years’ contingents (especially in
-the cavalry) during the period of training the recruits is self-evident.
-Further advantages in the French army lie in the longer training of
-the inactive officers and in the good provision for officers and
-non-commissioned officers. In the house of deputies negotiations are
-pending regarding advancement regulations tending to lower the
-age limit of the whole body of officers. And, above all, it has been
-<span class="pagenumx">[Pg 28]</span>
-made possible to create a new, twenty-first army corps. So we see
-that France, in 1913, has made a very great step forward.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig23">
-<img src="images/fig23.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Putting up Campaign Tents</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Russian armaments of 1913 are also significant. The most
-important event was the appearance in October of the draft of a
-law to prolong the term of active service by three months and that in
-the decisive time from January first (fourteenth) to April first
-(fourteenth). As in Russia, the recruits are called in at latest by
-November fifteenth. Russia will, until spring, still have under arms,
-besides the recruits, the trained contingents of three years in the
-infantry—four, indeed, in the cavalry. That considerably increases
-her readiness for war. And in addition to lengthening the term of
-service the number of recruits is still further increased by twenty
-thousand men. The momentary military strength of the Russian
-empire is about one and one-half millions, of which about 1,200,000
-concern Europe (thirty army corps and twenty-four cavalry divisions).
-But already for 1914 we can reckon on the formation of
-from two to three new army corps and on a considerable increase of
-the artillery by at least forty batteries, for which purpose three hundred
-twenty million marks have been called for. To make mobilization
-speedier and to facilitate the march to the west boundary railroads
-are to be built. The estimates for this are about two hundred
-sixty million marks. The following stretches are under consideration:
-1. Nowogeorgiewsk to Plozk on the Vistula. 2. Cholm—Tomoschow—Belzek.
-3. Schepetowka—Proskurow—Larga. In addition
-a number of lines are planned of which one is to encircle our
-province of East Prussia. Along the German frontier, too, the erection
-of wireless stations has energetically been taken in hand. Likewise
-they have begun to modernize their fort and field artillery.
-Side by side with these endeavors go intended improvements in military
-education and training and organized changes in the situation
-of the officers’ corps and general staff in the way of raising salaries
-and of quicker advancement. Thus for the Russian army, too, and
-its capacity for service the year 1913 is to be looked upon as
-important.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig24">
-<img src="images/fig24.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Death’s-head Hussars</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Furthest in arrears of the armies of the Triple Entente is the
-<span class="pagenumx">[Pg 29]</span>
-English, which made no progress worth speaking of in 1913. England
-in her war plans against us long reckoned with landing an army
-of invasion on our coast. The idea has been given up because it was
-declared that probably the weak, active army would be more needed
-elsewhere, especially as its maximum of about 130,000 men could
-not play a decisive part against the millions-of-men armies of Germany.
-Nor has the “territorial army,” destined for protection at
-home, shown any progress; of its required strength there were still
-lacking in October, 1913, seventy thousand men and all efforts to
-bring it to the intended height of 314,000 men have failed. The
-thought of tunnel connection with France, however, in spite of the
-dislike of the Britisher, so proud of the isolation the sea offers him,
-has found more adherents than was formerly the case.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig25">
-<img src="images/fig25.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">The Crown Prince</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>If now we draw our conclusions from our military review of the
-year 1913 the armaments of Austria and Italy on the one hand and
-Russia and England on the other are insignificant as compared with
-those of Germany and France. The two latter remain well in the
-foreground, and indeed in a European war, too, it is they who first
-and foremost would have to try conclusions with each other.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>These observations, made by an expert at the beginning
-of 1914, are exceedingly interesting in view of
-what is now going on. Since Von Bremen wrote, however,
-there have been several interesting developments.
-In February it became known that of the French soldiers
-no less than 265,000 had died, were on the sick-list, or
-had been discharged during the previous month. The
-explanation is, that in order to raise the figures even
-the poorest kind of material had been accepted, that old
-unhealthy barracks were overcrowded and that new ones
-had been occupied while the plaster was still wet on the
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 30]</span>
-walls; that the army was short of physicians to the extent
-of many hundreds. An official note in a Paris paper declares
-that two-thirds of the recruits arrive in a tuberculous
-condition. Together with these revelations comes
-a book, by a French military aeronaut, complaining of
-the utter neglect of the air fleet, and declaring that at
-the moment France has not one serviceable hydroplane.
-The whole appropriation for air-ships in connection with
-the navy was but 400,000 francs in 1913, as compared
-with millions appropriated by the rival powers. At the
-same time come revelations regarding the regular navy
-itself. Although there are nine dreadnaughts building,
-but two are ready, and no cruisers.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig26">
-<img src="images/fig26.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">The Crown Prince at Mess</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In March appeared the “general annual report of the
-British army,” published by the War Office, which
-showed that Von Bremen’s statement as to the shortage
-of men was not only not exaggerated but greatly underestimated.
-The regular army is 9,211 men short, the territorial
-army 66,969, the special reserve 29,370. The
-explanation lies in the greater attractiveness of the navy
-and in the high emigration figures (178,468 males in
-1913).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig27">
-<img src="images/fig27.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Line Infantry</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In April we hear of great appropriations in Austria
-both for the army and the navy. Official estimates place
-the strength of the army at 390,250 men, but a German
-critic points out that of these 60,000 are <i>Landwehr</i>, or
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 31]</span>
-reserves, and ought not to be counted. There is to be a
-yearly increase of 31,300 recruits, but the measure is not
-to take full effect until 1918. For the navy, 427,000,000
-<i>kronen</i> are appropriated, of which 4,000,000 are to go
-for military air-ships; but the expenditures are to be
-extended over a period of five years. It has been Austria’s
-fate throughout the centuries always to be several
-years behind.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig28">
-<img src="images/fig28.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Rear Guard in Ambush</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In June, finally, we learn that Russia has set aside
-for military expenditures in 1914 alone the monstrous
-sum of 2,500,000,000 marks, and by 1916 will have
-<i>added</i> 400,000 men—more than Austria’s whole force—to
-her standing army, which will amount, in the winter
-months at least, to 2,200,000 men. “Characteristic,”
-writes the <i>Tägliche Rundschau</i> in commenting on it, “is
-the strengthening of the western boundary-strip and the
-improvement of the strategic network of railroads in
-order to hasten the forwarding of troops.” On the other
-hand, attention is drawn in the <i>Danziger Zeitung</i> to the
-fact that Russia has at the moment in the Baltic but four
-battle-ships, all old-fashioned, although by 1915 it is
-hoped to have ready four dreadnaughts.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>We shall hear much in the next few months of infantry
-and cavalry, of field artillery and foot artillery,
-of pioneers, of <i>Verkehrstruppen</i> or communication
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 32]</span>
-troops, and of the <i>Train</i> or transport division. I therefore
-preface this section with the definition of these
-terms given by a staff officer in the newest book of instructions
-for the one-year volunteers.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig29">
-<img src="images/fig29.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Artillery Patrol</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The infantry represent the main troops of the army. Their value
-lies in their endurance when marching, in their correct shooting and
-in their brave dashing against the enemy. The infantry is armed
-with the ninety-eight gun and bayonet; the sword-knot non-commissioned
-officers (<i>Portepeeunteroffiziere</i>), battalion-drummers and ambulance-men
-carry revolvers.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig30">
-<img src="images/fig30.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Infantry on the March</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>To the infantry belong the sharpshooter battalions (<i>Jägerbataillone</i>),
-the guard sharpshooter battalion (<i>Gardejägerbataillon</i>)
-and the guard rifle-battalion (<i>Gardeschützenbataillon</i>). The
-infantrymen are known as grenadiers, musketeers and fusileers.</p>
-
-<p>The cavalry is armed with lance, saber and carbine. Its chief
-value is for scouting and for precautionary service, but it is also used
-for riding down the enemy and piercing him with the lance. The
-cavalry may also dismount and fight on foot like the infantry. For
-shooting it uses the carbine.</p>
-
-<p>The cavalry consists of cuirassiers, uhlans, hussars, dragoons and
-mounted riflemen. (In Saxony guard-riders (<i>Gardereiter</i>) and carbineers;
-in Bavaria heavy riders and light horse (<i>Chevaulegers</i>).)</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig31">
-<img src="images/fig31.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Floating the Pontoons</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The field artillery is effective through the swiftness with which it
-rides up and through the certainty of aim of its quick-firing guns.
-The field artillery carries batteries of cannon for firing against
-visible goals and light howitzer batteries, for shooting at objects behind
-cover and for demolishing light field fortifications. The drivers
-carry a sword and revolver, the cannoneers a dagger and revolver.
-Every man of the horse-drawn division is mounted and carries sword
-and revolver.</p>
-
-<p>The foot artillery has to serve the fort and siege artillery as well
-as the heavy artillery guns of the field army; in attacking a fortress
-it must silence the enemy’s heavy fort guns and make breaches in the
-<span class="pagenumx">[Pg 33]</span>
-fortifications; when defending it must overcome the enemy’s heavy
-siege guns. The men are called cannoneers; they carry the carbine
-and the ninety-eight bayonet.</p>
-
-<p>The pioneers see to the throwing up of entrenchments, the building
-and destroying of bridges, obstructions, etc.; they are armed like
-the infantrymen.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig32">
-<img src="images/fig32.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Machine Guns Being Loaded on Pontoons</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The communication troops consist of the railroad regiments, which
-in time of war have to see to the building and running of railroads;
-of the telegraph battalions, which put up telegraph lines; of the
-fortress telephone companies, which attend to all telephone matters
-in the fortress; of the air-ship and aeroplane battalions, who are
-entrusted with spying out the land and the enemy’s positions by
-means of balloons, air-ships and aeroplanes.</p>
-
-<p>The communication troops are armed like the infantry.</p>
-
-<p>The transport service (<i>Train</i>) supplies every kind of column of
-the army with bridge materials, food, ammunition, etc. Its weapons
-are swords, carbines and revolvers.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>It is not worth while here to enter into the question of
-uniforms. In time of peace the blue coats and red collars
-of the infantry, the varied colored <i>attilas</i> and fur
-caps of the hussars, the helms with the flying eagles of
-the guards, the tresses, the gleaming epaulettes, the
-scarves, the waving plumes, are all interesting enough,
-especially to the other sex; but in war that is all laid
-aside. In order to be as invisible as possible to the
-enemy all categories of troops wear the same ashen
-gray—a comparatively recent adaptation of the principle
-of protective coloring.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig33">
-<img src="images/fig33.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Mountain Earthworks</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the German army the cavalry is merely an adjunct
-of the infantry. It is the infantry which decides battles—not
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 34]</span>
-the cavalry, not even the artillery. However, the
-infantry of to-day is something very different from the
-infantry of the eighteenth and even from that of a
-great part of the nineteenth century. German military
-writers acknowledge that the world learned new tactics
-from the sharpshooters and riflemen of the American
-war of the rebellion. The whole modern battle formation
-rests on the idea of giving more play to the individual.
-In spite of the technical progress that has made
-of armies great machines, more weight than ever before
-is laid on quick judgment, on good shooting, on physical
-bravery and endurance. I know that an idea quite contrary
-to this prevails, that many consider war reduced
-to the art of setting off the greatest quantities of explosives
-within a given time. But this is very far from
-the truth. The battles of the past were of much shorter
-duration than are those of the present. Wagram was
-won in two hours, Mukden took three days.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig34">
-<img src="images/fig34.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Pursuit</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>One learns to adapt one’s self even to quick-firing
-guns and incredible rifle-ranges. It has been mathematically
-demonstrated that, with the rifles now in the
-hands of the German infantry, a bullet fired from a distance
-of three hundred yards will pass right through five
-men standing closely one behind the other and lodge in
-the body of the sixth. But men in battle line no longer
-stand closely one behind the other, nor even closely side
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 35]</span>
-by side. Even in what is considered a thick firing line
-they stand about three feet apart.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig35">
-<img src="images/fig35.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Infantry Embarking</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>I have said that the modern idea is to give more play
-to the individual. Within certain limits the men choose
-their own position, find the proper rests for their rifles,
-get each the range for himself, determine the speed of
-their own fire and use their own judgment in the economizing
-of ammunition. They are expected to advance
-according as they see their opportunity.</p>
-
-<p>A glance at the methods of training the infantry will
-give some idea of the care and thoroughness with which
-the Germans have made their preparations for war. The
-old drill has not been entirely abandoned—indeed, some
-military critics think that there is still too much of the
-goose-step marching and of the parade tricks. But these
-have lost their old importance and the tendency of late
-years is toward the most realistic representation of the
-circumstances and problems of actual combat. The parade-ground
-has given place to the maneuvering field,
-acres and miles in extent. For the first time in Germany,
-this autumn, whole army corps were to have engaged
-in mock combat with one another.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig36">
-<img src="images/fig36.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Building a Pontoon Bridge</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the ordinary rifle practise the men are taught first
-to shoot well individually, then in groups and detachments,
-next in whole troops and companies and finally
-in conjunction with cavalry and artillery. They are
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 36]</span>
-made to adapt themselves to the most unfamiliar and unusual
-surroundings. Even the targets are of the most
-varied description: targets that fall to the ground when
-hit, targets that burst, targets surrounded by smoking
-objects or colored fires so that there will be some of the
-semblance of battle, fixed targets and targets that move
-or that float in the air, targets that have been lying flat on
-the ground but that suddenly appear here and there like
-an enemy issuing from the bushes. The rifleman must
-learn never to be surprised at anything, but to keep his
-eyes open in all directions.</p>
-
-<p>The German army rifle is of a type first introduced
-in 1888, and so much improved in 1898 that it is now
-known as the ninety-eight gun. All the infantry
-carry the same, for there is no longer any essential
-distinction between musketeers, fusileers and grenadiers.
-It is a quick-loading rifle which renders it possible
-to take aim and shoot as many as twenty-five
-times a minute. The caliber is seven and nine-tenths
-millimeters, a fact which may not at first seem to the
-American reader of great importance, but which becomes
-more interesting when it is realized that this is
-the smallest caliber which will inflict sufficient injury on
-an enemy to make its use profitable. In other words, if
-it does not kill him at once it will put him out of the fight
-and keep him out for a reasonable time. It was found
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 37]</span>
-in the Russian-Japanese War that a smaller bullet could,
-and in a number of cases did, pass through a foeman’s
-body without rendering him <i>hors de combat</i>, and that
-no less than forty per cent. of all wounded were back
-with their troops in three months.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig37">
-<img src="images/fig37.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Cannon for Shooting Air-ships</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>There are Maxim rifles which can fire as many as a
-hundred shots a minute and which have other advantages
-too; but the German government is well satisfied with its
-own gun, considers it superior to that of any of its
-neighbors’ and has never seriously considered the question
-of changing. It has a smokeless powder, the process
-of manufacture of which is a carefully guarded secret.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig38">
-<img src="images/fig38.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Combination Hydro and Aeroplane</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>A recent innovation is the supplying of the infantry—for
-that matter of the cavalry also—with so-called
-machine guns. They are the Gatling guns of our own
-country, and every German infantry regiment now—since
-the army reform of 1913—has a machine-gun company.
-It consists of ninety men and forty horses, with
-six guns and three ammunition wagons. As the newest
-guns can fire at the rate of six hundred shots a minute,
-and as there are more than two hundred infantry regiments,
-not to speak of the cavalry and artillery, which
-also have their companies of “Gatlings,” one can gain
-some impression of the deadliness of modern campaigning.
-Many of the quick-firing guns now are supplied
-with stands on pivots so that they can be pointed in the
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 38]</span>
-air against balloons and aeroplanes. But their chief use
-will be in guarding bridges and narrow passes. Their
-bullets carry for two miles, but they can be silenced by
-heavy artillery far beyond this range, nor can they carry
-enough ammunition for long-continued use. Altogether,
-however, a comparison of their fire with the simple
-flames of the traditional hell makes the latter place
-seem a mere pleasure-resort.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig39">
-<img src="images/fig39.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">War Dogs Used as Messengers</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The training of a soldier has of late years become
-more and more humane and rational, and is no longer
-confined to manning guns, shooting rifles and performing
-long marches. Those Germans with whom I
-have spoken on the subject look back to their term of
-service with pleasure, and my general conviction is that
-the army in time of peace is the most perfect educational
-institution in existence. With school learning
-every boy when he comes to “serve” is more or less
-equipped. What he learns is <i>esprit de corps</i>, manly
-bearing, endurance and the feeling that his tasks must
-be quickly and faultlessly performed—in other words,
-regularity and discipline. The mere change of surroundings
-and interests is a benefit, and the outlook on
-the world is immeasurably broadened. The old argument
-against compulsory military training—that, namely,
-young men in their best years are withdrawn from
-productive work, does not amount to much in an age
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 39]</span>
-where the general complaint is of overcrowdedness in
-almost every calling and profession. The German boy
-does his work all the better for his military training and
-the nation has thoroughly adjusted itself to the falling
-out of these two years. There are dispensations for cases
-where the boy’s presence at home is a vital matter for the
-support of others, and, as a rule, a place that he filled before
-is kept open for him against his return.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig40">
-<img src="images/fig40.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Covered Field Artillery</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>One of the pleasantest recent developments has been
-the enthusiasm for sport that had taken hold of the
-army. The authorities encouraged it in every way, for
-it was in keeping with the new tactics of training the
-individual to be efficient and independent. The author
-had the pleasure of attending the first great military
-athletic meet that has ever taken place. It was held in
-June, 1914, in the great stadium that has been erected
-near Berlin for the Olympic games of 1916, and that
-army which is now fighting so strenuously for the very
-existence of its country was represented in all its pomp
-and glory. On an elevated terrace was the emperor with
-his court. Next came the <i>logen</i> or boxes which were
-blue with the uniforms of the officers. A large majority
-of the spectators were soldiers, for whom whole sections
-had been reserved; they marched in in seemingly unending
-lines, looking very neat in their summer undress
-uniforms. The exercises began with gymnastics or
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 40]</span>
-<i>turnen</i>, to which, all over Germany, the greatest importance
-is attached. There was the usual running,
-jumping and throwing of weights—with us it is a shot,
-with them it is a discus. There was a cross-country run
-of four miles which started and ended in the stadium,
-and in which some fifty or sixty officers took part. It
-was won by a splendid young prince of the royal house,
-Prince Frederick Leopold. The best comment that I
-heard on him was that he looked like a first-class American.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig41">
-<img src="images/fig41.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">A Howitzer Battery
-                     Crossing a Pontoon Bridge</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>But most interesting of all was the obstacle race for
-the common soldiers. A part of their regular training
-consists in climbing walls and trees; and on their parade
-grounds you will find special tracks with ditches, walls
-and palisades; while occasionally the obstacles are of the
-most serious kind—iron railings with twisted spikes
-through which they must make their way. In the stadium
-games the soldiers lined up on the farther side of
-a great swimming-pool that runs along one end of the
-field below the spectators. At a given signal they
-plunged into the water, swam for dear life to the other
-side, climbed the low protecting wall and were off helter-skelter
-for the hurdles and other obstacles. Behind one
-of the hurdles, concealed by green boughs, was a slimy
-watery hole, but it detained them but for a moment.
-Across the track a high straight impromptu wall was
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 41]</span>
-held in place by soldiers and up it all the contestants had
-to clamber. One almost stuck at the top; you watched
-him breathlessly to see if he could achieve it, but there
-was no jeering, as I fear there would have been at home.
-The whole race, in which were some fifty or more participants,
-was run with a wonderful freshness, joyousness
-and what the Germans call <i>schneidigkeit</i>, which
-corresponds to our American slang expression “toniness.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig42">
-<img src="images/fig42.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Rough Riding</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Even in the ordinary practise on the parade-ground
-an adjutant keeps a record of the time that the soldiers
-need to overcome the different obstacles. Whole companies
-have to pass the required tests. The whole thing
-is already reduced to such a system that in war an officer
-will know to the smallest detail what he can expect of
-his men. Great importance is attached to swimming, for
-occasions are sure to arise in a campaign when streams
-are to be forded or where the pontoon divisions have
-to be assisted.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig43">
-<img src="images/fig43.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Effect of Two Shells on a Six-Foot
-                                      Reinforced Concrete Wall</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>On the whole the rise of sport has had a great leveling
-influence in the army. Soldiers and officers do not,
-indeed, compete with each other as a rule; but they take
-part in the same meets, and I have observed that the
-soldier seems to rise in importance while the tendency of
-the officer is to forget himself in the excitement of the
-moment. I have a vision of non-participants flying
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 42]</span>
-across the field with the tails of their long coats flapping
-behind them to carry tidings or encouragement to
-some tired runner—which denotes a very great change
-from the unswervingly dignified bearing of other days.
-Soldiers and officers now are encouraged to join athletic
-associations, which makes for less exclusiveness.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig44">
-<img src="images/fig44.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Scaling Barricades</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>If the infantry is the mainstay of the German army,
-the cavalry is indispensable for reconnoitering, for making
-raids and for pursuit. Each cavalryman, as has
-been said, carries a lance, a sword and a carbine. Much
-time is spent in training the men to the use of the lance,
-which is of hollow steel. Men of straw, for instance, are
-placed on the ground and the lancer, riding by, has to
-inflict a wound in exactly the place designated. Or a
-straw head is placed on a stake and must be knocked
-off in passing. The carbines, which are stuck in the saddle,
-are of a perfected modern type and are but little
-inferior to the muskets of the infantry.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig45">
-<img src="images/fig45.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Lancer Practising with Straw Man</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Cavalry regiments, with which speed of progress is
-the first consideration, carry their own bridge-wagons,
-so that they can either repair bridges that have been destroyed,
-or construct entirely new ones. It has been
-found that rafts made of fodder-bags stuffed with straw
-and held together by lances, boards, logs, etc., can carry
-comparatively heavy weights. Six such bags as I have
-described can, at a pinch, carry six men. Barrels and
-chests are still more useful if they happen to be at hand.
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 43]</span>
-Needless to say, the cavalry bridge-wagons also carry
-explosives for destroying the enemy’s bridges and other
-defenses.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig46">
-<img src="images/fig46.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Cavalry Patrol</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It has been thought in some quarters that aeroplanes
-and other contrivances for scouting and communication
-would supersede cavalry, but the German army administration
-evidently does not think so, as it has more than
-150,000 horses in use even in time of peace. In time of
-war all private horses are subject to requisition, as are
-also automobiles, motor-trucks, motor-wheels and aeroplanes.
-The better riders in a regiment train the horses
-for the rest, and there is a constant mustering out of the
-inferior ones in favor of others that are stronger or
-younger or more docile. There are military riding
-schools at Hanover, Dresden and Munich, where officers
-are taught not only to ride well and to instruct others
-but also to break in young horses.</p>
-
-<p>Prussia has her own stud-farms in which the royal
-family, since the days of Frederick William I, has taken
-the greatest interest. There is a regular Prussian type,
-small and tough. The theory has lately been advanced
-that Asiatic horses are more free from disease and that
-they proved more enduring in the recent Turkish-Bulgarian
-War, while the Prussian horse, through faults in
-the manner of raising, has degenerated during the long
-period of unbroken peace. This, however, is simply an
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 44]</span>
-academic question and nothing short of war itself can
-demonstrate that under all conditions another type of
-horse will be preferable.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig47">
-<img src="images/fig47.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Building a Bridge with Sacks</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Russian-Japanese War brought the old cavalry
-raid, such as we associate with the names of Sheridan
-and Wilson, once more to honor, and an expedition of
-Mischtschenko’s in February, 1905, though not wholly
-successful, aroused much interest in cavalry circles in
-Europe. It is considered not unlikely that such “raids”
-will play a great part in the present war. The Germans
-use the American word for the maneuver.</p>
-
-<p>If cavalry is merely an adjunct of infantry, this is
-still more true of artillery. Its function, according to
-the latest German writers, is to facilitate the advance of
-the infantry, or, in other words, to break and open the
-path by which the infantry shall storm. It has sometimes
-been thought of the battle of the future that it
-would consist of two parts: the great artillery duel and
-the infantry struggle; and that the infantry would have
-to stand aside until the artillery duel was over. The contrary
-is the case. The two, in this coming war, will fight
-side by side: the artillery opening the breach, the infantry
-coming in.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig48">
-<img src="images/fig48.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">A Field Gun</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>German batteries consist of six guns, while those of
-the French have only four. Good authorities, even in
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 45]</span>
-Germany, prefer the French system, but the change
-would mean more expense than was considered warrantable.
-A novelty is that the guns now have great
-steel shields that protect the gunners. Another most
-useful innovation is the so-called wheel belt. A number
-of flat blocks or shoes, wider than the tire and hinged so
-as to form a great chain, protect the wheels of the gun-carriage
-and prevent them from sinking into the mud.
-Formerly a supply of beams, jackscrews and the like
-had to be carried along for use in extricating the cannon
-when they stuck fast. Now every large gun in the army
-has its belt, which can be removed and put on again at
-will, the operation lasting but six minutes.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig49">
-<img src="images/fig49.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Wheel Belt for Cannon</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The largest guns accompanying the infantry have a
-bore of twenty-one centimeters, which is much less, of
-course, than the fixed guns in fortresses or those used
-for coast defense. The size of these is ever increasing,
-and there is already talk of forty centimeter guns. The
-field guns fire shells and shrapnel and there is a so-called
-“unit charge” which is a combination of the two. A
-shrapnel is a thin metal ball filled with explosive bullets
-and can be discharged either by ignition or percussion.
-It is considered preferable to have it burst in the air, just
-above the point aimed at, as the shock is downward.
-Krupp has patented a shell that explodes by clock-work.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig50">
-<img src="images/fig50.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">A Howitzer Battery</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>One further fact concerning artillery may interest
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 46]</span>
-those who follow the present campaigns. In all the
-older famous battles the greatest efforts were made to
-drag the artillery up the hills and have it crown the
-heights. According to recent strategy it chooses rather
-low-lying protected spots. Howitzers can shoot right
-over a hill and have the shell curve and descend on the
-other side. The calculations as to just where it will
-strike are made with astounding accuracy, even though
-the goal itself may be invisible. The guns are being
-constantly improved, but the greatest secrecy is observed
-with regard to them. They are shrouded as they pass
-through the streets and no one can inspect them without
-a written order.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig51">
-<img src="images/fig51.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Observation Column</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The low situation has its great advantages as well as
-its disadvantages, but the latter can be counteracted.
-In order to be able to overlook the field, each battery
-now has an observation ladder or column, of which the
-parts can be telescoped into short space and carried between
-two wheels. When desired it is projected into the
-air. One advantage of this new invention is that the
-wheeled observation ladder can be sent off to quite a
-distance carrying a portable telephone by means of
-which it is possible at all times to communicate with the
-gunners.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig52">
-<img src="images/fig52.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Observation Ladder</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Many cannon now have telescopes attached to them
-to assist the gunner in taking aim. When we reflect
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 47]</span>
-that some of the guns can shoot five and six miles, the
-necessity of this will be apparent.</p>
-
-<p>For storming fortifications there are special heavy
-siege guns. A modern fortress is something very different
-from a medieval or even from an early nineteenth
-century one. The old city walls, however solidly
-built, are now regarded as mere pleasant bits of antiquity,
-and in dozens of German towns have been razed
-to the ground and converted into rings or boulevards. So
-in the city of Cologne, in Ulm. In their place we now
-have groups of sunken guns, of protected batteries and
-of underground bomb-proof rooms with walls of reinforced
-concrete twelve and fifteen feet thick. Here
-and there armored turrets project a few feet above the
-ground. Some of the rooms are large enough for a
-whole company of infantry. The sunken guns can
-rise from their resting-places, fire their charges and sink
-back into their beds. Germany has twenty-eight land
-forts in all, of which nine are modern in every regard,
-and eight coast fortifications. Should the Russians enter
-Prussia we may hear much of the great forts at
-Königsberg, Graudenz and Thorn, at Danzig, Kulm
-and Marienburg, or of the Silesian forts Glogau, Neisse
-and Glatz, which played a part already in the wars of
-Frederick the Great. In the west, Metz and Strasburg
-have been immeasurably strengthened since they passed
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 48]</span>
-into German hands, and Mainz, Coblenz, Cologne, Germersheim
-and Wesel are all formidable. To the south
-are Ulm and Ingolstadt, while in the north are Kustrin
-and Spandau, the latter but a few miles from Berlin. In
-Saxony is the Königstein, which, by reason of its natural
-position, is considered as impregnable as any fortress
-can be.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig53">
-<img src="images/fig53.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Covered Field Artillery</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Whether the Germans will ever be forced back into
-these strong positions remains to be seen. Their policy
-is to keep to the offensive and spare their own land as
-much as possible. However, what strength of arms may
-fail to accomplish may be reserved for famine. With
-her commerce entirely cut off, the food supply for the
-nation at large will be but scanty, and of all the criticisms
-I have read on the German army during the last
-six months those on the commissariat department have
-been the most severe. A change in the whole administration
-was ordered a few months before the war broke
-out, but it has scarcely as yet had time to go into full
-effect.</p>
-
-<h3>The Army of the Air</h3>
-
-<p>Probably the greatest difference between ancient and
-modern warfare lies in the systematic use that is now
-made of balloons, air-ships, aeroplanes and kites, also of
-telegraphy, both fixed and wireless, and of the telephone.
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 49]</span>
-I should add to these, automobiles, motor-trucks,
-motorcycles and simple bicycles.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig54">
-<img src="images/fig54.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Military Airdome at Cologne
-             Showing <i>Zeppelin Number II</i></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It may not be generally known that as far back as
-1870 Germany attempted to make regular use of military
-balloons, and that two balloons and equipment were
-purchased from an English aeronaut. Several ascents
-were successfully made with a member of the general
-staff as passengers. Before Paris, however, it proved
-impossible to obtain the gas for inflation, and the whole
-balloon detachment was dissolved. Fourteen years later,
-in 1884, regular experiments regarding the taking of
-observations and the exchanging of signals were begun.
-Fifty thousand marks a year were set aside for
-the purpose, and so satisfactory were the results that in
-1887 a regular balloon corps was organized with a major,
-a captain, three lieutenants and fifty non-commissioned
-officers and men. The discovery that the gas
-could be transported in steel cases in a greatly condensed
-form placed military ballooning on a much securer
-basis and the corps, greatly increased, has taken part in
-the yearly maneuvers since 1893. The captive balloon
-is still used as a sort of training-ship for recruits, but
-the free balloon has been practically superseded.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig55">
-<img src="images/fig55.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Cabin of the Zeppelin
-                           Airship <i>Hansa</i></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The first Zeppelin and the first Parseval air-ships were
-acquired in 1907 and, in spite of frequent accidents,
-have become as much a part of the armed forces as have
-batteries or battle-ships. There are now no less than five
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 50]</span>
-air-ship battalions under the “general board of inspection
-of military, air and power transport matters.” The
-combined appropriations of Prussia, Bavaria and Württemberg
-for their air fleets in 1913 amounted to 70,000,000
-marks. The recent ships, which are not necessarily
-confined to the Zeppelin type, though built along the
-same lines, are almost as large as ocean steamships. Last
-year the “L II” carried twenty-eight passengers on its
-trial trip. It exploded in mid-air and twenty-seven
-were killed, among them almost all of Germany’s chief
-military aeronautic experts. “L III,” which is nearly
-completed, will have a displacement of 32,000 cubic
-meters. The largest and newest ship at present, the
-Schütte-Lanz II, has a displacement of between 23,000
-and 24,000 cubic meters, is run by four Maybach motors,
-each of one hundred seventy horse-power, and beats
-the previous Zeppelin record for speed (seventy-nine kilometers
-or forty-nine and three-eighths miles an hour)
-by six kilometers. No other country has any air-ship that
-can in any way compare with this. Under construction
-is the twenty-fifth Zeppelin, which will have a length of
-some four hundred fifty feet. All modern air-ships are
-equipped with wireless telegraphy having a range of
-about four hundred kilometers, and can carry light Gatling
-guns. They can lift a weight of some 16,000
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 51]</span>
-pounds and their cost is from 700,000 marks upward.
-The Germans have practised very industriously with
-their air-ships—only the other day a pilot completed his
-seven hundredth trip.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig56">
-<img src="images/fig56.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Military Airship in Process of Construction</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Whether in war the Zeppelins will come up to the
-expectations that have been formed of them remains of
-course to be seen. One can conceive of a single ship,
-under favorable conditions, throwing down enough explosives
-on an army to put it completely to rout. But
-the Zeppelin is a very big target and its motors make
-enough noise to warn a whole city of its approach. Russia
-and Germany herself now have many vertical guns
-for shooting air-ships. On the other hand, a Zeppelin
-can fly very high and can take refuge behind a cloud.
-Its chief objects of attack will doubtless be arsenals,
-dockyards, bridges and tunnel-mouths, though no fleet
-near the shore and no camp can feel quite safe from it
-in future. It would be so tempting to drop a shell in
-the midst of an enemy’s general staff and thus bring
-confusion into the whole guidance of the army!</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig57">
-<img src="images/fig57.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Gondola of the <i>Schütte-Lanz I</i> Airship</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Zeppelin has dangerous enemies in the ordinary
-aeroplanes. A Frenchman has just vowed to run the
-nose of his “plane” into the first air-ship that appears
-over Paris. It is possible for the airman to shoot, too, at
-close range, or to fly above the monster and let down
-ropes with hooks that shall tear its sides. The new
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 52]</span>
-ships, however, as I have said, can carry Gatling guns,
-and it is only a question of how they can best trail them
-on the enemy. The latest idea is a shaft that shall extend
-right through the body of the Zeppelin and come
-out on the upper surface. This arrangement has been
-tried on the newest Schütte-Lanz.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig58">
-<img src="images/fig58.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Airship <i>Parseval</i>
-                   <a href="#fignote_1">[1]</a></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>To the value of aeroplanes as instruments of war
-Germany awakened late. Not until after an exhibition
-of the American, Orville Wright, on the Templehof
-field near Berlin in 1910 was the matter taken very
-seriously. Now there are four flying battalions in the
-army with nearly fifteen hundred men, and it is believed
-that the machines are more solid and stable than those of
-the French. All records were broken by German machines
-during the past year, and the great Prince Henry
-races in May, though fatal accidents occurred, demonstrated
-very well about what may be expected from a
-troop of airmen in time of war. The conditions were
-extremely severe and the weather was not favorable, yet
-twelve out of twenty-nine starters achieved the final goal
-within the time limit.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig59">
-<img src="images/fig59.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Austrian Military Airship <i>Parseval</i>
-              <a href="#fignote_2">[2]</a></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The favorite machine in the German army is the Albatross-Taube,
-which looks quite warlike with its metal
-armor covering motor and all. Both monoplanes and
-biplanes are used. In case of war all aeroplanes, even
-the stock in trade of the manufacturer, are
-commandeered. These aeroplanes are easily transportable
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 53]</span>
-by rail so that a number of them can be concentrated
-close to the scene of action. They will be used for scouting,
-carrying despatches and dropping bombs, and undoubtedly
-will have a great effect upon warfare. It is
-likely that more maneuvering will be done under the
-cover of night than formerly in order to escape the spying
-eyes of the birdmen, that false marches and maneuvers
-will be undertaken, that bivouac fires will be
-lighted in unoccupied places merely for the purpose of
-deceiving. It will be easy to conceal cannon by covering
-them with green boughs.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig60">
-<img src="images/fig60.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Marine Airship</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The German soldiers are already being trained for
-these new night operations which the aeroplane and air-ship
-will necessitate. They are taught to make their way
-by the moon and stars, to place their ears to the ground
-and catch and interpret sounds. It is possible for a
-finely trained ear to tell in the case of a passing horse
-whether it is running free or whether it is carrying a
-load, also to estimate the approximate number of a passing
-troop. Silent marching is practised, too, the greatest
-care being taken that the objects carried shall not clash
-or rattle. The enemy carries powerful electric search-lights
-against aeroplanes; a single apparatus requires
-several vehicles, each drawn by four horses. There must
-be a motor, a dynamo, a great mirror, a water wagon
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 54]</span>
-and a portable tower thirty feet high. The infantry
-carries lighter apparatus, too, that can now be loaded on
-an automobile, the motor of which can be used for running
-the dynamo. Aeroplanes, too, now carry search-lights.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig61">
-<img src="images/fig61.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">A Zeppelin over the Kiel Bay</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>An enormous number of automobiles are used in the
-army. The German government has a special arrangement
-with motor-truck owners (the same is done with
-steamship companies) by which it pays a subsidy for
-new trucks on the understanding that they shall be at its
-disposal in time of need. It has been estimated that nine
-motor-wagons can replace one hundred thirty-nine horses
-and will need thirty instead of one hundred two men.
-Such a wagon will carry easily four tons of baggage.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig62">
-<img src="images/fig62.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Albatross-Taube Model 1914</div>
-</div>
-
-<h3>The Officers</h3>
-
-<p>With all the technical aids and inventions, however,
-the decisive factor in a war remains the men and more
-especially the officers.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig63">
-<img src="images/fig63.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Albatross-Taube Packed for Shipping</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>I recently overheard a well-known Boston woman
-teacher holding forth with the positiveness of complete
-conviction on the subject of the German officer and commiserating
-him on the life of idleness circumstances
-forced him to lead “except, of course, during the three
-or four hours a day when he is obliged to exercise.” The
-remark was addressed to a distinguished Harvard
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 55]</span>
-professor—anti-military, however, to the core—who had no
-contradiction to offer. I should have marked both of
-these great people zero for flat ignorance of the subject
-had I had them in a class. The German officer, I grant,
-may occasionally seem as idle and as frivolous as the son
-of a new American millionaire: the only difference
-would be that the American conceals his idleness under
-a show of industriousness, sending telegrams when he
-has nothing else to do, while the German conceals the
-fact that he has been up since four in the morning training
-a mass of raw recruits, that he has spent several
-hours at the <i>Kriegsakademie</i> studying languages, geography,
-political economy and the like and that he has as
-a permanent job some important problem in tactics to
-work out. Those who know the methods of the Prussian
-government could never accuse it of giving its employees
-too little work. A list is kept of all officers in which
-their industry, their interest in their work and their general
-good conduct is noted. The ideal that is kept before
-them may not be exactly our ideal, but it is a wonderful
-one of knightly virtue all the same. The man may
-never forget that he is a leader of men; he must grip
-his standard of honor, such as it is, like grim death and
-be willing unhesitatingly to lay down his life for it. If
-he flinch or falter in physical encounter or in any way
-is “guilty of conduct unbecoming an officer” he has to
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 56]</span>
-resign his position. He has to conform not only to the
-rule of his superiors but also to the code of his fellow
-officers. There are things in that code that one would
-like not to see there and one misses much that might
-well be included, but to down the profession as a sinecure
-“except, of course, during the three or four hours
-a day” is the purest folly.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig64">
-<img src="images/fig64.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Double Monoplane</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>And peace-time is the mere waiting-period, the period
-of training for the real work. In war-time the fate of
-the whole country hangs on the officer. An Italian,
-Mangiarotti, recently inquired of some two thousand
-soldiers who had just taken part in the African campaign
-regarding their sensations when facing the
-enemy. “The great ideals of God, king and fatherland,”
-he writes, “incorporate themselves in one single
-personality, the officer.” The lieutenant who does his
-duty in the firing line is an absolute hero to his men.
-But only real superiority of mind and body can keep
-him at this height.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig65">
-<img src="images/fig65.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Albatross Hydro and Aeroplane</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>There are more than thirty thousand officers in the
-regular standing army, the great majority of them belonging
-to the nobility, who feel that they have a hereditary
-right to these positions. I am inclined to think
-that this feeling of caste will not be disadvantageous in
-war. The military career from youth up has been the
-one serious object and occupation in life. The memory
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 57]</span>
-of Jena has been preventative of pride and an incentive
-to hard work. The habit of commanding gained as
-lord of the manor—as <i>Herr Graf</i> or as <i>Herr Baron</i>—will
-not be useless in the field.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig66">
-<img src="images/fig66.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">A Taube over the Military Flying Grounds
-           <br /> at Johannisthal, near Berlin</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Price Collier, in his <i>Germany and the Germans</i>, gives
-the officer a bad character for arrogance and instances
-the fact that an officer will crowd a woman off the sidewalk.
-Such cases are very rare to-day, much rarer than
-they were some thirty years ago. The Zabern affair,
-however, has thrown a glaring light on a certain
-presumptuousness in the army and aroused at the time very
-bitter passions. There was a contempt for the ordinary
-laws of justice connected with the trial that is likely to
-avenge itself in time if it has not already done so. But
-no human institution is perfect, and the officer has at
-present far other things to think of than presumptuousness.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig67">
-<img src="images/fig67.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Biplane</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In time of war many more officers are needed than in
-time of peace. This is provided for in Germany by a
-different and less perfect system than in France. From
-the one-year volunteers, of whom there are about 15,000
-yearly, are taken the “officer aspirants,” who then undergo
-supplementary training, returning at intervals in
-later life for further instruction and practise. The
-general structure of the army does not change in time
-of war. Instead of numbering five or six hundred men
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 58]</span>
-the size of a battalion is raised to eleven hundred or
-more. There are supplementary troops in all branches,
-consisting partly of retired soldiers and partly of raw
-recruits, who must be licked into shape as quickly as possible,
-but who serve mainly to fill up the ranks at the
-front as they become depleted. Every able-bodied man
-must leave his occupation and take to the ranks whether
-he has had military training or not. Even a German in
-foreign lands, if he fail to report for duty to his consul,
-is liable on his return to a sentence of six years in the
-penitentiary. How many will hasten to naturalize
-themselves in other countries is one of the problems of
-the war.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig68">
-<img src="images/fig68.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Airship Transportation Wagon</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Horses, too, are called in in great numbers as soon as
-mobilization is ordered. In time of peace the twenty-five
-army corps, each numbering about forty thousand
-men, require 157,000 horses; in time of war the demand,
-of course, will be much larger, and this is provided for
-by instant requisition. But not at random. A list or
-census is regularly kept of practically all the horses in
-the country; it is revised at stated intervals and commissioners
-note the adaptability of every animal to this or
-that purpose. In times of mobilization the animals are
-brought before final commissions, consisting partly of
-military, partly of civilian members, who appraise their
-value and declare them confiscate. The transferring of
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 59]</span>
-horses to the rallying centers is one of the chief difficulties
-of the railroads, which, as is well known, belong to
-the state and are altogether closed to general traffic during
-the mobilization period.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig69">
-<img src="images/fig69.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Uhlans Crossing River</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Germany is putting, so it is estimated, some four
-million men into the field. And behind them, should
-the war last long, are nearly a million boys who belong
-to the Prussian <i>Jung Deutschland</i> and to the Bavarian
-<i>Wehrkraftverein</i>. Boy scouts, we should call them in
-our country, but in Germany they are regularly trained
-by officers in the army—an occupation of these sinecure-holders
-that I omitted to mention. They are taken in
-squads on long tramps, are trained to use their eyes and
-ears and enjoy the life of the hills and woods. They
-carry their cooking utensils and prepare their own
-meals. The government encourages the institution by
-large grants and often places barracks and tents at the
-disposal of the boys for longer expeditions. Public and
-private generosity, too, has provided homes in out-of-the-way
-places where the boys can take shelter over
-night.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig70">
-<img src="images/fig70.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Patrol of Uhlans</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>How deadly an instrument for war is the German
-army remains to be seen. That it has already accomplished
-many fine things in time of peace is undoubted.
-Not the least of these is the spread of hygienic knowledge
-and the encouragement of manliness.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 60]</span>By the terms of the German
-constitution the Kaiser is head and chief of the whole German army and,
-notwithstanding concessions made to Bavaria, Württemberg and Saxony for
-the period when it remains on a peace-footing, is absolute commander in
-time of war. Whether he will personally take the field or not is
-another question. If he does he will be upheld by an enormous wave of
-loyalty, but, on the other hand, the presence of a monarch in camp is
-often a hindrance to the operations. His own great-grandfather, and at
-the same time the Austrian emperor, made life very bitter for Blücher
-and the other real fighters in 1814.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig71">
-<img src="images/fig71.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Uhlans Fording River</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The real business of commanding a modern army is
-done by the chief of the general staff. It is of good
-augury that the present holder of that position is again
-a Moltke. On him falls the planning and the responsibility
-for carrying out of the plans, though he has under
-him a huge staff of subordinates—more than two
-hundred in all—whose duty is to collect information,
-make reports and even tender advice. The older Moltke
-once wrote: “The make-up of the headquarters of an
-army is of an importance not always sufficiently realized.
-Some commanders need no advice, but weigh and
-decide things for themselves. Their subordinates have
-merely to carry out instructions. But such stars of
-first radiance are only to be found about once in a
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 61]</span>
-century. Only a Frederick the Great takes counsel with
-no one and determines everything himself. As a rule
-the leader of an army can not do without advice.” The
-old plan was to hold a council of war and abide by its
-decisions; the new one is for the commanding general
-to use every aid from others but to take the whole
-responsibility himself.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig72">
-<img src="images/fig72.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Easily Upset</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Headquarters travels with the army and with it goes
-the imperial chancellor, ready to take advantage of
-every happening in the field to influence the course of
-negotiations. The minister of war remains at home to
-see to the prompt forwarding of troops and supplies. In
-1870 and 1871 Bismarck had much to suffer from female
-influences—royal ladies who objected to the bombardment
-of beautiful cities and the like. There are at
-present no royal ladies in Germany who are likely to
-interfere. Blücher used to insist that the most merciful
-way of making war was to be absolutely relentless in
-pursuit—to the last man and to the last horse. The
-worst thing that can happen is to have the campaign
-drag on slowly with necessity of renewing battles. This
-phase of the matter royal ladies do not always understand.</p>
-
-<p>If the example of the Franco-Prussian War is followed
-the Germans will put as many as six different
-armies into the field, each with some four army-corps.
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 62]</span>
-There are twenty-five army-corps, and the fighting part
-of a single army-corps, which numbers some 41,000
-men, strings out on an ordinary road to a distance of
-twenty-six kilometers or more than sixteen miles. As
-the food supplies, medical and surgical apparatus and
-ammunition wagons have to follow at a considerable
-distance we may estimate the length of the whole column
-at more than double this amount. Were the whole
-standing army (not to speak of the reserves) to travel
-along the same road it would take twenty-five days to
-pass a fixed point. It may be said here that the number
-of direct roads passing from Germany into France is
-small and that for purposes of invasion the possession
-of Belgium was a strategic necessity. Its occupation
-meant victory or defeat in the great struggle and the
-devil take the consequences. Belgium and France are
-so at one that the French have so trusted to the forts of
-Liege and Namur, which they believed to be impregnable,
-that they have done little to fortify their own
-borders in that direction.</p>
-
-<p>Who the commanding generals of the German army
-are to be has not yet been made public in America.
-Judging by the holders of high positions in peace-time
-they will be Grand Duke Frederick II of Baden, Duke
-Albert of Württemberg, Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria
-and the generals Bülow, Eichhorn, Heeringen and
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 63]</span>
-Prittwitz. Whether or not the German crown-prince
-will be given a command is doubtful. He is brave and
-dashing but impetuous and unbalanced, and his relations
-with his father have been somewhat strained. I
-am told that at maneuvers he expects far too much from
-his men and horses, though his pleasant manners and his
-joking way make him very popular. He may, of course,
-prove the Frederick the Great of the campaign should
-it last sufficiently long for him to gain the proper experience.</p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-<p class="noindent"><a name="Footnote_1"
-id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[*]</span></a>
-It may be worth giving the exact strength of the
-German army on October 1, 1913: Total 790,788 and 157,816 horses.
-Of these: officers, 30,253; sanitary officers, 2,483; veterinaries,
-865; non-commissioned officers, 104,377; common soldiers, 647,811.
-(Infantry, 515,216; cavalry, 85,593; field artillery, 126,042; sappers
-and miners, 24,010; communication troops, 18,949; army service,
-11,592.)</p></div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p class="pagenum">[Pg 64]</p>
-
-<h2 class="break-before" id="part_iii">PART III</h2>
-
-<p class="part">THE NAVY</p>
-
-
-<p>In 1848 the German Confederation was at war with
-Denmark on account of Schleswig-Holstein. The national
-parliament voted six million thalers for the creation
-of a fleet; it might as well have voted sixty millions
-as far as the possibility of collecting it in such disordered
-circumstances was concerned. But on June fourth,
-1849, a squadron of three steamships, the <i>Barbarossa</i>,
-the <i>Hamburg</i> and the <i>Lübeck</i> did set out from the
-mouth of the Elbe, with decks cleared for action. The
-admiral was a Saxon, Rudolph Bromme. It was known
-that a Danish corvette was becalmed in the neighborhood
-of Helgoland. She was sighted and some shots had
-already been sent through her rigging, when suddenly
-from another direction, from Helgoland itself, then a
-British possession, a shot was fired. It signified that
-the ships were within the three-mile limit over which then
-and now a state’s sovereignty extended, and that England
-was forbidding the fray. The “fleet” complied
-with the order and Lord Palmerston took occasion to
-send a diplomatic note to the German Confederation
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 65]</span>
-stating that ships had been seen in the North Sea flying
-a black-red-gold flag and conducting themselves as war-ships;
-that England would not recognize such ships with
-a black-red-gold flag as war-ships, but would treat them,
-if need be, as pirates.</p>
-
-<p>England has more or less preserved this attitude to
-the present day and has been righteously indignant
-whenever Germany increased her fleet. A first lord of
-the admiralty once publicly declared that Britain’s rule
-of the sea was part of the common treasure of mankind
-and that England could never endure that another
-power should be able to weaken her political influence
-by exerting naval pressure. Such a position, he said,
-would unquestionably lead to war.</p>
-
-<p>The attempts to weld Germany into a nation having
-failed, the fleet was put up at auction and sold in 1852.
-The state of Prussia, however, which was one of the
-purchasers, had by this time started her own fleet and
-soon began to build the harbor in the <i>Jadebucht</i>, which
-is now called <i>Wilhelmshaven</i>. One of the royal princes,
-Adalbert, was made admiral and furthered the cause of
-the fleet in every way. Himself an intrepid leader, he
-was wounded in an encounter with Morocco pirates, who
-fired on one of the small boats of the <i>Danzig</i>. In 1863,
-however, the fleet consisted of but four corvette cruisers,
-the <i>Arkona</i>, <i>Gazelle</i> and <i>Vineta</i>, which had each
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 66]</span>
-twenty-eight cannon, and the <i>Nymphe</i>, which had but seventeen.
-Add to these twenty-one cannon boats, four of which
-carried three cannon, the rest but two. In 1867 the
-Prussian fleet merged in that of the North German
-Confederation, which in turn, in 1871, merged into that
-of the new German Empire.</p>
-
-<p>In the war with France the German fleet played no
-rôle whatever, there being but five ironclads in all, two
-of them small coast defenders, to oppose to France’s
-fifty-five. There were but one or two insignificant encounters
-between small single ships—one between the
-<i>Grille</i> and the <i>Hirondelle</i> in the Baltic, and one between
-the <i>Meteor</i>, whose whole crew numbered sixty-three,
-and the French despatch-boat <i>Bouvet</i>, with
-eighty-three. The two had come upon each other in
-the harbor of Havana and then tried conclusions on the
-high seas. But the German victories on land had been
-so quick and decisive that the fleet as a whole never came
-into action.</p>
-
-<p>Even the successful outcome of the war did not spur
-Germany on to build up a strong navy. A general, not
-a seaman, was made chief of the admiralty and, although
-Von Stosch brought in a building plan according
-to which the navy, by 1882, would have had fourteen
-large ironclads, seven monitors, twenty cruisers
-and twenty-eight torpedo-boats, it was carried out only
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 67]</span>
-in part. Stosch deserves credit, however, for insisting
-that Germany should build all her own ships. The sinking
-of the <i>Grosse Kurfürst</i> in 1879, which was run into
-by one of her own sister ships, was a great calamity for
-the navy, and the loss of her two hundred sixty-five
-officers and men caused wide-spread grief.</p>
-
-<p>Caprivi, the later chancellor, followed Von Stosch in
-1883 as head of the admiralty. He was conscientious,
-but, it would seem, altogether without fruitful ideas.
-He placed all his hopes in the torpedo-boat, and from
-1883 to 1887 not a single battle-ship was built. It was
-not so much to be credited to Caprivi, but to a young
-officer, Von Tirpitz, now grand admiral and state secretary
-for the navy office, that the German torpedo-boat
-fleet became the best in the world. Tirpitz made a
-new weapon of it, one that could be used not merely for
-coast-defense, but also for fighting on the high seas.
-But the fact remains that the torpedo-boat under Caprivi’s
-régime was greatly overestimated and that its
-usefulness has more and more been checked by new inventions—search-lights,
-Gatling guns, torpedo-boat-destroyers
-and the like.</p>
-
-<p>Toward the end of his term indeed Caprivi began to
-see the importance of a strong fleet and the idea gained
-ground that “a navy which has its center of gravity on
-or near shore is not worthy of the name.” In 1887 was
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 68]</span>
-begun the Kaiser Wilhelm canal between the Baltic and
-the North Sea, which enables the one fleet to operate in
-both waters without fear of being intercepted. Meanwhile
-Germany had started on her career as a colonial
-power, having acquired by purchase and by treaty tracts
-in Africa and islands in the Pacific Ocean more than
-twice the size of her possessions in Europe. Some of
-her little cruisers and cannon boats had even seen service
-against unruly natives. The Reichstag, however, showed
-little interest in the government’s colonial policy and
-was not to be won for the building of large war-ships.</p>
-
-<p>A change came soon after the accession of the present
-emperor, William II. One of his first acts was to reorganize
-the whole naval system, separating the administrative
-part from the purely military. At present Admiral
-von Tirpitz is at the head of the former and Prince
-Henry of Prussia, subject to the emperor’s own commands,
-of the latter. Four great battle-ships, all of the
-Brandenburg class, were begun in 1889. England responded
-by ordering ten new battle-ships, but in 1890,
-by ceding Helgoland in return for a correction of
-boundaries in East Africa, she gave Germany an advantage
-worth fifty dreadnaughts. And almost before
-there was any tangible fleet at all Germany was at work
-scientifically, learning both by theory and by practise
-how a fleet should be managed and maneuvered.</p>
-
-<p class="pagenum">[Pg 69]</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>“How few these ships were,” writes a vice admiral, “and how
-little in accord with modern warfare on the high seas, we all know.
-Imagination often had to substitute what was lacking. School-ships,
-still with all their old full rigging, represented ironclads; torpedo-boats
-served as cruisers, and the <i>Mars</i>, built to be an artillery
-training-ship, acted as flag-ship. In those next few years we went
-through a period which—we can say it without boasting—is unique
-in the history of fleets. Not but that we made mistakes—much that
-then seemed to us indubitably right has since been superseded—but
-the German fleet, which had fewer and less available ships than
-many other countries, has outdistanced them all in tactical development. …
-The stake, it is true, became greater as ships representing
-a capital of millions and carrying hundreds of men took the
-place of the little boats, but the method remained the same. Commander
-and crew, by progressing from easier to more difficult and
-more warlike maneuvers, achieved that feeling of security which is
-not a foolish scorn of danger but the knowledge of power to cope
-with it. That is the state of mind which makes for success in war
-and which enables one to win all by risking all.”</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The fleet legislation of 1898 for the first time looked
-ahead and established rules as to the future number of
-ships and the time-limit within which they should be
-built, and also laid down principles as to the tasks that
-the fleet was intended to accomplish. Two squadrons,
-of eight battle-ships each, were to be in constant readiness
-and were to have a flag-ship at their head. Six large
-and sixteen small cruisers were to act as scouts, three
-large and ten small cruisers as a “foreign fleet”; two
-battle-ships, three large cruisers and four small ones
-were to form the reserve, and the whole reorganization
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 70]</span>
-was to be completed in six years—that is, by 1904. It
-had heretofore been provided that in case of war each
-ship should give up half of its trained men as a nucleus
-for the new crews of the reserve ships. This greatly
-weakened the fighting power of the ships at the crucial
-moment, and the legislation of 1898 abolished the compulsion
-for one at least of the two squadrons.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig73">
-<img src="images/fig73.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">H. M. Man-of-War <i>Wittelsbach</i> Passing
-under a <br />High Bridge in the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal
-  <a href="#fignote_3">[3]</a> </div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Between 1898 and 1900 came events which greatly
-disquieted Germany: the Spanish-American and Boer
-Wars and disturbances in Samoa. Off Manila there
-were amenities between the German and American admirals
-which might have ended more creditably for the
-former had he been able to display more force. The
-legislation of 1900 was influenced by all these factors
-and has a wider perspective than any that had gone
-before. The preamble declared that “Germany must
-have a battle-fleet so strong that even for the most powerful
-naval opponent a war is connected with such dangers
-that that opponent’s own position as a power may
-be impaired.” And further: “For this purpose it is not
-imperative that the German battle-fleet be as strong as
-that of the greatest maritime power, for, as a rule, a
-great maritime power will not be in a position to concentrate
-its whole fighting force against us. But even
-though it should succeed in opposing us with greatly
-superior forces the subjection of a strong German fleet
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 71]</span>
-would so weaken an enemy that, in spite of any victory
-he may win, his fleet will no longer be sufficiently powerful
-to assure his own predominant position.” “For the
-first time,” writes Mittler, “the so-called <i>risk idea</i> which
-was henceforth to be a determining factor in our fleet
-development was clearly expressed.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig74">
-<img src="images/fig74.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">H. M. Ship <i>Seydlitz</i> in Dry-Dock</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The legislation of 1900 amounted to a doubling of the
-fleet provided for only two years previously. Seventeen
-battle-ships, four large cruisers and sixteen small cruisers
-were to be in constant readiness, while exactly as
-many more ships of each of the three types were to be
-kept, partially manned, in reserve. In 1906, in addition
-to a number of submarines, six cruisers for the “foreign
-squadron” were provided for, and it was voted to raise
-the number of torpedo-boats and also to provide automatically
-for their renewal, the life of a torpedo-boat
-being estimated at twelve years. This meant that twelve
-torpedo-boats would have to be built each year. England’s
-example in building dreadnaughts necessitated
-greatly raising the appropriation for battle-ships and
-also influenced the legislation of 1908, by which the
-normal life of a battle-ship was declared reduced from
-twenty-five to twenty years. The legislation of 1912,
-finally, increased the number of active battle-ships by
-eight, of large cruisers by four and of small cruisers by
-six, not to mention that the number of submarines is to
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 72]</span>
-be brought up to seventy-two, fifty-four of which are
-to be always ready for service. But as the period for
-finishing all the new ships is 1920 they will play little
-part in the present war. The reserve ships, of course,
-will all now be called into action.</p>
-
-<p>To resume, then, and to be more specific, the actual
-German fleet, counting ships expected to be ready in the
-course of 1914, numbers thirty-eight ships of the line,
-fourteen armored cruisers, thirty-eight protected cruisers,
-two hundred twenty-four torpedo-boats and thirty
-submarines. There are no torpedo-boat-destroyers as
-in other navies, the small cruisers being supposed to
-take their place. The battle-ships are ranged in classes.
-There are three of the “King class” (the <i>König</i>, the
-<i>Grosser Kurfürst</i> and the <i>Markgraf</i>), which have a
-displacement of nearly 26,000 tons and are equipped
-with every possible modern improvement, such as net
-protection against torpedoes, turbine engines, provision
-for oil-fuel, torpedo tubes, etc. It is from these monsters,
-of which each carries ten of the largest guns, not
-to speak of the smaller ones, that we shall probably hear
-most in the course of the war, though not perhaps in the
-beginning, as they are not fully completed. They are
-to be joined in 1915 by a sister-ship, the <i>Kronprinz</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig75">
-<img src="images/fig75.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Signaling on Submarine</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>König</i> class is to be larger in dimension, in
-horse-power and in displacement, though not in speed or
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 73]</span>
-armament than the <i>Kaiser</i> class, of which there are five
-ships: The <i>Kaiser</i>, the <i>Kaiserin</i>, the <i>Friedrich der
-Grosse</i>, the <i>Prinzregent Luitpold</i> and the <i>König Albert</i>.
-Next come the <i>Helgoland</i> class (<i>Helgoland</i>, <i>Ostfriesland</i>,
-<i>Thüringen</i>, <i>Oldenburg</i>) and the <i>Nassau</i> class
-(<i>Nassau</i>, <i>Westfalen</i>, <i>Rheinland</i>, <i>Posen</i>) after which,
-with the <i>Deutschland</i> class (13,200 tons), we are out of
-the region of the dreadnaughts.</p>
-
-<p>There is a dreadnaught cruiser, the <i>Derfflinger</i>, just
-ready, with a greater displacement (28,000 tons), and
-of course, with far greater speed than any of the battle-ships.
-Next comes the <i>Seydlitz</i> (25,000 tons), then the
-<i>Moltke</i> and the <i>Goeben</i> (23,000 tons), and the <i>Von der
-Tann</i> (19,500 tons). The <i>Goeben</i> has already been
-practically captured, as has also the <i>Breslau</i> (4,550
-tons). They are now in the Dardanelles, and the Turkish
-government is considering their purchase. Twenty-three
-of the protected cruisers bear the names of German
-cities (like the <i>Breslau</i>, <i>Colberg</i>, <i>Dresden</i>,
-<i>Königsberg</i>), while the rest for the most part have
-such names as the <i>Gazelle</i>, the <i>Medusa</i>,
-the <i>Niobe</i>, the <i>Undine</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Some fifteen of the largest and best-known passenger
-ships of the Hamburg and Bremen lines were to
-have served as auxiliary cruisers, but a number of these
-now are in foreign ports and far from the needed protection
-of their fleets. It remains to be seen what use
-will be made of the <i>Imperator</i>, which is still at Cuxhaven
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 74]</span>
-or Hamburg.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig76">
-<img src="images/fig76.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">For Raising Sunken Submarines</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In concluding our list of ships in the German navy it
-may interest Americans to know that there is one called
-the <i>Alice Roosevelt</i>. It is not likely to influence the
-progress of the war or even to come into action. Its
-special title is <i>Stationsjacht</i>, and it is at the service of the
-general inspector of the navy, Prince Henry of Prussia.</p>
-
-<p>Germany’s ally, Austria, although in May, 1914, she
-appropriated more than 400,000,000 <i>kronen</i> for her
-fleet, makes at present a very weak showing. She has
-fifteen ships of the line, of which three are dreadnaughts,
-two armored cruisers and seven protected
-cruisers.</p>
-
-<p>England, Germany’s chief naval opponent, has sixty-three
-ships of the line as compared to her own thirty-eight,
-and of these twenty-four are dreadnaughts, as
-compared to seventeen. England has forty-four armored
-cruisers, of which ten are dreadnaughts; Germany
-has but fourteen armored cruisers, and but five of
-them are dreadnaughts. In protected cruisers the ratio
-is still more in England’s favor, while with torpedo-boats
-Germany is comparatively well provided—one
-hundred fifty-four as against one hundred ninety. It
-may be mentioned here, as a bit of interesting history,
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 75]</span>
-that the majority of great naval victories have been won
-over numerically superior fleets.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig77">
-<img src="images/fig77.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">The Second Squadron Passing
-                  the Friedrichsort Light</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>France has ten dreadnaught battle-ships, on paper,
-but no dreadnaught cruisers, and is said to have had
-difficulty in officering the ships that she has. Moreover,
-of the ten dreadnaughts six are only what are called
-half-dreadnaughts and only three of the others are ready
-for service. Russia is practically without a fleet, though
-she has four battle-ships and fourteen cruisers in the
-Baltic and four battle-ships and two cruisers in the
-Black Sea. Next year she expects to have ready for
-use in the Baltic four new dreadnaughts.</p>
-
-<p>Naval warfare has been so far from our thoughts
-these many years, its terms have become so unfamiliar
-that it is worth dwelling for a while on the different
-types of ships and showing their special uses and their
-special tasks in battle.</p>
-
-<p>Most important of all, with their supremacy unassailed
-by any of the newly invented types, are the battle-ships
-or ships of the line. They are called <i>of the
-line</i> because that is their natural position in battle, the
-position that renders the fire of their guns most effective.
-This does not mean that their bows are to be all in
-a line, though that position may sometimes have to be
-adopted; but rather that they are to string out, one behind
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 76]</span>
-the other at stated intervals, so as to be able to fire
-a vast broadside often miles in length. It may be that
-the line must be slanting or again that the position
-must be constantly changed as new exigencies arise.
-The ruling idea, of course, is to strike the right balance
-between the amount of surface presented as a
-target for the enemy’s guns and the ability to keep up
-the most effective running fire. All this is diligently
-practised in time of peace in the so-called maneuvers.
-The utmost exactness of calculation is required, for the
-nearer together the ships the more effective is their fire;
-indeed the great distinction between modern naval encounters
-and those of former times lies in this team
-work, if we may call it so. The great dreadnaughts,
-with their turbine engines and carefully adjusted steering
-apparatus, are much more manageable and can be
-brought much closer to one another than was the case
-with old-fashioned battle-ships. The distance between the
-bow of one ship and the stern of the next one is reckoned
-in practise at a hundred yards or less; one can see what
-an advantage it is to have the eight ships of a squadron
-all of about the same size and speed. This idea has been
-carried so far in the German fleet that, even after the
-superiority of the turbine engine had been demonstrated
-the ships required to complete a squadron were built in
-the old style. Single encounters like those which make
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 77]</span>
-up such thrilling pages in history are not likely often
-to occur again, and if they do, will not come to boardings
-and to hand-to-hand conflicts.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig78">
-<img src="images/fig78.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">H. M. Cruiser <i>Breslau</i>
-      <a href="#fignote_4">[4]</a></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The range at which the great naval battles of the
-future will be fought will be very great, all the way
-up to ten thousand yards. The great guns can easily
-shoot that distance, while a reason for not coming nearer
-until, at least, the heavy ammunition is gone, is that at
-that range each fleet will be practically safe from the
-torpedoes of the other. The German fleet often practises
-at that range, firing at a moving target which is
-dragged along by another boat. On each modern gun
-is a telescope, and there are instruments for determining
-the distance at any given moment, as well as complicated
-adjustments for sighting and aiming. The projectiles
-used in the biggest guns weigh each nearly a
-ton and cost well up into the thousands, so every precaution
-is taken not to waste them. We can no longer
-speak of a cannon-ball, for the modern charges are
-cylindrical, pointed and filled with explosives so as to
-inflict the utmost damage for the money. Experience
-has shown that at very close range they will pass through
-blocks of steel more than a yard thick!</p>
-
-<p>The bore of the greatest guns in the German navy has
-hitherto been a little over thirty centimeters, but is fast
-reaching the forty centimeter mark; the guns themselves
-are from forty-five to fifty-eight feet long and weigh
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 78]</span>
-correspondingly. The best are from the foundries of
-Krupp, who, when he died, left his daughter the richest
-woman in Germany. The Krupps have a special steel
-of the utmost toughness and resistance. The gun-barrel
-is made of a single block, which is regularly excavated
-or bored; it is then protected by innumerable
-rings, which are put on when red-hot, and sit firmly ever
-after. The “kick” of the gun has been entirely eliminated
-by an ingenious contrivance. Altogether the cannon
-of to-day have become so complicated and so perfect
-as instruments that it takes longer to manufacture
-them than it does to construct the ship, and the English
-navy gives its orders for them about six months before
-even the keel is laid. And the life of such a gun is short.
-It is said that some of the guns on the new English,
-Japanese and Italian ships will be useless after they
-have fired eighty shots; on the American, French and
-German after from one hundred and fifty to two hundred.
-The difference lies in the construction of the gun-barrel,
-and there are controversies and rivalries over
-which methods are the best, just as there are over almost
-everything else that pertains to warfare: over the best
-shells, the best powder, the best mechanical contrivances
-for loading, for getting the range, etc. Dreadnaughts
-have scarcely yet been tried in actual warfare, and the
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 79]</span>
-nation that has made mistakes in theory may live to rue
-them bitterly in practise.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig79">
-<img src="images/fig79.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">H. M. Royal Yacht <i>Hohenzollern</i> with His
-Majesty on Board in the Lock at Kiel</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The guns are placed, two and two, in turrets on the
-battle-ships, and can be turned in any direction; if need
-be they can fire a whole broadside; while, as two turrets
-are elevated above the rest, a volley can be fired of four
-guns direct from the bow or stern. The turrets are armored
-with tough hard steel and their surface is curved
-so that a shot will glance off. The <i>King</i> and the
-<i>Kaiser</i> classes carry ten great guns, the <i>Helgoland</i>
-and <i>Nassau</i> classes even twelve, but the latter are no
-more effective, as they have not the two elevated turrets
-for shooting over the other guns. Some of the new
-French and American ships are to have three and even
-four guns to a turret, but the German navy is conservative
-enough not to wish to try the experiment.</p>
-
-<p>Theoretically at least a great dreadnaught is almost
-unsinkable. Not only is its hull divided into a great
-number of cells and compartments but many of the cells
-themselves are armored, so that even if a torpedo penetrates
-to them it will not have things all its own way.
-All vulnerable places, too, are heavily armored with
-plates that extend away below the water line; while the
-powder magazines and torpedo tubes are well down in
-the depths of the ship.</p>
-
-<p>It is the heavy armament that has conditioned the size
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 80]</span>
-of the ships, for they have few other advantages than
-the ability to carry the extra weight, and they have increased
-the cost of navies enormously. The appropriations
-of eight great powers for 1914–1915 come to not
-far from three billion five hundred million marks, England
-leading with more than one billion. And the expenses
-do not cease with the building of the ships, for
-docks, dry docks, canals, etc., have to be enlarged accordingly.
-The Kaiser Wilhelm canal, built between
-the years 1887 and 1895, at a cost of one hundred fifty-six
-million marks, had already outgrown its usefulness
-ten years after its opening. Its widening, which will
-not be fully completed until 1915, is to cost two hundred
-twenty-three millions in addition.</p>
-
-<p>We have thus far spoken only of ships of the line,
-and, although we shall have to return to them in a moment,
-a few words must first be said as to the use of the
-other categories of ships in actual warfare. Armored
-cruisers in themselves are nothing new. England has
-forty-four of them, France nineteen, Japan fifteen and
-Germany and the United States each fourteen. But
-<i>great armored battle-cruisers</i> have existed only since
-1907 and are possessed as yet by only three powers:
-England has ten; Germany has, or had, five (for the
-<i>Goeben</i> is out of the running), and Japan has two.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig80">
-<img src="images/fig80.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">H. M. Cruiser <i>Goeben</i>
-     <a href="#fignote_5">[5]</a></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The big battle-cruiser is as long as a battle-ship, or
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 81]</span>
-even longer; it, also, is called a dreadnaught. It has
-guns as large, but fewer of them; eight instead of ten.
-Where, then, is the difference? The difference is in the
-lines, which are long and slender, like those of a yacht,
-and in the speed, which is from twenty-eight to thirty
-knots instead of twenty-two or twenty-three. The
-cruiser has been described as a sort of naval cavalry that
-can fly to any weak point of the enemy, can chase a
-single ship or can outflank a line of ships, bring them
-between two fires, thus deciding the battle. The cruisers
-can also fight each other. A new instrument of
-war has thus been introduced that may, after all, once
-more make naval contests thrilling and dramatic instead
-of being mere pounding competitions.</p>
-
-<p>The small cruiser, in contradistinction to the large
-armored one, has but a light iron belt and carries only
-light guns and deck torpedo tubes. Its purpose is not
-to engage in battle, unless it be with a torpedo-boat, but
-rather to avoid it. It combines the qualities of scout
-and of torpedo-boat-destroyer, which latter type is altogether
-lacking in the German navy. Its chief quality
-is swiftness, and a swarm of small cruisers accompanies
-the fleet when it puts to sea, darting here and there to
-make sure that none of the much-dreaded little enemies
-is approaching.</p>
-
-<p>Of large torpedo-boats the German fleet has one hundred
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 82]</span>
-fifty-four, all of its own special type. The value
-of the type has at times been overestimated, at times
-underestimated, but the recent gains in speed and in seaworthiness
-have made it no contemptible adversary.
-Practically its only weapon is the torpedo, for projecting
-which it carries four tubes on deck; its small guns
-are merely for use against other torpedo-boats. Its
-chief defense is its extreme swiftness, for some of the
-boats have a speed of thirty-eight miles an hour. It
-can turn, too, incredibly quickly, for it has a rudder in
-the bow as well as in the stern. It is unarmored, but is
-painted black for its protection. For it is a creature of
-the night, stealing up in the darkness with its deadly
-weapon and scarcely ever exposing itself to the enemy’s
-guns by the light of day. It has one enemy, to be
-dreaded above all others, the search-light.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig81">
-<img src="images/fig81.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Submarine Fleet in Harbor at Kiel</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>There are hundreds of the little black devils in the
-navy, and they have every sort of trick for concealment
-and escape. By running very swiftly they can keep the
-smoke from rising vertically from their funnels and
-thus betraying their presence. They often go forth in
-flotillas and if an enemy start to chase them they scatter,
-having previously arranged where they are to meet
-again. They come bow on to the ship they mean to
-injure, for the distance between them will then increase
-more rapidly. If brought to bay a torpedo-boat turns
-its own search-light on the commander of the other vessel
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 83]</span>
-and tries to blind him with its glare. It is a risky
-business, that of torpedo-boat commander, and requires
-men of the very highest training and courage. The
-reason there are such numbers of the little craft is that
-many are sure to go to the bottom in the course of a
-campaign. Germany expects that her flotilla will be of
-great help in a war with England, for when a torpedo
-hits the damage is apt to be severe. Dynamite is mild
-compared to the new melanite and lyddite that are used
-in charging.</p>
-
-<p>If the torpedo-boat is a fiend that works mainly at
-night, its sister, the submarine, works only by day. If
-the submarine has not, as was at one time expected, completely
-revolutionized naval warfare, it has at least so
-far asserted itself that it can never be left wholly out of
-the reckoning. Its improvement has kept pace with
-that of the torpedo-boat in stability, in size and in manageableness.
-The newest boats have a displacement of
-a thousand tons, and long sea voyages are now possible.
-Germany has far fewer torpedo-boats than has England,
-but claims that hers are much stronger and much
-better adapted for service in rough weather and on the
-high seas.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig82">
-<img src="images/fig82.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Armored Cruiser <i>Moltke</i>
-     <a href="#fignote_6">[6]</a></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>When there is no enemy in the immediate vicinity the
-submarine rides the waves like any other boat; when
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 84]</span>
-there is danger she dives like a duck. Just before firing
-her torpedo she comes to the surface for an instant to
-get one last good look. She is helpless at that moment,
-of course, but trusts to not being seen in time. When
-under water her speed is only about ten miles an hour,
-as the pressure is very great; on the surface she can
-travel about sixteen. Her slowness is a disadvantage,
-for she can only lurk for and intercept a fleet, not pursue
-and overtake it. She labors under another disadvantage,
-too, for she has to carry two motors and can
-not use the same one above and under water. Why?
-Because the one is an oil motor and generates gases
-which would be fatal when all outlets are closed. The
-other is run by an electric storage battery, the filling of
-which requires time and patience.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig83">
-<img src="images/fig83.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">A Submarine Flotilla</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>How can the submarine communicate with its own
-fleet? It has wireless telegraphy and also deep-water
-signals, but these do not work so well as might be desired.
-It has one other connection with the visible world
-as wonderful as anything described by Jules Verne in
-his <i>Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea</i>, the periscope,
-or literally the “looker round.” I can not do better
-than describe it in the words of a naval officer, Count
-Ernest zu Reventlow:</p>
-
-<p>Roughly speaking, the apparatus consists in this: If
-the boat is under water and yet wishes to see what is
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 85]</span>
-going on above, it pushes up a long thin pipe until the
-surface is reached and a little beyond. At the farther
-end of this pipe is a contrivance with glass prisms, or
-mirrors and lenses. This throws down the image reflected
-from the surface of the water, through the vertical
-pipe, into the interior of the boat. The image is
-caught on a plate and the commander of the submarine,
-although he may be several yards under water, can see
-everything that is floating and happening on the surface
-and consequently can make his attack with the sole
-guidance of this image and steer the boat until it is at
-the right distance for firing the torpedo.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig84">
-<img src="images/fig84.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Torpedo Boat</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It sounds like magic, and indeed the witches were not
-in it when it comes to the achievements of modern science.
-But Reventlow has to confess that in practise the
-periscope is not so wonderful as it sounds in theory.
-The splashing of the salt water, unless the sea be perfectly
-calm, which it seldom is, soon dims and even
-effaces the image. It was long before the inventors
-could bring the periscope to reflect more than a small
-section of the horizon, but that difficulty seems to have
-been overcome.</p>
-
-<p>It is possible, with map, clock and compass, to take
-reckonings and keep on a course even when deep down
-under water. Deeper than ninety feet the submarine
-seldom goes. It has found a new and unexpected enemy
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 86]</span>
-in the air-ship or aeroplane, for it is a well-known fact
-that from a height on a clear day, at least, you can see
-very far into the water. But what, one will ask, can
-the aeroplane do about it even if it sights a submarine
-far down beneath the surface? Projectiles would not
-be likely to do much damage. At the same time it can
-warn ships and can pursue and worry the submarine.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig85">
-<img src="images/fig85.jpg"
-   alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">Search Lights</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>That the latter is not a perfect instrument goes without
-saying; indeed, when it darts about blindly it becomes
-a menace to its own ships. Its arrangements are
-so complicated, too, with all the letting in and out of
-water, the diving and coming up, the changing of motors
-and providing artificial air that things are very apt
-to go wrong. The service is extremely exhausting for
-the men and extremely dangerous.</p>
-
-<p>Yet all the same the value of submarines is universally
-acknowledged and every great navy has them. They
-will probably prove useful in planting that new instrument
-of destruction, the floating mine, about which a
-few words must be said here: “It is to be presumed,”
-writes Reventlow, “that in the next naval war [how little
-he dreamed in November, 1913, that that war was so
-close at hand!] mines will play an important part not
-merely in coast defense but also in sea fights as a weapon
-with the same justification as artillery and torpedoes and
-that their use will materially influence the tactics to be
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 87]</span>
-employed.” As such a weapon of attack mines were
-first used in the Japanese-Russian War.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig86">
-<img src="images/fig86.jpg"  alt="" />
-   <div class="caption">A Submarine About to Dive</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>A mine, as the reader probably knows, is a cask filled
-with high explosives and fastened by means of weights
-and anchors so that it floats some feet below the surface.
-Mines can be planted in fields, as it were, by torpedo-boats
-or submarine and then a hostile fleet can be lured
-or chased in among them. The North Sea, as we know,
-is at present thickly strewn with them and fatal results
-have already been chronicled. Air-ships and aeroplanes
-can help by finding the whereabouts of the hostile fleet
-and designating by wireless the spots where the mines
-should be planted.</p>
-
-<p>Air-ships and aeroplanes will possibly find their chief
-use as coast-defenders. They need refuges to which
-they can retire, which limits their use on the high seas.
-But along the shore they can scout for hostile ships and
-also can detect submarines and mines. They can throw
-down explosives and, if they are near enough to the
-enemy’s harbors, can destroy docks and demoralize shipping.
-Already there is talk of specially armored decks
-and of great iron grills for protecting the openings of
-funnels.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>More than six months ago a thoughtful German, Rudolf Troetsch, wrote
-a book called <i>Germany’s Fleet in the Decisive Struggle</i>, <span
-class="pagenum">[Pg 88]</span> in which he weighs the different tasks
-the fleet will be called upon to perform in case of war, and comes ever
-and again to the conclusion that a battle on the high seas is the only
-possible option—a battle <i>im grossen Stile</i>, in the grand style.
-Even if the enemy’s fleet is not conquered it can be greatly weakened
-and strategy and tactics will go far to make up for want of
-numbers.</p>
-
-<p>Troetsch begins by showing the different methods an
-enemy will be likely to pursue; and one sees throughout
-that he has England in mind. First of all will come—as
-has already happened—the so-called cruiser war or
-attempt to destroy the country’s commerce by snapping
-up her merchant ships. This can eventually end the war
-by the starvation process; that is, by cutting off all food
-and other supplies. According to the Paris international
-agreement of 1856 there shall be no privateering,
-which means that individuals may not fit out ships and
-take prizes, but does not mean that the property of individuals,
-if they are subjects of one or other of the warring
-powers, may not be seized. Prizes of war may
-either be towed into the nearest port or, after the crews
-and passengers have been taken off, may be sent to the
-bottom with all their cargo. To be effective, however,
-this method of warfare must be methodically pursued,
-which means regularly employing a force of swift cruisers.
-The method had its warm advocates in naval circles,
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 89]</span>
-especially in France about thirty years ago. There is
-a strong feeling at present that the game is not worth
-the candle and that there are other tasks for the cruisers
-to perform which are of more importance. For a country
-which has few foreign coaling stations into which
-the prizes can be towed but very little is to be gained;
-while a naval battle is greatly to be preferred to having
-an enemy try these tactics.</p>
-
-<p>Another method that may be applied against Germany
-is the blockading of her North Sea coast. A
-blockade, according to the Paris declaration of 1856
-and again according to the London conference of 1908,
-must be effective in order to be binding; a country may
-not, in other words, simply declare an enemy’s coasts in
-a state of blockade, but must have enough ships there to
-enforce the regulations. A successful blockade hinders
-even neutral ships from landing and is the best way of
-preventing the entry of contraband of war and of paralyzing
-all commerce. The form of Germany’s coast line
-fairly invites to a blockade, much more than do the
-coasts either of England or France. A line drawn from
-Holland to Denmark would form the hypothenuse of a
-triangle including the mouths of Germany’s chief rivers,
-her main seaports as well as all her North Sea islands.
-The Baltic, too, could be easily shut off from the ocean,
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 90]</span>
-and with the enemy’s ships all bottled up there would be
-no fear of a descent on the coasts of England.</p>
-
-<p>This sounds well in theory, but in practise the difficulties
-will be well-nigh insuperable. Those who know
-the coast will remember the miles and miles of shallows—the
-so-called <i>Wattenmeer</i> so difficult to navigate. In
-time of war all lighthouses and buoys are removed and,
-if they approach the shore, the English ships will inevitably
-run aground, while the German torpedo-boats
-and submarines will be in their very element. Floating
-mines, too, will get in their deadly work, as will also the
-strings of fixed mines which are ignited not by percussion
-but by means of an electric current controlled from
-the shore. The German fleet can retire well up the
-great streams and menace the enemy there; while it
-must not be forgotten that the great cannon of the coast
-defenses can shoot fifteen kilometers (nine and three-eighths
-miles) or more. Finally the islands in the neighborhood,
-notably Borkum and Wangerood, are fortified,
-and last but not least, there is Helgoland far out in the
-sea. A whole fleet could not take this Gibraltar of the
-North. The rocky walls are very hard; indeed, with true
-German thoroughness, they have been tested to see if
-they would successfully withstand bombardment. Under
-their shelter a harbor for torpedo-boats and submarines
-has been built at a cost of thirty million marks.
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 91]</span>
-From here they can issue forth and here, protected from
-afar by the great guns, they can take refuge and form
-new projects.</p>
-
-<p>Troetsch considers it more than likely that England
-will proceed to a blockade, but a blockade not in the narrow
-but in a broader sense. One objection to the narrower
-blockade would be that her naval bases, necessary
-for repairs, fuel and ammunition, would be very far
-away. But this can be obviated if the blockading line
-begin somewhere between Dover and Calais, extend
-along the east coast of Scotland, with bases at Rosyth
-and Scapa Flow, and end near the southernmost point
-of Norway, Cape Lindesnaes. This would shut every
-exit from the North Sea to the Atlantic and at the same
-time encircle all the exits from the Baltic: the Skager
-Rak and Cattegat and the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal. Here
-England could carry on what is known as an “observation
-blockade,” biding her time to fall upon the enemy’s
-fleet.</p>
-
-<p>The great disadvantage is that the blockading line
-will have to be so very long. The surface of the North
-Sea is about equal to that of the whole German Empire,
-and such a line as we have traced would extend for two
-hundred fifty or three hundred miles. It is a question
-if even England’s enormous fleet can spare the requisite
-number of ships. Such a blockading fleet consists not
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 92]</span>
-only of a long chain of vessels close together but also of
-a supporting fleet and, behind that, of the real battle
-squadrons. The whole force must be nearly double that
-of the enemy, as it operates on a much broader line. The
-foggy stormy weather that is apt to prevail in the North
-Sea will also render the blockade less efficient.</p>
-
-<p>Germany is likely to attempt to break it and to bring
-about a great naval battle at the earliest opportunity.
-But that opportunity may not come so very soon. Reventlow,
-speaking indeed of a hypothetical war, declares
-that such a blockade may last a year or longer. Germany
-has too much at stake to risk her small but excellent
-fleet before the tactical moment has come. Will
-her Zeppelins help her to victory? That is the question
-that all are asking now. They are but fragile toys in
-a stormy sea, but, with circumstances in their favor, may
-achieve wonderful results.</p>
-
-<p>When it does come to the battle on the high seas into
-which Germany will surely force England, we shall see
-modern tactics put to their supreme test, for only by
-tactical superiority can Germany hope to win. In an
-old-fashioned battle in which the ships rushed at each
-other pellmell, or in one in which the rival fleets simply
-lie to and pound each other she would be sure to lose. A
-modern battle is much more a game of skill in which the
-victory is not to the strongest but to the cleverest.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 93]</span>In a modern battle the ships are
-ever and always moving. Not that the maneuvers are necessarily
-complicated, but there goes on the whole time a constant thrust and
-parry. There are different kinds of encounters. First there is the
-running fight, in which the two fleets, the vessels one behind the
-other, run in the same direction, firing all the while. Here the
-strength of the ships, the power of the guns and the quickness of the
-gunners play the decisive part. The more turrets, funnels, engine-rooms
-and stearing gear put out of commission, so much the better. The
-so-called passing fight, where the fleets run not in the same but in
-opposite directions, is apt to be preferred by a fleet that is
-numerically weaker. The agony is less prolonged and escape is easier.
-Then there is the circular fight, in which the fleets are like great
-serpents trying to catch one another’s tails. The circular fight can
-follow directly after the passing fight when the fleets have not been
-seriously crippled.</p>
-
-<p>But the crown and acme of all fleet maneuvers is the
-so-called crossing of the T.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>“The maneuver of the crossing of the T,” writes Troetsch, “consists
-in endeavoring to bring one’s own line at right angles across the
-head, or also across the tail, of the hostile line—of enfilading it, as
-the expression goes, so that the opposing lines come into the relative
-positions of the two bars of the Latin T…. Such a movement
-renders it possible to concentrate the entire fire of one’s own broadsides
-on the ship that is at the head of the enemy’s fleet. In this way
-<span class="pagenumx">[Pg 94]</span>
-one increases the effectiveness of one’s own fire to the very highest
-degree, inasmuch as all the shots which go too far to one side will
-strike the hinder ships of the long hostile line. The ships at its
-head must gradually succumb to the concentrated fire, while one’s
-own line is exposed only to the guns in the opponent’s bow and to the
-fire of the few guns which can be pointed from the sides at such an
-angle as still to reach the enfilading ships. This position signifies
-for the fleet that succeeds in shoving itself across the head of the
-enemy’s line the most effective application of the principle of the
-concentration of power, which is based on the endeavor always to
-bring into play when attacking the enemy a greater number of guns
-than he in his momentary position has at his disposal. If one can
-open fire in this position it may prove of the greatest significance for
-the whole battle. … There are cases where the advantage of
-this position is gained by mere chance, as when the two fleets come
-upon each other in that formation in thick or foggy weather. …
-It is difficult to assume the position of crossing the T when the fighting
-is already in progress. …</p>
-
-<p>The fleet against which the crossing of the T is attempted can
-seek to lessen its effect by various counter maneuvers. It can turn in
-the same direction and take a parallel course with the enveloping
-fleet, whereby if it be swift enough it has the advantage of being on
-the inner or shorter line: the battle then becomes a simple running
-fight, or it can simply turn and follow the tail of the hostile line or
-engage with the head of the line in a passing fight.”</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>We can even imagine the line of ships, the bow of
-which has been crossed, executing a sort of dance with
-its opponent in order to bring its broadsides into play—the
-first ship turning to the right, the second to the
-left, the third to the right again and so on until all are
-opposite and parallel to the enemy.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 95]</span>And so the war is on which
-brings Germany’s fleet and army into play—to the last man and to the
-last gun. We have suddenly found ourselves in the midst of a struggle
-which makes even the wars of Napoleon seem trifling.</p>
-
-<p>As many men are now engaged simultaneously as
-were then called out in the course of years. And the
-instruments of death are a hundred times more deadly.
-From the skies above destruction rains down; from subterranean
-forts and from the depths of the sea it wells
-up. The difference between hand labor and machinery
-has been transmitted into terms of killing; we have artificial
-earthquakes and eruptions.</p>
-
-<p>How shall we name the war? The War of 1914? But
-it may last on into the next year, and the next and the
-next. As I know Germany she will never now submit
-to being conquered unless the social democrats gain the
-upper hand. And even then I am not sure that the social
-democrats are prepared to draw the last consequences of
-their long agitation against the imperial, or against any
-national government. Our descendants may look back
-on it as the Thousand Years’ War, for one fails to see
-how the passions now unchained can ever again be
-calmed. And there are signs that we are at the beginning
-of a colossal shoving around of races that will make
-our children mock at the awe with which their fathers
-read of the so-called wandering of the nations. All the
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 96]</span>
-Suevi and Allemanni and Goths, Vandals and Visigoths
-that ever overran Gaul would have made but a few corps
-in the great Teuton army that is now pressing into
-France.</p>
-
-<p>Russia, with her one hundred sixty millions, is likely
-to claim a much vaster influence than she has yet had.
-Napoleon would once have been willing to share Europe
-with Czar Alexander; will some such partition enter
-into the new treaty of peace? Will it perhaps be between
-Teuton and Slav and will England have to move
-to Canada and France to Africa? I can not believe, in
-any case, that Germany will succumb. She is reproached
-now by sentimental ladies with having devoted such
-serious study to the work of destruction. She devotes
-serious study to everything that she attempts. Only recently
-I was initiated into the splendid methods by which
-she runs her labor-exchanges and also into the workings
-of her prisons and penitentiaries. Everything is foreseen,
-everything provided for. And so it is with her
-fighting force. Every single problem is attacked theoretically
-as well as practically, and in almost every regard
-we other nations are but as untrained children to
-her.</p>
-
-<p>Once more, who is to blame for the horrible war? A
-clever writer, such as we have for detective stories, would
-<span class="pagenum">[Pg 97]</span>
-have little difficulty in convincingly foisting the guilt
-on each of the great powers in succession. Austria is
-to blame for her ultimatum to Servia, Russia for mobilizing
-against Austria, France for entering the conflict
-when the matter did not concern her at all, Germany
-for demanding Russian demobilization, England for
-stabbing Germany in the back when she was already
-struggling with enemies on either side, Japan for her
-bumptious self-assertion.</p>
-
-<p>It is the twilight of the gods. Is Germany the Walhalla
-that is to fall in ruins? Or is she merely about to
-build a Walhalla that shall project over all other political
-edifices? The moment is a serious one for us Americans.
-Where shall we stand in the new order of things?
-Will a Japan that has conquered a China, a Russia and
-a Germany submit to American exclusion acts? Her
-fleet already outnumbers ours in ships of all types except
-ships of the line, and her naval appropriations are
-progressing more steadily than our own. And when
-Japan secures what she wishes from us, China will be
-ready to make the same demands. It is a far cry since
-Austria interpreted the five vowels in her favor: <i>Alles
-Erdreich ist Österreich unterthan</i> (all earthly kingdoms
-are subject to Austria). Which will be the next world-power?</p>
-
-<p class="part">THE END</p>
-
-<hr class="full" />
-
-<h2 class="break-before" id="appendix">APPENDIX</h2>
-
-<p class="tabtitle">List of Illustrations</p>
-
-<table summary="Table of illustrations with links" class="illns">
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fpc">fpc.</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Kaiser Wilhelm II</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig01">fig01</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">The Crown Prince and Crown Princess</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig02">fig02</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Prince Henry of Prussia, the Emperor's Brother</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig03">fig03</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">The Unworldly Kaiserin as the
-                           Protectress of the Fatherless</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig04">fig04</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Princess Victoria Louise,
-                     the Emperor's Only Daughter</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig05">fig05</a></td>
-  <td class="figcom">A Portrait of Wilhelm&nbsp;II, signed:
-       “Wilhelm: I[mperator]. R[ex].".
-</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig06">fig06</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">General von Heeringen</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig07">fig07</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">General von Eichhorn</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig08">fig08</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">General von Bülow</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig09">fig09</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">General von Prittwitz</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig10">fig10</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">The Kaiser with the Bürgemeister of
-                  Aix-la-Chapelle on the Balcony of the Town Hall</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig11">fig11</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">The Emperor at Maneuvers</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig12">fig12</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Duke Albert of Würtemberg</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig13">fig13</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig14">fig14</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Grand Duke Frederick II of Baden</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig15">fig15</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Bird's-eye View Berlin Parade Grounds</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig16">fig16</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Arrival of Recruits</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig17">fig17</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">The Field Kitchen</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig18">fig18</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Transmitting and Receiving Orders by Telephone</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig19">fig19</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Telegrams</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig20">fig20</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Giving Orders</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig21">fig21</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Telegraph Battalion</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig22">fig22</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Military Telephone Station</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig23">fig23</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Putting up Campaign Tents</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig24">fig24</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Death's-head Hussars</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig25">fig25</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">The Crown prince</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig26">fig26</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">The Crown Prince at Mess</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig27">fig27</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Line Infantry</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig28">fig28</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Rear Guard in Ambush</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig29">fig29</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Artillery Patrol</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig30">fig30</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Infantry on the March</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig31">fig31</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Floating the Pontoons</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig32">fig32</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Machine Guns being Loaded on Pontoons</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig33">fig33</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Mountain Earthworks</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig34">fig34</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Pursuit</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig35">fig35</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Infantry Embarking</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig36">fig36</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Building a Pontoon Bridge</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig37">fig37</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Building a Pontoon Bridge</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig38">fig38</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Combination Hydro and Aeroplane</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig39">fig39</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">War Dogs Used as Messengers</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig40">fig40</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Covered Field Artillery</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig41">fig41</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">A Howitzer Battery Crossing a Pontoon Bridge</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig42">fig42</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Rough Riding</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig43">fig43</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Effect of Two Shells on a Six-Foot
-                                        Reinforced Concrete Wall</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig44">fig44</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Scaling Barricades</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig45">fig45</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Lance Practice with Straw Man</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig46">fig46</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Cavalry Patrol</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig47">fig47</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Building a Bridge with Sacks</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig48">fig48</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">A Field Gun</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig49">fig49</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Wheel Belt for Cannon</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig50">fig50</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">A Howitzer Battery</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig51">fig51</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Observation Column</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig52">fig52</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Observation Ladder</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig53">fig53</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Covered Field Artillery</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig54">fig54</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Military Airdome at Cologne
-            Showing <i>Zeppelin Number II</i></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig55">fig55</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Cabin of the Zeppelin Airship <i>Hansa</i></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig56">fig56</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Military Airship in Process of Construction</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig57">fig57</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Gondola of the <i>Schütte-Lanz I</i> Airship</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig58">fig58</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Airship <i>Parseval</i></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td></td>
-  <td class="figcom"><a id="fignote_1">[1]</a>
-     “Parseval” was the name given to a type of non-rigid
-  airship that were designed by August von Parseval. The caption
-  should be “A Parseval Airship”.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig59">fig59</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Austrian Military Airship <i>Parseval</i></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td></td>
-  <td class="figcom"><a id="fignote_2">[2]</a> The caption
-  should be “An Austrian Military Parseval Airship”.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig60">fig60</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Marine Airship</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig61">fig61</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">A Zeppelin over the Kiel Bay</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig62">fig62</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Albatross-Taube Model 1914</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig63">fig63</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Albatross-Taube Packed for Shipping</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig64">fig64</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Double Monoplane</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig65">fig65</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Albatross Hydro and Aeroplane</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig66">fig66</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">A Taube over the Military Flying Grounds
-                          at Johannisthal, near Berlin</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig67">fig67</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Biplane</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig68">fig68</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Airship Transportation Wagon</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig69">fig69</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Uhlans Crossing River</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig70">fig70</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Patrol of Uhlans</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig71">fig71</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Uhlans Fording River</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig72">fig72</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Easily Upset</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig73">fig73</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">H. M. Man-of-War <i>Wittelsbach</i>
-        Passing under a High Bridge in the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td></td>
-  <td class="figcom"><a id="fignote_4">[3]</a>
-  The term “Man-of-War” is archaic and vague. <i>Wittelsbach</i> was a
-  pre-dreadnought battleship (<i>Linienschiff</i>). The caption would
-  be more precise if “Man-of-War” were replaced by ”Battleship”.</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig74">fig74</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">H. M. Ship <i>Seydlitz</i> in Dry-Dock</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig75">fig75</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Signaling on Submarine</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig76">fig76</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">For Raising Sunken Submarines</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig77">fig77</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">The Second Squadron Passing the Friedrichsort Light</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig78">fig78</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">H. M. Cruiser <i>Breslau</i></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td></td>
-  <td class="figcom"><a id="fignote_3">[4]</a> <i>Breslau</i> was a
-  light cruiser (<i>Kleine Geschütze Kreuzer</i>) of 4,500 tons with
-  four funnels. The ship in this illustration is either <i>Moltke</i>
-  or her sister ship <i>Geoben</i>. <i>Moltke</i> was a battlecruiser
-  (<i>Linienschiff Kreuzer</i>) of 23,000 tons. You can find a good
-  picture of <i>Breslau</i> by searching for “SMS Breslau” on the
-  internet.
-  </td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig79">fig79</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">H. M. Royal Yacht <i>Hohenzollern</i>
-                  with His Majesty on Board in the Lock at Kiel</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig80">fig80</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">H. M. Cruiser <i>Goeben</i></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td></td>
-  <td class="figcom"><a id="fignote_5">[5]</a>
-  The caption should be “H. M. Battlecruiser <i>Goeben</i>”</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig81">fig81</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Submarine Fleet in Harbour at Kiel</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig82">fig82</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Armored Cruiser <i>Moltke</i></td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-<td></td>
-  <td class="figcom"><a id="fignote_6">[6]</a>
-    The caption should be “Battlecruiser <i>Moltke</i>”.
-  </td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig83">fig83</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">A Submarine Flotilla</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig84">fig84</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Torpedo Boat</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig85">fig85</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">Search Lights</td>
-</tr>
-<tr>
-  <td class="figno"><a href="#fig86">fig86</a></td>
-  <td class="figcap">A Submarine About to Dive</td>
-</tr>
-</table>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
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