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diff --git a/old/50986-8.txt b/old/50986-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f80771f..0000000 --- a/old/50986-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1296 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Glaciers of the Rockies and Selkirks, 2nd. -ed., by Arthur Philemon Coleman and Arthur Oliver Wheeler - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Glaciers of the Rockies and Selkirks, 2nd. ed. - With Notes on Five Great Glaciers of the Canadian National Parks - -Author: Arthur Philemon Coleman - Arthur Oliver Wheeler - -Release Date: January 21, 2016 [EBook #50986] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GLACIERS OF ROCKIES, SELKIRKS *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan and the team -at Distributed Proofreaders of Canada - - - - - -[Illustration] - - FRONT OF TUMBLING GLACIER ON BERG LAKE - - DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR - DOMINION PARKS BRANCH - - - - - Glaciers of the Rockies and Selkirks - - - By - A. P. Coleman, M.A., Ph. D., F.R.S. - President Alpine Club of Canada - Author of "The Canadian Rockies" - - - With Notes on Five Great Glaciers of the Canadian National Parks - - By - A. O. Wheeler, Director Alpine Club of Canada - - - Re-Published under the direction of - Sir James Lougheed - Minister of the Interior - - First Edition, 1914 - Second Edition, 1921 - - - - - Glaciers of the Rockies and Selkirks - - -The traveller going westwards from the prairie finds the way blocked by -a grim wall of cliffs rising 7,000 or 8,000 feet above the sea and -justifying the name of the "Rockies" given to our greatest chain of -mountains. Toward the end of the summer these desolate precipices are -snowless and except for a glimpse of white peaks through some pass there -is scarcely a suggestion of the glacier region within. Then the train -enters the "Gap" and before long the summits around show fields or -patches of midsummer snow; and as one draws nearer to the heart of the -Rockies there is blue ice to be seen clinging to the cliffs or reaching -as glaciers down into the wooded valleys, and one is thrilled with the -wild charm of alpine scenery. - -However, engineers are strict utilitarians and always choose the lowest -pass for a railway, so that the passenger in the observation car catches -only tantalizing glimpses of the wonders and beauties of the ice world a -few miles away and a few thousand feet above the valley. One must stop -at some place like lake Louise in the southern Rockies or Tête Jaune in -the north or Glacier in the Selkirks to come into real contact with snow -fields and glaciers. What a joy it is to get rid of the hot and dusty -everyday world of cities for a while and come close to Nature in one of -her wildest moods! It is not only the mountaineer who feels the -seduction of the cool, clean solitudes where glaciers are born and do -their wonderful work. Every healthy manor woman must yield to the -delight of living in those inspiring surroundings. - -It is worthwhile to put on warm strong clothes and hob-nailed shoes and -fill your lungs with mountain air in a scramble up to the snow fields to -see how the glacial machinery works, machinery which some thousands of -years ago shaped almost the whole surface of Canada, doing its work on -the plains as well as the mountains and leaving it the splendid land of -lakes and rivers and fertile prairies and rolling hills which it is -to-day. - - - _Snowline._ - -To reach the snows generally means some miles of walking and climbing, -often through forest covered slopes at first where the outside world is -lost. Then the trees begin to thin and grow stunted, revealing between -the trunks blue valleys with a lake or two and far off cliffs and -mountains. At last the trees cease at 7,500 feet and you are at -timberline. Here the three Rocky mountain heathers spread soft thick -carpets between stiff bushes only a few feet high but with trunks a foot -through, so buffeted have they been by the storms of centuries. The rows -of dwarfed spruces leaning back against some rock ledge give fine -shelter for the mountain goats, wisps of whose white wool cling to the -stubborn branches. - -Then come cliffs and rocky slopes and grassy or sedgy uplands (the true -alps as the word is used in Switzerland) where mountain sheep or goats -pasture and wild flowers grow by the million, blue ones such as lupines, -gentians, fox-gloves and forget-me-nots; yellow ones such as -adder-tongues, columbines and a multitude of starry composite flowers; -the red or orange Indian paint brush; and white flowers innumerable. You -have reached the edge of the snow rapidly melting on a July day under a -sun that is hot even on high mountains. The plants just freed from their -winter covering are all bursting into bloom together, bees are humming, -butterflies lazily flutter past and a humming bird poises over a -blossom; for it is spring at these altitudes and there is a whole -season's work to be done, seeds ripened and all, before autumn comes in -September with its snowstorms burying all under the white silence of a -nine-months winter again. - -It is a thrilling experience to set foot at last on midsummer snow -sweeping upwards, gleaming toward the higher summits, snow that never -entirely melts and that is so dazzling in the July sunlight that one -needs dark or colored glasses to avoid snow blindness if the tramp is to -be a long one. - -[Illustration] - - GLACIER ON PRESIDENT RANGE, YOHO PARK - -We have no special word in English for these perpetual snow fields and -so the French term NÉVÉ is commonly used. Snowline is not nearly so -definite as timberline and varies with latitude, exposure and snowfall. -In the eastern Rockies of Alberta, where only a few feet fall in winter, -the line is scarcely below 9,000 feet; while in the western Selkirks, -which catch the full brunt of the Pacific winds laden with moisture and -have a snowfall of 40 or 50 feet in a year, snowline is depressed almost -to timberline, about 7,500 feet. This accounts for the bareness of the -eastern Rockies as compared with the splendid Alpine features of the -Selkirk range, which is the lower of the two. - -While one gazes entranced at the array of lakes and valleys, of -snowfields and dark cliffs, the wind rises and mountains to the west put -on a cap of cloud. This grows and darkens and presently a mantle of mist -sweeps up with the wind, the sun is dimmed and in a few minutes the wide -world is shut out by a blizzard. We must make our way down to lower -levels where sleet whitens the closing flowers, and then through a belt -of rain swept hillside into the valley where the sun may still be -shining hotly. - -Since snow falls every month in the year on the névé fields and never -melts away one might expect the mountains, especially the Selkirks, to -grow as snowheaps into the sky; but of course this does not take place. -Under the increasing load of snow the lower beds are compressed into -ice; so that the névé, beginning as loose or hard drifted snow above -passes downwards into ice banded with blue and white layers, the whole -sometimes hundreds of feet in thickness. - -The snow accumulates only on the gentler slopes or in the higher -valleys. On cliffs it cannot lodge but piles upon the névé beneath; and -on steep slopes it may lie for a time but now and then, especially -toward spring, it breaks loose and thunders down into the valley as an -avalanche. - - - _The Motion of Glaciers._ - -The final disposal of the snowfield, turned to ice in its lower parts, -comes by a slow creep downwards. That the névé is actually in motion can -be seen by following the slope of snow to its upper edge against some -mountain wall where a "BERGSCHRUND" generally yawns between the -snowfield and the cliff. This may be several feet wide, and may go down -many feet to obscure depths. No amount of snow fall can fill the chasm -permanently, though it may be bridged with fresh snow for a time, making -a risky passage for the climber. - -[Illustration] - - CAVERN ON ILLECILLEWAET GLACIER - - [Illustration] - - SNOUT OR FOREFOOT OF ROBSON GLACIER, JASPER PARK - -The névé is always pulling away from the rocks at its upper border, and -its general motion follows the direction of the lowest depression -beneath, finally extending below snowline as a tongue of ice which -reaches down into the valley until it is melted by the increasing warmth -of the lower levels. Thus a glacier is born. Unless whitened by recent -storms the glacier is bare of snow in summer with a rough uneven surface -of a dirty blue green color, partly covered with rocky debris, and its -volume diminishes downward by thawing until at a definite point the -whole is melted and flows away as a river of water instead of ice. The -lower end is sometimes called the "tongue" or "snout" or "foot" of the -glacier--a bad case of mixed metaphors. - -[Illustration] - - CREVASSE ON GREAT GLACIER - -Remembering that ice is a hard and brittle solid, it comes as a surprise -to find that it can flow like a plastic body under the pull of gravity; -but this can be easily proved. A row of stakes or of metal plates put -across a glacier gradually gets out of line, the middle parts moving -fastest as in a river; but the motion is very slow, even in the middle, -seldom more than a few inches a day in our mountain glaciers, though -some of the great Alaskan and Greenland glaciers are reported to move -several feet a day and in one or two cases as much as 60 or 70 feet. - -[Illustration] - - MOULIN (IN MORNING BEFORE THAW BEGINS) ROBSON GLACIER - - [Illustration] - - MORAINE OF VICTORIA GLACIER - -At a sudden descent, where a river would leap as a waterfall, a glacier -simply breaks across in what are called "CREVASSES," fissures which may -be several feet wide and hundreds of feet long, going down to blue black -depths appalling to the inexperienced climber. As the glacier advances -these crevasse are bent out of shape and may be crossed by fresh -crevasses, splitting up the ice into wild lumps and pinnacles called -"SERACS." Seen from a distance across some valley such an ice fall looks -like a cascade or a violent rapid covered with breakers. Below these -steep descents the crevasses and seracs disappear by the pressure of the -moving ice and the glacier becomes a solid mass again. Small glaciers -hanging from cliffs may send down avalanches of ice which combine to -make a lower glacier, the masses being welded together once more. It is -evident that one cause of glacier motion is the power which ice has to -break and then to freeze together again. - -[Illustration] - - GLACIER TABLE, NEAR TEN PEAKS, ROCKY MOUNTAINS PARK - - [Illustration] - - LAKE AGNES, A GOOD EXAMPLE OF A CIRQUE LAKE - -Since glaciers are often the easiest way up a mountain, climbing parties -make use of them, starting at dawn so as to have a long day and -following up the rough and rigid slope, zigzagging round crevasses and -avoiding regions of seracs. Toward the upper end there may be fresh snow -bridging the crevasses and the party should be roped together and travel -in single file, the leading guide thrusting his ice axe into the snow at -every step to make sure of safe going. A fall into a crevasse when -unroped may be fatal. Seventeen years ago, while climbing Mt. Gordon -north of lake Louise, Mr. C. S. Thompson slipped 60 feet into a crevasse -where he was wedged in between the narrowing walls. Dr. Collie was -lowered to rescue him, and he was finally pulled out by a glacier rope -fastened round his arms, but it was a narrow escape. - -When the sun shines warmly on the glacier melting begins and water -trickles down the ice ridges, and towards afternoon torrents of pale -blue water are racing downwards in ice channels, here and there plunging -into a crevasse. This becomes hollowed into a tube like the penstock of -a water power and the foamy torrent springing into the blue chasm is -called a "moulin," or mill. In this way the waters thawed from the -surface reach the bottom and there roar along through an ice tunnel to -the end of the glacier, bursting into daylight as a full fledged river. - -Glacial streams are capricious. On a frosty morning scarcely any water -flows and one can go far into the ice cave, but in the late afternoon -there is a raging torrent loaded with mud and stones spreading into half -a dozen channels on the broad flood ground. On a rainy or snowy day when -the sun is hidden, the glacial river almost goes out of business, but -comes to life again when the clouds vanish and the sun shines. At those -heights with a clear sky the heat of the sun may be intense though it is -freezing a few feet away where some rock casts a shadow. - - - _The Work of Glaciers._ - -One of the most interesting points in a glacier is its carrying power. -Though it is in motion like a plastic substance it is solid and strong -enough to support any weight loaded upon it. Debris quarried by frost -from the mountain side buries its edge so that often one may walk 50 -yards out before the ice can be seen. This fringe of broken rock carried -on the edge of the glacier is called a marginal moraine. When two -glaciers join, the marginal moraines between them unite to form a medial -moraine, and when several tributaries combine to make a large glacier -the dark lines of the medial moraines can be followed by the eye for -long distances upwards to rocky peaks rising out of the névé, the source -from which the train of rocks was derived. - -Blocks even as large as cottages now and then roll down upon the ice and -are transported without trouble. Medium size blocks a few feet across -called "glacier tables" are left standing on pedestals of ice, as -thawing goes on all round them, since they protect the ice beneath from -the sun. - -The whole mass of stony material is carried steadily onwards until the -end is reached where melting is complete and no more burdens can be -borne. Then a terminal moraine is piled up, a steep and rugged crescent -of loose blocks by no means easy to scramble over. - -Work just as important is going on out of sight beneath the glacier, -where fragments of stone frozen into the bottom of the ice form tools -for gouging, carving and scouring the rocky floor, both tools and rocks -being ground up into the "rock flour" that makes the glacier streams so -milky and opaque. The ground up material mixed with stones of all shapes -and sizes without any assortment is left behind when the glacier thaws -as "boulder clay." A little search in this clay shows stones with -polished and striated surfaces, well worn tools, often called "soled -boulders" and the rock surface beneath the boulder clay is seen to be -rounded, smoothed and grooved in a very striking way. - - - _The Retreat of Glaciers._ - -Our glaciers, like those of other countries, are now almost all in -retreat, either because the climate is slowly growing warmer so that -thawing goes on faster or because the snowfall is lessening so that the -névé fields no longer feed the glaciers as substantially as before. On -this account one can often see several terminal moraines down the valley -below the one now forming. The nearest to the present end of the ice is -almost bare, the next, a few hundred yards away, may have bushes growing -on it, and others a mile or two away may be covered with ancient forest. - -For some years past the Vaux family of Philadelphia, two brothers and a -sister, all admirable photographers, have fixed the position of the end -of all accessible glaciers by marking points and directions on rocks -near by and by photographing the snout of the glacier. This work -determines their rate of advance or recession from year to year, and a -record of the results is published in the journal of the Alpine Club of -Canada and elsewhere. - -[Illustration] - - LAKE LOUISE AND VICTORIA GLACIER - -Glaciers once filled all the mountain valleys and even pushed out -through the passes into the prairies and through the fiords to the sea, -for everywhere one finds boulder clay and moraines and valleys with U -shaped cross sections that can only be accounted for by glacial action -on a large scale. This work was done during the Ice Age, and one may -truly say that the higher mountains are still in the Glacial Period. - -One of the most beautiful results of former ice action is to be found in -the "cirques," half Kettle or arm chair valleys, high up among the -mountains overhanging the main valleys and enclosed by vertical cliffs -on all sides except in front. These are the deserted nests of cliff -glaciers, hollowed out by the ice itself and often deepened so that a -turquoise blue lake lies within rock rims. If not too high up these -cirque lakes are surrounded by evergreen forest, behind which rise the -gray or purple walls of rock with some snow in the ravines above, the -whole mirrored in the lake, until some catspaw of breeze shatters the -reflection. Lake Agnes in the mountains behind lake Louise is an easily -reached example of a cirque basin, and there are hundreds of others -scattered through the fastnesses of the mountains, all gems in their -way, many not yet seen by the eye of a white man. The higher cirque -lakes, above timberline, enclosed only by cliffs and snow, have an -austere beauty of their own, but lack the graces and the wild flowers of -their sisters below in the forest zone. - -Often the walls of such valleys are leaped by streams from some melting -snowfield falling hundreds of feet and reaching the bottom as mere -threads of spray. - - - _Glaciers Reached by the Canadian Pacific_ - -There are very few parts of the world where fine glacial scenery can be -found so close to a great railway as in our mountain parks. If one stops -at lake Louise, in Rocky Mountains Park, the splendid Victoria glacier -is in view doubled by reflection in its waters, which get their -exquisite color from the last remaining particles of mud brought down by -the glacial stream. Two miles walk or ride along a good trail brings one -into its presence, and often great masses of ice may be seen avalanching -down from cliff glaciers above to the surface of the lower glacier. From -lake Louise as a centre one can reach the well named Paradise valley by -ten miles ride or drive over a good road and visit the fine Horseshoe -glacier at its head. The valley of the Ten Peaks farther to the -southeast requires a somewhat longer ride or drive, passing the splendid -front of Mt. Temple, the highest summit in sight from the railway -(11,626 feet). Moraine lake, eleven miles from lake Louise lies near the -entrance of the valley but farther up can be seen the great Wenkchemna -glacier, and several small glaciers lying between the Ten Peaks. Beyond -the Ten Peaks to the south there is a broad snowfield and glacier -leading over to Prospector's valley and Vermilion pass, but for an -excursion of such length and difficulty one should be equipped for -serious climbing and have a light camp outfit. - -From any high point west of lake Louise one can catch glimpses of a much -larger snowfield towards the north near Mts. Daly and Balfour, but the -glaciers flowing from it are not so easily reached as those to the south -of the railway. - -There are glaciers in sight during most of the descent by rail from the -summit of the pass through the wild Kickinghorse valley to Field, in the -Yoho Park, from which the Yoho valley may be visited with Yoho glacier -at its head. Descending beyond this into the warm depths of the Columbia -valley the alpine type of scenery is lost for a time. As the railway -climbs laboriously westward out of the valley into the Selkirks, Glacier -Park is entered. Here the scenery grows more striking until at Rogers -pass one is once more surrounded by snow peaks--hidden, alas! too often -by the long snowshed. The five mile tunnel now being pierced to avoid -the heavy grades of the pass will cut out many a ravishing view of snow -peak and ice tongue; but a stay at Glacier, just beyond the pass, gives -an unrivalled chance to study a fine glacier with the least possible -trouble. - -The Illecillewaet or Great glacier is only a mile and a half from -Glacier station and as its foot may be reached with very little -climbing, more travellers visit it than any other glacier in Canada. A -climb to Mt. Lookout just west of the glacier gives a magnificent view -over the Illecillewaet glacier and névé and over the grand mountains -surrounding it. This region was the first part of our snowy mountains to -be carefully explored and mapped by a skilful climber. The Rev. W. -Spotswood Green made Glacier his headquarters for this work in 1888 and -published his interesting book "Among the Selkirk Glaciers" in 1890. - -[Illustration] - - THE ILLECILLEWAET OR GREAT GLACIER, GLACIER PARK - -There are still finer snowfields and glaciers in the little explored -region to the north around Mt. Sir Sandford, the highest point in the -range (11,634 feet), though these are out of reach for the present; but -any of the higher peaks near Glacier give a marvellous view over a -wilderness of snow and ice broken by cliffs too steep for snow to lie. - -[Illustration] - - CREVASSES, GLACIER SOUTHEAST OF TEN PEAKS - -Some of the lower points of the Selkirks, just west of the Columbia -valley, not more than 7,000 or 8,000 feet in height, face the opposite -Rocky mountains with 100 or more glaciers in sight at once, the view -beyond the wide and deep valley sweeping 150 miles of the main chain on -its snowy western side. Unfortunately up to the present no path has been -made to such a lookout point, and the dense forest makes the ascent -difficult. - -The greatest névé in Canada, so far as known, is the Columbia snowfield -covering 100 square miles and sending tongues of ice down into a dozen -valleys, but this is 80 miles northwest of Lake Louise and can only be -visited with a camp outfit and packtrain. Its northern limit will be -within new boundaries of Jasper Park and some day a good road will lead -through the mountains past this splendid glacier region from the Grand -Trunk Pacific to the Canadian Pacific opening up to the public the -finest glacial playground in Canada. - - - _The Robson Region._ - -The beauties of the Louise, Field and Glacier regions on the Canadian -Pacific are well known to the public and have been seen by thousands but -the exceedingly impressive glacial surroundings of Mt. Robson near the -Yellowhead Pass on the Grand Trunk Pacific have so far been little -visited. Mt. Robson, rising 13,087 feet above the sea, the highest point -in the Canadian Rockies, is invisible from the pass itself, hidden by -the nearer Rainbow mountains but bursts upon the view where Grand Forks -river enters the Fraser. Only a few miles away at the head of the low -valley its tremendous cliffs, mostly too steep for snow to lie, rise for -10,000 feet, crowned with a snowy pyramid. A trail leads up the Grand -Forks through the valley of a Thousand Falls where the main river -tumbles 1,500 feet in a wild canyon and reaches the rear side of Mount -Robson 5,700 feet above the sea. From some low mountains to the -northwest there is perhaps the most splendid view in North America of -mountains, glaciers and lakes. The blue seracs of the Tumbling glacier -seem to be rushing down thousands of feet from the Helmet and the main -peak of Robson to plunge into Berg lake, which doubles them by -reflection. To the left the main glacier, starting in great icefalls on -the northeast of the peak, sweeps a curve of five or six miles round the -dark rocks of the Rearguard. Behind the main glacier toward the south -rises the unbroken snow slope of Mt. Resplendent ending with a -projecting cornice of snow at 11,000 feet. - -[Illustration] - - CREVASSE, ROBSON GLACIER - -The water coming from the ice caves of the main glacier flows chiefly -into Berg lake and the Grand Forks, but a smaller part reaches lake -Adophus and Smoky river, a tributary of the Mackenzie river, the same -glacier sending tribute to the Arctic and the Pacific Oceans. - -There are other striking mountains in the region, such as Mt. Geikie to -the south of the Yellowhead pass and the Whitehorn to the north, though -none rival Mt. Robson itself; but much remains for exploration and it -will be years before this northern region of the Rockies, all the -Alberta side of which is in Jasper Park, is thoroughly known and mapped. -Trails are being rapidly built in the park, however, and with the -erection of hotels at Jasper and other points it will soon be possible -for the alpine climber and the tourist to find easy access to this -delightful region. - - - _Some Comparisons._ - -Much of the exploration of the Canadian Rockies and Selkirks has been -done by Englishmen and eastern Americans who received their training as -mountaineers in the Alps, and one naturally asks why they should travel -thousands of miles to our western mountains when the Alps are so much -more accessible. There is, of course, the charm of a virgin and -unexplored wilderness in our Rockies and Selkirks, so seductive to one -who loves adventure; but there are other attractions as well which make -our mountains fully the equal of the famous European range. Every type -of Alpine scenery is as well illustrated in Canada as in Switzerland and -the area of snow mountains in Alberta and British Columbia is several -times that of the Alps. The whole length of the Alps is less than 400 -miles and its breadth from 50 to 80; as compared with a length of 1,200 -miles and a breadth of 140 miles for the Rockies and Selkirks, not to -mention the Gold ranges, the Coast range and the Vancouver Island -mountains, all of which have their snow fields and glaciers. Stuttfield -and Collie in their delightful book "Climbs and Explorations in the -Canadian Rockies" say of the Rockies that "they have a remarkable -individuality and character in addition to special beauties of their own -which Switzerland cannot rival." - -[Illustration] - - GLACIAL STREAM, MT. ROBSON, DIVIDING ITS WATERS BETWEEN THE PACIFIC - AND ARCTIC OCEANS - - [Illustration] - - ICE BRIDGE ON ILLECILLEWAET GLACIER - -Though there are higher mountains in the Rockies of the United States, -they rise from a dry and lofty tableland and most of them have little -snow and no glaciers. But for the row of extinct volcanoes beginning -with Mt. Baker, Mt. Rainier and Mt. Shasta, the United States has very -little truly alpine scenery except where our Rocky mountain ranges -extend for a degree or two south of the boundary. A great many of the -mountain climbers of the eastern states come to Alberta or British -Columbia when they want to use an ice axe or a glacier rope and most of -their experienced climbers are members of the Alpine Club of Canada. - -Canadians themselves are often not aware of the splendid scenery and the -unsurpassed opportunities for climbing of all grades of difficulty -offered by their own mountains. There is no more exhilarating sport than -that of the mountaineer, and there is no more interesting region for the -geologist, the botanist or the zoologist than the grand ranges of -mountains that run parallel to the Pacific in our western territory. -While tourists from all over the world are being attracted more and more -to our glorious alpine region it is especially important that our own -people should seek a delightful holiday and gain health and vigor in our -mountain parks. As good roads and trails and cabins for shelter are -extended to the wilder and more impressive parts of the mountains it -becomes easier for the ordinary visitor to study the sublimities of -valleys, glaciers and mountain peaks once out of reach without an -expensive camp equipment. - -A few good Swiss guides are available at the more important centres in -the mountains and the inexperienced climber should not undertake any -difficult glacier work nor bad rock climbing without the aid of a guide. -There is of course a wide range of less difficult walks and climbs that -brings one without risk into the heart of the mountains where one may -study the ways by which snowfields and glaciers and glacial rivers do -their work of shaping the mountains. - -[Illustration] - - - - - A. P. Coleman in "The Canadian Rockies" - - -If one halts by chance anywhere on a mountain pass, all sorts of -thrilling things are going on around. Lovely flowers are opening eagerly -to the sun and wind of Spring--in mid August, with September snows just -at hand, a whole year's work of blossom and seed to be accomplished -before the ten months' winter Sleep begins. Bees are tumbling over them -intoxicated with honey and the joy of life while it is summer. Even the -humming-birds, with jewels on their breasts as if straight from the -tropics, are not afraid to skim up the mountain sides, poise over a -bunch of white heather, and pass with a flash from flower to flower. The -marmots with aldermanic vests are whistling and "making hay while the -sun shines," and one may see their bundles of choice herbs spread on a -flat stone to dry, while the little striped gophers are busy too. Time -enough to rest in the winter. - -Everything full of bustle and haste and of joy, what could be more -inspiring than the flowery meadows above tree-line when the warm sun -shines in the six weeks of summer! The full splendour and ecstacy of a -whole year's life piled into six weeks after the snow has thawed and -before it falls again! - -Higher up even the snow itself is alive with the red snow plant and the -black glacier flea, like the rest of the world making the most of -summer; and as you take your way across the snow to the mountain top, -what a wonderful world opens out! How strangely the world has been -built, bed after bed of limestone or slate or quartzite, pale grey or -pale green or dark red or purple, built into cathedrals or castles, or -crumpled like colored cloths from the rag-bag, squeezed together into -arches and troughs, into V's and S's and M's ten miles long and two -miles high; or else sheets of rock twenty thousand feet thick have been -sliced into blocks and tilted up to play leap-frog with one another. - -And then the sculpturing that is going on! One is right in the midst of -the workshop bustle where mountains are being carved into pinnacles, -magnificent cathedral doors that never open, towers that never had a -keeper--all being shaped before one's eyes out of the mighty beds and -blocks of limestone and quartzite that were once the sea bottom. You can -watch the tools at work, the chisel and gouge, the file and the -sandpaper. All the workmen are hard at it this spring morning in August; -the quarryman Frost has been busy over night, as you hear from the -thunder of big blocks quarried from the cliffs across the valley; there -is a dazzling gleam on the moist, polished rock which craftsman Glacier -has just handed over to the daylight; and you can watch how recklessly -the waterfall is cutting its way down, slicing the great banks of rock -with canyons! - -It is inspiring to visit the mountains any day in the year, but -especially so in the July and August springtime when a fresh start is -made, and plants, animals, patient glaciers, hustling torrents, roaring -rivers, shining lakes are all hard at work rough hewing or putting -finishing touches on an evernew world. - - * * * * * * - -"From the physical geographer's point of view, every feature of the Alps -has its counterpart somewhere in the Rockies; folds and faults and -tilted strata are carved into an infinitude of shapes, including risky -peaks and aiguilles; snow and ice are present in every form, smooth and -easy or torn with blue crevasses and splintered into daring seracs. -There is every variety of stream at work, clear or muddy, gentle or -furious, including much larger rivers in much longer valleys than any in -the Alps. Small lakes are far more numerous and beautiful. Every element -of interest and beauty on the physical side is as well developed -somewhere in the Rockies as it is in the Alps but from my own -observation I may suggest that often the Alpine mountain group is better -posed, the picture better composed from the point of view of the -beholder, than in the Rockies. The reason for this is I believe, largely -one of area. The comparatively small mass of the Alps is more statuesque -and more easily seen from the proper point of view than any part of the -Cordilleran region, which sprawls over a hundred thousand square miles. -This seeming lack of focus and concentration of dramatic points seems to -me the greatest defect of the Rockies as compared with the Alps. - -On the other hand, there is a cleanness and virginity, an exquisite -loneliness about many of the Rocky Mountain peaks and valleys that has a -peculiar charm. There is the feeling of having made a new discovery, of -having caught Nature unawares at her work of creation, as one turns off -from a scarcely-beaten route into one never trodden at all by the feet -of white men; and this experience may be had in a thousand valleys among -the Rockies." - -[Illustration] - - - - - Five Great Glaciers in the Canadian National Parks - - - By A. O. Wheeler - Director Alpine Club of Canada - - - _Yoho Glacier._ - -The Yoho glacier is situated at the head of the Yoho valley and is of -very spectacular appearance. It presents a magnificent cascade of broken -ice falling into the valley a long way below timber line and the forest -is seen thickly clothing the heights far above it. - -The glacier is of the alpine type. It has its origin in the Wapta -icefield, a wide snow covered tract of ice with an area of some -twenty-five square miles, and affords one of the principal overflows -that maintain the yearly accumulation of snow on this great basin at a -constant level. - -The glacier presents a splendid opportunity for study and observation. -It is readily accessible by the pony trails that traverse the valley and -can be reached in a day from either Emerald lake chalet or the Takakkaw -falls summer camp, to both of which places good driving roads are open -from the village of Field on the C.P.R. railway. - -From glaciers at the summit of Balfour pass, lying some two and a half -miles east of Yoho glacier, Waves creek flows westward and is the main -source of Yoho river. Until recently the bed of Waves creek, a deep, -narrow rock canyon, lay, at its terminal point, beneath the icefall of -the Yoho glacier and there joined with the flow from it, reappearing at -the nose of the glacier as the Yoho river. As a result of this -combination, during the summer months, a very beautiful ice cave was -formed at the nose of the glacier, which was a source of much delight to -visitors. The ice, however, has been in retreat for many years and has -now gone back so far that the bed of Waves creek is quite clear of it -and the great ice arch formed yearly by its torrent is no longer seen. - -In 1906, the Alpine Club of Canada, through the writer, began -observations and measurements of the flow and advance of retreat of the -ice. Such observations were carried on steadily, year by year, until -1919, when, owing to the ice tongue having shrunken very greatly and -having become much crevassed, they were discontinued. - -During the period of twelve years it has been found by measurements from -marked rocks that the ice has receded 396 feet; also by means of metal -plates placed on the surface of the forefoot the movement of which was -annually measured, it was found that the mean average rate of surface -flow of the ice has been 3·3 inches per day for the period mentioned. - -The Yoho glacier is but one half a dozen that flow from the Wapta -icefield, and the icefield itself one of many such wide snow-filled -basins that lie among the crest of the Main Range of the Rocky mountains -and culminate in the great Columbia icefield with an area of 110 square -miles of ice and snow, reaching out with numerous ramifications and many -magnificent ice-falls. - - - _Victoria Glacier._ - -The Victoria glacier is of the _alpine type_, that is, has its origin in -the snow that accumulates at the summit of the Abbot pass, and is fed by -snow and ice avalanching from the adjacent slopes of Mts. Lefroy and -Victoria. - -It flows in a narrow channel between the precipitous sides of the two -mountains named, which is known as the death Trap, owing to the number -of avalanches that are precipitated from side to side directly across -its bed. It is wise to make the traverse of this part of the glacier -during the early morning hours before avalanches begin to fall. The -altitude of the pass is 9,588 feet above sea level. The snow covered -part of the glacier, or névé, below the pass lies at an altitude of -about 7,500 feet. The Lefroy glacier comes in as a tributary from the -southeast from below the cliffs of Mt. Lefroy. - -The length of the Victoria glacier is about 2¾ miles. The Lefroy glacier -is about 1 mile in length. The combined glaciers flow down the valley. -The forefoot or tongue of the glacier is covered by a thick veneer of -rock detritus carried down by the flow of the ice and fallen from the -cliffs of Popes peak on the west side, and Mt. Aberdeen on the east. The -ice terminates at from 1½ to 2 miles from the end of lake Louise. Owing -to the close proximity of the glacier to Lake Louise Château, the C.P.R. -tourist hotel, and its easy access therefrom it is of great interest on -account of the many spectacular features it present and its unique -setting of cliffs and snow clad mountains. Particularly may be mentioned -the number of avalanches that thunder into Death Trap daily and the -exhibit of semi-circular markings, known as "Forbes dirt bands" seen on -the body of the ice opposite the junction with the Lefroy glacier. - -The Victoria glacier has been steadily receding for many years. -Observations carried on by George and William S. Vaux, and later by Miss -Mary Vaux of Philadelphia (now Mrs. Charles Walcott), show that between -1898 and 1903 the glacier receded about 17 feet annually or about 85 -feet for the 5 years. Subsequent measurements by Miss Vaux show that for -the year 1909 to 1912 the ice receded 43 feet. The amount of recession -is small compared with that of other glaciers, but a reason is found in -the fact that the whole ice forefoot is thickly covered with a veneer of -broken rock which protects it from the sun's rays and reduces the -melting process to a minimum. - -Of late years no measurements have been made for advance or retreat of -the ice but, as all the most prominent glaciers of the Canadian Rockies -are known to be receding, it is assumed that the same has been the case -with the Victoria glacier. - - - _Wenkchemna Glacier._ - -The Wenkchemna glacier lies at the northern base of the Ten Peaks in the -valley of Moraine lake. The name is of Sioux Indian origin, Signifying -ten, and was given to the glacier by Mr. S. E. S. Allen, an early -explorer, in relation to the Ten Peaks. - -It is of the _piedmont type_ of glacier, that is, has its source from a -number of commensal streams of ice, fed by snow falling upon the eastern -slopes of the Ten Peaks. These independent streams descend to the valley -of Moraine lake and are so close to one another that when they reach the -floor of the valley they spread out laterally and join together, forming -a single glacier with a breadth of about three miles and a length of -from one-half to one mile. Its supply is maintained by the independent -ice streams referred to above. Glaciers so formed are known as the -"piedmont type." - -The Wenkchemna glacier lies at an altitude between 6,400 feet and 7,500 -feet and the easternmost nose is about 400 feet higher than that of the -Victoria glacier. - -No systematic observations of the Wenkchemna glacier have been made but -it has been visited and photographed several times by Messrs. William S. -and George Vaux, and Miss Vaux of Philadelphia. Their observations have -shown that the glacier has made an advance while all the other glaciers -in the district have been in retreat. In its advance, it has encroached -on the living forest and has crushed and thrown down the green timber. -Its advance is probably due to the fact that its surface is thickly -covered with broken rock, fallen from the precipitous sides of the Ten -Peaks, and the melting of the ice has been less than the accession it -receives from the ice streams that feed it. - -In the absence of systematic observations and measurements it is not -known whether it is continuing to advance, is stationary or is in -retreat. Like the Victoria glacier it affords a feature of very great -interest for observation and scientific study, owing to its easy access -from Lake Louise Château and the summer camp for visitors which is -maintained at Moraine lake close to the glacier. - - - _Illecillewaet Glacier._ - -The Illecillewaet glacier is commonly referred to as the Great glacier -of the Selkirks, although it is by no means the largest one. It is, -however, one of the most spectacular, and is seen from Glacier House, -the C.P.R. Hotel near the railway summit of the range, falling some five -thousand feet from skyline of the icefield in which it has its source. -Seen from high up on the opposite mountain side, it presents a -bird's-eye view that is unique and altogether entrancing. - -The glacier is of the _alpine type_ and is fed by the overflow from the -Illecillewaet icefield, which contains an area of some ten square miles. -The icefall is of special interest, owing to the fact that it is -situated about one and a half miles from the hotel and is reached by a -delightful pony trail through primeval forest--forest presenting a most -picturesque setting of giant cedar, hemlock and spruce trees, and, at -their base, an impenetrable tangle of thick undergrowth, midst which the -many-spined devil's club repels the would-be explorer by its poisonous -punctures. This barrier is of semi-tropical luxuriance and is justly -famous in the valleys of the Selkirks. It is, however, not without its -attractions, for the wonderful collection of ferns, the bright berries -of the devil's club, the handsome white flowers of the wild rhododendron -and the luscious fruit of the huckleberry are most alluring. - -There are two other special features for which the Illecillewaet glacier -is famous. One is the low altitude at which the nose of the ice-fall is -found, 4,800 feet, while timber line lies at 7,300 feet; consequently -the ice extends 2,500 feet down into the virgin forest. The other is the -immense terminal moraines, consisting of great blocks of rock weighing -hundreds of tons, which are seen across the valley below the glacier. -These moraines have been deposited by the ice many hundred years ago and -are now grown with huge trees and other forest growth. Owing to their -appearance and the frequent cave-like openings between blocks, they are -referred to by Dr. Sherzer, in his treatise on the subject, as "Bear Den -Moraines". The ice has now retreated a long way from them. - -Some years ago the Illecillewaet glacier presented a fine ice cave at -its snout which was much visited by tourists from Glacier House, but -owing to the continued retreat and shrinkage to which the icefall has -been subjected for many years, it is now a feature of the past. - -Observations and measurements of the ice-fall were carried on during a -series of years by Messrs. Vaux and Miss Vaux (Mrs. Charles Walcott) of -Philadelphia, the results of which may be summarized as follows: - -August 17th, 1898, the most advanced point of the ice forefoot was 60 -feet from a deeply imbedded marked boulder. On July 24, 1906, it was 327 -feet from the same boulder. On the 19th July, 1912, the ice was found to -have retreated 615 feet from the boulder. Since then the ice has receded -very considerably and the forefoot shrunken greatly in size and -spectacular appearances. Of late years the measurements do not seem to -have been continued and the distance from the boulder is not known to -the writer. The average maximum surface flow of the ice forefoot during -the periods 1898 to 1912 appears from the observations referred to above -to have been approximately five inches per day. - -Directly above the icefall towers the Selkirk giant, Mt. Sir Donald, -10,808 feet above sea level, which furnishes one of the most attractive -climbs of the region for mountaineers. From its summit is seen a world -of snowy peaks, widespread icefields, tumbling glaciers and winding -silver streams in the depths of darkly forested valleys filled with -violet haze. - - - _Asulkan Glacier._ - -Tributary to the valley of the Illecillewaet glacier is the Asulkan -(Wild Goat) valley, which is, perhaps, the most beautiful specimen of a -mountain valley traversed by a rushing glacier torrent, that can be -found. On either hand are towering mountain slopes and precipices, -exalted rock ledges from which spectacular waterfalls leap from great -heights, overhanging snow crests which often send roaring avalanches -sweeping all before them into the valley below and far up the opposite -side. - -At the head of the valley lies the Asulkan glacier. It is of the -_piedmont type_, created by three commensal streams of ice. According to -Dr. Sherzer, it is now in its second childhood. The piedmont -characteristics are disappearing and the glacier resolving itself into -the original glaciers of alpine type which gave rise to it. - -It is easy of access from Glacier House, and of great interest to -observers. It has its chief source in the Asulkan icefield, which leads -to a snow crest or col, known as the Asulkan pass. On the opposite side -of the pass a steep descent brings one to the ice stream of the Geikie -glacier, the southern overflow of the Illecillewaet icefield. Beyond, -lies the steep icefall of the Dawson glacier and Mts. Dawson and Selwyn, -over 11,000 feet above sea level. - -In the case of the Asulkan glacier, also, observations and measurements -were carried on by Messrs. Vaux and Miss Vaux. - -On August 12, 1899, a rock in line with the farthest advanced ice of the -forefoot was marked. On August 8, 1900, the ice had receded 24 feet. On -August 6, 1901, the ice had advanced 36 feet. On July 23, 1906, the ice -was again in line with the rock; that is in the same position as in -1899. - -Subsequent observations by Miss Vaux show that between August 20, 1909, -and July 27, 1912, the ice had retreated 259 feet from the marked rock. -During the interval the observations on August 9, 1911, show that the -ice had again advanced 51 feet. No measurements made since that date -have come to the knowledge of the writer. - -[Illustration] - - - - - Transcriber's Notes - - ---Some palpable typographical errors were corrected. - ---Copyright and publisher's information was included from the printed - copy: this eBook is public domain in the country of publication. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Glaciers of the Rockies and Selkirks, -2nd. ed., by Arthur Philemon Coleman and Arthur Oliver Wheeler - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GLACIERS OF ROCKIES, SELKIRKS *** - -***** This file should be named 50986-8.txt or 50986-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/9/8/50986/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan and the team -at Distributed Proofreaders of Canada - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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