diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/50990-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/50990-0.txt | 10462 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 10462 deletions
diff --git a/old/50990-0.txt b/old/50990-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 7e3db39..0000000 --- a/old/50990-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10462 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Spanish and Portuguese South America during -the Colonial Period; Vol. 1 of 2, by Robert Grant Watson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Spanish and Portuguese South America during the Colonial Period; Vol. 1 of 2 - -Author: Robert Grant Watson - -Release Date: January 21, 2016 [EBook #50990] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOUTH AMERICA; VOL. I *** - - - - -Produced by Josep Cols Canals, Chuck Greif and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) - - - - - - - - - - - - SOUTH AMERICA. - - - “Fall’n nations gaze on Spain; if freed, she frees - More than her fell Pizarros once enchain’d; - Strange retribution! now Columbia’s ease - Repairs the wrongs that Quito’s sons sustain’d.” - - _Childe Harold._ - - - - - SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE - - SOUTH AMERICA - - DURING - - THE COLONIAL PERIOD. - - BY - - ROBERT GRANT WATSON, - - EDITOR OF “MURRAY’S HANDBOOK OF GREECE,” FOURTH EDITION, 1872. - - _IN TWO VOLUMES._ - - VOL. I. - - LONDON: - TRÜBNER & CO., LUDGATE HILL. - 1884. - [_All rights reserved._] - - - Ballantyne Press - BALLANTYNE, HANSON AND CO. - EDINBURGH AND LONDON - - - TO - - _SIR JAMES HUDSON, G.C.B., - ETC. ETC. ETC._ - - THE MOST DISTINGUISHED BRITISH DIPLOMATIST OF THE REIGN - OF QUEEN VICTORIA, - - AS HAVING BEEN THE MEANS OF PUTTING AN END TO - THE SLAVE TRADE WITH BRAZIL; - - AND LIKEWISE - - AS HAVING CONTRIBUTED IN A MARKED DEGREE TO THE UNIFICATION - AND FREEDOM OF ITALY, - - These Volumes - - ARE, WITH THE HIGHEST RESPECT, INSCRIBED. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The following account of the Colonies from which sprang the States of -South America owes its origin to the want of such a work felt by myself -some years ago. In 1866 I received the appointment of second Secretary -to Her Majesty’s Legation in the _Argentine Republic_ and _Paraguay_. My -previous experience having been in quite another part of the world, I -had all to learn respecting the regions which I was about to visit. The -only book which had been recommended to me was Sir Woodbine Parish’s -work on _Buenos Ayres_. On reaching my destination, however, I found -that this work was already out of date; I also found that there was a -considerable amount of literature respecting South America. But this -literature being partly in English, French, German, Dutch, Latin, or -Italian, and partly in Spanish or Portuguese, was only accessible to -persons possessing a reading knowledge of the above-named languages. - -Of two years in South America I passed one as Secretary at _Buenos -Ayres_, and the other in a similar capacity at _Rio de Janeiro_. During -the first year I was sent up the _Uruguay_ and to the Province of _Santa -Fè_; then to the Welsh colony on the _Chupat_ river in _Patagonia_; and, -lastly, to the then seat of war in _Paraguay_: in the second year I -went on a mission to the Province of _Minas Geraes_ in _Brazil_. I had -thus opportunities of seeing different parts of the continent, and of -becoming more impressed with the want of a work giving anything like a -complete account of them. - -On my return to Europe I was employed in several countries for a number -of years in succession, and have only recently found the necessary -leisure to compose a work of the kind mentioned. The materials at my -disposal are voluminous; but my effort has been to make this Review as -concise as is consistent with clearness. In offering it to the Public I -by no means desire it to take the place of the more elaborate and -original works referred to in it, but rather to serve as an Index to the -contents of these various works. - -The History of South America may contain much of general interest; it -possesses, moreover, a special interest for merchants, settlers, -sailors, and travellers, who may have passed, or may be likely to pass, -a portion of their lives on the continent in question; nor should some -knowledge of an important portion of the globe be excluded from the -sphere of inquiry of any educated person. - -That the merest elementary acquaintance with South American geography -and politics may be conspicuously absent even in educated English -circles, may be gathered from the following circumstances within my own -experience:--On my return to England in 1868, I happened to be present -on the annual speech-day at Harrow. At luncheon there I sat next to a -gentleman whose remarks on the unusual heat of the weather led to his -learning that I had recently come from _Rio de Janeiro_. His interest -being excited, he asked me to tell him, one by one, the several stages -by which one arrived there from England, viz.--Southampton, Lisbon, _St. -Vincent_, _Pernambuco_, _Bahia_, and _Rio_. When I had named the last -point he repeated the inquiry, “and then?” to which I replied that -_then_ one was at one’s destination.--“But,” he asked, “I thought _Rio_ -was up a river?” I suggested that he was perhaps misled by the name -“_Rio de Janeiro_,” the River of January, but said that the town was -situated on an arm of the sea, which the first European explorers had -mistaken for a stream, naming it after the month of the year on which it -was discovered. But this explanation did not satisfy him. He was -thinking of some other river: would I name one or two? I suggested “_The -Amazons_,” which he said was the stream he meant, until I informed him -that it lay about two thousand miles to the _north_ of _Rio de Janeiro_! -On this he remarked that there was surely another great stream in that -quarter, and that he must have mistaken the name. I suggested the river -_Plate_, to which he answered “Yes, yes, of course;” but his -speculations collapsed when I informed him that the river _Plate_ was -about a thousand and fifty miles to the _south_ of the Brazilian -capital. - -About the same time I met at a dinner-party a well-known Member of -Parliament, who, on learning the quarter of the world from which I had -recently arrived, professed himself as being most anxious to hear -something about the _Paraguayan_ War, then much talked of, and the -progress of which he said he had followed with close attention. I began -with a statement of the contending parties--namely, _Paraguay_ on the -one hand, and _Brazil_, the _Argentine Republic_, and the Republic of -_Uruguay_ on the other. “But stop,” he said “You have omitted to -mention _Corrientes_.” I answered that to quote _Corrientes_ as being -one of the parties to the war would be the same as to mention Yorkshire -as having been one of the principals of the Crimean War--since -_Corrientes_ was merely a province of the _Argentine Republic_. This was -a new light to him; the name had so taken hold of his memory that he was -at first inclined to argue with me as to the correctness of my -statement. - -Lest this gentleman should appear exceptionally uninformed, I may -mention that, as I had subsequent opportunities of ascertaining, even -some men holding high office in the Royal Geographical Society--who were -familiar with the latest discoveries near the North Pole and in the -interior of Africa, with Central Asia, and with Australia--had somehow -in their range of study overlooked South America. - -In writing history, one man necessarily builds upon another man’s -foundation. It was my first intention to compose a wholly original work, -comprising the history of the several states of South America from the -discovery of that Continent to the present day; but reflection convinced -me that the execution of such a plan would require the labour of many -years, even were all circumstances favourable. Various writers have -formed schemes, the labour entailed by the magnitude of which has led to -their collapse. As one example amongst many may be mentioned the scholar -Muñoz, who employed nearly fifty years in amassing materials for a -history of Spanish discovery and conquest in America, but who had -scarcely finished the first volume when he died. - -Even were one to attempt to produce an entirely original history of the -early Portuguese South America, it would necessarily prove defective in -comparison with Southey’s “History of _Brazil_.” In the preface to his -work, that author says of it, under date of 1810, “For the greater part -of the last century printed documents almost entirely fail. A collection -of manuscripts not less extensive than curious, and which is not to be -equalled in England, enables me to supply this chasm in history. The -collection was formed during a residence of more than thirty years in -Portugal, by a relative. Without the assistance which I have received -from him, it would have been hopeless to undertake, and impossible to -complete it.” With the above instances before me, I have felt it -necessary to content myself with writing a historical Review respecting -the several Spanish and Portuguese Colonies from which sprang the -various countries which collectively form political South America. - -R. G. W. - -_London, 1884._ - - - - -CONTENTS OF VOL. I. - - - PAGE - -CHAPTER I. - -DISCOVERY OF THE MAINLAND OF SOUTH AMERICA: 1498-1503 1 - -CHAPTER II. - -DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN: 1508-1514 22 - -CHAPTER III. - -THE COLONY OF DARIEN; FATE OF VASCO NUNEZ DE BALBOA: 1514-1517 46 - -CHAPTER IV. - -LAS CASAS; HIS COLONY ON THE PEARL COAST: 1515-1521 65 - -CHAPTER V. - -DISCOVERY OF BRAZIL, LA PLATA, AND PARAGUAY: 1499-1557 86 - -CHAPTER VI. - -DISCOVERY OF PERU: 1521-1528 105 - -CHAPTER VII. - -CONQUEST OF PERU: 1529-1542 118 - -CHAPTER VIII. - -CONQUEST OF CHILI: 1535-1550 142 - -CHAPTER IX. - -EXPLORATION OF BRAZIL: 1510-1570 155 - -CHAPTER X. - -PERU; REBELLION OF GONZALO PIZARRO: 1542-1545 169 - -CHAPTER XI. - -PERU; THE PRESIDENT GASCA: 1545-1550 189 - -CHAPTER XII. - -THE ARAUCANIAN WAR: 1550-1556 209 - -CHAPTER XIII. - -THE ARAUCANIAN WAR (_continued_): 1557-1560 223 - -CHAPTER XIV. - -THE ARAUCANIANS: 1560-1603 234 - -CHAPTER XV. - -BRAZIL; GROWTH OF THE COLONY: 1570-1622 250 - -CHAPTER XVI. - -PARAGUAY; ARRIVAL OF THE JESUITS: 1608-1648 265 - -CHAPTER XVII. - -ENGLISH NAVIGATORS IN SOUTH AMERICA--HAWKINS, -DRAKE, AND RALEIGH: 1564-1618 280 - -APPENDIX 305 - - - - -SOUTH AMERICA. - - - - -Book I. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -_INTRODUCTORY._ - -1498-1503. - - -[Sidenote: 1498.] - -Until the approach of the sixteenth century the South American -continent, in so far as European knowledge was concerned, was without -form and void, and darkness was upon the face of the deep that -encompassed it. At that time the Spirit of God that moved upon the face -of the waters said, “Let there be light;” and there was light. - -On the 30th of May 1498 Columbus set sail from _San Lucar de Barrameda_, -with a squadron of six vessels, on his third voyage of discovery, taking -a course much further to the south than that which he had hitherto -pursued. He stood to the south-west after leaving _San Lucar_; touching -at the islands of _Porto Santo_ and _Madeira_, where he remained a few -days, taking in supplies before continuing his course to the _Canary_ -Islands. On the 19th of June he arrived at _Gomara_. Leaving _Gomara_ -two days later, Columbus divided his squadron off the island of _Ferro_, -three of his ships being despatched to _Hispaniola_ with supplies for -the colony. With the three remaining vessels the admiral continued his -voyage towards the _Cape de Verde_ Islands, where he arrived on the 27th -of June. - -Leaving the island of _Buena Vista_ on the 5th of July, Columbus stood -to the south-west. The volcanic summit of _Fuego_ was the last point -visible of the Old World. On the 13th of July he found himself in the -fifth degree of north latitude, in that region which extends for some -ten degrees on each side of the line, and is known among mariners as the -calm latitudes. There the trade winds from the south-east and -north-east, meeting near the equator, neutralize each other. The sea is -as a lake of oil, and vessels with their flapping sails appear as if -they were destined to remain stationary for ever. The calm lasted for -eight days, the air being like a furnace. The mariners lost all strength -and spirit beneath the oppressive heat. In addition to sharing the -sufferings of those around him, Columbus was at this time afflicted with -an attack of gout; but his energy of mind overcame his bodily distress. -To escape the heat he altered his course and steered to the south-west. - -After making his way slowly for some time to the westward, through calms -and mists and heat, the admiral emerged into a region blessed by a -cooling breeze that filled his sails and dispelled the mists. The sky -became clear, and the sun no longer gave forth an intolerable heat. The -ships had been so dried by the parching weather that they leaked -excessively, and it was necessary to seek a harbour without delay. He -therefore kept on directly to the west; but as no land appeared, he -altered his course to the northward, in search of the _Caribbee_ -Islands. By the 31st of July there was but one cask of water remaining -in each ship, when the man on the look-out gave the cry of “land.” Three -mountain tops were visible on the distant horizon; but as the vessels -neared them, these three were seen to be one. It was an emblem of the -Holy Trinity, after whom the pious Columbus in his distress had -determined to name the first land he should behold. There was thus a -peculiar appropriateness in giving to this island, which lies -immediately off the South American coast, the name of _La Trinidad_. - -On the following day Columbus coasted westward in search of water and of -a convenient harbour. There was indeed no lack of water, for he beheld -groves of palm-trees and forests rising from the sea-shore amidst -running streams. He found the country cultivated in many parts, and -having villages and scattered habitations. It produced so pleasant an -impression on his mind that, in his letter describing it to Ferdinand -and Isabella, he compared its appearance to that of the Spanish province -of Valencia in the early spring. At a point to which he gave the name of -_La Playa_, he sent his boats on shore for water. The inhabitants had -taken to flight; his men found their footprints as they did the traces -of deer. - -While coasting _Trinidad_, Columbus beheld land stretching twenty -leagues to the south. It was the low coast intersected by the mouths of -the _Orinoco_. It does not appear that either the admiral or any of his -men landed on this coast; and they sailed away from it, ignorant of the -fact that they were the first Europeans who had looked on the _terra -firma_ or mainland of South America. On the 2nd of August Columbus -continued his course to the south-west point of _Trinidad_, which he -called _Punta Arenal_, and where his crews were permitted to land and -refresh themselves. The anchorage at this place was, however, extremely -insecure, and in the night-time Columbus trembled for the safety of his -squadron, owing to a sudden rush of water caused by the swelling of one -of the rivers which flow into the Gulf of _Paria_, and which tore one of -his ships from her anchorage. He was, however, so fortunate as to escape -without injury, and on the following day he passed in safety the -formidable strait lying between the island and the mainland, and found -himself in a tranquil sea beyond. He was now on the inner side of -_Trinidad_, with the Gulf of _Paria_ on his left. - -The admiral now shaped his course northwards, steering for a mountain at -the north-western point of _Trinidad_. On nearing it he beheld two -lofty capes opposite each other, the one on the island, the other on the -promontory of _Paria_, which stretches far out from the mainland. -Between these capes there was another strait, which appeared even more -dangerous than that he had left behind him, and to which, owing to its -formidable appearance, he gave the name of _Boca del Drago_, or the -Dragon’s Mouth. In order to avoid it he steered westward, under the -belief that the promontory of _Paria_ was an island. He found the -beautiful coast indented with fine harbours, and the country in some -places cultivated and in others covered with forest. He was greatly -surprised to find the water become fresher and fresher as he proceeded, -and likewise to find the sea as tranquil as if it were a vast harbour. - -Up to this time he had held no communication with the people of the -mainland, although he had in vain endeavoured to enter into parley with -the inhabitants of _Trinidad_ at _Punta Arenal_. After sailing for -several leagues along the coast, he anchored on the 6th of August, and -sent his boats on shore. Although traces of men were found, not a soul -was to be seen. Columbus therefore proceeded further westward, and once -more anchored. Here a canoe came off to the nearest _caravel_, the -captain of which contrived to secure the three or four Indians which it -bore. They were brought to the admiral, from whom they received beads -and hawks’-bells, with which they returned delighted to the shore, and -which induced their countrymen to come to the ships in numbers, bringing -with them bread, maize, and other articles of food. - -Taking with him several of these natives to serve as guides, Columbus -proceeded eight leagues still further to the westward, and anchored at a -lovely point, to which he gave the name of _Aguja_, or the Needle. The -country was highly populous, and was possessed of magnificent -vegetation. The natives were friendly, and invited the admiral, in the -name of their king, to come to land. Many of them wore collars of an -inferior kind of gold, which they called _guanin_. But what chiefly -attracted the attention of the Spaniards, was the sight of strings of -pearls which they wore round their arms, and which they said were -procured on the sea-coast to the north of _Paria_. In order to obtain -specimens of these treasures, Columbus sent his boats on shore; his -people being received with profound respect on the beach by the natives, -headed by their _cacique_, and being regaled to the best of their -ability. The Spaniards had no difficulty in obtaining the objects of -their desire, the Indians gladly parting with their necklaces and -bracelets in exchange for hawks’-bells or articles of brass. It is to -the credit of Columbus, in that age of violence towards inferior races, -that no act is recorded showing ingratitude for the favour with which he -and his men were received on this the first occasion when Europeans -mixed with inhabitants of the mainland of South America. - -Still imagining the coast of _Paria_ to be an island, the admiral left -this lovely spot and again set sail, coasting to the westward in search -for an outlet to the north. He found the water, however, growing -shallower and fresher, so that he could not venture to proceed any -further with his own ship. He therefore came to anchor, and sent forward -a _caravel_ to ascertain whether there was an outlet to the ocean. On -the following day he learned, on its return, that there was an inner -gulf beyond, which contained the mouths of four great rivers, the waters -of which sweetened the neighbouring sea. As it was impossible to proceed -further westward, he had no alternative but to retrace his way and seek -an exit by “the mouth of the Dragon.” Although he would gladly have -remained to explore this opulent coast, he was compelled, as well by the -condition of his health as by the scarcity of sea-stores in his ships, -to hasten his departure for _Hispaniola_. - -The admiral, therefore, on the 11th of August, set sail eastwards, and -was borne along swiftly by the currents. On the 13th, he anchored near -to the strait; and on the following day, towards noon, the ships -approached the _Boca del Drago_. The mouth of this formidable ocean-pass -is about five leagues wide; but there are two islands lying between its -extremities. The immense body of fresh water which flows through the -gulf in the rainy season, meeting the incoming waves, causes a terrific -commotion extremely dangerous to ships; and this was the first occasion -on which vessels were to go through it. The great navigator had neither -chart nor pilot to guide him; but fortunately no sunken rock obstructed -his way, and the current of fresh water prevailing over the incoming -waves carried him safely through.[A] - -Columbus now shaped his course to the westward, along the outer coast of -_Paria_, which he still supposed to be an island; and he was borne still -further unconsciously on the same course (whilst he lay to at night in -order to avoid running on rocks and shoals) by the Gulf Stream which -sets across the Caribbean Sea. It took some time for him, with all his -experience, to realise the fact that this great body of fresh water, -brought by the rivers to the ocean, could not be the outcome of mere -islands, but must proceed from the _Terra Firma_ which was the object of -his search. On leaving the coast of _Paria_, the navigator saw to the -north-east, at some distance, in succession, the islands of _Tobago_ and -_Granada_, which form part of South America; but here we must for the -present take leave of the great sea-king;[B] for the limits of this work -merely include the continent of South America and the islands -immediately belonging to it. As the minute study of American geography -does not form part of the education of every one, it may be proper to -remark that the geographical limits of South America are perfectly -distinct from those of the various countries forming Central America, as -well as from the islands of the Spanish Main. - -The next Spanish navigator who appeared in these seas was the celebrated -Alonzo de Ojeda, who had accompanied Columbus in his second voyage, -being then but twenty-one years of age. Through the influence of a -cousin of his own name, a Dominican friar, he had obtained from Bishop -Fonseca a commission, authorising him to fit out an armament, and to -proceed on a voyage of discovery, provided that he should not visit any -territories belonging to Portugal, nor any lands discovered for Spain -before 1495. It was stipulated that a certain proportion of his profits -should be reserved for the Crown. - -With this license in his pocket, Ojeda had now to find the means of -turning it to account. He had a high reputation for courage and conduct; -but he was destitute of wealth. This element, however, was supplied by -some merchants of Seville, who had so much faith in him that they -believed he would soon find the means of enriching them as well as -himself. With their assistance he was soon enabled to equip a squadron -of four vessels, with which he set sail from St. Mary’s, near Cadiz. He -had on board several seamen who had accompanied Columbus to _Paria_, for -which coast Ojeda shaped his course. But the man on whom he chiefly -relied was Juan de la Cosa, who had sailed with Columbus on his second -voyage, and who was one of the ablest mariners of the day. Ojeda had -likewise with him Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine merchant, then -established at Seville, whose fame arose, not from any part which he -took in this expedition, but from his published narratives and from his -subsequent voyages to another part of the South American continent. - -Ojeda and his companions, who sailed from St. Mary’s on the 20th of May -1499, were guided by the charts which the admiral had sent home. -Touching at the _Canaries_, they followed the route of Columbus, and at -the end of twenty-four days reached the New World, about two hundred -leagues further south than the point where the admiral had landed, being -somewhat near _Surinam_. Thence Ojeda coasted northwards, passing the -mouths of many rivers, more especially the _Orinoco_. The first natives -they beheld were at _Trinidad_, the people of which are described in the -letters of Vespucci.[C] - -After touching at several points of _Trinidad_ and of the Gulf of -_Paria_, Ojeda passed through the _Boca del Drago_, and then steered his -course to the westward along the coast of _Paria_, until he arrived at -_Cumana_ or the Gulf of Pearls. Thence he stood for the opposite island -of _Margarita_, which had been discovered by Columbus. This island and -others adjacent were now explored; after which Ojeda returned to the -mainland. At _Maracapana_ he careened his vessels and built a small -brigantine. The natives were friendly, and brought him abundance of -provisions, in return for which they besought Ojeda to assist them in an -expedition against the inhabitants of an island, who were wont to carry -off their people to be eaten. - -Such a request was greatly to the mind of the enterprising Castilian, -and after sailing for seven days, he arrived at what are supposed to be -the _Caribbee_ Islands, one of which was pointed out by his guides as -the abode of their foes. His landing was at first stoutly opposed; but -on hearing the sound of his guns, the savages fled in terror, whilst -Ojeda and his men pursued them to the shore. The Carib warriors, -however, rallied and courageously fought for a long time, but they were -at length driven to the woods, leaving many killed and wounded. The -fight was renewed on the succeeding day with the same result, after -which the Spaniards set out on their return to the mainland, where Ojeda -anchored for three weeks, to give his men time to recover from their -wounds. - -When his crew were again fit for the sea, Ojeda made sail and touched at -the island of _Curacoa_. Entering a vast gulf, he beheld on the eastern -side a village of strange construction. It consisted of a few large -houses, shaped like bells, and built on piles driven into the bottom of -the shallow lake. The houses were provided with drawbridges, and the -communication was carried on by means of canoes. In this slight -resemblance to the Queen of the Adriatic originated the name of -_Venezuela_, or Little Venice. The native name was _Coquibacoa_. At -sight of the ships the natives fled in terror, as did the rowers of a -squadron of canoes which entered the harbour from the sea. They soon -returned, however, bringing a peace-offering of sixteen young girls. The -peace was of short duration; at a signal from some old women the Indians -discharged a flight of arrows, and the girls plunged into the sea. But -Ojeda was in no way taken aback. Manning his boats, he dashed amongst -the canoes, sinking some of them, and killing and wounding a number of -Indians, whilst the remainder took to flight. - -Leaving this inhospitable spot, Ojeda proceeded to explore the gulf and -reached the port of _Maracaibo_, where, in compliance with the -entreaties of the natives, he sent a party on shore to explore the -country. The Spaniards on this occasion were treated with the utmost -hospitality. Indeed the whole country poured forth its population to do -them homage, looking upon them and treating them as beings of a superior -race or world. The Spaniards were permitted to take away with them -several of the beautiful females of the country, one of whom accompanied -Ojeda in a subsequent voyage. - -Ojeda, in his report of this voyage, stated that he met with English -voyagers near _Venezuela_, or _Coquibacoa_. Of the expedition here -alluded to, no other record has yet been brought to light. The -North-American continent had ere this time been visited in 1497, by John -Cabot, a Venetian, in the service of Henry VII., together with his son, -the celebrated Sebastian Cabot, of whom more will be said hereafter. -These navigators discovered the coast of _Newfoundland_ on the 24th of -June of the above-mentioned year, and coasted southwards as far as to -_Florida_. The Cabots were thus the first discoverers of the mainland of -America, having preceded Columbus by one year. - -Ojeda continued his route along the western shores of the Gulf of -_Venezuela_, doubling Cape _Maracaibo_ and following the coast until he -reached the headland of Cape _de la Vela_, whence he stood across the -Caribbean Sea for _Hispaniola_. He reached Cadiz on his return in June -1500. - -[Sidenote: 1499.] - -Contemporary with this voyage of Ojeda was a similar one by Pedro Alonzo -Niño, undertaken, not with the object of discovery, but for gain. This -mariner sailed from Palos, and, following the chart of Columbus, reached -the coast of _Paria_, where he landed to cut dye-wood, and where he -established friendly relations with the natives. He, too, passed through -the _Boca del Drago_, and encountered the Carib pirates, by whom he was -boldly assailed, but who fled at the discharge of his artillery. Niño -and his companions then steered for the island of _Margarita_, where -they obtained a large quantity of pearls. They afterwards skirted the -coast of _Cumana_, and were invariably well treated by the natives; and -they inferred that this was a part of the mainland from the fact of -their meeting with deer and rabbits, these animals not having been seen -by them on any of the islands. Niño next proceeded to a country called -_Cauchieto_, where, however, the inhabitants, who had been visited by -Ojeda, prepared to resist his landing. Not wishing to provoke -hostilities, Niño returned to _Cumana_; whence, when he had amassed a -sufficient number of pearls, he set sail for Spain, where he arrived in -April - -[Sidenote: 1500.] - -The next Spanish navigator who furthered geographical discovery in this -quarter of South America was Rodrigo de Bastides of Seville, who set out -with two _caravels_ in October 1500, having with him the veteran pilot -Juan de la Cosa, who had sailed with Columbus. Bastides had likewise on -board Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, afterwards the celebrated discoverer of the -Southern Sea.[D] This expedition extended the acquaintance with the -coast of _Terra Firma_ from Cape _de la Vela_ to the spot afterwards -named _Nombre de Dios_. Bastides has left a name for himself, as -distinguished from the great mass of his countrymen who appeared in that -part of the world, for his kind treatment of the natives. His vessels -became, unfortunately, pierced by the worm which abounds in those -waters, and it was with great difficulty that he contrived to reach -_Hispaniola_. - -Alonzo de Ojeda, in consideration of his past services, received a grant -of land in _Hispaniola_, and likewise the government of _Coquibacoa_, -which place he had discovered. He was authorized to fit out a number of -ships at his own expense and to prosecute discoveries on the coast of -_Terra Firma_. It is said that one of the chief reasons for granting -this government, and the privileges which accompanied it, to Ojeda, was -the fact of his having met with an English expedition near _Coquibacoa_. -The Spanish sovereigns were alarmed at the idea of foreign intrusion, -and they wished to confide the most advanced post in their dominions to -a governor of the resolute valour of which Ojeda had given such abundant -proof. He was instructed to set up the arms of Castile and Leon in every -place he should visit, as a hint to the intrusive English that these -places had already been taken possession of. - -[Sidenote: 1502.] - -With four vessels, Ojeda set sail for the _Canaries_, in 1502, and -thence proceeded to the Gulf of _Paria_, from which locality he found -his way to _Coquibacoa_. Not liking this poor country, he sailed on to -the Bay of _Honda_, where he determined to found his settlement, which -was, however, destined to be of short duration. Provisions very soon -became scarce; and one of his partners, who had been sent to procure -supplies from _Jamaica_, failed to return until Ojeda’s followers were -almost in a state of mutiny. The result was that the whole colony set -sail for _Hispaniola_, taking the governor with them in chains. All that -Ojeda gained by his expedition was that he at length came off the winner -in a lawsuit, the costs of which, however, left him a ruined man. - -We have now once more, in following according to time the progress of -discovery towards the Isthmus, to return to the voyages of Columbus. He -was already sixty-six years of age when he embarked on his fourth and -last voyage. His squadron, consisting of four small _caravels_, set out -from Cadiz on the 9th of May 1502, and, after some delay on the coast of -Morocco, reached the _Caribbee_ Islands on the 15th of June. Having been -refused admission to enter the port of _San Domingo_, Columbus, after -riding out a fearful storm, sailed for some time along the coast of -_Honduras_, with the object, which was ever before him in this -expedition, of finding a supposed strait opening out into the Indian -Ocean. On the 17th of October he arrived off the coast of _Veragua_, -where he found the natives possessed of many ornaments of gold. The -Spaniards likewise found in this quarter the first signs of solid -architecture which they had discovered in the New World. - -The great discoverer is honourably distinguished from others in that the -advancement of science, rather than the acquisition of the precious -metals, was the object of his quest. Although told by his interpreters, -when sailing along the coast of _Veragua_, that in five towns which he -passed he might obtain great quantities of gold, and although the -natives placed so little value on objects of this mineral that they were -always ready to exchange them for Spanish trifles, Columbus preferred to -continue his course in order the sooner to arrive at the supposed -strait. “I would not rob nor outrage the country,” says the admiral in -one of his letters, “since reason requires that it should be settled, -and then the gold may be procured without violence.” Columbus was an -Italian; but it is safe to affirm that the sentiment expressed in the -above sentence would not have been uttered by any one amongst the -Spanish adventurers of the period. - -On the 2nd of November Columbus reached the spacious harbour of _Porto -Bello_, so named by its illustrious discoverer, and which was destined -afterwards to hold so important a position as being the spot where the -yearly fleet of _galleons_ discharged its cargoes of European -commodities for the supply of Spanish South America. The admiral found -the neighbouring country open and cultivated, the houses surrounded by -fruit-trees and groves of palms, and the fields producing maize, -vegetables, and pine-apples. After a week’s delay, Columbus proceeded -eastward to the point afterwards known as _Nombre de Dios_. His vessels, -however, now began to be pierced by the tropical worm. Landing, -therefore, in a small harbour, to which he gave the name of _El -Retrete_, he found himself in such inconveniently close vicinity to the -shore, that troubles soon arose between the natives and his unruly -seamen; and these were not quelled without some display of force. It was -at this point that the great navigator at length consented to relinquish -his long and painful search after the supposed strait. Indeed, though he -knew it not, the whole coast along the Isthmus had now been navigated by -expeditions starting from opposite directions. In compliance with the -wishes of his companions, the admiral now agreed to return to the coast -of _Veragua_. - -With the above object in view, the expedition sailed from _El Retrete_ -on the 5th of December, but it was only to encounter a continuance of -the most stormy weather, in which the _caravels_ were tossed about day -and night, and subjected to the most serious risk of being swamped. On -the 17th they entered a port resembling a canal, where they enjoyed some -days’ repose. On leaving this place of refuge they were again tossed -about until the day after Christmas, when they entered another port, in -which one of the vessels was repaired. On the day of Epiphany, to their -great joy, they anchored in a river close to that of _Veragua_, to which -Columbus, in honour of the day, gave the name of _Belen_ or Bethlehem. - -The accounts which the Spaniards had received were now confirmed by what -they saw. In exchange for articles of the most trifling nature, they -procured ornaments of gold of considerable value; and _Don_ Bartholomew, -the admiral’s brother, set off in armed boats to ascend the _Veragua_, -as far as to the residence of the _Cacique_ Quibian. By him he was -hospitably entertained, receiving from him the golden ornaments which he -wore. But the ships and mariners were not long to rest in quietness, -even under the shelter of a river; for a sudden swelling of the waters -drove them from their anchors and tossed them helplessly against each -other; whilst they were prevented by a violent storm from seeking safety -at sea. - -Early in February, _Don_ Bartholomew again proceeded with an armed party -to explore _Veragua_, and to seek for the mines. He was misled by the -_cacique_, who directed him into the territories of a neighbouring -chief, with whom he was at war. The _Adelantado_, however, on finding -his mistake, set out on a second excursion, during the course of which -he was continually met by proofs of abundance of gold, the natives -generally wearing plates of that metal suspended from their necks. He -was entertained in a friendly manner by the _caciques_ whom he visited, -and he found the country cultivated. - -On hearing the report of his brother, Columbus resolved to set up a -colony on this promising coast, with the object of securing possession -of the country and of exploring the mines. The _Adelantado_ was to -remain with the greater part of the expedition, whilst the admiral -should return to Spain. On this resolve being taken, no time was allowed -to be lost. Eighty men were to be left behind, and these were forthwith -employed in building houses and a magazine. The chief portion of the -artillery and ammunition was stored on board of one of the _caravels_, -which was to be left for the use of the colony. Although the stores were -somewhat scarce, no apprehension was felt lest provisions should run -short; for the country produced fruits and grain in abundance, whilst -the rivers and sea-coast supplied large quantities of fish. - -Such was the condition of affairs, and Columbus was on the point of -departing, when an unlooked-for obstacle occurred to delay him. He could -not of course anticipate the various changes of season in this strange -country. The river, which had but recently been a source of danger to -him from its becoming flooded, now suddenly became so dry that there was -but half a fathom of water on its bar; and over this it was impossible -even for the admiral’s small vessel to pass. He had no remedy, -therefore, but to have recourse to patience--that virtue of which he -stood so much in need throughout his memorable career--and to await the -return of the rainy season. - -Meanwhile the _Cacique_ Quibian, as was but natural, looked with -jealousy upon the proceedings of the strangers who were making -themselves so much at home within his territories. Under pretext of -preparing for war upon a neighbouring chief, he summoned his fighting -men to assemble on the river _Veragua_. But suspicion was aroused in the -mind of the admiral’s notary, who obtained permission to reconnoitre the -Indian camp. On his return, he gave it as his opinion that a large party -of natives whom he had observed on the march had been on their way to -surprise the Spanish settlement. Columbus, being unwilling to accept -this view without further confirmation, gave permission to Mendez to -proceed on a second scouting expedition, the result of which was such as -to dispel his doubts; whilst any lingering disbelief was banished by -information conveyed to him by a native who had acted as interpreter, -and who revealed to the admiral the designs of his countrymen, which he -had overheard. It had been the intention of Quibian to surprise the -harbour at night; to burn the ships and houses; and to effect a general -massacre. - -In view of the above disclosures, Columbus set a double watch upon the -harbour: but his brother, the _Adelantado_, resolved upon more vigorous -measures. At the head of seventy-four men, together with the -interpreter, he set off in boats for the _Veragua_, and landed below the -house of Quibian, before the latter had notice of his movements. Then -taking with him only five men, he ascended the hill, ordering the others -to follow with great caution. On a given signal they were to surround -the dwelling. The _cacique_ was seized by _Don_ Bartholomew, and, after -a violent struggle, was bound hand and foot. His household, consisting -of about fifty persons, were likewise made prisoners; and so well were -the _Adelantado’s_ measures taken that no blood was shed on the -occasion. - -Committing his prize to the care of his pilot, with orders to take him -on board his boat, the _Adelantado_, with a portion of his men, set out -in pursuit of the Indians who had escaped. But the wily _cacique_ was -more than a match for the honest pilot. On his complaining piteously of -the pain caused by his bonds, the soft-hearted Sanchez was induced to -loosen the cord; upon which Quibian, watching his opportunity, plunged -into the water and disappeared. On the following morning the -_Adelantado_, being convinced of the futility of pursuit, returned to -the ships with the spoils of Quibian’s mansion, which amounted to the -insignificant value of three hundred ducats. - -All was now apparently tranquil; and the rainy season having once more -set in, Columbus took leave of his brother, and got under weigh with -three of the _caravels_, leaving the fourth for the use of the -settlement. The ships, having been towed over the bar, anchored within a -league of the shore, to await a favourable wind. It was the intention of -the admiral to touch at _Hispaniola_, and thence to send his brother -supplies and reinforcements. As the adverse wind detained him for some -time, he sent a boat on shore to procure wood and water. It was well for -the colony that he did so. The _Cacique_ Quibian had not perished, as -was supposed, but had found his way ashore. When he saw the vessels -bearing his family to afar, he was driven to despair, and thought only -of vengeance. Assembling his warriors, he approached the settlement -secretly, and fell upon the Spaniards when they were completely off -their guard. After a severe struggle, the Indians were driven back, but -not before they had killed one Spaniard and wounded eight others. -Notwithstanding this warning, the boat’s crew sent by Columbus proceeded -up the river, and, being surprised by the Indians, were cut off, one -man alone escaping. - -This misfortune filled the colony with dismay, more especially as the -Indians forthwith renewed hostilities. As it was considered no longer -safe to remain in the fortress, owing to its vicinity to the wood, the -_Adelantado_ erected a barricade in an open space by the sea. The -Indians were deterred by the firearms of the Spaniards from venturing -forth from the forest; but the latter looked forward with the utmost -dread to the hour when the ammunition should be exhausted, and when they -should be driven forth in search of food. - -In the meanwhile Columbus was subjected to scarcely less anxiety. The -non-return of his boat foreboded disaster; and he did not venture to -risk his only remaining boat, on account of the heavy surf on the shore. -An occurrence had also taken place which added not a little to the gloom -on board of the squadron. It had been the intention of Columbus to carry -Quibian’s family to Spain, as hostages for the good behaviour of the -Indians during his absence. The captives, however, were determined to -secure their liberty, if possible. The hatchway above the forecastle -where they slept had not been fastened, as it was out of reach of the -prisoners, and as some of the crew slept upon it. This neglect being -observed by the captives, despair lent them ingenuity. Collecting -together a quantity of the ballast, they raised a heap beneath the -hatchway. Several Indians mounting on the stones, by a simultaneous -effort, then raised it, violently dislodging the sleeping seamen. The -Indians instantly sprang forth, and many, plunging into the sea, swam -ashore. Some, however, were caught and forced back into their place of -imprisonment. In the morning it was found that all the prisoners had -hanged themselves. - -[Sidenote: 1503.] - -In this state of perplexity, one brave man volunteered to bring relief -to the admiral’s mind. Pedro Ledesma of Seville offered, if the boat -should take him to the edge of the surf, to swim ashore through it, a -feat which he successfully accomplished. He returned to the ships, to -tell his commander that the _Adelantado’s_ party were in all but open -mutiny, and that they were sworn, if the admiral should refuse to take -them on board, to depart in the _caravel_ so soon as it might be -practicable. Columbus, as may be supposed, was in no slight alarm for -his brother, placed as he was between mutineers and savages. There -appeared nothing to do but to take the whole party on board, and to -return to the settlement at some future day; but the state of the -weather was such as to render the execution of this plan not a little -difficult. After nine boisterous days, however, the sea again became -calm, and great exertion was made to get the people off ere the bad -weather should return. In this emergency, the services of Diego Mendez -were especially useful. Having lashed two Indian canoes together, he -erected on them a raft, upon which the stores left on shore and on the -_caravel_ were towed out to the ships. In this manner, in the course of -two nights and days, everything of value was conveyed on board the -squadron, Mendez and five companions being the last to leave the shore. - -The joy of the Spaniards was unbounded on finding themselves once more -afloat. The wind becoming favourable, Columbus, towards the end of April -1503, set sail for the last time from the disastrous coast from which -his descendant takes his title.[E] Instead, however, of making direct -for _Hispaniola_, he, to the surprise of his pilot and crews, stood -along the coast to the eastward. - -This study of the currents had taught him that, in order to avoid being -carried beyond his destined port, he must first gain considerable way to -the east. At _Porto Bello_ he was obliged to leave one of his -_caravels_, it being so pierced by worms that it could no longer be -kept afloat. Even his two remaining vessels, into which were now crowded -the crews of the four, were in a very unseaworthy condition, and were -only kept afloat by incessant labour at the pumps. Continuing onwards, -they passed _Porto Retrete_ and approached the entrance of the Gulf of -_Darien_, when, yielding to the remonstrance of his captains and pilots, -the admiral bade final farewell to the mainland; and on the 1st of May -he stood northward in quest of _Hispaniola_. At this point of his career -we must take leave of the discoverer of America. To pursue further the -narrative of his last voyage would take us beyond the limits within -which this work must be confined, that is to say, beyond the limits of -South America. - - NOTE.--The problem of rendering in English the names of places in - foreign countries is one of some difficulty, and rests rather on - conventionality than on principle. It is solved by different - writers in different fashions. Greek purists have for some time - past lost no opportunity, in writing Greek words, of substituting - the original Greek K for the Roman C; but they still respect the - latter in names of such places, familiarized to our ears by - Scripture, as Corinth and Crete. In like manner Oriental purists, - such as Sir Frederic Goldsmid and Colonel Malleson, have done their - best to introduce into English literature a system of orthography - as to Oriental names which is, of course, in place in the - schoolroom of a professor of Oriental languages, but which has not - yet made itself fully accepted by the general English reader. Those - of us whose acquaintance with Indian history began with the reading - of Macaulay’s Essays on Clive and Hastings, are loth to accept - _Pílasi_ for Plassey and _Lakhnao_ for the capital of the princely - House of Oude. - - To look nearer home, it would be pedantic to use _El Kahira_ for - Cairo, or _Dimishk_ for Damascus. It would be little less so, - although strictly correct, to use _Venezia_ for Venice, _Roma_ for - Rome, or _Livorno_ for Leghorn. We have added an _s_--why, I know - not--to the French spelling of the word _Marseille_. That port is - as familiar in our mouths as Liverpool or Glasgow, but we - invariably write it and pronounce it Marseilles. In writing Spanish - or Portuguese words applied to names of places in South America, I - find a considerable divergence of custom amongst authors. To take - the one name of _Assumption_, for instance. The capital of - _Paraguay_ is so written by the Robertsons and other writers, - whilst in Southey’s History of Brazil it is throughout written - _Assumpcion_. In Washburn’s History of Paraguay it becomes - _Asuncion_, the original Spanish name, which I see no reason to - supersede. As a rule I have followed the native names of places in - Portuguese or Spanish America, they being for the most part those - by which they are known in England. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -_THE DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN._ - -1508-1514. - - -[Sidenote: 1508.] - -On the return of Columbus to Europe after his fourth and last voyage, -King Ferdinand was roused by the accounts which he gave of _Veragua_ -into an ardent longing to possess that wealthy territory. He resolved, -therefore, to found colonies upon that coast, and to place them under an -able governor. But before he had proceeded to carry his resolution into -practice, the great admiral was no more. In looking about for a capable -commander, it might have been supposed that the king would have selected -his brother, _Don_ Bartholomew, who had accompanied him in his last -voyage. Columbus had, however, left vast claims behind him, of which his -family were the heirs, and which the mean and jealous monarch was -unwilling to recognise. His choice of an officer, therefore, fell on the -gallant and enterprising Alonzo de Ojeda, who at this period was idling -his time in _Hispaniola_,--his purse being empty, but his spirit as high -as ever. His generous character and reckless bearing had endeared to him -the veteran pilot, Juan de la Cosa, who offered him the use of his -savings for the purpose of fitting out his expedition. - -Ojeda, however, had a rival in the person of Diego de Nicuesa. Both were -accomplished cavaliers, well fitted by their spirit of enterprise to do -what men could do in fulfilment of the unforeseen and almost superhuman -tasks that lay before them. King Ferdinand, being unwilling to lose the -services of Nicuesa, appointed him, too, to a government; that is to -say, he granted to each permission to conquer and govern a portion of -the continent which lies along the Isthmus of _Darien_,--the boundary -line to pass through the Gulf of _Urabá_. The eastern portion, extending -to Cape _de la Vela_, was named New Andalusia, and was granted to Ojeda. -The country to the west, including _Veragua_, and reaching to Cape -_Gracias à Dios_, was assigned to Nicuesa. Both governors were to draw -supplies in common from the island of _Jamaica_, and each was to enjoy -for ten years the profits of the mines he might discover, with the usual -deduction for the Crown. - -Ojeda, by the aid of Juan de la Cosa, fitted out a ship and two -brigantines, carrying between them about two hundred men. Nicuesa -furnished four large vessels, carrying a much larger force. Ojeda, being -somewhat jealous of the superior show of his rival, persuaded one of his -friends, a lawyer called the Bachelor Enciso, to invest his money--two -thousand _castillanos_--in his enterprise. - -He was to remain behind in _Hispaniola_, to enlist recruits and provide -supplies. Before setting out, the two rival governors, as was perhaps to -be expected, fell into a dispute concerning the island of _Jamaica_, -which they were to hold in common; and Ojeda took the opportunity of -challenging Nicuesa to meet him in single combat. The feud, however, was -smothered by the judicious interference of Juan de la Cosa. Nicuesa’s -engaging manners brought so many volunteers to his standard that he had -to purchase another ship in order to convey them. He was not, however, a -man of business, and was so over-reached in making his arrangements that -he had considerable difficulty in escaping from his creditors and -setting out for the scene of his government. - -[Sidenote: 1509.] - -Never were a set of gallant adventurers exposed to more dire disaster -and more grievous suffering and disappointment than were those who -composed the armaments of Ojeda and Nicuesa, respectively. On the 10th -of November 1509, the former set sail from _San Domingo_, having added -to his squadron another ship and another hundred men. Amongst the -adventurers on board was one who was destined to fill a larger space in -history than was Ojeda himself,--namely, Francisco Pizarro, the future -conqueror of _Peru_. The expedition soon arrived in the harbour of -_Carthagena_; but the natives, who had been irritated by the proceedings -of previous European visitors, flew to arms at the first sight of the -strangers. They were a war-like race, of _Carib_ origin, and were given -to the use of poisoned arrows. - -The pilot, Juan de la Cosa, who had previously visited this coast with -Bastides, was much alarmed at the aspect of affairs, and earnestly -besought Ojeda to quit this neighbourhood and to found his settlement on -the Gulf of _Urabá_ where the people were less savage, more especially -in respect to the use of poisoned arrows. Ojeda, however, whose daring -was excessive, had no objection to fighting, the rather as it would, he -hoped, give him an early opportunity of sending a ship full of slaves to -_San Domingo_, wherewith to pay his debts. Ojeda, who had escaped from -innumerable dangers, and imagined himself to be under the especial -protection of the Virgin, boldly charged the Indians, on their declining -to make peace. They were soon routed; a number being killed, and others -taken prisoners. The dashing leader had the temerity to pursue the enemy -far into the forest, where they were driven from their stronghold. -Seventy Indians were then made captives and were sent to the ships. - -The infatuated Ojeda, not content with these successes, continued his -pursuit of the fugitives; but in the dusk of the evening, his men, -imagining that the Indians were dispersed and subdued, separated in -search of plunder amongst the houses of a deserted village. Of a sudden -the savages rushed forth from the surrounding forest. The Spaniards, -rallying in small parties, although they fought bravely, fell fast -beneath the clubs and poisoned arrows of the numbers that surrounded -them. Ojeda, throwing himself upon his knees, and sheltering himself -with his buckler, escaped the poisoned shower; but he was only saved by -the arrival of La Cosa with a few followers, for all those with him had -been slain. A like fate now befell the companions of the veteran pilot; -whilst La Cosa himself was wounded, and unable to follow his leader when -he sprang like a tiger on the enemy, dealing death to the right and -left. La Cosa took refuge in an Indian cabin until but one man with him -was left alive. With his dying breath he despatched this last companion -with a message to Ojeda. This Spaniard and his commander alone survived -of seventy men whom the head-strong Ojeda had led on this rash and -uncalled-for expedition. - -Alarmed at the prolonged absence of their leader and his men, the -Spaniards on board the ships sent armed detachments in boats along the -shore, who sounded trumpets and fired signal-guns. They were answered -only by the defiant war-whoops of the Indians; but at length, in a -tangled thicket of mangroves, the figure of a human being was descried -in Spanish attire. It was Alonzo de Ojeda, so wasted with fatigue and -hunger that he was for some time incapable of speaking. When they had -given him food and wine, he was enabled to recount the wreck his -rashness had wrought. His shield bore the marks of three hundred arrows, -and he ascribed his safety to the protection of the Virgin alone. - -While his friends were still on shore, they beheld some ships standing -towards the harbour. It was the squadron of Nicuesa, on whose arrival -Ojeda now looked with alarm. He had nothing, however, to dread from the -generous cavalier, whose first act was to put himself and his men under -the orders of Ojeda, with the object of avenging the deaths of his -comrades. This was soon effectually done. Proceeding to the spot where -the massacre had occurred, they found the Indian village buried in -sleep. It was forthwith wrapt in flames; and the inhabitants, who rushed -forth, were either slain by the Spaniards or driven back to perish in -the fire. No quarter was shown to sex or age. The spoil in the village -was great, for the share of Nicuesa and his men was valued at seven -thousands _castillanos_. Nicuesa now pursued his voyage to _Veragua_. - -Ojeda, who had by this time had enough of _Carthagena_, embarking, -steered for the Gulf of _Urabá_. His people were much disheartened, and -the aspect of the coast along which they passed was not such as to -console them. They heard the roars of tigers and lions, and were -disconcerted when one of their horses, passing along the bank of a -river, was seized by an alligator and dragged under the water. Ojeda -fixed his settlement on a spot to which he gave the name of _San -Sebastian_, trusting that the martyr, who had himself been slain by -arrows, would protect his Spaniards from a like fate. Here he erected a -wooden fort and drew a stockade around the place. He further sent a ship -to _San Domingo_ bearing a letter to his associate Enciso, in which he -urged him to join him without delay. - -Meanwhile Ojeda determined to make a progress through his territory, and -he set out with an armed band to visit a neighbouring _cacique_. On -entering the forest, however, he and his followers were assailed by a -shower of poisoned arrows from the covert, in consequence of which a -number of his men died raving with torments. The rest retreated in -confusion, and it was only when their provisions began to run short that -Ojeda could persuade them once more to take the field. They were so -beset, however, on all sides by the savages, and lost so many by their -poisoned wounds, that the Spaniards would no longer venture forth at -all, contenting themselves for food with such herbs and roots as they -could find. Their numbers became so thinned by disease that it was with -difficulty that sentinels could be procured to mount guard. - -Through all this Ojeda continued to bear a charmed life; and the Indians -determined to test his invulnerability. When they next attacked the -fort, and Ojeda as usual sallied forth to repel them, four of their -picked marksmen were placed in ambush with orders to single him out. -Three of the arrows struck his shield, doing him no injury; the fourth -pierced his thigh. He was borne back to the settlement suffering great -torments. He had the hardihood to order his doctor to apply two plates -of iron, made red hot, to the orifices of his wound, an ordeal which he -endured without flinching. Whether or not it was owing to this terrible -treatment, his life was preserved, though at the cost of a fearful -inflammation. - -Whilst the colony was enduring the straits above described, a strange -ship was seen making for _San Sebastian_. It did not, however, as was -expected, bring Enciso with the looked-for stores. It was a vessel that -had belonged to a Genoese, of which a certain Talavera, with some other -reckless debtors, had taken possession at _San Domingo_, and who, to the -number of seventy, now came to swell the ranks of Ojeda’s followers. -They sold their provisions to that governor, whose men were thus rescued -from starvation. - -Still was the arrival of Enciso delayed, and at length Ojeda was forced -to come to a compromise with his desperate followers. It was agreed -between them that he himself should proceed in one of the vessels to -_San Domingo_, in quest of supplies and reinforcements, and that -they--that is to say, the bulk of the colonists--should remain for fifty -days at _San Sebastian_, at the end of which time, should he not have -returned, they were to be free to depart in the other brigantines to -_Hispaniola_. Meanwhile Francisco Pizarro was to command the colony in -his absence, or until the arrival of Enciso. - -Ojeda embarked in the ship that had brought Talavera; but when he -attempted to take the command, he was resisted by that individual backed -by his entire crew. The result was that the fiery Ojeda was thrown into -irons, from which he was only released because no other person on board -was capable of managing the ship. As it was, the pirates had allowed the -vessel to be carried so far out of her course for _San Domingo_ that -Ojeda had no other resource but to run it ashore on the southern coast -of _Cuba_. - -When on shore the truce was continued between Ojeda and his late -associates; for they felt that none of the party but he could guide them -in their forlorn plight. They were too disheartened to force their way -through the inhabited country, where they would have to fight the -irritated natives; and therefore Ojeda, who had only before him a choice -of evils, led them through the savannas and marshes, whence, with -incredible labour, they at length emerged on an Indian village. Their -sufferings had been intense and incessant, and out of the number of -seventy who had set out, but one-half survived. With these Ojeda -continued his march to Cape _de la Cruz_, whence, by means of a canoe, -he was able to communicate with the Spaniards on the island of -_Jamaica_. A _caravel_ was sent to bring the party to the latter island, -and from there, after a short delay, Ojeda set sail for _San Domingo_, -leaving Talavera and his friends behind him. These were, however, soon -afterwards arrested, and tried for their act of piracy, Talavera and -several of his accomplices being hanged. At _San Domingo_ nothing was -known respecting the Bachelor Enciso, who had long since set out to join -his chief, and who had not afterwards been heard of. Thus was the last -hope of Ojeda gone. He was reduced to beggary, and his gallant spirit -was at length so crushed by misfortune, that with his last breath he -asked that he might be buried at the gate of the monastery of _San -Francisco_, so that, in expiation of his former pride, every one who -should enter might tread upon his grave. - -To return to Nicuesa:--On leaving _Carthagena_, he continued his voyage -to the coast assigned to him as a government. The squadron arrived in -due course at _Veragua_, but during a storm the vessel of Nicuesa became -separated from her companions. Being stranded in a river, and his ship -being in danger of falling to pieces, Nicuesa and his companions had to -save themselves by passing to the shore by means of a rope. No sooner -had they reached it than the _caravel_ broke up, their provisions and -clothing being carried off by the waters. Fortunately their boat was -cast ashore, and in it four seamen put to sea, keeping abreast of the -main body, which had to find its way along the shore, and ferrying them -across the rivers and bays in their way. The sufferings of Nicuesa and -his men were extreme, and their food consisted only of such herbs and -roots and shellfish as they could gather. They were, however, proceeding -in a wrong direction. The boat’s crew were convinced of this fact, -though they despaired of being able to convince Nicuesa; and so one -night they took the law into their own hands and departed in the boat, -leaving their commander and his party on an island. As they had -anticipated, they ere long fell in with the other vessels, who had taken -refuge in the river of _Belen_, and a boat was forthwith sent to rescue -the forlorn party. - -Nicuesa and his famished companions now rejoined his people at _Belen_, -where, of the gallant band of seven hundred men who had sailed with him -from _San Domingo_, he now found but three hundred half-starved -survivors. His first care was to take measures for their relief; but, as -will be remembered from the experience of Columbus and his brother, the -Indians of this coast were by no means pleasant to deal with. Many of -the Spanish foragers were slain, and those who escaped this fate were -so enfeebled that it was with the utmost difficulty they could carry -their provisions home. - -Disheartened by so many miseries, Nicuesa determined to abandon this -disastrous settlement. Amongst his followers was a Genoese sailor who -had been on this coast with Columbus, and who now described to his -commander the harbour with which the admiral had been so pleased as to -give it the name of _Porto Bello_. For this spot, under the guidance of -the Genoese, Nicuesa steered, and he found the traces of the admiral’s -visit as had been described to him. A part of the crew were sent on -shore for provisions, but they were assailed by the Indians, whom they -were too worn-out to resist. Disappointed in the hope of finding a -refuge in this place, Nicuesa continued his course for seven leagues -further, and reached the harbour to which Columbus had given the name of -_Puerto de Bastimientos_, or Port of Provisions. It was surrounded by a -fruitful country, and the weary Nicuesa exclaimed, “Here let us rest, in -the name of God!” His followers, interpreting his words as a favourable -omen, the harbour received the name of _Nombre de Dios_, which it -retains at the present day. The misfortunes of Nicuesa and his band -were, however, not yet at an end. On mustering his forces, he found but -one hundred emaciated beings left. He then despatched his _caravel_ to -_Hispaniola_ for provisions; but it never returned, and he was equally -unsuccessful in his search for supplies upon the spot. - -[Sidenote: 1510.] - -Meanwhile, as has been already said, long before Ojeda’s return to _San -Domingo_, his partner, the Bachelor Enciso, set out to rejoin his chief -at _Carthagena_. The Bachelor arrived at this fatal spot in ignorance of -the conflict in which Juan de la Cosa had met his death, and of that in -which he was avenged. He therefore, without hesitation, landed a number -of men to repair his boat. A multitude of Indians gathered around them. -Their experience of the force of the white men had been so recent as to -make it prudent for them to keep at a safe distance. On being convinced, -however, that these strangers came with no hostile intent, the natives -threw down their weapons, and treated the Spaniards with the utmost -friendship, supplying them with bread, fish, and other provisions. - -At _Carthagena_ Enciso was not a little surprised by the arrival of a -brigantine. It was commanded by Francisco Pizarro, who, it will be -remembered, had been left in charge on Ojeda’s departure from _San -Sebastian_. The small brigantine contained all that was left of the -colony that had been founded with such high hopes. On the departure of -Ojeda, his followers had remained in the fortress during the term agreed -upon of fifty days. As soon afterwards as their numbers became so far -reduced by death as to be capable of being contained in the two -brigantines, they set sail from the fatal spot. Encountering rough -weather, one of the brigantines went down with all hands; the other, as -has been said, was steered for _Carthagena_, in order to procure -provisions. - -Nothing daunted by the experience of his predecessors, and taking with -him Pizarro and his crew, though sorely against the will of the latter, -Enciso set out for _San Sebastian_. From the very moment, however, of -his arrival there, ill-luck attended the unfortunate Bachelor. On -entering the harbour his vessel struck on a rock, and he and his crew -escaped with difficulty to the brigantine of Pizarro, their vessel going -down, together with the whole of the live-stock and supplies destined -for the colony. On landing, he found that the fortress and houses had -been burnt by the Indians. The Spaniards remained for a few days, -subsisting on such supplies as the colony afforded. But they had a -conflict with the Indians, which revived their fears of poisoned arrows -and thoroughly disgusted them with the locality,--a feeling shared by -Enciso. At this gloomy moment, one man stepped forward from the crowd, -who from this time till his premature death, stood in the foremost -ranks of his countrymen in the New World, and who occupies a place -amongst American discoverers second only to Columbus. This was the -gallant and famous Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, destined to be the first -European who should set eyes on the Pacific Ocean. Vasco Nuñez was a -native of Xeres, and was the scion of a noble family. Being a man of -prodigal habits, in order to evade his creditors, he had been conveyed -on board Enciso’s ship, concealed in a cask. He now informed his leader -that, several years previously, he had sailed along that coast with -Bastides and had explored the gulf of _Urabá_. He remembered an Indian -village on the banks of the river _Darien_, situated in a fertile -country, which was said to possess gold-mines. Above all, the natives -did not use poisoned arrows. Thither he now offered to conduct his -chief. - -The offer of Nuñez being accepted, Enciso sailed for the spot. On -landing, he was opposed by the _cacique_, who, however, was soon put to -flight, leaving much plunder and food behind him. Here Enciso determined -to establish his colony, to which he gave the name of _Santa Maria de la -Antigua del Darien_. No sooner was his colony established, than Enciso, -somewhat prematurely, began to make his authority felt. His first edict -forbade all private dealings with the natives for gold, on pain of -death,--a proceeding little to the taste of the loose band which he had -gathered around him. The result was that some of his followers -determined to have recourse to the law on their own behalf. The boundary -line between the jurisdictions which had been assigned to Ojeda and -Nicuesa respectively was drawn through the centre of the Gulf of -_Urabá_. As the village of _Darien_ lay on the western side, it was -clearly within the government of Nicuesa, and therefore Enciso, the -lieutenant of Ojeda, possessed no jurisdiction there. In this manner the -unfortunate Bachelor found himself reduced to the ranks. - -It is proverbially more easy to pull down a government than to set one -up, and such proved to be the case on this occasion. Vasco Nuñez and one -Zamudio were appointed _alcaldes_ by popular election; but it was deemed -better to appoint a governor, if they could only agree upon one. Whilst -the question was being disputed, the colony was surprised by the arrival -of a vessel under the command of Rodrigo de Colmenares, bringing -supplies for Nicuesa. This incident determined the colonists’ choice in -favour of the latter cavalier, if only he could be found. Colmenares -accordingly proceeded along the coast in search of him. Looking into -every bay and harbour, he at length discovered a brigantine which had -been sent out by Nicuesa in search of provisions. By this vessel he was -guided to _Nombre de Dios_, where Nicuesa was discovered, no longer -indeed the brilliant cavalier, but a squalid and cast-down wretch. Of -his once numerous band of followers but sixty feeble, emaciated men -remained. - -The arrival of Colmenares with a supply of food had an immediate -reviving effect; and, in particular, Nicuesa, on hearing that he was -requested to come and rule over the settlement of _Darien_, became -changed as if struck by an enchanter’s wand. But Nicuesa, whose -misfortunes had failed to teach him prudence, now split upon the rock on -which the fortunes of Enciso had been wrecked. When he heard that large -quantities of gold had been retained by private individuals, he rashly -gave out that he would make them refund it. This word was sufficient for -the envoys who had been sent by the colonists to request him to come and -rule over them. The result was that when Nicuesa arrived at _Darien_--he -having delayed on the way on a slave-capturing expedition,--instead of -the welcome which he had every reason to anticipate, he was received -with the request that he would lose no time in retracing his way to -_Nombre de Dios_. - -Nicuesa had to pass the night in his vessel, and when next day he was -permitted to land, the only friend he found on his side was Vasco Nuñez, -who, being himself a well-born cavalier, was touched by the misfortunes -of the other. The only terms, however, which Nicuesa could obtain were, -that he should be permitted to depart in an old brigantine, the worst in -the harbour. Seventeen persons followed the unfortunate gentleman on -board. Their vessel set sail on the 1st of March 1511, and was steered -for _Hispaniola_. Nothing more was ever heard of Nicuesa and his -companions, whose fate added another to the countless secrets of the -deep. - -We have now to trace the daring adventures of one of the two men who -rose to deathless renown on the ruins of the disastrous expeditions -whose general fate has been recently narrated. Since the two rival -governors, Ojeda and Nicuesa, had started from _San Domingo_ in 1509, -full of hope, and exulting in power, nearly all their gallant followers -had perished by the poisoned arrows of the Indians, by shipwreck, or by -the slower process of disease or starvation. The two leaders, after -undergoing protracted trials and sufferings of every description, had -sunk into the grave, by land or by water, in misery; but two humble -followers survived, who were each destined to climb to the highest round -of the ladder of fame. These were Vasco Nuñez de Balboa and Francisco -Pizarro. We are concerned in the first instance with the doings of the -former. - -No sooner had Nicuesa quitted for ever the coast of _Darien_ than the -community fell back into its former condition of being in want of a -ruler. The Bachelor Enciso again advanced his claims, but he found in -Vasco Nuñez a powerful and popular rival, and one who had every quality -likely to give him influence over a fickle populace. Nuñez had likewise -the advantage of his position as _alcalde_. Proceeding according to the -forms of law, he summoned the Bachelor to stand his trial on the charge -of having usurped the powers of _alcalde mayor_ beyond the territories -under the jurisdiction of Ojeda. The charge being, in point of fact, -true, although without any direct evil intention on Enciso’s part, that -lawyer was found guilty and thrown into prison. He was, however, after a -time released, and he obtained permission to return to Spain. Foreseeing -that he would not be silent in respect to the treatment he had received, -Vasco Nuñez prevailed upon the other _alcalde_, Zamudio, to proceed to -Spain in the same vessel, so that he might be at hand to answer any -charge which Enciso might advance. He was likewise to put forward the -services which had been rendered to the colony by Vasco Nuñez. In the -same vessel sailed his friend the _Regidor_ Valdivia, who was to alight -at _Hispaniola_, and who was charged with a handsome present to the -royal treasurer Pasamonte, after delivering which he was to return with -provisions and recruits. - -Vasco Nuñez was now left in sole control at _Darien_, and he forthwith -set about the duties of his government with the remarkable energy -peculiar to his character. He despatched two brigantines to bring away -the followers of Nicuesa who had remained at _Nombre de Dios_, and who -were now overjoyed at being rescued from their miserable position. On -returning to the Isthmus, the brigantines met with two Spaniards who had -fled from Nicuesa’s vessel some time before, and had taken refuge with a -_cacique_ called Careta, who had treated them with remarkable kindness. -Being Spanish adventurers, their first proceeding on rejoining their -countrymen was, as a matter of course, to betray him. Vasco Nuñez, -taking with him a hundred and thirty men, set out for the residence of -the _cacique_, and was received and entertained with the usual Indian -hospitable welcome. On his demanding a supply of provisions for the -colony, however, the _cacique_, who naturally did not feel bound to -provide, _gratis_, for a whole band of hungry invaders, excused himself -on some plea which may not have been exactly true. The Spaniard -appeared to acquiesce, and departed with all his men as if for his -settlement. Returning, however, in the dead of night, he surrounded the -dwelling of Careta, and made prisoners of the _cacique_, his wives and -children. Having helped himself to his store of provisions, he then -returned in his brigantines to _Darien_. - -The above infamous proceeding had a better ending than might have been -anticipated. The broken-hearted Careta, bewailing his hard lot to Nuñez, -actually so far succeeded in convincing him of the impolicy, if not the -infamy of his conduct, that he agreed to set him free, the latter -undertaking to be his ally, and leaving his daughter to be the wife of -Nuñez. The Spanish leader next repaired to _Coyba_, to assist Careta -against a neighbouring chief called Ponca, whom he obliged to take -refuge in the mountains. Whilst on a friendly visit to the _cacique_ of -_Comagre_, Nuñez heard from the son of that chieftain of a region beyond -the mountains, on the shores of a mighty sea, which might be discerned -from their summits, where gold was as plentiful as was iron with the -Spaniards. In reply to his anxious inquiries, Vasco Nuñez learned that -the task of penetrating to this sea, and to the golden region by its -shores, was difficult and dangerous. It would require, said the son of -Comagre, at least a thousand armed men. There was in the way a great -_cacique_ called Tubanamá, whose territories abounded in gold, but who -would oppose their passage with a mighty force. Such was the first -intimation received by Vasco Nuñez of the existence of the Pacific -Ocean. - -On his return to _Darien_, the whole soul of the Spaniard became -absorbed in the idea of prosecuting the discovery of the sea beyond the -mountains. The brigantine which had returned with Valdivia from -_Hispaniola_, was again despatched to that colony, bearing a letter to -_Don_ Diego Columbus, in which Vasco Nuñez informed him of the -intelligence which he had received, and in which he entreated him to use -his influence with the king, in order that the necessary thousand men -might be obtained. Nuñez at the same time transmitted fifteen thousand -crowns in gold, to be remitted as the royal fifths of what he had -collected. - -About this time the settlement of _Darien_ was threatened with -destruction, in consequence of a conspiracy on the part of certain -Indian _caciques_, and which was only frustrated owing to the devotion -to Vasco Nuñez of an Indian girl whom he had captured, and to whom her -brother had revealed the plot. Being forewarned of the hostile -intentions of the conspirators, Nuñez promptly took steps to defeat -them, getting possession of the persons of the Indian general and -several of his confederates. The general was shot, and the other leaders -were hanged; whilst, as a further precaution, a wooden fort was erected -at the settlement. - -It was not merely with the natives that Nuñez had to contend; for the -colony of _Darien_, not being as yet under any authority properly -constituted by the crown, seems to have been more than usually -fractious. Evil tidings, too, reached Nuñez from Spain. His late -colleague, the _alcalde_ Zamudio, wrote that the Bachelor Enciso had -laid his complaints before the throne, and had succeeded in obtaining a -sentence, condemning Vasco Nuñez in costs and damages. Nuñez was -likewise to be summoned to Spain, to answer the charges against him on -account of his treatment of Nicuesa. - -The captain-general of _Darien_--for to such rank had Nuñez been -advanced by a commission from the royal treasurer of _Hispaniola_--was -at first stunned by this communication; but, being a brave man, he did -not long remain cast down. His intelligent and energetic mind quickly -conceived the idea of anticipating his summons to Spain by some gallant -service which would convert his disgrace into triumph; and what service -could be so effective, with this object in view, as the discovery of -the Southern Sea and the gold-laden realms by its shores! He had not, it -is true, the thousand soldiers which the youthful _cacique_ had said -were needed for the enterprise; but, since time was pressing, and fame -and fortune were at stake, he must make the best use of those he had. - -[Sidenote: 1513] - -Inspecting the band of adventurers by whom he was surrounded, Nuñez -selected one hundred and ninety from the most resolute amongst their -number. In addition to these well-armed men, he was aided in his -enterprise by a detachment of Indian allies, as likewise by a number of -blood-hounds. With this strangely-composed force, Vasco Nuñez set out -from _Darien_ on the 1st of September 1513, in a brigantine and nine -canoes. Landing at _Coyba_, he was welcomed by Careta, and supplied by -him with guides. Leaving nearly half his men at _Coyba_ to guard his -brigantine and canoes, he set out upon his march, having previously -caused mass to be performed for the success of his expedition. His -march, as might be expected, was troublesome; for the Spaniards were -oppressed by the weight of their armour as well as by the tropical sun. -In climbing the rocky mountains, however, and in struggling through the -forests, they were relieved by the Indians from the burthen of their -provisions, and were guided by them in finding the paths. From time to -time they had to change their guides, sending back those who had -previously accompanied them. They had likewise to make frequent halts, -to recruit the health of some of their number after their fatigues. - -Vasco Nuñez was possessed of an engaging manner which won the confidence -of every one with whom he was brought into contact, and which had a -peculiar fascination for the Indians. When Ponca, the enemy of Careta -(whom the latter had driven into the mountains), was induced to come -into his presence, he not only showed him no ill-will, but freely -imparted to him such information as he possessed regarding the countries -whither Nuñez was bound. Pointing to a lofty mountain in the distance, -he informed him that when he should have scaled its summit he should -behold the sea spread out below him. Animated by this cheering -intelligence, and furnished with fresh guides, Nuñez resumed his march; -having first sent back to _Coyba_, such of his men as he deemed too -feeble for the enterprise. - -So toilsome did the journey now become that it took Nuñez and his party -four days to accomplish ten leagues--they suffering much, meanwhile, -from hunger. They had now arrived in the territory of a _cacique_ at war -with Ponca, and who set upon the Spaniards with a numerous body of -warriors, thinking, on account of their small number, that he was secure -of a victory. On the first discharge of their firearms, however, he had -reason to alter his opinion, his people being forced to hasty flight, -leaving the _cacique_ and six hundred men dead upon the field. The -_caciques_ brother and other chiefs who were taken prisoners, were clad -in white robes of cotton; which circumstance led to their being accused -of crimes so revolting to the Spaniards, that they gave them to be torn -to pieces by the blood-hounds. It is stated that amongst the prisoners -taken on this occasion were several negro slaves. If this were so, their -appearance in South America at this time has never been explained. - -Vasco Nuñez, having distributed the spoil taken in the village of the -late _cacique_, selected fresh guides from amongst his prisoners. His -effective Spaniards now numbered only sixty-seven, and with these he -started at the dawn of day on the 26th of September, to climb the last -height that lay between him and the vision to which he looked forward. -About ten o’clock the party emerged from the forest and stood on the -open summit, which alone remained to be ascended. Vasco Nuñez, -commanding his followers to halt, set out for the mountain top, in -order that he might be the first European to gaze on the longed-for sea. -At sight of the glorious prospect his first impulse was to sink upon his -knees and pour out his heart to Heaven. He then made his people ascend, -in order that their eyes too might be gladdened, and that their hearts -should rejoice. It was a solemn moment in the lives of all; and with the -deep religious feeling with which these pioneers of discovery were -animated, they joined in one general prayer to God that He would guide -and aid them to conquer for their king the sea and lands before them, -which till now their Holy Faith had never reached. His men, for their -part, embracing Vasco Nuñez, promised to follow him till death. Amongst -them there happened to be a priest, who now led the chaunt _Te Deum -laudamus!_ Their last act before leaving the spot was to witness an -attestation that Nuñez took possession of the sea, its islands and -surrounding lands, in the name of the sovereigns of Castile, in token of -which a cross was erected and a pile of stones raised, the names of the -Castilian sovereigns being carved on trees. - -Having performed this important duty, Vasco Nuñez now descended into the -regions that lay between the mountains and the Pacific. He was again -encountered by a warlike _cacique_, who forbade him to set foot upon his -territory. The result, however, of the first onset of the Spaniards was -the same as had been the case with their last enemy. The Indians having -taken to flight, Nuñez commanded his men to refrain from useless -slaughter. The _cacique_, having been brought before him, presented five -hundred pounds weight of gold as a peace-offering. A scouting party -having found the sea at a distance of two days’ journey, and Nuñez -having been rejoined by his men whom he had left behind him, he now -established the headquarters at the village of this _cacique_, while he -himself proceeded with a small party to explore the coast. After -traversing a region clothed down to the water’s edge by thick forests, -Nuñez arrived on a bay to which, on account of the date, he gave the -name of _St Michael’s_. When the receding tide had risen, he marched -into the water, and waving his banner, formally took possession of these -seas and coasts, and of all appertaining to them, in the name of the -Castilian sovereigns. He likewise cut crosses on three trees, in honour -of the Three Persons of the Trinity. - -The Spaniards were now to encounter a new form of danger, of the nature -of which, notwithstanding all their previous experience, they had never -dreamt. Having been successful in obtaining a considerable quantity of -gold whilst at his headquarters of _Chiapes_, Nuñez determined to -explore the borders of a neighbouring gulf; nor was he deterred by the -warnings of his host against the danger of venturing to sea in the -stormy season then commencing. Vasco Nuñez, who looked upon himself as -being an apostle of the faith, had a firm belief in the especial -protection of God, and therefore despised the caution given. His Indian -host, whose experience of the stormy gulf by no means led him to -entertain a like confidence, was nevertheless too polite not to -accompany the daring stranger, whose party of sixty men embarked in nine -canoes on the 17th of October. - -When the Spaniards were fairly launched, and when it would have seemed -pusillanimous to retreat, the wisdom of the _cacique’s_ advice began to -be perceived. The wind raised a heavy sea, which broke over the rocks -and reefs with which the gulf abounded. Even the Indians, accustomed as -they were to those seas, showed signs of alarm. They succeeded, however, -in lashing the canoes together, two and two, and thus prevented them -from upsetting, until, towards evening, they reached a small island. -Here landing, they fastened the canoes to the shore, and sought a dry -place where the party might repose. But they were soon awakened by the -rapid rising of the water, upon which they had not counted; and they at -length found themselves almost to their waists in water. The wind, -however, lulled, and the sea became calm, and after a time it began to -subside. They found their canoes seriously damaged; whilst their -clothing and food were washed away. There was nothing for it but to -repair the canoes as best they could; after which they set out on their -return to the shore. They had to labour all day long, enduring severe -hunger and thirst; but at night they had the satisfaction of reaching -the land. - -Leaving a portion of his men with the canoes, Nuñez set out for the -neighbouring Indian village, from which the inhabitants were driven -before the firearms and dogs of the invaders. A quantity of provisions, -besides pearls and gold, rewarded the brigands; and on the following day -the _cacique_, who had been so violently driven into the woods, was -induced to return to his home, the object of his despoiler in inviting -him being a desire to ascertain the source whence he procured his -pearls. Fear opened the heart of the poor Indian, who, in his awe of the -superhuman strangers, as he thought them, gave Vasco Nuñez golden -ornaments weighing six hundred and fourteen crowns, and two hundred -pearls of great beauty; he further sent a number of his men to fish for -pearls for the Spaniards. - -The _cacique_ informed Nuñez that the coast which he saw before him -continued onwards without end, and that far to the south there was a -country abounding in gold; its inhabitants, he said (alluding to the -_llama_), made use of quadrupeds to carry burdens. Inspired by this -intelligence, Nuñez determined to emerge from the gulf and to take -possession of the mainland beyond. The _cacique_ having furnished him -with a canoe of state, he departed in it on the 29th of October, and was -piloted by the Indians as far as to the point of the gulf, when he again -marched into the sea and took possession of it. He saw before him a line -of coast rising above the horizon, which the Indians said abounded in -pearls. To this island and the surrounding group he gave the name of the -Pearl Islands. On the 3rd of November he set out to visit other parts of -the coast. Entering a great river, which the party ascended with -difficulty, Nuñez next morning surprised a village on its banks, and -obtained from the _cacique_, as the price of his liberty, more gold and -pearls, and a supply of provisions. - -From this point Vasco Nuñez determined to set out on his return to -_Darien_. After having been entertained during three days by the -_cacique_ whom he had robbed, he set out well furnished with provisions, -which were carried by the subjects of the Indian chief. His route now -lay over sterile mountains, and he and his men suffered much from the -absence of water; for the burning heat had dried up all the mountain -streams. The fevered Spaniards were, however, gently urged by the -Indians to proceed, and were at length rewarded by arriving in a deep -glen which contained a cool fountain. They were now in the territory of -a chief called Poncra, who had the reputation of possessing great -riches. At the approach of the Spanish bandits, Poncra and his people -fled from their village, in which Nuñez and his men appropriated to -themselves property to the value of three thousand crowns of gold. -Poncra having been caught, was brought before Nuñez, together with three -of his subjects; but neither threats nor torture could compel him to -betray the locality of his treasures. Under these circumstances, the -unfortunate wretch was accused by his enemies of certain practices of -which he may or may not have been guilty. In any case Nuñez had no sort -of authority to be his judge. He was enraged, however, at his obstinacy -in refusing to reveal his treasures, and Poncra and his three companions -were given to be torn, to pieces by the blood-hounds. We shall soon have -to ask the reader’s sympathy for the fate of Vasco Nuñez himself; -meanwhile, it may be well to bear in mind of what atrocious conduct he -could on occasion be guilty towards others. - -The Spaniards halted during thirty days at the village of the ill-fated -Poncra, during which time they were rejoined by their companions who had -been left behind. And here it may be observed that it appears somewhat -strange that the energetic Vasco Nuñez, over whose head a grave -accusation at this time hung, and who had undertaken his expedition to -the Pacific in order to anticipate its evil results, should have -apparently wasted so much time at this spot, since it was everything to -him that not an hour should be lost in making his magnificent discovery -known in Spain. - -On departing from the village of Poncra, the Spaniards were accompanied -by one of the _caciques_ of the mountain, who not only lodged and fed -them, but further presented them with the value of two thousand crowns. -The Spaniards, on leaving the district, bent their course for some time -along the river _Comagre_. When they abandoned it, owing to the -precipitous nature of its banks, they had to trust entirely to their -Indian guides. Had these deserted them, they would have been lost in the -thick forests and unseen morasses. In their journey they were the -victims of their own avarice; for they had loaded most of the Indians -with gold alone, and now found themselves destitute of provisions. Many -of their Indian bearers, oppressed by their burdens, sank down to perish -by the way. - -The Spaniards had still to pass through the territories of the most -warlike _cacique_ of the mountains. His reputation was so considerable -that Nuñez dreaded to attack him with his worn-out followers; he -therefore had recourse to stratagem. Taking with him seventy of the -strongest of his party, he made a forced march to the neighbourhood of -the _cacique’s_ residence, which at midnight he suddenly assaulted, -capturing Tubanamá and all his family. The _cacique_, being threatened -with death, agreed to purchase his life with jewels of gold to the -value of three thousand crowns, and further to levy double that sum from -his subjects; which having done, he was set at liberty. - -[Sidenote: 1514.] - -Nuñez, returning to the village where he had left his men, now resumed -his march to _Darien_. He and his party being much affected by the -climate, could proceed but slowly; but they at length arrived on the sea -coast in the territories of their ally Comagre. That _cacique_ was now -dead, and had been succeeded by his son, the youth who had first given -information to Nuñez of the existence of the Southern Sea. Nuñez next -proceeded to _Ponca_, where he heard of the arrival of a ship and -_caravel_ from _Hispaniola_. Hastening onwards to _Coyba_, the residence -of his ally Careta, he embarked in the brigantine on January 28th, 1514, -and arrived at _Darien_ on the following day. He had been absent for -five months, and was met with the most joyful welcome on the part of the -entire colony. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -_THE COLONY OF DARIEN; FATE OF VASCO NUÑEZ._ - -1514-1517. - - -Once more at _Darien_, Vasco Nuñez lost no time in drawing up for the -king a report of his expedition across the mountains to the Southern -Sea, in which report he states that during the expedition he had not -lost a single man in battle. But, by a singular mischance, the vessel -which bore his friend and messenger, Arbolanche, who had himself taken -part in the toils and dangers which he was to describe, did not sail -from _Darien_ until the beginning of March. This delay ruined the rising -fortunes of Vasco Nuñez. - -The Bachelor Enciso, as has been already said, had carried his -complaints against Nuñez to the foot of the throne; and when, in May -1513, he was followed by Caÿzedo and Colmenares with their glowing -account of the province of _Zenu_, with its mountain streams that flowed -over golden sands, their news served but to hasten the appointment of a -governor over this favoured region. The royal choice fell, on the -recommendation of Fonseca the Bishop of Burgos, upon _Don_ Pedro Arias -Davila, commonly called Pedrarias, who, on July 27th of the same year, -was appointed ruler over _Darien_. The new governor was an elderly -gentleman of rank, who had been brought up in the royal household and -had afterwards distinguished himself as a soldier; but he has been well -called, as his subsequent actions proved him to be, “a suspicious, -fiery, arbitrary old man.”[F] - -The envoys of Nuñez had asked King Ferdinand for a thousand men, -wherewith to enable their master to make the discovery of the Southern -Sea. Ferdinand fully appreciated the importance of the enterprise; and, -although he did not intend it for Nuñez, he assigned twelve hundred men -to Pedrarias for its accomplishment. It so happened that at this time -the Great Captain, the famous Gonsalvo de Córdova, was preparing to -return to Naples; and the chivalry of Spain were thronging to enlist -under his banner. His armament was, however, countermanded when on the -point of sailing; and thus a large number of young nobles and cavaliers, -who had set their hearts on winning their spurs, had their plans -suddenly thwarted. Pedrarias had a host of volunteers anxious to join -his expedition to the country which had already received the appellation -of _Castilla del Oro_, or Golden Castile. In order to enable him to -comply with the wishes of these applicants, he was permitted to increase -his force to the number of fifteen hundred men; but in the end some two -thousand embarked. Pedrarias was likewise accompanied by a bishop and -four principal officers, one of whom was the Bachelor Enciso, now -appointed _alguazil mayor_. He was also accompanied by his wife _Doña_ -Isabella de Bobadilla. He received instructions not to admit any lawyers -into his colony,--an instruction subsequently more than once repeated in -respect to Spanish-American colonies. - -[Sidenote: 1514.] - -Scarcely had his fleet of fifteen vessels set sail from _San Lucar_, on -the 12th of April 1514, when Arbolanche arrived, bearing the news of the -glorious exploits of Nuñez. Had he come but a few days earlier, how -widely different would have been the future of that cavalier! King -Ferdinand gazed with delight on the pearls and gold which the messenger -of Nuñez laid before him, and his imagination was carried away by the -tale of the unknown seas and wonderful realms which were about to be -brought under his sway. The popularity of Nuñez suddenly became -unbounded, and the fame of his exploits resounded throughout Spain. The -ill impression which had been produced on the king’s mind by the reports -of Enciso was forthwith obliterated, and the Bishop of Burgos was -instructed to devise some means of rewarding his surpassing services. -But meanwhile the cavalier himself was afar off, and the waves of the -Atlantic were fast bearing to _Darien_ the jealous old man who was to -see in Nuñez only one who had robbed him of the glory which he had -proposed to himself of being the first discoverer of the Southern Sea -and the conqueror of the regions of gold and pearls on its shores. - -Meanwhile Vasco Nuñez was governing the region subjected to his rule in -such a manner as to prove that the popular selection which had elevated -him to the position of chief was justified by his qualities as a -peaceful ruler no less than by his exploits as a warlike adventurer. The -settlement contained upwards of two hundred houses or huts, and the -constant effort of the captain-general was to bring the neighbourhood -into such a state of cultivation as to render _Darien_ independent of -Europe for supplies. Its population now amounted to about five hundred -Europeans and fifteen hundred Indians. The climate being depressing, -Nuñez, who was a born governor, took advantage of every means to keep -his people in good spirits, devoting the holidays as they came round to -national sports and games, including tilting matches. He was singularly -successful in securing the friendship, as well as in gaining the -respect, of the natives; so that the Spaniards could travel, even -singly, all over the district in perfect safety. It was certainly a -circumstance full of misfortune, as well for Spain as for the -inhabitants of the Isthmus, that when, after the experience of so many -unfortunate colonising expeditions and so many incapable leaders, one -was at length found admirably suited alike for the requirements of peace -and of war, he should have had so soon to give place to a man whose age -unfitted him to fulfil the duties of leader, and whose temper prevented -him from recognising the merits of those who acted under him. - -[Sidenote: 1514.] - -In June the fleet of Pedrarias arrived in the Gulf of _Urabá_. The new -governor, knowing the character and the renown of Nuñez, was somewhat -apprehensive lest he should decline to render up peaceful possession of -his government, and he accordingly thought it prudent to cast anchor -about a league and a half from the shore, and to send a messenger in -advance to announce his arrival. He need not, however, have felt any -misgiving; for Nuñez forthwith sent back his messenger with -congratulations on his safe arrival, and with the expression of his own -readiness and that of all the colony to obey his orders. It is true that -some fiery adherents of the popular leader expressed their desire to -repel the intruder; but these were at once discountenanced by their -chief. The new governor, disembarking on the last day of June, made his -entrance into _Darien_ at the head of two thousand armed men, he leading -his wife by the one hand and having Bishop Quevedo on the other; whilst -a train of youthful cavaliers formed his body-guard. Vasco Nuñez came -forth unarmed to meet him, attended by a detachment of his scarred and -veteran troops. He conducted his guests to his humble straw-thatched -abode, where he laid before them such a repast as this embryo city of -the forest might afford, the only beverage procurable being water. We -may well believe that the courtly cavaliers who formed the governor’s -train were somewhat taken aback by the simple nature of their first -entertainment in Golden Castile. - -Pedrarias, on the day of his arrival, summoned Vasco Nuñez to his -presence and held with him a long private conference, at which the -historian Oviedo assisted. In accordance with the governor’s request, -Vasco Nuñez gave an account in writing, in the course of two days, of -his administration during the past three years. He likewise described -the rivers and mountains where he had found gold, the _caciques_ who -were his allies, and his journey to the Southern Sea and to the Isle of -Pearls. Having thus obtained the information which he required, and -which Nuñez alone could furnish, Pedrarias next proceeded to take the -_residencia_ of the late captain-general, that is to say, he instituted -an inquiry into his past conduct, the result being that for the injuries -done to Enciso and others, Nuñez was condemned to pay a large amount, -although he was acquitted of the criminal charges brought against him. -The governor was now his declared enemy, and would have sent him in -chains to Spain, to be tried for the death of Nicuesa, had he not been -warned by the Bishop Quevedo, who was Nuñez’ friend, that his arrival in -Spain would be the signal of his triumph, and that the result would in -all probability be his return to _Panamá_ with increased power and -position. Nuñez had likewise found an advocate in the wife of the -governor, who could not but admire his character and exploits. Under -these circumstances it was thought better to detain him at _Darien_ -under a cloud. His property, which had been sequestrated, was, however, -restored to him. - -Nuñez, in his letter to the king, had advised the creation of -settlements in the territories of Comagre, Ponca, and Pocorosa, with a -view to establishing a line of posts across the mountains between -_Darien_ and the Southern Sea; and it was now determined to carry out -this plan. Whilst preparations were being made with this view, the -Spaniards who had accompanied Pedrarias began to suffer greatly from the -effects of the climate, and were likewise sorely pressed by hunger. The -colony had not been in any way prepared for such an accession to its -numbers; nor were there any neighbouring friendly Indians on whom to -fall back for a supply of provisions. Men brought up in luxury, and who -were clad in fine raiment, were glad to procure herbs and roots, or were -actually perishing from starvation. One of the principal _hidalgos_ -dropped down dead in the street, starved. Within a month’s time seven -hundred men had perished, whilst Pedrarias himself was taken seriously -ill. The provisions which had been brought out were now exhausted, and -the horrors of famine stared the whole colony in the face. In this -gloomy state of affairs Pedrarias was glad to give permission to a -ship-load of starving adventurers to depart for _Cuba_ and for Spain. - -When the governor had recovered from his malady, he urged on the -expeditions which he had planned; but he was careful not to permit Vasco -Nuñez to acquire additional renown by taking part in them. That cavalier -was still allowed to remain under the cloud of a judicial inquiry -hanging over him. Notwithstanding the provision which had been made not -to admit lawyers into the colony, the legal profession was at this time -so flourishing at _Darien_ that it was estimated that there were about -forty lawsuits to each colonist. - -Vasco Nuñez, oppressed by this inaction, determined to prosecute his -plans on his own account, without reference to the governor; and he -despatched one Garabito to _Cuba_ to enlist men for an expedition across -the mountains and to found a colony on the Southern Sea. Whilst Garabito -was absent, Nuñez was condemned to behold his schemes ruined, owing -alone to the incapacity and brutality of those entrusted by Pedrarias -with the mission of carrying them out. Amongst the leaders employed by -the governor was one Juan de Ayora, who was sent with four hundred men -to build forts in the countries ruled over by Comagre, Pocorosa, and -Tubanamá respectively. This officer proved himself an exceptional -ruffian even amongst the Spanish transatlantic adventurers of the day. -According to Oviedo, who was at this time notary of the colony, he not -only demanded of the chiefs and their subjects the authorised -requisitions to avert war, but, pouncing upon the _caciques_ and -principal men by night, he put them to the torture in quest of gold. -Some he then caused to be put to death; others were given to be devoured -by the dogs; whilst others again were reserved for new forms of torment. -Their wives and daughters were taken from them, and were made slaves and -concubines according to the good pleasure of this Ayora. - -One of the first victims of this expedition was Comagre himself, the -same youthful _cacique_ who had given to Vasco Nuñez the earliest -information of the existence of the sea beyond the mountains, and who -had told him that a thousand men would be needed for its discovery. -Little did he imagine that he himself would be one of the victims of the -thousand men who had now been brought by his advice! The chiefs with -whom Vasco Nuñez had cemented a friendship came forth in turn to lay -their gold before Ayora. The valiant Tubanamá, being of a less -submissive turn of mind, took to arms, but to no avail. Another -_cacique_, having put his women and children in safety, laid wait in -ambuscade and attacked the Spaniards, wounding Ayora himself. - -The proceedings of Ayora towards another _cacique_ are thus described by -a lawyer sent on a mission of inquiry to the West Indies a few years -later by Cardinal Ximenes. On the approach of the Spaniards, the -_cacique_ in question, under the belief that he was about to welcome his -old friend Nuñez, had prepared for him the best entertainment within his -means, including roast-meat, game, and wine. On his inquiring for the -chief, Ayora was pointed out to him, but he replied that this was not -Nuñez. He was, however, to become well acquainted with his present guest -during their brief intercourse. After having partaken of his -hospitality, Ayora sent for him and demanded gold. This not being -forthcoming in sufficient quantity, the _cacique_ was bound, upon which -his vassals were desired by him to bring all the gold in their -possession. The amount, however, did not satisfy the invader, who -ordered the _cacique_ to be burnt alive.[G] - -Not being troubled as to the means he took to obtain it, it was but -natural that this scoundrel should gather together a considerable -quantity of gold; it is some satisfaction to the moral sense to know -that neither Ayora nor any one else was any the better for it. The idea -of delivering up his ill-gotten treasures was repugnant to the avarice -of this robber, who secretly made off with them to sea and was never -more heard of. The colony which he had founded at _Santa Cruz_ met with -no better fate. The garrison, having given much offence to the Indians, -were beset at night by Pocorosa and his people; a desperate struggle -ensued, but when morning broke, only five Spaniards were left alive to -carry the tale to _Darien_. It may here be mentioned that Hurtado, who -had been sent by Pedrarias to discover the causes in the delay of the -return of Ayora, brought back with him to _Darien_ a hundred peaceful -Indians, of whom he disposed as slaves. A number of these had been lent -to him as carriers by the _cacique_ Careta, the friend and ally of -Nuñez. - -[Sidenote: 1515.] - -In a letter addressed to Vasco Nuñez, King Ferdinand expressed his high -sense of his merits and services, and constituted him _Adelantado_ of -the Southern Sea, and governor of the provinces of _Panamá_ and _Coybá_. -He was, however, to be subordinate to Pedrarias. A letter was likewise -written at the same time to the latter, informing him of this -arrangement, and requiring him to consult with Vasco Nuñez upon all -affairs of importance. This communication was a severe blow to the -vanity of the jealous old man; and upon its receipt, he summoned a -council to deliberate as to what action should be taken. It was finally -arranged that the above-mentioned titles and dignities should be -nominally conferred upon Nuñez, but that for the meantime he was not to -enter into possession of the territories assigned to him. - -At this critical moment Carabito, the agent of Nuñez, happened to return -from _Cuba_ with a vessel freighted with arms and ammunition, and having -seventy men on board. He anchored at some distance from _Darien_, but -sent word of his arrival to Nuñez, all of which became speedily known to -Pedrarias. The suspicious mind of the latter taking the alarm, he at -once ordered Nuñez to be seized and confined; but he was prevailed upon -by the bishop to inquire into the matter calmly, the result being that, -as nothing treasonable was proved against him, Nuñez was set at liberty. - -The bishop next endeavoured to persuade Pedrarias to employ Vasco Nuñez -on an expedition which he was about to despatch to the Southern Sea and -to the Isle of Pearls. As, however, there was much credit and probably -much wealth to be derived from it, Pedrarias preferred to give the -command to his own kinsman, Morales, with whom he associated Francisco -Pizarro, who had been in Nuñez’ expedition to the same region. Gaspar -Morales accordingly started with sixty men, and traversed the mountains -by a shorter route than that which had previously been taken. He arrived -at the territories of a _cacique_ named Tutibrá, where he left one-half -of his men under Peñalosa, whilst with the remainder he set out in -canoes for the Pearl Islands. On arriving at the _Isla Rica_, so named -by Nuñez, they experienced a warm reception from the _cacique_, who -sallied forth four times against them, but who was as often repulsed -with loss. His warriors were paralysed by the firearms and the -blood-hounds, and the _cacique_ was at length obliged to sue for peace. -He presented to his guests as a peace-offering a basket filled with -pearls, two of them being of remarkable size and beauty. Taking Morales -and Pizarro to the summit of a wooden tower, he pointed proudly to a -long vista of islands subject to his sway, and promised his new friends -as many pearls as they might desire so long as they should continue to -give him their friendship. - -Turning towards the mainland, which stretched away mountain upon -mountain as far as the eye could reach, the communicative chief told -his guests of a country of inexhaustible riches that lay in that -direction. His words and suggestions were not lost upon one of the two -men who listened to him. The _cacique_ further agreed to become the -vassal of the king of Castile, and to pay him an annual tribute of one -hundred pounds weight of pearls. The party then returned to the mainland -at another point than that at which they had embarked, when Morales sent -a detachment of ten men to conduct Peñalosa and his party from the -village of _Tutibrá_. - -During the absence of the Spanish leaders at the islands, a conspiracy -had been formed by a large number of the _caciques_ along the coast to -massacre the whole band of invaders. This measure was undoubtedly the -result of grossly tyrannical conduct on the part of the Spaniards. By -some writers the provocation is ascribed to Peñalosa; by others it is -given to Morales himself, who is stated on one occasion to have come -upon an Indian town or village in the midst of a festivity, when the men -and women were seated apart, and to have taken advantage of the -opportunity to capture the females. We shall not be far wrong if we -assign both to Peñalosa and to Morales a full share of the enormities -which brought about the conspiracy. - -The party sent in quest of Peñalosa put up for the night in the village -of one of the conspirators; but in the dead of night the house was -wrapped in flames, and most of the strangers perished. There was at this -time with the Spaniards under Morales a _cacique_ named Chirucá, who, on -learning of the above-mentioned massacre, instantly fled during the -night. He was pursued and taken, and, on being put to the torture, -confessed the whole conspiracy. Morales and Pizarro were appalled by the -unsuspected danger into which they had fallen. They, however, compelled -Chirucá to send a message to each of the _caciques_ inviting him to a -conference. The _caciques_ fell into the snare, and eighteen of them -were put in chains. At the same time Peñalosa with his thirty men -arrived from _Tutibrá_. Being thus in strength, the Spaniards lost no -time in attacking the unsuspecting Indians, of whom seven hundred were -slain. The eighteen captive _caciques_, and likewise Chirucá, were given -to the blood-hounds. - -After the above-mentioned occurrence, Morales attacked by night a -warlike _cacique_ named Biru, setting fire to his town. The chief, who -at first fled, soon turned upon his pursuers and fought for the entire -day, which ended not much to the advantage of the Spaniards. In his -retreat, Morales was harassed by the people of the twenty _caciques_ -whom he had caused to be slaughtered. Being much pressed, he had -recourse to the expedient of stabbing his Indian captives at intervals -as he went along, hoping thus to occupy and delay his pursuers. In this -manner, says Oviedo, perished ninety or a hundred persons. Vasco Nuñez -could not be called an over-scrupulous commander; but though in -circumstances of difficulty he had to provide for the safety and wants -of his men as best he could, he was by nature neither cruel nor -treacherous. It would be an outrage to name him together with such men -as Ayora and Morales, of which latter’s proceeding, just mentioned, he -writes to the king that a more cruel deed had never been heard of. - -For nine days the Spaniards were hunted about the woods and mountains, -at the end of which time they found themselves at the point from which -they had set out. It was all their commanders could do to prevent them -from yielding to despair. Entering a thick forest, they were again -assailed by Indians, with whom they now fought like wild beasts. They at -length owed their safety to the fact of their surprising some canoes, in -which they traversed the Gulf of _St. Michael_, landing at a less -hostile locality, from which they again set out to cross the mountains. -After incredible sufferings they returned to _Darien_, with the -satisfaction of having brought with them their precious pearls from -_Isla Rica_, one of which was afterwards presented to the Empress of -Charles V. - -Another expedition sent out by Pedrarias was still more unfortunate than -that above referred to. It was commanded by Becerra, and consisted of -one hundred and eighty men. Of this force the sole survivor was an -Indian youth, who returned to _Darien_ almost famished with hunger. His -leader, he said, had entered by unknown ways the province of _Cenú_, -where the Indians were fully prepared to receive him. His men were -wounded by poisoned arrows; the paths were blocked by felled timber; and -finally, when Becerra’s men, under the guidance of Indians, were -crossing a great river, the latter contrived to destroy them all. - -About this time the historian Oviedo became so disgusted with the -intolerable conduct of his countrymen in the Isthmus of _Darien_, that -he resolved to return to Spain for the purpose of giving information to -the king, and in order that he might live in a country more secure for -his conscience and his life. It is interesting to note that he was -charged with complaints to the king by the governor against the bishop -and by the bishop against the governor. Pedrarias too seems to have -begun to take this state of things to heart. He ordered the -melting-house to be closed, and, together with the bishop, caused public -prayers to be offered up that God would remove his anger from the -colony. Of evil deeds there was certainly enough to rouse the wrath of -the Almighty. With one expedition sent out by Pedrarias under the -_Alcalde Mayor_ Espinosa, there was a Franciscan monk named San Roman. -In writing to the head of the Dominicans, San Roman begs the latter, for -the love of God, to speak to the authorities at _San Domingo_ and urge -them to provide a remedy for the _Terra Firma_, which these tyrants were -destroying. This letter was given by Pedro de Cordova to Las Casas. On -his return to Spain, the same Franciscan, it is to be hoped with some -exaggeration, stated at Seville that in this expedition of Espinosa’s he -had seen killed by the sword or thrown to the dogs above forty thousand -souls. Espinosa returned with two thousand captives, all of whom are -said to have perished at _Darien_. - -We have seen so far the results of the policy of Pedrarias and his -lieutenants as regards the inhabitants of the Isthmus. We have now to -turn to his treatment of the most capable and distinguished Spaniard -within the colony, namely, the _Adelantado_ Vasco Nuñez de Balboa. In -the midst of the general gloom in which the settlement of _Darien_ was -enveloped, Pedrarias was continually haunted by the fear that the able -_Adelantado_ would one day oust him from his office. Had the choice of a -leader depended on the people, he knew that Nuñez would have been -elected by acclamation; and he had but recently received proofs of the -high estimation in which his services were regarded by the king. He was -further aware of the gloomy tales of misrule and consequent misery which -were being constantly sent to Spain with reference to his own -government. Whilst Pedrarias was in this frame of mind, a new idea was -presented to him by Bishop Quevedo, the fast friend of Nuñez, who -suggested a matrimonial alliance between the _Adelantado_ and the -governor’s daughter. The suggestion seemed to be a happy one and was -readily accepted by both parties, a regular contract being entered into, -and the young lady being sent for from Spain. - -[Sidenote: 1516.] - -Vasco Nuñez was now the ally of the governor, whose jealousy was lost -sight of in his desire to further the interests of his daughter’s future -husband. Nuñez was authorised to build brigantines and to make the -necessary preparations for an expedition of discovery on the Southern -Sea. A town named _Acla_ was founded at a point to the west of _Darien_, -whence there was supposed to be the most convenient route across the -mountains. Here Nuñez commenced his operations, having two hundred men -placed under his command and being aided by an advance from the -treasury. He was also assisted with funds by a notary of _Darien_, named -Hernando de Arguello. Nuñez pursued his undertaking with his accustomed -energy, and had in a short time constructed the materials of four -brigantines. The timber was felled in the forest of _Acla_, and was -then, with the anchors and rigging, transported to the opposite shore of -the Isthmus. On this service were engaged Spaniards, negroes, and -Indians. As there were no other roads save Indian paths through the -primeval forests or up the rugged defiles, the work of transportation -was similar to that with which the journals of Mr. Stanley in Africa -have made us familiar in our own day. Many of the Indians perished over -the task; but at length the ponderous loads were conveyed to a river -which flowed into the Pacific. - -Even then the labours of Nuñez and his men were far from being complete; -for, with all their trouble, the Spaniards found that the timber which -they had brought at such cost of labour and of life was useless, being -worm-eaten from having been cut near salt water. They were obliged, -therefore, to fell trees near the river and begin their work afresh. But -the perseverance and good management of Nuñez at length overcame every -difficulty. As food was scarce he divided his people into three bands, -assigning to one the task of foraging for provisions, to another that of -cutting and sawing the timber, and to the third that of bringing the -rigging and the ironwork from _Acla_. - -The patience of the working party was still further to be tried; for -when the rainy season set in, the river rose so rapidly that the workmen -had barely time to save their lives by climbing the nearest trees. The -wood on which they had expended so much labour was either buried out of -sight or carried away by the torrent. The same cause prevented the -foraging party from returning with food; and the workmen were thus -reduced to feed on roots. In this extremity the Spaniards owed their -relief to the ingenuity of the Indians, who contrived to fasten a number -of logs together, thus making a floating bridge on which they were able -to cross to the opposite bank, where they procured provisions. - -When the river had subsided, the workmen resumed their operations; and, -after immense toil, Vasco Nuñez had the satisfaction of seeing two of -the brigantines afloat on the river _Balsas_. As soon as they could be -fitted and manned for sea, he embarked in them with his companions on -the mighty ocean which he had been the first European to discover. His -first cruise was to the Pearl Islands, on one of which he disembarked -the greater part of his men, sending back his vessels for the remainder. -On their arrival, taking a hundred men with him, he set out on a -reconnoitering cruise to the eastward, in the direction to which the -natives pointed as being that of the land which abounded in gold. Nuñez -and his party sailed for about twenty leagues beyond the Gulf of _San -Miguel_, the seamen being alarmed at the number of whales which they met -with. On this account he anchored for the night, intending to continue -his cruise in the same direction next day. But when daylight came the -wind had changed, whereupon he steered for land. It was at the point -where a party of Spaniards under Morales had recently been massacred; -and as the Indians were disposed to fight, Nuñez took vengeance upon -them for the slaughter of his countrymen, after which he re-embarked and -returned to _Isla Rica_. - -Nuñez resolved to build his remaining brigantines at this island, and -accordingly despatched men to _Acla_ to bring the necessary rigging. It -was at this time that a rumour reached him of the appointment of a new -governor to supersede Pedrarias. His relations with the latter were now -so good that he was not a little disturbed by the rumour in question, -since it was possible that the new governor might put a stop to the -exploring expedition which he contemplated, or might entrust the command -of it to some other person. Under these circumstances, he held a -consultation with some of his friends as to what had better be done, and -the fact that part of this conversation was overheard by a sentry who -had taken refuge from the rain in the verandah of Nuñez’ house, had an -important bearing upon the fate of that cavalier. It was agreed that a -trusty person should be sent to _Acla_, seemingly on business. Should he -find that there was no foundation for the rumour of the coming of a new -governor, he was to explain to Pedrarias the progress of their -operations, and to request further assistance. In the opposite event he -was to return forthwith to _Isla Rica_; for in that case it had been -determined that Nuñez and his party should put to sea at once on their -expedition of discovery. - -The messenger chosen to go to _Acla_ was Garabito, the same who had been -sent by Nuñez to _Cuba_ for recruits. It is stated that this man was -possessed by a secret enmity to Nuñez, on account of having been -discovered and rebuked by the latter for his attentions to the daughter -of the _Cacique_ Careta, who all this time had lived with Nuñez, and to -whom he is said to have been much attached. It is even said that -Garabito in his jealousy went so far as to send an anonymous letter to -Pedrarias, stating that Nuñez had no intention of marrying his daughter, -and that he was merely playing a part to gain time. It is certain that -Garabito, on his arrival at _Acla_, basely betrayed his confiding -friend. - -A new governor had indeed been sent out from Spain to supersede -Pedrarias; but he had died in the harbour of _Darien_. From Garabito -Pedrarias had no difficulty in extracting all the information which he -possessed, and, further, all that he conjectured respecting the plans -of Nuñez. In fact, the suspicions of the jealous old governor had been -thoroughly aroused afresh. The latter had made a lamentable mistake in -allowing so long an interval to elapse without sending to his chief a -report of the progress of his expedition, and there were not wanting at -_Darien_ jealous and mischief-making persons still further to irritate -the governor’s mind against him. - -When Garabito was arrested, and when his papers were seized, there was a -great commotion at _Darien_, and the friends of Nuñez were anxious to -put him on his guard. Foremost amongst these was Arguello, who had -embarked most of his fortune in his enterprise, and who now wrote him a -letter urging him to put to sea without delay, and stating that he would -be protected by the Geronomite Fathers at _San Domingo_, who had been -sent out with full powers by Cardinal Ximenes, and who regarded with -much approval the exploration of the Southern Sea. It was Nuñez’ extreme -misfortune that this letter should fall into the hands of Pedrarias, and -that the latter should by this means become convinced of the existence -of a plot against his authority. Arguello was now arrested; but the -governor, being fully convinced of Nuñez’ treasonable intentions, -thought it necessary to have recourse to stratagem to get the latter -within his power. Should he openly summon him to _Darien_, he did not -doubt that he would lose no time in putting himself beyond his -jurisdiction. - -The mind of Pedrarias being thus a prey to fear and suspicion, he wrote -an amicable letter to his _Adelantado_, requesting him to repair to -_Acla_, to consult with him respecting the expedition; he at the same -time ordered Pizarro to muster all the troops he could collect and to -arrest Vasco Nuñez. The summons to proceed to _Acla_ was instantly -obeyed; and, unattended by any armed force, Nuñez, unconscious of having -committed any crime, set out to meet his doom. On the road across the -Isthmus, his frank and genial manners so gained on the messengers of -Pedrarias, that the latter at length felt bound to warn him of his -danger. They could not see this gallant cavalier fall into the snare set -for him without speaking a warning word by which he might profit to -effect his escape. But Nuñez was so unconscious of evil thought towards -Pedrarias, that he declined to take advantage of the opportunity offered -to him. He was soon afterwards met and arrested by Pizarro. - -Nuñez once in his power, the spiteful governor lost no time in urging -the _alcalde mayor_, Espinosa, to proceed against the _Adelantado_ with -the utmost rigour of the law. The charge against Nuñez was that of being -engaged in a treasonable conspiracy to throw off the king’s authority -and to assume an independent sway on the borders of the Pacific. The -witnesses against him were Garabito and the sentinel who had overheard -and misconstrued a portion of the conversation held between Nuñez and -his officers at _Isla Rica_ on the rainy night when it was resolved to -despatch Garabito to _Acla_. Of the charge of treason against the crown -Nuñez was entirely innocent. All that could be said against him was -that, in case they should learn that Pedrarias had been superseded, he -had agreed with his officers that they should sail on the expedition -which Pedrarias had sanctioned without waiting for fresh orders from the -new governor. - -[Sidenote: 1517.] - -But it was in vain for Nuñez to be innocent; it was in vain that he -indignantly repudiated the charge brought against him, pointing out that -had he for a moment entertained the views attributed to him he would -never have allowed himself to be entrapped into his present position. -The mind of Pedrarias was hopelessly prejudiced against him, and the -vindictive old man urged on the unwilling judge from day to day, heaping -charge upon charge, until at length a sentence of death was pronounced -against the accused. The judge recommended him to mercy on account of -his services, or begged that at least he might be allowed to appeal. -But these recommendations were lost on Pedrarias, and Nuñez was -condemned to die. In the same sentence were included several of his -officers as well as Arguello, who had written a letter to put him upon -his guard. The informer Garabito was pardoned. In the public square of -_Acla_, at the hands of the common headsman, the discoverer of the -Southern Sea, at the early age of forty-two, expiated the crime of -having aroused the jealousy of a narrow-minded official superior. The -blow which then fell affected not Nuñez alone, but the whole Peruvian -nation; for had he been permitted to carry out his proposed expedition, -he would certainly have anticipated the discoveries of Pizarro, and, in -view of the character of the two men respectively, who can doubt that -the conquest of Peru would have had a widely different result? - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -_LAS CASAS; HIS COLONY ON THE PEARL COAST._ - -1515-1521. - - -The history of the northern coast of South America, from the Gulf of -_Paria_ to the Isthmus of _Darien_, is intimately connected with the -history of slavery during the century which succeeded the date of the -discovery of the New World. Modern slavery in Europe (not including the -Ottoman dominions) seems to have dated from the war between the -Spaniards and the Moors, when such of the latter as were made prisoners -were, under Ferdinand, as a matter of course, sold as slaves. It was a -period when the Church was all in all as regards the European polity. -Whatever the head of the Church chose to say was right, and became -therefore right in the eyes of the sons of the Church. The will of the -Sovereign Pontiff became law, and was appealed to as an ultimate court -of reference throughout Christendom. - -The state of public morality then existing amongst Christian nations, in -respect to people and races not within the pale of Christianity, was -more or less what it had been in the time of the Crusades. There was at -the best merely a truce existing at any one time between the Christian -and the Moslem powers. Their principles were antagonistic and -incompatible. The days had not yet arrived when the Turk was to be -called in as an ally by one Christian power fighting against another. - -Such being the state of things when new islands and continents were -suddenly discovered, no one in Christendom dreamed of questioning the -absolute right of the Pope to dispose of them as he might see fit; and -in accordance with this view, the line was originally drawn by Pope -Alexander VI., fixing the limit of the Spanish and Portuguese -territories respectively, first at a hundred leagues to the west of the -_Azores_, and subsequently, by the Treaty of Tordesillas, at three -hundred and seventy leagues to the west of the Cape _de Verde_ Islands. -By the Bull of May 2nd, 1493 (the year after the discovery of America), -the Spanish sovereigns obtained the same rights, privileges, and -indulgences in respect to the newly-discovered regions, as had been -granted to the Portuguese with regard to their African discoveries, -subject to the same condition of planting and spreading the Catholic -faith. It was not for a moment considered in the matter that the natives -of the newly-discovered regions possessed any rights whatsoever, saving -such as might be granted to them by their Christian invaders, acting -under the orders of the Catholic kings whose claims were sanctioned by -the head of the Church. - -It was but the fulfilment of the promise of Scripture that the heathen -should be given to God’s people for an inheritance, and the uttermost -parts of the earth for a possession;[H] and thus, according to the -opinion of the best ecclesiastical and legal authorities, it was fair -and right to enslave such natives of the new countries as might oppose -in arms the Christians who came to take possession of their lands, or -who, being addicted to cannibalism, were beyond the pale of humanity. It -is necessary to bear the above facts in mind in order to judge fairly -the conduct of some of the greatest men of the period, including Prince -Henry of Portugal and Columbus himself. - -Prince Henry and Columbus were the two great originators of the -geographical discoveries of the age. Either of the two was profoundly -religious, and in the mind of each the ardour for propagating the true -faith existed equally with the ardour for discovery. It is a strange and -sad reflection that each one of those two great men--in some respects -the greatest men of their age--was the originator of a new form of -slavery. To Prince Henry is to be traced the origin of the enslavement -of African negroes; to Columbus that of the system of _encomiendas_ or -partitions of Indians amongst Spanish settlers. Either system was -productive of untold misery to large classes of the human race, and in -one case the evil is not even yet extinct, as witness _Brazil_ and -_Cuba_. And yet the motives of Prince Henry in originating and -sanctioning African slavery, were, without doubt, not only wholly -unselfish, but were dictated solely by a desire for the spiritual -enlightenment and civilization of the heathen. The motives of Columbus -were perhaps more open to question. It is true that he himself, when on -his last visit to _Hispaniola_ he had seen the miserable results of the -system which he had originated, declared to his sovereign that in -sending home Indian captives to be sold as slaves he had been actuated -solely by a desire for their spiritual welfare, and by the hope that -they would return to spread civilization amongst their countrymen; but -it is to be remembered that the motives of the great Genoese were not -wholly pure, and that he himself repeatedly requested permission to send -home Indians to be sold as slaves in order to diminish the expense to -the crown in connection with the colony. He was rightfully rebuked by -the pure-minded Isabella, who indignantly ordered such Indians to be -returned to their country, and instructed the admiral that their -conversion was to be brought about by the ordinary means, and not by -their being enslaved. - -It is only fair to the early Spanish settlers in America, the account -of whose proceedings in respect to the Indians cannot fail to rouse -feelings of horror and disgust, that we should duly consider and weigh -the feelings of the age in which they lived on the part of Christendom -towards all who were beyond its pale. They were in fact the feelings of -the chosen people towards the surrounding heathen, who were only -deserving of being spared on condition of their becoming hewers of wood -and drawers of water. It is true that in the case of a number of Spanish -leaders, including Columbus himself and his brother _Don_ Bartholomew, -the Indians were to be spared and protected on the condition of their -accepting the yoke imposed upon them and fulfilling the tasks assigned -to them by their invaders; but upon the slightest resistance or evasion -of their duties, all their natural rights were at once abrogated, and -they became as so many beasts of burden, to be employed at the pleasure -of their drivers. Amongst rulers and governors Queen Isabella stands out -alone to protest against such a construction of the duties of one race -towards another, even although the one were Christian and the other -heathen. - -But yet, seeking to make every allowance that can be urged in excuse or -palliation, there is but one verdict that can possibly be given as to -the general conduct of the Spaniards towards the natives of America, -namely, that it surpassed in remorseless, and often stupid and -short-sighted, cruelty the conduct of any one conquering or so-called -“superior” race towards another conquered or “inferior” race of which -history contains any record. In this respect we cannot but think that -the Spaniards as a race have been too leniently judged by modern -writers--not Spanish, but foreign. Much, for instance, as Washington -Irving is to be admired for his clear judgment and his mastery of his -subject, we cannot help thinking that he is scarcely justified in -assigning the undoubted excesses committed by Spaniards in the New World -merely to a set of ruthless adventurers, the scum of their race, rather -than to Spaniards in general. It would of course be in the highest -degree unjust to make an entire people responsible for the wholesale -atrocities of two unlettered adventurers such as Pizarro and Almagro; -but the accusation of scandalous and intolerable rapacity and cruelty is -unfortunately not confined to the class to which such men belong; it -applies equally to all ranks and grades of the invaders, with here and -there a notable exception--generally, but not always, on the part of one -or more churchmen--most of all in Las Casas. - -The conduct of Ovando towards the natives of _Hispaniola_, and more -particularly to those of _Xaragua_, is one of the many instances in -question of the inhuman treatment of Indians by a Spaniard of the -highest rank. It will be remembered that on one occasion some eighty -_caciques_ were treacherously seized, and upon mere unfounded suspicion, -bound to posts and committed to the flames. It was estimated that at the -time of the advent of the Spaniards the unfortunate island of _Hayti_ -contained about a million or twelve hundred thousand inhabitants--some -writers place the population at a much larger amount,--yet in an -incredibly short period, under the government of Ovando, it was reduced -to twelve thousand, so reduced, indeed, that labourers had to be brought -from other islands. And yet Ovando had been specially selected for his -“prudence,” in order that he might redress the wrongs to which the -Indians were said to be subjected under the government of Columbus and -his brother, and the Indians were specially commended to his care by -Queen Isabella. - -It may be said that the conduct of one tyrannical governor should not be -charged to the discredit of a people. This would be a fair argument had -Ovando been promptly recalled when the news of his atrocities at -_Xaragua_ reached Spain, as was in our own day Governor Eyre, when the -news of his high-handed proceedings in _Jamaica_ reached England. -Ovando’s proceedings were indeed so repugnant to the humane heart of -Isabella that with her dying breath she exacted a promise from Ferdinand -that he should be recalled from his government. He was, later on, -recalled, but only after the lapse of four years, and when _Don_ Diego -Columbus had been declared by the courts of justice to be entitled to -the government of _Hispaniola_. The long period which elapsed between -the fate of Anacoana and the recall of Ovando showed that neither his -king nor the public feeling of Spain in general was much shocked by the -proceedings which have left an indelible stain upon his name. - -But it cannot be imagined that the wholesale depopulation of _Hayti_ is -chargeable merely to one or more governors. It is to be attributed -indiscriminately to the colonists in general, and amongst them were many -cavaliers who had gone to seek their fortune in the New World in the -train of Ovando. If we turn in other directions we see merely a -repetition of the same facts. Cortez and many of his compeers were men -of noble family; but in the history of their deeds we find at least -equal cruelty, as regards the natives, with that which attended the -proceedings of such low-born adventurers as Pizarro and Almagro. Whilst -excellent laws and regulations for the well-being and proper treatment -of the natives of America were constantly being enacted in Spain, we -nowhere read of wholesome examples being made of the wrong-doers who -treated these laws as a dead letter. Even the laws and regulations, good -and well meant as they were, were not the result of the reaction of -public opinion against the ill-treatment of the Indians, but were -brought about by a few humane ecclesiastics who had been helpless -eye-witnesses of the atrocities committed by their countrymen, and who -returned to Spain with the hope of rousing the conscience of the -sovereign and his advisers to a sense of the enormities which were being -daily committed in his name. This brings us to the historical part -played by Las Casas on the continent of South America; but before -describing it, it may be well to give a brief statement of what had -already been done by other ecclesiastics in the same cause. - -The Dominican monks of _Hispaniola_, grieved at the barbarities -practised towards the natives of that unfortunate island, had entered an -indignant protest against the treatment which was meted out to the -vassals of Queen Isabella. These monks were about twelve or fifteen in -number, and they soon gathered for themselves an idea of the cruelties -which were being practised around them. As they determined that their -protest should be a collective one, they agreed that a discourse should -be preached before the inhabitants of _San Domingo_, to which they -should all attach their names. The preacher, taking for his text “I am -the voice of one crying in the wilderness,” declared to his audience -with piercing words that they were living; in mortal sin by reason of -their tyranny to the Indians, and he demanded what authority there was -for the imposition of this servitude, and what ground for these wars? -The sermon was heard to the end, but on reflection the principal persons -amongst the audience went to the monastery to make a fierce -remonstrance. - -They insisted on seeing the preacher, and required that he should make a -retractation on the following Sunday. Next Sunday came, and the place of -worship was crowded by a congregation brought together to hear the -expected apology. The same preacher again ascended the pulpit; but -Father Antonio only repeated his former statements and insisted upon -their conclusions. He moreover added that the Dominicans would not -confess any man who should have made incursions amongst the Indians. The -congregation again listened to the discourse; but they determined to -send a complaint to the king, and afterwards to despatch a Franciscan -monk to argue their case at court. Thus were two orders of the Church -arrayed against each other; the one urged on by motives of Christianity -and humanity, the other by religious rivalry. - -The Dominicans likewise resolved to send their advocate, and amongst the -colonists some pious persons were found to defray the expenses of his -voyage. The advocate selected was Father Antonio. When the letters from -the authorities of _San Domingo_ had reached the king, his majesty had -sent for the head of their order in Spain, and had complained to him of -the scandal occasioned in the colony by this preaching. Soon after this -the envoys arrived, Father Alonso, the Franciscan, being well received -by the authorities, and having free access to the king, whilst the doors -of the presence-chamber were closed against the Dominican. Father -Antonio, however, watching his time, obtained the desired audience. King -Ferdinand was inexpressibly shocked at his statement, and gave orders -that the matter should be diligently looked into forthwith. He was true -to his word, and summoned a _junta_ to consider the matter. This board -was formed partly of the king’s council and partly of theologians. - -According to Las Casas the _junta_ came to the decision--“That the -Indians were free men; that they ought to be instructed in the Christian -faith; that they might be ordered to work, but so that their working -should not hinder their conversion, and should be such as they could -endure; that they should have cottages and lands of their own, and time -to work for themselves; that they should be made to hold communication -with the Christians; and that they should receive wages, not paid in -money, but in clothes and furniture for their cottages.” Such was the -reply of the _junta_ to the king. Meanwhile Father Antonio, being much -grieved at not obtaining a sufficient hearing, determined upon the bold -course of convincing his opponent the Franciscan. He told him that -others were but using him as a tool; that he was perilling the reward -of a life of sanctity by doing the devil’s work without being paid even -in the devil’s wages, and appealed to his own experience as regarded the -inhumanity he had witnessed. Strange to say, the Franciscan was entirely -gained over, and put himself under the guidance of his rival. - -On receiving the reply from the _junta_, the king’s ministers requested -that body to draw up a set of laws in conformity with the principles -which they had affirmed; but this they declined to do. Meanwhile the -king’s conscience seems to have become uneasy in the matter, and he was -willing that the question should be further considered. He asked an -opinion in writing from his two preachers; and as this coincided with -that of the _junta_, it was adopted by the king, and nothing remained -but to carry it into execution. A set of laws was accordingly drawn up -by certain members of the council, who took as their basis that the -system of _encomiendas_ was to be retained. The laws were to the -following effect:--“The Indians were first to be brought amongst the -Spaniards; all gentle means being used towards the _caciques_, to -persuade them to come willingly. Then, for every fifty Indians four -_bohios_ (large huts) should be made by their masters. The _bohios_ were -to be thirty feet in length by fifteen in breadth. Three thousand -_montones_ (the hillocks which were used to preserve the plants from too -much moisture) of _yuca_, of which they made the _cassava_ bread, two -thousand _montones_ of _yams_, with a certain space for growing -_pimento_, and a certain number of fowls, were to be assigned for the -living of these fifty Indians.” - -Every Spaniard having an _encomienda_ of Indians, was to construct some -sort of chapel in which prayers were to be read morning and evening, and -a church was to be erected for the general neighbourhood. It was enacted -that the Indians were to work at the mines for five months at a time, -when they were to have forty days in which to till their own land, when -they were to return to the mines. Certain regulations were made -concerning their food, which Las Casas condemns in entirety. The -employment of the Indians in the mines was not only encouraged but -insisted upon. One _peso_ of gold was to be given to each Indian -annually, with which to provide his clothes. - -Two visitors were to be appointed for each Spanish settlement; but as -these were permitted to have _encomiendas_, it was scarcely to be -expected that their proceedings should be impartial. The _caciques_ were -to have not more than six Indians set apart for their service, and the -_cacique_ and his attendants were to go to whatsoever Spaniard had the -greatest number of the same tribe allotted to him. They were to be -employed in light and easy services. - -Such is a brief summary of the laws promulgated at Burgos, in December -1512, and which have ever since been called the Laws of Burgos. - -When the king had spoken to the provincial of the Dominicans condemning -the sermons of Father Antonio, the provincial wrote to the head of the -order in _Hispaniola_, upon which Pedro de Cordova came over to Spain -and presented himself at court. When he had read the laws of Burgos and -had expressed his dissatisfaction with them, King Ferdinand said to him, -“Take upon yourself, then, Father, the charge of remedying them; you -will do me a great service therein; and I will order that what you -decide upon shall be adopted.” With inexplicable diffidence the vicar -replied, “I beseech your highness, do not command me.” And he thus lost -the golden opportunity of effecting the reforms to bring about which he -had come all the way from _Hispaniola_. - -On receiving this culpable and deplorable reply, King Ferdinand summoned -another _junta_ to see if the laws could be ameliorated. Pedro de -Cordova assisted, but did not succeed in doing much, although what -little was done was in accordance with his views. The additions to the -laws were mainly with a view to the cultivation of decorum and of family -ties amongst the Indians. - -Las Casas was a settler in the island of _Cuba_, and had assigned to him -a number of Indians in _repartimiento_. He himself states that he was as -much engaged as others in sending his Indians to the mines and in making -a profit out of their labour; but at the same time he treated them with -kindness and provided for their sustenance. He confesses, however, that -he paid no more regard than did other Spaniards to their religious -instruction. Reflection on the preaching of the Dominicans against the -sin of possessing Indians led his candid mind to the conclusion that the -system of _repartimientos_ was iniquitous, and that he too must preach -against it. The first practical point to be determined as a result of -the light which now guided him was what he ought to do with his Indians. -He evidently ought no longer to retain them; nor did he grudge the loss -that he should thereby sustain; but he felt that no one would be so -indulgent to them as the master they were about to lose, and that they -would be worked to death. Still it would be vain for him to preach -against _repartimientos_ whilst he retained Indians of his own. - -Las Casas commenced his preaching against Indian slavery in _Cuba_; but -he soon resolved to proceed to Spain, in order to attack the evil at its -fountain-head. It was certainly time that some independent -representation should be made to the Spanish government as to the -condition of the Indians of _Cuba_, which was so miserable that they -were forced to seek refuge in flight; and when even this refuge was -denied them--for they were pursued by blood-hounds--they had recourse to -suicide. On his arrival in _Hispaniola_, Las Casas found that Pedro de -Cordova, the chief of the Dominicans, had set out on a voyage for the -purpose of founding monasteries on the Pearl Coast. - -Two Dominicans, whose fate is instructive as showing the colonial -manners of the period, established themselves at a point about twenty -leagues from _Cumana_ called _Maracapána_, where they were hospitably -received by the Indians. Soon after the arrival of Francisco de Cordova -and Juan Garces, a Spanish vessel engaged in the pearl fisheries touched -at the same point. It may be remarked that the mainland had been -especially chosen as a field for missionary operations in order that the -efforts of the priests might not be thwarted by the evil example of the -secular colonists. As a rule the appearance of a Spanish vessel was a -signal for the natives to take to flight; but on this occasion, the -Dominican missionaries being looked upon as hostages, the _cacique_ of -the place, with his family and servants, numbering seventeen persons, -accepted an invitation on board the Spanish ship. When they were safely -on board, the vessel weighed anchor and set sail. As was to be expected, -the Indians on shore, who were witnesses of this treachery, resolved to -kill the two Dominicans, and were only dissuaded from doing so on the -assurance of the latter that the _cacique_ and his family would be -returned within four months. - -By another Spanish vessel, which soon afterwards made its appearance on -the coast, the two missionaries were enabled to communicate their -circumstances to the chief of their order at _San Domingo_. On the -arrival at that place of the first vessel, it was declared that, as it -had not been furnished with a proper license, it must be condemned as a -prize; and therefore the _cacique_ and his family were divided as slaves -amongst the judges of appeal! Some days after this transaction came the -letters of the two missionaries, whereupon the man-stealing captain took -refuge in a monastery. The Dominicans lost no time in communicating the -circumstances of the _cacique’s_ capture; but the judges of appeal -declined to give up their slaves, and at the end of the stipulated four -months the two unfortunate missionaries were put to death! - -[Sidenote: 1515.] - -In September 1515 Las Casas, accompanied by two brethren, embarked for -Spain. On his arrival he was presented to the Archbishop of Seville, -who, in turn, furnished him with letters to the king, with whom he -obtained an interview. Las Casas was fortunate enough to gain the -sympathy of King Ferdinand’s confessor; but he found an enemy to his -cause in Fonseca, the bishop of Burgos, who was the minister entrusted -with Indian affairs, and who was himself a possessor of Indians. Soon -after this, in January 1516, the king died. - -The hopes of Las Casas were now transferred to the Regent, Cardinal -Ximenes, with whom he was fortunate enough to find favour, and who -called together a _junta_ to listen to his statements and arguments. The -result was that the cardinal appointed Las Casas and two coadjutors to -draw up a plan to secure the liberty of the Indians, and to arrange -their government. In order to execute the laws agreed upon, Ximenes -determined to employ Jeronimite monks, as they were not mixed up with -the disputes which had arisen between the Franciscans and the Dominicans -respecting the fitness of the Indians for freedom. The three Jeronimite -Fathers chosen were instructed on their arrival at _San Domingo_ to call -the colonists together and to announce that the cause of their coming -was a report of the ill-treatment of the Indians, and to ask their -suggestions for a remedy for such a state of things. They were likewise -to go to the principal _caciques_, and to inform them that they had been -sent to find out the truth, to punish past wrong-doing, and to provide -security for the future. It was the will of the governors of Spain that -the Indians should be treated as Christians and free men. - -The Jeronimite Fathers were to visit every island; to ascertain the -number of Indians; and to find out how they had been treated, taking -notes of the nature of the land for the purpose of forming settlements -near the mines. Such settlements were to consist of about three hundred -persons, with the requisite buildings, and lands were to be apportioned -to each settlement, every individual receiving a plot. One administrator -was to be appointed to each one or two settlements. Other regulations -applied to religion, education, hospitals, labour upon farms and at the -mines, and respecting pasturage and the division of gold. In order in -some measure to reimburse the Spaniards for the loss of Indian -slave-labour which they would incur, they were to be paid for the land -which would be required for the settlements, whilst they were to be -permitted to procure gold on easy terms for themselves. They were -likewise allowed four or five slaves each from amongst the _Caribs_, -these being cannibals. This latter clause was sure to lead to great -abuses, as it was only necessary for the slave-hunters to declare their -captives cannibals to justify their proceedings. This provision was -inserted contrary to the wishes of Las Casas. Finally, he himself was -appointed “Protector of the Indians.” With these regulations, and with -the cardinal’s benediction, Las Casas set out from Seville. - -[Sidenote: 1516.] - -In December 1516 the Jeronimite Fathers and the Protector of the Indians -arrived at _San Domingo_, having performed the voyage in different -vessels. No sooner had they arrived than they began to prove themselves -not exactly the instruments he would have chosen for the accomplishment -of his wishes. As a matter of course they were beset by the colonists, -who represented Las Casas as a mere visionary, and in their -conversations with him they soon began to make excuses for the -inhumanity of the colonists. Nor, although they deprived such persons as -were absent of their Indians, did they think it necessary to apply the -same rule to the judges and other men in office. After a short time, the -lawyer appointed by Ximenes to take a _residencia_ of--in other words, -to make an inquiry into the conduct of--all the judges in the Indies, -arrived at _Hispaniola_. Las Casas then took the bold step of impeaching -the judges, whom he accused of both bringing Indians from the _Lucayan_ -islands and of causing the death of the two Dominicans in _Cumana_, a -measure which was distasteful to the Jeronimites, who preferred to -manage things quietly. - -The Fathers had not the courage to adopt in their full extent the -measures which were within their power; but they nevertheless made -considerable efforts to improve the condition of the Indians, publishing -the orders in this respect and encouraging the natives to come to them -with their complaints. They likewise wrote to Pedrarias, the governor of -_Darien_, ordering him to make no more expeditions, and to send an -account of the gold and slaves which he had taken. He was likewise to -inquire into the justice of his Indians’ capture, and to restore such as -it should turn out had been unlawfully taken. The Fathers also formed -some of the Indians into settlements, which were, however, of no long -duration, owing partly to the ravages of the small-pox. - -The proceedings of the Jeronimite Fathers were, however, too lukewarm in -their nature to suit the ardent soul of Las Casas, who now determined to -return to Spain in order to complain of them, in which measure he was -confirmed by the prior of the Dominicans and likewise by the special -judges. The Fathers were much disconcerted at the move, and sent one of -their own body to represent them at court. Las Casas reached Castile to -find his patron Ximenes at the point of death, but the intrepid -Protector of the Indians brought his case before the Grand Chancellor, -who spoke of him to the king and received his commands to consult with -him as to a remedy for the government of the Indies. One result of this -consultation was certainly a singular one. Whilst it was proposed to -send out Spanish labourers in considerable numbers, in the pay of the -government, to _Hispaniola_, Las Casas himself suggested that in -addition a certain number of negro slaves might be imported. The author -of this suggestion lived to acknowledge and to deplore its unjust -character. - -Before this period, negro slaves had been imported into the Spanish -possessions in America, and King Charles had only recently granted -licenses to certain persons to import Africans into _Hispaniola_. The -Jeronimite Fathers likewise looked upon the importation of Africans, who -could better bear severe labour, as a remedy for the trials of the -Indians, and the measure obtained the concurrence of the judge of -_residencia_. The suggestion, when made by Las Casas, was approved of. -The number of negroes which it was thought would suffice for the present -was four thousand; and accordingly De Dresa, a Fleming, obtained a -license from the king for this purpose--a grant which was accompanied by -the assurance of a monopoly for eight years. The result of the monopoly -was that the price of negroes greatly rose, the suggestion as to Spanish -colonists being sent to the Indies not having been acted upon. - -The Chancellor at this time dying, the influence of Las Casas was once -more shaken. Fonseca, the bishop of Burgos, again returned to power, -and, as a consequence, the Jeronimite Fathers were recalled. Las Casas -was fortunate enough to obtain the interest on behalf of the Indians of -a gentleman immediately attached to the king; and his representations -were from time to time fortified by the accounts received of some fresh -atrocities committed by the Spaniards in America. The Dominican prior, -Pedro de Cordova, had much to tell his colleague of the slave-hunting -exploits of the Spaniards in _Trinidad_, and he suggested that one -hundred leagues on the coast of _Cumana_ should be set apart by the king -as a territory in which the Franciscans and the Dominicans might preach -the gospel undisturbed by the presence of laymen. - -Las Casas, failing for the meantime to obtain such a grant, fell back -upon his scheme of Spanish emigration, and about two hundred men were -actually sent out from Seville, a measure which was not attended by any -beneficial result, since the emigrants were left on their arrival to -provide for themselves from their own resources. A new Grand Chancellor -was now appointed; and in his eyes Las Casas likewise found favour. To -Gattinara the Protector of the Indians submitted a new scheme of -colonization. The plan was that a sort of religious fraternity should be -created, consisting of fifty knights, and that by their aid Las Casas -should settle the country for a thousand leagues along the coast from -_Paria_, a distance which was subsequently reduced to two hundred and -sixty leagues. By the help of the king’s preachers, this idea of Las -Casas was actually put in the way of being realized. - -[Sidenote: 1520.] - -After the usual Spanish course of _juntas_ and much arguing, it was -resolved that the land which Las Casas sought for should be granted to -him, although at each step his proposition was opposed by the Bishop of -Burgos. Immediately before the departure of Charles from Coruña in May -1520, in order to be crowned Emperor of Germany, the king signed the -necessary deed of grant to Las Casas. The land which he thus acquired -extended from the province of _Paria_ in the east to that of _Santa -Martha_ in the west, and was to go through the continent to the Pacific. -Las Casas embarked at _San Lucar_ on the 11th of November 1520, taking -with him some humble labourers. After a favourable voyage, he arrived at -_Porto Rico_, where he was destined to meet with some startling news -that had considerable influence on the fate of the expedition which he -had undertaken. - -It has been already stated how two Dominican missionaries met their -martyrdom at _Cumaná_; but their fate did not at all deter their -brethren from following in their footsteps. Accordingly, in the year -1518, several Franciscans and Dominicans founded two monasteries on the -Pearl Coast, where they were joined by other monks, and where they -lived in peaceful intercourse with the Indians. There was thus a fair -prospect of some settlements in the New World existing without forced -labour or other cruelty towards the natives. But this was not to be. In -the neighbouring island of _Cubagua_ there was a certain Ojeda, who -occupied himself with pearl-fishing, and who paid a visit to the -mainland with the object of picking up some slaves. Coming to the -settlement of _Maricapána_, he proceeded to buy some maize from one of -the tribes, and he, naturally enough, requested the service of fifty men -to assist in carrying it to his vessel. Once on the shore, the misguided -men were attacked by the Spaniards and a number of them carried on board -ship. It is some satisfaction to know that when Ojeda next landed he was -watched for and slain. - -The natural result of the above transactions was that, a few days -afterwards, the Dominican monastery was attacked and its inmates put to -death. The Franciscan monastery at _Chiribichi_ was likewise attacked. -In all eighty Spaniards were killed, and the island of _Cubagua_ was -evacuated. These events had taken place at the close of the year 1519, -and the “Audience” at _San Domingo_ prepared an expedition to punish and -enslave the Indians of the Pearl Coast, which expedition, under Ocampo, -met Las Casas at _Porto Rico_. In vain he endeavoured, by showing his -“powers” to the commander, to divert him from his purpose. All that Las -Casas could do was to hasten to _San Domingo_, leaving his labourers at -_Porto Rico_. - -The Protector of the Indians was now very generally detested by the -colonists, who seemed leagued together to defeat his plans. He caused a -proclamation to be made of the royal order of which he was the bearer, -that no one should injure any of the natives of the provinces granted to -him; and, in accordance with this order, he demanded the recall of the -fleet and the discontinuance of the war. The authorities could not -openly refuse compliance; but they required time for consideration, and -meanwhile Ocampo was doing his work. The vessel in which Las Casas -sailed was likewise declared unseaworthy and was condemned, thereby -causing its owner much loss and debarring him from the means of transit. - -Las Casas was soon made aware of the success of Ocampo by the number of -slaves which were sent by him to _Hispaniola_ to be sold. The sight made -him so indignant that the “Audience” proposed to make terms with him, -offering to place Ocampo’s expedition under his command, and to share -with him the profits of the territory which he was to govern. It is to -be remarked that, in agreeing to this arrangement, Las Casas a second -time compromised himself on the subject of slavery, one of the means of -profit in the undertaking being slave-dealing. The Protector of the -Indians was to ascertain which of them were cannibals, or which should -decline to have any dealings with the Spaniards or the gospel. Such men -were to be attacked and enslaved; but, in agreeing to this arrangement, -Las Casas merely consented to accept a power which he had no intention -of exercising. Without this clause the agreement would not have been -accepted by the others who were parties to it. - -[Sidenote: 1521.] - -His vessels being ready and well stored with provisions, Las Casas set -sail in July 1521, and proceeded to _Porto Rico_, where a fresh -disappointment awaited him. The followers whom he had left there had all -dispersed, and he had to proceed to the _Terra Firma_, where he soon -found himself left with a few servants and labourers, since Ocampo and -his men availed themselves of the arrival of the vessels to return to -_San Domingo_. In this condition Las Casas had at least the comfort of -finding that the Franciscan monastery had been re-established. He joined -the community, and by means of the wife of a _cacique_, who was -acquainted with Spanish, he established friendly relations with the -Indians. There was, however, a stumbling-block in his way in the -vicinity of the island of _Cubagua_. As this island possessed no fresh -water, the Spaniards who were engaged in pearl-fishing on its coast -constantly visited the _Terra Firma_ to take in a supply. - -All the preaching of the missionary colonist was once more of no avail -with the natives in the presence of the frequent visits of his -man-stealing countrymen; and at last Las Casas was persuaded against his -own inclination to return to _San Domingo_ to complain to the “Audience” -of the mischief done by the Spaniards from _Cubagua_. His deputy, in -disobedience to the written instructions he had left, sent away the only -two boats which the colony possessed to traffic for pearls and gold. In -their absence the monastery was attacked by the Indians, and, being in a -defenceless condition, was set on fire. The inmates, however, with the -exception of two or three, succeeded in making their escape in a canoe, -in which they were fortunate enough to reach a Spanish vessel. Thus -ended the attempt at forming a moral Spanish colony on the mainland, -which had cost Las Casas so many years of labour in the face of ridicule -and opposition. The unfortunate philanthropist now abandoned his scheme -as hopeless and took refuge in a Dominican monastery. - -_Cumana_ was now no longer the scene of missionary efforts. The last -outrage of the Indians was of course avenged, and the slave marts of -_Cubagua_ and _San Domingo_ were once more filled. But as the Indians -found themselves safer in the interior, the whole coast was left -desolate, and the provinces which Columbus had found so beautiful and -populous, now merely afforded a forest for slave-hunting expeditions, -which set out from _Aricapana_. The last-named place became the -headquarters of a piratical Spanish band numbering several hundreds, who -lived entirely by predatory expeditions, the extent of which may be -judged from the fact that the Italian traveller Benzoni witnessed the -return of one with four thousand slaves--the survivors of a far greater -number--who were sent to _Cubagua_ for disposal. - - NOTE.--Chapters I. to IV. of vol. I. are, for the most part, - founded upon the following works, namely:-- - - _Navarrete_ (_Don_ M. F. de); _Viages y Descubrimientos de los - Españoles desde fines del Siglo XV._, 5 vol. sm. 4to. - - Amerigo (Vespucci), _Viaggi_. - - Vesputius (A.) Navigationum Epit.--_Grynæi_; _Canovai_; _Ramusio_, - i.; _Brosses_. - - Martyris (Petri ab Angleria);--_De Insulis nuper repertis_--_Grynæi - Orbis_. Eight Decades of the Ocean.--Hakluyt, V. - - The Spanish Conquest in America; by Arthur Helps. John W. Parker & - Son, 1855. - - Las Casas, Hist. Ind. - - Hist. del Almirante. - - Oviedo, Cronica de las Indias. - - Muñoz, Hist. Nuevo Mundo, lib. ii. - - Benzoni, History of the New World, translated: Hakluyt Society. - - The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus; together with the - Voyages of his Companions. By Washington Irving. London: John - Murray, 1849. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -_BRAZIL; THE PLATE; AND PARAGUAY._ - -1499-1557. - - -[Sidenote: 1500.] - -In the year 1499, Vicente Yañez Pinzon, of Palos, one of the three -brothers who had sailed with Columbus in his first voyage seven years -previously, obtained from the king of Castile the necessary permission -to embark on an expedition of discovery on the Atlantic. Pinzon, who was -accompanied by two nephews, as well as by several sailors who had sailed -with Columbus, set out with four _caravels_ from the port of Palos, -putting to sea in the beginning of December. After passing the _Canary_ -and the Cape _de Verde_ Islands, the expedition proceeded to the -south-west. Having sailed about seven hundred leagues, they crossed the -equator and lost sight of the north star. On crossing the equinoctial -line they encountered a terrible tempest; but the confused mariners -looked in vain for a guide whereby to steer. Pinzon pursued his course -resolutely to the west, and after sailing for about two hundred and -forty leagues further, being then in the eighth degree of southern -latitude, he beheld, on the 20th of January, a point of land, which he -called _Consolation_, but which is now known as Cape _St. Augustine_, in -the province of _Pernambuco_. The sea was discoloured, and on sounding, -they found sixteen fathoms of water. Pinzon, as in duty bound, landed -with a notary and took formal possession of the territory for the crown -of Castile. The natives whom he saw in the neighbourhood declined to -have any dealings whatsoever with the strangers; and not liking their -appearance, the commander made sail next day and stood to the north-west -until he came to the mouth of a river where he again encountered a -multitude of naked Indians with whom his men had a desperate encounter, -in which a number of Spaniards were wounded or slain. Discouraged by -this reception, the navigator now stood forty leagues to the north-west, -being once more near the equinoctial line. Here the water was so sweet -that he replenished his casks from it. - -Astonished at this phenomenon, he stood in for land, and arrived among a -number of islands whose people he found hospitable and in no way afraid -of intercourse with the strangers. By degrees Pinzon realised the fact -that these islands lay at the mouth of an immense river, a river so -great that its dimensions can scarcely be realised by one accustomed -even to the largest of European streams, such as the Danube or the -Volga, far less by one whose ideas of an inland stream were formed by -the Guadalquiver. The mariner had in fact alighted at the mouth of the -mightiest of the mighty streams of the New World, a river which pours -into the ocean a greater volume of water than even the _Mississippi_ or -the _Plata_; he had reached the _Amazons_, a stream which, discovered at -its mouth by one Spaniard, was, a few years later, to be traced -throughout the greater part of its course down to the ocean by another -Spaniard, the ill-fated Orellana. - -The _Amazons_ at its mouth has a breadth of no less than thirty leagues, -the volume of water proceeding through which penetrates for forty -leagues into the sea before losing its sweetness. Whilst lying at the -mouth of this river, Pinzon encountered a sudden swelling of the stream, -which, meeting the current of the ocean, caused a rise of more than five -fathoms, the mountain waves threatening his ships with destruction. -Having extricated his vessels with no small difficulty from this danger, -Pinzon, finding that there was no object to detain him in this region, -showed that he was not less civilised than other Spanish navigators at -the time in the matter of requiting hospitality, by carrying off -thirty-six natives as slaves. - -Having the polar star once more to guide him, the mariner pursued his -course along the coast, passing the mouths of the _Orinoco_, and -entering the gulf of _Pária_, where he took in brazil-wood, and from -which he emerged by the celebrated _Boca del Drago_. He subsequently -reached Palos about the end of September of the same year, having lost -two of his vessels at the _Bahamas_. Vicente Pinzon has the glory of -having been the first European to cross the equinoctial line on the -Western Atlantic and of having discovered _Brazil_. - -[Sidenote: 1500.] - -Later in the same year in which Pinzon had discovered Cape _St. -Augustine_ and had taken possession of the neighbouring coast in the -name of the sovereigns of Castile, an event happened which illustrates -how sometimes in human affairs the effect of accident may almost -anticipate the calculations and discoveries of genius.[I] Scarcely eight -years had elapsed since Columbus had set out on that voyage which, -according to the motto beneath his armorial bearings, gave a new world -to Castile and to Léon, when another expedition was equipped by King -Emanuel of Portugal, the commander of which, without having the least -idea of discovering land to the westwards, accidentally lighted upon the -coast of South America. - -But although Cabral has little or no merit in having been one of the -first two independent discoverers of _Brazil_, yet it would be unfair to -state that chance was wholly answerable for his discovery, and that -scientific inquiry had no share in the matter. Scientific inquiry in -this instance was, however, not due to Cabral, but to Prince Henry of -Portugal, the great patron of maritime exploration along the western -coast of Africa, and who, though he did not survive to know it, had -paved the way for the great achievement of Vasco de Gama. It was in -order to follow up the discoveries of the hero of the Lusiad that King -Emanuel had equipped the squadron which left Belem on the Tagus, with -befitting pomp and solemnity, in March A.D. 1500. The commander took -with him a banner blessed by the Bishop of Ceuta, and set out under a -royal salute from the fleet. It is remarkable that this expedition, -destined to add to the Portuguese position in the East, should lead to -the foundation of the Lusian Empire of the West. - -Cabral steered for the Cape _de Verdes_ and then westwards to escape -“the Doldrums” or calms on the African coast; and so sailing, he, on the -25th of April, sighted land near the harbour which bears his name. He -himself now proceeded on his original destination eastward, but he sent -back one of his vessels to inform his king of his discovery in the West, -to follow up which an expedition was next year despatched. - -[Sidenote: 1501.] - -Amerigo Vespucci, now in the service of Portugal, landed on the coast of -Brazil south of the equator; but the cannibal savages whom he discovered -declined to have any dealings with the intruders whom their domains -could not but attract. The forests were like gardens of flowers, the -trees having blossoms of all colours, contrasted with the perfection of -effect only met with in nature. Parasites filled the intervening spaces -between trees and boughs, whilst orchids hung from them in the air, and -birds of tropical plumage warbled amidst groves of pomegranate and -orange trees. As Vespucci and his companions sailed southwards, new -heavens were revealed to his wondering eyes, the Southern Cross looking -down upon them in its glory. On reaching the eighth degree of southern -latitude they found the natives more tractable. They were welcomed -everywhere, and were thus enabled to explore the coast. They coasted -onwards till the thirty-second degree, when they put out to sea, going -twenty degrees further in the same direction. Here they met with stormy -weather, and the cold became intense, so that Vespucci deemed it -expedient to retrace his way to Lisbon, which place he reached in safety -after a voyage of sixteen months. It was from this voyage that Amerigo -Vespucci was considered the discoverer of the mainland of South America. -His name was at first applied to these southern regions, but was -afterwards extended to the whole continent. Vespucci was ignorant that -_Brazil_ had previously been discovered both by Pinzon and Cabral. His -account of his voyage, addressed to Lorenzo de Medici, was published at -Strasburg in 1505. It is said to have been printed in Venice in 1504. - -[Sidenote: 1504.] - -In the spring of the ensuing year (1503) Vespucci again sailed from -Lisbon with a squadron of six vessels, of which, however, he only -commanded one ship. After many disasters and the loss of one vessel of -the squadron, he reached _Brazil_, with his own ship alone, at the -celebrated bay of All Saints, _Bahia_. There he remained two months in -the hope of being joined by the rest of the fleet. He then sailed two -hundred and sixty leagues to the south, where he remained for five -months, building a fort and taking in a cargo of brazil-wood. In the -fort he left a garrison of twenty-four men and set sail for Lisbon, -where he arrived in June 1504. The other four vessels of the squadron -were never afterwards heard of. - -Early in the following year Amerigo Vespucci was at Seville on his way -to the Spanish court in quest of employment, and was the bearer of a -letter from Columbus to his son Diego, in which the great navigator, -speaking of Vespucci, says, “Fortune has been adverse to him as to many -others. His labours have not profited him as they reasonably should have -done.... He goes with the determination to do all that is possible for -me.” It is pathetic to hear the great discoverer thus speaking of the -man whose name was to usurp the place of Columbus on the two continents -of the New World. - -The cargo of brazil-wood which had been brought by Amerigo to Lisbon was -so much esteemed that a trade in it at once sprang up, and the result -was that the coast whence it was procured, and finally the whole -neighbouring country, came to be called _Brazil_. The Portuguese -Government determined to colonize the land, and accordingly despatched -thither, in the first instance, a portion of the criminal population of -Portugal. - -[Sidenote: 1508.] - -Amerigo Vespucci being once more in the service of the king of Castile, -in which he obtained the rank of chief pilot, which he held until his -death, it was determined to take advantage of his previous discoveries, -and in the year 1508 Pinzon and Solis proceeded on an expedition to Cape -_St. Augustine_ and thence southwards, taking possession of several -points at which they landed, in the name of the king of Spain. As before -this date the Pope Alexander VI. had assigned to the Castilian and -Lusitanian crowns, respectively, the line beyond which their respective -discoveries might in either case be taken possession of, the Portuguese -king now complained that the proceedings of this last Spanish expedition -on the coast of South America were an infringement of the grant which -had been made to him by the Sovereign Pontiff. Notwithstanding this, the -king of Castile in the year 1515 despatched Juan de Solis on another -expedition to the south, in the hope of finding the means of -communication with the ocean which more than a year before this time had -been reached overland by Vasco Nuñez de Balboa. This expedition resulted -in the discovery of a stream to which Solis gave the name of the Sweet -Sea; for the extent of its fresh waters forbade him to entertain the -idea of its being a river. The Sweet Sea was named by a subsequent -navigator the River of Silver, from the ornaments of that metal found -amongst the people on the banks of the _Paraguay_, which flows into the -_Paraná_, which with the _Uruguay_ forms the _Plata_, and is now known -to us as the _Plata_ or the River _Plate_. This discovery cost De Solis -his life; for, having landed incautiously on the island of _Martin -Garcia_, he was set upon by the natives and murdered. - -[Sidenote: 1519.] - -And here it is necessary to mention the great navigator who should rank -next to Columbus in South American discovery. Fernando Magalhaens (in -Spanish Magallanes), better known as Magellan, was born in Oporto late -in the fifteenth century. He entered the Portuguese navy at the usual -early age, and served in India under Albuquerque. Fancying that his -merits at _Malacca_ had been overlooked, he retired from the service of -Portugal, and made proposals for new discoveries to Cardinal Ximenes. He -shared the view of Columbus that there must exist somewhere a western -passage to the seas beyond America, which seas had been seen by Vasco -Nuñez de Balboa. Having held out the inducement of obtaining the -_Moluccas_ by sailing westward, inasmuch as by the compact between Spain -and Portugal all countries discovered 180° west of the _Azores_ were to -belong to the former country, he obtained a fleet of five vessels, -manned by two hundred and thirty-four persons, which sailed from Seville -under his command on August 10th, 1519. - -They steered for _Brazil_, and in the middle of the following December -he entered the river _Plata_. Finding that it was not a strait, he -sought his way southward, and took refuge in a harbour on the coast of -_Patagonia_ in the 49th degree of S. latitude, to which he gave the name -of Port _San Julian_. During his stay here he had to repress a -conspiracy amongst the four commanders of his squadron, who were -Spaniards, and who resented his being placed over them. Of these, two -were hanged, a third was stabbed, and the fourth was put on shore. - -[Sidenote: 1520.] - -It was not until August 1520 that Magellan, who had previously taken -possession of Port _San Julian_ in the name of the king of Spain, -proceeded southward, and on October 21st he entered the strait which -separates _Patagonia_ from _Terra del Fuego_, and which bears his name. -On the 20th of November he cleared the strait with his squadron, which, -by the desertion of one ship and the loss of another, was now reduced to -three vessels. Emerging triumphantly on the vast expanse beyond,--having -been the first navigator to sail to it from the Atlantic, he had the -right to bestow upon it the name of the _Pacific_ Ocean.[J] - -[Sidenote: 1526.] - -The name which, next to that of De Solis, deserves to be remembered in -connection with the discovery of _La Plata_, is that of Sebastian Cabot, -the son of John Cabot, a Genoese navigator, who, being then in the -service of Henry VII., was the first European that set foot on -North-American soil. Sebastian Cabot is said to have been born in -England, Bristol being assigned as his birthplace. In 1497 he coasted -the shore from _Labrador_ to _Florida_. In 1526, Cabot, then chief pilot -to the king of Spain, accepted the command of a squadron of four vessels -fitted out by the merchants of Seville. In April of that year he set -sail with the view of reaching China and Japan--then called Cathay and -Cipango--by way of the straits discovered by Magellan in 1520; but, a -mutiny breaking out in his command, he renounced his more ambitious -enterprise and resolved to content himself with following up the -discovery that had been made by the ill-fated De Solis. - -Having entered the “Sweet Sea,” Cabot proceeded until he reached an -island which he named after _Gabriel_. There leaving his vessels, he -explored from a boat the coast of the mainland. A safe anchorage was -afforded on the northern shore, where he found one of the Spaniards who -had landed with De Solis, and who had escaped the cannibals. Throwing up -a small earthwork to protect a portion of his men, he proceeded to -explore the upper portion of the river. When he had reached the junction -of the _Paraná_ and the _Uruguay_ he sent one of his officers with a -vessel up the latter stream, whilst he himself ascended the former until -he reached the _Carcaraña_ or _Tercero_, where he erected a small fort -called _San Espiritu_, leaving in it a garrison of seventy men. Still -pursuing his course, he duly reached, after having surmounted countless -difficulties, the junction of the _Paraná_ with the _Paraguay_, nearly -nine hundred miles from the sea. Having explored the _Paraná_ a hundred -and fifty miles further, he then returned to the junction and ascended -the latter stream, and whilst there he received unexpectedly a welcome -reinforcement from Spain. Cabot passed the following two years in -friendly relations with the _Guaranís_, in whose silver ornaments -originated the name of _La Plata_ and thence of the _Argentine_ -Republic, the name having been applied by Cabot to the stream now called -the _Paraguay_. That able and sagacious man now sent to Spain two of his -most trusted followers with an account of _Paraguay_ and its resources, -and to seek the authority and reinforcements requisite for their -acquisition. Their request was favourably received, but so tardily acted -on that in despair the distinguished navigator quitted the region of -his discoveries after a delay of five years. - -[Sidenote: 1534.] - -The two earliest explorers of the _Plata_ had been professional -navigators; the commander of the third great expedition to that region -was a courtier and a wealthy knight. _Don_ Pedro de Mendoza, no doubt -attracted by the name of the Silver Stream, undertook to plant the -Spanish race on its shores on the following conditions, namely: That the -region extending from the _Plate_ to the Straits of _Magelhães_, a -barren territory, was to be under his government; that he should pursue -his way by peaceful or by warlike means across the continent until he -should reach the ocean; that he was to be entitled _Adelantado_, and to -receive a salary of four thousand ducats; that he was to be perpetual -_Alcalde_ of one of three forts which he was to establish; that to his -heirs should be reserved the post of first _Alguazil_ of the town where -he should fix his residence; and that, should he capture another -Montezuma or Atahualpa, he and his soldiers should receive two-thirds of -the royal ransom. As a commentary on these ambitious views, Mendoza -likewise took with him eight priests to teach and spread the unselfish -doctrines of Christianity. His force consisted of some two thousand men -with one hundred horses. Touching on his way at _Rio de Janeiro_, he -thence proceeded along the coast and up the river _Plata_ to the -distance of one hundred miles. The flat southern shore was then in the -possession of the _Quirandis_, a tribe which has long since disappeared -before civilization. The green plains, unclothed by woods and unbroken -by hills, displayed no natural feature from which the knight might -derive a name for his town; but as the climate seemed of the best, he -resolved to call it _Buenos Ayres_. - -[Sidenote: 1534.] - -For some time the tribesmen supplied the invaders with food; but, with -the fickleness of barbarians, they one day sent back their messengers -mauled and empty-handed. This was a _casus belli_. The brother of -Mendoza marched against the natives with three hundred foot-soldiers -and thirty horsemen. Heretofore Spanish cavalry had, in their encounters -with American aborigines, invariably been successful. The mailed -warriors of Cortez or Pizarro had turned the scale of victory on many a -day; but the cavaliers who charged with Diego Mendoza were met with a -weapon now used for the first time against the horse and his rider. -_Bolas_, or balls of stone, attached to each other, three together, by -strips of hide, were hurled at the advancing centaur, which, entangled -and stopped, came headlong to the earth. _Don_ Diego and some horsemen -were killed, and twenty footmen met their death in covering the retreat -of their mounted comrades. The discipline of the infantry, however, -enabled them to remain masters of the field. - -After this encounter famine seemed to stare the followers of Mendoza in -the face, and an expedition sent up the river in search of food was -everywhere met with hostility. Mendoza now determined to proceed up the -stream, and on an island he found an interpreter in one of the followers -of Cabot. _Buenos Ayres_ was meanwhile partly relieved by the return of -an expedition that had been sent to procure provisions from the coast of -_Brazil_. This was the extent to which the bright visions of Mendoza -were destined to be realized. Tortured in body and broken in spirit, the -knight left the scene of his misfortunes. On his homeward voyage he was -still pursued by hunger, and his reason gave way before death came to -his relief. - -Mendoza had resigned his powers to his lieutenant, Ayolas, who ascended -the _Paraná_ and reached the _Paraguay_, there losing one of his ships. -Those whom it had conveyed proceeded by land, and encountered a tribe in -some respects civilized. The _Carios_ possessed maize and the sweet -potato, and in their farms were found ostriches, sheep, and pigs. Their -capital was surrounded by stakes. The tribesmen offered the invaders -provisions on condition of their departing. This not being accepted, a -fight ensued, and the natives fled. Ayolas then founded a city, in -which he took to himself, as we are told, seven wives, permitting two to -each of his followers. The city was called _Asuncion_. - -[Sidenote: 1537.] - -After the delay of some months in his new settlement, Ayolas determined -to find his way in the direction of _Peru_; and taking with him a -sufficient party, he left one of his officers, Irala, with fifty -Spaniards, at _Candelaria_ on the _Paraguay_, as a supporting party in -case of his retreat. The succeeding months were occupied by him in -wanderings in the primeval forest, where he received from a tribe the -glad tidings of the presence of gold and silver in the adjacent regions. -Ayolas and his party were, however, compelled to find their way back, -when they were doomed to disappointment in not meeting Irala, who, -despairing of their return, after waiting six months, had returned to -_Asuncion_. Ayolas and his people were soon after murdered by the tribe -of _Payaguas_. Irala meanwhile, having repaired his vessels, returned to -_Candelaria_ and made fresh, but of course fruitless efforts to discover -Ayolas, whose death, when he had ascertained it, he cruelly avenged on -some _Payaguas_. - -[Sidenote: 1537.] - -Learning the tale of treasure to be found in the interior, Irala now -bent his attention to discover it. At _Buenos Ayres_ wealth could only -be the reward of industry, and therefore the settlement founded by -Mendoza was abandoned, and the whole Spanish colony flocked up the river -to _Asuncion_. They mustered six hundred souls, and _Asuncion_ thus -became the earliest founded permanent city in the region of _La Plata_. - -[Sidenote: 1540.] - -It being believed in Spain, before the fact was ascertained, that Ayolas -was dead, the post of _Adelantado_ of _La Plata_ was conferred upon -_Don_ Alvar Cabeza de Vaca, who had passed ten years as a prisoner -amongst the natives of _Florida_. Cabeza de Vaca sailed from Spain with -four hundred followers in the year 1540, and by the following March had -disembarked at _Santa Catalina_, an island on the coast of _Brazil_, -opposite _Paraguay_, where confirmation reached him of the death of -Ayolas. He thereupon boldly proceeded from a point of the shore near to -_Santa Catalina_, making direct by land for _Asuncion_. He took with him -two hundred and fifty men with twenty-six horses, sending the remainder -by water to _Buenos Ayres_. During nineteen days Cabeza marched through -woods ere reaching a settlement of _Guaranís_, from whom he was enabled -to obtain abundance of food for his men. - -Whilst resting with these friendly people, the explorer had the good -fortune to fall in with a native on his way from _Asuncion_ to _Brazil_, -and who undertook to retrace his steps and guide him to his seat of -government. Leaving a region where a certain degree of civilisation -existed--where maize and mandioc were cultivated, and where men lived in -houses and reared fowls and ducks--the Spanish leader had once more to -trust himself and his men to the toils and risks of a march through the -primeval forest, through which, after having surmounted innumerable -difficulties, they at length approached their destination. In the course -of one day they had to construct as many as eighteen bridges for the -passage of their horses. This march had mainly lain along the course of -the river _Yguazû_, a tributary of the _Paraná_, which takes its rise -near the Atlantic Ocean. In order to avoid a tribe which was reported to -be hostile, Cabeza de Vaca embarked with part of his force on canoes, -intending to proceed thus to the _Paraná_, whilst the rest of his men -should march along the river’s bank to the point of junction of the two -streams. But there was an obstacle in his way which prevented the -execution of this scheme. The _Yguazû_, which stream is about one mile -in breadth, while it flows through the Brazilian forest, suddenly -becomes contracted, at a short distance above its junction with the -_Paraná_, to the breadth of rather less than a thousand yards. It then -breaks into several channels and rushes over a series of descents, the -highest of which is one hundred and seventy-two feet. Of this -cataract--which, though little visited, is perhaps the grandest in South -America--the vicinity is made known by the roar of waters and by the -rising of a mist which overspreads the falls to a height of more than -one hundred feet. - -The Indians through whose settlements Cabeza had passed, though they had -appeared friendly, had permitted him to embark on the _Yguazû_ above the -falls, without giving him warning of the danger that lay before him. The -canoes that had been lent to the explorer were hurled with fearful -rapidity along the face of the stream, and the rate of their passage -became increased as they approached the scene of danger; but the distant -sound of the falling waters warned Cabeza to steer for the bank, along -which, for the distance of half a league, his followers carried their -canoes, re-embarking below the falls, and then proceeding, without -interruption, to the point of junction of the _Yguazû_ with the -_Paraná_. - -Cabeza de Vaca was fortunate enough to disarm any hostile intentions -which may have been harboured against him by a body of _Guaranís_ that -lined the further bank of the great river. They even helped him to -effect his passage across the stream into what is now the territory of -_Paraguay_. Sending down to the care of a friendly Indian chief, and -with a guard of fifty soldiers, such of his men as would be unable to -bear the fatigue of the march to _Asuncion_, the Spanish leader -proceeded on his way by land; and, after further experience of the -difficulties of travelling over so densely wooded a district, he at -length, on the 11th of March, had the satisfaction of reaching the -settlement of his fellow-countrymen. - -[Sidenote: 1542.] - -After the departure from the _Paraná_ of Cabeza de Vaca, those of his -men from whom he had separated were doomed to experience the invariable -inconstancy of savages. The fear of chastisement and the hope of -receiving presents being alike removed, the _Guaranís_ attempted by -every means in their power to cut off the sick men and their guard; but -by the aid of the friendly Indian chief to whose care they had been -entrusted, they were enabled to continue their course in safety, and, -having descended the _Paraná_ to the _Tres Bocas_, or three mouths of -the _Paraguay_, they ascended the latter river, and reached _Asuncion_ -one month after their leader. - -At the time when this exploration by land of the region between the -Atlantic Ocean and the river _Paraguay_ was being so successfully -carried out under the leadership of Cabeza de Vaca, another expedition, -of still greater geographical importance, was being effected elsewhere -on the same Continent; but before describing the discovery of the -_Amazons_, it is necessary to go back to the circumstances of which it -was one of the results. In reconnoitering the course of exploration over -a vast continent, it is impossible to relate the events of each year in -the exact order in which they occurred. One must take the discovery of -one region after another, going back when necessary to recount other -explorations elsewhere which may have meanwhile occurred simultaneously -with those already described. It may therefore be desirable here to -follow the proceedings of Cabeza de Vaca in _Paraguay_. His first care -was to send down vessels to _Buenos Ayres_ to the relief of that portion -of his force which had been despatched by sea from _Santa Catalina_ to -the latter place. It was obviously of the first advantage to the public -interest that the settlement of _Buenos Ayres_ should be re-established. -Without some port near the sea the settlers in the interior would ever -be at a loss for the means of communication with Spain. The vessels from -_Santa Catalina_ had reached _Buenos Ayres_ long before the arrival of -those sent from _Asuncion_, and during the interval the Spaniards -brought by the former had nearly perished from hunger. The force from -_Paraguay_ arrived in time to enable them to resist a formidable attack -from the natives. They attempted to fulfil the governor’s orders to -rebuild the town; but they were at length discouraged by the incessant -rain, and abandoning the attempt, embarked for _Asuncion_. - -Cabeza de Vaca had taken into his alliance the _Guaranís_, and with them -he proceeded to attack another tribe, the _Guaycurùs_, on the opposite -side of the river. These were, as might be expected, disconcerted at the -sight of his armed horses and riders, and readily consented to be his -allies. With their aid he prepared to follow the course of exploration -towards _Peru_; and whilst vessels were being constructed for river -navigation, he sent Irala forward with an expedition by land. Soon -following in person and passing a settlement on the _Paraguay_, called -_Puerto de los Reyes_, which had been founded by Irala, he penetrated -into the interior; but from the want of provisions he had to return to -_Paraguay_. There he and his people suffered to the full the hardships -incident to the life of explorers. Whilst they were reduced by hunger, -prostrated by fever, and tormented by mosquitoes, they were attacked by -formidable bands of natives, having defeated whom, the _Adelantado_ was -glad to turn his face again towards _Asuncion_. On his arrival, however, -fresh troubles awaited him. During his absence a conspiracy had been -hatched. His person was seized and his authority usurped, Irala being -proclaimed governor in his stead. After a captivity of eleven months -Cabeza de Vaca was sent a prisoner to Spain, in company with two -official persons who were to prefer groundless charges against him; yet, -notwithstanding his innocence and his services, he had, like Warren -Hastings at a later period, to await during eight years a sentence of -acquittal. - -The downfall of Cabeza de Vaca did not inaugurate a reign of peace at -_Asuncion_. Irala had been called to power by popular election, but his -authority was curtailed by the pretensions of certain official persons -who were nominated to their positions from Castile. Disputes and -dissensions arose; but after a time these became silenced in the face of -a combination against the Spaniards by two native tribes, the task of -chastising whom was confided to Irala. The chosen leader of the -colonists showed himself equal to the occasion. He successfully defended -the colony, which he employed the following two years in consolidating. -But a long period devoted to peaceful pursuits was not to the taste of a -man cast in the mould of Vasco Nuñez or of Cortez. Setting out with -three hundred and fifty Spaniards and two thousand auxiliaries, he -ascended the _Paraguay_ as far as to _San Fernando_. There the main body -of the expedition left the course of the stream, their boats being -entrusted to the care of some Spaniards. Irala was well fitted to be the -leader of such an expedition of discovery. Active and experienced, he -was likewise cautious, and was never found unprepared on an emergency. -Having journeyed onwards for a month or more, his ears were at length -greeted by the sound of the Spanish language from Peruvian lips. Such -was the first communication which took place between the Spaniards -proceeding from _La Plata_ and those who proceeded from the Pacific -Ocean. - -[Sidenote: 1547.] - -Irala, in conformity with the orders of the President Gasca of _Peru_, -retraced his steps to _Asuncion_. There he distributed to his followers -_repartimientos_, or consignments of land and slaves--a measure which -greatly added to his popularity. He likewise founded a new settlement -named _Ciudad Real_, near the border line of the Spanish and Portuguese -territories. In the year 1547 _Asuncion_ became the seat of a bishop, -and about the same time an important intermediate station between -_Paraguay_ and _Peru_ was established at _Santa Cruz de la Sierra_, -whilst Spanish civilization also began to extend downwards from -_Paraguay_ in the direction of the sea. - -The favourable reports which had reached Spain of the climate and -capabilities of _Paraguay_ were such as to divert thither many -emigrants who would otherwise have turned their faces towards _Mexico_ -or _Peru_. It was the constant endeavour of Irala to level the -distinctions which separated the Spaniards from the natives and to -encourage inter-marriages between them. This policy, in the course of -time, led to a marked result,--namely, to that singular combination of -outward civilisation and of primitive simplicity which was to be found -in the modern Paraguayan race until it was annihilated under the younger -Lopez. “It was,” to quote Mr. Washburn, who lived eight years amongst -them, “an anomalous people, and the like had never been seen in any -other country of America. The reason of this may be found in the fact -that in no other colony did the early colonists in large numbers adopt -the native language and take the Indian women as wives.” - -[Sidenote: 1557.] - -Irala, in fact, created a nation. The colony under his administration -became numerous and wealthy. From his first arrival in the New World -until his death, his career was one of activity, toil, and adventure, -always in the conscientious discharge of his duty to his sovereign and -to those around him. He was the life and soul of the colony, and his -death, which occurred in 1557 at the village of _Ita_ near _Asuncion_, -when he had attained the age of seventy years, was lamented alike by -Spaniards and _Guaranís_. In the estimation of Mr. Washburn, he was the -first and last great man ever known to _La Plata_. - -From this date Paraguayan history is for a long period destitute of all -marked events save one. It consists, indeed, mainly of the establishment -and progress of the Order of Jesus in that country. An account of the -origin and advance of this remarkable movement must be deferred to a -future chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -_DISCOVERY OF PERU._ - -1521-1528. - - -[Sidenote: 1521.] - -Under the pressure of the immense excitement which resulted from the -discoveries of Columbus, the entire eastern coast of the American -continent, from _Labrador_ in the north to _Terra del Fuego_ in the -south, was explored within about thirty years from A.D. 1492. In the -year 1520, the Portuguese mariner Magelhães, or Magellan, sailing under -the Spanish flag, found, as has been said, a westerly way through the -Straits which bear his name. The first distinct notice of the existence -of _Peru_ was given, it will be remembered, to Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, -the discoverer of the Southern Sea, about the year 1511. The efforts of -that distinguished explorer to penetrate to the Peruvian Coast were -doomed to disappointment; but the idea of reaching the land of gold was -not lost sight of by his successors. _Darien_ being found unsuitable as -a spot from which to prosecute expeditions on the _Pacific_, the capital -of Central America was in the year 1518 transferred to _Panamá_, the -governor being still Pedrarias; but several years elapsed before serious -efforts of discovery were made in a southern direction, though meanwhile -communication had been established through Central America with -_Mexico_. - -[Sidenote: 1522.] - -It was not till 1522 that a regular expedition was despatched from -_Panamá_ to the South, and its leader penetrated no further than had -Balboa. - -[Sidenote: 1524.] - -But in 1524 three men were found in the colony whose respective -characters pointed them out as being conjointly fitted to undertake a -discovery and conquest no less dazzling and wonderful than that which -had been effected by Cortez. These were Francisco Pizarro, Diego -Almagro, and Hernan de Luque, the Vicar of _Panamá_, who was, however, -but the commissioner of the Licentiate Espinosa, who supplied the funds. - -The celebrated Pizarro was a native of Truxillo in Estremadura, and at -the time of setting out for the discovery of _Peru_ was rather over -fifty years of age. In his youth he had not been taught either to read -or to write, but his fancy was captivated by the strange tales to which -he listened of the New World beyond the sea. Embarking with other -adventurers from Seville, he found his way to _Hispaniola_ and later to -_Darien_, from which place he accompanied Balboa in the march across the -mountains which resulted in the discovery of the Southern Ocean. He -later removed, with the seat of government, from _Darien_ to _Panamá_, -and was conspicuous in the conquest of the tribes to the north. Of -Pizarro’s confederates, Almagro was, like himself, an illiterate soldier -of fortune and of a similar time of life, whilst Luque supplied the -greater proportion of the brains and of the funds requisite for their -joint enterprise. - -To Almagro’s lot it fell to make the preparations for the voyage. Two -small vessels were fitted out at _Panamá_, the first of which set sail -from that port with about a hundred men on board, under the command of -Pizarro, in November 1524: Almagro was to follow in the second. Pizarro, -after touching at the _Isle of Pearls_, steered his way across the Gulf -of _San Miguel_, and, doubling the port of _Pinas_, entered the river -_Biru_, of which word the modern name of that part of the world is -believed to be a corruption. Sailing up this stream for two leagues, -Pizarro caused his small force to disembark, and proceeded to explore -the country. It was the rainy season, and the ground was a vast swamp, -fringed with a tangled undergrowth of wood, behind which lay a hilly -country, rough and rocky. The heat was at times oppressive. Under these -discouraging circumstances, his men being famished and weary, Pizarro -returned to his vessel, which, having dropped down the river to the -ocean, proceeded on its southern course. At a few leagues’ distance he -again landed to take in wood and water, after which he once more -proceeded southwards. He now encountered a terrific tropical storm, and -for ten days it required all the efforts of the crew to prevent the ship -from foundering. They suffered likewise from an extreme dearth of food -and water, and were not sorry to retrace their course and regain the -port where they had last landed. - -The same discouraging aspect of the country which had met them on the -_Biru_, they now encountered here. In their hungry and miserable -condition the beauties of the tangled thicket, with its network of -creepers and flowering vines, were thrown away upon their eyes; they -were alive to nothing but the incessant rain, the intolerable mud, and -the unbroken solitude. - -The spirit of Pizarro, however, was unsubdued. At the demand of his -followers he consented to send back the vessel to the Isle of Pearls to -lay in a fresh stock of provisions, but with the condition that he -himself should meanwhile explore the adjacent country. No trace of a -human dwelling, however, rewarded his search, whilst the only source of -nourishment to his people was in the shell-fish they might pick up on -the shore, or such berries and herbs as might be found in the woods. He -was indefatigable in attending to the wants of his men, or endeavouring -to alleviate their sufferings; more than twenty of them, however, died -during the weary weeks succeeding the vessel’s departure. - -In this miserable situation Pizarro was one day cheered by the -unexpected announcement of a light seen in the neighbouring wood. Taking -with him a party of his men, he forthwith followed its direction, and, -after extricating himself from a maze of bushes, he came upon a native -village, the inhabitants of which, scared at the unexpected apparition, -forthwith fled. They left the provisions in their huts to the Spaniards, -to whom the supply was a reprieve from death. The articles of food were -maize and cocoa-nuts. - -[Sidenote: 1525.] - -As no violence was offered to the natives, these soon returned and -entered into intercourse with the strangers, whose eyes were now made -glad by the golden ornaments which the Peruvians wore. Pizarro thus -received a confirmation of the old reports of the existence of a land of -gold to the south, and he now learned that over it a monarch ruled who -dwelt at a distance of ten days’ journey beyond the mountains. - -After six weeks from its departure the vessel returned, bringing with it -an ample and welcome supply of provisions. It had been detained by -stormy weather and adverse winds. - -Hope and nourishment now combined to bring back to the Spaniards their -eagerness for discovery; and Pizarro, re-embarking on board his vessel, -left a scene to which he had given the name of the _Port of Famine_, and -again sailed towards the south. Unguided by charts or pilots, he found -his way slowly along the unknown coast, landing at every convenient -point. In an open bay he disembarked some men, and at a short distance -inland fell in with a native village, whose inhabitants at the approach -of the strangers fled towards their hills. In their huts the Spaniards -found both a provision of food and some ornaments of gold. They were, -however, horrified by the discovery that they were in a country -inhabited by cannibals. Again embarking, Pizarro and his men still held -their way southwards till they reached a headland which he named _Punta -Quemada_, and where he gave orders to anchor, and landed with the -greater portion of his force. - -Having proceeded about a league into the interior, he found, as he had -expected, a native town of some size, and which was capable of defence; -but the inhabitants as usual fled, leaving behind them their provisions -and ornaments. Pizarro now judged it necessary to send back his vessel -to be repaired at _Panamá_, and meanwhile he established his quarters in -this Indian settlement, despatching a party to reconnoitre the country. - -Now occurred the first collision between the natives and the invaders. -The former saw their opportunity of attacking the reconnoitering party -whilst divided from the main body. The Spaniards, taken by surprise, -were at first thrown into disorder and lost three killed and several -wounded; but having rallied, they returned the discharge of arrows from -their cross-bows and then charged sword in hand, driving the natives -before them. - -The Peruvians, being of course acquainted with the country, made their -way to Pizarro’s position, which they reached before his lieutenant -could return, and commenced an assault upon him. But the conditions of -combat were unfairly balanced. The naked and painted Peruvians, however -brave, could make but a slight impression on the wary Spaniards, clad in -armour and commanded by a practised soldier. Pizarro sallied forth with -his men, and the natives for a time fell back before him. Returning to -the charge, and singling out Pizarro, they inflicted on him seven -wounds, and compelled him to retreat. He was, however, rescued from -defeat by the opportune arrival of his lieutenant, who, attacking the -natives from the rear, threw them into confusion, and forced them to -abandon the ground to their opponents, who had lost two killed besides -having many wounded. - -Under these circumstances it was necessary to reconsider the intention -of sending back the vessel, and on the whole it was deemed better that -all should return in it to _Panamá_, near which place Pizarro was set on -shore with the greater portion of his men, whilst his treasurer -proceeded to lay before the governor his report, together with the gold -which had been collected. - -During this first expedition of Pizarro, his associate, Almagro, having -at length equipped their second vessel, had set out to follow his leader -with a body of some seventy adventurers. Tracing his way by the trees -which had been notched as landmarks, he in time arrived at _Quemada_, -where, like Pizarro, he met with hostility from the natives. Almagro, -landing, carried the place sword in hand, and, setting fire to the -dwellings, drove the natives into the forest. He then pursued his voyage -and touched at several points, where, though he was rewarded by finding -golden ornaments, he no longer discovered any traces of the presence of -Pizarro. In this uncertainty he too retraced his way to the Isthmus, and -soon rejoined his friend, by whom he was deputed to pass over to -_Panamá_ and make arrangements with the governor for the further -prosecution of their enterprise. - -[Sidenote: 1526.] - -By the influence of Luque a new compact was now entered into for the -conquest of _Peru_, the command of the expedition being vested jointly -in Pizarro and Almagro on equal terms, a condition which deeply -mortified the former and proved the seed of future trouble. The -confederates lost no time in setting about their enterprise. A contract -was entered into between them by which it was declared that, whereas the -parties had full authority to discover and subdue the countries and -provinces lying south of the Gulf, belonging to the Empire of _Peru_, -and as Fernando de Luque had advanced the funds for the enterprise in -bars of gold of the value of twenty thousand _pesos_, they mutually bind -themselves to divide equally among them the whole of the conquered -territory. The two captains solemnly engage to devote themselves -exclusively to the present undertaking until it is accomplished; and in -case of failure in their part of the covenant, they pledge themselves to -reimburse Luque for his advances, for which all the property they -possess shall be held responsible, and this declaration is to be a -sufficient warrant for the execution of judgment against them, in the -same manner as if it had proceeded from the decree of a court of -justice. The commanders, Pizarro and Almagro, made oath, in the name of -God and the Holy Evangelists, sacredly to keep this covenant, swearing -it on the missal, on which they traced with their own hands the sacred -emblem of the Cross.[K] It may be noted that this compact, which was -dated March 10, 1526, was signed by De Luque alone of the three -contracting parties, the other two being represented by witnesses, as -both were incapable of writing. This remarkable arrangement, by which a -Christian priest and two adventurers settled the conditions on which -they were to divide amongst themselves a vast empire with all its -wealth, would not have been in accordance with the tone of the age had -it not been invested with a religious character. It was drawn up in the -name of the Holy Trinity and of the Virgin, and its observance was sworn -to on the Cross, whilst on its conclusion the contracting parties -severally received the Sacrament of the Communion. - -These preliminary arrangements having been completed, two vessels were -purchased and equipped; but there was some difficulty in procuring men. -About one hundred and sixty adventurers were, however, mustered, and a -few horses were purchased. Thus provided, Pizarro and Almagro again took -their departure from _Panamá_. No longer hugging the coast, they stood -out for the furthest point previously reached by Almagro, and arrived -without accident at the river of _San Juan_, the banks of which were -lined with native habitations. Pizarro here commenced his brigandage by -surprising a village and carrying off some natives and many gold -ornaments. After this first success, it was decided that Almagro should -return to the Isthmus, where the sight of the gold might tempt fresh -recruits; whilst the pilot, taking the other vessel, should reconnoitre -the coast to the south, Pizarro meanwhile remaining near the river. - -The pilot Ruiz sailed southwards as far as to the bay now known by the -name of _St. Matthew_, when he was struck by the singular apparition of -a vessel of considerable size. As he drew near, it was found to be a -raft of a number of huge timbers of light wood tightly lashed together, -and with two masts sustaining a square sail of cotton, whilst it was -steered by means of a rudely-formed rudder. It may be mentioned, in -passing, that this simple form of craft is to be seen on the Peruvian -coast at the present day. The pilot found both men and women on board, -having on their persons articles of wrought silver and gold, their -dresses being made of woollen cloth of fine texture and embroidered with -coloured birds and flowers. From these unsuspecting natives he learned -that in their fields fed flocks of the animals which yielded their wool, -whilst gold and silver abounded in their country. Ruiz, not being less -unscrupulous than his fellows, detained some of the natives to repeat -and exemplify these wonders, and, by learning Spanish, to qualify -themselves as interpreters. The barque having been allowed to proceed on -its voyage, Ruiz advanced southwards, and was the first European who -crossed the line on the _Pacific_ Ocean. Having reached the _Punta de -Pasado_, he retraced his way and rejoined Pizarro. - -[Sidenote: 1526.] - -To return to that adventurer: On the departure of Ruiz and Almagro he -had proceeded into the interior, where he had encountered nothing but -difficulties. The forest was so dense as to be almost impenetrable, and -hill rose above hill in ridges in succession, being bounded far in the -distance by the barrier of the _Andes_. Under these difficulties many of -the Spaniards perished, whilst some were waylaid and cut off by the -natives. On the top of all this came famine, and they had to sustain -life on such roots or fruits as the forest afforded. It may be mentioned -that in the records of this expedition we find the earliest mention of a -vegetable which plays so important a part in our modern domestic -economy, the potato; which has thus been known to Europeans since the -year 1526, and the original European discoverers of which were Pizarro -and his band. From this wretched condition in the forest or on the -shore, the adventurers were relieved by the return of Ruiz, followed not -long after by that of Almagro with a store of provisions and a -reinforcement of recruits to the number of eighty. - -Thus reinspirited, the adventurers again re-embarked; but it was only -after many dangers had been surmounted that they at length found refuge -on the island of _Gallo_, which had been visited by Ruiz. Here they -remained for a fortnight to repair their vessels, when they resumed -their voyage and gained the bay of _St. Matthew_. As they proceeded -along the coast they were struck by the evidences of civilization and by -the inviting appearance of the country. Spaces of cultivated land were -discovered bearing the maize and the potato. - -At _Tacamez_ the Spaniards saw a town which might contain two thousand -houses, the men and women displaying on their persons the coveted -ornaments of gold. The natives, however, showed no disposition quietly -to yield up their possessions and treasures to the invaders; on the -contrary, they displayed evident signs of hostility. Pizarro landed with -some of his men, but, though peacefully disposed, could not prevent an -encounter. The Spaniards were hotly pressed, and it is said that they -owed their safe retreat to the consternation produced in the natives by -the fall of one of the horsemen from his steed. The Peruvians, having -never before seen the horse without his rider, were astonished at the -separation of the two portions of the centaur, each of which remained -alive in itself, and they retreated in dismay before the phenomenon. - -In the face of the hostility which the Spaniards foresaw they would have -to encounter, it was now necessary to deliberate; and accordingly a -council of war was called, at which conflicting opinions were expressed, -Pizarro and Almagro taking opposite views, and being with some -difficulty prevented from drawing their swords upon each other. The -dispute, however, ended in an arrangement, according to which Almagro as -before was to proceed to _Panamá_ for assistance, whilst Pizarro with a -portion of his men should await his return on the island of _Gallo_, -near the coast. The followers of the latter, however, strongly protested -against this arrangement, and secretly communicated their discontent to -the authorities at _Panamá_. - -The return of the adventurers to that place caused great dismay. The -governor not only sternly refused all further aid in the matter, but -forthwith sent two vessels to bring back Pizarro and his followers from -the island on which they were meanwhile experiencing the utmost misery. -But the vessels which relieved his followers from hunger brought Pizarro -letters from his two associates, imploring him not to give up the -enterprise for lost. Strengthened by this expression of hope, Pizarro, -the pilot Ruiz, and twelve others determined to abide where they were, -and to await whatever fate might have in store for them. They needed all -their fortitude. Having constructed a raft and removed to another -neighbouring island, called _Gorgona_, where they could more easily -defend themselves, they had to remain for seven weary months before the -arrival of a vessel to their rescue. Although it brought no fresh -recruits, its coming was nevertheless greeted with joy, and Pizarro and -his men were soon again afloat, under the guidance of the pilot Ruiz. A -tedious voyage of three weeks now awaited them before they arrived at -the Gulf of _Guayaquil_. The coast was here studded with towns and -villages, above which towered _Chimborazo_ and _Cotopaxi_. Guided by the -two natives whom they had taken from the _Bolsa_, they now steered for -the city of _Tumbez_, a place of considerable size. Communication was -opened with the inhabitants by means of the interpreters on board, who -were directed to assure their countrymen of the peaceful intentions of -the strangers. Provisions were thereupon supplied them from _balsas_ -laden with bananas, Indian-corn, sweet potatoes, pine-apples, and -cocoa-nuts, to which were added game, fish, and _llamas_ or Peruvian -sheep. One of the _balsas_ likewise bore a Peruvian chief, who was -naturally curious to know what had brought Pizarro and his followers to -these shores. Pizarro, according to the Spanish historian, replied that -he was the servant of the greatest of princes, and that he had come to -this country to assert his master’s lawful supremacy over it, and to -impart to its inhabitants the light of the only true religion. - -Here it may be well to remark, in passing, on the moral aspect of the -expedition of which Pizarro was the chief, which cannot be justified if -measured even in the scale of morality of the Greeks or of the Romans; -for they, though not unduly tender towards the natural rights of those -whom they styled barbarians, were at least careful to provide a _casus -belli_. No such excuse can be urged for the conquest of _Peru_. That -devoted country happened to lie within the boundaries assigned by Pope -Alexander VI. to Spain; but it would be somewhat hard to charge upon the -Church the guilt and infamy of the wholesale rapine and slaughter with -which the Spanish conquest was attended. The Church was laudably -desirous to extend the sphere of her influence; and if the end might be -held to justify the means, she might no doubt congratulate herself in -that vast regions where the name of Jesus had never been uttered were -now about to be brought within her pale. As a Catholic, Pizarro may be -excused for endeavouring to further schemes consecrated by the head of -the Church; whilst as a loyal subject, he at the same time sought to -extend the dominions of his sovereign. The responsibility for permitting -and countenancing expeditions such as that of which he was the chief -must rest with the Pope or Emperor, or with those who acted with their -authority. Yet Pizarro was there neither to proselytize nor simply to -conquer, far less was he fired, like Columbus, by zeal for the -furtherance of science. His object in the main was to acquire gold; and, -however we may admire his perseverance and energy, the magnificent scale -on which his spoliations were carried on should not make us regard him -in any other light than in that of a freebooter. - -It was inevitable that in the course of time South America should be -explored as Africa is now being explored; but the world is to be -congratulated in that with the lapse of centuries the consideration of -civilized peoples towards weaker races becomes somewhat greater, though -there is still much room for improvement in this respect. - -The Peruvian chief having been detained on board to dinner and having -been courteously dismissed, Pizarro on the following day sent two of his -men on shore with a present for the governor. They returned with so -marvellous a tale, that Pizarro, somewhat distrusting it, next day sent -on shore a person in whose statements he could have greater confidence, -but who on his return only confirmed what had been told by the others -respecting the marvels of _Tumbez_,--a city which, being the most -important place on the borders of _Peru_ proper, boasted a magnificent -temple, with an establishment of the Virgins of the Sun. - -On the receipt of this intelligence, Pizarro’s feelings were of a -twofold nature--rapture on being at length actually within sight of the -golden spoils which he had gone through so much to obtain, and bitter -regret that at such a moment his followers were not at hand to enable -him to seize them. Having no other course before him, he reluctantly -quitted _Tumbez_,--a prey that must await a more convenient season. -Sailing still further southwards he touched at various points, and was -everywhere received with hospitality, until, having reached almost the -ninth degree of southern latitude, and having ascertained indubitable -proofs of the existence of a great empire, he yielded to the wishes of -his followers and retraced his way to _Panamá_. It may be mentioned -that, visiting _Tumbez_ on his return voyage, he there left some of his -companions as the guests of the natives, whilst he was permitted to -carry away with him two or three Peruvians, who were destined to be -interpreters. - -[Sidenote: 1528.] - -On his arrival at _Panamá_, where he had long since been given up for -lost, he was received with much joy, but even after the tale of his -discovery had been repeated, the governor obstinately declined to lend -any assistance towards the further prosecution of his enterprise. This -was a trying blow to Pizarro and his two associates. There was now no -help for it but to appeal directly to the crown. After some difficulty -the necessary funds were raised, and, in the spring of 1528, Pizarro and -one of his comrades, taking with them some natives of _Peru_ and some -products of that country, set out to tell their tale at the court of -Castile. - - NOTE.--It may be noticed as an instance of history repeating itself - that at one of the places at which Pizarro touched on his return to - _Panamá_ he was entertained by a Peruvian lady of rank, to whom he - stated his motives for visiting the country. He concluded by - unfurling the flag of Castile, which he required his hostess and - her attendants to raise in token of their allegiance to his - sovereign, they being of course unaware of the nature of the act - they were performing. Are we not reminded of the recent proceedings - of M. de Brazza on the _Congo_? - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -_CONQUEST OF PERU._ - -1529-1542. - - -Pizarro, on his return to Spain, found the Emperor Charles V. at Toledo, -and met with a gracious reception. The court listened with eagerness to -his adventures by sea and land, and examined with interest the products -of _Peru_ which he had brought with him. His tales of the wealth which -he had witnessed were the more readily believed in consequence of the -experiences of another Spaniard whom he now met at court, the famous -conqueror of _Mexico_. Yet affairs in Spain progressed with proverbial -slowness, and it was not until the expiry of a year from the date of his -arrival in the country, that the capitulation was signed defining the -powers of Pizarro. - -[Sidenote: 1529.] - -By this agreement he was granted the right of discovery and conquest in -_Peru_, or New Castile, with the titles of Captain-general of the -province and _Adelantado_, or lieutenant-governor. He was likewise to -enjoy a considerable salary, and to have the right to erect certain -fortresses under his government, and, in short, to exercise the -prerogatives of a viceroy. Almagro was merely appointed commander of the -fortress of _Tumbez_, with the rank of _Hidalgo_; whilst Father Luque -became bishop of the same place. Luque was likewise to be “protector of -the Indians,” with a yearly salary, which, like those of his associates, -was to be derived from the revenues of the country to be conquered. - -Pizarro, on his part, was bound to raise within six months a force of -two hundred and fifty men; whilst the government on theirs engaged to -furnish some assistance in the purchase of artillery and stores. Ruiz -received the title of Grand Pilot of the Southern Ocean; Pedro de -Candia, who had accompanied Pizarro, was named chief of artillery; and -the other eleven companions who had remained with him on the desolate -island were created _Hidalgos_ or gentlemen. Liberal provisions were -inserted in the agreement, to encourage emigration to _Peru_, and -Pizarro was enjoined to observe the standing regulations for the good -government and protection of the natives of America. “It is but justice -to the Spanish Government,” says Prescott, “to admit that its provisions -were generally guided by a humane and considerate policy, which was as -regularly frustrated by the cupidity of the colonist and the capricious -cruelty of the conqueror.” But what, it may be asked, is the -justification of the Spanish government in undertaking or sanctioning -the conquest of _Peru_ at all; in attacking an inoffensive people, and -disposing of their country by anticipation? Had the Peruvians been let -alone, there would have been no occasion to provide for their -protection; and however desirable might be their conversion, to effect -this by the sword might be sanctioned by the Koran, but certainly not by -the New Testament. - -It may be remarked that whilst Pizarro was required to carry out with -him a specified number of ecclesiastics, he was at the same time -strictly prohibited from permitting the presence of lawyers in the new -settlements. On the whole, the terms of this arrangement did not tend to -increased belief in the probity of Pizarro, who had strictly bound -himself, whilst acting as their envoy, to proceed with perfect fairness -in securing the interests of his associates; but it is absurd to look in -the records of a transaction, which was one of spoliation and knavery -from beginning to end, for anything in the shape of probity. - -[Sidenote: 1530.] - -This solemn engagement having been completed to the satisfaction of the -new knight of Santiago, he found time to pay a flying visit to his -native town, Truxillo, where he was awaited by four half-brothers, who -were to play a prominent part in _Peru_; of these four, three were -Pizarros, of whom one only, Hernando, who was his senior, was -legitimate. The fourth was the illegitimate son of Francisco Pizarro’s -mother. Three of them were, like himself, to meet a violent death in -_Peru_. He found no small difficulty in complying with the terms of the -agreement within the specified time. He, however, contrived to start -from Seville in January 1530, his brother Hernando following him to the -_rendezvous_ at _Gomera_ in the Canaries; and in due time he reached the -port of _Nombre de Dios_, where he was joined by Luque and Almagro. The -latter of these was to no slight extent disappointed at the position -which had been assigned to him. Pizarro excused himself as best he -might, declaring that he had done what he could; that the government -objected to divided authority; and that the country before them was -large enough for both. - -[Sidenote: 1531.] - -A new element had now entered into the confederation which had -undertaken the conquest of _Peru_. Hernando Pizarro had everything to -gain from the exclusive supremacy of his brother, and at the outset -almost caused a rupture between him and Almagro. The latter indeed had -gone so far as to enter into negotiations for the purchase of vessels, -in order to prosecute the expedition without the aid of the Pizarros; -but from this course he was dissuaded by the representations of Luque. -This temporary reconciliation having been effected, no time was lost in -preparing for the voyage. Three vessels were provided to replace those -left on the opposite side of the Isthmus; a force was mustered of about -one hundred and eighty men, with twenty-seven horses; and Pizarro, early -in January 1531, sailed the third and last time for the coast of _Peru_. -Previously to his departure, a sermon had been preached to the little -force by one of the Dominicans selected for the mission; mass was -performed, and the Holy Communion was administered to each of the -soldiers setting out on this crusade--a crusade inspired by zeal for -riches rather than religion, and directed not against aggressive -Saracens, but inoffensive Americans, whose only crime was to possess -wealth. - -Leaving his colleague Almagro to gather recruits, Pizarro steered for -_Tumbez_. Contrary winds, however, compelled him to anchor in the Bay of -_St. Matthew_, where he resolved to disembark his forces and advance -along the coast. The march was not easy, for the streams were full and -had to be crossed where they were widest. Pizarro’s buoyant spirit, -however, overcame every difficulty. At the first considerable hamlet the -natives were taken by surprise, and much plunder, including many -emeralds, fell into the hands of the Spaniards. The gold and silver -ornaments were deposited in a common heap; the royal fifth was deducted -for the crown, and the rest was distributed among the officers and -soldiers. This usage prevailed throughout the conquest, and any one -infringing it incurred the penalty of death. Pizarro now sent back to -_Panamá_ the vessels which had accompanied him so far along the coast, -and which took away a considerable quantity of gold, the sight of which -might allure recruits. - -During the remainder of the march to the bay of _Guayaquil_ the -Spaniards suffered sorely, as well from a fatal epidemic as from the -intense heat of the sun. They had, however, no resistance to encounter -from the natives, who, alarmed at their proceedings, fled to the forest -on their approach. When he had reached the vicinity of _Tumbez_, Pizarro -determined to halt for a time on the small island of _Puná_, where an -arbitrary act of punishment on his part ere long involved him in a -fierce struggle with the islanders. Here as elsewhere Spanish discipline -prevailed against enormous odds; yet he was not sorry to be relieved -from his harassing situation by the arrival of two vessels bringing some -horses and a hundred recruits, with which, in addition to his former -force, he felt himself in sufficient strength to re-cross to the -continent and resume his aggressive operations. - -The inhabitants of _Tumbez_ did not this time receive the Spaniards with -their previous cordiality. On the contrary, one of the _balsas_ bearing -them was seized, and three persons were borne into the adjacent woods -and massacred. Pizarro on entering the town was astonished to find it -not only deserted, but almost entirely demolished. A few substantial -buildings only--and these despoiled of their ornaments--remained to mark -the site of the government of Almagro and of the bishopric of Luque! -Pizarro, having despatched a small party in pursuit of the fugitives, -was so fortunate as to get possession of the governor of the place, from -whom he received the explanation that the dilapidated condition of the -town was the result of a fierce contest with the inhabitants of _Puná_. -He likewise learned that the two followers whom he had left on his -former visit had perished. One of these, however, had bequeathed him a -scroll, which Pizarro obtained from an unsuspecting native, and on which -were written the words: “Know, whoever you may be that may chance to set -foot in this country, that it contains more gold and silver than there -is iron in Biscay.” This intelligence, however, encouraging as it was, -was not sufficient to restore the spirits of the soldiers, who had fully -counted on the spoils of _Tumbez_. - -[Sidenote: 1532.] - -Pizarro felt the pressing necessity of giving active employment to his -soldiers, but at the same time he dreaded to advance further into the -interior without complete information. He took a middle course. Leaving -behind part of his men, he himself with the remainder reconnoitered the -interior. In May a detachment under his own command kept advancing on -the more level region, whilst a smaller body skirted the slopes of the -_Andes_ under Hernando de Soto, a cavalier afterwards renowned as the -discoverer of the Mississippi, and whose portrait is to be seen in the -Rotunda of the Capitol at Washington. The Spanish leader, being awakened -to the necessity of not unnecessarily provoking the hostility of the -natives, maintained strict discipline, and enjoined his men to abstain -from all acts of violence. By lenient conduct he soon effaced the -previous unfavourable impressions respecting him, and he was welcomed in -the villages beneath the _Cordilleras_. Proclaiming everywhere that he -came in the name of the Pope and of the king of Spain, the simple -natives involuntarily saw themselves become subjects of the latter, as a -preliminary to being members of the faith of which the former was the -head. - -After a month spent in exploration, Pizarro fixed on the valley of -_Tangarala_ as the site of his new settlement. This rich locality, -traversed by streams navigable from the sea, was distant thirty leagues -from _Tumbez_, and thither he ordered the men he had left there to -repair. No sooner had they arrived than preparations were made for -building the settlement. Timber and stone abounded, and ere long _San -Miguel_ could boast a church, a magazine, a hall of justice, and a fort. -A municipal government was organized; the neighbouring lands were -divided amongst the residents; and each colonist had a number of natives -assigned to him as labourers,--this last measure being held to tend to -their initiation in the true faith. Luque, “the protector of the -Indians,” had been left behind at _Panamá_. - -This important operation having been effected, Pizarro caused the gold -and silver which he had robbed to be melted down. After a fifth had been -deducted for the crown, the soldiers were persuaded to relinquish their -share for the present, and it was sent back to _Panamá_ to pay the -shipowners and the outfitters of the expedition. The chief had meanwhile -gained important information respecting the empire of _Peru_. That -unhappy land had recently been the subject of contest between two -brothers, and the victor and his forces were now encamped at a distance -of ten days’ march from _San Miguel_. Pizarro judged that on the whole -it was better to lead his men on active service rather than to allow -their ardour to be damped whilst waiting for further reinforcements. -This force was indeed a small one with which to attempt the conquest of -a powerful empire. It consisted of about a hundred and seventy men, -after deducting fifty for the defence of his settlement. But no one can -accuse Pizarro of irresolution. He determined to strike directly at the -_Inca_, and in September quitted _San Miguel_ at the head of his -available men. - -The Peruvian empire was now resting after an internal struggle between -the sons of Huayna Capac, the conqueror of _Quito_, and who had left the -two kingdoms of his empire to his sons Huascar and Atahualpa. Five years -later the brothers went to war with each other, and their two years’ -contest had but recently been decided in favour of the latter, who had -now assumed the scarlet _borla_ or diadem of the _Incas_. On leaving -_San Miguel_, Pizarro and his band marched through primeval forests, -broken here and there by barren shoots of the _Andes_. The country was -as fertile as it was lovely, and was cultivated with no mean skill. -Wherever the Spaniards came to, they were received by the natives with -unsuspecting hospitality, which for their own sake they were careful not -to abuse. In every considerable place a royal _caravanserai_, or -resting-place for provisions, was found, in which the _Inca_ was wont to -lodge on his royal progresses. Halting on the fifth day, Pizarro found -that his band numbered one hundred and seventy-seven, of which -sixty-seven were horsemen. Of these, however, nine, being faint-hearted -or lukewarm, were permitted to return to _San Miguel_. The rest -volunteered to follow their captain whithersoever he might lead them. - -Again resuming his march, Pizarro neared the _Andes_. De Soto was -despatched in advance to reconnoitre, but on the eighth day he returned, -accompanied by an envoy from the _Inca_. The Peruvian had brought with -him some valuable gifts for Pizarro, whom Atahualpa welcomed to his -country and invited to visit him at his camp. The march was now resumed, -and the Spanish leader sent forward one of his Indians to the royal camp -across the mountains with instructions to observe and report upon the -route, and more particularly if the passes were guarded. After three -days’ further march the base of the _Andes_ was reached, and Pizarro had -now the final choice before him of proceeding to the south along a broad -and level road to _Cuzco_, the southern capital, or of climbing the -steep and narrow way across the _Cordilleras_, to the camp of Atahualpa. -As was to be expected from his daring character, he chose the latter. - -The difficulties of the Spaniards’ march over mountain paths which had -been constructed for the passage of no animal of greater burden than the -_llama_, may be easily imagined by those who may have travelled in -Northern Turkey, Asia Minor, or Persia. To miss one’s footing was in -many places to ensure being dashed to pieces over the precipices -beneath; and had their progress been opposed, Pizarro’s little band must -have been repulsed or annihilated, more especially as there were some -strong works of stone commanding angles of the road. As it was, however, -the Spaniards and their horses contrived to toil up the steep ascent and -at length reached the crest of the _Cordillera_, where the cold was so -great that the men were glad of the protection of tents and the warmth -of fires. Here Pizarro was rejoined by one of the messengers whom he had -sent forward, and who informed him that the road was unguarded, and that -an embassy from the _Inca_ was on its way to his camp. The Peruvian -envoy renewed the greetings of his master, who again invited Pizarro and -his companions to _Caxamalca_, which place he reached on the evening of -the 15th of November 1532. - -[Sidenote: 1532.] - -Notwithstanding the lateness of the hour, Pizarro forthwith despatched -his brother Hernando, together with De Soto and a party of horsemen, to -the _Inca’s_ camp. They were received with politeness, and Atahualpa -deigned to promise a visit to the Spaniards on the morrow, upon which De -Soto and his companions returned to give to their comrades such an -account of the state and military strength of the Peruvian monarch as -filled them with dismay. At this critical moment the master spirit of -Pizarro asserted its supremacy. Matters had now arrived at such a pass -that all must be staked on the hazard of the die. Going amongst his men, -he exhorted them not to be downcast, since from their marvellous -successes hitherto they were manifestly under the special protection of -the heavenly powers, and hence the numbers against them mattered -nothing. He then summoned a council of officers and unfolded to them for -the first time his project, which was nothing more or less than to seize -the _Inca_. What follows is so far beyond ordinary credulity that it -would not be ventured on by a writer of fiction unless he were to -suppose supernatural agency. - -When the morning broke of Saturday the 16th of November, the Spaniards -were called to arms by the trumpet’s sound, and were acquainted by their -leader with his daring plan, which was to be executed on that very day. -They were then carefully stationed within the spacious buildings of -_Caxamalca_, so as to be hidden from view until the signal should sound -for their appearance. Everything, said Pizarro, depended on concert, -coolness, and celerity. Nothing was overlooked by the indefatigable -chief, even to the horses being furnished with bells, to add to the -confusion of the Peruvians. Mass was of course performed, and the God of -battles was impiously invoked in favour of the treacherous brigands. It -was not, however, till late in the day that any movement was visible in -the Peruvian camp; and when Atahualpa and his troops at length neared -_Caxamalca_, the _Inca_ sent a message to Pizarro that in consequence of -the lateness of the hour he would encamp on the open for the night and -pay his visit on the following morning. - -His message, as we may well believe, disturbed the Spanish leader to no -slight extent; but he was a man of many resources, amongst which -treachery was by no means the least conspicuous. His men had been under -arms all day, and their powers might be tried too far. He therefore -returned a message to the effect that he had prepared an entertainment -for the _Inca_ for that evening, and he trusted he might not be -disappointed in his coming. Deceived by these smooth words, the -unsuspecting monarch at once gave orders for a change of plan, and -leaving his warriors on the plain, came on to _Caxamalca_ with an -unarmed guard, sending on in advance a messenger to Pizarro to excuse -the simplicity of his visit. - -Shortly before sunset the van of the royal procession reached -_Caxamalca_, and as the leading files entered the great square, where -not a Spaniard was to be seen, the Dominican, Valverde, afterwards -bishop of _Cuzco_, came forward with a bible and a crucifix, and -attempted to explain to the astonished Peruvian the intricate doctrine -of the Trinity; ranging, as we are told, from the creation of man to the -representative of the Prince of the Apostles. To what must have sounded -to him, hearing it as he did for the first time under these strange -circumstances, as incomprehensible, the _Inca_ replied with disdain that -his god, pointing to the sinking sun, lived in the heavens above them, -upon which he threw the bible to the ground. This indignity to the -sacred volume scandalized Valverde, who, picking it up and hastening to -Pizarro, urged him no longer to delay in giving the appointed signal. -Thereupon the chief waved his scarf; the signal-gun was fired; and the -Spaniards, springing like tigers from their lair, rushed upon their -prey. Some thousands of unarmed Peruvians had entered with the _Inca_, -but they were utterly powerless against the butchers who assailed them. -The gates of the town had been closed on their entry; but by mere force -of numbers they burst through the frail walls, and thus many of them -escaped. A fierce struggle, however, raged round the golden litter of -the _Inca_, whose person it was Pizarro’s object to secure alive, and in -effecting which he himself received the only wound of which the -Spaniards could boast on that shameful day, the glory of which -undoubtedly rests with the Peruvians. Some thousands of them fell--all -or most unarmed--through their devotion to their monarch, whom as a -captive Pizarro was enabled to entertain at the feast to which he had -invited him. - -Some thoughtless persons have instituted a parallel, founded on numbers -alone, between the attack on the Peruvians by Pizarro’s band and the -defence of Thermopylæ against the Persians by the immortal three -hundred. A more insulting comparison was never imagined. Leonidas and -his band devoted themselves to the defence of their country, of freedom -and civilization, and were sure to meet death from an overwhelming armed -force. The Spaniards, on the other hand, can claim no more sympathy or -respect than can a band of modern Greek brigands, who are alike entitled -with them to the praise belonging to enterprise, temperance, patient -endurance of severe hardship, and the most constant observance of -religious duties. As to personal danger, the Spaniards engaged in the -slaughter of the unarmed Peruvians attending the capture of the _Inca_ -incurred no more risk than does the butcher amongst so many sheep. - -It must be confessed, however, that, its moral aspect apart, the seizure -of Atahualpa was a master-stroke of policy. Such was the sacredness in -which his person was regarded, that with his capture the whole activity -of his government collapsed. Holding this hostage, the Spaniards were -omnipotent; for the slightest attempt at a rising or rescue would have -at once cost the _Inca_ his life. Whilst the prisoner of the Spaniards, -he held his court in captivity, and was treated by the highest lords and -officers of his realm with the ceremonious deference which formed part -of the innermost being of all who owned his theocratic sway. But -notwithstanding the respectful treatment which the _Inca_ was permitted -to enjoy, he could not but pine in his captivity, and his mind bent -itself to the means of obtaining his freedom. He was the more anxious in -this respect, as he feared his lately defeated elder brother Huascar -would turn his confinement to account by bribing his jailers to place -him at liberty and set him upon the Peruvian throne. - -Under these circumstances, the captive _Inca_ one day offered to Pizarro -to purchase his liberation at the cost of filling the room in which he -stood to his own height--the apartment was seventeen feet by -twenty-two--in gold, and the adjoining smaller room twice full with -silver, which offer was accepted, two months being given for the -execution of the compact. The _Inca_ had not deceived himself in his -forebodings as to the conduct of Huascar, who indeed made overtures to -the Spaniard, offering a still larger bribe than had his brother. He -was, however, in the hands of the latter, who, on learning his -proceedings through his creatures, gave orders that he should be put to -death. Meanwhile the _Inca’s_ ransom was being collected, but ere it had -reached _Caxamalca_ the situation of affairs became materially changed -by the unexpected arrival of Almagro with a reinforcement of about a -hundred and seventy men. With these Pizarro now found himself in force -to proceed to the south and complete the subjugation of the country. But -the question presented itself, What was to be done with the _Inca_? To -set him at liberty would manifestly be to restore cohesion to a -government which had collapsed, and thus to undo what had already been -effected. If, on the other hand, they should detain him in captivity, -the force requisite to guard so precious a hostage would seriously -cripple the operations of the conquerors. - -In this trying position the Spaniards were at no loss for an excuse for -a line of conduct which might justify the measure on which their chief -had resolved. In the face of their experience and of all probabilities, -a general Peruvian rising was invented; and notwithstanding that the -_Inca_ had paid a ransom estimated as equivalent to three million and a -half pounds sterling, he was put upon his trial on charges the most -absurd, and respecting which, as the circumstances stated had occurred -before their arrival, the Spaniards had in any case no pretence of -jurisdiction. These, however, had involved themselves so deeply that -they had scarcely a choice but to wade on through crime to crime. The -_Inca_ was condemned to death, and, to keep up the grim farce to the -end, his sentence was finally commuted from being burnt alive to -strangulation, on condition of his professing himself a Christian. The -Dominican Valverde, who had consented to his execution, has the credit -of this conversion. - -The death of the _Inca_ proved, as was to be expected, the signal for -disorders throughout _Peru_. The late monarch had, indeed, by his own -proceedings at the time of his victory over his brother, paved the way -for such a result; for he had given orders to exterminate all members of -the Imperial house. The Peruvian empire, with its civilization, which it -had cost so much to build up, and which was perhaps equivalent to that -of Japan, was now at an end. The provinces remote from _Cuzco_ lost no -time in shaking off their allegiance. Early in September, Pizarro and -his followers, by this time amounting to about five hundred men, set out -for the Peruvian capital, taking with them a younger brother of -Atahualpa, whom they set up as the nominal _Inca_. Their march was a -severe one; and at _Xauxa_ they had to encounter the opposition of a -numerous but impotent force. From this moment their progress was -disputed; and it might have fared hardly with De Soto, who was sent on -in advance, had he not, while encompassed by the Peruvians after a -desperate engagement in the _Sierra_, received timely succour from -Almagro. At _Xauxa_ Pizarro left a small garrison of forty men, who were -to guard the treasure, which he did not think it prudent to take with -him on the march. - -[Sidenote: 1533.] - -An agreeable surprise now awaited Pizarro in the arrival of _Manco_, the -brother of Huascar, and who was the rightful heir to the Peruvian crown. -No event could have happened better suited to the Spanish interests. The -prince’s petition for protection was at once accorded, and he -accompanied the invaders to _Cuzco_, which city was entered on the 15th -of November. It had already been to a considerable extent denuded of its -treasures, which had gone to form part of the ransom of Atahualpa, but -it still formed a prize well worth the grasping, containing as it did, -together with its suburbs, some five-and-twenty thousand houses. _Cuzco_ -was a populous, well-built and well-regulated city, with houses of -stone, wholly or in part, and with long, regular streets, crossing one -another at right angles, and meeting in the great square, which through -them communicated with the high-roads of the empire. Through the capital -ran a river of pure water, the banks of which for twenty leagues were -faced with stone, and which was crossed at intervals by bridges. - -Here, as usual, almost the first care of the Spaniards, after their -arrival, was to collect the treasure, which was computed to amount to -about six hundred _pesos_ of gold and two hundred and fifteen marks of -silver. Pizarro’s next object was to set up a civil government, and with -this view the young _Inca_ was crowned, with the formalities which would -have been observed had he really been destined to power, whilst at the -same time Spanish _alcaldes_ and _regidores_ were appointed, two of the -latter being Pizarro’s brothers. But all was not tranquil in _Peru_, and -Almagro had soon to take the field to reduce one of the two generals of -the late _Inca_, who, when defeated by him on this occasion, retreated -to _Quito_, where he defied the Spaniards until he was assassinated by -his troops. Soon afterwards Pizarro had the good fortune to purchase -from the governor of _Guatemala_, for the consideration of a hundred -thousand gold pieces, a fleet of twelve vessels, great and small, with -forces, stores and ammunition. - -_Peru_ was now, in all seeming, conquered, and the governor’s next -concern was to select a suitable situation for the future capital of -this vast colony. After much consideration, he decided on a spot about -six miles from the mouth of the river _Rimac_, almost in the latitude of -_Cuzco_, and on which, with wonderful rapidity, arose the beautiful city -of _Lima_. Pizarro was now somewhat advanced in years, and the -development of the new city in its delightful situation formed the -immediate interest of the remainder of his life, he throwing into this -object the same vigour by which he had been ever distinguished in -exploration or in war. - -It will be remembered that Pizarro’s elder brother, Hernando, had been -despatched to Spain to announce the progress of his countrymen and the -capture of the _Inca_. He was graciously received by the emperor, who -manifested great interest as well in the fabrics and other products -which he had brought with him as in the gold and silver, for which he -had more immediate occasion. The adventurers who had returned with him -had likewise such a tale to tell that he was at no loss for volunteers -to return with him to _Peru_. He likewise brought back for his brother a -patent for the rank of marquis, with the permission to extend his -government seventy leagues to the south; and for Almagro the permission -to discover and occupy the country for two hundred leagues still -further, he himself having been named a knight of _St. Iago_. It so -happened that no one could tell at this time the exact latitude of -_Cuzco_, and consequently it was an open point whether it fell within -the dominions allotted to Pizarro or within the grant of Almagro, a -point which was not long in producing civil war amongst the conquerors. -This was, however, for a time deferred, and Almagro consented to set out -for the conquest of _Chili_. - -[Sidenote: 1535.] - -Notwithstanding occasional hostile encounters at different points, the -success of the Spaniards had been so uniform that almost the last -occurrence which they looked for was a general rising of the inhabitants -of _Peru_. They were, consequently, correspondingly astonished when, the -_Inca_ Manco having made his escape from _Cuzco_, his subjects rose at -his orders as one man to resist the Spanish yoke and, if possible, to -exterminate the invaders. In all directions the Spaniards were assailed, -and many of them, who, in full belief of their security, had settled -upon isolated properties throughout the country, were without difficulty -cut off by the natives. But their grand effort was directed to the -reduction of _Cuzco_, where the Spaniards under Hernando Pizarro were -besieged for months. Although the numbers of the latter did not exceed -two hundred besides a thousand native auxiliaries, they had, in the -course of the siege, to undergo the trials of famine; besides which they -were to be deemed fortunate in that they were not enveloped in the -flames to which the city was consigned by the stratagem of the -besiegers. They were reduced to terrible straits, and being cut off from -all communication from outside the walls, were alike without the hope of -succour and the knowledge of a place of refuge. Pizarro indeed had sent -no fewer than four expeditions to their assistance, but these had been -either repulsed or annihilated. - -[Sidenote: 1535.] - -From this desperate position they were at length relieved by the -necessities of the besiegers. It was now the month of August--six months -from the commencement of the siege,--and the _Inca_ Manco, whose -multitudinous host was already straitened for provisions, saw that if -his followers should not return to their fields at the sowing season, a -famine would be the result. He accordingly gave orders that the greater -part of his troops should return to their homes, to re-assemble when -their agricultural labours were over. This measure, which was perhaps -necessary for the Peruvians, was to the Spaniards a reprieve from death. -With energy sharpened by apprehension and hunger, their foraging parties -now scoured the neighbourhood for provisions, and, with the buoyancy -naturally following such depression and long inaction, Hernando Pizarro -was not slow in assuming the offensive. He even made a bold attempt, by -a vigorous attack in the dead of night, to secure the _Inca’s_ person. -This was defeated, and he was pursued by the Peruvians to before the -walls of _Cuzco_; but with the necessity which compelled him to order -his warriors to exchange their swords for the ploughshare, the _Inca_ -lost the latest hope which remained to his countrymen of expelling the -Spanish invaders. - -Almagro’s march, undertaken with the object of taking possession of his -future government of _Chili_, was of the most arduous that could be -conceived. The cold which he and his men encountered in the passes of -the _Andes_ was intense, whilst the straits to which both Spaniards and -their attendant Indians were reduced by hunger were so great that the -former were glad of the carcases of the horses which fell victims to the -climate, whilst the latter were forced to feed on the bodies of their -comrades who fell. The accounts, too, received from the exploring -expedition which had been sent on in advance, held out no immediate -prospect of plunder; so that under these circumstances it was not -difficult for his advisers to persuade Almagro to retrace his way to -_Cuzco_. With the remembrance of his recent passage through the mountain -defiles, he this time determined to follow the coast; but he had avoided -one set of difficulties to encounter another, perhaps as great, for his -route led across the great desert of _Atacama_. On reaching the town of -_Arequipa_, Almagro learned for the first time the revolt of the -Peruvians, and he was so fortunate, whilst on his way to _Cuzco_, as to -inflict on the _Inca_ a final defeat. - -But before he could obtain possession of that city he had to encounter -yet another foe. It was too important a prize to be yielded up without a -struggle. Negotiations, it is true, took place between Almagro and the -brothers of Pizarro who were in command; but in the end recourse was had -to arms, with the result that the former remained master of the city of -the _Incas_, whilst Hernando Pizarro and his brother were his prisoners. - -[Sidenote: 1537.] - -These successes of Almagro did not fail to rouse the jealousy of -Pizarro, but in the end mediation between them was listened to, and -Hernando was liberated on a solemn agreement that there should be no -more strife between them. Scarcely, however, had Hernando reached his -brother’s camp than they at once set on foot a hostile expedition -against Almagro, of which Hernando Pizarro was to take command. Almagro -was too weak to place himself at the head of his own troops, the command -of whom he deputed to Orgoñez. A fierce engagement took place between -them and those of his rival within sight of _Cuzco_. Pizarro was -victorious, and after the battle, in which Orgoñez, after performing -prodigies of valour, fell, Almagro himself became a prisoner. He had -injured too deeply the pride of Hernando Pizarro to be forgiven; the -same farce of a mock trial which had been played in the case of -Atahualpa now took place upon Pizarro’s confederate. The trial was a -waste of time, as the sentence was a foregone conclusion, and the -veteran Almagro had to submit to the same traitor’s death which had been -inflicted on the _Inca_. But he was not to be unavenged. His position -had been too prominent to make it possible that the circumstances of -his fate should escape inquiry, and Hernando Pizarro, who took an abrupt -departure for Spain, where his riches might avail him, had to undergo an -imprisonment of twenty years. - -[Sidenote: 1541.] - -The civil war which had occurred in _Peru_ drew the attention of the -Spanish Government to that country, and a member of the Royal Audience -of Valladolid was sent out in the capacity of a royal judge, holding -certain co-ordinate powers with Pizarro, and with a warrant to assume -the government in the case of his death. He reached _Peru_ at the close -of 1541. The affairs of the colony urgently demanded his presence, for -the _Inca_ Manco meanwhile kept up a desultory war from the fastnesses -of the _Cordilleras_, from which the Spaniards found it impossible to -dislodge him, whilst the natives throughout the country, seeing the -Spaniards engaged in war amongst themselves, were more unsettled than -ever. The governor now attempted to remedy this state of things by -establishing provincial settlements. One of these sprang up at -_Guamanga_ and another in the mining district of _Charcas_, called the -_Villa de la Plata_, whilst the city of _Arequipa_ was founded by the -sea. Pizarro continued to display his wonted energy as a governor, -encouraging commerce with the colonies north of _Peru_, and facilitating -measures for internal intercourse. Husbandry was stimulated by the -importation of European grains, which he had the satisfaction to see -thrive in a country whose soil and climate were so productive and -varied. But the chief object of attention was the development of the -mines, the produce of which very soon attracted European immigrants in -numbers. Their arrival enabled Pizarro to send out two important -expeditions in opposite directions--the one to _Chili_ under Valdivia, -the other under his brother Gonzalo, from his government of _Quito_, -which region had been conquered by Benalcazar, towards the unknown -country to the east. The latter expedition was destined to lead to -results which those who sent it out were far from foreseeing. - -[Sidenote: 1540.] - -Gonzalo Pizarro proceeded on his mission with ardour, and in a short -time mustered three hundred and fifty Spaniards and four thousand -Indians, one hundred and fifty of the former being mounted. At the -commencement few difficulties presented themselves, but they had no -sooner become involved in the ranges of the _Andes_ than dearth, hunger, -intense cold, and hardships and incessant toil awaited them at every -stage. As they descended the eastern slopes the cold of the mountains -was exchanged for tropical heat and a deluge of tropical rains. Some -months of this depressing labour brought them at length to the land of -cinnamon-trees (_Canelas_), of which they were in search. The precious -bark lay before them covering forests of trees; but in the absence of -the means of transport it was useless. They were lured onwards by -fabulous accounts of a land of gold before them; but the rumours proved -illusive, and they found themselves at every step still further -entangled in primeval forests of stupendous growth, the exuberance of -the vegetation being such as to defy the imagination of any but those -who have witnessed it. Their condition was now pitiable in the extreme. -Their provisions and livestock were consumed, and they were reduced to -feed upon the carcases of the thousand dogs which they had brought with -them, many of them destined for hunting the natives. When this source of -food too was gone, they had to content themselves with such herbs and -roots as the forest afforded. - -If anything can mitigate the horror with which we look on the cruelties -exercised by the Spanish conquerors of America, it is the fact that if -they never spared others, they were equally unsparing of themselves. -They shrank from no exposure, fatigue, or danger, and were as -enterprising as they were remorseless. - -Gonzalo Pizarro, setting out once more from a valley where he had -halted, came to a deep river, the _Napo_, which it was necessary for him -to cross. Its narrowest breadth was twenty feet, and the banks were -precipitous, and some two hundred fathoms in height. His men succeeded -in laying a beam across, and in traversing this bridge of _Al Sirath_, -one soldier fell into the hell beneath. The others proceeded, through -marshes and by swamps and lakes, until their provisions were expended. -On the river’s banks they determined to construct a raft which might -support the sick and convey the whole party from the one bank to the -other as occasion might seem to render prudent. The bits and stirrups of -the horses’ harness supplied nails for the raft; the forest furnished -gum in place of pitch, and the garments of the soldiers were used -instead of oakum. The vessel thus constructed conveyed the sick and the -stores, while the main body of the expedition followed on foot the -course of the stream, through thickets, caves, plantations, and -inundated fields. Gonzalo Pizarro would have belied his name had he not -strewed his track with mementoes of his cruelty. Whether or not the -chiefs of the tribes by which he passed received him well, their -inevitable fate was to be carried along with him, although he observed a -distinction between such as had given him a friendly welcome and such as -had not, by placing only the latter in chains. But one day these -_caciques_--the chained as well as the unchained--took the opportunity -of leaping into the river, thinking the risk of death preferable to the -tender mercies of a Pizarro. By this time more than one thousand -Peruvians of the party had perished, and as by the native accounts they -were not more than eighty leagues from the junction between the stream -and a great river, Orellana was ordered to proceed in the vessel to the -point of meeting, taking with him fifty men. In the course of three days -Orellana reached the point where the _Coca_ joins the _Napo_, where, -finding no provisions, he urged upon his men the necessity of -proceeding down the river, leaving Pizarro to his fate. A youthful -knight of Badajoz, whose chivalrous ideas revolted against this act of -treachery, was left alone by the water’s side, to subsist as best he -might until the arrival of Pizarro. - -[Sidenote: 1541.] - -On the last day of the year 1541 this voyage was commenced, and to such -straits were the explorers reduced ere it ended, that they had recourse -to boiling their leathern girdles and their shoes, to eat with the herbs -upon which they had to subsist. At length the sound of a drum was heard, -and four canoes were seen, when Orellana, landing his men, attacked the -Indians with the impetuosity of wolves. The plunder of their property -supplied the explorers for the present with food, and a further stock -was obtained for the voyage. By means of an Indian language some verbal -intercourse took place between Orellana and his hosts, and from this -arose the name by which the river they were descending was destined to -be ever afterwards known. Further down the stream--so the Indians -said--there was a country inhabited by a tribe of female warriors. The -Spaniards made themselves another boat and descended the river, passing -by the mouths of numerous affluents and through the territories of many -_caciques_. They landed at several places, and formally took possession -of them for their monarch. They had at length to fight a battle, in -which, it was affirmed, ten or twelve females took part. These women, of -whom, according to the priest of the explorers, the Spaniards slew seven -or eight, were tall and well formed; they were of fair complexion; they -wore but a girdle; and they fought with desperation. - -[Sidenote: 1542.] - -This voyage extended until the 26th of August 1542, when the triumphant -Spaniards emerged at the mouth of the river, and courageously committed -their frail barques to the currents and waves of the sea. Steering -northwards, they desired to reach the island of _Cubagua_. The newly -discovered river was at first named after _Orellana_, but soon -afterwards took its enduring name from the real or imaginary female -warriors,--“The _Amazons_.” - -[Sidenote: 1542.] - -To return to Gonzalo Pizarro: After in vain awaiting during several -miserable weeks the return of Orellana, Gonzalo determined to set out on -the same journey by land; but two months were expended in toiling -through the forest ere they reached the spot of the junction of the -_Napo_ with the _Coca_, which distance had been accomplished by Orellana -by water in three days. There they found Vargas, who had been set on -shore, and from him they learned that they had been deserted by their -comrades. Their situation was now indeed deplorable, but they did not -give way to despair, and after a toilsome return march, which occupied -more than a year, a portion of the wayworn band arrived again at -_Quito_. Their absence had extended over two years and a half. Their -horses were no more; their clothing was replaced by the skins of wild -animals; and they themselves from civilized beings had become -transformed into wild men of the woods, with wasted frames, blackened -faces, and tangled locks. Of the four thousand Indians who had -accompanied them, one-half of the number alone returned, whilst the -three hundred and fifty Spaniards were now represented by eighty. - -There is but one more event to be recorded in order to complete this -sketch of the origin of Spanish _Peru_. Among men of such hot blood and -of such lawless manners as were the conquerors, it was scarcely probable -that the followers of Almagro would await tamely whatever retribution -for his death might be exacted in Spain; and in order that Almagro’s -youthful son might be the more harmless, he was deprived by Pizarro in -great part of his property, and likewise of the government of _Chili_. A -conspiracy against the life of the marquis was the result, and the news -of an appointment of a colleague with Pizarro in the government gave -confidence to his enemies. The arrival of this officer being delayed by -severe weather, the conspirators resolved no longer to await for public -justice, but to take the law into their own hands. A band of eighteen -formed themselves into a committee for its execution. They attacked -Pizarro in his palace, and, after a desperate defence on his part and on -that of the friends who surrounded him, consigned him to the fate which -formed the appropriate close of his stormy career. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -_CHILI._ - -1535-1550. - - -The authentic history of _Chili_, according to the _Abbé_ Molina, does -not go further back than to about the fifteenth century. The earliest -accounts of the Chilians are contained in the Peruvian annals. The -_Incas_ had extended their empire from the equator to the tropic of -Capricorn and thence to the desirable land of _Chili_, which extends for -twelve hundred and sixty miles along the Pacific Ocean. The chain of the -_Cordilleras_, which bounds it to the east, supplies it with an -abundance of streams, moderating its climate and fertilizing its soil. -At the time when the devastating presence of the Spaniards first -appeared upon the land, the population is supposed to have been -numerous. It had not been without severe fighting that the ascendancy of -the Peruvians over this region was obtained; and, in like manner, the -early Spaniards had to feel the force of the arm of the native tribes. -_Chili_, indeed, had become divided into two parts; the one free, the -other subject to Peruvian domination. - -According to the author above quoted, the Chilians at the date of the -Spaniards’ arrival were by no means so rude in manners as is usually -supposed. They had long since passed from the state of the hunter, which -is that of the Patagonian of to-day, to the more advanced state of the -shepherd. This second stage in civilization, too, they had surmounted, -and were now a race of husbandmen; they had not attained to the more -advanced condition of merchants. In a country where game was not -abundant, and where domestic animals were likewise rare, the transition -to the condition of cultivators of the soil was probably of necessity -rapid. It will be remembered that when Hernando Pizarro proceeded to -Spain after the capture of the _Inca_ Atahualpa, the territory for two -hundred leagues to the south of his brother’s government had been -assigned to Almagro, who had undertaken the march across the _Andes_ to -_Chili_. - -When the difficulties of this terrible passage had been surmounted, -Almagro and his men found themselves in a country supplied with -abundance of provisions. The Chilians in fact, we are told, possessed -maize, pulse of various kinds, the potato, the pumpkin, the pepper -plant, the strawberry, and numerous other elements of vegetable food. Of -animals they possessed the rabbit and the Araucanian camel, and, as -tradition relates, the hog and the domestic fowl. The country may be -assumed to have been well peopled, from the fact that one language -prevailed throughout it, rather than the various dialects of several -separate tribes. It possessed, in many parts, skilfully constructed -aqueducts for watering the fields. Of these one remains in the vicinity -of the capital, remarkable alike for its extent and solidity. The -Chilians ate their grain cooked, either using earthen pots for the -purpose of cooking it, or roasting it in hot sand. They likewise made of -it two distinct kinds of meal,--the parched, which was used for gruel; -and the raw, from which bread and cakes were baked in small holes formed -like ovens. They made use of a kind of sieve, and they were so far -civilized as to employ leaven. They were also in possession of several -kinds of spirituous liquors derived from grain or berries. - -The Chilians, having adopted a settled mode of life, collected -themselves into families in the districts best adapted for agriculture, -where they established themselves in large villages. These settlements -consisted of a number of huts irregularly distributed. In each village -there was a chief called _Ulmen_, subject to the supreme ruler of the -tribe. This dignity was hereditary, which argues a certain antiquity and -likewise a peaceful rather than a warlike mode of living, since in the -latter state military ascendancy is apt to overrule the hereditary -principle. The right of private property was fully recognized. Each man -was absolute proprietor of the field which he cultivated and of the -product of his industry, which he could transmit to his children. The -houses, which were quadrangular and roofed with rushes, were enclosed by -walls of wood plastered with clay, and sometimes with walls of bricks, -the art of making which they had acquired from _Peru_. From the wool of -the camel they manufactured cloth for garments, using the distaff and -spindle. They were familiar with the use of the needle, and were so far -advanced in taste as to admire embroidery. - -The clay of the country lent itself to arts of another description,--to -the production of plates, cups, jars, &c., for varnishing which a -certain mineral earth was employed. The Chilians likewise possessed -vessels of hard wood and of marble. The earth yielded gold, silver, -copper, tin, and lead. From their bell-metal they constructed axes, -hatchets, and other edged tools; and they alone of all the races or -nations of America possessed a word for iron, although it is to be added -that no iron implements have as yet been discovered in _Chili_. The -natives likewise were familiar with the art of extracting salt. They -possessed dyes of all colours, not only from plants but likewise from -minerals; whilst in lieu of soap they employed the bark of the -_quillai_, and obtained oil from the seeds of the _madi_. From various -vegetables they manufactured baskets and mats, and from others thread -for ropes and fishing-nets. In fishing they employed baskets and hooks, -and on the sea-coast used floats of wood or of inflated seal-skins. - -Hunting was to them, as to us, an amusement. In this pursuit they -employed the arrow, the sling, and the noose, together with snares of -several kinds. It is a singular fact that two races, living so far apart -as those inhabiting China and Chili, should have employed the same -artifice for entrapping wild-fowl on the water, namely, for a man to -glide amongst them, his head being concealed in a perforated gourd. They -were familiar with the use of numbers, their language possessing the -words signifying ten, a hundred, and a thousand respectively, and, like -that of the Romans, stopping at that number. Their transactions were -noted by skeins of thread of various colours, with a number of knots. -They had not attained to the art of writing, although their language -contains a word signifying to sketch or to paint. In the latter art, -however, they were exceedingly primitive. But their chief progress was -in the sciences of physic and astronomy. Such was the people who had -been handed over by Charles V. to the tender mercies of Almagro and his -followers, whose presence came on them and their promising civilization -as the frost on the blossoms of spring. - -[Sidenote: 1535.] - -The history of _Chili_, in so far as the connection of that country with -Europe is concerned, begins at the close of the year 1535, when Almagro -set out from _Peru_ with a force composed of five hundred and seventy -Spaniards and some fifteen thousand Peruvians, the latter being under -the command of the brother of the _Inca_ Manco. His march has been -already briefly described in the preceding chapter. His army, after many -conflicts with the natives, became entangled in the _Cordilleras_ at the -beginning of winter, being destitute of provisions and ill-supplied with -clothing. The few mountain paths were obliterated by the snow. With -their accustomed intrepidity, the Spaniards surmounted the perilous -heights; but a hundred and fifty of their number, and, it is said, some -ten thousand Peruvians, perished from the cold. It is, indeed, computed -that none would have escaped but for the energy of Almagro, who, pushing -on with a few horsemen, sent back to his followers a timely supply of -provisions, which he found in abundance at _Copiapo_. The survivors of -his army reached the plains of that fertile province, where they were -well received by the inhabitants. - -The _Inca’s_ brother, Paullu, who seems to have had the Spaniards’ -interests at heart as being identical with his own, was the first to -point out to them the importance of their conquest. He obliged the -peasants to deliver up to him all the gold in their possession, by which -means he collected a sum equivalent to 500,000 _ducats_, which he -presented to Almagro. The Spanish leader, imagining he had another -_Peru_ before him, made over this sum to his followers. He was naturally -of a generous disposition, and has been lauded for his action on this -occasion;[L] but if we reflect on the source from which his _largesse_ -sprung, we are reminded of the old saying respecting generosity at the -expense of others. As, in addition to the plunder with which he was -already gorged, he had the prospect of ample riches before him, his -conduct may be compared to that of the chief of a foreign force which we -may imagine to be in possession of London, and who, having shared in the -spoil of the Bank of England, should liberally make over the treasure at -Messrs. Coutts’ to his followers, with the intention of emptying the -tills of Messrs. Drummond’s and other banks into their own coffers. - -At _Copiapo_ Almagro imitated the conduct of Pizarro in _Peru_ in -assuming the office of umpire between contending native authorities. The -reigning _Ulmen_, it appears, had usurped the government of his nephew. -Shocked at this instance of high-handed conduct, the worthy Spanish -freebooter caused the guilty chief to be arrested; and the natives were -simple enough to impute the re-settlement of their hereditary ruler to -a sense of abstract justice on the part of the heaven-sent newcomer. -Almagro’s followers soon recovered from their fatigues amongst the -beautiful villages of _Copiapo_, and being strengthened by -reinforcements brought up by Orgoñez, were soon in a condition to resume -their march towards the south. Meanwhile an incident occurred which -showed the confiding people that there were two sides to the character -of the liberal and just Almagro. - -Two soldiers having left the army had proceeded to _Goasco_, where they -were at first well received by the inhabitants, but where they -afterwards met their death, which they had in all probability provoked, -if they had not richly deserved it. Their fate, however, showed the -Chilians that the invaders were mortal, and therefore caused concern to -the latter’s chief. Almagro, on learning it, proceeded to _Coquimbo_, -where he summoned before him the _Ulmen_ of the district, as well as his -brother and twenty of the principal inhabitants, and the ex-usurping -_Ulmen_ of Copiapo. It was no doubt right and reasonable on his part to -institute an inquiry into the circumstances attending the death of his -two soldiers, and no one could blame him for exacting due punishment on -any persons who should be shown to have deserved it in the matter; but -it would be hopeless to look for any considerations of justice in one so -above all law as Almagro. The twenty-three innocent men, who had had -nothing whatsoever to do with the soldiers’ death, were one and all -committed to the flames. Such was the Chilians’ first experience of the -gratitude of their Christian invaders for the hospitable reception they -had met with. It is right to add that the greater part of his army -openly disapproved of this savage proceeding on the part of their chief -Almagro, who in his subsequent fate must be held to be beyond the pale -of sympathy. - -[Sidenote: 1537.] - -In 1537 Almagro received a further reinforcement under Juan de Rada, and -he was at the same time urged by letters from his friends in _Peru_ to -return to that country and to take possession of _Cuzco_. He, however, -pursued his march and passed the river _Cachapoal_, notwithstanding the -remonstrances of his Peruvian followers, who dreaded to enter the -country of the warlike _Promaucians_. As usually happened, the aspect of -the Spaniards, with their horses and firearms, struck terror into their -opponents. These, however, recovering from their surprise, regained at -the same time their wonted intrepidity. A battle took place on the -_Rio-Claro_. The Peruvians, who were in the front, were soon routed; and -although the Spaniards, after a furious struggle, which lasted until -nightfall, remained masters of the field, the enemy were in no degree -dismayed. They were prepared to renew the attack next morning; but the -Spaniards had had enough of fighting for the present, and resolved by -common consent to retreat rather than face a campaign before so warlike -a people. A portion of Almagro’s force would have formed a settlement in -northern _Chili_; but it was their leader’s object not to lessen his -strength, and he accordingly retreated with his whole band towards -_Cuzco_. - -[Sidenote: 1540.] - -Three years after the above-mentioned occurrences, when the Pizarros, by -the death of Almagro, were undisputed lords of _Peru_, Francisco -determined to renew an attempt on _Chili_. The enterprise had been -confided by the court of Spain to two adventurers, named respectively -Hoz and Carmargo. The former was to undertake the conquest of the -country to the north of the river _Maule_; the latter was to reduce the -territory southward of that stream as far as to the archipelago of -_Chiloë_. But Pizarro, for some undivulged reason, declined to confirm -the royal nomination, and appointed in his own name to the expedition -Pedro de Valdivia, an able and well-tried officer, and one devoted to -his party. Valdivia, however, was directed to take Hoz with him, and to -satisfy him with a liberal distribution of land. - -Valdivia determined to establish a permanent settlement in the country -to which he was to proceed, and made preparation accordingly, taking -with him not only two hundred Spanish fighting-men and a large body of -Peruvians, but likewise several women, some monks, and a great number of -European quadrupeds. Instructed by the experience of Almagro in the -_Cordilleras_, although he pursued the same route, he took care to -choose the summer for his passage. He thus incurred no loss on his way; -but he met with a very different reception from that which had been -accorded to his precursor. The inhabitants of northern _Chili_ were by -this time aware that the empire of the _Incas_ was no more, and they -accordingly no longer owed subjection to their Peruvian conquerors. They -attacked the invaders on all sides, but with more valour than method. -The Spaniards were accordingly enabled to overcome them in detail, and -traversed the provinces of _Copiapo_, _Coquimbo_, _Quillota_, and -_Melipilla_, and arrived with but little loss at that of _Mapocho_, now -named _Santiago_. - -[Sidenote: 1541.] - -In this fertile province, which lies upon the confines of the _Andes_, -Valdivia determined to make a settlement, and with this view he laid the -foundations of the fair city of _Santiago_ on the 24th of February 1541. -He laid out the city on the general Spanish colonial plan of dividing it -into squares of uniform size; and in order to protect the settlement -from attack, he constructed a fort upon a hill in the centre, which has -since received the name of _S. Lucia_. His proceedings were watched by -the natives with a jealous eye, and measures were concerted for getting -rid of the unwelcome intruders. Valdivia, however, discovered the plot -against him in time, and imprisoned the chief conspirators in his -fortress, whilst he repaired with sixty horsemen to the river -_Cachapoal_ in order to watch the _Promaucians_, whom he suspected of -being in league with the conspirators. - -The natives of _Mapocho_, taking advantage of the absence of Valdivia, -fell upon the colony with inconceivable fury, burning the half-built -houses and assailing the citadel wherein the inhabitants had taken -refuge. Whilst these defended themselves bravely, a woman named Iñez -Suarez, taking an axe, beat out the brains of the captive chiefs, who -had attempted to escape. The battle, which began at daybreak, lasted -until night, fresh assailants constantly filling the places of those who -fell. Meanwhile a messenger had been despatched to inform Valdivia of -what had occurred. He lost no time in hastening back, when he found the -ditch filled with dead bodies, and the enemy preparing to renew the -attack. Joining the besieged, he at once advanced upon the main force of -the Chilians, who were posted upon the bank of the river _Mapocho_. -There the struggle was renewed with equal fury and valour on either -side, but with the advantage of skill and arms on that of the Spaniards. -The natives, having at length lost the flower of their youth, dispersed -over the plain. - -Notwithstanding this defeat and others which followed, this brave people -never ceased during six years (by which time they were almost utterly -annihilated) to attack the Spaniards upon every occasion that presented -itself, cutting off their provisions and compelling them to subsist on -unwholesome food and on the small amount of grain which they could raise -under the fire from the walls of _Santiago_. The once fertile plains in -the neighbourhood were now a desert, such inhabitants as survived having -retired to the mountains. - -This prolonged and profitless fighting naturally disgusted the Spanish -soldiery, and at length a conspiracy was organized amongst them against -the life of Valdivia. That officer, however, having obtained information -of what was passing, took his measures accordingly. Some of the -conspirators were punished with death, and the soldiers in general were -diverted by an expedition to the valley of _Quillota_, which was said to -abound in mines of gold. The result surpassed their most sanguine -expectations. Past sufferings and present dangers were forgotten, and -the longing to return to _Peru_ no longer existed. All were anxious to -remain in the new _El Dorado_, and the governor lost no time in -constructing a frigate at the mouth of the river _Chile_, which was to -bear to _Peru_ the news of his discovery, and to bring him the necessary -aid to enable him to prosecute it with success. - -Meanwhile, however, the state of his affairs being urgent, Valdivia -likewise despatched to _Peru_ two of his officers by land, who should -take with them six companions, whose spurs, bits, and stirrups he -directed to be made of gold, which he knew would speak more eloquently -than any words with a view to gaining him recruits. These messengers, -although escorted by thirty horsemen, were attacked by the archers of -_Copiapo_, and of the whole band only two escaped with life. These were -the two officers Monroy and Miranda, who were brought before the -_Ulmen_, covered with wounds. That prince resolved to put them to death, -but was dissuaded from doing so by his wife, who pitied their deplorable -condition. Several of the horses had been taken alive, and the _Ulmena_ -who had saved the Spaniards requested from them in return the slight -favour of teaching her son to ride. This naturally suggested the idea of -escape, which no one could blame the prisoners for attempting. But it -would not have been in harmony with all Spanish conduct towards natives -of the New World had they simply contented themselves with escaping. One -day whilst the young prince was riding, escorted by his archers, and -preceded by an officer armed with a lance, Monroy suddenly attacked him -with a poniard, inflicting mortal wounds, whilst Miranda at the same -time wrested the lance from the officer. The pair having thus rewarded -the kindness of the _Ulmena_, put spurs to their horses and made their -escape, in due time reaching _Cuzco_. - -Vaca de Castro, who on the death of Pizarro was now governor of _Peru_, -on being informed of the critical situation of his countrymen in -_Chili_, at once despatched to their aid a considerable detachment of -troops under Monroy, who on his return had the good fortune to escape -the notice of the _Copiapins_. At the same time De Castro despatched by -sea a still greater reinforcement under Juan Pastene, a Genoese. Both -reinforcements reached Valdivia about the same time, thus enabling him -to carry his vast designs into execution. Taking advantage of Pastene’s -nautical acquirements, he ordered him to make a complete survey of the -sea-coast as far as to the Straits of _Magellan_. On his return from -this service Pastene was despatched to _Peru_ for further recruits, -which were more than ever wanted, for since the successful affair in -_Copiapo_ the natives had become even more aggressive than before. - -[Sidenote: 1544.] - -The inhabitants of the valley of _Quillota_ had, by means of a -stratagem, massacred all the Spanish soldiers employed at the mines. One -of the neighbouring natives had brought to the commander a vessel filled -with gold, telling him that he had found a large quantity of the -precious metal in a neighbouring district. On this, all were impatient -to proceed thither to secure their share of the treasure, and falling -into an ambuscade were all cut off, with the exception of the commander -and a negro, who owed their safety to their horses. At the same time the -frigate, which had now been completed, was destroyed. On receiving news -of this disaster, Valdivia hastened to _Quillota_ with his troops, and -there built a fort for the protection of the miners. Being reinforced -with three hundred men, he thought fit to establish a settlement in the -north of _Chili_ to serve as a depôt and a protection for convoys. For -this purpose he selected _Coquimbo_, which was founded by him in 1544. - -[Sidenote: 1547.] - -Two years later, Valdivia, having passed the _Maule_, proceeded to the -river _Itata_. Whilst there encamped at night, at a place called -_Quilacura_, he was attacked by the natives, who inflicted on him such a -loss that he thought it prudent to renounce his intended expedition and -to return to _Santiago_. Being disappointed by the non-arrival of the -succours which he expected from _Peru_, he now resolved to proceed -thither in person. As he was on the point of starting [1547], Pastene -returned, but alone, and bringing news of the civil war. This did not -deter Valdivia from his purpose, and the two set sail together for -_Peru_. The part which was played in the final struggle in that country -by the conqueror of _Chili_ is detailed elsewhere. As a reward, he was -confirmed by the President Gasca in the office of governor of _Chili_, -and was furnished with an abundance of military stores. The president -further put at his disposal two ships, in which he might take away with -him many of the turbulent spirits who could be well spared from _Peru_. - -During the absence of Valdivia, affairs in the south were by no means at -a standstill. In the first place, Pedro de Hoz, who, it will be -remembered, had been designated by the court of Spain for the conquest -of _Chili_, was accused, rightly or wrongly, of endeavouring to supplant -Valdivia, and was accordingly beheaded by order of the acting governor. -In the next place, the inhabitants of _Copiapo_, eager to avenge the -treacherous murder of their prince’s son, cut off some forty Spaniards -who were proceeding from _Peru_ to _Chili_, whilst, at their -instigation, the people of _Coquimbo_ massacred the whole colony which -had been recently founded in their territory, razing the city to its -foundation. Aguirre was immediately sent thither, and after various -encounters rebuilt the settlement on a more advantageous situation. -Aguirre is considered by the inhabitants of _Coquimbo_ as the founder of -their city, and many of the patricians of the place claim him as their -ancestor. - -[Sidenote: 1550.] - -After a toilsome contest of nine years, Valdivia considered himself to -be so firmly established in that part of _Chili_ which had been under -the dominion of the Peruvians as to warrant his partitioning the land -amongst his soldiers. Having by these means satisfied the ambition of -his companions, he set out anew for the southern provinces with a -respectable army of Spaniards and of Promaucian allies. After a march of -eighty leagues he at length arrived at the bay of _Panco_--already -reached by Pastene--where, on the 5th of October 1550, he founded the -city of _Conception_. This place, the situation of which is so -advantageous for commerce on account of its excellent harbour, is -exposed to earthquakes, by which, and by the simultaneous inundations of -the sea, it has been twice destroyed.[M] Its occupation by the Spaniards -excited alarm amongst the neighbouring warlike Araucanians, who, -foreseeing that their turn would come next, resolved to succour the -tribes near _Conception_. Thus was produced a fresh war, the details of -which may be preceded in a future chapter by some account of the -remarkable people who have hitherto, even to the present day, by their -obstinate valour, alone amongst the native inhabitants of South America, -withstood the tide of Spanish invasion, and maintained themselves -independent in their mountain strongholds. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -BRAZIL; _FAILURE OF THE FRENCH AT_ RIO DE JANEIRO. - -1510-1570. - - -In following the progress of discovery in South America it is necessary -to turn to another direction. The main centres from which discoveries -were made may for general purposes be set down as three, namely:--(1.) -From the Isthmus of _Panama_ by the Spaniards; (2.) From the river -_Plata_ by the Spaniards; and (3.) From _Bahia_, on the coast of -_Brazil_, by the Portuguese. We have now to turn to the last-named -point. - -[Sidenote: 1510.] - -The date at which the first Portuguese settler established himself in -_Bahia_ was about 1510. The name of this pioneer was Diogo Alvarez, the -sole survivor of a crew wrecked to the north of that beautiful bay. He -made himself useful to the natives, and being the fortunate possessor of -a musket and some gunpowder, he so impressed their imaginations that -they presently made him their chief. After a time, taking advantage of -the visit of a French vessel, he was enabled to return to Europe and to -initiate a trade between France and the region in which his lot was -cast. He likewise desired that his countrymen should colonize the -province; but the Portuguese Government were disposed rather to lend -assistance towards establishing a trade between their own and distant -countries than to encourage agricultural settlements abroad. For this -reason, _Brazil_, which, from the nature of its population, offered but -scanty inducements to traders, was neglected for many years after its -discovery. At length, however, it became of sufficient importance to -attract attention, and the system was adopted, which had succeeded in -other Portuguese settlements, of apportioning it out into captaincies, -extending, as a rule, each for fifty leagues along the coast. - -[Sidenote: 1531] - -The first person who took possession of one of these captaincies was -Martim Affonso de Sousa, afterwards governor of the Portuguese -possessions in India, and who had the distinction of carrying St. -Francis Xavier to the East. He has the honour of having discovered the -bay on which was to rise the future capital of _Brazil_, and which, -under the belief that it was the estuary of a river, he named _Rio de -Janeiro_, having discovered it on the first of January. - -Having surveyed the coast southward to the _Plata_, he selected as a -spot for a settlement an island in the twenty-fourth degree of southern -latitude, and was fortunate enough to conciliate the good-will of the -neighbouring population through the medium of a ship-wrecked Portuguese -sailor whom he found amongst them. This colony soon removed to the -island of _S. Vicente_, from which the captaincy was named. Here Martim -Affonso introduced the sugar-cane, and reared the first cattle known to -that region. - -Amongst the other captaincies founded about this period were those of -_S. Amaro_, which adjoined _S. Vicente_, and _Espirito Santo_ to the -north. Next came the captaincy of _Porto Seguro_, where Cabral had -landed on first taking possession of _Brazil_. Here sugar-works were -established with considerable success. Beyond came the captaincy of the -_Ilheos_ or Isles, so called from a river with three islands near its -bar. The town of old _S. Paulo_ was soon afterwards founded. - -The coast from the _San Francisco_ river to the point of _Padram de -Bahia_ was granted to Francisco Coutinho, a distinguished _Fidalgo_, to -whom was likewise assigned that beautiful bay with its surrounding -creeks and hundred islands. It may be mentioned, as showing the mixture -of Portuguese and native blood which from the earliest settlement -existed in the Brazilian race, that two of Coutinho’s followers married -daughters of the first Portuguese settler, Diogo Alvarez, the mothers of -whom were native women. A son of one of the neighbouring chiefs having -been killed by the Portuguese, the savages attacked Coutinho, and after -seven years of hostilities compelled him to abandon his settlement and -retreat to the adjoining captaincy of the Isles. He was afterwards -treacherously slain. - -One other captaincy was established about this time--that of -_Pernambuco_, the chief town of which, from its lovely situation, -received the suggestive name of _Olinda_. The tribe occupying the -vicinity were called _Cahetes_, and have handed down to this day the -remarkable wicker-work _catamarans_, which those who have landed at -_Pernambuco_ are not likely to forget. From this savage tribe, Coelho, -to whom the grant was assigned, had to conquer by inches what had been -granted to him by leagues; he was even attacked and besieged in his -town. By degrees, however, and by the aid of an alliance with another -tribe, he at length established himself in his captaincy. - -The captaincy of _Maraham_ was assigned to John de Barros, the -historian, who, dividing his grant with two others, undertook a scheme -of conquest as well as of colonization, sending out from Portugal an -expedition of nine hundred men. Fortune, however, did not smile upon the -enterprise. The fleet was wrecked on some shoals, and the survivors -escaped to the island which bears the above-mentioned name. - -It does not lie within the compass of this work to go into the condition -of the native tribes in any part of South America previously to the -arrival of the Spaniards and Portuguese. It will be sufficient to -indicate the materials, whether European, native, mixed, or African, of -which the several States of South America were composed at the period of -their declaring themselves independent of Spain and Portugal, -respectively. We therefore pass over much that is interesting, as told -by the early writers, of the condition of the tribes as they were found -by the settlers in _Brazil_, a _résumé_ of which may be found in the -pages of Southey. There is not much of an active nature to relate in the -history of the several captaincies at this period beyond a tale of -successive little wars, in which the Portuguese were for the most part -allied with some one native tribe against another. - -[Sidenote: 1549.] - -It was not until the lapse of half a century after the discovery of -_Brazil_ that the Portuguese possessions in that region came to be -looked upon as being of real importance to the mother country. It then -began to be perceived that the system of having so many captaincies or -separate governments, under no supreme authority nearer than Lisbon, was -one likely to be productive of considerable inconvenience and confusion. -The lives and property of the colonists were at the mercy of the several -governors, and serious complaints of this state of things reached the -king of Portugal. It was resolved, therefore, to revoke the powers of -the captains, whilst leaving them their grants, and to appoint over them -a governor-general. The person chosen for this high office was De Sousa, -who was instructed to establish himself at _Bahia_, which place he was -to put into a state of defence against all enemies. He took with him the -great Nobrega and some other Jesuit Fathers, the first of their order -who proceeded to South America. A new town was now built at _Bahia_. A -hundred houses arose within four months, and De Sousa’s fleet was -followed at no great distance of time by another, bearing a number of -maidens of noble family, who were to be given in marriage to the -officers and to receive dowries from the royal property. Young orphans -were likewise sent out year by year to be educated by the Jesuits, who -at once began the system of beneficence towards the natives from which -they never deviated; but they could not here, as they had done -elsewhere, engraft the principles of Christianity upon the existing -religion and manners of the country. It was impossible to come to any -compromise with cannibalism, and almost impossible to wean the natives -from this custom. The Jesuits, however, persevered in the face of all -difficulties; they built churches; they established schools for -children; they taught these to read and to write; and they made -themselves acquainted with the native tongues, into which they -translated the prayers of the Church. They had considerable -difficulties, however, to encounter in reconciling their teaching with -the practice of their fellow-countrymen; for it must be remembered that, -during the half century that elapsed between the discovery of _Brazil_ -and the arrival of the Fathers, the colonists had been without religious -guides. In one respect the Jesuits’ work was easy. The youthful -Brazilians showed themselves passionately fond of music, and were in -this branch of education eager and apt pupils. - -[Sidenote: 1552.] - -The number of Jesuits soon increased, and in the year 1552 Nobrega -received the title of Vice-Provincial of _Brazil_. Two years later that -government became the seat of a bishop, to whose arrival Nobrega -anxiously looked forward for support against the easy-going priests, -who, far from being imbued with the zeal of the Jesuits, connived at -their countrymen enslaving the Brazilians and making their women their -concubines. A Jesuit College was established in the plains of -_Riatininga_, about thirteen leagues from _S. Vicente_, to which -thirteen of the company were sent, and which received the name of _S. -Paulo_, a name shared by the town which arose adjoining it. The chief of -this establishment, the celebrated Anchieta, devoted himself by day and -by night to the instruction of the numerous pupils who came to him from -the neighbouring settlements, whilst at the same time he did his best -to acquaint them with the arts of civilization. - -[Sidenote: 1558.] - -From the time of the discovery of _Brazil_ the French had occasionally -visited that coast, and about the year 1558 they attempted to establish -themselves at _Rio de Janeiro_ under Villegagnon, the same who had -conveyed Mary Queen of Scots from Scotland to Brittany, eluding the -vigilance of the English. He had obtained the permission of his -sovereign to undertake an expedition to America, having given his -assurances to Coligny that he would protect Protestants in the new -colony. He received two large vessels and a store-ship, together with -all that was necessary for the furtherance of his project. Being well -received by the natives at _Rio de Janeiro_, who were hostile to the -Portuguese, he took up his position on an island in the noble bay, not -far from the entrance. Here he erected a small fortification, to which -he gave the name of _Coligny_; in choosing a spot for a settlement, -however, he had overlooked one great disadvantage, the absence of water. -His expedition had been badly provided with stores; in consequence, his -men were immediately on their arrival made to subsist upon the food of -the country, and the result was a conspiracy against him. It was, -however, thwarted by the fidelity of three Scotchmen whom Villegagnon -reserved as his guard. Coligny was indefatigable in supplying the wants -of the colony, but he had been deceived by Villegagnon’s protestations -of zeal for the reformed religion, which had been feigned for the -purpose of gaining the admiral’s influence. In _Brazil_ he threw off the -mask, and those who had joined his settlement for the sake of liberty of -conscience found themselves even worse off than they had been in France. - -The Portuguese permitted the French colony to remain for four years -unmolested, and had it not been for the treachery and double-dealing of -Villegagnon, _Rio de Janeiro_ might have remained a permanent French -settlement. Some ten thousand Huguenots were ready to emigrate, with -their arts, had they been sure of meeting with toleration; but the -governor’s arbitrary proceedings ruined the project. The court of Lisbon -was at length aroused by Nobrega to the dangerous rivalry of the French, -and orders were issued to destroy their fortifications at _Rio de -Janeiro_, two ships of war and a number of merchantmen being fitted out -for the purpose. Two days and nights were expended in battering the -fortresses. The Portuguese, after much waste of their resources, at -length succeeded in carrying the largest of the outworks, and likewise -the rock on which the magazine was situated. During the ensuing night -the French and their native allies fled, either to the ships or to the -mainland. The Portuguese, not being in sufficient strength to enable -them to retain the island, demolished the works, and sailed for -_Santos_, carrying off the artillery and stores. The credit of this -successful expedition is entirely due to the indefatigable Nobrega. - -During this decisive affair Villegagnon was absent in France, where he -proposed to raise a fleet for the purpose of destroying the Portuguese -settlements in _Brazil_; but his previous treachery stood in the way of -his effecting his purpose. - -The history of the early Portuguese in _Brazil_ is in some respects far -more satisfactory, if it be less exciting, than that of the Spaniards in -_Peru_. They were there for the legitimate purpose of colonizing and -cultivating a portion of a vast region where there was ample room at the -same time for them and for the tribes in their neighbourhood; and if the -colonists, on the one hand, were ever ready to enslave the natives, the -Churchmen who followed in their wake were, on the other hand, as ready -to denounce the practice, and to sow the seeds of real Christianity -amongst the savages. The foremost name in the records of this good work -is that of Nobrega, than whom a more sincere, self-denying, and -enlightened missionary was never sent forth by any branch of the -Christian Church. - -The Jesuits in _Brazil_ began their efforts where all missionary efforts -that are to succeed must begin, with children. Their unprejudiced minds -were open to teaching, and they were at an age to acquire the Portuguese -language, and thus to become interpreters for the Fathers. The sick were -visited, and the death-bed was soothed. Nobrega and his companions -commenced their work with the tribes near _San Salvador_ or _Bahia_. -These they tried their best to persuade to live in peace and to be -reconciled to their enemies. It may seem to us somewhat strange that -while the Fathers are recorded to have succeeded in inducing their -converts to abstain from excessive drinking, and to take to one wife -alone, they should still have found it impossible to induce them to -abandon the supreme luxury of feeding on the flesh of their enemies. In -one instance a missionary is said to have succeeded where others failed, -by flagellating himself before the doors of the cannibals until he was -covered with blood, telling them that he thus punished himself to avert -the punishment of God upon them for their sins. - -Being aided by a zealous governor in the person of Mem de Sa, the -Jesuits carried on their labours with considerable success, forming a -number of settlements of converted natives. But the character of their -progress was not unvaried. They had to contend with hostilities, which, -though originating in the proceedings of their countrymen, and in nowise -in their own conduct, still recoiled upon them. The small-pox, too, -which spread from island to coast, is said, though perhaps with some -exaggeration, to have carried off thirty thousand of the Indians who had -been their converts. - -In the face of these disasters, Nobrega proclaimed aloud that the -Portuguese were but suffering the righteous judgment of Heaven. They had -broken treaties; they had enslaved prisoners; they had connived at -cannibalism on the part of their allies. He was no mere eloquent -declaimer. His words were followed by the most signal and heroic proof -that they came from his innermost soul. He himself, with his colleague -Anchieta, resolved to put themselves into the hands of the natives in -order to obtain peace; and it speaks volumes for the character of the -Fathers that, in the face of Portuguese treachery, the habit of their -order was a safe passport amongst the savages. - -It is true that twelve native youths were sent to _S. Vicente_ as -hostages; but in face of the excitement and prejudice which prevailed, -it is probable that the two Fathers, who really deserved the name of -holy men, owed their safety, and what they valued infinitely more, the -success of their mission, rather to their own saintly and irreproachable -conduct than to the guarantee of hostages. They nobly refused to accept -peace on the condition of recommending their governor to give up three -native chiefs who had allied themselves with the Portuguese, and who had -accepted Christianity: their countrymen’s first duty, they said, was to -keep faith inviolate, and if they should betray their allies, how could -they now be trusted? The reply of the chief with whom they parleyed was, -that if the Portuguese should decline to give up these men whom, -according to their code of honour, it was incumbent they should receive, -there should be no peace. A reference to the governor was agreed upon on -both sides; but Nobrega, with a patriotic spirit which recalls that of -the Roman Regulus, warned him emphatically against concluding peace on -disgraceful terms under the apprehension of what might befall himself -and his colleague. For two months the missionaries remained in this -position. At the end of that time Nobrega was permitted to return, to -consult with the governor, whilst Anchieta remained as a hostage; but -after three months thus passed by the latter, he too for the time -failed to win the crown of martyrdom; and a reconciliation was effected, -chiefly through the efforts of Nobrega. - -The small-pox about this period seems to have produced enormous havoc in -certain of the Portuguese settlements in _Brazil_, where some -three-fourths of the natives were carried away by it, or by the -pestilence which followed in its wake. Six of the settlements which had -been founded by the Jesuits had to be abandoned; and the Portuguese, we -are told, profiting by the misery of their neighbours, gave food in -exchange for slaves. Certain starving individuals sold their own -persons, whilst others parted with their children. But although the -lawfulness of these purchases was not questioned, the consciences of the -purchasers were somewhat ill-at-ease in the matter. They, it seems, -really thought it unfair and unchristian-like to claim men as their -slaves, over whom they had no other right save that acquired by giving -them food to save their lives. Yet they were unwilling to let them go -free, if for no other reason than that their souls would be no longer in -the way of salvation. In this dilemma a compromise was hit upon between -God and Mammon; the slaves were told they were no longer slaves; but -still, that they must continue to serve their possessors for life, to -receive yearly wages. Should they escape, they would be pursued and -punished; but the masters were not to sell or otherwise part with them. - -[Sidenote: 1564.] - -The Portuguese Government were not satisfied that the possession of -Villegagnon’s island at _Rio de Janeiro_ should not have been retained; -and a good opportunity of regaining it seemed to offer on the peace with -the _Tamoyos_, which had been procured by Nobrega and his companion. -Accordingly, the nephew of the Portuguese governor was sent to _Bahia_ -with two vessels, and with orders for his uncle to supply him with the -force requisite for this purpose. Estacio de Sa reached his destination -in February 1564, and in accordance with the advice of his uncle, before -commencing operations, summoned Nobrega to his councils. They learned -from a Frenchman that the tribe of _Tamoyos_ had already broken the -recent peace, and were the allies of his countrymen. This unexpected -news completely upset the plans of the Portuguese commander, for the -French vessels were protected by the _Tamoyos_ at every point where an -attack was possible. They declined to put out to sea, and, for want of -small craft, he could not attack them at close quarters. Under these -circumstances, and having learned that _S. Vicente_ was beset by the -savages, he thought it prudent to proceed to the latter place; he was, -however, driven back by a storm to _Rio de Janeiro_. - -It was now resolved by Estacio de Sa, in consultation with Nobrega, to -proceed to _Santos_, where they found to their relief that those natives -with whom the latter had been a hostage remained true to their -engagements; and his presence and influence materially contributed to -strengthen the force. These preparations, however, consumed the -remainder of the year, and it was not until the following January (1565) -that the expedition, consisting of six ships of war with a proportionate -number of smaller craft, was ready to put to sea. But so unfavourable -were the winds that, although they sailed from _Bertioga_ on the 20th of -January, it was the beginning of March when they reached _Rio de -Janeiro_. - -The troops were landed at _Villa Velha_, beneath the “Sugar Loaf.” -Hardly had they intrenched themselves when they were attacked by the -_Tamoyos_, who, however, were routed. The war was carried on with -dilatoriness, a quality which has not unfrequently distinguished the -military operations of Portugal and of _Brazil_. More than a year was -wasted in petty skirmishes; at the end of this time the governor, Mem de -Sa, appeared in person on the scene, exactly two years after the -expedition had sailed from _S. Vicente_. On St. Sebastian’s day the -French stronghold was assaulted: not one of their native allies escaped; -two Frenchmen were killed, and five, who were made prisoners, were -hanged. The victors then proceeded to another fortress of the enemy on -_Cat_ Island. After a bombardment this too was carried, but in the -assault Estacio de Sa received a mortal wound. Most of the French -escaped, and having with their allies been totally defeated, sailed in -their four vessels to the province of _Pernambuco_, where they took -possession of _Recife_. They were, however, attacked by the Portuguese -governor of _Olinda_, and were compelled again to have recourse to their -ships. Thus was _Rio de Janeiro_ finally lost to the French. Those of -the sons of France who should have formed the enduring colony marked out -by Coligny were, through the treachery of Villegagnon, employed in -bearing arms against their countrymen in France. - -According to his instructions, the governor’s first act was to lay the -foundations of a city, which, in honour of the Portuguese monarch and of -the saint on whose day the victory had been won, was called _S. -Sebastian_. The fortifications commanding the entrance to the harbour -were completed by the natives, under the eye of the Jesuits, without any -cost to the state; and it was but fair that the company should have -assigned to it the space within the city for a college, together with a -donation sufficient for the support of fifty brethren. - -The French soon afterwards made an attempt to establish themselves at -_Paraïba_, where for some time they carried on a profitable trade, and -where they became allied with the natives; but they were not more -successful in maintaining themselves here than they had been at _Rio de -Janeiro_, and _Paraïba_ too became a Portuguese settlement. - -[Sidenote: 1570.] - -The Order of the Jesuits was at this time all-powerful in _Brazil_, -where they had indeed rendered great services to the crown as well as to -the Church; and a fresh accession to their strength was despatched with -the new governor, Luiz de Vasconcellos, who, in 1570, was appointed to -relieve Mem de Sa. The reinforcement which he brought with him was -headed by Azevedo, who was appointed Provincial. Nine and thirty -brethren embarked with Azevedo in the “St. Iago,” half of which vessel -was freighted for them, the other half bearing cargo for the island of -_Palma_ in the _Canaries_. The vessel had halted at _Madeira_, and as -the passage to _Palma_ was considered to be dangerous on account of -French pirates, Azevedo was entreated not to expose himself -unnecessarily. For himself he declined to take the advice given him, but -he permitted his comrades to exchange into another vessel. Only four -novices, whose places were quickly supplied by others, thought fit to do -so; for the rest, the near probability of the crown of martyrdom had an -irresistible charm. On the day after their departure five French ships -appeared. Vasconcellos at once put to sea; but the Frenchmen declined -action, and stood off towards the _Canaries_. The squadron was from _La -Rochelle_, and was commanded by a Huguenot. After seven days, Azevedo -reached the island of _Palma_, at three leagues’ distance from the town, -to which he was urged to proceed by land. The advice was disregarded, -with the result that, when he and his friends were off _Palma_, the -French appeared in sight. The Portuguese mariners made unavailing -resistance, and one alone of the Jesuits, being in lay costume, escaped -the death which for them had not only no terror, but seemed to be an -object of desire. - -This catastrophe has been quoted with unlimited admiration, and the -martyrs have received all due posthumous honour; but if we look at the -circumstances from any point of view save that of a fanatic, our -admiration must be considerably qualified. Azevedo and his companions -were doubtless brave men; but they had been educated and sent out from -their country with the express purpose of converting the heathen; and it -was surely not their duty in any sense wantonly and recklessly to go out -of their way to seek premature death. If the crown of martyrdom was so -dear to them--if, in the language of certain writers, they were -swallowed up by other-worldliness--the prize might surely have been -gained more honourably amongst the savages of _Brazil_ than at the hands -of French corsairs. Of the eight-and-thirty foolhardy men whose blood so -uselessly stained the waters of _Palma_, one might have proved a second -Nobrega. To an unprejudiced person it seems that, so far from acting for -“_the greater glory of God_” by provoking wholesale massacre, they were -deliberately doing the contrary, since they were thus cutting themselves -off from a sphere of vast usefulness. Nor can we greatly blame the -commander of the French squadron for his conduct on the occasion. It was -but one scene in a fierce religious war, in which the priests, not the -Huguenots, were the aggressors. - -Vasconcellos set sail with the remainder of his fleet. When, after a -long and miserable voyage, he sighted the coast of _Brazil_, his vessels -were driven far to the north and were dispersed. At length his followers -were so reduced in numbers that one vessel might contain them all; yet -not even this one vessel was destined to reach its destination in -safety. It was attacked by a French squadron, and, after a hopeless -resistance, the governor fell; whilst fourteen remaining Jesuits shared -the fate of the martyrs of _Palma_. Of sixty-nine Jesuit missionaries -who had set out with Azevedo, one alone reached _Brazil_. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -_PERU; SUPREMACY OF GONZALO PIZARRO._ - -1542-1545. - - -[Sidenote: 1541.] - -The conspirators who had assassinated Pizarro succeeded in securing -possession of _Lima_, and their next step was at once to send to the -different cities proclaiming the revolution and claiming the recognition -of the son of Almagro as governor of _Peru_. At _Truxillo_ and -_Arequipa_, where it was emphasized by the presence of a military force, -the summons was obeyed; but in other cities it was received with merely -nominal assent, whilst in some it was disregarded. At _Cuzco_, where the -Almagro faction prevailed, the dissenting magistrates were summarily -ejected from office; but they were soon after reinstated by means of a -neighbouring military force commanded by one of Pizarro’s captains. The -conspirators had most to dread from the Licentiate Vaca de Castro, whose -commission to assume the post of governor in case of the death of -Pizarro had now come into force. De Castro was still in the north, but -on being advised of Pizarro’s death he quickened his steps southwards. -He was in a difficult position, having a very imperfect acquaintance -with the political state of the country, and he was neither a soldier -himself nor supported by a military force. He was, however, a man of -courage, and had confidence in his own resources, besides relying on the -habitual loyalty of Spaniards to the crown. - -Without delay, therefore, he pursued his march towards _Quito_, where he -was well received by the officer who had charge of that place during the -absence of Gonzalo Pizarro on the _Amazons_. At _Quito_ he displayed the -royal commission empowering him to assume the government, and thence he -sent emissaries to the principal places requiring obedience to himself -as the representative of the crown. But meanwhile the faction of the -young Almagro was gaining strength at _Lima_. His forces were commanded -by Rada, who obtained the necessary funds for preparing his soldiers for -service. Such of Pizarro’s followers as declined to be reconciled to the -ruling faction were permitted to depart from _Lima_, amongst these being -the Bishop Valverde, who, however, almost immediately afterwards fell -into the hands of the hostile natives of _Puná_, from whom he received -the violent death which was in harmony with the lawless scenes in which -he had taken part. As the young Almagro’s power was founded solely on -usurpation, it was of course a mere trial of strength between his rebel -bands and such loyal forces as might rally round the governor. His -policy was to defeat these in detail before they had time to effect a -junction under De Castro. He, however, sustained a severe loss in the -death from fever of his Lieutenant, Rada, which occasioned an ill-timed -jealousy between his next principal officers, and which thwarted his -well-conceived plans. The result was that the two chief bodies of the -opposite faction succeeded in effecting a junction, and he was compelled -to fall back on _Cuzco_, in which city he found no opposition. - -At _Cuzco_, however, the rivalry of his two chief officers again broke -out, with the result that they were each in turn assassinated. Almagro -then lost no time in providing for his men against the inevitable -approaching campaign; in which effort he was aided by the _Inca_ Manco, -whose friendship was probably heightened by the circumstance that -Almagro’s mother was a Peruvian princess. The _Inca_ likewise promised -to support him with a detachment of native troops. Before the final -appeal to arms, however, each side was willing to try the effect of -negotiation, each being aware that the result of the struggle was -doubtful. The governor was prepared to grant Almagro pardon, in -consideration of his youth and inexperience, provided that he should -give up the leaders of the conspiracy who had taken part in the death of -Pizarro. To this proposition Almagro could not with honour assent, and -nothing was left but to await the ordeal of battle. Meanwhile De Castro -continued to advance southwards, and was well received at _S. Miguel_ -and _Truxillo_. It was not till the early part of 1542 that he reached -the scene where the contest was to be decided, and where he showed -remarkable skill in asserting his own supreme authority, notwithstanding -the pretensions of the two ambitious officers who commanded the royal -troops, and each of whom aspired to the chief military authority. Having -entered _Lima_, he was received with demonstrations of joy, and obtained -the necessary funds for the prosecution of his enterprise. - -The contest was decided on the plains of _Xauxa_, where the governor’s -forces amounted to no more than seven hundred men, being more or less -equally matched by those of the enemy. It was late in the afternoon of -the 16th September when the hostile forces met. The combat was terrible, -for quarter was neither asked for nor given. Night had fallen on the -combatants long before the struggle was decided; but the victory at -length declared itself in favour of the royalists. From three to five -hundred--an enormous proportion--are said to have fallen on either side, -and at least one-half of the survivors of Almagro’s party were made -prisoners. Their young commander, who had performed prodigies of valour, -escaped unhurt to _Cuzco_, where, however, he was at once arrested, and -where, having been tried by a council of war, he soon shared the fate -which had befallen his father, meeting his death with the utmost -courage. - -The governor’s next care was called for by the proceedings of Gonzalo -Pizarro, who had arrived at _Lima_, where he loudly complained that the -government of the country had not been placed in his hands on his -brother’s death. It was reported that he now meditated seizing the -capital; but against this De Castro took the prudent precaution of -detaching a force in that direction, whilst at the same time he required -Pizarro’s presence at _Cuzco_. Such was his tact and conciliatory -demeanour that the aggrieved chief found no opportunity for quarrelling, -and he thought it prudent to comply with the governor’s advice that he -should retire to his possessions in _La Plata_, where he occupied -himself to some purpose in working its mines of silver. - -The authority of the crown being thus fully re-established, there was no -lack of subjects to occupy the governor’s attention. As was natural, -many of the cavaliers who had assisted him in the struggle now demanded -their reward. He was happy to rid himself of their importunities by -sending them on distant expeditions, some being in the direction of the -_Rio de la Plata_. But his chief concern was to establish laws for the -better government of the colony. He did not neglect the Indian -population, and established schools for Christian education. He invited -the natives to reside within the Spanish communities, and required the -_caciques_ to provide supplies for the wayside houses for travellers, -thus facilitating intercourse and removing pretexts for plundering. He -braved considerable odium by reducing the proportions of the -_repartimientos_ of Indians amongst the conquerors; but as his measures -were manifestly dictated by motives of justice, he was supported by the -general opinion of the community. Indeed, Vaca de Castro stands out in -most pleasing contrast to the military adventurers by whom he had been -preceded in _Peru_. With the disadvantage of being a civilian, unused to -arms or to military command, and being, further, on his arrival without -funds or troops, with the country before him in a state of anarchy, he -yet never quailed or shrank from his duty. He displayed not only the -tact and conciliatory disposition which might have been expected from -the circumstances of his selection, but further, high moral and personal -courage; and whilst he spared no pains to secure the interests of his -government and of his countrymen beneath his rule, it was his especial -honour to make the professions of his superiors in favour of the natives -not merely a declaration in words, but a reality in deed. - -The spoils of the Peruvian empire, which had been so easily won by a -mere handful of Spaniards, were as easily dissipated in riotous living. -The provident arrangements of the _Incas_ on behalf of their subjects -were suffered to fall into decay. The granaries were emptied; the flocks -of _llamas_ were wantonly slaughtered; whilst the lives of the Indians -themselves were held so cheap that they were not only systematically -worked beyond their strength until they died, but were even occasionally -hunted by blood-hounds for the mere amusement of their conquerors. It is -almost unnecessary to add that for the young women of the country, from -the Virgins of the Sun downwards, there was no protection whatsoever. -The poor natives, destitute of food, and no longer warmed by the produce -of the fleece of the _llama_, wandered naked over the plains. - -Yet fortunately there were not wanting in the colonies men who from time -to time raised their voices against the abuses and enormities of which -their countrymen were guilty, and made themselves heard even at the foot -of the throne. Nor must it be supposed that the enormities which have -been alluded to were in any way sanctioned by the emperor. It must be -remembered that the Spanish possessions in the New World were at an -immense distance from home, and that in those days the means of -communication were slow and irregular. It would therefore no more be -fair to charge upon the Spanish crown the responsibility for encouraging -or approving the caprices or pastimes of a set probably of the greatest -ruffians in the emperor’s dominions, than it would have been, in the -days before communication by steam and telegraph, to hold Her Majesty’s -Government responsible for the deeds of certain of Her subjects who were -early settlers in South Africa or Australia. The Government of Spain was -ever desirous to obtain information respecting the state of their -transatlantic dominions, and for this end relied not only on the regular -colonial officers of the crown, but from time to time deputed special -commissioners for the purpose of making inquiries. Yet even when -impartial inquiries were made and full reports written, all was not -done; for the Spanish Government was essentially a personal one, and the -emperor was very frequently absent from that kingdom. - -[Sidenote: 1542.] - -Fortunately, however, for the credit of his reign and for the existence -of his transatlantic subjects, he visited his ancestral dominions in the -Peninsula in the year 1542, when the condition of the colonies was -strongly pressed upon his conscience. In the same year a council of -jurists and theologians was convened at Valladolid to devise a system of -laws for the American colonies. Las Casas, who had emerged from his -cell, appeared before it, when he powerfully pleaded the cause of the -oppressed. He showed that, putting aside natural rights, unless the -Government should interfere, the native races must be gradually -exterminated by the systematic oppression of the Spaniards, and he -maintained that it was against the will of God to inflict evil on the -plea that good might come of it. His arguments, as might be expected, -were met by much opposition, some even of those who sympathized with him -deeming that his views were Utopian and impracticable. His eloquence, -however, dictated by the best of motives and based upon the foundation -of facts, in the end prevailed, and the result was a code of ordinances -for all the American colonies, some provisions of which had immediate -reference to _Peru_. - -The natives of _Peru_ were declared vassals of the crown, and their -freedom as such was recognised; yet those of the conquerors who might -have become lawfully possessed of slaves might still retain them, though -at the death of their present proprietors they were to revert to the -crown. All slaves, however, should be forfeited by those who had shown -themselves, by neglect or ill-usage, unworthy to hold them. Those -likewise were to be free who were held by public functionaries, present -or past, by ecclesiastics and religious corporations, and by all who had -taken a criminal part in the feuds of Almagro and Pizarro. It was -further ordered that the Indians should be moderately taxed; that they -should not be compelled to labour where they did not choose to, or that, -if this were necessary, they should receive fair compensation. The -_repartimientos_ of land which were excessive should be reduced; and -where proprietors had notoriously been guilty of abuse of their slaves, -their estates were to be forfeited. - -Taking into consideration the past troubles in _Peru_, and the necessity -for the crown being adequately represented there, it was resolved to -send a Viceroy to rule over that province. He was to be accompanied by a -royal audience, consisting of four judges, who should constitute a -council to the Viceroy, whose residence was to be at _Lima_. But it was -not foreseen that this sweeping legislation, which struck at the very -foundations of colonial society and property, might not be quietly -acquiesced in by the colonists. It raised, in point of fact, one of -those sudden storms which we have in our own time seen more than once -break over our Indian Empire on the announcement of some legislative -measure affecting the relations between Anglo-Indians and Asiatics which -was not to the taste of the former, and its results were such as -fortunately we have been so far spared in our own experience. When the -tidings reached the New World men were astounded, and saw before them -only the prospect of uncertainty or ruin. In _Peru_ in particular -scarcely one single person could escape being involved in the provisions -of some clauses of the new laws, if for no other reason than that the -whole Spanish population had on the one side or on the other taken part -in the struggle for mastery between the factions of Pizarro and Almagro. -The whole country was thrown into confusion; and loud were the -denunciations against the Government which had thus deprived at one -stroke the freebooters of so much of their ill-gotten spoil. - -Nor did they stop at reproaches. There was but one step to menace. The -colonists had won their possessions with their swords, and they now -declared that by the same means they knew how to retain them. The -governor, Vaca de Castro, who had so admirably acquitted himself of his -duties hitherto, was now indeed placed in a trying situation. He was at -_Cuzco_, in the midst of a mixed population, and separated from _Lima_ -and from the sea. He was appealed to by the colonists to protect them -against the tyranny of the court; but he did his best to dissuade them -from violent measures, prudently suggesting that they should send -deputies to lay their pleas respectfully before the crown. In his -present trying position, as in his previous conduct, he proved himself -an able and judicious man; but it was beyond his power to allay the -storm that had been raised, even although he suggested that the Viceroy -on his arrival might take it upon himself to postpone the execution of -the ordinances until after the receipt of further advices from Castile. - -Such being the state of things, the discontented Peruvian colonists not -unnaturally turned their attention to Gonzalo Pizarro, the -representative of the conqueror under whose banner the country had been -won. Gonzalo was at this time at _Charcas_, the modern _Chuquisaca_, and -was busily engaged in exploring the silver mines of _Potosí_. He was not -discontented at the turn which things had taken, but was sufficiently -prudent to provide the means of warfare before rushing into action; and -while he did not discourage the malcontents, he was careful not to -commit himself. In the latter course he was confirmed by letters from -Vaca de Castro, whose prudent measures served at least to lull for a -time the troubled waters. - -The new Viceroy at length arrived. Blasco Nuñez Vela was a handsome -cavalier of the years of discretion; but unfortunately he proved wholly -unequal to cope with the difficult situation before him. It was not -owing to any disapproval of the measures or proceedings of Vaca de -Castro that that officer now found himself superseded; but intelligence -of events travelled so slowly that the full success of his policy was -not at once apparent, and the Government of Spain thought they were -acting for the best in sending out as Viceroy a person unconnected with -the events that had passed. The Emperor at the same time wrote an -autograph letter to the ex-governor, in which he thanked him for his -services, and directed him, after having given his successor the benefit -of his experience, to return homewards to sit in the royal council. - -[Sidenote: 1544.] - -In January 1544 the Viceroy reached the Isthmus. Finding at _Nombre de -Dios_ a vessel laden with silver from _Peru_, and which was about to -depart for Spain, he lost no time in putting his new edict into -execution by laying an embargo on the ship as containing the product of -slave labour. He then crossed to _Panamá_, where he caused some three -hundred Peruvians to be liberated and sent back to their own country. -This proceeding, dictated though it was by a desire to put the new laws -into execution without a moment’s delay, was obviously calculated to -unsettle the colonial society to the last degree; nor would the Viceroy -listen to remonstrances on the subject even from the most experienced -persons. All this augured badly for the prospect of peace, and the -Viceroy’s progress to the seat of his government only brought matters -from worse to worse. On the 4th of March he arrived at _Tumbez_, where -his authority was proclaimed, the inhabitants being overawed by the -magnificence of his surroundings. Still continuing to exhibit the policy -which he had been sent out to initiate, and which with Castilian pride -he disdained to veil, he here liberated a number of Peruvian slaves. -From _Tumbez_ he proceeded by land towards the south, causing his -baggage to be carried by mules when practicable, or, if the services of -Peruvians were necessary for this purpose, he took care that they should -be duly paid. - -It is not surprising that the whole country should have been thrown into -a state of consternation by the proceedings of the Viceroy. -“Indignation” meetings were called in the cities; and it was even urged -that the gates of _Lima_ should be closed against him, a course of -proceeding which was obviated by the remonstrances of Vaca de Castro. -The colonists now more than ever turned towards Gonzalo Pizarro, who -was, as time passed, ever in a better position to assume a leading part. -That chief had indeed much to render him discontented. His brother, the -first governor, had been assassinated at his post, and two others of the -five brethren had met a violent death in _Peru_. The fourth brother, -Hernando, was now a prisoner in Spain; whilst the new ordinances -sacrificed Gonzalo’s own position, since he had taken a leading part -against Almagro. From the previous proceeding of the Viceroy, since the -moment of his arrival on American soil, it was evident that he was a man -who marched straight towards the end he had in view, and that he would -no more spare Pizarro than he would any other of the offending -conquerors. - -The unfortunate Gonzalo, who had so much to lose, and who had so -relentless a judge, was thus almost forced into rebellion. With a small -number of cavaliers, and well provided with silver, he repaired to -_Cuzco_, where he was saluted as the spokesman of _Peru_. The title of -Procurator-General was confirmed to him by the municipality, and he was -invited to proceed at the head of a deputation to _Lima_ to lay the -colonial grievances before the Viceroy. Pizarro, however, aimed at -playing more than a subordinate part. He demanded permission to raise an -armed force, in order that he might thus be in a position to urge his -views with greater weight. The municipality of _Cuzco_ at first -hesitated, but at length consented, and Gonzalo had conferred upon him -the title of Captain-General. - -The Viceroy, as was to be anticipated, met with but a cold reception at -_Lima_, as he had along the route thither from the coast. At the capital -his first act was again to proclaim his determination to carry out the -new royal ordinances. He had no warrant to suspend their execution, but -he would join the colonists in a memorial to the Emperor asking the -repeal of a code in the advisability of which he no longer believed. At -this juncture Blasco Nuñez, however high may have been his intentions -and however good his principles, showed himself to be a man unfitted for -holding the extremely responsible position in which he was placed. All -right-minded persons will agree with him in the abstract justice of the -ordinances which he had been commanded to enforce; and we may still -further allow him time to arrive at the conclusion that the state of -things being such as it was, it was not expedient to carry the new -ordinances forthwith into application. Under these circumstances, a -great man, placed in the position of Viceroy, would certainly have taken -it upon himself to suspend the execution of the ordinances pending a -reference to the imperial authority: to act as did the Viceroy was to -give the moral weight of his judgment to the colonists, and to withdraw -it from the crown, whose representative he was. - -As might have been expected, there was much murmuring at _Lima_, and -much communication was held between the different towns. Yet the Viceroy -never dreamed of flinching from his course, and even when informed of -the preparations of Gonzalo Pizarro, calmly relying on his authority, -sent him orders to disband his forces. The latter, however, continued -busily engaged in gathering together his army. He spared no efforts to -procure men and materials, employing natives both for forced labour and -for tributary levies. He not only expended his own resources, but -acting, as he said, in the public interest, did not scruple to -appropriate the funds in the royal treasury of _Cuzco_. By these means -he found himself at the head of a well-equipped force; but he was at the -same time disheartened by the desertion of some cavaliers of _Cuzco_, -who at the eleventh hour seemed to realize that they were on the path of -rebellion. At the same time he received intelligence of the -assassination of the _Inca_ Manco, who, in the coming struggle, might -have played the part of umpire. - -The Viceroy now at length began to realize the gravity of his situation. -One after another of the officers whom he had despatched to arrest -Pizarro’s progress augmented the forces of that leader. Being thus -betrayed, he is not perhaps to be very much blamed if he now suspected -every one around him; but he should have acted on better grounds than -mere suspicion before he gave orders for the arrest of his predecessor, -Vaca de Castro. He had now recourse to negotiation, and despatched the -bishop of _Lima_ to Gonzalo’s camp. This measure not meeting with -success, the Viceroy prepared for war. He put the capital in a state of -defence, and gave orders for a general enrolment of the citizens. In the -meantime the judges of Audience, who had been left behind, arrived at -_Lima_. They had not given their consent to his action in _Panamá_, and -on arriving at the capital they recorded their disapproval of his -subsequent proceedings in every particular,--going even to the length of -discharging many persons who had been placed in prison by his orders. -Thus was the government no less in disagreement with its own component -parts than it was with the country under its rule. - -What brought things to a climax was the violence of the Viceroy himself. -He had summoned to his palace late at night a cavalier of _Lima_, named -Carbajal, whom he suspected of conniving at the treason of certain of -his relatives. This imputation the cavalier indignantly repelled, and -high words ensued; the Viceroy struck him with his dagger, and the -attendants rushed in and despatched him. It was an unpremeditated -outburst and was quickly repented of; but no repentance could ward off -the detestation which it drew down upon the Viceroy. It was clear enough -that the people needed some other protector than the head of the -government, for none knew who might be the next victim to his temper. -Some were for trusting for protection to the Audience; but most men were -inclined to place themselves under Gonzalo Pizarro, who was now slowly -advancing towards _Lima_. The Viceroy felt the bitter consequences of -the position to which his rashness had reduced him. He had placed the -town in a state of defence, but he could no longer rely on his troops to -defend it. In this dilemma it occurred to him to quit the capital and -withdraw to _Truxillo_, about eighty leagues distant, sending the women -and the effects of the citizens thither by water. But the Audience here -interposed. Both he and they appealed to force. The judges and their -followers took the initiative; the Viceroy’s palace was entered; his -person was taken and placed in strict confinement. - -The first act of the judges on assuming power was to declare the -ordinances suspended until instructions should be received from Spain. -It was likewise determined that one of their own body should return -thither, in charge of the captive Viceroy. But a more formidable enemy -yet remained to be encountered in Gonzalo Pizarro. He halted at _Xauxa_, -about ninety miles from _Lima_, where he was joined by numbers of the -citizens. The judges sent him an envoy to announce the revolution that -had taken place and the suspension of the ordinances. They pointed out -that since the object of his mission had thus been effected and a new -government appointed, it was for him to show a good example by -submitting to it, by disbanding his troops, and by withdrawing to his -estates. The envoy, however, was sent back to the judges with the answer -that Gonzalo Pizarro had been called to the government by the people, -and that should the Audience hesitate to deliver it to him, _Lima_ would -be given up to pillage. - -After a little delay the judges saw that they had no alternative but to -yield where resistance was unavailing, and thus in October 1544 Gonzalo -Pizarro entered _Lima_ at the head of twelve hundred Spaniards and -several thousand Indians; and amidst the discharge of cannon and the -peals of bells he was proclaimed Governor and Captain-General of _Peru_ -until his Majesty’s pleasure should be known--the judges administering -the oaths of office. Gonzalo’s first act was to secure the persons of -those who had taken an active part against him. They were sent into -banishment, and their estates were confiscated. He filled the government -of _Lima_ with his partisans, and sent adherents to the principal towns. -He caused vessels to be built, and brought his forces into the best -condition. The Audience existed now only in name. One judge had departed -with the Viceroy; another had become a tool in the hands of Pizarro; a -third was confined to his house by illness; and the fourth Gonzalo -proposed to send back to Castile, to place before the Emperor a -statement of what had occurred; but this last measure was not carried -out, owing to the vessel in which it was proposed that he should leave -having been otherwise employed. - -The ex-governor, Vaca de Castro, having no mind to fall into the hands -of Pizarro, had bribed or otherwise persuaded the captain of the vessel -on board of which he was confined to set sail for _Panamá_. Thence he in -due course found his way to Spain. He had been previously recognized by -the Government as having done his duty zealously and ably; but meanwhile -he had fallen under the evil eye of his suspicious and autocratic -successor, and complaints against his conduct had preceded him. These -were ultimately declared groundless and futile; but in the meantime, -whilst his conduct was being investigated, he was detained during twelve -years a state prisoner--a strange manner of encouraging future Spanish -governors to do their duty! After this lengthy period of probation or -purgatory, it is satisfactory to read that the honours originally -destined for Vaca de Castro were at length conferred upon him. He took -his seat in the royal council, and during the remainder of his days -enjoyed the public consideration to which he was so well entitled. - -[Sidenote: 1544.] - -A strange surprise was now in store for Gonzalo Pizarro. The vessel in -which the Viceroy, Blasco Nuñez, had sailed, had not long left the shore -when Alvarez, the judge who had charge of him, presenting himself before -him, announced that he was no longer a prisoner. He informed him at the -same time that the ship was at his disposal. Blasco Nuñez eagerly -availed himself of the circumstance; for his proud spirit revolted at -the idea of returning home in disgrace. In an evil moment for himself he -decided once more to try his fortune in _Peru_. He determined to direct -his steps to _Quito_, and accordingly disembarked at _Tumbez_, where he -issued a manifesto denouncing Pizarro and his followers as traitors, and -calling on all true subjects to rally to the royal authority. Volunteers -came in at his call; but before he was in a condition to fight, he -received news of the arrival of one of Pizarro’s officers on the coast -with a superior force. He then made such haste as he could to _Quito_, -where he received the assurance of the support of Benalcazar, the -governor of _Popayan_, upon which he made a counter-march to _San -Miguel_. - -At _San Miguel_, which was situated on the high-road along the Pacific, -the Viceroy erected his standard, and in a few weeks he found himself at -the head of a force of about five hundred men; but meanwhile Pizarro had -not been idle. Being convinced that his only chance of ultimate safety -lay in his present success, he did not tamely watch the Viceroy’s -movements. Having left a strong garrison at _Lima_, he sent forward six -hundred men to _Truxillo_, whither he himself repaired. Thence he -marched to _San Miguel_, at which place the Viceroy would gladly have -met him had he not been compelled to yield to the wishes of his -adherents, who clamoured to be led into the upper country, where they -might hope to be reinforced by the commander of _Popayan_. Pizarro -arrived at _San Miguel_ to find the enemy gone, and he lost not a moment -in pursuing him. He reached the skirts of a mountain chain into which -the Viceroy had entered only a few hours before. It was late in the -evening, but Pizarro sent forward his lieutenant Carbajal with some -light troops to overtake him. Carbajal overtook the slumbering enemy -enveloped amongst the mountains at midnight. But one of his men had -incautiously sounded a trumpet, and the Viceroy and his followers thus -aroused poured a volley into the ranks of their pursuers, who were -thrown into confusion and forced to retreat. - -Pizarro, greatly disconcerted at this miscarriage, again sent Carbajal -forward in pursuit of the Viceroy to retrieve his mistake. But the -latter had profited by the delay, and it was many days before he was -again overtaken. His baggage, however, fell into the hands of his -pursuer. He and his men had to snatch such sleep as they could with -their arms at hand and their steeds saddled beside them. At length they -reached the desert of _Paltos_, a quagmire intersected by numerous -streams, and which offered the most difficult passage for the weary and -half-starved horses. Nor did Pizarro and his men suffer less than the -Viceroy whom they were pursuing. It was a repetition of his trials on -the expedition to the _Amazons_. - -At length Blasco Nuñez entered _Quito_, which place, however, he quickly -left, taking the road for _Pastos_, which was within the jurisdiction of -Benalcazar, on whose support he mainly relied. Soon after his departure, -Pizarro entered _Quito_, where he halted only long enough to refresh his -men. His advance guard, tired and powerless, came up with the rear of -the Viceroy’s force at _Pastos_; but the latter could not bring his -soldiers to reverse the position they had so long been accustomed to, by -attacking their pursuers. On the contrary, they profited by the -exhaustion of the enemy to hasten their retreat. Pizarro, thus thwarted, -did not care to trust himself further within the territories of -Benalcazar, and made a counter-march on _Quito_, where his troops found -time to rest, and where he received valuable reinforcements. Some of -these were, however, soon despatched under Carbajal to suppress an -insurrection which had broken out in the south. - -[Sidenote: 1546.] - -The Viceroy had now reached _Popayan_, but with only one-fifth of the -followers with whom he had begun his march, which had extended over two -hundred leagues, and which had been marked by sufferings rarely equalled -even in Spanish America. Still, however, when joined by Benalcazar, he -could muster four hundred men. Pizarro, anxious to bring the struggle to -a conclusion, had recourse to stratagem to effect this end. He himself, -with the greater portion of his force, quitted _Quito_, under a pretence -of joining his lieutenant in the south, but leaving a garrison in the -above-named city. On these tidings reaching the Viceroy’s camp, Blasco -Nuñez, quitting _Popayan_, moved rapidly on _Quito_, where, however, he -found himself confronted by Pizarro’s entire force, entrenched in a -strong position. In his endeavour to surprise Pizarro in his rear by -means of a night-march, he put himself at a fatal disadvantage, having -been misled by guides as to the distance to be traversed, and his men -being exhausted, he entered _Quito_, the inhabitants of which city had -declared themselves in favour of Pizarro. - -In this emergency the Viceroy was recommended by his chief officer to -try the effect of negotiation; but his haughty Castilian spirit rebelled -at the notion of parleying with traitors. Calling his troops together, -he addressed to them a few courageous words before he led them forth to -fight on behalf of his king. The battle which ensued, as might be -expected, when both sides had staked their all on the issue, was a -desperate one. The cavalry, which was equally matched on either side, -met in deadly shock, and when their lances were shivered the cavaliers -fought with axe and sword. But the Viceroy’s horses, worn out by the -march of the previous night, were unequal to the work, and the victory -was not long in suspense. Blasco Nuñez and his followers, however, did -all that brave men could do, until he was at length overwhelmed by -numbers. His companions having fallen one by one, and he being wounded, -the stroke of a battle-axe caused him to fall from his horse. He was -then pointed out to the brother of Carbajal, the cavalier whom in a fit -of passion he had so rashly struck with his poniard at _Lima_. In this -unhappy situation the proud Viceroy’s career terminated by a stroke from -the sabre of a negro slave. Thus ended the decisive day, and Gonzalo -Pizarro was for the time being master of _Peru_. - -This victory on the part of the colonists over the crown was looked upon -as finally sealing the fate of the obnoxious ordinances, and was the -cause of great joy throughout the country. Pizarro, for a time, rested -in _Quito_, where he and his followers enjoyed the excesses which in -those times usually succeeded excessive military privations and -fatigues. But Gonzalo was no longer merely a victorious soldier. Upon -him now rested the cares of state, for which, unfortunately, he was -fitted neither by education nor by natural powers. He rewarded his -followers by grants of land, and made various provisions for the welfare -of the natives; but he does not seem to have entertained the idea of -establishing an independent authority, since he was careful to collect -the dues belonging to the crown. Indeed he urged upon the colonists so -to conduct themselves as by their behaviour to bring about a revocation -of the hated ordinances. In July 1546 he left _Quito_ for the south, and -was everywhere received with enthusiasm. At _Lima_ he was met in -triumph, the archbishop, with three other bishops of that place, riding -by his side; while to crown his good fortune, he at the same time -received the intelligence of the success of his arms in the south. From -_Quito_ to _Chili_ his authority was undisputed, while the mines of -_Potosí_ supplied him with a kingly revenue. Had he been a man of as -much force of character as a politician as he had proved himself to be -as a military leader, he was now in a position to have founded a dynasty -of Pizarros in _Peru_. Every Spanish soldier throughout the land obeyed -him; the colonists looked on him as their champion; whilst he was no -less the master of the fleet on the _Pacific_. No hostile force coming -from Spain could encounter him until it should have rounded the Straits -of _Magellan_ or forced a passage across the primeval forests of -_Brazil_. Yet the youngest Pizarro lacked the moral courage which till -this supreme moment of its fortunes had never failed his upstart house; -and the result was that, instead of anticipating the colonial revolution -by two centuries and a half, he who had gone too far to hope for any -safety save in defiance, determined to submit himself to Spain. The -result was that, without sending a fleet through the Straits of -_Magellan_ or an army through the forests of _Brazil_, Pizarro was -conquered by the address of one man, whose services the Emperor was -enabled to command in this dire emergency. That man was the President -Gasca. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -_PERU; THE PRESIDENT GASCA._ - -1545-1550. - - -The aged lieutenant of Gonzalo Pizarro, Carbajal, gave him perhaps the -wisest advice when he urged him to renounce his allegiance; pointing out -that in point of fact he had already done so, since he had encountered -the Viceroy in battle, slain him, and assumed his authority. He had no -favour or mercy to expect from the crown, and had but one course before -him, to proclaim himself king, supported as he was by the troops and the -people. He advised him likewise to unite himself in marriage to the -female representative of the _Incas_. But Gonzalo Pizarro, though he had -fought against the Viceroy for what he deemed his own rights and the -rights of others, was still at heart loyal to the crown. The course he -determined to adopt was the halting one of sending an embassy to Spain, -to vindicate his proceedings, and to ask a confirmation of his authority -in succession of his brother as Viceroy of Peru. Meanwhile news had -reached the mother country of the disorders proceeding in that land. The -Spanish Government heard with dismay of the effect produced by the -promulgation of the ordinances and of the unyielding conduct of the -Viceroy. - -In 1545 the prince afterwards known as Philip II., then regent of Spain -during the absence of his father, called together a special council to -deliberate on the measures to be pursued for the purpose of restoring -order in _Peru_. The difficulties to be encountered in the way of -suppressing the rebellion by force naturally presented themselves to the -conclave, and it was accordingly resolved to endeavour to bring about an -arrangement by conciliatory measures. A full pardon was to be granted to -all such colonists as should make their submission, and due steps were -to be taken to make them perceive that it was to their interest, as it -was their duty, to return to their allegiance; and fortunately a man was -found to carry out this policy whose single agency was of more avail -than that of a fleet or an army. Pedro de la Gasca was of the -ecclesiastical profession, but had nevertheless borne arms. He had -filled with distinction several civil offices in Spain, and his -discretion no less than his ability pointed him out for the position of -agent to the crown in _Peru_, one of the most responsible missions ever -confided to any individual. Gasca seems indeed, according to the -estimate of all writers of history, to have been a model of -character--courteous in demeanour but firm in his course, as beseemed a -man who was strong in his rectitude of purpose. The choice made by the -prince and his council was immediately ratified by the Emperor, who -wrote to Gasca an autograph letter confirming it. - -Gasca at once accepted the mission proposed to him, merely stipulating -for powers sufficient to admit of its full success. The powers which he -demanded were indeed so great that the ministers had not the authority -to grant them; but on an appeal to the Emperor, who was by this time in -Flanders, they were at once conceded. Gasca, now armed with greater -authority than had ever hitherto been entrusted to a vassal of the -Spanish crown, set sail for _Peru_ early in 1546, under the title of -President of the Royal Audience.[N] So modest was his train that only -three thousand ducats were expended in equipping him. Under the above -title he was placed at the head of every department in the colony. He -indeed had the warrant to exercise the same powers as the Emperor -himself; since he might declare war, appoint to all offices, and pardon -all offences. He was, however, to proclaim at once the revocation of the -obnoxious ordinances, and he might banish from _Peru_ such ecclesiastics -and others as might not be reached by the temporal authority. He had -unlimited orders on the treasuries both of _Panamá_ and _Peru_, and was -furnished with letters to the chief authorities requiring their support. -The Emperor and his advisers were safe in confiding these unbounded -powers on a single-minded man, whose only worldly ambition was the -bishopric which was held out to him, and which he declined to accept -until he should have returned after fulfilling his mission. - -In July of the above-mentioned year Gasca landed in the New World, where -he was met by the intelligence of the defeat and death of the Viceroy -and of the absolute supremacy of Gonzalo Pizarro. In this perplexing -situation he steered his course with undeviating prudence and consummate -skill. At _Nombre de Dios_ he presented himself before the trusted -partisan of Pizarro, to whose care that place had been committed, not -with the military surroundings befitting the all-powerful _alter ego_ of -the Emperor, but as a humble ecclesiastic to whose admittance there -could be no objection. Never probably in the course of history has the -subtle effect of the sentiment of loyalty been more remarkably -manifested. There was nothing in the appearance of Gasca or of his -humble retinue to attract especial attention; yet no sooner was his -mission known than Pizarro’s trusted officer was at his feet placing his -powers in his hand. Once within the stronghold of the enemy, Gasca’s -moral influence was forthwith felt. In contact with his singular -powers--not those of mere oratory, but based on the foundation of the -highest moral and secular authority,--the position of the officer who -merely held his office in virtue of an order from the rebel Pizarro was -at once untenable. Indeed Mexia does not seem to have made the slightest -effort at impeding the progress of the President, who had with him the -consolatory balm of pardon for all repentant rebels. - -This first step gained was everything for the mission of Gasca. His -advent was announced not, as had been that of the late Viceroy, as a -despoiler of the colonists and a stern enforcer of obnoxious decrees. On -the contrary, he came as a messenger of peace and conciliation, bearing -an unheard-of admission on the part of the crown in justification of the -colonists,--since the ordinances were repealed,--and granting full -pardon for past offences to all such as should again declare themselves -loyal subjects. Indeed Mexia, like Gonzalo Pizarro himself, and like -most of his followers, had found himself a rebel owing to accidental -circumstances and certainly not by design; and he was only too glad to -avail himself of so unexpectedly favourable an opportunity of -extricating himself from the disagreeable position into which -circumstances had led him. Gonzalo, by rejecting the advice of his -lieutenant Carbajal, had failed to bind all his followers to himself by -the common tie of their being compromised rebels. - -Having thus acquired so important an ally on land, the next step of the -sagacious President was to obtain the command of Pizarro’s fleet of -twenty-two vessels which lay in the harbour of _Panamá_. It was under -the command of Hinojosa, an officer high in the confidence of Pizarro, -and who was as loyal to him as was compatible with his supreme loyalty -to his sovereign. But Pizarro was now destined to find that the same -arts which had been employed to corrupt his own loyalty to the crown -might again be made use of to seduce others from their loyalty to him. -Mexia was employed by the President for this purpose. In the conflict -of duties which were claimed from him on either side, Hinojosa asked to -be allowed to see the powers of the President, and he likewise inquired -whether they gave him authority to confirm Pizarro in the post he held. -The President evaded the question; whereupon Hinojosa sent to Pizarro to -acquaint him with his arrival and with the object of his coming. - -But from the moment when Gasca had received a favourable opportunity for -stating his mission, his success was practically assured, carrying with -him as he did such ample moral force and such intellectual capacity to -wield it. The same vessel which bore to Pizarro the news of his advent, -carried likewise a Dominican who had been entrusted by Gasca with -manifestoes proclaiming the glad tidings of the abolition of the -ordinances, and of a free pardon to all rebels who should return to -their obedience. The President likewise sent letters to the prelates and -to the civic corporations. In short, the whole discipline, civil and -ecclesiastic, in which the Spaniard of the day had been trained, was at -once called into the service of the man whose singular ability proved -him to be more than able to cope with the Dictator of _Peru_, who -directed its civil government and commanded its army and fleet. - -Gasca meanwhile calmly awaited the results of the measures he had -adopted, and his courtesy and intelligence did not fail to have their -due effect upon those with whom he was thrown into contact. Several -cavaliers of _Panamá_, as well as officers of the squadron, offered him -their services, and with their assistance the President was enabled to -open communication with the Spanish authorities in _Guatemala_ and -_Mexico_, whom he required to abstain from holding any communication -with the insurgents in _Peru_. By these means he acquired powerful -allies for the Spanish Government. Lastly, he prevailed on the governor -of _Panamá_ to supply him with a ship, in which he despatched a letter -from the Emperor to Gonzalo Pizarro, and likewise one from himself. The -former was couched in the most conciliatory terms, making every -allowance for the difficult circumstances in which the rebel chief had -been placed, and throwing the blame on the Viceroy. In his own letter -the President significantly remarked that the circumstances which had -led Pizarro into his present position no longer existed, since all that -the colonists had required when they appealed to arms was now conceded; -it only remained, therefore, to show their loyalty by resuming their -dutiful obedience. Should the contest be further prolonged, it would be -open rebellion against the crown, without the pretext of an excuse; and -against bringing about such a struggle the President invoked Pizarro’s -sense of honour and duty. These important despatches, with others, were -entrusted by the President to an adherent on whom he could rely, and who -was likewise charged to distribute further manifestoes. - -Some months passed away whilst Gasca and the governor of _Panamá_ still -awaited the decisive reply from _Peru_. Indeed Pizarro’s situation was -such as to make him hesitate. He was still comparatively a young man, -being forty-two years of age, and he found himself in the most dazzling -position which any Spaniard not born in the purple could hold, and to -which, moreover, he fancied he had a right as being the successor of his -brother. Were he to resign this he would not only lay down that -position, but he would put himself in the absolute power of another, -before whom he would doubtless be charged with crimes that might be held -to cancel the offers of pardon for past offences conveyed to him by the -Emperor and the President. He had learned with no small apprehension the -coming of the latter; but he was so simple as to be misled by the -unostentatious manner in which the President had made his appearance. He -ignored alike his personal qualities and the moral force which he -represented. Having before him two plain roads, either of which might -have led him into safety, if not into the ultimate realization of his -ambition--that is to say, being free to choose either to make his -submission to the President, or to appeal to arms against the crown,--he -took the half-way course of keeping the President at a distance whilst -he should meanwhile send an embassy to Spain to vindicate his past -proceedings and solicit a confirmation of his authority, a course which -could not but lead to his ruin. - -Gasca was meanwhile put off by a letter, signed by seventy of the -principal citizens of _Lima_, expressing their regret that he had -arrived too late, and their opinion that, should he now continue his -journey, his presence would only be the signal for the renewal of -disturbance. But the result of Pizarro’s embassy to Spain was widely -different from that which he had anticipated. No sooner had his -ambassador, Aldana, been admitted into the presence of the President at -_Panamá_ than the embassy was at an end. The envoy now for the first -time learned the full powers of the President, and likewise the full -nature of the concessions made by the crown to the colonists. The -ambassador, though sincerely devoted to Pizarro, instantly showed the -example of submitting to the crown, whilst he wrote to his chief at -_Lima_ earnestly counselling him to do likewise. This example was -followed by Hinojosa, the governor of _Panamá_, by whose submission -Pizarro’s fleet was placed at the disposal of Gasca. On November 19th, -1546, Hinojosa and his officers, having delivered up their commissions, -received them back from Gasca on taking the oath of allegiance. - -Possessed of _Panamá_ and the fleet, Gasca could now afford to take more -active steps. He raised men and collected supplies, taking care that the -soldiers were duly paid. He had no difficulty in obtaining loans on -credit, and he made use of his powers to summon assistance from -_Guatemala_ and _Mexico_. Much good-will was shown on all sides in -getting his expedition ready; but up to the latest moment the President -employed every means in his power to induce Pizarro, ere it should be -too late, to make his submission to the crown. With this object he sent -in advance Aldana, with four ships, to the coast of _Peru_, with -authenticated copies of his commission to be delivered to Pizarro. That -chief, who as yet but dimly discerned the effect which was being slowly -but surely produced by the proclamation of Gasca, called his councillors -to aid him in determining what reply should be sent, or what course -adopted, in reference to the letters of the Emperor and the President. -His two chief advisers were Carbajal, a warrior of fourscore years, and -Cepeda, a lawyer who had come out to the New World as one of the -Audience of the late Viceroy. The former, with the wisdom of years, -clearly discerned the nature of the situation and advised his master -accordingly; but the lawyer, knowing as he did that he had appeared in -arms against the Viceroy, whom he had been sent out to advise, trembled -at the situation in which he should find himself were Pizarro to yield, -and therefore used all his skill in persuading him to adopt a defiant -course. Unfortunately for all concerned, his counsel prevailed. - -It was not long after the departure of the messenger of Gasca, by whom -Pizarro had sent back the rejection of his terms, that the latter -received news of the defection from his cause both of the governor of -_Panamá_ and of his ambassador to Spain; and these unwelcome tidings -were followed by certain indications that they were but the precursors -of similar defections from his cause in other quarters. In fact, he was -enveloped by a cloud of enemies in which quarter soever he might look. -Gonzalo Pizarro, however, though wounded by the desertion of his friends -on whom he had relied, yet, having thrown in his lot with the rebels who -should adhere to him, determined to trust to the hazard of the die. He -summoned his captains to his aid, reminding them of their obligations, -and that their interests were identical with his own. He enforced levies -in the capital, and soon saw himself at the head of a thousand men. He -was supported by the veteran warrior Carbajal, and literally no money -was spared in equipping his army. It was a desperate cause; and Pizarro -and his men were reckless. There was a prevailing impression that his -cause was a losing one, and consequently defections from his ranks were -frequent. - -The squadron under Aldana (Pizarro’s ambassador to Spain) was now off -_Callao_, the commander having been welcomed at all the ports of _Peru_ -at which he had landed, receiving at the same time numerous promises of -assistance on the part of those who were nominally Pizarro’s officers. -Aldana, who had no rival ships to oppose him, caused copies of the -President’s manifestoes to be circulated amongst the citizens of _Lima_, -and they were not long in producing their effect, for indeed few persons -there had been aware of the full powers entrusted to Gasca. The only -general thought was for each one to secure his own safety. It was a case -of _sauve qui peut_. Some escaped to the forests; some took refuge with -the fleet; and others, essaying to escape, did not succeed in doing so, -but fell into the hands of the subordinates of Carbajal, from whom they -had little to hope. In this dilemma, Pizarro, seeing that whilst he -should remain at _Lima_ every day would add to the desertions from his -cause, resolved to occupy _Arequipa_, where, however, owing to the -frequent desertions, he found that his force did not muster more than -five hundred men. - -[Sidenote: June 1547.] - -Pizarro and his forces having quitted _Lima_, the gates of the city were -forthwith opened to Aldana, as the forerunner of the President. Gasca -himself, however, had sailed from _Panamá_ on April 10th, 1547. He -encountered a stormy voyage, during which he displayed his habitual -coolness and perseverance. In due time his storm-battered vessels -arrived at _Tumbez_, where he was received with open arms; indeed -thenceforth he was master of the situation, and had only to instruct his -officers to execute his orders. He made his way towards _Xauxa_, where -he was later joined by reinforcements from all quarters. On his arrival -there the war was, in point of fact, to all appearance terminated, for -he found advices to the effect that Gonzalo Pizarro was hemmed in on -every side. In reply to the offers of service which he received, he had -given a general rendezvous of _Caxamalca_, to which place he despatched -Hinojosa with the soldiers at his disposal, with orders to take command -of the levies and to join him at _Xauxa_. He then proceeded towards the -same place by way of _Truxillo_. The President now found himself in -sufficient strength to counter-order the force which he had summoned to -his assistance from _Guatemala_ and _Mexico_. - -[Sidenote: 1547.] - -Meanwhile Pizarro had come to the determination to evacuate _Peru_ and -fall back upon _Chili_, which territory was beyond the jurisdiction of -the President. But the passes lying on his route were held by Centeno -with a force greater than his own, and who had declared for the -President. Centeno had been his subordinate officer, and he tried, in -the first place, the effect of negotiation. This, however, leading to no -result, he marched against his force, which was encamped on Lake -_Titicaca_. On October 26th the hostile forces met. Pizarro’s troops -were about half as numerous as those of his opponent, his cavalry only -numbering one-third of the horsemen opposed to him; but this inequality -was compensated for in that of the opposing leaders. Whilst Centeno was -so ill as to be compelled to delegate the command of his troops to -others and to await the result off the field in a litter, his opponents -were under the skilled leadership of Pizarro and Carbajal. Pizarro -himself commanded the cavalry, placing himself at its head in a -gorgeously-decorated suit of mail, which made him the most conspicuous -object on the field. - -Having arrived within firing distance of each other, the veteran -Carbajal, deeming his situation favourable, resolved to halt and to -receive the enemy’s attack. The experienced officers on either side saw -that their advantage lay in keeping back, but whereas the trained -musketeers on Pizarro’s side were under the immediate control of the -veteran by whom they had been drilled, the impetuous soldiers of Centeno -were not only without his restraining voice, but were further urged on -by a senseless friar, who, forgetting that he was not in the pulpit, -took upon himself to declare, in the words of ancient Scripture, that -the Lord had delivered the enemy into their hands. His exclamation was -premature, but it had the effect of urging Centeno’s soldiers forward -and of bringing them within the full force of the opposing fire. -Carbajal restrained his men until their antagonists were within a -hundred yards of them. The volley which was then fired decided the day. -Two hundred men are said to have fallen at the first discharge, which -was followed by a second. On the other part of the field, where the -cavalry contended, the result was different. Centeno’s horse being -vastly superior in number, rode down their opponents, and Pizarro -himself, though performing everything that skill and valour could -effect, was compelled to spur his charger out of the scene of struggle. -He was pursued, and had to defend himself in single combat until he was -rescued by some of the men of Carbajal. The victorious cavalry tried -again and again in vain to break the flank of Carbajal’s arquebusiers. -The victory remained with Pizarro, who, with his followers, sat down to -the feast which had been prepared in their opponents’ tents. It was -estimated that more than two-thirds of Centeno’s men were killed or -wounded; he himself escaped by flight. After this victory, Pizarro, -being now recruited by considerable numbers, resolved to make his way -to _Cuzco_, where he was received by the inhabitants in triumph, and -where he resolved for the present to establish his quarters. - -As might be expected, the unlooked-for news of Pizarro’s victory at -_Huarina_ fell like a thunderbolt on the court of the hitherto -successful President. Gasca, however, was careful to put a good face on -his disappointment, whilst he lost no time in adopting such measures as -were best calculated to repair the disaster. Taking advantage of his own -superiority of force, he resolved to march without delay against his -opponent. He had before him a difficult and dreary march, but in its -course he was cheered not only by the assurance that Pizarro’s victory -had not had the effect of dispiriting the country, but also by the -arrival in his camp, from various quarters, of several distinguished -captains--of Benalcazar, the conqueror of _Quito_; of Valdivia, with -laurels fresh from the conquest of _Chili_; and of Centeno, who had -escaped through the forest and _sierra_, and who, restored to health, -was burning to retrieve his late mischance. - -[Sidenote: 1548.] - -It was the spring of the following year when Gasca mustered his forces -for the final march on _Cuzco_. He now had two thousand men, which, it -must be remembered, was a larger number than any European force that had -hitherto been assembled in arms in _Peru_. They were commanded by -Hinojosa. The first obstacle of importance which that officer had to -encounter was the passage of the river _Apurimac_, one of the most -considerable tributaries of the _Amazons_, and the bridges over which -had been destroyed by order of Pizarro. Gasca, however, being apprised -of this, had sent forward to select a suitable spot from which to throw -a bridge across the stream, which was found at _Cotopampa_, whilst -materials for a like purpose were laid down at two other points with a -view to misleading the enemy. - -The officer sent on in advance to _Cotopampa_ had received positive -commands to delay the actual construction of the bridge until he should -be in sufficient strength to carry it through forthwith to completion; -but he was so zealous that he took it upon himself to disregard his -orders and to set about the operation at once. The bridge itself was to -be one of those structures common in the Northern _Andes_, formed of -cables of osier, thrown from side to side of the bank, and across which -planks are laid. As such a bridge is swayed to and fro or upwards and -downwards by the tramp of men, by burdens being borne across it, or by -the wind, it is apt to inspire a feeling of insecurity both on the part -of the traveller and on that of the onlooker from the shore, but it is -in reality quite as safe a means of transit as is many a more solid -structure. Gasca having heard with alarm that the work was going on, -hastened his march in order to support his officer; but ere he had -reached the river, information was brought to him that the enemy had cut -the cables on the opposite bank. Valdivia was accordingly sent forward -with two hundred men, whilst the main body hurried its pace. That -energetic officer, on reaching the stream, at once procured some native -boats, by means of which he passed his men over to the other side. He -being now in considerably greater force than Pizarro’s men, the latter -retreated with all speed to _Cuzco_, to report the affair to their -chief. - -Pizarro meanwhile, like the typical soldier of fortune of that age, had -been enjoying the hour of sunshine, forgetful of the past, and not too -much troubled about the future. Although no one ever questioned his -leadership, he was not a leader to dispense with counsel; and his two -chief advisers were still Cepeda and Carbajal. The advice he had of late -received from each seems to have been the reverse of that which they had -respectively given him when it was a question of the terms in which he -should reply to the letters of the Emperor and of Gasca. Whilst Carbajal -on the one hand now advised him to abandon _Cuzco_ and retreat to the -mountains, leaving an impoverished city behind him, he was urged by -Cepeda on the other hand to make terms with the President. But Pizarro -rejected either advice. He was, in fact, determined to stand the hazard -of the die. The fortune which had stood his friend under the desperate -circumstances in which he had been deserted by Orellana on the -_Amazons_, and which had lately come to his rescue against enormous odds -in his late engagement, might still stand him in good stead. - -But in fact his fortune in these later times was in the sagacious advice -and experience of Carbajal. It was the forethought and skill of that -veteran that had won the victory of _Huarina_, and had Pizarro now -listened to his voice he might still have continued lord of _Peru_. When -the tidings came that the enemy were across the stream, the veteran saw -that the moment had arrived which was to decide the struggle. He felt -that he was the man to profit by the opportunity, and he pleaded with -his commander to be allowed to go forward to the scene of action. In an -evil hour for himself Pizarro refused his request, saying that he could -not spare him so far away. Meanwhile the work of the bridge was rapidly -pushed forward, and long ere the young cavalier who had been put in the -place of Carbajal had reached his destination, the President’s force was -in a position to defy him. - -There was now only a question of the choice of a spot on which the final -battle was to be fought. Pizarro determined to abandon _Cuzco_ and to -await his opponents in a valley five leagues distant. Even at this -moment the President, having crossed the _Andes_ and the river -_Apurimac_, and being in force greatly superior to that of his -antagonist, showed his utter absence of personal ill-feeling towards the -latter, and also perhaps his appreciation of the difficulties which had -brought him into his present position, by giving him one last chance of -safety. By an emissary of his own he renewed the assurance of pardon to -Pizarro in case he should lay down his arms and submit. Such at least -is the statement of two Spanish historians, and it is in accordance with -the character of the President. At length, on the morning of the 8th of -April, the two opposing forces came within sight of each other. The -numbers on either side were the reverse of large according to our ideas -of the present day; but numbers do not always denote the importance of a -battle, and we should remember that a similarly small European force at -_Plassey_ decided the fate of Hindostan. It may be remarked that the -native Peruvians, for the most part, espoused the cause of Pizarro. - -The President wisely left the conduct of the battle to his military -officers, who were perfectly competent for the purpose, and he showed -his habitual good sense in withdrawing, with his priests and civilians, -out of the immediate range of action. The commanders on his side, -Hinojosa and Valdivia, were a match for the military skill of Carbajal; -and Pizarro himself had more in him of the daring, dauntless cavalier -than of the strategic leader. As he had faced the situation with all its -consequences plainly set before him, resolving fully to abide them, we -cannot bestow much sympathy upon him in his present plight, though we -must admire his unshaken courage and constancy. At the decisive moment -of his fate he had taken the advice of Cepeda in resisting, in -opposition to that of Carbajal; and it was the wretch Cepeda who now -betrayed him by galloping over to the enemy in the face of both armies. -But this act, although it was contagious, perhaps did Pizarro no -considerable harm, for his fate was already sealed. - -The leaders on either side gave the word for the advance; but the humane -President, anxious to spare the shedding of blood, ordered his men to -halt, since the rebel host from its frequent desertions was evidently -falling to pieces. The Spaniards on Pizarro’s side deserted him in -various directions; some went to seek pardon from the President ere it -should be too late; others made for the mountains. Pizarro himself, -seeing that there was but one thing for him to do, gave up his sword to -the first officer of rank whom he encountered, and by him he was -conducted into the presence of the President. The latter, we are told, -inquired severely why he had thrown the country into such confusion? why -he had revolted? why he had slain the Viceroy? why he had usurped the -government? and finally, why he had refused the repeated offers of -grace? On his reply, in which he attempted to justify himself, he was -ordered into close confinement. Thus terminated the culminating -encounter between the royal forces and those of Pizarro, in which the -latter on the plain of _Xaquixaguana_, like those of the Assyrian of -old, though “unsmote by the sword,” yet “vanished like snow.” - -Gasca, having sent an officer to _Cuzco_ to restrain the excesses which -were to be expected, had next to concern himself with the trial of -Pizarro and of Carbajal. It was of course a mere form, since they were -taken in the act of opposing the royal forces in arms; and there could -be no question of mercy, since they had both failed to avail themselves -of the offers of the royal clemency repeatedly made. They were -accordingly executed; Carbajal, who is said to have been eighty-four -years of age, receiving his fate with the utmost indifference, and -Pizarro meeting death with the dignified courage which he had ever -shown. The estates of both were confiscated. It is satisfactory to add -that the traitor Cepeda, though his head was not placed upon the block, -yet was not allowed to go free. The President was indeed urged to send -him to execution, since it had been by his advice that Pizarro had first -refused the offers of grace; but Gasca refrained from doing so on -account of the service which Cepeda had rendered the royal cause by his -opportune desertion. He was accordingly sent a prisoner to Spain, where -he was tried for high treason: during the progress of his trial he died -in prison. It may be of interest here to remark that the fate which -attended so many of the conquerors of _Peru_, spared neither Centeno, -Hinojosa, nor Valdivia, the three foremost leaders on the side of the -President, all of whom were soon afterwards cut off. The President -thought it sufficient, in the interests of justice and of example, to -execute Acosta and three or four other cavaliers who had surrendered -with Pizarro. He then broke up his camp and marched to _Cuzco_. - -On his arrival at the late capital of the _Incas_, Gasca had before him -the task of winding up the affairs incident to the rebellion. Some dozen -cavaliers, having been tried and condemned, were executed, whilst others -were sentenced to minor punishments; but on the whole, considering the -dimensions of the rebellion and the obstinacy of the insurgents in -refusing grace, the President certainly does not seem to have acted with -undue severity: a stern example was needed. He had now to apportion the -rewards that were due to his followers, who, as usually happens in such -cases, were not bashful in claiming them. Retiring from _Cuzco_ to a -neighbouring valley, attended only by the Archbishop of _Lima_ and by -his secretary, Gasca now devoted three months to a patient examination -of the respective claims laid before him, and to elaborating a fair -scheme of compensation. - -This heavy task completed, the President could now retire to _Lima_, -leaving his written decision with the archbishop, to be by him -communicated to the army. The effect produced by the document on those -respecting whose interests it was to decide, was of course one of -disappointment. Each man valued his own services at his own price, and -all were displeased at the fancied unfair preference given to others. It -required some trouble and even some examples on the part of the -commander at _Cuzco_ to repress the tumult of discontent thus -occasioned. Gasca was received by the inhabitants of _Lima_ not only -with the manifestations of loyalty which were his due as representing -the crown, but likewise with every demonstration of gratitude and -affection. His entry into the city was, however, strictly in the -character of a priest and civilian, and no way in that of a warrior. - -At _Lima_, the capital, a fresh series of business awaited him, for he -had now to devise a new government to replace that of Pizarro; but being -himself _facile princeps_ in affairs, and being accompanied by able -judges, he was enabled soon satisfactorily to despatch an immense amount -of business. Nor were the natives neglected, the President devoting his -sedulous attention to bettering their condition. He did not omit to send -his own agents into different parts of the country, to inspect the -allotments and ascertain the manner in which the Peruvians were treated, -taking their statements from themselves. As the result of the -information thus obtained, Gasca and his council drew up a system of -taxation for the Peruvians, which might be a standard of appeal. He did -not see his way to relieving them, under present circumstances, from the -obligation of personal service, which proposed measure had indeed been -the cause of the recent rebellion; but he was careful to provide that -their service should be less burdensome than that which they had endured -under the sway of the _Incas_. Their condition, in short, though not in -all respects such as philanthropy might wish, was put on as good a -footing as colonial exigencies might admit of. Indeed all the firmness -of the government was needed to admit of the new regulations being -peacefully acquiesced in. - -Gasca likewise introduced reforms into the municipal government of the -cities; and by financial and other arrangements placed the -administration of the colony on such a basis as might afford a fair -field for his successors to work on. He had been fifteen months in -_Lima_ and nearly three years in _Peru_; and his work being now -accomplished, he was able to turn his face toward Spain, with the -satisfaction of having been enabled to pay off the loan he had -contracted for the war, exceeding nine hundred thousand _pesos_. He had, -moreover, saved a million and a half _ducats_ for the Government. The -President Gasca had indeed proved himself fully deserving of the -confidence which had been reposed in him by the Emperor and his -advisers. He was a rare instance even amongst the best governors or -statesmen of any country or of any period--one who, like General Gordon -in our own time, was unconventional and utterly indifferent to the -allurements of wealth, or indeed to any other call but that of honour -and duty. Before his departure one more instance of his purity of -character--if one were needed--was afforded. The Indian _caciques_, -conscious of the benefits which he had rendered their people, and -conscious also of the value which all Spaniards hitherto had placed upon -the precious metals, offered him a large amount of gold plate in token -of their gratitude. On Gasca’s natural refusal to accept it, the poor -_caciques_ feared they had fallen under his displeasure. This is not the -instance referred to. A number of the colonists, no less grateful for -the same reasons, wished to show their esteem in a like manner, and made -up a purse for the President of fifty thousand _castellanos_. There -could be no harm, they said, in his accepting this on leaving, as it -could not be offered with a view to induce favour for the future. When -the President returned it, the colonists, without his knowledge, -concealed twenty thousand _castellanos_ on board his vessel, which sum, -on his arrival in Spain, not wishing to offend them by returning the -donative, he distributed amongst the most needy relatives of the donors -whom he could discover. - -[Sidenote: 1550.] - -In January 1550 the President embarked for _Panamá_, being followed to -the shore by crowds of persons of all ranks and ages, who were alike -anxious to render him this last mark of their esteem. In March he was -enabled to convey his treasure across the Isthmus, and arrived in safety -at _Nombre de Dios_. There he equipped a fleet of nineteen vessels to -transport himself and the royal treasure to Spain. Four years had -elapsed since his departure from Seville. So delighted was every one, -from the highest to the lowest, at the complete success of his mission, -that Gasca was summoned to attend the Emperor at Flanders, where, after -profuse acknowledgments of sincere imperial gratitude, he received the -only material worldly reward agreeable to him, in the shape of the -bishopric of Palencia, at which place he passed the remainder of his -life. - - NOTE.--Chapters VI., VII., X., and XI. of vol. I. are founded on - “The History of the Conquest of Peru;” by William H. Prescott. - Bentley. 1850. - - On “The Spanish Conquest in America;” by Arthur Helps. John W. - Parker & Son. 1855. - - On “History of America;” by William Robertson. - - On “_Histoire des Etablissemens des Européens dans les deux - Indes_;” par Raynal (Abbé G. F.) - - On “Life of Pizarro;” by Sir Arthur Helps. 1869. - - On “_Historia general del Peru_;” Garcilasso de la Vega. - - On “_Relacion de los descabrimientos de F. Pizarro y D. de - Almagro_;” Navarrete, vol. V. - - And on “_History of the New World_;” by Girolamo Benzoni. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -_THE ARAUCANIAN WAR._ - -1550-1556. - - -The Araucanians inhabit the delightful region between the _Andes_ and -the sea, and between the rivers _Bío-bío_ and _Valdivia_. They derive -the appellation of Araucanians from the province of _Arauco_. They pride -themselves on being called by a native word which signifies “the free.” -As a race they are rather tall, muscular, and well proportioned. Their -complexions are of a reddish brown, but clearer than that of other -native Americans. Their round faces are animated by small eyes full of -expression. They have scarcely any beard, and the little hair which -grows on their faces is carefully removed. Their women are delicately -formed, and many of them are very handsome. Such are their good -constitutions, and so healthy is their mode of life, that they live to -advanced age, and seldom begin to feel its infirmities before sixty or -seventy. They are intrepid, animated, and patient in the endurance of -fatigue. Enthusiastic lovers of liberty, they are jealous of their -honour, courteous, hospitable, and faithful to their engagements; they -are likewise grateful for services, and generous and humane towards -their vanquished. These fine qualities are, however, shared by them with -others of an opposite nature, namely, ignorance, and a proneness towards -debauchery. - -The Araucanians clothe themselves in short garments, as being best -suited for war. Their dress is made of wool, and consists of a shirt, a -vest, short trousers, and a cloak or _poncho_ similar to that worn -throughout South America. The prevailing colour of their garments is -turquoise blue. Their _ponchos_ are of fine texture, and ornamented with -coloured figures of flowers and animals wrought with much skill. They -wear on their heads bands of embroidered wool, and round their bodies a -girdle of the same material. The women are clad with much modesty and -simplicity, their dress being entirely of wool, and consisting of a -tunic, a girdle, and a short cloak. They live in scattered villages by -the banks of rivers or in easily-irrigated plains. They have strong -local attachments, each family preferring to live on the land inherited -from its ancestors, and of which they cultivate a portion sufficient for -their subsistence. - -The political division of the Araucanian state is regulated with much -intelligence. It is divided from north to south into four governments, -called respectively the maritime country, the plain country, the foot of -the _Andes_, and the _Andes_. Each government is divided into five -provinces, and each province into nine counties. The state consists of -three orders of nobility, each being subordinate to the other, and all -having their respective vassals. They are the _Toquis_, the -_Apo-Ulmenes_, and the _Ulmenes_. The _Toquis_, or governors, are four -in number. They are independent of each other, but confederated for the -public welfare. The _Arch-Ulmenes_ govern the provinces under their -respective _Toquis_. The _Ulmenes_ govern the counties. The upper ranks, -generally, are likewise comprehended under the term _Ulmenes_. The badge -of the _Toqui_ is a battle-axe. The _Apo-Ulmenes_ and the _Ulmenes_ -carry staves with silver heads, the former having a ring of the same -metal round the middle of the staff. These various dignities are -hereditary in the male line, and proceed by primogeniture. - -The code of laws obtaining amongst the Araucanians is primitive, being -no more than unwritten usage. They have for their object the -preservation of liberty and of the established form of government. The -subjects are not liable to a levy or to any kind of personal service, -except in time of war; neither are they liable to be called upon to pay -contributions to their chiefs. The love of liberty is so ingrained in -the people that they cannot endure despotism, and they therefore oppose -any attempt to extend the power of their rulers. Whenever the grand -council determines to go to war they proceed to the election of a -commander, to which dignity the _Toquis_ have the first claim. The -general is for the time being dictator, the other authorities taking the -oath of obedience to him. On making war, messengers are despatched to -the confederate tribes to inform them of the steps taken. The _Toqui_, -or commander, directs the number of soldiers to be furnished by each -government, and as each Araucanian is a soldier by birth, an army of -five or six thousand men is raised without difficulty. The cavalry are -armed with swords and lances; the infantry with pikes or clubs. Strange -to say, this race of warriors had not acquired from their Spanish -neighbours the art of making gunpowder, at least up to the beginning of -the present century. - -The Araucanians acknowledge a Supreme Being, the Universal Ruler; and -they are all agreed in the belief of the immortality of the soul. Their -year, which is solar, begins on the 22nd of December, corresponding to -the same day of June in northern latitudes. The year is divided into -twelve months, of thirty days each; and in order to complete the -tropical year, they intercalate five days. They have, as in Europe, four -seasons. The Araucanians cultivate successfully rhetoric, poetry, and -medicine. They are polygamists, celibacy being considered as -ignominious. Their principal food consists of grain and pulse. Indian -corn and potatoes are much esteemed by them. The latter vegetable has -been cultivated by their ancestors from time immemorial. They use but -little animal food or fish, although their rivers abound with the -latter. Their usual drink is beer or cider, and they are extremely fond -of wine. Their games are numerous and ingenious, and it is a fact worthy -of notice, that amongst them is the game of chess, which was known to -these warriors before the advent of the Spaniards. It is called -_comican_, whilst their game of _quechu_ has a great similarity to -backgammon. - -[Sidenote: 1550.] - -The Araucanians having resolved to send succours to the inhabitants of -_Panco_, gave orders to their _Toqui_ to set out forthwith to their -assistance with four thousand men. In the year 1550 their general passed -the _Bio-bio_, which river separates the Araucanian territory from that -of the _Pancones_, and offered battle to the invaders. After the first -discharge of musketry the Araucanians fell on the front and flanks of -the Spaniards, who, forming themselves into a square, received their -furious attacks with their accustomed valour, many falling on either -side. The battle lasted for several hours, Valdivia having his horse -killed under him. The Spaniards were thrown into disorder; but the -Araucanians at length withdrew from the field on their general Aillavalu -being slain. Valdivia, an experienced soldier, declared that he had -never been exposed to such imminent danger, and he showed his respect -for the valour and skill of his opponents by constructing a strong -fortification, in expectation of a further attack. - -No sooner were the Araucanians informed of the death of their general -than they sent into the field a still more numerous army under the -command of Lincoyan. In the following year the new _Toqui_ marched -against the Spaniards, who took shelter under the guns of their -fortifications. Lincoyan, however, was a commander of the stamp of -Fabius, and, finding his first attack unsuccessful, ordered a -precipitate retreat--to the great surprise of Valdivia. So unexpected a -result was ascribed to St. Iago, who was seen during the fray mounted on -a white horse and armed with a flaming sword. But this miracle, adds -the candid ecclesiastical historian[O] from whom we quote, is not -entitled to the greater credit from its having been so frequently -repeated. - -[Sidenote: 1552.] - -Valdivia being now freed from the terror of the Araucanians, applied -himself with great diligence to building the new city, where he intended -to establish his family. In the division of lands he reserved for -himself the peninsula lying between the mouths of the rivers _Bio-bio_ -and _Andalien_. The city progressed rapidly, and he employed himself in -regulating its internal police. His statutes discover much prudence and -humanity respecting the treatment of the natives. Believing that the -Araucanians were now daunted, he resolved to take the initiative in -attacking them; and with this intention, in the year 1552, he passed the -_Bio-bio_ and proceeded to the river _Canten_. At the confluence of this -stream with the _Damas_ he founded another city, to which he gave the -name of _Imperial_. - -Carried away by his unopposed successes, he now displayed the customary -liberality of the Spanish conqueror in disposing of the property which -did not belong to him. Supposing that he had vanquished the most valiant -nation of _Chili_, he assigned to his followers the surrounding -district. To Villagran, his lieutenant, he made over the province of -_Maquegua_, with thirty thousand inhabitants. Other officers obtained -from eight to twelve thousand natives, with lands in proportion; whilst -Alderete was despatched with sixty men to form a settlement on the shore -of Lake _Laquen_. To this was given the name of _Villarica_, from the -quantity of gold found near it. Valdivia himself, still undisturbed by -the Araucanians, continued his march towards the south, where he founded -his sixth city, which he called _Valdivia_, being the first Spanish -conqueror who thus sought to perpetuate his name. This settlement, -which, like _Imperial_, enjoyed but a brief existence, is now only -represented by its fortress. - -Valdivia, satisfied with his acquisitions, retraced his steps, and on -his return march erected a fortress in each of the three provinces of -_Puren_, _Tucapel_, and _Arauco_. Without reflecting on the enormous -extent of country which he had to defend with so small a force, he on -his return to _St. Iago_ despatched Aguirre, with two hundred men, to -conquer the provinces of _Cujo_ and _Tucuman_ on the eastern side of the -_Andes_. In the province of _Encol_ Valdivia founded his seventh and -last city, to which he gave the name of the _City of the Frontiers_, an -appellation which, although he could not have foreseen it, is singularly -applicable to the position of its ruins to-day, situated as it is on the -frontier of _Chili_ and the _Argentine Republic_. On his return to -_Conception_ he sent Alderete to Spain with a large sum of money and an -account of his conquests. He was to solicit for him in return the -perpetual government of the conquered country, with the title of Marquis -of _Arauco_. - -Whilst Valdivia was employed in maturing his extensive plans, which -included the opening up of a direct communication with Europe by way of -the Straits of _Magellan_, there was a leading mind at work on the side -of the Araucanians with a view to thwarting the schemes of the governor -of _Chili_. An aged _Ulmen_ of the province of _Arauco_, named Colocolo, -having quitted his retirement, traversed the Araucanian provinces, -inciting his countrymen to zeal towards the deliverance of their -country. As a practical step towards this end, he implored them to make -choice of a new general to replace the dilatory Lincoyan. The age and -experience of Colocolo gave him weight with his countrymen; and, -accordingly, the _Ulmenes_, who were already of his opinion, assembled -to deliberate concerning the election. There were many competitors for -the office of general; but all at length concurred in the selection of -Colocolo, which fell upon the _Ulmen_ Caupolican, an officer whose -subsequent career fully justified the choice. - -The new general having assumed the axe which was the badge of his -authority, immediately appointed as officers to serve under him each one -of his competitors, and even his predecessor. The Araucanians had such -confidence in their new _Toqui_ that they clamoured to be led at once -against the Spaniards; but their chief repressed this ardour until they -should be in a suitable condition to meet them in the field. When they -were so, he commenced his operations by a stratagem which was suggested -by an accident. A party of eighty natives, allies of the Spaniards, were -conducting forage to the neighbouring post of _Arauco_. For these, who -fell into his hands, Caupolican substituted a similar number of his own -men, whom he directed to keep their arms concealed in the bundles of -grass, and to take possession of the gates of the fortress until he -should come to their assistance. The stratagem succeeded so far that the -guard was surprised and disarmed. The remainder of the garrison, -however, succeeded in driving out the Araucanians and raising the -drawbridge just as their countrymen approached. The fortress was then -attacked, but unsuccessfully, when Caupolican determined to reduce the -place by famine. - -After several sallies, the Spaniards resolved to abandon the fort and to -retire to _Puren_. Caupolican having destroyed this fortress, led his -troops to attack that of _Tucapel_, the commander of which likewise -retreated to _Puren_. This fort was also destroyed. No sooner had -Valdivia, who was at that time in _Conception_, learned of the siege of -_Arauco_, than he marched upon that place with such forces as he could -muster. On approaching within a short distance of the enemy’s -encampment, he sent forward Diego del Oro to reconnoitre with ten -horsemen. This detachment falling in with a party of Araucanians, were -all slain and their heads were suspended to trees. The Spanish -soldiers, on arriving at the spot, were so filled with horror at the -unlooked-for spectacle, that they were anxious to return. Their -commander, too, felt some misgiving at having disregarded the advice of -some of his senior officers, who had dissuaded him from advancing; but -he nevertheless continued his march, and on the 3rd of December 1553 -came in sight of the enemy’s camp. - -[Sidenote: 1553] - -The two armies continued for a long time to observe each other. At -length Mariantu, who commanded the right of the Araucanians, moved -against the left of the Spaniards, who marched to meet him. This -detachment was surrounded and cut in pieces, as was another which was -sent to its assistance. The action soon became general, both sides -displaying equal valour, and having an equally brave example in their -respective commanders. The Araucanians, notwithstanding the slaughter -made amongst them by the firearms of the enemy, continued to supply with -fresh troops the places of those who were slain. At length, after a -great loss, they were thrown into confusion and began to give way, -notwithstanding the heroic exhortations of their leaders. - -It was at this crisis that a young hero appeared upon the scene in the -person of Lautaro, an Araucanian youth of sixteen years of age, whom -Valdivia had formerly taken prisoner and caused to be baptised and made -his page. Lautaro, quitting the Spaniards, loudly reproached his -retreating countrymen, and exhorted them to continue the combat, as -their opponents, spent with fatigue, were no longer able to resist them. -At the same time grasping a lance, he led the way to victory, which at -once declared itself for the Araucanians. Of the Spanish army only two -escaped. These were Promaucians, who concealed themselves in a -neighbouring wood. - -Valdivia, seeing that all was lost, had retired with his chaplain to -prepare for death. He was, however, pursued and taken, and was brought -before Caupolican. He pleaded humbly for his life, promising solemnly to -quit _Chili_ with all his followers. Lautaro interceded for his life, -which the Araucanian general was disposed to grant; but whilst he was -deliberating on the subject, an aged _Ulmen_, who had taken the measure -of Spanish good faith towards natives, was so enraged to hear the talk -of mercy that he lost his self-control. Calling out that they must be -mad to trust the promises of an enemy who would laugh at his oaths so -soon as he was free, he despatched Valdivia with a blow from his club. -Caupolican was exasperated at this proceeding, but it was applauded by -the majority of his officers. Thus fell the conqueror of _Chili_, a man -endowed, unquestionably, with a great mind and with superior powers of -organization and of governing, as well as with excellent military -talents. The modern Chilians may look back with satisfaction upon the -founder of their State as on one whose name is unstained by the horrible -cruelties towards the natives which attach to the memories of the -conquerors of _Peru_. Even at the time of the outbreak after the -settlement at _St. Iago_, it is to Valdivia’s credit that he merely cast -the ringleaders into prison. Pizarro would have ruthlessly burned them. - -This victory was celebrated, as may be supposed, with great rejoicings -on the part of the Araucanians. When these were over, Caupolican, now -arrayed in the armour of Valdivia, presented the young Lautaro to the -national assembly as his lieutenant, and who was in future to command a -separate force. Meanwhile Lincoyan fell in with a party of fourteen -Spaniards, coming from _Imperial_ to the assistance of Valdivia. Of -these seven alone escaped to carry, severely wounded as they were, the -news of the rout of Valdivia’s force to the fort of _Puren_. The -inhabitants of that place and of the _City of the Frontiers_ upon this -retired to _Imperial_. The people of _Villarica_, for their part, -retired to _Valdivia_, thus leaving only two places to be attacked by -the Araucanians. Caupolican determined to besiege them, and committed to -Lautaro the care of defending the northern frontier. The latter, with -this view, fortified himself on the mountain of _Mariguenu_, on the road -to _Arauco_, and which has on its summit a large plain dotted with -trees. - -Meanwhile the two Promaucians, who alone had escaped from the Spanish -rout, had reached _Conception_, filling that city with consternation. -The command now devolved upon Villagran, who, after making the necessary -preparations, commenced his march for _Arauco_. He crossed the _Bio-bio_ -without opposition, but soon after encountered, in a narrow pass, a body -of Araucanians, by whom he was stoutly opposed. After a three hours’ -fight, however, they were defeated, and withdrew towards the summit, -where Lautaro’s camp was pitched. Three troops of Spanish horse were -ordered to clear the difficult passage, and after great labour arrived -within a short distance of the summit. They were, however, received with -an incessant shower of stones and arrows; whilst the Araucanians were at -the same time exposed to a hot fire from musketry and from six -field-pieces. The mountain was covered with smoke; but Lautaro, in the -midst of the noise and confusion, did not lose his presence of mind. -Perceiving that the advantage of the Spaniards lay in their -field-pieces, he directed Leucoton, one of his bravest officers, to take -possession of them, telling him not to show himself again until he -should have done so. That brave warrior, being supported by a -simultaneous attack by Lautaro, succeeded in capturing the whole of the -cannon. The Spaniards, being thrown into disorder, took to flight, -leaving, as is said, three thousand dead upon the field. - -Villagran himself narrowly escaped being made prisoner; but it was owing -to his desperate exertions to clear the pass during the retreat that any -survived of his unfortunate army. The Araucanians lost on their side -about seven hundred men. They were too exhausted to pursue the Spaniards -far. On reaching _Conception_, Villagran, deeming it impossible to -defend the place, placed the old men, the women and children, on board -of two ships which were in the harbour, with orders to the captains to -take them to _Imperial_ or to _Valparaiso_. With the remaining -inhabitants he set out by land for _St. Iago_. Lautaro, having crossed -the _Bio-bio_, found _Conception_ deserted. It rewarded his army with a -great booty, the result of its commerce and mines, and which the -citizens had no time to remove. Having burned the houses and razed the -citadel, the youthful victor returned in triumph to _Arauco_. - -The commanders of the cities of _Imperial_ and _Valdivia_, both of which -were closely besieged by Caupolican, demanded succours of Villagran, -who, notwithstanding his late losses, was still in a position to send -them a sufficient number of troops for their defence. Under these -circumstances, the Araucanian general, despairing of gaining possession -of these places, retired with his forces to join Lautaro. Villagran -taking advantage of the retreat of the enemy, ravaged the country in the -neighbourhood of _Imperial_, to which place he transported all the -provisions that remained. To these calamities of war was at this time -added pestilence. In the above-mentioned incursions made by Villagran, -some Spanish soldiers conveyed for the first time to the Araucanians the -terrible contagion of small-pox, which made enormous ravages amongst -them. It is said that in one district, containing twelve thousand -persons, not more than one hundred escaped with life. - -[Sidenote: 1555.] - -Whilst the duty of opposing the Araucanians demanded all the efforts and -attention of Villagran, that officer was on the point of being compelled -to turn his arms against his own countrymen. Valdivia had left behind -him written instructions, to be opened in the case of his death. By -these his succession devolved in turn on Alderete, Aguirre, and -Villagran. The first being absent in Europe, and the second in _Cujo_, -the command, as has been said, was assumed by Villagran. Aguirre, -however, on learning the death of Valdivia, quitted _Cujo_, and with -sixty men returned to _Chili_, determined to possess himself of the -government. Civil war was on the point of breaking out; but with more -self-control and self-denial than was usually to be found amongst -Spanish conquerors, both aspirants agreed to submit their respective -pretensions to the Royal Audience of _Lima_. This court, which had at -this time jurisdiction over the whole of South America, left at first -the question in abeyance, but on reflection confirmed Villagran in the -command, ordering him at the same time to rebuild _Conception_. This -measure was carried out by him in opposition to his own judgment. - -The natives of the country, indignant at the renewed prospect of a -foreign yoke, had recourse to their protectors, the Araucanians, who -sent to their assistance two thousand men under the command of Lautaro. -The young general passed the _Bio-bio_ without delay, and was met by the -Spanish force in the plain. On the first encounter, the citizens, struck -with panic, returned to the fort with such precipitation that the -Spaniards entered with them, killing a great number. The remainder -dispersed either on board ship or into the woods, finding their way as -best they could to _St. Iago_. Lautaro again burned the city and -returned to his usual station. - -The successful result of this enterprise induced Caupolican once more to -undertake the sieges of _Imperial_ and _Valdivia_; whilst Lautaro, on -his part, engaged to make a diversion by marching against _St. Iago_. In -order to carry this project into execution, he selected but six hundred -men out of all who pressed to join his standard. With these he traversed -the provinces lying between the _Bio-bio_ and the _Maúle_, carefully -respecting the property of the natives. When he had passed this latter -river, however, he devastated the lands of the Promaucians, who were -attached to the Spanish interest. He then fortified himself in an -advantageous post on the _Rio Claro_, with a view to gaining information -respecting the city he proposed to attack. This ill-timed delay gave -breathing space to the inhabitants of _St. Iago_, who could not at first -believe in the reality of Lautaro’s advance. Villagran, being at this -time on the sick list, delegated the command in the field to his son, -whilst he himself proceeded to fortify the city as well as circumstances -might permit. Pedro Villagran attacked the Araucanians in their -intrenchments, but was entirely routed, his cavalry alone being enabled -to save themselves. Undismayed, however, by this experience, he returned -three times with fresh troops to the attack, being each time repulsed -with loss. He then encamped his army in a meadow, which gave the -Araucanians the idea of inundating it at night by means of the branch of -a stream. This design, however, was betrayed to the Spaniards, who -retired to _St. Iago_ in time to prevent its execution. - -[Sidenote: 1556.] - -The elder Villagran was now in a condition to take the field, and was -earnestly besought to do so by the inhabitants of _St. Iago_, who every -moment saw Lautaro at their gates. He at length began his march with -about two hundred Spaniards and a thousand natives. Proceeding -stealthily by the sea-shore after having quitted the main road, he was -guided by a spy at break of day towards the Araucanian encampment. -Lautaro, taken by surprise, hastened to the intrenchments, but was -pierced to the heart by a weapon hurled by one of the native -auxiliaries. On this unexpected event the fortifications were attacked -on all sides, and the Araucanians, after an obstinate resistance, having -declined all terms of surrender, were cut to pieces to the last man. - -This signal victory was celebrated by successive three days’ rejoicings -in _St. Iago_; but the Spaniards, when once relieved of their terror, -were sufficiently generous to render a just tribute to the merits of the -Araucanian hero, who, at the early age of nineteen, had made them -tremble for the safety of their Chilian Empire. - - NOTE.--It is to be noted that whilst Molina spells that country - _Chili_, Ovalle, like him a Chilian, spells the name _Chile_. The - etymology of the word, according to the latter writer, in so far as - I understand him, is derived from the south wind; but this may - refer to the name of the Southern Sea. He is not very clear in the - passage in question.--OVALLE, Book i. chap. xiv. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -_THE ARAUCANIAN WAR--(continued). THE GOVERNMENT OF DON GARCIA DE -MENDOZA._ - -1557-1560. - - -On learning the death of Lautaro, Caupolican gave up the siege of -_Imperial_ and returned with his army to defend the frontiers of -_Araucania_ from the renewed invasion which he foresaw. When the news of -the death of Valdivia had reached Spain, the government of _Chili_ had -been confided to his agent Alderete, who had likewise placed under him -six hundred regular troops. On his passage outwards, a light, used by -his sister for the purpose of reading whilst in bed, was the means of -the ship taking fire, not far from _Porto Bello_. So complete was the -disaster that of the entire number Alderete, with three soldiers, alone -escaped. He died soon afterwards in the island of _Tobago_ in the Gulf -of _Panamá_. - -[Sidenote: 1557.] - -The Marquis of Canete, Viceroy of _Peru_, appointed to the vacant office -of governor of _Chili_ his son _Don_ Garcia de Mendoza, giving him at -the same time a sufficient body of troops for the purpose of bringing to -a termination the Araucanian war. A general recruitment took place -throughout _Peru_, where, the civil war having been for some time at an -end, there was a considerable desire for further military adventure. -Mendoza and his force of infantry embarked on board of ten ships, whilst -the cavalry pursued their way by land under the command of _Don_ Garcia -Ramon. The fleet arrived in the Bay of _Conception_ in April 1557, and -anchored near the island of _Quiriquina_, where the inhabitants were -unable successfully to oppose them. Some of these having been captured -in endeavouring to effect their retreat to the mainland, the new -governor sent two or three of them to the Araucanians with news of his -coming and with proposals for a lasting peace. - -The _Ulmenes_ met in council to deliberate as to what steps should be -taken. On the advice of the aged Colocolo it was resolved to give the -Spanish governor a hearing, and a suitable person was chosen who should -proceed as envoy for this purpose. Millalauco was received by the -Spaniards in such a manner as to impress him with their power and -grandeur, but the proud chief contented himself with assuring _Don_ -Garcia of the pleasure that he and his people would feel in the -establishment of an honourable peace, towards which he said he was -induced by motives of humanity. The envoy was entertained with all -possible consideration, and was afterwards conducted over the camp. He -observed everything with an outward appearance of utter indifference, -and on his return advised his countrymen to prepare for immediate war. - -_Don_ Garcia, however, passed the winter in the island, awaiting the -arrival of his cavalry from _Peru_. At length, on the night of the 6th -of August (corresponding to our February), he landed one hundred and -thirty men on the plain of _Conception_, and took possession of Mount -_Pinto_, which commands the harbour. Here he constructed a fort, in -which he placed a large number of cannon. On learning what had taken -place, Caupolican hastily collected his troops and passed the _Bio-bio_ -three days later. On the following morning, at daybreak,--the famous -_St. Quintin’s_ Day--he attacked the fortress upon three sides, having -previously filled up the ditch with trunks and branches of trees. The -attack was furious, but it was withstood by skilful hands directing -cannon and musketry. The Spaniards on the island, perceiving the danger -of the besieged, came over to their aid. Caupolican sent a part of his -troops against them; but, after a combat of several hours’ duration, -they were forced back to the mountain, thus leaving the Araucanians -between two fires. Exhausted with fatigue, they had now to withdraw to -the _Bio-bio_. It was the intention of Caupolican to renew his march -towards _Conception_, but meanwhile he learned that the Spanish cavalry -had arrived, and thus he had reluctantly to forego the hope of repeating -the feat which had been twice performed by Lautaro. - -_Don_ Garcia was now in a position to assume the offensive. When his -army had rested, he crossed the _Bio-bio_ in boats, within sight of -Caupolican, who was unable to obstruct his passage. That general awaited -him in a position flanked by woods, which might be of advantage to him -in case of defeat. The first skirmish was favourable to the Araucanians; -but when the two armies met, they were not able to advance in the face -of the fire of the Spanish musketry, and after many ineffectual -attempts, they were forced to fall back in confusion and to take refuge -in the woods. The Spanish general adopted cruel measures towards his -prisoners, even permitting his native allies to mutilate them in his own -presence. Amongst those taken on this occasion was one named Galverino, -whose hands _Don_ Garcia ordered to be cut off. On his return to his -countrymen in this condition, they were so inflamed against the -Spaniards that they swore to put to death any one who should propose -peace. - -The Spanish army now penetrated into the province of _Arauco_, but never -being left in peace by the enemy. The general put to torture several -natives in order to get information of Caupolican, but failed to obtain -knowledge of his place of retreat. He had not long, however, to wait -before seeing him, for he very soon afterwards appeared with his army in -three lines. When the Spanish cavalry charged the first, it was -received by Caupolican, who gave orders to his pikemen to meet with -levelled spears the attack of the horse, whilst the mace-bearers should -strike at their heads. Whilst the cavalry were thus thrown into -confusion, the Araucanian general broke into the centre of the infantry, -being ably supported by Tucapel at the head of another division. Victory -seemed to await the Araucanians, when _Don_ Garcia gave orders to his -reserve to attack the remaining division of the enemy, who were thus in -turn thrown into such confusion that Caupolican was forced to sound a -retreat. - -The Spanish general celebrated his victory by causing twelve _Ulmenes_, -who were amongst his prisoners, to be hanged, after which he proceeded -into the province of _Tucapel_, where, in the locality where Valdivia -had been defeated, he founded a city, which, after the titular -designation of his family, he called _Canete_. He then returned to -_Imperial_, where he was received in triumph. From _Imperial_ he sent to -_Canete_ a plentiful supply of provisions; but the convoy was routed by -a body of Araucanians in the pass of _Caucupil_. Many of the convoy, -however, escaped to _Canete_, which place was shortly afterwards -assaulted by Caupolican. After an attack of five hours, he had, however, -to desist from the enterprise, when he resolved to fall back upon -stratagem. - -Selecting one of his officers named Pran, he persuaded him to introduce -himself into the garrison as a deserter, where he formed an acquaintance -with a Chilian in the service of the Spaniards. This individual, to whom -Pran prematurely divulged his design of introducing some Araucanian -soldiers into the place, betrayed his project to the Spanish commander, -who directed him to keep up the deception in order to take the enemy in -their own snare. The principal officers of the Araucanians, when -informed of the intention of their general, not only openly disapproved -of it, as bringing disgrace on the national character, but further -declined to have anything to do with carrying it into execution. -Caupolican, however, at the appointed time, set out for _Canete_ with -three thousand men, and duly fell into the trap prepared for him. When -half of his force had entered, the Spaniards suddenly closed the gate, -commencing at the same time a fire of grape-shot upon those without, -whilst the cavalry, who had issued from another gate, were prepared to -complete their destruction. Meanwhile those within the fortress were -butchered to a man. Caupolican escaped with a few attendants to the -mountains. - -[Sidenote: 1558.] - -After this disastrous repulse, _Don_ Garcia had some right to come to -the conclusion that the Araucanian war was now practically over, and he -therefore ordered the city of _Conception_ to be rebuilt. He further -resolved to distinguish himself as a conquering explorer by marching -into the country of the _Cunches_, who had not been opposed to the -Spanish arms. The elders of this people deliberated in council as to the -manner in which they should receive the strangers, and were advised by -an Araucanian exile who was present to impress the Spaniards with an -idea of their poverty. “As vassals,” said this sagacious man, “you will -be despised and compelled to labour; as enemies you will be -exterminated. If you wish to free yourselves of these dangerous -visitors, make them believe that you are miserably poor.” Acting on this -advice, the _Cunches_ sent envoys, clad in miserable rags, to compliment -the Spanish general, and to present to him an offering consisting of a -basket containing some roasted lizards and some wild fruits. - -The device succeeded so far as to convince the Spaniards of the poverty -of the _Cunches_; but _Don_ Garcia could not all at once give up his -plan of exploration. Seeking a guide from the envoys, he was given one -who had instructions to conduct his army along the coast by the most -desolate roads. So well did this individual fulfil his instructions that -the Spaniards, who were accustomed to the most fatiguing routes, were -forced to acknowledge that they had never encountered such difficulties -before. To add to their trouble, during the fourth day’s march they were -deserted by their guide, they being at the time in a desert beset by -precipices. They were, however, constantly encouraged by their -commander, and, overcoming all obstacles, they reached a high mountain, -from which they could discern the great archipelago of _Chiloë_. - -This unexpected prospect filled them with delight. They had suffered -from hunger for days; but on hastening to the shore they were well -received by the natives, who approached them in their boats and offered -them an abundant supply of provisions. All were now provided gratis with -maize, fruit, and fish; and the Spaniards had an opportunity of coasting -the archipelago to the Bay of _Reloncavi_ and of visiting some of the -neighbouring islands. Amongst these explorers was the poet Ercilla, who -marked on the bark of a tree on the southern side of the gulf the date -of its discovery, February 28th, 1558.[P] Satisfied with his -explorations, _Don_ Garcia de Mendoza now set out on his return, taking -one of the islanders as his guide, who conducted him safely by another -less difficult route to _Imperial_. On his way he founded the city of -_Osorno_, which, owing to its manufactories of woollen and linen stuffs, -as well as to the fine gold procured in its neighbourhood, rose rapidly -into importance. - -Whilst Mendoza was absent on this expedition, Alonzo Reynoso, the -commander of _Canete_, distinguished himself by an act of singular -infamy even amongst the Spanish proceedings of the age. He had spared -neither offers of reward nor the application of torture in order to -discover the hiding-place of Caupolican. Having at length found a native -who was amenable to one or other of these influences, he despatched -under his guidance a detachment of cavalry, who succeeded in surprising -the veteran general. It was not, however, until a gallant resistance -from ten of his devoted followers that he consented to surrender--much -to the indignation of his wife, who threw towards him his infant son, -calling him at the same time a coward for not preferring to die on the -spot. The distinguished prisoner was conducted before Reynoso, who -immediately ordered him to be impaled, and in this condition to be -despatched with arrows. - -Caupolican, on hearing his sentence, quietly pointed out that his death -could answer no possible end save that of inflaming the inveterate -hatred of his countrymen against the Spaniards; that, should his life be -spared, he might be serviceable in the interest of the Spanish sovereign -and of religion, which the Spaniard declared was the sole object of this -destructive war; but that if it were determined he should die, it would -be better that he should be sent to Spain, where his end might not be -the means of causing fresh disturbances in his country. His arguments -were lost upon Reynoso, who, however, was considerate enough to furnish -him with the services of a priest. After his pretended conversion and -subsequent baptism he was conducted to a scaffold for execution. On -seeing the instrument of punishment, the nature of which he now for the -first time comprehended, and the negro who was to act as executioner, he -was enraged to such a degree that by a furious kick he hurled the latter -from the scaffold, exclaiming with dignity, “Is there no sword and some -less unworthy hand to put to death a man like myself? This is not -justice; it is base revenge.” He was, however, seized by numbers and -compelled to undergo the punishment which has consigned Reynoso’s name -to infamy alike amongst Spaniards and Araucanians.[Q] - -The predictions of Caupolican were soon verified. Fired by unbounded -rage, the Araucanians at once proceeded to elect a new _Toqui_, who -should avenge their unfortunate general. The choice fell upon his son, -who, collecting an army, crossed the _Bio-bio_ with the intention of -attacking _Conception_. He was met by Reynoso with five hundred men, -when a fierce combat took place, in which the Spaniards were entirely -defeated. Reynoso, who was wounded by Tucapel, was able with a few -horsemen to repass the _Bio-bio_. A second attack made by him on the -Araucanian camp met with no better success. The Araucanians now learned -that _Don_ Garcia had quitted _Imperial_ with a large body of troops and -was laying waste the neighbouring provinces, upon which their young -general renounced the siege of _Conception_ and hastened to their -assistance. On his way he was unexpectedly attacked by two hundred -horsemen in ambush. He not only, however, escaped without loss, but cut -in pieces a great part of his assailants, pursuing the rest to -_Imperial_, to which place _Don_ Garcia had returned. - -_Imperial_ was besieged with much vigour; and the young Caupolican, -unwarned by the experience of his father, endeavoured to seduce the -loyalty of the Spaniards’ auxiliaries. His two emissaries were, however, -discovered and impaled within sight of his army, whilst one hundred and -twenty of the auxiliaries were hung upon the ramparts. This, however, -did not discourage the Araucanian general, who made a violent assault in -which his life was exposed to great danger. He even effected an entrance -into the city by night, followed by Tucapel and others, but he was -repulsed by _Don_ Garcia, whose vigilance was present everywhere, and he -owed his safety to a bold leap from the bastion. He wanted patience for -the slow prosecution of the siege; and he therefore resolved to abandon -it, and employ his arms against Reynoso, in the hope of avenging the -death of his father. That officer, however, being joined by Mendoza, was -in a position to thwart his attempts. It may be remarked, as a feature -of this war, that Reynoso had before this agreed to submit the question -between himself and his opponent, Millalauco, to the issue of single -combat. The duel took place, but without either combatant obtaining the -advantage. - -The following campaign was marked by several encounters, some of them -favourable to the Araucanians, who, however, saw their numbers fast -decreasing before the firearms of their enemies, whilst the Spaniards, -on the other hand, were constantly recruited from _Peru_ and from -Europe. Caupolican therefore intrenched himself between _Canete_ and -_Conception_ at a place called _Quipeo_. _Don_ Garcia immediately -marched thither to dislodge him. Whilst he delayed his attack in the -hope of drawing the Araucanians from their strong position, several -skirmishes took place, in one of which Millalauco was made prisoner. -This fearless warrior, regardless of his situation, severely reproached -the Spanish commander with his cruelties, of which he was about to -furnish another conspicuous example, being ordered by Mendoza to be -impaled on the spot. At this time, Andrew, the native who at the siege -of _Imperial_ had betrayed Pran, the secret agent of the elder -Caupolican, was now sent by _Don_ Garcia to persuade the Araucanian -general, under threats of the direst punishment, to submit to his -authority. The threats were no doubt meant in all earnest; but the -messenger was ill-chosen, for it was with the utmost difficulty that the -Araucanian could restrain himself from executing personal vengeance upon -the betrayer of his father. Unlike Charles XII., however, in the case of -Patkul, he respected the character of an ambassador. He was not, -however, long to wait for his revenge. Andrew being a day or two -afterwards caught as a spy, was suspended by his feet from a tree and -suffocated with smoke. - -Mendoza now ordered a furious attack upon the Araucanian encampment, -which was first hotly cannonaded. The Araucanians rushed forth, -committing great slaughter amongst the Spaniards. Their retreat was cut -off by a skilful movement of the latter, and they found themselves -surrounded. Caupolican and his intrepid band nevertheless maintained an -equal combat during six hours, at the end of which time he found that -his chief officers--amongst them Tucapel, Colocolo, and Lincoyan--were -slain. He then at length attempted to retreat with the small remnant of -his force; but on being overtaken by a detachment of Spanish cavalry, he -slew himself to avoid the fate of his father. - -The battle of _Quipeo_--the Araucanians’ Flodden--seeming to Mendoza to -be decisive, he now devoted his whole attention to repairing the losses -of the war. He rebuilt the fortifications of _Arauco_ and of _Angol_, -and restored the town of _Villa Rica_, causing its abandoned mines to be -reopened anew. He likewise obtained the establishment of a bishopric of -_St. Iago_, the first incumbent being a Franciscan monk, Fernando -Barrionuevo. Of his veteran troops he disposed of a portion by sending -them, under the command of Pedro Castillo, to complete the conquest of -the trans-Andine province of _Cujo_. That able officer effected that -object, founding on the eastern _Andes_ two cities, named respectively -_San Juan_ and _Mendoza_, the latter being taken from the family name of -the governor of _Chili_. _Mendoza_, now the capital of a province of the -_Argentine Republic_, has been remarkable in our own day as being the -scene of one of the greatest tragedies to which earthquakes have given -rise. Whilst engaged in the prosecution of these objects, _Don_ Garcia -received notice of the arrival at _Buenos Ayres_ of his predecessor, -Francis Villagran, who, having gone to Europe after he had been deprived -of the government, had procured his reinstatement from the court of -Spain. In consequence of this information, _Don_ Garcia immediately -quitted the territories of _Chili_, the government of which he confided -to Quiroga until his successor should arrive. He himself, on his return -to _Peru_, was rewarded for his services by being appointed to the -viceroyalty of that country, which had till then been held by his -father. - - NOTE.--“They are much deceived that so little esteeme the Indians, - and iudge that (by the advantage the Spaniards have over them in - their persons, horses, and armies, both offensive and deffensive) - they might easily conquer any land or nation of the Indies. Chile - stands yet, or, to say better, Arauco and Tucapel, which are two - cities, where our Spaniards could not yet winne one foote of - ground, although they have made warre there about five-and-twenty - yeares, without sparing of any cost. For this barbarous nation, - having once lost the apprehention of horse and shotte, and knowing - that the Spaniards fall as well as other men with the blow of a - stone or of a dart, they hazard themselves desperately, entring the - pikes vppon any enterprise.”--_Father Joseph de Acosta. Translated - by Edward Grimston, 1604; printed for the Hakluyt Society, 1880._ - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -_THE ARAUCANIANS._ - -1560-1603. - - -[Sidenote: 1560.] - -_Don_ Francisco Villagran returned to _Chili_ under the flattering -belief that the Araucanians would give him no more trouble; and he -accordingly turned his attention to the reacquisition of the province of -_Tucuman_, which, after having been subjected by him to _Chili_, had -been since attached to _Peru_. Thus was a fresh struggle set on foot -between the conquerors of the New World. The Chilian commander defeated -the chief of the Peruvian forces, and accordingly _Tucuman_ was for a -short period restored to the government of _Chili_. - -But this matter sank into insignificance in the face of the attitude of -the Araucanians. The few _Ulmenes_ who had escaped from the late -defeats, having assembled after the rout of _Quipeo_, unanimously -elected as _Toqui_ an officer who had distinguished himself, named -Antiguenu. On accepting the command, he represented, that as almost all -the youth of the country had perished, he thought it expedient to retire -to some secure situation until such time as a sufficient army could be -collected. In accordance with this prudent policy, he sought shelter in -the marshes of _Lumaco_, where he erected scaffolds to protect his men -from the miasma of this gloomy retreat. The youth of the nation went -thither to be instructed in arms, and the Araucanians considered -themselves free since they could still boast a national commander. - -As soon as Antiguenu saw himself in a position to quit his retreat, he -began to train his troops by making excursions into the Spanish -territory, the report of which caused much disquietude to Villagran. In -order, if possible, to stifle the flame at its commencement, he sent -forward his son Pedro with such levies as could be mustered, soon -following himself with a more considerable force. The first skirmishes -were unfavourable to the Araucanians,--the natural result of the youth -and inexperience of their soldiers. Their prudent commander was, -however, by no means discouraged, and he had at length the satisfaction -of showing that his countrymen had not degenerated, by defeating a body -of Spaniards on the hills of _Millepoa_. - -Animated by this success, Antiguenu now erected his standard on the -mountain of _Mariguenu_, situated on the road which leads to the -province of _Arauco_, and where, on a previous occasion, Lautaro had so -signally defeated Villagran. That officer was prevented by ill-health -from now assuming the command, which was entrusted to one of his sons, -with the result that almost his entire army--the flower of the Spanish -troops,--together with a great number of auxiliaries, were cut in -pieces, their general being killed. After this victory Antiguenu marched -against _Canete_; but Villagran, anticipating the impossibility of -defending it, withdrew the inhabitants to _Imperial_ or to _Conception_. -The fortifications of _Canete_ were destroyed, and the town was entirely -consumed by fire. Villagran himself now fell a victim to the grief and -anxiety which aggravated the disorder from which he suffered. He was -deeply regretted by the colonists, who lost in him a wise and humane -commander, to whose prudent conduct they were indebted for the -preservation of their conquests. The special commission from the court -had appointed as his successor his eldest son Pedro. - -On the death of the governor, Antiguenu divided his army of four -thousand men into two bodies; one of which, under the vice-_Toqui_ -Antunecul, was to lay siege to _Conception_, whilst with the other he -himself was to march against the fort of _Arauco_. The former passed the -_Bio-bio_, and having twice repulsed the forces of the governor, he -closely invested the place for two months; but he was obliged eventually -to retire, as he could not prevent the town receiving succours and -provisions by sea. Meanwhile the defence of _Arauco_ was maintained with -the utmost vigour. As Antiguenu had observed that in his attack the -bravest officers were pointed out to the Spaniards by their native -troops, and thus became marks for their artillery, he resolved to take a -well-deserved vengeance upon these, and for this purpose contrived to -inform the Spanish general that his auxiliaries were intriguing to -deliver up the place to the Araucanians. The Spanish commander, Bernal, -gave such credit to this report, that he immediately ordered them to -quit the place. They were at once seized by the Araucanians and put to -death in sight of the Spaniards. - -The Araucanian chief, impatient at the slow progress of the siege, now -sought to bring it to a conclusion, and, with this end in view, -challenged the Spanish general to single combat. Bernal, animated by an -equally chivalrous spirit, accepted the challenge, notwithstanding the -remonstrances of his soldiers. The combat lasted for two hours, at the -end of which time the two champions were separated by their respective -adherents. That which force had been unable to effect, now resulted from -famine. Boats laden with provisions had repeatedly made the attempt to -relieve the besieged, but they were invariably thwarted by the vigilance -of the enemy, and at length Bernal found himself compelled to abandon -the place. The Araucanian general permitted the garrison to retire -unmolested, and contented himself with burning the houses and -demolishing the walls of _Arauco_. - -[Sidenote: 1564.] - -The next object which Antiguenu proposed to himself was the capture of -_Angol_, which task he confided to one of his officers, who was, -however, defeated on the way to that place. On this, Antiguenu hastened -thither with two thousand men to repair the disaster; but whilst he was -encamped at the confluence of the _Bio-bio_ and the _Vergosa_, he was -attacked by the entire Spanish force under the command of Bernal. The -contest which ensued was one of the fiercest ever fought. The -Araucanians employed with much skill the muskets which they had taken at -the defeat of the Spaniards at _Mariguenu_, and sustained during three -hours the assault of the enemy. Four hundred of the auxiliaries and a -number of the Spaniards had fallen when the infantry of the latter began -to give way. Bernal, seeing no other means of sustaining the fight, -ordered his cavalry to cut down the fugitives. This severe measure had -the desired effect, and the enemy’s entrenchments were at length -carried. Antiguenu, forced along with a crowd of his soldiers, fell from -a high bank into the river and was drowned. His death decided the -battle, and a great slaughter of the Araucanians followed. Many also -perished in the river, into which they had thrown themselves to escape. -In this battle the victors themselves were almost all wounded. - -Antiguenu was succeeded in the office of _Toqui_ by Paillataru, brother -or cousin of the celebrated Lautaro. This chief contented himself during -the first years of his command with leading his men from time to time to -ravage the enemy’s country. During this time Quiroga was appointed by -the Royal Audience of _Lima_ to be governor of _Chili_. Having received -a reinforcement of three hundred soldiers, he entered, in 1565, the -Araucanian territory and rebuilt the fort of _Arauco_ and the city of -_Canete_. He likewise constructed a new fortress at _Quipeo_. In the -following year he despatched Ruiz Camboa with a small force to reduce to -subjection the inhabitants of the archipelago of _Chiloë_, an -enterprise in executing which no opposition was encountered. In the -principal island he founded the city of _Castro_ and the port of -_Chacao_. The eighty islands of this archipelago, which owe their -existence to earthquakes, and denote by their basaltic columns the -action of fire, are inhabited by a race descended from the continental -Chilians, but are of a very different character from theirs, being -pacific and rather timid. Although the population is said to have been -about seventy thousand, they allowed themselves to be subjected by a -mere handful of Spaniards. These islanders, who are now greatly reduced -in number, are said to display considerable aptitude for the mechanical -arts, and are adepts in agriculture, raising beans, pease, and potatoes, -which are the largest and best in _Chili_. They are likewise, as might -be supposed, excellent sailors. After the conquest they readily embraced -the Christian religion, to which they have ever since continued -faithful. - -[Sidenote: 1567.] - -The attention drawn to _Chili_ by the continuance of the Araucanian war -induced Philip II. to establish a court of Royal Audience in this part -of his transatlantic dominions, independent of that of _Peru_. To this -body was entrusted not only the political but likewise the military -administration. The members of this tribunal, which was composed of four -judges and a fiscal, entered _Conception_ in August 1567. Its first act -was to remove Quiroga, and to give the command of the army to Ruiz -Gamboa. This officer was so fortunate as to defeat Paillataru in three -obstinate contests. Being master of the country unopposed during one -year, the Spanish general repeatedly but unsuccessfully proposed to the -Araucanians to enter into negotiations for peace. Having failed to -obtain this object, the government of the Royal Audience lost credit, -and it was deemed more expedient to confide the chief authority to a new -officer called Governor and Captain-General, who was to be President of -the Audience and to command the army. _Don_ Melchor de Bravo was -invested with this character in 1568, and sought to signalize the -commencement of his authority by a striking military success. - -[Sidenote: 1570.] - -Paillataru having collected a new army and occupied the height of -_Mariguenu_, De Bravo marched against him at the head of three hundred -Spaniards and many auxiliaries. Equally fortunate with his predecessors -who had commanded on this famous spot, Paillataru entirely defeated the -Spanish army, and had almost made the President a prisoner. So -intimidated was the latter that he resigned the command of the army to -Gamboa, whom he ordered to evacuate the fortress of _Arauco_. -Paillataru, having taken the post of _Quipeo_, marched against _Canete_, -when he encountered in a fierce battle the troops of Gamboa. The -Spaniards remained masters of the field, but were soon afterwards -compelled to retreat from the Araucanian territory. For about four years -after this date there was a suspension of arms on either side. During -this period occurred a terrible earthquake, which did great damage to -the Spanish settlements, entirely destroying _Conception_. In 1570, -_Imperial_ became the seat of a bishopric, which included the vast -country lying between the _Maúle_ and the southern confines of _Chili_. - -On the death of Paillataru, which occurred about this time, the office -of _Toqui_ was conferred upon Alonzo Diaz, or Paynenancu, one of the -mixed race of Spaniards and Chilians called _Mustees_, who had -multiplied greatly. By this appointment the Araucanians desired to -attach these to their cause, showing the confidence they reposed in -them. Paynenancu had for ten years fought in their armies, -distinguishing himself greatly. He was as rash as his predecessor had -been cautious, but he was not fortunate in the enterprises which he -undertook as a commander, being defeated on two occasions. On one of -these, amongst the prisoners taken were several women found in arms, -the greater number of whom destroyed themselves the same night. - -[Sidenote: 1575.] - -The licentiate Calderon, having arrived in _Chili_ with a commission -from the court of Spain as examiner, took the step of suppressing the -Court of Audience on the very proper principle of economy. The auditors -were sent back to _Peru_, and Quiroga was once more appointed governor. -Having received a force of two thousand men from Spain, he despatched -his father-in-law, Ruiz Gamboa, to found a colony at the foot of the -_Cordilleras_, between the cities of _St. Iago_ and _Conception_. -_Chillan_, so called from the river on which it stands, is now the -capital of the fertile province of the same name. Quiroga died in 1580, -leaving Gamboa as his successor. The three years of his government were -occupied in opposing the attempts of Paynenancu, and in repelling other -tribes of the Chilian _Andes_, who were instigated by the Araucanians to -molest the Spanish settlements. - -When information reached Spain of the death of Quiroga, _Don_ Alonzo -Sotomayor was sent out as governor to _Chili_, together with six hundred -regular troops. Having landed at _Buenos Ayres_ in 1583, the new -governor proceeded thence by land to _St. Iago_, whence he immediately -sent his brother to succour _Villa Rica_ and _Valdivia_, which were -besieged by the Araucanians. _Don_ Louis succeeded in this object, -having twice defeated Paynenancu. The enterprising _Toqui_ was not, -however, discouraged by his invariable defeats, which were always -purchased dearly. To oppose him, the new governor, having driven off the -_Pehuenches_ from the neighbourhood of _Chillan_, entered the Araucanian -territory with seven hundred Spaniards and the usual auxiliaries. -Returning to the barbarous mode of warfare which had been adopted by -_Don_ Garcia de Mendoza, he laid waste the province of _Encol_. Such -prisoners as fell into his hands were either hanged or dismissed with -their hands cut off. Warned by the fate of _Encol_, the inhabitants of -_Puren Elicura_, and _Tucapel_, after firing their houses and crops, -secured themselves by flight. In the latter province but three captives -were taken, and these were impaled. Such barbarities had the natural -result of sending many recruits to the Araucanian army. Its unfortunate -general withstood, on the frontiers of _Arauco_, the whole Spanish -force, with only eight hundred men. His troops, however, fought with -such resolution that the Spaniards were unable to break them until after -an obstinate contest of several hours’ duration. Nearly all the -Araucanians were slain; their commander was taken prisoner and executed. -After this victory the fort of _Arauco_ was once more rebuilt. - -But the Spirit of Freedom which sat with Thrasybulus upon Phylœ’s -brow had not yet deserted the Araucanians, whose valour revived on the -elevation of one of their own pure race, the _Ulmen_ Cayancaru, to the -dignity of _Toqui_. One hundred and fifty messengers, furnished with the -symbolical arrows, were despatched to various tribes in search of aid; -and in a short time a considerable army was collected. The first exploit -of Cayancaru was to attack by midnight the Spanish camp on the -_Carampangui_, he having by means of a spy informed himself of its exact -situation. The auxiliaries, who bore the first brunt of the assault, -were cut in pieces. The Spaniards themselves owed their safety to the -rising moon, which enabled them soon to direct an effective fire against -their assailants. Cayancaru, having allowed his troops to rest during -the remainder of the night, resumed the attack at daybreak, when an -obstinate and bloody battle ensued. The Spanish horse and artillery, -however, decided the day; but the victor, nevertheless, immediately -after the battle, thought it prudent to raise his camp and retire beyond -the Araucanian frontier. To protect this, he built the fort of -_Trinidad_ on the southern, and _Spirito Santo_ on the northern bank of -the _Bio-bio_. He likewise lost no time in raising a levy of two -thousand horse and a considerable number of infantry. - -The Araucanian general resolved to take advantage of the retreat of the -governor to attack the fortress of _Arauco_; and, to facilitate this -enterprise, he endeavoured to divert the Spanish forces as much as -possible, incursions being made into the territories of _Villa Rica_, -_Angol_, and _Imperial_, whilst a guard was placed on the shores of the -_Bio-bio_. The garrison of _Arauco_, perceiving, from the preparations -of Cayancaru, that their means of escape would be cut off, and that they -would be eventually reduced by hunger, thought it better to perish with -arms in their hands. They therefore attacked the works of the enemy with -such vigour that they not only carried them, but put the Araucanians to -flight. Cayancaru, extremely mortified, now resigned the command of his -army to his son Nangoniel. The young commander, in no way discouraged by -what had taken place, collected some infantry, together with a hundred -and fifty horse, and having reinvested the same fortress, so distressed -the Spaniards by want of provisions that they were forced to evacuate -it. Nangoniel, having been soon afterwards drawn into an ambush and -slain, was succeeded by Cadeguala. - -[Sidenote: 1587.] - -It was about this time that an English squadron appeared in this part of -South America. On the 21st of July 1586, Sir Thomas Cavendish sailed -from Plymouth with three ships, and in the following year arrived on the -coast of _Chili_. Landing at _Quintero_, he endeavoured to enter into -negotiation with the natives, but he was attacked by the _Corregidor_ of -_St. Iago_, and after having suffered some loss, was compelled to quit -the coast. Cadeguala availed himself of this timely diversion to -surprise the city of _Angol_. Having, by means of secret agents, -persuaded those Chilians who were in the service of Spaniards to set -fire to their masters’ houses by night, he entered the city amidst the -confusion, causing a dreadful slaughter of the citizens, who, in flying -from the flames, fell into his hands. On that fatal night none would -have escaped but for the opportune arrival of the governor two hours -before the attack. With the greatest presence of mind he proceeded at -the head of his guard to the various quarters, and, collecting the -dispersed inhabitants, conducted them to the citadel. Having sallied -thence at daybreak, he forced the enemy to retire. It is to be remarked, -as showing how much the Araucanians had profited by the moral example -given them by the Spaniards, that they no longer scrupled to employ -treachery. On this occasion the _Toqui_ was not deserted by any of his -officers, as had been the fate of Caupolican when he employed the same -means at _Canete_. - -The next and last enterprise of the gallant Cadeguala was against the -fortress of _Puren_, which he invested with four thousand men. The -governor, hastening to relieve it with a strong reinforcement, was met -by Cadeguala with a hundred and fifty lances and compelled to retreat. -Elated with this success, he determined to decide the fate of _Puren_ at -a single blow. For this purpose he appeared before the walls, mounted on -a splendid horse which he had taken from the governor, and defied the -commander of the place, Garcia Ramon, to single combat at the end of -three days. The challenge was accepted, and at the appointed time the -intrepid _Toqui_ appeared on the field with a limited number of -attendants. The Spanish commander likewise came out with forty men, who, -like the followers of the _Toqui_, remained at a distance. The two -champions encountered each other with such fury that the first shock was -decisive. Cadeguala fell, pierced through by the lance of his adversary. -Even then he would not acknowledge himself vanquished; but life failed -him in his attempt to remount his horse. His body, after a sharp -contest, was carried off by his followers. With this incident, recalling -similar ones between the Spaniards and their gallant opponents at the -siege of Granada, ended the investment of _Puren_. - -The Araucanians, under their new _Toqui_, Guanoalca, being informed that -the garrison was ill-supplied with provisions and cut off from succour, -were not long in returning to the siege of _Puren_, the Spaniards in -which place, however, were permitted to retire unmolested to _Angol_. -The _Toqui_ then lost no time in marching against a new fort in the -vicinity of the mountain of _Mariguenu_; but on its being reinforced he -turned his arms against _Spirito Santo_ and _Trinidad_ on the _Bio-bio_, -both of which were evacuated in 1589. Guanoalca was seconded in his -military operations by the heroine Janequeo, the wife of Guepotan, who -had long defended _Leben_. On the loss of that place he had retired to -the _Andes_; but he had descended to the plains in order to regain his -wife; and, being surprised, he chose to die rather than be made -prisoner. He was well avenged. Janequeo placed herself at the head of a -force of _Puelches_, and in 1590 began to make inroads upon the Spanish -settlements, killing all who fell into her hands. - -The governor of _Chili_ marched against her, but only to lose time and -men. Before his retreat he gave orders that all prisoners should be -hanged. Janequeo next proceeded against the fortress of _Puchanqui_, -near which she defeated its commander, Aranda, who was himself slain. -The fort having resisted her efforts, she retired to the mountains near -_Villarica_, the neighbourhood of which she rendered so unsafe that none -ventured to quit the town. Moved by the complaints of the citizens, -Sotomayor at length sent his brother _Don_ Louis to their aid. Janequeo -repelled the various assaults of the Spaniards, but was in the end -obliged to retreat before their artillery. Her brother being taken, he -obtained his life on the promise of keeping his sister quiet; but whilst -his proposal for a reconciliation with the Spaniards was being debated -in council, he was killed by a patriotic _Ulmen_, who would not hear of -such a proposition. - -[Sidenote: 1591.] - -In the year 1591 Quintuguenu succeeded to the office of _Toqui_ on the -death of Guanoalca. Having assaulted the fort of _Mariguenu_, he -encamped with two thousand men upon the top of that famous height, -whence the governor, putting himself at the head of a thousand Spaniards -and a number of auxiliaries, resolved to dislodge him. The latter began -at daybreak the difficult ascent of the mountain, leading the advanced -guard in person. Half-way in the ascent he was attacked with fury by -Quintuguenu; but, animating his men by his words and deeds, he sustained -for an hour the terrible encounter, and forced the enemy, step by step, -back into their entrenchments. The Araucanians defended themselves with -the utmost bravery until mid-day, when their camp was forced on the left -and right. Still Quintuguenu for a long time rendered the event -doubtful. Recalling to his men the glorious memories of Lautaro, he -exhorted them not to dishonour that holy spot by defeat. Rushing from -rank to rank he fell, pierced by three mortal wounds at the hands of the -governor, his dying word being “Liberty.” His death decided the day. - -Sotomayor, the first Spanish conqueror on _Mariguenu_, conducted his -army to the sea-shore, where he was saluted by the Peruvian fleet, which -had witnessed his glorious victory. He next built a fort to replace that -of Arauco in a locality which would be more readily succoured. He then -set out for the province of _Tucapel_, marking his way by fire and -sword. The next _Toqui_ was Piallaeco, who soon lost his life in battle, -when his countrymen were so overwhelmed that their remaining warriors -had to take refuge in the marshes. These victories, however, on the part -of the Spaniards were ineffectual to decide the war. The governor, who -was an experienced soldier, seeing that a large force was needed for -this purpose, resolved to proceed in person to _Peru_ in order to obtain -it. On his arrival there he was met by _Don_ Martin Loyola (nephew of -St. Ignatius), who had been appointed his successor. This officer had -distinguished himself by capturing, in the fastnesses of the _Andes_, -Tupac Amaru, the last of the _Incas_ of _Peru_, a service which not only -obtained for him the government of _Chili_, but likewise the hand of the -Princess _Clara Beatrix Coya_, the daughter and heiress of the _Inca_ -Sayri Tupac. Loyola reached _Valparaiso_, the port of St. Iago, in 1593. - -[Sidenote: 1593.] - -The Araucanians next chose for _Toqui_ an active veteran named -Paillamachu, whose career was destined to be of more lasting service to -his country than had been that of any of his distinguished predecessors, -unless indeed it be said that his career was but the result of their -example. Imitating the precedent of Antiguenu, he retreated to the -marshes of _Lumaco_, there to train an army. Loyola having proceeded to -_Conception_, was there met by an Araucanian officer who had been sent -to compliment him, and on whose mind he endeavoured to impress an idea -of the resources of his sovereign, and of the necessity of submission. -He was, however, assured in reply that the Araucanians would never -submit to foreign control whilst they had a drop of blood in their -veins. Loyola could not but admire the sentiments of the noble -Antipillan, whom he dismissed with every demonstration of esteem. He -nevertheless was far from relinquishing the policy of his predecessors. - -[Sidenote: 1594.] - -Passing the _Bio-bio_, he founded near it a new city, to which he gave -the name of _Coya_, in honour of his wife; and he established two -castles to protect it. This proceeding was the signal for attack on the -part of Paillamachu, whose lieutenant assaulted Fort _Jesus_ in 1595, -but failed to reduce it. In the following year the Araucanian general -felt himself in sufficient strength to make frequent incursions into the -Spanish districts; but he carefully avoided an encounter with their -troops. With the object of restraining him, Loyola erected two new -forts, one at _Puren_ and the other on the border of the marshes of -_Lumaco_. In 1597 he also founded a settlement in the province of -_Cujo_, to which he gave the name of _St. Louis de Loyola_. - -[Sidenote: 1598.] - -Paillamachu soon took by storm the fort of _Lumaco_, and the governor -prudently demolished that of _Puren_, to save it from a like fate. -Having next repaired the fortifications of _Imperial_, _Villarica_, and -_Valdivia_, he returned to the _Bio-bio_, retaining as an escort only -sixty half-pay officers, when he was attacked by the _Toqui_ in the -valley of _Caralava_ and put to death with all his retinue. In less than -forty-eight hours after this event the whole Araucanian provinces were -in arms, as were likewise the _Cunchese_ and the _Cuilliches_, and the -whole country as far as the archipelago of _Chiloë_. Every Spaniard -outside the garrisons was put to death; whilst _Osorno_, _Valdivia_, -_Villarica_, _Imperial_, _Canete_, _Angol_, _Coya_, and the fortress of -_Arauco_, were all at once invested with a close siege. Paillamachu -himself, crossing the _Bio-bio_, burned the cities of _Conception_ and -_Chillan_, laying waste the surrounding provinces. - -[Sidenote: 1599.] - -The receipt of this alarming news so terrified the inhabitants of _St. -Iago_ that they made up their minds to quit the country and retire to -_Peru_. They appointed, however, as temporary governor Pedro de Viscara, -a veteran of seventy years, who set out for the frontier with such -troops as he could raise. Crossing the _Bio-bio_ in the face of the -enemy, he withdrew the inhabitants of _Angol_ and _Coya_, sending them -to _Conception_ and _Chillan_. At the end of six months he was relieved -by _Don_ Francisco Quinones, sent by the Viceroy of _Peru_ to assume the -government. Several actions took place to the north of the _Bio-bio_; -the most important occurred on the plains of _Yumbel_. This battle, -fought between nearly equal numbers, continued with incredible fury for -nearly two hours, when night parted the combatants, and the _Toqui_ -repassed the _Bio-bio_. The Spanish governor ordered his prisoners to be -hanged. After this engagement the fort of _Arauco_ and the city of -_Canete_ were evacuated. - -[Sidenote: 1600.] - -The active Paillamachu went from place to place. He stormed _Valdivia_, -putting to death a great number of the inhabitants, and forcing the -remainder to save themselves on board ships, which at once set sail. By -this exploit he secured all the cannon of the place, two millions of -dollars, and four hundred prisoners. To add to these misfortunes, five -Dutch men-of-war now appeared on the coast of _Chili_, plundering the -island of _Chiloë_ and putting the garrison to the sword. A party having -attacked the Araucanians on the island of _Talca_, or _Santa Maria_, -under the belief that they were Spaniards, were repulsed with the loss -of twenty-three men. - -[Sidenote: 1602.] - -Quinones was succeeded in the government by Garcia Raymon, an officer of -much experience in South America, and who in turn had shortly to give -place to Rivera, a soldier who had fought in the Low Countries, and who -was now sent out with a regiment of veterans. His coming encouraged his -countrymen to abandon their idea of quitting _Chili_; it did not, -however, retrieve the fortunes of the war. After a siege of three years, -_Villarica_ fell into the hands of the Araucanians: whilst a similar -fate awaited _Imperial_, which place owed its protracted defence to a -Spanish heroine, called Inez Agulera. When defence was no longer -possible, this lady, who during the siege had lost her husband and her -brothers, escaped by sea with a great part of the inhabitants. The city -of _Osorno_ was the next to give way to the besiegers, and thus was -freed from the presence of the Spaniards the extensive country between -the _Bio-bio_ and the archipelago of _Chiloë_, and the work of Valdivia -and his successors was undone. - -The cities which fell into the enemy’s hands were destroyed, and their -prisoners, who had been reduced to terrible straits, were so numerous -that almost each Araucanian family had one to its share. As ransom was -permitted, many escaped from captivity. Others, induced by the love of -their mixed offspring, preferred to remain with their conquerors. The -valiant Paillamachu only survived till the following year, 1603. The -towns which he destroyed have never been rebuilt;[R] their scanty ruins -are his monument. Thus ended, as regarded its permanent results, the -Araucanian War of Independence, exemplifying, if ever a war did, the -sentiment contained in the lines:-- - - “Freedom’s battle once begun, - Bequeath’d by bleeding sire to son, - Though baffled oft, is ever won.” - - NOTE.--Chapters VIII., XII., XIII., and XIV. of vol. I. are founded - on-- - - “History of _Chili_;” by the _Abbé Don_ J. Ignatius Molina. - Longman. 1809. - - On “_Historia General y Natural de las Indias_;” by Oviedo. - - And on “Historical Relation of _Chili_;” by Ovalle. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -_BRAZIL._ - -1570-1622. - - -[Sidenote: 1578.] - -The growth of the colony of _Brazil_ had been so rapid during the -fourteen years’ able administration of Mem de Sa that it was now thought -advisable to divide its territory into two governments, _S. Sebastian_, -or _Rio de Janeiro_, being the capital of the second government, which -was to include all the settlements to the south of that place. This -subdivision, however, was not found convenient, and at the end of two -years the southern government was made subordinate to the northern. At -this precise period the succession to the crown of Portugal was in -dispute; and Philip II. of Spain, one of the claimants, offered the -entire Brazilian colonies, with the title of King, to the Duke of -Braganza, which offer, however, was not accepted. - -It may be of interest here to give a brief account of this splendid -colonial empire, as it was represented, for the information of the -Portuguese Government, by one who had resided seventeen years in the -country. In the year 1581 the city of _S. Salvador_, now _Bahia_, -contained eight hundred inhabitants, and the whole _Reconcave_, or the -coast-line of the surrounding bay, about two thousand, exclusive of -negroes and native Indians. Five hundred horse and two thousand foot -could be brought into the field; whilst three _caravels_ and fourteen -hundred boats were available for the king’s service. The cathedral -church could boast five dignitaries, six canons, two minor canons, four -chaplains, and one _curé_ and his coadjutor. There were no less than -sixty-two churches in the city, together with three monasteries. In this -respect _S. Salvador_ had certainly no cause of complaint. The country -for two miles round was covered with plantations. In the _Reconcave_ -there were fifty-seven sugar-works, the quantity annually exported -amounting to about two thousand four hundred hogsheads. Cattle and -horses, which had been imported from the _Cape de Verdes_, increased in -prodigious numbers. There were persons who possessed forty or fifty -brood mares, which might sell at _Pernambuco_ for thirty ducats a-piece; -sheep and goats likewise flourished, having been imported from Europe. - -Oranges and lemons, which the settlers had introduced, had become -plentiful. The palm-tree was grown, and likewise the cocoa plant; the -melon, the pomegranate, and the vine were not cultivated with such -success, being unable to withstand the ravages of the ant. The tea plant -had been discovered at _Bahia_, where coffee likewise was grown. Ginger -throve so well that in one year four thousand _arrobas_ were preserved. -The sugar-cane is indigenous in _Brazil_, and was found in plenty near -_Rio de Janeiro_. The parasites which fill up the interstices of the -Brazilian forests were put to various uses; their juice was applied for -the purpose of tanning, and their branches were woven into wicker-work -or beaten into tow. These plants form a remarkable feature in Brazilian -scenery. They encircle the trees up which they climb only to regain the -ground; the same plant there takes root again, crossing from bough to -bough and from tree to tree, wherever they may be carried by such -breezes as may pierce the almost impermeable jungle. - -In some portions of the _Reconcave_ saltpetre was to be found; but for -lime the colonists were dependent on oyster shells, which, however, were -at some points procurable in great abundance. Fish of various kinds -abounded, and oil was extracted from the liver of the shark. At one or -two places ambergris was found. The rumours of wealth in the precious -metals and stones which were then in circulation have since been amply -confirmed. - -[Sidenote: 1582.] - -In _Bahia_ there were then said to be more than a hundred persons -enjoying an income of five thousand _cruzados_, or two thousand five -hundred _ducats_; whilst some settlers possessed plate and gold to a -great value. They were supplied with wine from _Madeira_ and the -_Canaries_. The settlement of _Pernambuco_ was not less flourishing; -there were fifty sugar-works, the tenths of which were leased for -nineteen thousand _cruzados_, or half that number of _ducats_. _Olinda_ -might contain seven hundred inhabitants, not including those who dwelt -in the villas and works in the gardens of its vicinity. Three thousand -men could be brought into the field; and it may be noted that as early -as 1582 between four and five thousand African slaves were employed in -the Captaincy. About five-and-forty ships came annually for sugar and -brazil-wood. - -_S. Vicente_ likewise flourished. This Captaincy was situated -sufficiently far to the south to admit of the cultivation of wheat and -barley. It might also produce wine. _Espirito Santo_ and other portions -of _Brazil_ did not fare so well as those above mentioned. The early -settlers in the colony are said to have suffered much from the jiggers -and other insects of the country, and it was only with time that they -learned the remedies which the natives were accustomed to apply to the -attacks of these tormentors. The fleets which had formerly been sent out -each year with a reinforcement of young settlers now no longer arrived; -and, wholesome as the air of _Brazil_ for the most part is, it proved -hurtful to many Europeans. The admixture, too, of the three different -races, European, Brazilian, and Negro, was said to have generated -certain new diseases, or at least new constitutions, in which old -diseases took a new form. Complaints of the liver were prevalent, as -were those of the eye. But on the whole it was said that in no instance -have Europeans suffered so little by transplantation from their own -country into one of a very different climate as did the Portuguese in -_Brazil_. It may be remarked, however, that the term _Brazil_ is a very -wide word indeed, comprising as that empire does a space equal to about -two-thirds of Europe, and that there are probably far greater variations -of climate between its northern and its southern portions, as well as -between its highlands and lowlands, than exist between the climate of -Lisbon and that of its southern provinces. As to the moral quality of -the early settlers, seeing that they comprised a considerable portion of -the banished criminal population of the mother country, it is not -surprising that the average of crime should for some time have been -greater in the colony than in Portugal. The energy of the race, however, -at this its heroic period, found ample scope, and as years rolled on the -resources of the magnificent territory which had fallen under the -Portuguese sceptre were gradually unfolded. - -It was long before the French could be persuaded to give up the hope of -establishing themselves somewhere in _Brazil_. They made the _Paraïba_ -their favourite port of trade, where they allied themselves with some -savage neighbouring tribes, and caused such trouble to the Portuguese -that they themselves resolved to establish fortified settlements on the -above-named river. The governor of _San Salvador_ deputed this task to -Flores de Valdes, who had been sent by Philip II. of Spain, with a fleet -of twenty-three vessels, to secure the Straits of _Magellan_ when Drake -had alarmed him for the safety of his possessions on the Pacific. Valdes -had been foiled in his attempts to reach the Straits, and had been -driven back to _Bahia_ with only six ships. With these and two others he -sailed to _Pernambuco_. There were four French vessels in the -_Paraïba_. The French themselves, however, set fire to them, and then -joined the savages on shore. The Spanish and Portuguese troops landed -without opposition and constructed a fortress; but its commander could -not long maintain it against the _Pitagoares_, and made a hasty retreat -to _Itamaraca_. It was, however, again recovered by means of a fresh -reinforcement from _Pernambuco_. - -The name of England is at this period for the first time brought into -prominent notice in connection with _Brazil_, which, being a colony of a -country now under the Spanish crown, was subject to the warlike -operations of the enemies of Spain. In 1582 an English expedition, -destined for the East, and commanded by Admiral Fenton, reached the -coast of _Brazil_ and anchored off _San Vicente_, where an English -vessel had previously come to trade. Indeed a trade had some time since -sprung up between Plymouth and Southern _Brazil_, the first merchant -navigator mentioned being the father of Sir John Hawkins, who made two -voyages, in 1530 and 1532, respectively. The expedition under Fenton -merely called for peaceful objects, and did not commit any act of -hostility; but the proceedings of Drake had already drawn down the -hatred of all Spaniards on his countrymen; and Flores, having been -informed of the presence of English vessels at _San Vicente_, made for -that place and prepared to attack them. The action began in the evening -and was fought by moonlight. One of the Spanish ships was sunk, and in -the course of the following day the English vessels put to sea. It is -recorded to the credit of their humane commander that he refrained from -sinking another of the Spanish vessels, not wishing to cause a needless -loss of life. - -[Sidenote: 1586.] - -Four years later another English expedition sailed for the South Sea, -but of a less pacific nature. Lord Cumberland was at its head, but -Withrington was in active command, and of two privateers which -accompanied it, one had been fitted out by Raleigh. From information -which they obtained from Portuguese vessels which they had captured, -they resolved to attack _San Salvador_, and accordingly made for -_Bahia_. The safety of that place is said to have been due to the -presence of converted Indians, who had been gathered together there, and -who constituted a formidable force of archers; but the English remained -six weeks in the bay, doing much damage to the neighbouring country. - -The next English privateer of whom we read in connection with _Brazil_ -is Cavendish, who sent two of his vessels to attack the town of -_Santos_. The inhabitants were surprised at mass, and the one man who -resisted was slain, the rest being detained prisoners in church. They -contrived to escape, however, at night, and took good care to make away -with all their portable property; so that when Cavendish arrived some -days later he found neither inhabitants nor provisions. The result was -that after remaining several weeks the fleet had to depart worse -provisioned than when it had arrived. The next exploit of Cavendish was -to burn _San Vicente_ on his way to the Straits, which, however, he -failed to pass. His ships being dispersed in a storm, he put back alone -to the coast of _Brazil_, and landed twenty-five men near _Santos_, with -instructions to seize provisions and return forthwith. But of this party -not a man returned. They were seized by the natives, and only two were -spared to be carried prisoners to _Santos_. - -Cavendish was now joined by another vessel of his squadron, and made for -_Espirito Santo_. It not being deemed prudent for the ships to attempt -to cross the bar, a party of eighty men were sent over it in boats, the -orders of their commander, Captain Morgan, being to discover a good -landing-place near the town. Disobeying the positive commands of his -superior, he landed with a number of his men, with the result that he -was himself killed, together with a large proportion of his force, upon -which Cavendish left the coast of _Brazil_ in despair, and died, it is -said, of grief on his homeward voyage. - -[Sidenote: 1594.] - -The next English expedition to _Brazil_ was better designed. Three -ships, the largest of them being of about two hundred and forty tons, -were fitted out by certain citizens of London, and sailed under the -command of James Lancaster, who was well acquainted with the Portuguese, -having lived amongst them. _Pernambuco_ was his point of attack, and for -this purpose he secured two Frenchmen as interpreters in the language of -the neighbouring natives. One of his vessels, commanded by Barker, had -to put back to refit, but this officer rejoined him off Cape _Blanco_, -having already captured four-and-twenty Spanish and Portuguese sail. -They then made for _Pernambuco_, and on the way fell in with another -English squadron under Captain Venner, consisting of four vessels. -Venner readily agreed to assist Lancaster in securing a rich prize from -a ship from India which had been wrecked near _Olinda_, at the port of -which place her cargo was stowed. Venner was to receive a fourth of the -value of the prize. - -They arrived off _Recife_ towards the end of March, 1595, where they -discovered three large Dutch ships lying at the entrance. Lancaster -manned five of his prizes, with orders to board the Dutch vessels should -they offer opposition. His men were embarked in boats, and he himself -took command of the galley, rowed by eighty of his ship’s company. This -happened at night, and when morning came they found that the boats had -drifted half a mile to the north. It was now ebb-tide, and they were -forced to remain off the port in full sight of the place; but they had -the satisfaction of seeing the Dutch vessels move away from the -entrance. About noon, Lancaster received a message from the governor, -requesting to know his object. The reply, given in curt seaman’s terms, -was that he wanted the Indian prize, and that he meant to have it. On -this declaration the Portuguese manned the small work at the mouth of -the harbour and collected their entire force of six hundred men. At two -o’clock the tide turned, when Lancaster led the way, running his boat on -shore immediately under the battery, the other boat’s crew following his -example. The place was then gallantly stormed; upon which Lancaster made -signal for his ships to enter the harbour. He left a garrison in the -fort and planted its guns against _Olinda_; after this he marched on -_Recife_, which place he found abandoned, and where he obtained the -sought-for prize. - -The admiral now displayed much prudence. As his booty could not readily -be removed, he put the Isthmus of _Recife_ in a state of defence. This -done, he opened communication with the Dutch vessels, which he chartered -to take cargoes to England. He likewise obtained assistance from some -French vessels which soon afterwards arrived, and to which he parted -with valuable stores that were in excess of his own requirements. He -obstinately refused to enter into parley with the authorities of -_Olinda_, going on board ship when their envoys came to seek him. -Meanwhile the work of lading went on; and in repulsing an attack which -was made upon his force he was so fortunate as to secure some small -carts, which were invaluable for transporting his spoil. He likewise -captured a Portuguese ship with forty hands, whom he employed to relieve -his own men in the work of carrying. - -The Portuguese, however, were not idle meanwhile. During three weeks -they made repeated attacks on the English, who were always compelled to -fight for their supply of water. They next set five small vessels on -fire, and let them float down the stream; but for this attempt Lancaster -was prepared, and the fire-ships were stopped by grappling-irons and -chains. A week later, at midnight, three blazing rafts came down the -stream, having long poles attached to their sides to prevent their -being grappled, and likewise having sparkling fireworks. The English, -however, laid wet cloths on their powder, flasks, and oars, and, seeing -the necessity of stopping them at all hazards, succeeded in doing so. -The attempts of the Portuguese to cut the cables of the enemy’s ships -were likewise baffled. Whilst they were preparing a third attempt to -fire the ships, Lancaster, having now got his booty on board, was ready -to depart. On the day of departure, however, in consequence of the state -of the tide, it was necessary to delay till the evening; and in the -attempt to destroy a battery which was being prepared by the Portuguese, -some three hundred French and English were led into an ambuscade, losing -thirty-five of their number, amongst them the vice-admiral, Barker. The -same evening eleven richly-laden vessels set sail, and all safely -reached their destination. - - * * * * * - -So well had Nobrega’s system been followed by his successors that, in -the course of half a century, all the natives along the coast of -_Brazil_, where Portuguese settlements extended, were collected in -villages under their superintendence; whilst, on the other hand, so -successfully had the slave-hunters practised their arts in setting one -tribe of natives against another that the number of the latter was very -greatly reduced. It thus happened that both missionaries and -slave-hunters had now to penetrate much farther into the interior than -heretofore, in search either of converts or of captives; and in this way -fresh portions of the vast territory were from time to time discovered. -About the year 1594, Rifault, a French adventurer, who had previously -visited the coast of _Brazil_, returned to that country with three -vessels, one of which he lost near _Maranham_, on which island he took -refuge. Having returned to Europe, his people were now headed by the -_Sieur des_ Vaux, who persuaded the islanders to own the rule of the -French. With this concession he too returned to France, and submitted -to Henri IV. a project for taking possession of the considerable island -of _Maranham_. The king listened with satisfaction, and sent back Des -Vaux, accompanied by a commissioner of rank, by whose report he was to -be guided; but before the report could be made Henri had been -assassinated. - -[Sidenote: 1612.] - -Permission was, however, granted to form a company for the purpose of -colonizing _Maranham_, and certain gentlemen were appointed -lieutenants-general in the _West Indies_ and _Brazil_. The expedition -was fitted out in Brittany, and sailed in March 1612; and, after a -severe voyage, it reached the island of _Fernando Noronha_, whence it -proceeded to _Maranham_. The islanders put themselves, as had been -expected, under the protection of France, and their example was followed -by two tribes on the mainland. The Cross and the French flag were -planted side by side. Unfortunately, however, for the French, the -Brazilian Government had just at this time turned its attention in the -same direction; and before any tidings of the above proceedings had -reached Madrid, orders had been sent out to prosecute the discovery and -conquest of the river _Amazons_ and the adjoining regions. The governor -was ordered to fix his residence at _Olinda_ in order to push on the -expedition, to the command of which Geronymo de Albuquerque was -appointed. He was later joined by Compos Moreno. Their progress, -however, was slow, and in due time they came into collision with the -French, of whose presence in that region the Brazilian authorities now -for the first time became aware. It so happened that the officer who -made the discovery was prevented by contrary winds from returning from -_Maranham_ to _Pernambuco_. He was driven to the Spanish Main, whence he -set sail for Spain. On his arrival there he immediately despatched his -pilot to _Brazil_ to warn the authorities, whilst he himself proceeded -for the same purpose to Madrid. In this way the colonial government -heard of the French occupation of _Mararnham_ not from _Brazil_, but -from Europe. - -Fresh instructions were now sent out to the governor, with stringent -orders to direct his whole attention towards the island of _Maranham_. -The preparations for that object were accordingly pushed forward with -renewed vigour; and in course of time the expedition reached the port of -_Peria_, in the vicinity of _Maranham_, to examine which a -reconnoitering party was now sent out. From a deserter the Portuguese -commander learned that the French meant to attack his vessels. He, -however, contented himself with drawing them up on shore, and the French -victory was confined to securing three of his six ships. The Portuguese, -meanwhile, endured such sufferings that a conspiracy was formed amongst -the soldiers to blow up the powder-magazine, and thus compel a retreat -to _Pernambuco_ by land. The question was, however, settled by the -arrival of the French commander Rivardiere, with seven ships and many -canoes, containing four hundred Frenchmen and four hundred natives. He -forthwith ordered half his force to take possession of a hill which -commanded the Portuguese encampment, whilst his native allies proceeded -to entrench themselves by means of fascines which they had carried with -them, and by means of which they kept themselves in communication with -the fleet. Albuquerque, seeing that he was thus cut off from the hope of -obtaining fresh water, had no alternative but to fight, although his -force both of Portuguese and of natives bore a very small proportion to -that opposed to him. - -Of the two Portuguese chiefs, the one attacked the enemy on the beach; -the other undertook to dislodge him from the hill, each having a force -of seventy Portuguese and forty natives, whilst a small body was kept in -reserve. The Portuguese attack was so well planned that the French on -the hill, not perceiving their own danger, descended to the help of -their countrymen, and were unexpectedly charged on the flank. After a -short but severe struggle one of their commanders fell, and they retired -to their entrenchments on the hill; but the Portuguese, following them, -stormed these works likewise and put their defenders to the rout. -Rivardiere was so confident in his superiority of numbers that he did -not think it necessary to succour his men engaged until the moment had -passed for doing so. The tide having now fallen, his canoes were left -high and dry on the beach. He attempted to attack the fort, but the -muddy shore kept his launches at a distance, and the invalids kept up a -brisk fire upon him. One hundred and fifteen of his men were left dead -on the field, whilst nine were taken prisoners. - -A correspondence now took place between the commanders on either side, -as a result of which the following terms were proposed namely, that -there should be a truce till the end of the following year, whilst -meanwhile two cavaliers, the one French, the other Portuguese, should -proceed to France, and likewise two to Spain, to lay the matter before -their sovereigns; and that when the determination of the two courts -should arrive, the party which should receive orders to remove should -evacuate the country, the prisoners meanwhile being released. Rivardiere -further bound himself to withdraw his ship and allow free ingress to the -supplies which the Portuguese expected. These articles were duly signed, -and accordingly two vessels were sent with commissioners to France and -Spain respectively. - -But the terms of the convention were not long observed. After a while -Albuquerque began to receive reinforcements; and finding himself in -sufficient strength, he now informed Rivardiere that he had received -instructions stating that these countries belonged to the Portuguese -crown, and that he was therefore under the necessity of considering the -treaty between them as annulled. The French commander now agreed to -evacuate the island of _Maranham_ within five months, on condition that -the Portuguese should pay for the artillery to be left there, thus to -enable him to pay for transports for his people. As security for his -good faith he surrendered one of the forts, of which Albuquerque took -possession; but from the length of time for which he stipulated before -his withdrawal, it is probable that he calculated on something occurring -meanwhile which might render that operation unnecessary. - -[Sidenote: 1615.] - -Campos had meanwhile reached Lisbon, where he pressed upon the -Government the necessity of sending out reinforcements without loss of -time. He himself returned with adequate succours for that purpose to -_Pernambuco_, where he found the governor busily employed towards the -same end. Their united force amounted to nine hundred men, who were -embarked in seven ships. Compos had left _Maranham_ for Europe in -January 1615, and he returned to that island early in October of the -same year, the supreme command of the expedition being now given to De -Moura, the late captain of _Pernambuco_. In flagrant breach of the -second convention with Rivardiere, the French were now attacked in Fort -_St. Louis_, whither they had retired. The French commander submitted -unconditionally, and was allowed to sail for France with four hundred of -his countrymen. By his incapacity in treating with the Portuguese when -his superiority at sea put it within his power to cut off their -provisions, the island of _Maranham_ was lost to France. - -The next enemy with whom the Portuguese had to contend were of a -different race. The Dutch had begun to trade on the north of the -_Amazons_, and had established factories on some of the numerous islands -at its mouth. They had given out to the natives that a fleet would soon -arrive to establish a colony, and when this intelligence reached -Caldeira (a Portuguese officer who had been sent north from _Maranham_ -with two hundred men to establish a settlement on the _Amazons_), it was -confirmed by the arrival of a large Dutch vessel. The ship was attacked -by his orders, but the Dutchmen defended themselves so well that they -could not be conquered save by setting fire to the vessel. This new -Captaincy, which was called _Pará_, was disturbed with serious -dissensions, which led to Caldeira, the governor, being put in chains by -his mutinous garrison. The colony had likewise to encounter -long-continued hostility on the part of the natives. A new governor was -sent out from Lisbon, with orders to send home as prisoners both -Caldeira and the officer who had accepted the government in his place -from the mutineers. When this was done, the war against the natives was -prosecuted, and they were successfully hunted down by a ruffian called -Maciel, whose object seemed to be to exterminate them. If this were his -purpose, it was still further assisted by the fearful havoc caused at -this time amongst them by the small-pox. - -[Sidenote: 1622.] - -In the year 1622 a new governor-general brought with him some Jesuits; -but the appearance of these Fathers in _Maranham_ excited a tumult -against them; for, much to the credit of their order, it had set itself -in systematic opposition to the iniquitous conduct of the Portuguese -towards the natives. A compromise had to be arrived at, by which the -Jesuits agreed, under pain of banishment and the confiscation of their -property, not to interfere with the domesticated natives. As a wide belt -of desolation had been placed round the Portuguese settlements by -Maciel, it was somewhat difficult for the Fathers to find any other -natives to exercise their influence upon. About this time much was done -to explore the region of the Lower _Amazons_, in which service it is to -be admitted that Maciel, who was now captain of _Pará_, was as energetic -as he was ever savage in his bearing towards the Indians. At the river -_Curupá_ some of his people found Dutch, English, and French -adventurers, who had made trenches for their defence, and had enlisted -natives to assist them. From this post they were driven by Maciel, who -destroyed their factories both on the _Curupá_ and on the island of -_Tocujuz_. - -Having effected this congenial work, he returned to _Belem_, now called -_Parâ_. His new conquests were considered at Madrid to be of such -consequence as to deserve to be erected into a separate government, -partly on account of the difficulty of communication between _Maranham_ -and _Pernambuco_. But the days were at hand when the natives were to be -avenged by the arm of another European nation for the wrongs which they -had suffered from Maciel and his like. - - NOTE.--Chapters V., IX., XV. and XVI. of vol. I. are founded on - “History of _Brazil_;” by Robert Southey. Longman. 1810. - - On “The History of _Paraguay_;” Charles A. Washburn. Lee and - Shepard. New York. 1871. - - On “_Noticia Biografica De Fernando de Magallanes_;” by Navarrete. - - On “_Lettres Édifiautes et Curienses,;” écrites des Missions - Étrangères. Nouv. edit._; _par_ Querbeuf. - - On “_La Plata_;” _Etude Historique_; _par_ Santiego Arcos. Paris. - 1865. - - On “History of the Indies;” by J. de Acosta; Hakluyt Society. 1880. - - On works previously referred to. - - And on “_Voyage dans l’Amérigue Méridionale_;” _par Don_ F. de - Azara. 4 vols. 8vo. 1809. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -_ESTABLISHMENT OF THE JESUITS IN_ PARAGUAY. - -1608-1648. - - -The town of _Buenos Ayres_, once permanently established, soon became a -considerable place; and that notwithstanding its incommodious and unsafe -harbour. Forty years after its foundation (1620) it was declared a -separate colony, which was to comprise all the regions in _La Plata_ -below the confluence of the _Paraguay_ and the _Paraná_. It likewise -became the seat of a bishop, and in fifty years from its foundation -numbered as many inhabitants as _Asuncion_. The colony of _Tucuman_ had -been founded in 1564, but it did not, like _Paraguay_, have the -advantage of river communication with the ocean, nor did it benefit by -the direction of a master mind such as that of Irala. Notwithstanding -this, the jurisdiction of the governor of _Tucuman_ was in 1596 extended -over _Paraguay_. The governor deputed a very able substitute to -administer the latter province in the person of Hernando Saavedra, whose -capacity for administration is considered to have been only surpassed by -that of Irala. - -[Sidenote: 1608.] - -Saavedra, after much exploration in the territories inhabited by the -native tribes, deemed that it would be better to attach rather than to -weaken or exterminate them, and that for this purpose it would be -advisable to use every means for converting them to Christianity. For -this end he appealed to the court of Spain, and in 1608 Philip III. took -the memorable decision of issuing the royal letters-patent to the Order -of Jesus for the conversion of the Indians of the province of _Guayrá_, -which district comprised both banks of the upper _Paraná_ to the east of -_Asuncion_. In this region the towns of _Onteveros_, _Ciudad Real_, and -_Villa Rica_ had been founded as early as 1554 by _Don_ Ruy Diaz de -Melgarejo. - -[Sidenote: 1610.] - -Two Jesuit priests reached _Asuncion_ in 1610, the modest vanguard of a -formidable army. From the very date of their arrival they displayed the -usual zeal of their order, and the first _reduction_ was established on -the upper _Paraná_. It was called _Loreto_, and the neighbouring natives -were invited to resort thither, to receive instruction and to become -members of the community, which was entirely under Jesuit control. As -others of the order arrived, other _reductions_ were formed. On reaching -_Asuncion_ the earliest Jesuit Fathers found the colony distracted by -rivalries and controversies between the secular and the religious -authorities. The first bishop of _Paraguay_ was a Franciscan. - -The policy which had been initiated and pursued by Irala of -incorporating the natives with the governing body had fallen into at -least partial disuse. Although the natives of _Paraguay_ had not to -complain of the same harsh treatment from their Spanish conquerors as -had the Peruvians, their condition still left much to desire. They were -not slaves in name, nor could they be purchased or sold, but they were -nevertheless compelled to labour in the interest of others who had no -responsibility for their care or support. The priests, as befitting -their character, were willing and anxious to better their condition; but -the colonists were loth to permit their interference in secular matters. -Still their presence was not without its result, if only in its leading -to its being considered more respectable to treat the natives as human -beings rather than as the lower animals. Such being the state of society -on the arrival of the Jesuits, whose professed object was the redemption -of the natives, their coming was by no means welcomed by the colonists. - -_Asuncion_ was, however, for the meantime spared, for the scene of -action of the first Jesuit Fathers was at some three hundred miles’ -distance in the three settlements above mentioned. Of these settlements, -and of the _reduction_ of _Loreto_, scarcely a vestige now remains. The -early settlers suffered so much from the natives and from the hostile -Portuguese, that the province was abandoned. Twice was the site of -_Villa Rica_ changed, and the present town of that name dates from 1678. -The Fathers then descending the river, established themselves in the -district of _Misiones_, on the left bank of the _Paraná_, a district -which is at the present day, and has long been, in dispute between -_Brazil_ and her neighbour. The early success of the Jesuits in -converting the natives was very remarkable; but it may be as well to -remember that it is the Jesuits themselves, and not independent writers, -who have chronicled the fact. The Paraguayans, they say, not only -embraced the faith, but voluntarily entered the _reductions_, and -accepted the rule of the spiritual teachers. Before their coming the -name of the foreigner had been terrible. The Spaniards, disappointed in -finding gold, had taken possession of the territory, forcing the -Paraguayans to a lot of unrequited drudgery. The Jesuits, however, had -come to live and to die amongst them, seeking nothing for themselves but -to be allowed to teach the arts of civilization and to show the way to -paradise. It is not surprising that the contrast between their ways and -those of their secular countrymen should have won the natives’ -confidence. Indeed, as one of the conditions granted by the crown to the -founders of the _reductions_ was that these were to be free from all -colonial control, the Paraguayans would at first sight seem to be the -gainers by entering them. It was one of the principles of the order that -the natives should not be subjected to unrecompensed labour. - -It is somewhat remarkable that whilst the system and labours of the -Jesuits in _Paraguay_ are spoken of by most Protestant writers with -almost unqualified praise, they are denounced in unmeasured terms by -their Catholic rivals the Franciscans. It is not to be questioned that -the early members of the order--the immediate disciples of Loyola--were -actuated in their mission by no other motive than the most -self-sacrificing and disinterested zeal; but these men were succeeded by -others of a different stamp, and as time wore on the Jesuit rulers of -_Paraguay_ might enjoy a life of indolence and luxury. During the first -twenty-five years of their mission they founded no less than ten towns; -but the historian Azara points out that these twenty-five years -precisely coincides with the time when the Portuguese furiously -persecuted the natives in order to sell them into slavery. The -frightened fugitives took refuge in the region between the _Uruguay_ and -the _Paraná_, and crowded into the Jesuit towns. During the following -hundred years or more only one other town was established. Thus it -appears that Portuguese rapacity had not a little to do with the -establishment of Jesuit rule at _Paraguay_. - -The career of the Jesuits, however, was not destined to run on with -uniform smoothness. A governor of _Paraguay_ was appointed whose policy -and interest were not in unison with theirs. Cespedes was married to a -Portuguese lady, whose sympathies were rather with her man-stealing -countrymen than with the people ruled over by her husband. During his -visit at _Rio de Janeiro_ on his way to his government, Cespedes, it is -said, so far fell into the hands of the Brazilians as to make a bargain -with them by which he was to assist them in kidnapping those whom he had -been sent to govern and protect. He resolved to pass by land to -_Asuncion_. The first point he reached within Spanish territory was -_Loreto_, on the banks of a tributary of the _Paraná_. There the Jesuits -awaited his coming with joyful anticipation, which was soon to be -changed to dismay. The estates of the _Señora_ Cespedes in _Brazil_ were -in need of labourers, and the conscientious governor made a pact with -the slave-hunters to facilitate their operations on condition of -receiving six hundred of their captives. Under these circumstances it is -not surprising that the missionary establishments of _Guayrá_ should -have fallen an easy prey. The early neophytes were carried off by -thousands and sold into slavery. Having no protection to look for at -_Asuncion_, the remainder fled, to the number of twelve thousand. The -Fathers accompanied them until they were, as they thought, at a safe -distance in the region now known as _Misiones_. In their new -_reductions_ the Jesuits continued their work of proselytizing, and, -after the dismissal of Cespedes, tried various means of acquiring -influence at _Asuncion_. Nor were they unsuccessful. The natives not -unnaturally preferred their rule to that of the civil authorities, and -consequently the _reductions_ grew powerful. The result was that the -government became jealous, and that the Franciscans, headed by the -bishop, took means to rid themselves of their successful neighbours and -rivals. - -The Jesuits appealed to Spain and likewise to the Pope, with the result -that their representative obtained for them a royal grant, which -rendered the missions independent of the government of _Paraguay_. They -were likewise permitted to provide the natives with firearms, to be used -in self-defence. When the next raid was made by the slave-hunters, they -were so well received that, though they were a thousand in number, few -escaped to tell of their surprise and defeat. The missions were no more -troubled by men-stealers from _Brazil_. - -[Sidenote: 1644.] - -But the Jesuits had still to contend with the rival ecclesiastics of -_Asuncion_. The Bishop of _Paraguay_, Cardenas, was at this time a -prominent figure. He is said to have hated the Jesuits with a fervour -which is seldom more evoked than in religious animosities; but he by no -means confined his attention to them. It was an age when all men dreaded -the curse of Rome, and Cardenas was nothing loth to use this terrible -weapon. Amongst others who fell under his ban was Hinostrosa, the -governor of the colony, who had ventured to differ from him upon some -matter which does not appear. The people were scandalized at the -governor’s disgrace; and in fear of a tumult the bishop withdrew from -the capital. He was followed by the penitent governor, who sought and -obtained the removal of the anathema. The bishop having now the civil as -well as the spiritual power virtually in his hands, lost no time in -making it felt by the Jesuits. They were prohibited from preaching -within _Asuncion_, and their schools were closed. But if the governor -was subdued by the ecclesiastical authority, the Viceroy of _Charcas_ -and his council were not. The governor of _Paraguay_ was severely -reprimanded for having submitted himself to an arrogant prelate, who was -in turn denounced, and was compelled to retire for some years from -_Asuncion_. - -[Sidenote: 1648.] - -On his return to that city, the governor died; and as in this emergency -the choice of a successor lay with the people, the Bishop Cardenas was -now elected to rule in his stead. Once more he was in possession of full -power, and once more he lost no time in proclaiming his determination to -use it for the expulsion of the Jesuits. Having, under threats of -excommunication, collected a large crowd of people capable of bearing -arms, he demanded the surrender of the Jesuits’ College. In vain its -rector protested that his order exercised their rights under a royal -grant. The doors were forced open, and the priests and neophytes were -driven out. These having been brought to the river, were placed in boats -and cast adrift without sail or oar. The college was then sacked, and -the statues of Loyola and Xavier dragged from their pedestals. This -violence was the natural prelude of the bishop’s own fall. He was -summoned for trial before the Grand Council of _Peru_, and finally -deposed from all authority. - -The deposition of Cardenas was the signal for the recall of the Jesuits, -and for some time to come they were masters of the situation. There -still existed, however, continual jealousy and discord between them and -the Franciscans; and the civil authorities were disposed to side with -the latter. The Jesuits nevertheless applied themselves with -undiminished earnestness to acquire power in _Asuncion_. By establishing -and controlling the schools, they obtained the direction of the rising -generation; and the missions were by this time rich and nourishing. -Outside the _reductions_ the natives preferred the Jesuit rule to that -of the civil authorities, as the former repudiated slavery; whilst -within the _reductions_ the servitude to which they were subjected was -disguised under another name. It was labour for the common benefit. - -The systems of the Spanish governors and of the Jesuit Fathers, -respectively, were widely different, and require some explanation. From -the first advent of the former a mixed race gradually sprung up. The -Spaniards brought with them few if any women, and if a certain -proportion of Spanish ladies arrived later they were not in sufficient -numbers to affect the general rule, which was that the Spanish settlers -were allied to _Guaraní_ wives. Thus was formed the modern mixed -Paraguayan race. In a very short time, therefore, by means of the ties -of relationship, a strong sympathy grew up between the Spaniards and the -_Guaranís_ or those of _Guaraní_ blood, and a recognition of this fact -formed the basis of the plan of government founded by the great Irala. -The lot of the natives of _Paraguay_, as compared with the natives of -the other Spanish dominions in the New World, was far from being a hard -one. There were no mines to work. The Spaniards came there to settle, -rather than to amass fortunes with which to return to Europe. The -country was abundantly fertile, and such wealth as the Spaniards might -amass consisted in the produce of their fields or the increase of their -herds, which were amply sufficient to support them. Consequently all -they required of the natives, for the most part, was a moderate amount -of service as labourers or as herdsmen, whilst in return they were in a -position to impart to the Paraguayans many of the arts of civilization. - -The Jesuits, on the other hand, admitted no other Europeans within the -bounds of their _reductions_, and having themselves no ties of kindred -by marriage or otherwise with those around them, remained a distinct -class apart. Their disciples were not even instructed in the Spanish or -any other European tongue, save so much, perhaps, as was implied by -their being taught to patter certain prayers by rote. As to their -temporal concerns, they laboured, as it was said, for the common weal, -but they were, in fact, reduced to a condition of the most utter -servitude imaginable. Not only had they, like their native brethren -beyond the limits of the _reductions_, to give their labour in the -fields and in tending the herds, but when this was done the whole of -their produce--beyond that necessary for their own sustenance--went into -the common Jesuits’ fund,--that is to say, went towards building and -adorning splendid churches, many of which, with their carved ornaments -of the finest wood, remain to this day when the race that produced them -is no more. Nor was this the only labour that fell upon such of the -natives as were enticed into life-long servitude for “the greater glory -of God.” It was necessary to seclude them from the temptations of the -outer world, and for this purpose each _reduction_ was converted into a -fortress, so contrived as at the same time to preclude the entrance of -strangers from without and the exit of disciples from within. The -Paraguayans who had submitted themselves to the Jesuits’ absolute sway -were thus cunningly made the artificers of the chains that bound them. -It is going considerably in advance of the period now in question to -advert to the reigns of Francia and the second Lopez, but it may be -permitted here to point out that, in thus inducing a system of utter -mental and moral imbecility, the Jesuit Fathers are undoubtedly -responsible for the untold misery which was brought about under these -tyrants, and which at length resulted in the extinction of the -Paraguayan race. - -The Jesuits have been their own historians; therefore the following -details, written by themselves, must be read with the reflection that -there was no contemporary critic to bequeath another side of the -picture. Quitting the lower banks of the _Plata_, already covered with -innumerable cattle on boundless plains which showed a perpetual verdure, -the Jesuits, on their way to their destination, were shocked, on -touching at the island of _S. Gabriel_, by beholding a tribe of -idolaters who inspired terror in their neighbourhood and probably still -more at home, since we learn that they put their women to death on -attaining the age of thirty. After traversing about a thousand miles of -river they reached the _Guaraní_ missions, comprising thirty -settlements. On the western coast, and further to the north, were the -_Chiquito_ missions, with which the others maintained a correspondence, -which until the early part of the eighteenth century could only be -effected by way of _Peru_, along a route of eight hundred leagues, -intersected by streams only fordable at certain seasons. The shorter way -from the _Plata_ to the _Chiquito_ missions was jealously closed by the -_Guaranís_. - -The _Guaranís_ were of two classes--hunters and fishermen. The former -ignored the use of saddles, but passed their time for the most part on -the horses which had followed the Spaniards. The fishermen adored a -demon who manifested itself in the form of a large bird. It was at -length determined by the Jesuits to attempt to penetrate to the -_Chiquito_ settlements of their brethren by way of the _Uruguay_ river; -and two Fathers, accompanied by thirty Paraguayan disciples, set out -with this object from _Asuncion_. They had ascended about a hundred -leagues when they were met by a boat, carrying _Payaguas_, who, being -placed between two enemies, implored the aid of the Jesuits. To the west -were their sworn foes, the _Guaycurus_; to the east were the Brazilian -slave-hunters. This natural cry for help was interpreted as a prayer for -admission within the Church’s pale, and one of the Fathers remained with -his converts at the Lake of _Uberada_, while the other proceeded alone -towards _Peru_. - -The sudden conversion of the natives, however, which had resulted from -terror, lasted only as long as the Jesuits and their party remained -sufficiently strong to overawe them. Left with one Father and fifteen -Paraguayans, they obtained leave to depart for the purpose of bringing -others to share the Father’s instruction. On their return in sufficient -numbers to overpower him, fourteen of his Paraguayans were put to death, -one being reserved as interpreter; one of the Spanish boatmen was -likewise spared to steer the _Payaguas_ to their former haunts. There -the interpreter was put to death in the defence of his master, who, -however, together with his brother Jesuit, was almost immediately -afterwards murdered by the _Guaycurus_. - -About the same period there were in _Buenos Ayres_ some twenty thousand -Africans who could not speak Spanish. In order to be able to administer -spiritual food to these, Father Chomé studied the tongue of _Angola_, in -which in the course of three months he acquired such proficiency that he -was able to persuade himself that the Africans understood his attempts -to expound the doctrines of Christianity. His linguistic powers marked -him out for service in _Peru_, but his destination was changed to -_Paraguay_. He was conveyed thither in a covered cart, carrying with him -his own bedding and provisions. The neighbourhood of _Santa Fè_ was then -infested by the _Guaycurus_, who were even daring enough to attack that -town. They gave no quarter, and carried as trophies the scalps of their -victims. Their weapons were bows and arrows, lances and darts, which -rebounded by means of a string fastened to the projector’s thumb. -Issuing from their ambuscades, and giving utterance to wild cries, they -inspired still further terror by their aspect, being enclosed in a suit -composed of feathers. They had already attained perfection in -horsemanship, now falling flat on the animals’ necks, now swinging their -persons beneath their girths and holding on by their feet, or throwing -themselves from one side to the other as occasion might require. If it -seemed desirable to abandon their steeds and take to the river or -thicket, they were as fishes in the former, and could defy the thorns of -the latter. - -Beset by these savages, Father Chomé was indebted to his escort for his -arriving without accident at _Santa Fè_, where he was still two hundred -and twenty leagues from the nearest of the _reductions_. The carts in -use were but little suited to a country intersected by streams, and -where bridges were unknown. On reaching a stream the waggon was unloaded -and attached to the tails of horses, who struggled as best they could to -the opposite shore. Such travellers as could not swim were committed to -small boats formed of a single ox-hide, with the almost unnecessary -injunction to sit still in them. In the _pelotas_, too, the loads were -transported. From _Santa Fè_ Father Chomé proceeded towards his -destination on horseback. - - * * * * * - -After the greater part of the _Guaranís_ had embraced Christianity, a -section still refused to listen to the voice of the missionaries, and -sought an asylum in the adjoining mountains. Their grieved would-be -converters for a while consoled themselves with the reflection that the -sudden change from the burning _pampas_ plains to the snows of the -_Andes_ would suffice to exterminate the heathen; but when they were -disappointed in this pious wish, and when the tribesmen, who had, on the -contrary, increased in numbers, ventured to murder some Dominicans, the -vengeance of the authorities was roused, and their mountains were -invaded, with the result that many hundreds of them were made prisoners -or slain. - - * * * * * - -The Jesuit missions, where were renewed the innocence and piety of the -early Christians, numbered towards the close of the seventeenth century -forty large establishments, the most considerable of which included from -fifteen to twenty thousand souls. The chief of each mission and the -judge were chosen year by year. The fruits of the land were placed in -public magazines, from which each family received its allotted share. So -remarkable was the innocence of the _Guaraní_ converts that the Fathers -own that their pupils’ confessions seldom or never revealed anything to -call for absolution. They denied to the Paraguayans any share of -inventive genius, but claimed for them on the other hand the greatest -powers of imitation. They could make tables, print or copy books, -imitate the finest writing, construct musical instruments and watches, -draw plans and engrave maps. It was not without labour that their -conversion was brought about; but once effected, it was sincere and -lasting, and there were no bounds to the attachment they evinced towards -their spiritual fathers. - -The following extract, translated from _Azara_, may give some further -idea of the system pursued by the Jesuits. The historian’s knowledge is -derived from eye-witnesses, and his statements of fact, though not his -conclusions, agree with those of the Fathers:-- - -“The thirty-three Jesuit missions were ruled in the following manner: -Two Jesuits resided in each _pueblo_. The one called the _cura_ had -either been provincial or rector in their colleges, or was at least a -grave _padre_. He did not exercise any of the functions of a _cura_, and -frequently did not know the language of the Indians. He occupied himself -only with the temporal administration of all the property of the -_pueblo_, of which he was the absolute director. The spiritual -department was confided to another Jesuit, called _compañero_, or -_vice-cura_, subordinate to the first. The Jesuits of all the _pueblos_ -were under the superintendence and vigilance of another, named the -_superior_ of the missions, who had, moreover, the power to confirm from -the Pope. To control these _pueblos_ they had no laws, either civil or -criminal; the only rule was the will of the Jesuits. Though in each -_pueblo_ there was an Indian called a _corregidor_, and others called -_alcaldes_ and _rejidores_ (mayor and aldermen), that formed a municipal -body like that which they have in Spanish colonies, no one of them -exercised the least jurisdiction, and they were only instruments that -served to execute the will of the _curas_, even in criminal cases. The -_curas_ who inflicted the punishments were never cited before the king -nor before any of the ordinary tribunals. They compelled the Indians of -both sexes and of every age to labour for the community, without -permitting any person to labour at all for himself. All must obey the -orders of the _cura_, who stored up the produce of the labour, and who -had the charge of supplying food and clothing to all. From this it is -seen that the Jesuits were absolutely masters of everything; that they -completely disposed of the surplus stock of the whole community; and -that all the Indians were equal, without distinction, and unable to -possess any private property. There could be no motive of emulation to -induce them to exercise their talents or their reason, since the most -able, the most virtuous, the most active, was not better fed or clothed -than the others, nor would he obtain any enjoyment that was not common -to all. The Jesuits have persuaded the world that this kind of -government was the only one suitable for the Indians, and had rendered -happy those who were like children, and incapable of taking care of -themselves. They add, that they direct them as a father governs his -family, and that they collect and keep in the storehouses the products -of the harvests, not for private use, but to make a proper distribution -to their children, who, incapable of provision, do not know how to -preserve anything for the sustenance of their families. This manner of -government had appeared in Europe worthy of such great encomiums, that -the lot of these Indians has almost come to be envied. But this is done -without reflecting that these same Indians in a savage state did know -how to support their families, and that individuals of the same Indians -that had been subjugated in _Paraguay_ lived an age before in a state of -liberty, without knowing of such community of goods, without the -necessity of being directed by any person, nor of being incited or -forced to labour, and without a public storehouse or distribution of the -harvest; and that, too, notwithstanding they had to support the charge -of the commanderies that took the sixth part of their annual labour. It -seems, then, they were not such children, nor were they so incapable as -the Fathers tried to make them appear. But were such incapacity certain, -from their not having sufficient time in a century and a half to correct -such defects, one of the two following causes appears reasonable,--either -the administration of the Jesuits was contrary to the civilization of -the Indians, or they were such a people as were incapable of emerging -from their primitive state of infancy.” - -Previously to the foundation of the Jesuit _reductions_, posts had been -established in various parts by the Spaniards for purposes of trade and -local government. Several of these were in the neighbourhood of the -Jesuits’ settlements. But the order would not tolerate the presence of -Europeans near them. They complained in pathetic tones of the hardships -endured by the natives at the hands of the avaricious Spanish -superintendents, who not only exacted from them one-sixth part of their -produce, but showed them a pernicious example in the way of morality, -and thus interfered with the Jesuits’ religious teaching. These -complaints having been forwarded to the court of Spain, the -superintendents were withdrawn and their posts abolished, thus leaving -the Jesuits in sole control of the territory of _Misiones_. This -decision is the more remarkable, inasmuch as the Jesuits were not only -not under Spanish rule, but were not even for the most part of the -nation which had produced their founder. Nor did they pay tax or tribute -to the crown. - -But the exercise of absolute power within their own territory did not -satisfy the ambitious order. They sought to make their influence felt -and visible everywhere, and in so seeking paved the way for their -downfall. Their first idea was to gain control over the rising -generation by giving gratuitous instruction to the youth of wealthy -families; and, warned by their previous experience, they prepared -themselves against future reverses by raising from amongst their -neophytes a very considerable standing army. They could at a very early -period of their reign bring into the field a force of some seven -thousand men. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -_ENGLISH NAVIGATORS IN SOUTH AMERICA, HAWKINS, DRAKE, AND RALEIGH._ - -1564-1618. - - -We are all familiar with the names of certain English navigators with -reference to Spanish South America; but it is somewhat difficult to -introduce a notice of their deeds at the precise date when they -occurred, without interrupting the course of the general narrative. -Neither do their actions belong especially to any ocean or country. They -appeared sometimes on the Atlantic and at others on the Pacific; -sometimes on the Isthmus of _Darien_, at others on the coast of _Peru_. -They plundered the enemy wherever they found him vulnerable, and treated -the inhabitants of one side of the continent and of the other with -perfect impartiality. I have therefore thought it better to gather -together in one chapter some short records of the deeds of certain -amongst the most famous of these free-lances of the ocean. - -Foremost amongst the English navigators to Spanish American waters comes -the redoubtable Hawkins. That he was an admirable seaman and a most -courageous man, no one will question. He was likewise as patriotic as it -was possible for man to be, and was most considerate and fair towards -those under his command, by whom he seems to have been respected and -beloved. But it may help to form a more correct opinion of the age in -which he lived, and may serve somewhat to modify our judgment -respecting the Spaniards and Portuguese of the sixteenth century in the -matter of slavery, if we remember that Sir John Hawkins, of whom most -Englishmen are to a certain extent proud, was, in plain terms, an -atrocious slave-dealer. This article was, in fact, the staple commodity -in which he trafficked, and he pursued his course to the coast of -Africa, there to capture his cargo of negroes, with not a whit more -concern for them or their rights than would have been displayed by Rob -Roy or by Roderick Dhu for the cattle which they carried off from the -Lowlands. It may be well also to bear in mind that his course of life -was well known to Queen Elizabeth and Her Ministers, and that Her -Majesty, in token of Her approval of his proceedings, placed at his -disposal one of Her vessels, the “Jesus” of Lubeck, of 700 tons. - -As this work is not intended to throw light on the African slave-trade -further than in as far as it concerns South America, it is not necessary -to follow Sir John throughout all his nefarious proceedings on the coast -of Africa. But one of his voyages, in the course of which he proceeded -with his usual cargo, in the year 1564, to _Cape de la Vala_, has for us -unusual interest, inasmuch as in the course of its narrative we find the -first mention, among English writers, of the potato. It is well known -that Raleigh and certain of his companions, at a much later date, -brought home with them that root from _Virginia_. It is the case -likewise, that, some time before this voyage of Raleigh, Drake had -introduced the same plant to these islands; but that our first -acquaintance with the potato is due to Hawkins and his expedition of the -above-mentioned year will appear from the following extract:-- - -“Here perceiving no trafficke to be had with them, nor yet water for the -refreshing of our men, we were driven to depart the twentieth day, and -the 2 and twentieth we came to a place in the maine called _Cumana_, -whither the captaine going in his pinnisse, spake with certaine -Spaniards of whom he demanded trafficke, but they made him answere, they -were but souldiers newely come thither, and were not able to by on -negro; whereupon hee asked for a watring place, and they pointed him a -place two leagues off, called _Santa Fè_, where we found marvellous -goodly watring, and commodious for the taking in thereof; for that the -fresh water came into the sea, and so our shippes had aboord the shore -twentie fathome water. Neere about this place inhabited certaine -Indians, who the next day after we came thither came down to us, -presenting mill and cakes of breade, which they had made of a kinde of -corne called maiz, in bignesse of a pease, the eare whereof is much like -to a teasell, but a spanne in length having thereon a number of granes. -Also they brought down to us Hennes, Potatoes and Pines, which we bought -for beades, pewter whistles, glasses, knives and other trifles. These -potatoes be the most delicate rootes that may be eaten, and doe farre -exceed our passeneps or carets.”[S] - - * * * * * - -Hawkins and his men kept on their course along the coast, and came on -the 3rd of April to a place called _Burboroata_, where the ships came to -anchor, and he himself went on shore to speak to the Spaniards, to whom -he declared his nationality, and that he came thither for lawful trade, -for which he required permission. They made answer that they were -forbidden by their king to traffic with any foreign nation, upon pain of -forfeiting their goods; they therefore desired him to depart, for they -were subjects, and might not go beyond the law. Hawkins, however, who -was an impersonation of the _Civis Romanus sum_, was above the law. He -replied that his necessity was such as he might not so do; for being in -one of the Queen’s _armadas_ of England, and having many soldiers in -them, he had need both of some refreshing for them, and of victuals, and -of money also, without which he could not depart. With much other talk -he persuaded them not to fear any dishonest part of his towards them; -for neither would he commit any such thing to the dishonour of his -prince, nor yet for dishonest reputation and estimation, unless he were -too rigorously dealt withal, which he hoped not to find at their hands. - -The Spaniards made answer that it lay not in them to give any licence, -for that they had a governor to whom the government of these parts was -committed; but if Hawkins would stay ten days longer they would send to -their governor, who was three score leagues off, and would return answer -within the appointed time. - -Meanwhile Hawkins was permitted to bring his ships into harbour and to -receive the victuals he required. On the fourth day he went in and -received according to promise all things requisite; whereupon the shrewd -captain thought to himself that to remain according to his promise for -the stipulated ten days, spending victuals and men’s wages, would be a -mere act of folly. He therefore requested permission to sell certain -lean and sick negroes which he had in his ships, like to die upon his -hands if he kept them ten days. He was forced to make this request, -because he had not otherwise wherewith to pay for victuals and for -necessaries. This request being put in writing and presented, the -officers and town-dwellers assembled together; and, finding his request -so reasonable, granted him licence for thirty negroes, which afterwards -they caused the officers to view, to the intent they should accede to -nothing but what was reasonable, for fear of afterwards being called to -answer therefor. - -But the Spaniards were as much on their guard as was Hawkins, and he -found but little demand for his negro wares, since the authorities had -decided that none but the poor should be permitted to bid for them. It -was a question of bargaining, and Hawkins made pretence of being about -to depart, carrying his goods elsewhere. He answered that he not only -required permission to sell, but likewise his fair profit; and he -thought it due to his character to show by his papers what he had paid -for his negroes, and likewise what all the charges of the trade he was -engaged in had cost him. As they did not wish for his departure they -encouraged him to remain, by telling him that he would get a better -price there than anywhere else. He therefore consented to remain, in -order that he might dispose of his lean negroes. He disposed of a few -next day, but could do nothing more until the arrival of the governor a -fortnight later. - -Hawkins addressed to the governor a petition asking to be allowed to -sell his negroes, which permission was granted him. But perceiving that -the Spaniards would neither consent to pay anything like the price he -demanded, nor consent to relinquish the king’s custom duty of thirty -_ducats_ on each slave, he determined to take more decisive measures. -Accordingly on the 16th of April he prepared one hundred men well armed, -with whom he marched against the town. On this demonstration, the -governor not unnaturally sent messengers to inquire what it meant, and -requiring him to halt until he should have received his answer. The -captain, declaring how unreasonable a thing the king’s custom was, -requested to have the same abated, offering to pay seven and a half per -cent. The governor replied that his demand should be granted. Hostages -being given, the invaders then departed to their ships, and carried on -their traffic for twelve days without disturbance, when Hawkins again -made a show of departing, in order to obtain higher prices. - -On the 4th of May he actually departed, and on the 6th reached the -island of _Curaçao_, where the ships found great refreshment in beef, -mutton, and lambs, which were in such plenty that they were given -gratis. The cattle in this island is reported to have increased in such -prodigious ratio that of a dozen of each sort originally imported there -were to be found in twenty-five years a hundred thousand at least. -Fifteen hundred were yearly killed, for the sake only of their skins and -tongues. - -On the fifteenth of the month they left _Curaçao_, and on the -seventeenth anchored near _Cape de la Vela_, and next proceeded to the -_Rio de la Hacha_, where Hawkins had again recourse to threats before -being permitted to traffic. As they would not accede to his price, -however, he shot off a calverin to summon the town, and preparing one -hundred men in armour, went on shore, having in his great boat two -falcons of brass, the other boats being likewise armed. The townsmen -turned out to resist the invasion; but although they were superior in -numbers, they soon gave way and sent a flag of truce. A colloquy now -occurred between Hawkins and the treasurer, with the result that the -former obtained all his requests, receiving hostages for their -fulfilment. After some further passages of distrust, the English -departed in a friendly manner, their captain receiving at the -treasurer’s hands a testimonial of his good behaviour. Hawkins then -proceeded to _Jamaica_, and thence by _Cuba_ and _Florida_ for England. - - * * * * * - -The first acquaintance of Drake with Spanish America was made in the -course of a voyage to the West Indies and the Caribbean Sea in the years -1565 and 1566. But the voyage which caused his name first to be placed -on record was that in which he accompanied Hawkins in the year 1567. The -expedition consisted of six ships, one of them being lent by Queen -Elizabeth in token of her approbation of the objects of the voyage. The -“Jesus” of Lubeck, a vessel of 700 tons, bore the flag of Hawkins. Two -other vessels were commanded respectively by Hampton and by Bolton; -whilst the “Judith” was commanded by Captain Francis Drake, he being -then a young man of about twenty-seven. There were in addition two very -small vessels, the “Angel” and the “Swallow.” - -[Sidenote: 1567.] - -Sailing from Plymouth on the 2nd of October 1567, they reached the _Cape -de Verde_ islands, after having encountered a terrible storm. Here the -admiral landed a hundred and fifty of his men, with the object of -procuring a supply of negroes; but in this quest these worthies were -disappointed, since they obtained but few, and these with much hurt and -damage, for they had to stand a flight of poisoned arrows. Their wounds -appeared in the beginning “but small hurts,[T] yet there hardly escaped -any that had blood drawn of them, but died in strange sort, with their -mouthes shutte some tenne dayes before they died, and after their wounds -were whole; when I myself,” says Hawkins, “had one of the greatest -wounds, yet, thanks be to God, escaped.” These men, it appears died of -lockjaw; and considering the cause in which they received their wounds, -few will be inclined to pity their fate. - -At _St. Jorge da Mina_ a negro king came to ask the assistance of -Hawkins against a neighbouring king, promising him all the negroes that -should be taken. An offer so tempting was not to be rejected, and one -hundred and fifty men were selected and sent to assist this black -tyrant. They assaulted a town containing some eight thousand -inhabitants, strongly paled round, and fenced after their manner, and so -well defended that in the assault Hawkins’s people had six slain and -forty wounded. More help was called for; “whereupon,” says Hawkins, -“considering that the good success of this enterprise might highly -further the commodity of our voyage, I went myself; and with the help of -the king of our side, assaulted the town both by land and sea; and very -hardly with fire (their houses being covered with palm leaves) obtained -the town and put the inhabitants to flight; where we took two hundred -and fifty persons, men, women, and children; and by our friend the king -on our side, there were taken six hundred prisoners, whereof we hoped to -have our choice; but the negro (in which nation is never or seldom found -truth) meant nothing less; for that night he removed his camp and -prisoners, so that we were fain to content us with those few that we had -gotten ourselves.”[U] - -On the coast of _Guinea_ they had succeeded in procuring about two -hundred more slaves, with which cargo they departed for the West Indies, -there to dispose of them to the Spaniards. On the 27th of March they -came into sight of _Dominica_, and coasted _Marguerita_ and _Cape de la -Vela_, carrying on meanwhile, without obstruction, “a tolerable good -trade,”--that is to say, parting with their negroes for good terms. At -_Rio de la Hacha_, all dealings with the inhabitants being prohibited, -the worthy and law-abiding Hawkins was affronted by what he considered -an infraction of the treaty between Henry VIII. and Charles V. He -determined to chastise the authors of this illegal proceeding, and -accordingly attacked the place. Having landed two hundred men, the town -was taken by storm, with the loss of only two, the Spaniards having fled -after the first volley. After this adventure, trade was connived at, if -not permitted. The Spaniards bought two hundred negroes; “and at all -other places where we traded the inhabitants were glad of us and traded -willingly.”[V] - -In proceeding towards _Cartagena_ they were caught in a terrible storm, -which so shattered the “Jesus,” that, her rudder being broken, she -sprang a leak, and being driven into the bay of _Mexico_, entered the -port of _San Juan d’Ulloa_. The disaster which befell Hawkins and his -consorts at this place need not here be recorded, since they do not -appertain to South American history. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: 1572.] - -On the 24th of May, 1572, Captain Drake sailed from Plymouth in the -“Pascha,” of seventy tons, accompanied by his brother John Drake in the -“Swanne,” of twenty-five tons, having in all seventy-three men and boys, -of whom the oldest man was fifty, all the rest being under thirty. All -were volunteers, and the vessels were fitted out as men-of-war. Their -destination was _Nombre de Dios_. On the 2nd of July they sighted _Santa -Martha_, and landed at _Port Pheasant_, where they found a plate of -lead, on which John Garret, an English seaman who had been left here, -warned Drake to make haste away, as the place had been betrayed. Drake, -however, thought this a convenient spot on which to build his pinnaces, -which he had brought with him in frames from England, and which were now -completed in seven days. - -On the following day he was joined by an English barque of the Isle of -Wight, which brought in a captured Spanish _caravel_. The English -captain, Rowse, understanding Drake’s purpose of attacking _Nombre de -Dios_, agreed to act in concert with him. Leaving the three ships and -the _caravel_ in charge of Rowse, Drake, taking with him fifty-three -men, proceeded in four pinnaces and a shallop to the Isles of _Pinos_, -which he reached on the 22nd of July, and where he made an alliance with -some runaway Indians who had fled from their Spanish masters and were -called _Symerons_. Proceeding silently by night, he came before _Nombre -de Dios_, where he landed without opposition. He and his men boldly -attacked the place, but in the course of a desperate struggle which -occurred on the town being alarmed, Drake was dangerously wounded, and -had to be conveyed on board ship. - -It gives a very strange idea of the state of things then existing -between England and Spain when we read that immediately after this -unprovoked attack by Drake on _Nombre de Dios_, that captain was visited -by a _Hidalgo_, who protested that the object of his coming was to see -and admire one who had shown such courage. No doubt this gentleman had -other objects in view; but it is somewhat remarkable that he should have -trusted his person in a pirate’s den; for it must be remembered that, as -England was not then at war with Spain, Drake can only be described as a -buccaneer. This _Hidalgo_ was, however, very courteously received, and -departed protesting that he had never been honoured so much in his life. - -The pinnaces now returned to the Isle of _Pinos_, where Drake parted -company with Captain Rowse. He next despatched his brother to examine -the river _Chagre_, and on his return he departed for _Cartagena_, where -he took two Spanish ships. His next enterprise was against a great ship -of Seville, which he obtained possession of by fighting. The town being -alarmed, Drake determined to burn one of his ships, in order that he -might have the means of manning his pinnaces. He then proceeded to the -Sound of _Darien_, where they cleared a space of ground to build houses. -Drake then went with his brother, with two pinnaces, to the _Rio -Grande_, passing out of sight of _Cartagena_, between which place and -_Tolon_ they took six frigates laden with provisions. Three days later -they arrived at _Pinos_. On the third of November Drake fell in with a -Spanish ship, which he captured. - -But now Drake’s company were visited by heavy sickness, which was -attributed to the cold which the men suffered from whilst in the -pinnaces. On returning to the ships on the 27th of November, they -learned of the death of John Drake and of Richard Allen, who were slain -whilst attempting to board a frigate. On the 3rd of January six of the -company fell sick and died within two or three days, whilst as many as -thirty were stricken down with fever. Joseph Drake, another of the -captain’s brothers, died, and likewise the surgeon. - -Drake now determined to proceed by land to _Panamá_, having by the 3rd -of February lost twenty-eight of his men. He took with him forty-eight, -eighteen being English and the rest _Symerons_, and in a few days -reached _Venta Cruz_. The chief of these people dwelt sixteen leagues -south-east of _Panamá_, and Drake now thought that he might with -advantage waylay a party carrying treasure across the isthmus. But, -owing to the awkwardness of one of his people, he and they were -discovered. He nevertheless attacked the party, and pursued them as far -as _Venta Cruz_. - -On his journey thither Drake was informed of a certain tree, from the -top of which he might discern a branch of the Atlantic Ocean on the one -hand and of the Pacific on the other. One of the _Symerons_ desired him -to ascend “that goodlie and great high tree,” in the trunk of which -notches were cut in order to facilitate the ascent. From the top of this -tree, the English mariner, viewing the distant Pacific, solemnly -besought God to give him life and leave once to sail an English ship in -those seas. - -Returning to _Venta Cruz_, which he took and rifled, he intercepted a -convoy of fifty mules, bearing a large quantity of silver, of which he -appropriated what he could carry. With some difficulty he rejoined his -pinnaces, when he resolved to return to _England_. He reached Plymouth -on Sunday the 9th of August 1573, whilst divine service was being -conducted. The church was forthwith deserted, all rushing out to welcome -the gallant captain, who had been absent one year and two months. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: 1575.] - -In the course of the five years during which Drake reposed upon his -laurels, before undertaking his voyage round the world, John Oxenham, -who had been one of his companions in his late expedition, set out in a -vessel of one hundred and forty tons’ burden, with twenty seamen, for -the Isthmus of _Darien_. Having learnt at _Porto Bello_ that a convoy -of muleteers was expected from _Panamá_, he marched to meet them, -proceeding over the mountains to a small river which falls into the -Southern Sea. Building a pinnace, he then dropped down into the Bay of -_Panamá_ and proceeded to the _Pearl Islands_, where he took possession -of a small barque from the port of _Quito_ (probably _Guayaquil_), in -which he found sixty pounds’ weight of gold. Six days later he was still -further enriched by the plunder of a barque from _Lima_, bearing a -hundred pounds’ weight of silver in bars. - -Unfortunately for the daring Oxenham, he was not contented with silver -and gold, but delayed on the island for fifteen days in search of -pearls. During this time, as he might have foreseen, intelligence of his -presence reached the Spaniards; and Captain Ortega was despatched with -four barques in search of him. The Spaniard learned that Oxenham had -gone up the river, and astutely traced his course by the quantity of -fowls’ feathers floating down the stream. After four days’ pursuit, -Oxenham’s pinnace was descried; but the Englishmen, all save six, had -left her, taking the treasure with them. The treasure, however, was soon -afterwards discovered, and with this Ortega was about to depart, when -Oxenham came down upon him with about two hundred _Symerons_. The -Spaniards, who were eighty in number, had the better of the fight, -killing eleven of the English, together with some Indians, with very -slight loss on their own side. - -Oxenham now endeavoured to make the best of his way to his ship; but -information of its presence had been sent to _Nombre de Dios_, and his -vessel had been carried a prize to that port. Meanwhile a party of a -hundred and fifty men were scouring the mountains in search of the -English. On their being found, some were made prisoners and others fled; -but in the end all were conveyed to _Panamá_, where the fearless rover, -not being able to produce any power or commission from the Queen, was -sentenced, as were his companions, to suffer the death of a pirate. All -of the party were then executed, with the exception of Oxenham, his -master, his pilot, and five boys, who were sent to _Lima_. There the -boys were pardoned, but the three men suffered the fate to which they -had been condemned. - -[Sidenote: 1577.] - -To return to Drake: that famous captain set out from Plymouth in a -squadron, manned by one hundred and sixty-three seamen, on the 13th of -September 1577, and sailed to the coast of _Barbary_ for refreshments. -He commenced his depredations by seizing three Spanish fishing-boats; he -likewise captured three _caravels_. From _Cape Blanco_ he proceeded to -the _Cape de Verdes_, and thence stood for the Island of _St. Iago_, -where he captured a Portuguese ship. Near the equator his vessels were -becalmed for three weeks, and for fifty-five days Drake saw no land -before arriving on the coast of _Brazil_. - -The expedition touched in the river _Plate_, but merely remained a short -time, when it proceeded to the southward, and anchored in a bay in -forty-seven degrees S. latitude. Two of his ships were now missing, but -one of them was here found by a vessel sent in search of them. In these -parts our countrymen first became acquainted with the race who derive -the name by which they are known to us from the height of _Pentagones_, -or five cubits, equal to seven and a half feet, with which Magellan -credited them. Mr. Fletcher, who accompanied Drake, states that these -people were of large stature, but he does not ascribe to them gigantic -proportions. At a later period, Commodore Byron described one of these -Patagonians as a frightful colossus of not less than seven feet. He was -no doubt an exception. They are in fact a tall race, but not more so -than well-grown Englishmen. Writing only the other day, Lady Florence -Dixie states that a tall Patagonian was of precisely the same height as -her husband, namely, six feet two inches, and there is no reason to -suppose that the race has physically degenerated since Magellan’s time. - -[Sidenote: 1578.] - -On the 20th of June Drake’s whole force anchored in _Fort St. Julian_, -where two of his men were shot by the natives. One of the objects which -attracted attention was a gibbet which had been set up by Magellan -seventy years before. At this place Mr. John Doughty was put on his -trial for conspiring to raise a mutiny in the fleet, and, being found -guilty by a jury, was condemned to be beheaded. The fleet was now -reduced to the “Pelican,” which name was soon changed to the “Golden -Hind,” the “Elizabeth,” and the “Marigold,” with which on the 20th of -August Drake arrived at the entrance of the _Straits of Magellan_. On -one side he observed an island “burning aloft in the air in a wonderful -sort without intermission.” - -On the 6th of September, having passed the strait, Drake entered the -Pacific, which term must have seemed to him rather a misnomer, since he -found it rough and turbulent above measure, a tempest carrying his ships -a hundred leagues to the westward and separating them. It may be -observed that this was the second occasion on which the _Straits of -Magellan_ had been passed. Near the western outlet, Drake landed on an -island which he named after Queen Elizabeth. - -It was now the mariner’s intention to proceed northwards into a warm -climate; but a terrific tempest carried the ships southward of _Cape -Horn_, thus giving to Drake the distinction of being the first European -to view the union of the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. _Cape Horn_ -had, it is said, been sighted by the Spanish Commodore Lope de Loyaya in -1525, and was doubled by Le Maire and Schouten in 1646, the latter -bestowing upon it the name of _Hoorn_, his native place in Holland.[W] -On endeavouring to regain their way northwards, the “Marigold” was lost -with all hands, whilst the “Golden Hind” and the “Elizabeth” were -separated, the latter vessel, on re-entering the strait, giving up the -voyage “by Captain Winter’s compulsion, full sore against the mariners’ -minds.” - -Drake’s ship being now left alone with the little pinnace, was again -driven back into the latitude of 55° south, in which the captain -anchored among some islands. After two days, however, they were driven -from their anchorage, when the pinnace lost sight of the ship. By good -fortune the former re-entered the _Straits of Magellan_, and her crew of -eight men proceeded to _Port St. Julian_, and thence to the _Plata_. Of -the eight men, four were captured by Indians, two wounded men died, and -the remaining two stayed on a small island for two months, subsisting on -crabs, eels, and fruit, but without water. They at length succeeded in -reaching the mainland, when one of the two survivors died from the -effects of drinking too much of the stream.[X] - -Meanwhile Drake, in the “Golden Hind,” proceeded towards the north-west. -He fell in with two islands, where he laid in a supply of fowls, and -then continued his course to the island of _Macho_, inhabited by -Indians, by whom some of his men were attacked and slain. Drake himself -was hit in the face by an arrow, and he likewise received another wound -in the head. On the 13th of November he captured an Indian in a bay -called _St. Philip_, whom he treated with kindness, and dismissed to -rejoin his countrymen, who brought fowls, eggs, and a hog to the boat. -An Indian chief now joined Drake’s vessel, and conducted it to -_Valparaiso_, where he met with such stores as he needed, and parted -with his Indian pilot. - -On the 19th of December the “Golden Hind” entered a bay near a town -called _Cyppo_, where three hundred Spaniards and Indians came down to -the shore, one of Drake’s men being slain. The navigator now proceeded -to the north, where a pinnace was set up in a convenient spot, in order -that search might be made in the creeks for intelligence of the missing -ships. - -The next place landed at was _Tarapaca_, in about 20° S. latitude, -where a Spaniard was found asleep, with a bundle of thirteen silver bars -at his side, valued at four thousand _ducats_. The sleeper himself -remained uninjured otherwise than by his loss. In another place eight -_llamas_ were taken, laden with one hundred pounds’ weight of silver. -Still further on Drake reached a town where the Spaniards agreed to -traffic with him. On the 7th of February he arrived before _Arica_, -where he took some barques carrying much silver. On the 15th he reached -_Callao_, the port of _Lima_, which harbour he entered without -resistance, although thirty vessels were gathered within it. Of these he -plundered seventeen, which were laden. The vessels had no one on board, -as the visit of an enemy was the last event which was expected. In one -of these ships alone were found fifteen hundred bars of silver, whilst -another contained a large chest of coined money. - -Drake took the precaution of cutting the cables of these vessels before -he set out in pursuit of a ship laden with gold and silver, which had on -the eve of his arrival departed for _Panamá_. As he was on his way he -fell in with a brigantine, from which he helped himself to eighty -pounds’ weight of gold, together with other treasures. At length he came -in sight of the “_Cacafuego_,” about one hundred and fifty leagues from -_Panamá_, when she was boarded and easily captured. From her Drake -obtained pearls and precious stones, together with eighty pounds’ weight -of gold and thirteen chests of silver. It was estimated that the “Golden -Hind” now carried a treasure of ninety thousand pounds. The -“_Cacafuego_” was permitted to go on her way, Drake’s object being -plunder and not wanton destruction. - -He had good reason to avoid _Panamá_, so he stood to the westward, where -he fell in with another ship, the pilot of which he retained for his own -service. It is not within the plan of this work to follow the -adventurous navigator to _North America_ or on his further course over -the globe, on completing which he reached Plymouth on the 26th of -September 1580, having been absent two years, ten months, and some odd -days, during which time he had, in the expressive language of an old -writer, “ploughed up a furrow round the world.” It may be permitted, -however, to mention one or two points, as throwing light upon the very -singular history of the relations between Spain and England at that -period, and as therefore illustrating the position in which the Spanish -possessions in South America were placed. - -The arrival of Drake at Plymouth was hailed, as on a former occasion, -with the most warm welcome, the mayor and corporation receiving him, and -the bells of St. Andrew’s Church ringing a continuous peal during the -day, whilst the gentlemen of the neighbourhood vied with the burghers to -do him honour. But all was not quite clear on Drake’s horizon. That he -had committed acts against Spain which could only be justified by his -country being at war with that power was abundantly clear. Drake was -therefore in one of two positions. Either he was an officer bearing -letters of marque, or other authority, from Queen Elizabeth, which -entitled him to commit the acts which he had committed, in which case -Elizabeth was at war with Spain; or he had committed these unquestioned -acts of piracy on his own account, in which case he was liable to -punishment, and the Spaniards whom he had plundered were entitled to -demand restitution of the losses they had sustained through his acts. - -Queen Elizabeth and her Ministers took five months to decide this point, -in which they were so deeply interested and on which so much depended. -During this time Drake remained in semi-disgrace, since no ray of court -favour fell upon him. It may readily be imagined with what doubts the -Queen was at this time perplexed. That she heartily approved of the -deeds of Drake, and that she gloried in him as a gallant navigator, no -one would for a moment question; but, on the other hand, there was the -supposed colossal power of Spain, backed by the Church,--so soon to be -shivered against the force of England, but a contest with which was not -lightly to be entered upon. - -Fortunately for the human race, Queen Elizabeth and her counsellors -determined to take upon themselves the responsibility of avowing the -acts of Drake, who, whilst the issues of the question concerning him -were being discussed, received the complimentary appellation of “the -master thiefe of the unknowne world,” which it must be admitted he fully -deserved. It may be interesting to state that the immediate pecuniary -results of this voyage to Drake himself, and to his partners and -fellow-adventurers, after all charges had been paid, was four thousand -seven hundred per cent. He was likewise knighted and promoted to the -rank of admiral, whilst in the “Golden Hind” he was visited by the -Queen. - -Drake’s next voyage to the westward, undertaken in 1585, and to which a -tinge of romance is given from the connection with it of Sir Philip -Sidney, has so little bearing on South America that it need not occupy -our time. Nor is this the place to state the part which the gallant -seaman played in the defeat of the Spanish _Armada_. But one more line -must be written to conclude the story of Hawkins and of Drake with -reference to the colonies of Spain. - -[Sidenote: 1593.] - -The power of England had been so clearly pointed out to be upon the -waves, that her rulers, anxious to pursue their advantage, determined to -employ her two most valiant and renowned sea-captains for working the -yet further detriment of Spain. Accordingly, in the year 1593, the Queen -gave notice that she intended to place a fleet under Sir Francis Drake, -to whom in the following year was associated his old patron, Hawkins. - -Sir John Hawkins was now an admiral, between seventy-five and eighty -years of age; and as he was, moreover, wealthy, he showed more zeal -than discretion in venturing once more upon the climate of the West -Indies. Even ten years before this period the veteran had given proof -that he was no longer the man he had been. Together with Frobisher, he -had held command of ten of the Queen’s ships to scour the coasts of -Spain; but at the end of seven months they had returned without having -taken a single vessel and without having effected anything. The Queen -was naturally indignant at such waste of force and of time, and Hawkins -deemed it necessary to excuse himself. The old slave-dealer had been -always very pious, and on this occasion he deemed it fitting to remind -her Majesty that Paul planteth and Apollos watereth, but that God giveth -the increase. This quotation from Scripture was, under the -circumstances, a little out of place. Elizabeth’s comment upon it was, -“God’s death! This fool went out a soldier and is come home a divine.” - -The squadron which the Queen had ordered to proceed to South America -under the joint command of the two admirals, sailed from Plymouth on the -28th of August 1595. But it was doomed to disaster throughout its -course. One vessel, the “Francis,” was taken by the Spaniards; and -whilst preparing to pass through the _Virgin Islands_, Hawkins became -extremely sick, and soon breathed his last. At _Puerto Rico_ a great -shot struck the mizen-mast of Drake’s ship, whilst another shot knocked -the stool on which he was seated from under him. Every preparation had -been made for the defence of the harbour and town; but, in spite of a -heavy fire, the English persisted in their desperate attempts, until -they had lost some forty or fifty killed and as many wounded. They were, -however, eventually compelled to retire, after having inflicted very -severe losses on the enemy. - -Drake now proceeded to the _Caribbean_ shore and took the town of _La -Hacha_, the inhabitants of which ransomed themselves for thirty thousand -_ducats_. _Rancheria_ and _Rio de La Hacha_ were burnt down to the -ground, as was likewise _Santa Martha_, after which operations Drake -proceeded to _Nombre de Dios_, which was soon taken and destroyed, -together with all the frigates and barques in the harbour. - -It was now decided that an attempt should be made on _Panamá_, and for -this purpose seven hundred and fifty soldiers were selected to march -over the isthmus. “The march was so sore,” says Hakluyt, “as never -Englishmen marched before;” and in the end it was deemed best, after the -loss of between eighty and ninety men, to make their way back to the -fleet. - -[Sidenote: 1596.] - -On the 15th of January, Sir Francis Drake began to keep his cabin; and -on the 28th of that month, at four o’clock in the morning, he departed -this life. His body was conveyed to _Puerto Bello_, where it was -solemnly committed to the deep. - - * * * * * - -The third of the three great men who may be said to have created between -them England’s position as Mistress of the Waves, and to have given the -English navy the character which it bears, is Sir Walter Raleigh. -Hawkins represents the old English unthinking, unreasoning, loyal, -slave-hunting, religious skipper. Drake, in turn, represented a much -higher phase of English sea-life. It is true that in his early days he -commanded a vessel in one of Hawkins’ slave-hunting expeditions; but, to -his great credit, he seems to have been so disgusted on this occasion, -that he never afterwards soiled his hands by dealing in this unholy and -abominable traffic. He was a corsair, but at the same time a -conscientious man. At _San Juan d’Ulloa_ and elsewhere he and his -companions had suffered grievous wrongs and treachery at the hands of -the Spanish authorities, wrongs for which he had in vain sought -reparation at Madrid. He therefore conceived himself--and in this belief -he was confirmed by a chaplain of his fleet--to be fully entitled to -exact on his own account the reparation which was refused him by the -Spanish Government; and it is to be noted that he sought simply -reparation, and that he is, throughout his career, entirely exempt from -charges of cruelty and of wanton depredation. - -Hawkins and Drake were self-made men. They each rose to the rank of -admiral from the manly class which furnishes our seamen before the mast. -Raleigh, on the other hand, although not of aristocratic birth, and -although not, strictly speaking, a seaman by profession, yet did almost -everything towards the formation of the aristocratic element in our -navy. It was the gifted favourite of Elizabeth who induced many a youth -of the highest social circles to seek for distant ventures, and who thus -created the tradition by which the noblest families of England, from -that of the Queen downwards, devote one of their sons to the same toils, -perils, and honours which, in degree, befall all ranks of our navy. -Raleigh was ambitious for his country, for which, with prophetic vision, -he foresaw its place as Mistress of the Deep. With the famous patent -granted to him on March 25, 1584, to search out and take possession of -new lands in the western hemisphere, we have only to deal in so far as -it concerns _Guyana_. - -[Sidenote: 1595.] - -Raleigh had already led the way to the planting of the English race in -North America; he next directed his speculations towards the southern -hemisphere, and projected an expedition to _Guyana_. As a preliminary -measure he despatched a barque, under Captain Whiddon, to survey the -coast of that portion of South America. The object he had in view was to -explore and subdue _Guyana_, for the sake of the riches which it was -supposed to possess. With a fleet of five ships, and with a gallant -company of gentlemen, he sailed from Plymouth on the 6th of February -1595, and reached the Island of _Trinidad_, where he destroyed the new -city of _San Jose_. There leaving his ships, he proceeded with barges, -boats, and launches to explore the outlets of the _Orinoco_. - -He toiled up the network of streams, through tropical thunder, -lightning, and rain. He beheld the great river swelling like a sea -between masses of luxuriant vegetation, profuse in tropical fruits and -flowers, and looked down upon from a huge height by the snow-clad -_Andes_ and by the _Condor_; but he saw no gold, nor did he discover any -mines. The setting-in of the rainy season put a period to his -explorations; and, leaving behind him a man and a boy to serve as -interpreters on his return, he set sail for England, taking with him a -young _Cacique_. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: 1616.] - -Long years were to elapse before Sir Walter Raleigh again hoisted his -flag on the Atlantic. When he did so, a new order of things had arisen -in England, since thirteen years before he had been committed to the -Tower, from which he emerged on the 19th of March 1616. The destination -of the squadron which he now organized was again _Guyana_. A hundred -noblemen and gentlemen hastened to join the standard of the renowned -commander, whilst there was no lack of mariners eager to serve under an -admiral whose capacity has never been exceeded by any one in the long -list of our naval heroes. - -On the 11th of November 1617, Raleigh, now sixty-five years of age, -reached _Guyana_, after a voyage which was in every way disastrous, and -which had left himself in impaired health and the force at his command -in diminished strength. His spirit, however, was still sanguine, as he -drifted towards the _Orinoco_ between the islands, in one of which is -laid the scene of “Robinson Crusoe.” On reaching the river, it was found -impossible for the larger vessels, including Raleigh’s own ship, the -“Destiny,” to cross the bar, and as he was in too enfeebled a condition -to lead the expedition inland in person, he had to relinquish the -command to another, whilst he himself remained cruising between the -_Orinoco_ and _Trinidad_, being so weak that he had to be carried about -in a chair. - -Meanwhile, a considerable force ascended the river, under Captain Kemys -and Sir Walter’s son. _Guyana_ certainly belonged to England, if to any -foreign nation, since on the occasion of Raleigh’s former expedition the -_Caciques_, who had welcomed him as their deliverer from their Spanish -neighbours, had declared their allegiance to England. But during his -long absence Spanish settlements had been formed in the country. - -Kemys proceeded up the _Orinoco_, his orders being to make for the mines -without offering molestation; but if he were attacked he was to repel -force by force. When encamped for the night half-way to the mines, he -was set upon by the Spaniards, who hoped to take him by surprise, but -who were repulsed, and who retreated, closely pursued by young Raleigh, -who fell in the pursuit. The existence of mines was, however, proved, -since four gold refineries were found in _San Pome_. - -But Kemys had lost heart. The passes were in the hands of Spaniards, as -were the forests and the banks of the streams, so that his followers -were constantly shot down by unseen enemies. Returning, therefore, down -the river, he rejoined his chief, with what was literally a sentence of -death to the latter. Kemys could not bear his friend’s reproaches, and, -in utter despair, he took his own life. - -Four months later Raleigh was again in England, and on the 28th of -October of the same year he expiated on Tower Hill his want of success; -the illustrious victim being offered up by the contemptible James as a -sacrifice to the implacable vengeance of Spain. - - NOTE.--Chapter XVII. is founded on - - “Life of Sir John Hawkins,” by Samuel Johnson, 2nd edition, 1787. - - “Hawkins, (Sir John). Two Voyages made to the West Indies,” - Hakluyt, III. - - “Sir Francis Drake; The World Encompassed” (Hakluyt Society). 1854. - - “Voyages of Drake;” Hakluyt, II. IV.; Purchas, I. IV. - - “Life of Drake,” by Barrow. - - “Raleigh (Sir Walter); Discovery of Guiana” (Hakluyt Society). - 1848. - - “Discovery of Guiana,” by Musham (Hakluyt, II.). - - “Life of Sir Walter Raleigh,” by James Augustus St. John. 1868. - - - - -APPENDIX. - - - - -I. - - -It would naturally be expected that in a work of this kind there should -be some reference made to the long-pending discussion respecting the -letter addressed by Amerigo Vespucci to Lorenzo de Medici, by which it -would appear that Vespucci had visited the coast of _Pária_ in the year -1497--that is to say, in the year previous to that of the first visit of -Columbus to the South-American continent; and that therefore, supposing -this visit to be established, Amerigo Vespucci, and not Columbus, was -the first European discoverer of the South-American continent. This -question is one of the very first importance as regards history or -geography; since on its solution depends not only the question after -whom the great South-American continent should be called, but likewise -the fair fame of Vespucci’s name. - -Since no new points have, to my knowledge, arisen of sufficient -importance to disturb what seems to me to be the necessarily final -judgment arrived at by Washington Irving, and which had previously been -concurred in by Robertson, and which is to be seen in the Appendix No. -X. to Irving’s work, entitled “The Voyages of the Companions of -Columbus,” I must confine myself to referring my readers to what seem to -me the irrefutable arguments therein brought forward. I may at the same -time refer them to the arguments, in a contrary direction, in the -“_Viaggi di Amerigo Vespuggi di Stanislao Canovai; Firenze_,” 1832. - - - - -II. - - -The Italian traveller Benzoni, who has been referred to in the preceding -pages, has been quoted by Robertson, Irving, and Helps; but, considering -the unique position which he holds as being the first foreign critic of -the proceedings of the Spaniards in South America, I scarcely think that -his volume has received the full attention which it deserves at the -hands of modern writers on Spanish South America. I would therefore draw -attention to some extracts from his work, begging the reader to bear in -mind that they proceed by no means from a man of the mould of Las Casas, -but from one who, by his own confession, took part in a slave-hunting -expedition. The author in question was nevertheless, as he states, a -devout Christian, and he dedicates his history of the New World to Pope -Pius IV. - -Benzoni started for America in the year 1541, and there spent fourteen -years of toil and travail. Landing at the Gulf of _Pária_, he proceeded -to _Cuba_ and other islands, returning thence to _Acla_, whence he -crossed to _Panamá_, from which place he visited the kingdom of _Peru_. -In this wandering course he passed fourteen years. Benzoni is the author -who is originally responsible for the well-known story of Columbus and -the egg. He states that whilst at _Amaracapana_ (Book I. p. 8) Captain -Calice arrived with upwards of four thousand slaves and had captured -many more. “When some of them could not walk, the Spaniards, to prevent -their remaining behind to make war, killed them by burying their swords -in their sides or their breasts. It was really a most distressing thing -to see the way in which these wretched creatures, naked, tired, and -lame, were treated; exhausted with hunger, sick, and despairing; the -unfortunate mothers, with two and three children on their shoulders or -clinging round their necks, overwhelmed with tears and grief, all tied -with cords or with iron chains round their necks, or their arms, or -their hands. Nor was there a girl but had been violated by the -depredators.” - -At page 159, Benzoni observes that Spaniards have eulogised themselves -too much when they tell us that they are worthy of great praise for -having converted to Christianity the tribes and nations that they -subjugated; for there is a great difference between the name and the -being one in reality. - -“The slaves are all marked in the face and on the arms by a hot iron -with the mark of C;[Y] then the governors and captains do as they like -with them; some are given to the soldiers, so that the Spaniards -afterwards sell them or gamble them away among each other. When ships -arrive from Spain, they barter these Indians for wine, flour, biscuit, -and other requisite things. And even when some of the Indian women are -pregnant by these same Spaniards, they sell them without any conscience. -Then the merchants carry them elsewhere and sell them again. Others are -sent to the island of _Spagnuola_ (_Hispaniola_), filling with them some -large vessels built like _caravels_. They carry them under the deck; and -being nearly all people captured inland, they suffer severely the sea -horrors; and not being allowed to move out of those sinks, what with -their sickness and their other wants, they have to stand in the filth -like animals; and the sea often being calm, water and other provisions -fail them, so that the poor wretches, oppressed by the heat, the stench, -the thirst, and the crowding, miserably expire there below. Now all that -country around the Gulf of _Pária_ and other places are no longer -inhabited by the Spaniards.” - - * * * * * - -“Finally, out of the two millions of original inhabitants (of -Hispaniola), through the number of suicides and other deaths, occasioned -by the oppressive labour and cruelties imposed by the Spaniards, there -are not a hundred and fifty now to be found: and this has been their way -of making Christians of them. What befell these poor islanders has -happened also to all the others around: _Cuba_, _Jamaica_, _Porto Rico_, -and other places. And although an almost infinite number of the -inhabitants of the mainland have been brought to these islands as -slaves, they have nearly all since died.” - - * * * * * - -“And there being among the Spaniards some who are not only cruel, but -very cruel. When a man occasionally wished to punish a slave, either for -some crime that he had committed, or for not having extracted the usual -quantity of silver or gold from the mine, when he came home at night, -instead of giving him supper, he made him undress, if he happened to -have a shirt on, and being thrown down on the ground, he had his hands -and feet tied to a piece of wood laid across, so permitted under the -rule called by the Spaniards the Law of Bajona, a law suggested, I -think, by some great demon; then with a thong or rope he was beaten -until his body streamed with blood; which done, they took a pound of -pitch or a pipkin of boiling oil, and threw it gradually all over the -unfortunate victim; then he was washed with some of the country pepper -mixed with salt and water. He was thus left on a plank covered over with -a cloth until his master thought he was again able to work. Others dug a -hole in the ground and put the man in upright, leaving only his head -out, and left him in it all night, the Spaniards saying that they have -recourse to this cure because the earth absorbs the blood and preserves -the flesh from forming any wound, so they get well sooner. And if any -die (which sometimes happens) through great pain, there is no heavier -punishment by law than that the master shall pay another (slave) to the -king. Thus, on account of these very great cruelties in the beginning, -some of them escaped from their masters, and wandered about the island -in a state of desperation.” - - - PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE, HANSON AND CO. - EDINBURGH AND LONDON. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [A] The scene, well-deserving to be painted, might be described in the - following lines:-- - - “As rolls the river into ocean, - In sable torrent wildly streaming; - As the sea-tide’s opposing motion, - In azure column proudly gleaming, - Beats back the current many a rood - In curling foam and mingling flood; - Through sparkling spray, in thundering clash, - The lightnings of the waters flash - In awful whiteness o’er the shore, - That shines and shakes beneath the roar.” - _The Giaour._ - - - [B] - - “Valiant sea-captains! Great sea-kings! - And thou, Columbus! my hero! greatest sea-king of all!” - _Carlyle._ - - - [C] _Viaggi de_ Amerigo Vespucci. - - [D] “Voyages of the Companions of Columbus;” by Washington Irving. - - [E] Duke of Veragua. - - [F] Helps. - - [G] Navarrete. - - [H] Psalm ii. 8. - - [I] _Vide_ Robertson. - - [J] NOTE.--“_Y esta fue la empresa de Fernando Magallanes, caballero - portugues, cuya osodiía y constancia grande en inquirir este secreto, - y no menos feliz suceso en hallarle, con eterna memoria puso nombre al - estrecho que con razon por su inventor se llama de Magallanes._” - - “_Historia natural y moral de las Indias_,” by José de Acosta, Lib. - III., cap. 10. The dangers attending the passage of the Strait of - _Magellan_ caused the Isthmus of _Panamá_ to be long preferred as a - route to _Chili_ and _Peru_. Its very existence came to be doubted. - “_Las frequentes desgracias que padecieron las expediciones al - estrecho de Magallanes y los crecidos gastos que causaban, hicieron - preferible á canimo tan largo y peligroso el tránsita y conduccion - de las mercaderiás por el ismo desde Nombre de Dios ó Portobelo - hasta Panamá, fortificondo el primer punto para asegurarlo de los - ataquos de los corsarios; y aunque despues de la expedicion de Juan - Ladrillero, que salió del puerto de Valdivia en Noviembre de 1557, - continuaron los vireyes del Perú y gobernadores de Chile empresas - semejantes para reconocer el estrecho y facilitar su navigacion, ni - aun memoria de ellas se ha conservado por haberse perdido algunos de - los descubridores, y retrocedido otros sin conseguir el objeto que se - propusieron. De aqui resultó el total abandono de aquella navigacion - por mas de veinte años, llegando á olvidarse los anteriores viages - al estrecho, hasta dudar de su existencia, cuniendo la opinion de - haberse cerrado por algun terremoto ú otro accidente del mar y de las - tempestades._”--NAVARRETE, _Tomo_ IV., _Prólogo_, p. xiii. - - Acosto writes previously to 1589: “_El estrecho, pues, que en la mar - del sur halló Magallanes, creyeron algunos, ó que no lo habia, ó se - habia ya cerrado, como D. Alonso de Arcila escribe en su Araucana; y - hoy dia hay quien diga que no hay tal estrecho, sino que son islas - entre la mar, porque lo que es tierra firma se acaba alli, y el resto - es todo islas, y al cabo de ellas se junta el un mar con el otro - amplísimamente, ó por mejor decirse es todo un mismo mar. Pero de - cierto consta haber el estrecho y tierre larguísima á la una banda y - á la otra, aunque la que está la otra parte del estrecho al sur no se - sabe hasta dónde llegne._” - - The authority of Ercilla, cited by Acosta, is the most respectable, - says Navarette, and the most trustworthy, that could be given, since - he accompanied _Don_ Garcia de Mendoza in 1558 in his expedition along - the coast of _Chili_ as far as _Chiloë_, and then passed with ten - soldiers, after surmounting great difficulties, in a small boat, to - the opposite coast, there writing his name on a tree. - - The following is the inscription commemorating this incident:-- - - “_Acqui llegó donde otro no ha llegado - Don Alonso de Ercilla, que el primero - En un pequeño barco deslastrado, - Con solos diez, pasó el desaguadero - El año de cincuenta y ocho entrado - Sobre mil y quinientos, par hebrero, - A las dos de la tarde el postrer dia, - Volviendo á la dejada compañía._” - “_Araucania_,” canto xxxvi., oct. 29. - - * * * * * - - “_Magallánes, Señor, fue el primer hombre - Que abriendo este canimo le dió nombre._ - - “_Por falta de pilotos, ó encubierta - Causa quizá importante, y no sabida - Esta secreta senda descubierta, - Quedó para nosotros escondida - Ora sea yerro de la altura cierta, - Ora que alguna isleta removida - Del tempestuosa mar y viento airado - Encallando en la boca la ha cerrado._” - “_Araucania_,” canto i., octs. 8 y 9. - - The expedition of Magellan was on his death brought to a glorious - termination by Juan Sebastian de Elcano, with reference to whom Oviedo - writes as follows:-- - - “_El cual, y los que con él vinieron me paresce á mí que son de mas - eterna memoria dignos que aquellos argonáutas que con Jason navegaron - á la isla de Colcos en demanda del vellocino de oro._” - - “_Hist. general de las Indias_,” part 2, lib. 20, cap. 1. - - - [K] History of the Conquest of Peru; by William H. Prescott. Bentley. - 1850. - - [L] See Ovalle. - - [M] On July 8th, 1730, and May 24th, 1751. On this account _New - Conception_ was founded November 24th, 1764. - - [N] Fernandez, lib. II. c. 18. - - [O] The Abbé Ignatius Molina. - - [P] _Vide_ p. 94. - - [Q] Ovalle states that Caupolican, previously to his barbarous - execution, desired with great concern to be baptised, and that he - received the absolution.--_Relation of the Kingdom of Chile_, Book v., - chap. xxiii. - - [R] The present Valdivia is merely a garrison. - - [S] Hawkins, in Hakluyt. - - [T] Hakluyt. - - [U] Hakluyt. Dr. Johnson, in his Life of Drake, judiciously omits all - mention of his hero’s share in this slave-hunt. - - [V] Hakluyt. - - [W] It had previously been passed by Brouwer in 1642. See page 39, - vol. ii. - - [X] “Purchas,” from Curder’s narrative. - - [Y] The initial letter of the Emperor Charles V. - - -Typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber: - -Uraguay=> Uruguay {pg ix} - -at seven thousans=> at seven thousands {pg 26} - -future of that cavelier=> future of that cavalier {pg 47} - -the orders of the Catholics kings=> the orders of the Catholic kings {pg -66} - -should he set apart=> should be set apart {pg 80} - -from a maize of bushes=> from a maze of bushes {pg 108} - -place themselves under Gonzalo Pizzaro=> place themselves under Gonzalo -Pizarro {pg 181} - -the support of Banalcazar=> the support of Benalcazar {pg 184} - -Voyage dans l’Amerigne Méridionale=> Voyage dans l’Amérigue Méridionale -{pg 264} - -A coloquy now occurred=> A colloquy now occurred {pg 285} - ->Nombre de Dois=> >Nombre de Dios {pg 288} - -were called _Simerons_=> were called _Symerons_ {pg 288} - -Nombre de Dois=> Nombre de Dios {pg 288} - -the two survivers=> the two survivors {pg 294} - -thireen chests of silver=> thirteen chests of silver {pg 295} - -the master thiefe of the unknowne word=> the master thiefe of the -unknowne world {pg 297} - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Spanish and Portuguese South America -during the Colonial Period; Vol. 1 o, by Robert Grant Watson - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOUTH AMERICA; VOL. I *** - -***** This file should be named 50990-0.txt or 50990-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/9/9/50990/ - -Produced by Josep Cols Canals, Chuck Greif and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at -http://gutenberg.org/license). - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at -http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at -809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email -business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact -information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official -page at http://pglaf.org - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit http://pglaf.org - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - http://www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |