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diff --git a/old/50976-0.txt b/old/50976-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index bbb1016..0000000 --- a/old/50976-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11104 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's The Siege and Conquest of the North Pole, by George Bryce - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Siege and Conquest of the North Pole - -Author: George Bryce - -Release Date: January 20, 2016 [EBook #50976] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIEGE, CONQUEST OF NORTH POLE *** - - - - -Produced by Larry Harrison, Cindy Beyer and the online -Distributed Proofreaders Canada team at -http://www.pgdpcanada.net with images provided by The -Internet Archives-US - - - - - - THE SIEGE AND CONQUEST - OF THE NORTH POLE - - - - - THE - - SIEGE AND CONQUEST - - OF THE - - NORTH POLE - - - - BY - GEORGE BRYCE, L.R.C.P. & S. (EDIN.) - - - L O N D O N - GIBBINGS & COMPANY LIMITED - 18 BURY STREET, W.C. - 1910 - - - - - PREFACE - -My chief object in compiling this work has been to supply a brief -account of the main efforts which have been made to reach the North -Pole. The subject is now so extensive that few have the opportunity of -covering the whole ground. While the exciting and specially interesting -incidents have not been omitted, the book aims at giving the reader an -intelligent idea of the equipment and other means by which the work of -exploration has been carried on. - -The many expeditions which have set out to find a north-west or a -north-east passage do not come within the scope of the book, except when -they have had some special bearing on the struggle for the Pole. - -Those who may wish to pursue the subject further by consulting the -original authors can be assured that no works of fiction relate greater -deeds of heroism than are found in the records of Arctic exploration; -and that while they may satisfy their love for the adventurous they will -add something to their geographical knowledge. - -It is hoped that the maps may be of considerable assistance in enabling -the reader to follow the narrative. The spelling of geographical and -other names is generally that adopted by the authors of the original -works. - - GEORGE BRYCE. - BIRMINGHAM, _December 1909_. - - - - - CONTENTS AND LIST OF MAPS - - I. PARRY’S EXPEDITION OF 1827 - II. KANE’S EXPEDITION (1853, ’54, ’55) - III. EXPEDITION COMMANDED BY DR. HAYES IN 1860−61 - IV. THE GERMAN EXPEDITION (1869−70) - V. VOYAGE OF THE _POLARIS_ (1871−73) - VI. THE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EXPEDITION (1872−74) - VII. THE BRITISH EXPEDITION OF 1875−76 - VIII. THE VOYAGE OF THE _JEANNETTE_ (1879−81) - IX. GREELY’S EXPEDITION (1881−84) - X. THE NORWEGIAN POLAR EXPEDITION (1893−96) - XI. SVERDRUP’S EXPEDITION (1898−1902) - XII. ITALIAN EXPEDITION (1899−1900) - XIII. PEARY’S EXPEDITIONS (1886−1909) - XIV. DR. COOK’S EXPEDITION (1907−9) - - MAPS - - 1. THE ARCTIC REGIONS - 2. CHART OF SMITH SOUND AND KENNEDY CHANNEL - 3. CHART OF PART OF EAST GREENLAND - 4. KAISER FRANZ-JOSEF LAND IN 1874 - 5. CHART OF GREENLAND AND ELLESMERE ISLAND - 6. FRANZ-JOSEF LAND - 7. CHART OF SVERDRUP’S DISCOVERIES - 8. CHART OF NORTHERN PART OF GREENLAND - 9. CHART OF NORTH POLAR REGIONS - - - - - GLOSSARY OF ARCTIC TERMS - - _Beset_, so enclosed by floating ice as to be unable to - navigate. - _Bore_, to force through loose or recent ice. - _Calf_, detached mass from berg or glacier, rising suddenly - to the surface. - _Crow’s nest_, a look-out place attached to the - topgallant-masthead. - _Dock_, an opening in the ice, artificial or natural, - offering protection. - _Drift ice_, detached ice in motion. - _Field ice_, an extensive surface of floating ice. - _Floe_, a detached portion of a field. - _Hummocks_, ridges of broken ice formed by collision of - fields. - _Ice-blink_, a peculiar appearance of the atmosphere over - distant ice. - _Ice-foot_, the ice which adheres to the coast above the - ordinary level of the sea. - _Lane or lead_, a more or less navigable opening in the ice. - _Nip_, the condition of a vessel pressed upon by ice on both - sides. - _Pack_, a large area of floating masses of ice driven - together more or less closely. - _Palæocrystic ice_, the name given by Nares to the old ice - of the Polar Sea. - _Polynia_, a Russian term for an open-water space. - _Rue-raddy_, a shoulder-belt to drag by. - - - - -[Illustration: THE ARCTIC REGIONS] - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - “There’s a flag on the mast, and it points to the north, - And the north holds the land that I love; - I will steer back to northward, the heavenly course - Of the winds guiding sure from above.” - - FRITHJOF’S _Saga_. - -The North Pole is the centre of the Northern Hemisphere. This hemisphere -contains Europe, Asia, North America, and a large part of Africa, yet no -human being reached its centre before the eighth year of the twentieth -century A.D. - -The North Pole is the point where the axis of the earth cuts its -surface. It is the point where, as Captain Hall expressed it, there is -no north, no east, no west. It is the place where every wind that blows -is a south wind. It is a point where all the meridians meet, and there -is therefore no longitude. It is one of the two places on the surface of -the earth where there is but one night and one day in every year. It is -a point from which all the heavenly bodies appear to move in horizontal -courses, and the stars never set. It is not to be confused with the -magnetic pole, which is situated about 1600 miles south of it, near the -mainland of North America. At the North Pole the magnetic needle points -due south. - -The North Pole is therefore a place of absorbing interest, and until it -was reached man never rested satisfied. Ever since Robert Thorne, in the -reign of Henry VIII., offered “very weighty and substantial reasons to -set forth a discoverie even to the North Pole,” the struggle has been -going on. - -In no other records of adventure do we find greater deeds of daring than -in those of Arctic travel. The dauntless courage in the face of extreme -danger, the perseverance when hope was forlorn, the self-sacrifices made -to render assistance to comrades, all stamp these pioneers of science -and commerce as heroes in the highest sense of the word. Some of their -daring exploits, their successes and disasters, are here recorded, but -the author hopes that this book will only serve as an introduction to -the original ones. After reading the thrilling narratives of Arctic -exploration, one is ready to admit that “truth is stranger than -fiction.” - -The Polar regions can be reached by only three navigable routes. Either -by the wide passage between Greenland and Norway, a smaller passage -between Greenland and America, or by the narrow Bering Strait between -America and Russia. - -Up till the beginning of the nineteenth century nearly all the Arctic -voyages had as the chief object the discovery either of a north-west or -a north-east passage to the Pacific Ocean. - -On the 7th June 1585 two tiny craft sailed from Dartmouth in quest of -the North-West Passage. They were commanded by John Davis, a daring -explorer. - -Davis sighted Greenland on 20th July, and on the 29th he was off where -now stands the Danish settlement of Godthaab. He crossed the strait -which now bears his name, and traced part of the western coast. - -Davis made a second voyage in 1586, and a third in 1587. In the latter -year he reached and named Sanderson’s Hope, in 72° 41′. - -Between 1594 and 1596 three expeditions were dispatched by the Dutch -towards Spitzbergen. That of 1596 is of special interest. William -Barents, the discoverer of Spitzbergen, was the chief pilot. The ship -reached Ice Haven, Novaya Zemlya, on 26th August, and here the party -were forced to winter. A house was built with wood, but the winter was -passed miserably, scurvy ultimately making its appearance among the -crew. The ship being hopelessly beset by the ice, it was decided during -the following summer to abandon it. - -In two boats, the party of fifteen men started on a journey of 1524 -miles. Barents himself and one of the crew were ill, and had to be -dragged on a sledge from the house to the boats. Both died on the -boat-journey. The remainder ultimately reached Russian Lapland, where -their troubles ceased. - -About 274 years afterwards, the house built by Barents was discovered by -Captain Carlsen. Over the fireplace still stood the cooking-pans, an old -clock was against the wall, and arms, tools, drinking-vessels, and books -were found as they had been left nearly three centuries before. - -In 1607, Henry Hudson endeavoured to reach the Pole along the east coast -of Greenland. He attained 73° at a point which he named “Hold with -Hope.” - -He then examined the edge of the ice between Greenland and Spitzbergen, -and reached the latitude of 80° 23′. He named the north-west point of -Spitzbergen “Hakluyt Headland,” and on his way home he discovered the -island now known as “Jan Mayen.” - -In 1610 he discovered Hudson’s Strait, and the great bay which bears his -name. - -On 26th March 1616, Robert Bylot as master, with William Baffin as pilot -and navigator, set out from Gravesend in the _Discovery_, a craft of -only 55 tons. Greenland was sighted on 14th May, and on the 30th May, -Sanderson’s Hope, the farthest point of Davis, was reached. On the 9th -June he discovered Baffin Islands, in 73° 54′. He then took what is -known as the “Middle Passage” across Melville Bay, and reached the -“North Water” of the whalers of to-day. - -Baffin discovered and charted Wolstenholme Sound and Hakluyt Island, and -passed north till he was within sight of Cape Alexander. He named Smith -Sound after the first Governor of the East India Company. He also -discovered Carey Islands, Lancaster Sound, and Jones Sound. - -When we consider the wretched means with which these early explorers -were provided, we are lost in astonishment at their audacity and at the -success of their achievements. - -It was exactly two hundred years afterwards that these northern places -were visited by Ross and Parry. Baffin’s work had been almost forgotten, -and his discoveries were not believed. - -During the seventeenth century many expeditions were sent out which were -the means of opening up extensive commercial relations with Russia and -of establishing the fisheries of Spitzbergen, Davis Straits, and -Newfoundland. - -During the eighteenth century several expeditions were fitted out by the -Hudson Bay Company, and a good deal of exploration was done by the -Russians. In 1728, Vitus Bering discovered the straits which now bear -his name; and in 1742, Lieutenant Chelyuskin reached the most northerly -point of Asia in 77° 34′ by sledges. In 1765, Admiral Tschitschagoff was -sent by the Czarina Catharine of Russia with three vessels to -Spitzbergen to sail towards the North Pole. He reached 80° 21′, but -found it impossible to advance farther. The following year he reached -80° 28′. In 1770 the New Siberian Islands were discovered by Liakhof. - -In 1773, Constantine John Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave, sailed with -the _Racehorse_ and _Carcass_, with a view of reaching the North Pole. -He reached 80° 37′, and visited some of the Seven Islands. He also -mapped the north of Spitzbergen. In this expedition the great Horatio -Nelson was captain’s coxswain on board the _Carcass_. - -In 1818, Captain Buchan in the _Dorothea_, and Lieutenant (afterwards -Sir John) Franklin in the _Trent_, attained 80° 34′ north of -Spitzbergen. - -In 1823, Clavering and Sabine, in the ship _Griper_, visited -Spitzbergen, and while Sabine carried on magnetic observations on the -inner Norway Island, Clavering went to sea and steered northwards, but -did not get farther than 80° 20′. - -The edge of the ice had now been thoroughly examined between the coast -of Greenland and Novaya Zemlya, and it became evident that the ice could -not be pierced by a ship. It occurred to Sir John Franklin and Sir -Edward Parry that the best way of reaching the Pole would be by means of -sledging over the ice. Parry put his ideas into practice in 1827, when -he undertook his well-known expedition in the _Hecla_. He had just -returned from his third Arctic voyage in search of the North-West -Passage. His fourth voyage was an important one, and will be treated at -some length in the first chapter. - - - - - The Siege and Conquest of the North Pole - - - - - CHAPTER I - PARRY’S EXPEDITION OF 1827 - - -In April 1826, Captain William Edward Parry proposed to Viscount -Melville, First Lord Commissioner of the Admiralty, “to attempt to reach -the North Pole, by means of travelling with sledge-boats over the ice, -or through any spaces of open water that might occur.” The proposal was -referred to the Royal Society, who strongly recommended its adoption; -and an expedition having been equipped, Parry was appointed to the -command of it. - -Before making the proposal, Parry had given the subject careful -consideration. He mentions that Captain Lutwidge, the associate of -Captain Phipps in the expedition towards the North Pole in 1773, -describes the ice north of Spitzbergen to the distance of ten or twelve -leagues to have the appearance of “one continued plain of smooth -unbroken ice, bounded only by the horizon.” The testimony of Mr. -Scoresby, Jun., “a close and intelligent observer of Nature in these -regions,” was also found to agree with that given by Lutwidge. “I once -saw,” says he, “a field that was so free from either fissure or hummock, -that I imagine, had it been free from snow, a coach might have been -driven many leagues over it in a direct line, without obstruction or -danger.” In addition to these, experienced whalers, whom Parry consulted -as to the nature of the ice, agreed that it was highly favourable for -the purpose of his expedition. An important factor in determining Parry -to make the proposal was the fact that Franklin had drawn up a plan for -making the attempt on the same lines. - -For the journey over the ice, two boats were constructed having great -flatness of floor, with the extreme breadth carried well forward and -aft, and possessing the utmost buoyancy, as well as capacity for -stowage. Their length was 20 feet, and their extreme breadth 7 feet. The -timbers were made of tough ash and hickory, 1 inch by half an inch -square, and a foot apart, with a “half-timber” of smaller size between -each two. On the outside of the frame thus formed was laid a covering of -Mackintosh’s waterproof canvas, the outer part being coated with tar. -Over this was placed a plank of fir, 3/16 of an inch thick; then a sheet -of stout felt; and over all, an oak plank of the same thickness as the -fir; the whole of these being firmly and closely secured to the timbers -by iron screws applied from without. “On each side of the keel, and -projecting considerably below it, was attached a strong ‘runner’ shod -with smooth steel, in the manner of a sledge, upon which the boat -entirely rested while upon the ice; and to afford some additional chance -of making progress on hard and level fields, we also applied to each -boat two wheels, of 5 feet diameter, and a small one abaft, having a -swivel for steering by, like that of a Bath chair; but these, owing to -the irregularities of the ice, did not prove of any service, and were -subsequently relinquished. A ‘span’ of hide-rope was attached to the -fore part of the runners, and to this were affixed two strong ropes of -horse-hair, for dragging the boat; each individual being furnished with -a broad leathern shoulder-belt, which could readily be fastened to or -detached from the drag-ropes.” The boats weighed 1539 lb. and 1542 lb. -respectively. Two officers and twelve men were selected for each boat’s -crew. The provisions consisted of biscuit, sweetened cocoa-powder, and -pemmican. The process of making the latter consisted in drying large -thin slices of the lean of the meat over the smoke of wood fires, then -pounding it, and lastly mixing it with about an equal weight of its own -fat. In this state it was quite ready for use, without further cooking. - -The _Hecla_, which was to convey the expedition to the north coast of -Spitzbergen, left the Thames on the 25th of March 1827. They arrived at -Hammerfest on 18th April. Here they obtained a small quantity of venison -and an abundance of good fish. They also purchased a set of snow-shoes, -together with Lapland shoes (called “Kamooga”). They also took on board -eight reindeer and a supply of moss. “The quantity of _clean_ moss -considered requisite for each deer per day is 4 pounds, but they will go -five or six days without provender, and not suffer materially. As long -as they can pick up snow as they go along, which they like to eat quite -clean, they require no water; and ice is to them a comfortable bed.” - -Hammerfest was left on 29th April, and on the 5th of May, in latitude -73° 30′, the first straggling mass of ice was met. After some delay in -waiting for the ice to open, Hakluyt’s Headland was reached on 14th May. -While preparations were being made to land a quantity of provisions -here, a gale came on, and forced Parry to take shelter among the -pack-ice, where he remained beset twenty-four days. Now began a search -for a suitable harbour for the _Hecla_, but it was not till the 20th -June that this was found in Treurenburg Bay. During this search Parry -reached as far north as 81° 5′, and landed a small store of provisions -on Walden Island, and another on an islet near Little Table Island. - -Preparations were now made to leave the ship on the journey to the -north. Parry writes: “As it was still necessary not to delay our return -beyond the end of August, the time originally intended, I took with me -only seventy-one days’ provisions; which, including the boats and every -other article, made up a weight of 260 lb. per man; and as it appeared -highly improbable, from what we had seen of the very rugged nature of -the ice we should first have to encounter, that either the reindeer, the -snow-shoes, or the wheels would prove of any service for some time to -come, I gave up the idea of taking them. We, however, constructed out of -the snow-shoes four excellent sledges for dragging a part of our baggage -over the ice, and these proved of invaluable service to us, while the -rest of the things just mentioned would only have been an encumbrance.” - -The _Hecla_ was left on the 21st June, and Low Island was reached on the -22nd. One of the ship’s cutters accompanied the two boats in order to -carry part of the provisions which were to be landed on Low Island and -on Walden Island. Open water for the boats was found until they reached -latitude 81° 12′ 51″, which was now the highest that had ever been -reached. Scoresby, in 1806, had reached 81° 12′ 42″, and with this -exception no one had ever reached the 81st degree. - -Parry now writes: “Our plan of travelling being nearly the same -throughout this excursion, after we first entered upon the ice, I may at -once give some account of our usual mode of proceeding. It was my -intention to travel wholly at night, and to rest by day, there being, of -course, constant daylight in these regions during the summer season. The -advantages of this plan, which was occasionally deranged by -circumstances, consisted first, in our avoiding the intense and -oppressive glare from the snow during the time of the sun’s greatest -altitude, so as to prevent, in some degree, the painful inflammation in -the eyes, called ‘snow-blindness,’ which is common in all snowy -countries. We also thus enjoyed greater warmth during the hours of rest, -and had a better chance of drying our clothes; besides which, no small -advantage was derived from the snow being harder at night for -travelling. The only disadvantage of this plan was, that the fogs were -somewhat more frequent and more thick by night than by day, though even -in this respect there was less difference than might have been supposed, -the temperature during the twenty-four hours undergoing but little -variation. This travelling by night and sleeping by day so completely -inverted the natural order of things, that it was difficult to persuade -ourselves of the reality. Even the officers and myself, who were all -furnished with pocket chronometers, could not always bear in mind at -what part of the twenty-four hours we had arrived; and there were -several of the men who declared, and I believe truly, that they never -knew night from day during the whole excursion. - -“When we rose in the evening, we commenced our day by prayers, after -which we took off our fur sleeping-dresses, and put on those for -travelling; the former being made of camblet, lined with racoon-skin, -and the latter of strong blue box-cloth. We made a point of always -putting on the same stockings and boots for travelling in, whether they -had dried during the day or not; and I believe it was only in five or -six instances, at the most, that they were not either still wet or -hard-frozen. This, indeed, was of no consequence beyond the discomfort -of first putting them on in this state, as they were sure to be -thoroughly wet in a quarter of an hour after commencing our journey; -while, on the other hand, it was of vital importance to keep dry things -for sleeping in. Being ‘rigged’ for travelling, we breakfasted upon warm -cocoa and biscuit, and after stowing the things in the boats and on the -sledges, so as to secure them, as much as possible, from wet, we set off -on our day’s journey, and usually travelled from five to five and a half -hours, then stopped an hour to dine, and again travelled four, five, or -even six hours, according to circumstances. After this we halted for the -night, as we called it, though it was usually early in the morning, -selecting the largest surface of ice we happened to be near, for hauling -the boats on, in order to avoid the danger of its breaking up by coming -in contact with other masses, and also to prevent drift as much as -possible. The boats were placed close alongside each other, with their -sterns to the wind, the snow or wet cleared out of them, and the sails, -supported by the bamboo masts and three paddles, placed over them as -awnings, an entrance being left at the bow. Every man then immediately -put on dry stockings and fur boots, after which we set about the -necessary repairs of boats, sledges, or clothes; and, after serving the -provisions for the succeeding day, we went to supper. Most of the -officers and men then smoked their pipes, which served to dry the boats -and awnings very much, and usually raised the temperature of our -lodgings 10° or 15°. This part of the twenty-four hours was often a -time, and the only one, of real enjoyment to us: the men told their -stories and ‘fought all their battles o’er again,’ and the labours of -the day, unsuccessful as they too often were, were forgotten. A regular -watch was set during our resting-time, to look out for bears or for the -ice breaking up round us, as well as to attend to the drying of the -clothes, each man alternately taking this duty for one hour. We then -concluded our day with prayers, and having put on our fur dresses, lay -down to sleep with a degree of comfort, which perhaps few persons would -imagine possible under such circumstances; our chief inconvenience -being, that we were somewhat pinched for room, and therefore obliged to -stow rather closer than was quite agreeable. The temperature, while we -slept, was usually from 36° to 45°, according to the state of the -external atmosphere; but on one or two occasions, in calm and warm -weather, it rose as high as 60° to 66°, obliging us to throw off a part -of our fur dress. After we had slept seven hours, the man appointed to -boil the cocoa roused us, when it was ready, by the sound of a bugle, -when we commenced our day in the manner before described. - -“Our allowance of provisions for each man per day was as follows:— - -“Biscuit, 10 oz.; pemmican, 9 oz.; sweetened cocoa-powder, 1 oz. to make -1 pint; rum, 1 gill; tobacco, 3 oz. per week. - -“Our fuel consisted entirely of spirits of wine, of which 2 pints formed -our daily allowance, the cocoa being cooked in an iron boiler over a -shallow iron lamp, with seven wicks; a simple apparatus, which answered -our purpose remarkably well. We usually found 1 pint of spirits of wine -sufficient for preparing our breakfast—that is, for heating 28 pints of -water, though it always commenced from the temperature of 32°.” - -They set off on their first journey over the ice on 24th June. Instead -of the fine level floes they expected, they found the ice consisting of -pieces of small extent and very rugged, obliging them to make three -journeys, and sometimes four, with the boats and baggage, and to launch -several times across narrow pools of water. They experienced a great -amount of rain, and had sometimes to wade through water from 2 to 5 -inches deep upon the ice. It was rarely that they met with a surface -sufficiently level and hard to drag all their loads at one journey. Deep -soft snow was frequently met with, and proved a difficult obstacle to -overcome. At other times their way lay across small loose pieces of ice, -and the boats had to be made to serve the purpose of a bridge between -the pieces. After a laborious day’s work, they frequently found that -they had not progressed more than 2 miles. It had been calculated that -they could travel 20 miles per day over level ice. They found the -Lapland shoes, or Kamoogas, good for walking in when the snow was dry, -but when it was wet they found Esquimaux boots much superior. On the 5th -of July they had reached latitude 81° 45′ 15″, and on sounding with 400 -fathoms of line failed to reach the bottom. A like result was met in -latitude 82° 17′ 10″, which was reached on 13th July. About this date -they found that they were being drifted considerably to the -south—sometimes 1 or 2 miles per day. The glare of the sun was often -very oppressive: the best preservative was found to be spectacles having -the glass of a bluish-green colour, and with side-screens to them. On -the 20th July they reached 82° 36′ 52″, less than 5 miles to the -northward of their position on the 17th, although they calculated they -certainly had travelled 12 miles. On the 25th July, Parry wrote: “So -small was the ice now around us, that we were obliged to halt for the -night at 2 a.m., being upon the only piece in sight, in any direction, -on which we could venture to trust the boats while we rested. Such was -the ice in the latitude of 82¾°!” - -At noon on the 26th they found the latitude 82° 40′ 23″, and calculated -that since midnight on the 22nd they had lost no less than 13½ miles by -drift. At this time Parry writes: “It had, for some time past, been too -evident that the nature of the ice with which we had to contend was -such, and its drift to the southward, especially with a northerly wind, -so great, as to put beyond our reach anything but a very moderate share -of success in travelling to the northward. Still, however, we had been -anxious to reach the highest latitude which our means would allow, and, -with this view, although our whole object had long become unattainable, -had pushed on to the northward for thirty-five days, or until half our -resources were expended, and the middle of our season arrived. For the -last few days, the 83rd parallel was the limit to which we had ventured -to extend our hopes; but even this expectation had become considerably -weakened since the setting in of the last northerly wind, which -continued to drive us to the southward, during the necessary hours of -rest, nearly as much as we could gain by eleven or twelve hours of daily -labour. Had our success been at all proportionate to our exertions, it -was my full intention to have proceeded a few days beyond the middle of -the period for which we were provided, trusting to the resources we -expected to find at Table Island. But this was so far from being the -case, that I could not but consider it as incurring useless fatigue to -the officers and men, and unnecessary wear and tear for the boats, to -persevere any longer in the attempt. I determined, therefore, on giving -the people one entire day’s rest, which they very much needed, and time -to wash and mend their clothes, while the officers were occupied in -making all the observations which might be interesting in this latitude; -and then to set out on our return on the following day.” - -The bottom was found here with 500 fathoms of line. At the extreme point -of the journey the distance from the _Hecla_ was 172 miles. To -accomplish this distance, Parry reckoned they travelled 292 miles, of -which about 100 were performed by water previous to entering the ice. -But as they travelled by far the greater part of the distance on the ice -three, and not unfrequently five times over, the total distance -estimated was 580 geographical, or 668 statute miles, being nearly -sufficient to have reached the Pole in a direct line. - -Returning south, open water was reached in latitude 81° 34′, about 50 -miles north of Table Island. The party had been forty-eight days on the -ice. During this journey several seals and bears were killed, and these -assisted very much both for meat and fuel. The islet at Table Island was -reached on the 12th of August, and it was found that bears had devoured -all the bread, amounting to 100 lb., left there. To this islet Parry -applied the name of Lieutenant Ross. The _Hecla_ was reached on 21st -August, after an absence of sixty-one days, and the total distance -travelled was estimated at 1127 miles. Parry writes: “Considering our -constant exposure to wet, cold, and fatigue, our stockings having -generally been drenched in snow-water for twelve hours out of every -twenty-four, I had great reason to be thankful for the excellent health -in which, upon the whole, we reached the ship. There is no doubt that we -had all become, in a certain degree, gradually weaker for some time -past; but only three men of our party now required medical care, two of -them with badly swelled legs and general debility, and the other from a -bruise; but even these three returned to their duty in a short time.” - -The _Hecla_ left Treurenburg Bay on 28th August, rounded Hakluyt’s -Headland on the 30th, and arrived at Shetland on 17th September. Here -Parry left the ship, and proceeded to London _via_ Inverness. - -Having finished his narrative of this attempt to reach the North Pole, -Parry makes the following observations:— - -“That the object is of still more difficult attainment than was before -supposed, even by those persons who were the best qualified to judge of -it, will, I believe, appear evident from a perusal of the foregoing -pages; nor can I, after much consideration and some experience of the -various difficulties which belong to it, recommend any material -improvement in the plan lately adopted. Among the various schemes -suggested for this purpose, it has been proposed to set out from -Spitzbergen, and to make a rapid journey to the northward, with sledges, -or sledge-boats, drawn wholly by dogs or reindeer; but, however feasible -this plan may at first sight appear, I cannot say that our late -experience of the nature of the ice which they would probably have to -encounter, has been at all favourable to it. It would, of course, be a -matter of extreme imprudence to set out on this enterprise without the -means of crossing—not merely narrow pools and lanes—but more extensive -spaces of open water, such as we met with between the margin of the ice -and the Spitzbergen shores; and I do not conceive that any boat -sufficiently large to be efficient and safe for this purpose, could -possibly be managed upon the ice, were the power employed to give it -motion dependent on dogs or reindeer. On the contrary, it was a frequent -subject of remark among the officers, that reason was a qualification -scarcely less indispensable than strength and activity, in travelling -over such a road; daily instances occurring of our having to pass over -difficult places, which no other animal than man could have been easily -prevailed upon to attempt. Indeed, the constant necessity of launching -and hauling up the boats (which operations we had frequently to perform -eight or ten, and on one occasion, seventeen times in the same day) -would alone render it inexpedient, in my opinion, to depend chiefly upon -other animals; for it would certainly require more time and labour to -get them into and out of the boats, than their services in the -intervals, or their flesh ultimately used as food, would be worth; -especially when it is considered how large a weight of provender must be -carried for their own subsistence. - -“In case of employing reindeer, which, from their strength, docility, -and hardy habits, appear the best suited to this kind of travelling, -there would be an evident advantage in setting out much earlier in the -year than we did; perhaps about the end of April, when the ice is less -broken up, and the snow much harder upon its surface, than at a more -advanced part of the season. But this, it must be recollected, would -involve the necessity of passing the previous winter on the northern -coast of Spitzbergen, which, even under favourable circumstances, would -probably tend to weaken in some degree the energies of the men; while, -on the other hand, it would be next to impossible to procure there a -supply of provender for a number of tame reindeer, sufficient even to -keep them alive, much less in tolerable condition, during a whole -winter. In addition to this, it may be observed, that any party setting -out earlier must be provided with a much greater weight of warm -clothing, in order to guard against the severity of the cold, and also -with an increased proportion of fuel for procuring water by the melting -of snow, there being no fresh water upon the ice, in these latitudes, -before the month of June.” - - * * * * * - -Parry’s attempt to reach the Pole, hauling heavy boats over the ice, -brings into prominence the determination and daring of English sailors. -Parry’s record of 82° 45′ remained unbroken forty-eight years, when a -new record was again made by English sailors in an exactly similar way -to that of Parry, but in a different region. - -The next expedition of importance after Parry’s was that of Sir John -Franklin in search of the North-West Passage, and does not strictly come -within the scope of this book. Although the many expeditions which were -sent out in search of Franklin and his men were the means of tracing a -great extent of coast-line among the islands which lie to the north of -America, only one had any special bearing on the struggle for the Pole. -This was the one commanded by Dr. Kane, and will be treated in the next -chapter. - - - - -[Illustration: CHART OF SMITH SOUND AND KENNEDY CHANNEL.] - - - - - CHAPTER II - KANE’S EXPEDITION (1853, ’54, ’55) - - -In December 1852, Dr. Kane received orders from the Secretary of the -U.S. Navy to conduct an expedition to the Arctic seas in search of Sir -John Franklin. Dr. Kane’s plan of search was based upon the probable -extension of the land-masses of Greenland to the Far North—a fact at -that time not verified by travel, but sustained by the analogies of -physical geography. As inducements in favour of his scheme, he -mentioned— - -“(1) _Terra firma_ as the basis of our operations, obviating the -capricious character of ice-travel. - -“(2) A due northern line, which, throwing aside the influences of -terrestrial radiation, would lead soonest to the open sea, should such -exist. - -“(3) The benefit of the fan-like abutment of land, on the north face of -Greenland, to check the ice in the course of its southern or equatorial -drift, thus obviating the great drawback of Parry in his attempt to -reach the Pole by the Spitzbergen Sea. - -“(4) Animal life to sustain travelling parties. - -“(5) The co-operation of the Esquimaux; settlements of these people -having been found as high as Whale Sound, and probably extending still -farther along the coast. - -“We were to pass up Baffin’s Bay, therefore, to its most northern -attainable point; and thence, pressing on toward the Pole as far as -boats or sledges could carry us, examine the coast-lines for vestiges of -the lost party.” - -Kane left New York on the 30th May 1853, in the _Advance_, a -“hermaphrodite brig of 144 tons.” The entire party numbered eighteen. At -Fiskernaes, Greenland, he engaged Hans Christian, aged nineteen, as an -Esquimaux hunter. - -The pack was encountered in Melville Bay on 28th July, and Kane was -fortunate in passing through to the North Water by 4th August. Smith -Sound was entered on 7th August. A boat with a stock of provisions was -buried at the north-east point of Littleton Island, and a cairn was -erected on the western cape. About 40 miles north of Littleton Island -the ice was met, and the _Advance_ was forced into Refuge Harbour. After -a great deal of warping, the brig reached Rensselaer Harbour in latitude -78° 37′. - -When Kane attained the latitude of 78° 41′, he made a curious -observation. He states: “We are farther north than any of our -predecessors, except Parry on his Spitzbergen foot-tramp.” This was far -from the truth. Much higher latitudes had been reached centuries before. -In the seventeenth century both the English and Dutch had reached a -higher latitude in the Spitzbergen Sea: Tschitschagoff in 1765 reached -80° 21′; Phipps in 1773 reached 80° 37′; and Scoresby in 1806 reached -81° 12′ 42″. Had Kane’s statement been confined to the route between -Greenland and America, it would have been correct, but referring as he -did to Parry’s Spitzbergen voyage, he was entirely astray. - -When Smith Sound was reached, Kane had more than fifty dogs, but many of -them soon died. Preparations for the winter were made without delay: a -storehouse was formed on a small island in the harbour; an observatory -was built on another island; and a deck-house was made to protect the -_Advance_. - -Arrangements were then made to form provision-dépôts along the Greenland -coast for the purpose of northern exploration. The first dépôt party -left on the 20th of September, and returned on the 15th of October. On -the 25th of September this party reached Cape Russell, where the first -cache of pemmican, together with some bread and alcohol for fuel, was -made. A second cache was made at Cape Bonsall, about 30 miles to the -north-east of the first dépôt. They reached their highest latitude, 79° -50′, on 6th October. A third cache was placed on a low island near the -Humboldt Glacier. - -A sunless winter of one hundred and forty days now closed upon them. The -influence of the long, intense darkness was found most depressing. Most -of the dogs died during this winter from convulsions. The temperature -went down to as low as 68° F. below zero during February. The dreadful -scurvy made its appearance, and by the middle of March only two members -of the party were free of it. The supplies of the expedition were found -to be altogether inadequate, both as regard provisions and fuel. On the -19th of March 1854, the first spring party left the brig, with the -object of forming more dépôts. The temperature was about 40° F. below -zero. On 31st March three of this party made their appearance at the -brig unexpectedly. Kane graphically describes the incident: “They were -swollen and haggard, and hardly able to speak. Their story was a fearful -one. They had left their companions in the ice, risking their own lives -to bring us the news: Brooks, Baker, Wilson, and Pierre were all lying -frozen and disabled. Where? They could not tell: somewhere in among the -hummocks to the north and east: it was drifting heavily round them when -they parted. Irish Tom had stayed by to feed and care for the others; -but the chances were sorely against them. It was in vain to question -them further. They had evidently travelled a great distance, for they -were sinking with fatigue and hunger, and could hardly be rallied enough -to tell us the direction in which they had come. My first impulse was to -move on the instant with an unencumbered party: a rescue, to be -effective or even hopeful, could not be too prompt. What pressed on my -mind most was, where the sufferers were to be looked for among the -drifts. Ohlsen seemed to have his faculties rather more at command than -his associates, and I thought that he might assist us as a guide; but he -was sinking with exhaustion, and if he went with us we must carry him. -There was not a moment to be lost. While some were still busy with the -newcomers and getting ready a hasty meal, others were rigging out the -‘Little Willie’ with a buffalo-cover, a small tent, and a package of -pemmican; and, as soon as we could hurry through our arrangements, -Ohlsen was strapped on in a fur bag, his legs wrapped in dog-skins and -eider-down, and we were off upon the ice. Our party consisted of nine -men and myself. We carried only the clothes on our backs. The -thermometer stood at −46°, 78 degrees below the freezing-point. A -well-known peculiar tower of ice, called by the men the ‘Pinnacly Berg,’ -served as our first landmark: other icebergs of colossal size, which -stretched in long beaded lines across the bay, helped to guide us -afterward; and it was not until we had travelled for sixteen hours that -we began to lose our way. We knew that our lost companions must be -somewhere in the area before us, within a radius of 40 miles. Mr. -Ohlsen, who had been for fifty hours without rest, fell asleep as soon -as we began to move, and awoke now with unequivocal signs of mental -disturbance. It became evident that he had lost the bearing of the -icebergs, which in form and colour endlessly repeated themselves; and -the uniformity of the vast field of snow utterly forbade the hope of -local landmarks. - -“Pushing ahead of the party, and clambering over some rugged ice-piles, -I came to a long level floe, which I thought might probably have -attracted the eyes of weary men in circumstances like our own. It was a -light conjecture; but it was enough to turn the scale, for there was no -other to balance it. I gave orders to abandon the sledge, and disperse -in search of footmarks. We raised our tent, placed our pemmican in -cache, except a small allowance for each man to carry on his person; and -poor Ohlsen, now just able to keep his legs, was liberated from his bag. -The thermometer had fallen by this time to −49.3°, and the wind was -setting in sharply from the north-west. It was out of the question to -halt: it required brisk exercise to keep us from freezing. I could not -even melt ice for water; and, at these temperatures, any resort to snow -for the purpose of allaying thirst was followed by bloody lips and -tongue: it burnt like caustic. - -“It was indispensable, then, that we should move on, looking out for -traces as we went. Yet when the men were ordered to spread themselves, -so as to multiply the chances, though they all obeyed heartily, some -painful impress of solitary danger, or perhaps it may have been the -varying configuration of the ice-field, kept them closing up continually -into a single group. The strange manner in which some of us were -affected I now attribute as much to shattered nerves as to the direct -influence of the cold. Men like McGary and Bonsall, who had stood out -our severest marches, were seized with trembling-fits and short breath; -and, in spite of all my efforts to keep up an example of sound bearing, -I fainted twice on the snow. - -“We had been nearly eighteen hours out without water or food, when a new -hope cheered us. I think it was Hans, our Esquimaux hunter, who thought -he saw a broad sledge-track. The drift had nearly effaced it, and we -were some of us doubtful at first whether it was not one of those -accidental rifts which the gales make in the surface-snow. But, as we -traced on to the deep snow among the hummocks, we were led to footsteps; -and, following these with religious care, we at last came in sight of a -small American flag fluttering from a hummock, and lower down a little -Masonic banner hanging from a tent-pole hardly above the drift. It was -the camp of our disabled comrades: we reached it after an unbroken march -of twenty-one hours. The little tent was nearly covered. I was not among -the first to come up; but, when I reached the tent-curtain, the men were -standing in silent file on each side of it. With more kindness and -delicacy of feeling than is often supposed to belong to sailors, but -which is almost characteristic, they intimated their wish that I should -go in alone. As I crawled in, and, coming upon the darkness, heard -before me the burst of welcome gladness that came from the four poor -fellows stretched on their backs, and then for the first time the cheer -outside, my weakness and my gratitude together almost overcame me. ‘They -had expected me: they were sure I would come!’ - -“We were now fifteen souls; the thermometer 75° below the -freezing-point; and our sole accommodation a tent barely able to contain -eight persons: more than half our party were obliged to keep from -freezing by walking outside while the others slept. We could not halt -long. Each of us took a turn of two hours sleep; and we prepared for our -homeward march. - -“We took with us nothing but the tent, furs to protect the rescued -party, and food for a journey of fifty hours. Everything else was -abandoned. Two large buffalo-bags, each made of four skins, were doubled -up, so as to form a sort of sack, lined on each side by fur, closed at -the bottom, but opened at the top. This was laid on the sledge; the -tent, smoothly folded, serving as a floor. The sick, with their limbs -sewed up carefully in reindeer-skins, were placed upon the bed of -buffalo-robes, in a half-reclining posture; other skins and blanket-bags -were thrown above them; and the whole litter was lashed together so as -to allow but a single opening opposite the mouth for breathing. - -“This necessary work cost us a great deal of time and effort; but it was -essential to the lives of the sufferers. It took us no less than four -hours to strip and refresh them, and then to embale them in the manner I -have described. Few of us escaped without frost-bitten fingers: the -thermometer was at 55.6° below zero, and a slight wind added to the -severity of the cold. - -“It was completed at last, however: all hands stood around; and, after -repeating a short prayer, we set out on our retreat. It was fortunate -indeed that we were not inexperienced in sledging over the ice. A great -part of our track lay among a succession of hummocks; some of them -extending in long lines, 15 and 20 feet high, and so uniformly steep -that we had to turn them by a considerable deviation from our direct -course; others that we forced our way through, far above our heads in -height, lying in parallel ridges, with the space between too narrow for -the sledge to be lowered into it safely, and yet not wide enough for the -runners to cross without the aid of ropes to stay them. These spaces, -too, were generally choked with light snow, hiding the openings between -the ice-fragments. They were fearful traps to disengage a limb from, for -every man knew that a fracture or a sprain even would cost him his life. -Besides all this, the sledge was top-heavy with its load: the maimed men -could not bear to be lashed down tight enough to secure them against -falling off. Notwithstanding our caution in rejecting every superfluous -burden, the weight, including bags and tent, was 1100 pounds. - -“And yet our march for the first six hours was very cheering. We made by -vigorous pulls and lifts nearly a mile an hour, and reached the new -floes before we were absolutely weary. Our sledge sustained the trial -admirably. Ohlsen, restored by hope, walked steadily at the leading belt -of the sledge-lines; and I began to feel certain of reaching our -half-way station of the day before, where we had left our tent. But we -were still 9 miles from it, when, almost without premonition, we all -became aware of an alarming failure of our energies. - -“I was, of course, familiar with the benumbed and almost lethargic -sensation of extreme cold; and once, when exposed for some hours in the -midwinter of Baffin’s Bay, I had experienced symptoms which I compared -to the diffused paralysis of the electro-galvanic shock. But I had -treated the _sleepy comfort_ of freezing as something like the -embellishment of romance. I had evidence now to the contrary. - -“Bonsall and Morton, two of our stoutest men, came to me, begging -permission to sleep: ‘they were not cold: the wind did not enter them -now: a little sleep was all they wanted.’ Presently Hans was found -nearly stiff under a drift; and Thomas, bolt upright, had his eyes -closed, and could hardly articulate. At last, John Blake threw himself -on the snow, and refused to rise. They did not complain of feeling cold; -but it was in vain that I wrestled, boxed, ran, argued, jeered, or -reprimanded: an immediate halt could not be avoided. - -“We pitched our tent with much difficulty. Our hands were too powerless -to strike a fire; we were obliged to do without water or food. Even the -spirits (whisky) had frozen at the men’s feet, under all the coverings. -We put Bonsall, Ohlsen, Thomas, and Hans, with the other sick men, well -inside the tent, and crowded in as many others as we could. Then, -leaving the party in charge of Mr. McGary, with orders to come on after -four hours’ rest, I pushed ahead with William Godfrey, who volunteered -to be my companion. My aim was to reach the half-way tent, and thaw some -ice and pemmican before the others arrived. - -“The floe was of level ice, and the walking excellent. I cannot tell how -long it took us to make the 9 miles; for we were in a strange sort of -stupor, and had little apprehension of time. It was probably about four -hours. We kept ourselves awake by imposing on each other a continued -articulation of words; they must have been incoherent enough. I recall -these hours as among the most wretched I have ever gone through: we were -neither of us in our right senses, and retained a very confused -recollection of what preceded our arrival at the tent. We both of us, -however, remember a bear, who walked leisurely before us and tore up as -he went a jumper that Mr. McGary had improvidently thrown off the day -before. He tore it into shreds and rolled it into a ball, but never -offered to interfere with our progress. I remember this, and with it a -confused sentiment that our tent and buffalo-robes might probably share -the same fate. Godfrey, with whom the memory of this day’s work may -atone for many faults of a later time, had a better eye than myself; -and, looking some miles ahead, he could see that our tent was undergoing -the same unceremonious treatment. I thought I saw it too, but we were so -drunken with cold that we strode on steadily, and, for aught I know, -without quickening our pace. - -“Probably our approach saved the contents of the tent; for when we -reached it the tent was uninjured, though the bear had overturned it, -tossing the buffalo-robes and pemmican into the snow: we missed only a -couple of blanket-bags. What we recollect, however, and perhaps all we -recollect, is, that we had great difficulty in raising it. We crawled -into our reindeer sleeping-bags, without speaking, and for the next -three hours slept on in a dreamy but intense slumber. When I awoke, my -long beard was a mass of ice, frozen fast to the buffalo-skin: Godfrey -had to cut me out with his jack-knife. Four days after our escape, I -found my woollen comfortable with a goodly share of my beard still -adhering to it. - -“We were able to melt water and get some soup cooked before the rest of -our party arrived: it took them but five hours to walk the 9 miles. They -were doing well, and, considering the circumstances, in wonderful -spirits. The day was most providentially windless, with a clear sun. All -enjoyed the refreshment we had got ready: the crippled were repacked in -their robes; and we sped briskly toward the hummock-ridges which lay -between us and the Pinnacly Berg. - -“The hummocks we had now to meet came properly under the designation of -squeezed ice. A great chain of bergs stretching from north-west to -south-east, moving with the tides, had compressed the surface-floes; and -rearing them up on their edges, produced an area more like the volcanic -pedragal of the basin of Mexico than anything else I can compare it to. - -“It required desperate efforts to work our way over it,—literally -desperate, for our strength failed us anew, and we began to lose our -self-control. We could not abstain any longer from eating snow: our -mouths swelled, and some of us became speechless. Happily the day was -warmed by a clear sunshine, and the thermometer rose to −4° in the -shade: otherwise we must have frozen. - -“Our halts multiplied, and we fell half sleeping on the snow. I could -not prevent it. Strange to say, it refreshed us. I ventured upon the -experiment myself, making Riley wake me at the end of three minutes; and -I felt so much benefited by it that I timed the men in the same way. -They sat on the runners of the sledge, fell asleep instantly, and were -forced to wakefulness when their three minutes were out. - -“By eight in the evening we emerged from the floes. The sight of the -Pinnacly Berg revived us. Brandy, an invaluable resource in emergency, -had already been served out in tablespoonful doses. We now took a longer -rest, and a last stouter dram, and reached the brig at 1 p.m., we -believe without a halt. - -“I say _we believe_; and here perhaps is the most decided proof of our -sufferings: we were quite delirious, and had ceased to entertain a sane -apprehension of the circumstances about us. We moved on like men in a -dream. Our footmarks seen afterward showed that we had steered a -bee-line for the brig. It must have been by a sort of instinct, for it -left no impress on the memory. Bonsall was sent staggering ahead, and -reached the brig, God knows how, for he had fallen repeatedly at the -track-lines; but he delivered with punctilious accuracy the messages I -had sent by him to Dr. Hayes. I thought myself the soundest of all, for -I went through all the formula of sanity, and can recall the muttering -delirium of my comrades when we got back into the cabin of our brig. Yet -I have been told since of some speeches and some orders too of mine, -which I should have remembered for their absurdity if my mind had -retained its balance. - -“Petersen and Whipple came out to meet us about 2 miles from the brig. -They brought my dog-team, with the restoratives I had sent for by -Bonsall. I do not remember their coming. Dr. Hayes entered with -judicious energy upon the treatment our condition called for, -administering morphine freely, after the usual frictions. He reported -none of our brain-symptoms as serious, referring them properly to the -class of those indications of exhausted power which yield to generous -diet and rest. Mr. Ohlsen suffered some time from strabismus and -blindness; two others underwent amputation of parts of the foot, without -unpleasant consequences; and two died in spite of all our efforts. This -rescue party had been out for seventy-two hours. We had halted in all -eight hours, half of our number sleeping at a time. We travelled between -80 and 90 miles, most of the way dragging a heavy sledge. The mean -temperature of the whole time, including the warmest hours of three -days, was at −41.2°. We had no water except at our two halts, and were -at no time able to intermit vigorous exercise without freezing.” - -About the beginning of April 1854, Esquimaux made their appearance. For -some time they caused trouble through stealing everything they could. -Great tact was necessary in dealing with them, but this Dr. Kane -possessed, and he was ultimately successful in making them close -friends. - -On 25th April, the advance party of the next sledging expedition left -the brig, and was joined later by Dr. Kane. Deep snow was encountered, -and several of the party began to show signs of the dreaded scurvy. A -cache of provisions on which they intended to rely was found to have -been almost entirely destroyed by bears. Dr. Kane himself became ill, -and the whole party had to return when in the neighbourhood of the great -glacier of Humboldt. They cached some of their stores, and an -india-rubber boat, near Dallas Bay, in lat. 79.5°, long. 66°. - -On the 20th May another sledge-party was sent off, and consisted of Dr. -Hayes and William Godfrey. They were to cross Smith’s Straits above the -inlet and make as near as possible a straight course for Cape Sabine. -This they accomplished with great difficulty, and proceeded north on the -ice along the west coast as far as latitude 79° 45′. They then returned -south as far as Cape Sabine, and recrossed the straits, arriving at the -brig on 1st June. This was a remarkable journey. The equipment was as -follows:—a light sledge and team of seven dogs, 80 lb. of pemmican, 16 -lb. of bread, 18 lb. of lard and rope-yarn for fuel; a reindeer-skin -sleeping-bag for each, a lamp and pot for cooking, sextant, -pocket-compass, telescope, Sharpe’s rifle, two extra pairs of stockings -and one of boots for each. About the third day Dr. Hayes suffered from -snow-blindness, and this caused some delay. The dogs’ harness lines had -to be frequently repaired, which could only be done ultimately by -cutting strips from Godfrey’s seal-skin trousers. Great hummocks of ice -from 20 to 40 feet in height were encountered. In crossing these ridges -the sledge frequently capsized and rolled over and over, dogs, cargo, -and all. In twelve days a distance not less than 400 miles was covered; -the last day’s travel, when provisions ran short, was 70 miles. - -Dr. Kane had not completed the entire circuit of the frozen waters of -Smith Sound. He could not yet say whether it was landlocked or whether a -channel existed still farther to the north. This he determined to -discover. McGary, Bonsall, Hickey, and Riley were detailed for the first -section of the new parties. They were accompanied by Morton, who had -orders to keep himself as fresh as possible, so as to enter on his -farthest north reach in the best possible condition. - -They left the vessel on the 4th of June, and made for the Humboldt -Glacier. Here Morton was joined by Hans with the dog-sledge, and the two -set out on the 18th June, pursuing a northerly course nearly parallel -with the glacier, and from 4 to 7 miles distant from it, according to -the condition of the ice. The icebergs given off by the glacier -presented great difficulties, but these were finally overcome. On the -21st of June, Kennedy Channel was sighted, and they directed their -course towards the cape at the eastern side of the entrance—Cape Andrew -Jackson. Here they found open water, and it was with great difficulty -that the cape was rounded. Still proceeding north, they reached Cape -Constitution in latitude 81° 22′. An attempt to pass this cape failed. -Morton climbed up the cliff to a height of 500 feet, and could get no -farther. As far as he could see not a speck of ice was visible. He -stated: “As far as I could discern, the sea was open, a swell coming in -from the northward and running crosswise, as if with a small eastern -set. The wind was due north—enough of it to make white caps—and the -surf broke in on the rocks below in regular breakers. The sky to the -north-west was of dark rain-cloud, the first that I had seen since the -brig was frozen up. Ivory gulls were nesting in the rocks above me, and -out to sea were mollemoke and silver-backed gulls. The ducks had not -been seen north of the first island of the channel, but petrel and gulls -hung about the waves near the coast.” - -Morton was absent on this journey thirty days. The open condition of -Kennedy Channel, discovered by him, had a most important bearing on some -of the expeditions which followed Kane’s. It gave strong support to the -theory of an open polar sea, which was believed in by many until the -British Expedition of 1875. Dr. Kane himself wavered between the -arguments for and against. He, however, was aware of the fact that open -water, which had frequently been described as a polar sea, had been -found by many explorers in various parts of the Arctic regions, which on -further investigation was found to be merely temporary. And Dr. Kane, -after referring to this fact, wrote: “All these illusory discoveries -were no doubt chronicled with perfect integrity; and it may seem to -others, as since I have left the field it sometimes does to myself, that -my own, though on a larger scale, may one day pass within the same -category.” - -All the sledge-parties had now returned to the brig, and the season of -Arctic travel had ended. The question now to be faced was how they were -to pass a second winter in the event of the ice not liberating the brig, -which seemed likely. As Dr. Kane remarked, “there never was, and I trust -never will be, a party worse armed for the encounter of a second Arctic -winter. We have neither health, fuel, nor provisions.” - -He first determined to examine the condition of the ice to the south. He -found that for 35 miles the straits were absolutely tight. He then -resolved to make an attempt to communicate with Beechy Island and obtain -assistance from Sir Edward Belcher’s squadron, which was in search of -Franklin in Wellington Channel. A whale-boat was mounted on a sledge, -and Kane with five of his men started off on the tremendous undertaking. -On some rocky islets near Littleton Island over 200 eider ducks were -killed in a few hours. They ultimately reached within 10 miles of Cape -Parry, but were stopped there by a solid mass of ice. They returned to -Northumberland Island, and obtained an abundance of auks and eiders. The -ice still remaining solid, they decided to return to the brig. There was -still no sign of the ice breaking up. On 15th August, Dr. Kane wrote: -“The season travels on: the young ice grows thicker, and my messmates’ -faces grow longer, every day. I have again to play buffoon to keep up -the spirits of the party.” On the 18th of August the amount of wood was -reduced to 6 lb. a meal. A suggestion was now made by some of the party -that an effort should be made to reach the Danish settlements. On 24th -August, Dr. Kane called all hands and frankly explained his reasons -which determined him to remain with the brig. He gave his permission, -however, to such as were desirous of making the attempt to reach the -settlements to do so. Eight men decided to remain with Dr. Kane. The -others received a liberal share of the resources, and left the brig on -28th August. One of this party—George Riley—returned a few days -afterwards. Dr. Kane now took steps to make the brig as warm as possible -in view of the fact that there was little fuel left. Moss and turf were -collected with which the quarter-deck was well padded. A space about 18 -feet square was enclosed below, and this was packed from floor to -ceiling with inner walls of the same material. The floor was covered 2 -inches deep with oakum, on the top of which was placed a canvas carpet. -The entrance to this space was from the hold by a low moss-lined tunnel. -The whole arrangement was an imitation of the igloë of the Esquimaux. -The outer-deck planking of the brig was now stripped off and stacked for -firewood. On the 11th September the stock of game consisted of six -long-tailed ducks and three ptarmigan. - -Soon after this, Dr. Kane started with Hans to try and obtain seal in -the open water some distance from the brig. Seal were sighted, but -before they could be reached the ice became thin and dangerous. An -attempt was made to reach a solid floe, but when within 50 paces from -it, the sledges broke through. What followed is best described in Dr. -Kane’s own words: “My first thought was to liberate the dogs. I leaned -forward to cut poor Tood’s traces, and the next minute was swimming in a -little circle of pasty ice and water alongside him. Hans, dear good -fellow, drew near to help me, uttering piteous expressions in broken -English; but I ordered him to throw himself on his belly, with his hands -and legs extended, and to make for the island by cogging himself forward -with his jack-knife. In the meantime—a mere instant—I was floundering -about with sledge, dogs, and lines, in confused puddle around me. I -succeeded in cutting poor Tood’s lines and letting him scramble to the -ice, for the poor fellow was drowning me with his piteous caresses, and -made my way for the sledge; but I found that it would not buoy me, and -that I had no resource but to try the circumference of the hole. Around -this I paddled faithfully, the miserable ice always yielding when my -hopes of a lodgement were greatest. During this process I enlarged my -circle of operations to a very uncomfortable diameter, and was beginning -to feel weaker after every effort. Hans meanwhile had reached the firm -ice, and was on his knees, like a good Moravian, praying incoherently in -English and Esquimaux; at every fresh crushing-in of the ice he would -ejaculate ‘God!’ and when I recommenced my paddling he recommenced his -prayers. - -“I was nearly gone. My knife had been lost in cutting out the dogs; and -a spare one which I carried in my trousers-pocket was so enveloped in -the wet skins that I could not reach it. I owed my extrication at last -to a newly broken team-dog who was still fast to the sledge, and in -struggling carried one of the runners chock against the edge of the -circle. All my previous attempts to use the sledge as a bridge had -failed, for it broke through, to the much greater injury of the ice. I -felt that it was a last chance. I threw myself on my back, so as to -lessen as much as possible my weight, and placed the nape of my neck -against the rim or edge of the ice; then with caution slowly bent my -leg, and, placing the ball of my moccasined foot against the sledge, I -pressed steadily against the runner, listening to the half-yielding -crunch of the ice beneath. - -“Presently I felt that my head was pillowed by the ice, and that my wet -fur jumper was sliding up the surface. Next came my shoulders; they were -fairly on. One more decided push, and I was launched up on the ice, and -safe.” - -On 5th October the stock of fresh meat consisted of one rabbit and three -ducks. On the 7th they were fortunate in killing a bear. - -Darkness was now creeping in on them, and some remarks of Kane on the -Arctic night are well worth quoting: “The intense beauty of the Arctic -firmament can hardly be imagined. It looked close above our heads, with -its stars magnified in glory, and the very planets twinkling so much as -to baffle the observations of our astronomer. I am afraid to speak of -some of these night-scenes. I have trodden the deck and the floes, when -the life of earth seemed suspended, its movements, its sounds, its -colouring, its companionships; and as I looked on the radiant -hemisphere, circling above me as if rendering worship to the unseen -Centre of light, I have ejaculated in humility of spirit, ‘Lord, what is -man that Thou art mindful of him?’ And then I have thought of the kindly -world we had left, with its revolving sunshine and shadow; and the other -stars that gladden it in their changes, and the hearts that warmed to us -there; till I lost myself in memories of those who are not;—and they -bore me back to the stars again.” - -By the beginning of December, scurvy was making sad inroads among the -party. On the 2nd, Dr. Kane wrote: “Had to put Mr. McGary and Riley -under active treatment for scurvy. Gums retracted, ankles swollen, and -bad lumbago. Mr. Wilson’s case, a still worse one, has been brought -under. Morton’s is a saddening one: I cannot afford to lose him. He is -not only one of my most intelligent men, but he is daring, cool, and -everyway trustworthy. His tendon Achilles has been completely -perforated, and the surface of the heel-bone exposed. An operation in -cold, darkness, and privation would probably bring on locked-jaw. Brooks -grows discouraged: the poor fellow has scurvy in his stump, and his leg -is drawn up by the contraction of the flexors at the knee-joint. This is -the third case on board—the fourth if I include my own—of contracted -tendons.” - -On the 7th of December, Bonsall and Petersen, two of the party that left -Kane on 28th August, returned to the brig, and the remainder of the -party arrived on the 12th. They had gone through a terrible trial. When -they arrived at the brig, the thermometer was at −50°; they were covered -with rime and snow, and were fainting with hunger. They had journeyed -350 miles, and their last run from the bay near Etah, some 70 miles in a -straight line, was through the hummocks at this appalling temperature. -For more than two months they had lived on frozen seal and walrus-meat. - -Food for the whole party became more and more scarce, and Dr. Kane -determined to make a journey to Etah in order to obtain assistance from -the Esquimaux, if possible. His views on sledging at this period are -interesting: “My plans for sledging, simple as I once thought them, and -simple certainly as compared with those of the English parties, have -completely changed. Give me an 8 lb. reindeer-fur bag to sleep in, an -Esquimaux lamp with a lump of moss, a sheet iron snow-melter or a copper -soup-pot, with a tin cylinder to slip over it and defend it from the -wind, a good _pièce de résistance_ of raw walrus-beef; and I want -nothing more for a long journey, if the thermometer will keep itself as -high as minus 30°. Give me a bear-skin bag and coffee to boot; and with -the clothes on my back I am ready for minus 60°,—but no wind. - -“The programme runs after this fashion. Keep the blood in motion, -without loitering on the march: and for the halt, raise a snow-house; or -if the snow lie scant or impracticable, ensconce yourself in a burrow or -under the hospitable lee of an inclined hummock-slab. The outside fat of -your walrus sustains your little moss fire: its frozen slices give you -bread, its frozen blubber gives you butter, its scrag ends make the -soup. The snow supplies you with water; and when you are ambitious of -coffee there is a bagful stowed away in your boot. Spread out your -bear-bag, your only heavy movable; stuff your reindeer-bag inside, hang -your boots up outside, take a blade of bone, and scrape off all the ice -from your furs. Now crawl in, the whole party of you, feet foremost; -draw the top of your dormitory close, heading to leeward. Fancy yourself -in Sybaris; and, if you are only tired enough, you may sleep—like St. -Lawrence on his grid-iron, or even a trifle better.” - -On 17th January 1855, Dr. Kane wrote: “There is no evading it any -longer: it has been evident for the past ten days that the present state -of things cannot last. We require meat, and cannot get along without it. -Our sick have finished the bear’s head, and are now eating the condemned -abscessed liver of the animal, including some intestines that were not -given to the dogs. We have about three days’ allowance; thin chips of -raw frozen meat, not exceeding 4 oz. in weight for each man per day.” - -On 22nd January, Kane and Hans left the brig to make an attempt to reach -Etah. Unfortunately, a severe snowstorm came on soon after they reached -a half-way hut. After being storm-bound two days, they attempted to push -on, but found that the snow had accumulated to such an extent that it -was impossible to complete the journey. They returned to the hut, and -next day tried the land-ice, but in vain. Kane, however, climbed a hill -from which he discovered a trough through the hummock-ridges, and level -plains of ice stretching to the south. Had the dogs not been disabled -and the moonlight waning, they could now have made the journey; but as -it was, they were forced to return to the brig, which they reached -thoroughly exhausted. - -Petersen and Hans started on 3rd February to make another attempt. They -returned on the 5th, having found that the snow had become impassable. -At this time only five of the party were able to work, and even these -were not free from scurvy. On 28th February Kane had to report: “The -scurvy is steadily gaining on us. I do my best to sustain the more -desperate cases; but as fast as I partially build up one, another is -stricken down. The disease is perhaps less malignant than it was, but it -is more diffused throughout our party. Except William Morton, who is -disabled by a frozen heel, not one of our eighteen is exempt. Of the six -workers of our party, as I counted them a month ago, two are unable to -do outdoor work, and the remaining four divide the duties of the ship -among them. Hans musters his remaining energies to conduct the hunt. -Petersen is his disheartened, moping assistant. The other two, Bonsall -and myself, have all the daily offices of household and hospital. We -chop five large sacks of ice, cut 6 fathoms of 8-inch hawser into junks -of a foot each, serve out the meat when we have it, hack at the -molasses, and hew out with crowbar and axe the pork and dried apples, -pass up the foul slop and cleansings of our dormitory; and in a word, -cook, _scullionise_, and attend the sick. Added to this, for five nights -running I have kept watch from 8 p.m. to 4 a.m., catching cat-naps as I -could in the day without changing my clothes, but carefully waking every -hour to note thermometers.” - -Such was the stuff of which Dr. Kane was made! - -On the 6th of March, Kane made the desperate venture of sending Hans, -the only effective huntsman, on a sledge-journey to find the Esquimaux -of Etah. He took with him the two surviving dogs in the lightest sledge. -He returned on the 10th, having made the journey successfully. He found -that the plight of the Esquimaux, so far as food was concerned, had been -worse than those at the brig. Hans, however, assisted in a walrus-hunt, -and with his rifle succeeded in killing a walrus. With his share of the -meat he returned to the brig, where he was heartily welcomed. - -By the end of March, Kane was able to hope that the scurvy was abating. -In his journal on 3rd April, he gives a description of the daily -routine:— - -“At 7.30 call ‘all hands’; which means that one of the well trio wakes -the other two. This order is obeyed slowly. The commander confesses for -himself that the breakfast is well-nigh upon table before he gets his -stiff ankles to the floor. Looking around, he sees the usual mosaic of -sleepers as ingeniously dovetailed and crowded together as the -campers-out in a buffalo-bag. He winds his way through them, and, as he -does so, some stereotyped remarks are interchanged. ‘Thomas!’—our -ex-cook, now side by side with the first officer of the -expedition,—‘Thomas, turn out!’ ‘Eugh-ng, sir.’ ‘Turn out; get up.’ -‘Ys-sir;’ (sits bolt upright and rubs his eyes.) ‘How d’you feel, Mr. -Ohlsen?’ ‘Better, sir.’ ‘How’ve you passed the night, Mr. Brooks?’ -‘Middlin’, sir.’ And, after a diversified series of spavined efforts, -the mystical number forms its triangle at the table. - -“It still stands in its simple dignity, an unclothed platform of boards, -with a pile of plates in the centre. Near these is a virtuoso collection -of cups grouped in a tumulus or cairn, commencing philosophically at the -base with heavy stoneware, and ending with battered tin: the absolute -pinnacle a debased dredging-box, which makes a bad goblet, being -unpleasantly sharp at its rim. At one end of this table, partly hid by -the beer-barrel, stands Petersen; at the side, Bonsall; and a limejuice -cask opposite marks my seat. We are all standing: a momentary hush is -made among the sick; and the daily prayer comes with one heart:—‘Accept -our gratitude, and restore us to our homes.’ - -“The act of devotion over, we sit down, and look—not at the breakfast, -but at each other. - -“It may sound absurd to those who cannot understand the narrowing -interest which we three availables feel in our continued mutual ability, -for me to say that we spend the first five minutes in a detail of -symptoms. The state of each man’s gums and shins and ankles, his elbows, -loins, and kidneys, is canvassed minutely and compared with his -yesterday’s report: the recital might edify a specialist who was anxious -to register the Protean indications of scurvy. It is sometimes -ludicrous, but always sad. - -“Now for the bill of fare. ‘Who cooked?’—I am describing a -gala-day.—‘It was Morton: he felt so much better that he got up at six; -but he caved in soon after’:— - -“First, coffee, great comforter to hard-worked men; one part of the -genuine berry to three of navy-beans; next, sugar: what complex memories -the word brings back!—the veritable sugar has been long ago defunct; -but we have its representative molasses twice a week in our tea. Third, -butter; there it is in a mutilated vegetable-dish; my own invention, -melted from salt beef and washed in many waters: the unskilled might -call it tallow. Fourth, a real delicacy not to be surpassed in court or -camp, for Morton was up to see to it:—a pile of hot rolls of fine -Virginia flour. What else? Nothing else: the breakfast resolves itself -into bean-coffee, tallow, and hot bread. Yet a cordial meal it is. I am -sorry to hurry over it so uncourteously, for I could dwell with Charles -Lamb’s pensive enthusiasm upon the fleshpots; but I have been longer in -describing the feast than it takes us to dispose of it. I hurry on with -the interesting detail. Dinner is breakfast, with the beans converted -into soup instead of coffee; and supper boasts of stewed apples. - -“Work commences at nine. Petersen is off with his gun, and the two -remaining dearly beloved Rogers arrange their carte: one makes the round -of the sick and deals out their daily allowance of raw meat; the other -goes to cutting ice. Those who can sit in bed and work, pick eider-down -or cotton, for coverlets to our boat-bedding on the escape; others sew -canvas bags for the same purpose; and Brooks balls off twine in order to -lay up ‘small stuff.’ - -“At times when the sun comes out very brightly, Brooks and Wilson get -permission to go on deck. One of us assists them, and, by the aid of -creeping and crawling, these poor cripples manage to sit upon the -combings of the hatch and look around in the glorious daylight. The -sight seldom fails to affect them. There are emotions among rude, -roughly nurtured men which vent themselves in true poetry. Brooks has -about him sensibilities that shame me. - -“This afternoon, save to the cook, is a season of rest; a real lazy, -lounging interval, arrested by the call to supper. The coming -night-watch obliges me to take an evening cat-nap. I state this by way -of implying that I never sleep o’ daytimes. - -“After supper, we have a better state of things than two weeks ago. Then -the few tired-out workers were regaled by the groans and tossings of the -sick. There was little conversation, and the physiognomy of our -smoke-blackened little den was truly dismal. Now daylight pours in from -the scuttle, the tea-kettle sings upon the stove, the convalescents rise -up on their elbows and spin merry yarns. We are not yet sufficiently -jolly for cards; but we are sufficiently thankful to do without them. At -nine, silence almost unbroken prevails throughout our dormitory, and the -watch-officer slips on his bear-skin, and, full of thoughts of -to-morrow, resigns himself to a round of little routine observances, the -most worthless of which is this unbroken record of the changing days.” - -Kane now became convinced that the brig had little chance of being -released from the ice, and he began preparations for a retreat by boat -to the Danish settlement of Upernavik. - -“Canvas moccasins had been made for every one of the party, and three -dozen were added as a common stock to meet emergencies. Three pairs of -boots were allowed each man. These were generally of carpeting, with -soles of walrus and seal-hide; and when the supply of these gave out, -the leather from the chafing-gear of the brig for a time supplied their -place. A much better substitute was found afterward in the gutta-percha -that had formed the speaking-tube. This was softened by warm water, cut -into lengths, and so made available to its new uses. Blankets were -served out as the material for body-clothing: every man was his own -tailor. For bedding, the woollen curtains that had formerly decorated -our berths supplied us with a couple of large coverlets, which were -abundantly quilted with eider-down. Two buffalo-robes of the same size -with the coverlets were arranged so as to button on them, forming -sleeping-sacks for the occasion, but easily detached for the purpose of -drying or airing. - -“Our provision-bags were of assorted sizes, to fit under the thwarts of -the boats. They were of sail-cloth made water-tight by tar and pitch, -which we kept from penetrating the canvas by first coating it with -flour-paste and plaster of Paris. The bread-bags were double, the inner -saturated with paste and plaster by boiling in the mixture, and the -space between the two filled with pitch. Every bag was, in -sailor-phrase, roped and becketed; in ordinary parlance, well secured by -cordage. - -“These different manufactures had all of them been going on through the -winter, and more rapidly as the spring advanced. They had given -employment to the thoughts of our sick men, and in this way had exerted -a wholesome influence on their moral tone and assisted their -convalescence. Other preparations had been begun more recently. The -provisions for the descent were to be got ready and packed. The -ship-bread was powdered by beating it with a capstan-bar, and pressed -down into the bags which were to carry it. Pork-fat and tallow were -melted down, and poured into other bags to freeze. A stock of -concentrated bean-soup was cooked, and secured for carriage like the -pork-fat; and the flour and remaining meat-biscuit were to be protected -from moisture in double bags. These were the only provisions we were to -carry with us. I knew I should be able to subsist the party for some -time after their setting out by the food I could bring from the vessel -by occasional trips with my dog-team. For the rest, we relied upon our -guns. - -“Besides all this, we had our camp equipage to get in order, and the -vitally important organisation of our system of boats and sledges. - -“Our boats were three in number, all of them well battered by exposure -to ice and storm, almost as destructive of their sea-worthiness as the -hot sun of other regions. Two of them were cypress whale-boats, 26 feet -long, with 7 feet beam, and 3 feet deep. These were strengthened with -oak bottom-pieces and a long string-piece bolted to the keel. A -washboard of light cedar, about 6 inches high, served to strengthen the -gunwale and give increased depth. A neat housing of light canvas was -stretched upon a ridge-line sustained fore and aft by stanchions, and -hung down over the boat’s sides, where it was fastened (stopped) to a -jack-stay. My last year’s experience on the attempt to reach Beechy -Island determined me to carry but one mast to each boat. It was stepped -into an oaken thwart, made especially strong, as it was expected to -carry sail over ice as well as water: the mast could be readily -unshipped, and carried, with the oars, boat-hooks, and ice-poles, -alongside the boat. The third boat was my little _Red Eric_. We mounted -her on the old sledge, the _Faith_, hardly relying on her for any -purposes of navigation, but with the intention of cutting her up for -firewood in case our guns should fail to give us a supply of blubber. - -“Indeed, in spite of all the ingenuity of our carpenter, Mr. Ohlsen, -well seconded by the persevering labours of McGary and Bonsall, not one -of our boats was positively sea-worthy. The planking of all of them was -so dried up that it could hardly be made tight by caulking. - -“The three boats were mounted on sledges rigged with rue-raddies; the -provisions stowed snugly under the thwarts; the chronometers, carefully -boxed and padded, placed in the stern-sheets of the _Hope_, in charge of -Mr. Sonntag. With them were such of the instruments as we could venture -to transport. They consisted of two Gambey sextants with artificial -horizon, our transit-unifilar, and dip-instruments. Our glasses, with a -few of the smaller field-instruments, we carried on our persons. Our -fine theodolite we were forced to abandon. Our powder and shot, upon -which our lives depended, were carefully distributed in bags and tin -canisters. The percussion caps I took into my own possession, as more -precious than gold. Mr. Bonsall had a general charge of the arms and -ammunition. Places were arranged for the guns, and hunters appointed for -each boat. Mr. Petersen took charge of the most important part of our -field equipage, our cooking-gear. Petersen was our best tinker. All the -old stove-pipe, now none the better for two winters of Arctic fires, was -called into requisition. Each boat was provided with two large iron -cylinders, 14 inches in diameter and 18 inches high. Each of them held -an iron saucer or lamp, in which we could place our melted pork-fat or -blubber, and, with the aid of spun-yarn for a wick, make a roaring fire. -I need not say that the fat and oil always froze when not ignited. Into -these cylinders, which were used merely to defend our lamp from the wind -and our pots from contact with the cold air, we placed a couple of large -tin vessels, suitable either for melting snow or making tea or soup. -They were made out of cake-canisters cut down. How many kindly festival -associations hung by these now abused soup-cans! One of them had, before -the fire rubbed off its bright gilding, the wedding-inscription of a -large fruit-cake. - -“We carried spare tins in case the others should burn out: it was well -we did so. So completely had we exhausted our household furniture, that -we had neither cups nor plates, except crockery. This, of course, would -not stand the travel, and our spare tin had to be saved for protecting -the boats from ice. At this juncture we cut plates out of every -imaginable and rejected piece of tinware. Borden’s meat-biscuit -canisters furnished us with a splendid dinner-service; and some rightly -feared tin jars, with ominous labels of Corrosive Sublimate and Arsenic, -which once belonged to our department of Natural History, were emptied, -scoured, and cut down into tea-cups.” - -The 17th of May was fixed as the date of setting out, and each man was -to be allowed 8 lb. of personal effects. Until the boats were hauled a -considerable distance from the brig, the party returned to it at night. -When the last farewell to the brig was made, the entire ship’s company -took part in the ceremonial. It is best described in Dr. Kane’s own -words:— - -“We read prayers and a chapter of the Bible; and then, all standing -silently round, I took Sir John Franklin’s portrait from its frame and -cased it in an india-rubber scroll. I next read the reports of -inspection and survey which had been made by the several commissions -organised for the purpose, all of them testifying to the necessities -under which I was about to act. I then addressed the party: I did not -affect to disguise the difficulties that were before us; but I assured -them that they could all be overcome by energy and subordination to -command, and that the 1300 miles of ice and water that lay between us -and North Greenland could be traversed with safety for most of us, and -hope for all. I added that as men and messmates it was the duty of us -all, enjoined by gallantry as well as religion, to postpone every -consideration of self to the protection of the wounded and sick; and -that this must be regarded by every man and under all circumstances as a -paramount order. In conclusion, I told them to think over the trials we -had all of us gone through, and to remember each man for himself how -often an unseen Power had rescued him in peril, and I admonished them -still to place reliance on Him who could not change.” - -On reaching the boats, the party were regularly mustered and divided -between the two. A rigid inspection was made of every article of -personal equipment. Each man had a woollen under-dress and an Esquimaux -suit of fur clothing—kapetah, nessak, and nannooke complete, with boots -of their own make. One pair of boots was made of canvas faced with -walrus-hide, and another inside these made of the cabin Brussels carpet. -In addition to this, each man carried a rue-raddy—a shoulder-belt to -drag by—adjusted to fit him comfortably, a pair of socks next his skin, -and a pair of large goggles for snow-blindness, made Esquimaux-fashion -by cutting a small slit in a piece of wood. The provision-bags and other -stores were numbered, and each man and officer had his own bag and a -place assigned for it, to prevent confusion in rapid stowing and -unstowing. Excluding four sick men, who were unable to move, and Dr. -Kane, who had to drive the dog-team and serve as common carrier and -courier, they numbered but twelve men, which would have given six to a -sledge—too few to move it. It was therefore necessary to concentrate -the entire force upon one sledge at a time. - -The routine established by Dr. Kane was the most precise:—“Daily -prayers both morning and evening, all hands gathering round in a circle -and standing uncovered during the short exercise; regulated hours; fixed -duties and positions at the track-lines and on the halt; the cooking to -be taken by turns, the captains of the boats alone being excused. The -charge of the log was confided to Dr. Hayes, and the running survey to -Mr. Sonntag. The thermometer was observed every three hours.” - -Dr. Kane prepared the hut at Anoatok for the reception of the sick, and -carried a large part of the provisions there. During the first fortnight -after the sledges left the brig he journeyed between 700 and 800 miles -in doing this work by means of his dog-sledge—a mean travel of about 57 -miles a day. - -Before reaching open water on the 16th of June, enormous difficulties -had to be overcome, and one man lost his life through an injury to his -back in making an attempt to keep one of the sledges from going through -the ice. - -The boats had now to be caulked and swelled to prepare them for a long -and adventurous navigation. - -Nearly the whole Esquimaux settlement followed and assisted them as far -as the open water, and Dr. Kane thus describes the scene near the time -of bidding them farewell:— - -“Each one has a knife, or a file, or a saw, or some such treasured -keepsake; and the children have a lump of soap, the greatest of all -great medicines. The merry little urchins break in upon me even now as I -am writing:—‘Kuyanake, kuyanake, Nalegaksoak!’ ‘Thank you, thank you, -big chief!’ while Myouk is crowding fresh presents of raw birds on me as -if I could eat for ever, and poor Aningnah is crying beside the -tent-curtain, wiping her eyes on a bird-skin! - -“My heart warms to these poor, dirty, miserable, yet happy beings, so -long our neighbours, and of late so staunchly our friends. Theirs is no -affectation of regret. There are twenty-two of them around me, all busy -in good offices to the Docto Kayens; and there are only two women and -the old blind patriarch Kresuk, ‘Driftwood,’ left behind at the -settlement. - -“But see! more of them are coming up,—boys ten years old are pushing -forward babies on their sledges. The whole nation is gipsying with us -upon the icy meadows. - -“We cook for them in our big camp-kettle; they sleep in the _Red Eric_; -a berg close at hand supplies them with water; and thus, rich in all -that they value,—sleep and food and drink and companionship,—with -their treasured short-lived summer sun above them, the _beau ideal_ and -sum of Esquimaux blessings, they seem supremely happy. - -“Poor creatures! It is only six months ago that starvation was among -them: many of the faces around me have not yet lost the lines of wasting -suspense. The walrus-season is again of doubtful productiveness, and -they are cut off from their brethren to the south, at Netelik, and -Appah, until winter rebuilds the avenue of ice. With all this, no -thoughts of the future cross them. Babies squall, and women chatter, and -the men weave their long yarns with peals of rattling hearty laughter -between. - -“Ever since we reached Pekiutlik, these friends of ours have considered -us their guests. They have given us hand-sledges for our baggage, and -taken turn about in watches to carry us and it to the water’s edge. But -for them our dreary journey would have been prolonged at least a -fortnight, and we are so late even now that hours may measure our lives. -Metek, Myouk, Nessark, Erkee, and the half-grown boys have been our -chief labourers; but women, children, and dogs are all bearing their -part. - -“Whatever may have been the faults of these Esquimaux heretofore, -stealing was the only grave one. Treachery they may have conceived; and -I have reason to believe that, under superstitious fears of an evil -influence from our presence, they would at one time have been glad to -destroy us. But the day of all this has passed away. When trouble came -to us and to them, and we bent ourselves to their habits,—when we -looked to them to procure us fresh meat, and they found at our poor -Oomiak-soak shelter and protection during their wild bear-hunts,—then -we were so blended in our interests as well as modes of life that every -trace of enmity wore away. God knows that since they professed -friendship, albeit the imaginary powers of the angekok-soak and the -marvellous six-shooter which attested them may have had their influence, -never have friends been more true. Although, since Ohlsen’s death, -numberless articles of inestimable value to them have been scattered -upon the ice unwatched, they have not stolen a nail. It was only -yesterday that Metek, upon my alluding to the manner in which property -of all sorts was exposed without pilfering, explained through Petersen, -in these two short sentences, the argument of their morality:— - -“‘You have done us good. We are not hungry; we will not take, -(steal)—You have done us good; we want to help you: we are friends.’” - -Kane and his men were delayed by a gale till 19th June, when they -embarked in three boats. Of the original nineteen men, three had died. -Another, Hans Christian the Esquimaux, had fallen in love, and remained -behind. The party now, therefore, consisted of fifteen. They made first -for Hakluyt Island, where the boats had to undergo further repairs. In -the morning of 22nd June, they pushed forward through a snowstorm for -Northumberland Island, where a number of auks were secured. Murchison -Channel was crossed on 23rd June, and they encamped for the night near -the base of Cape Parry. Soon after leaving here they encountered a gale -from the north-west, and had great difficulty in escaping from the -drifting ice. By good luck, however, they landed at the breeding-grounds -of a large number of eider ducks, and were able to gather 1200 eggs a -day. Here they remained three days, until the storm abated. They now -made for Cape Dudley Digges, which they reached on 11th July. Here they -obtained an abundance of birds, and scurvy grass. The ice ahead barred -their passage, and they were nothing loath to spend a week where there -was plenty of food. On 18th July they again set out, but in doing so -were unfortunate enough to lose their best shot-gun and their kettle, -owing to the capsizing of one of the boats. Cape York was reached on -21st July. Here they left the coast-line and entered the ice-pack. On -the 28th the daily allowance of food was restricted to 5 oz. of -bread-dust, 4 oz. of tallow, and 3 oz. of bird-meat. The _Red Eric_ was -broken up for fuel, so that the whole party had now to be transported in -two boats. The short rations soon began to tell on their strength, and -the old symptoms of scurvy came back again. It was at this crisis that a -seal was seen, and the incident is thus described by Dr. Kane:— - -“It was an ussuk, and so large that I at first mistook it for a walrus. -Signal was made for the _Hope_ to follow astern, and, trembling with -anxiety, we prepared to crawl down upon him. - -“Petersen, with the large English rifle, was stationed in the bow, and -stockings were drawn over the oars as mufflers. As we neared the animal, -our excitement became so intense that the men could hardly keep stroke. -I had a set of signals for such occasions which spared us the noise of -the voice; and when about 300 yards off, the oars were taken in, and we -moved in deep silence with a single scull astern. - -“He was not asleep, for he reared his head when we were almost within -rifle-shot; and to this day I can remember the hard, careworn, almost -despairing expression of the men’s thin faces as they saw him move: -their lives depended on his capture. - -“I depressed my hand nervously, as a signal for Petersen to fire. McGary -hung upon his oar, and the boat, slowly but noiselessly sagging ahead, -seemed to me within certain range. Looking at Petersen, I saw that the -poor fellow was paralysed by his anxiety, trying vainly to obtain a rest -for his gun against the cut-water of the boat. The seal rose on his -fore-flippers, gazed at us for a moment with frightened curiosity, and -coiled himself for a plunge. At that instant, simultaneously with the -crack of our rifle, he relaxed his long length on the ice, and, at the -very brink of the water, his head fell helpless to one side. - -“I would have ordered another shot, but no discipline could have -controlled the men. With a wild yell, each vociferating according to his -own impulse, they urged both boats upon the floes. A crowd of hands -seized the seal and bore him up to safer ice. The men seemed half crazy; -I had not realised how much we were reduced by absolute famine. They ran -over the floe, crying and laughing and brandishing their knives. It was -not five minutes before every man was sucking his bloody fingers or -mouthing long strips of raw blubber. - -“Not an ounce of this seal was lost. The intestines found their way into -the soup-kettles without any observance of the preliminary -home-processes. The cartilaginous parts of the fore-flippers were cut -off in the mêlée, and passed round to be chewed upon; and even the -liver, warm and raw as it was, bade fair to be eaten before it had seen -the pot. That night, on the large halting-floe, to which, in contempt of -the dangers of drifting, we happy men had hauled our boats, two entire -planks of the _Red Eric_ were devoted to a grand cooking-fire, and we -enjoyed a rare and savage feast. - -“This was our last experience of the disagreeable effects of hunger. In -the words of George Stephenson, ‘The charm was broken and the dogs were -safe.’ The dogs I have said little about, for none of us liked to think -of them. The poor creatures Toodla and Whitey had been taken with us as -last resources against starvation. They were, as McGary worded it, ‘meat -on the hoof,’ and ‘able to carry their own fat over the floes.’ Once, -near Weary Man’s Rest, I had been on the point of killing them; but they -had been the leaders of our winter’s team, and we could not bear the -sacrifice.” - -Within a day or two after killing the large seal, another was shot, and -from that time forward they had a full supply of food. On the 1st of -August they sighted the Devil’s Thumb, and were soon among the Duck -Islands. A few days after this they met an Upernavik oil-boat, and -received some scanty news of the world. They learnt that a squadron -under Captain Hartstene had left for the north in search of them a short -time before. On the 6th of August they arrived at Upernavik, where they -were well received by the Danes—eighty-three days after leaving the -_Advance_. The squadron under Hartstene returned in time to convey Dr. -Kane and his party to America. - - * * * * * - -The results of Dr. Kane’s expedition were very important. Ross had -declared that Smith Sound was a bay, and although Captain Inglefield in -1852 proved that it was a sound, he reached only 78° 28′. Kane extended -our knowledge up to 81° 22′, and all indications tended to show that -Kennedy Channel led to the Polar Ocean. - -No one can read Kane’s book without being impressed by the noble -character of the man. He was a hero in the highest sense of the word. It -is sad to relate that he died in Havana on the 16th February 1857, when -only thirty-seven years of age. - - - - - CHAPTER III - EXPEDITION COMMANDED BY DR. HAYES - IN 1860−61 - - -The object of Dr. Hayes’ expedition may be given in his own words:— - -“The plan of the enterprise first suggested itself to me while acting as -surgeon of the expedition commanded by the late Dr. E. K. Kane, of the -United States Navy. Although its execution did not appear feasible at -the period of my return from that voyage in October 1855, yet I did not -at any time abandon the design. It comprehended an extensive scheme of -discovery. The proposed route was that by Smith Sound. My object was to -complete the survey of the north coasts of Greenland and Grinnell Land, -and to make such explorations as I might find practicable in the -direction of the North Pole. - -“My proposed base of operations was Grinnell Land, which I had -discovered on my former voyage, and had personally traced beyond -latitude 80°, far enough to satisfy me that it was available for my -design. - -“Accepting the deductions of many learned physicists that the sea about -the North Pole cannot be frozen, that an open area of varying extent -must be found within the Ice-belt which is known to invest it, I desired -to add to the proofs which had already been accumulated by the early -Dutch and English voyagers, and, more recently, by the researches of -Scoresby, Wrangel, and Parry, and still later by Dr. Kane’s expedition. - -“It is well known that the great difficulty which has been encountered, -in the various attempts that have been made to solve this important -physical problem, has been the inability of the explorer to penetrate -the Ice-belt with his ship, or to travel over it with sledges -sufficiently far to obtain indisputable proof. My former experience led -me to the conclusion that the chances of success were greater by Smith -Sound than by any other route, and my hopes of success were based upon -the expectation which I entertained of being able to push a vessel into -the Ice-belt, to about the 80th parallel of latitude, and thence to -transport a boat over the ice to the open sea which I hoped to find -beyond. Reaching this open sea, if such fortune awaited me, I proposed -to launch my boat and to push off northward. For the ice-transportation -I expected to rely, mainly, upon the dog of the Esquimaux.” - -Dr. Hayes had a strong belief in the existence of an open Polar Sea, but -it may here be mentioned that subsequent exploration proved that his -views were not correct. On the other hand, the view of the old -geographers that for a long distance around the Pole the sea was covered -with immovable ice has also been disproved. Throughout the whole year -the ice is found to be more or less in motion, except where it is in -contact with the land. - -Dr. Hayes expected to be able to start with two vessels,—one a small -steamer, to be taken out under sails, and the steam-power only to be -used when actually among the ice; the other a sailing vessel, to be -employed as a tender or store-ship. He found, however, that the fund -which he had raised with great difficulty would only enable him to fit -out and man one small sailing vessel. - -A fore-and-aft schooner of 133 tons register, named _Spring Hill_, was -purchased, and after some necessary alterations, was rechristened -_United States_. - -August Sonntag, the astronomer of Kane’s expedition, early volunteered -to accompany Hayes. On his return to the United States he was appointed -to the Dudley Observatory, Albany, and to accompany Dr. Hayes he -sacrificed the fine position of Associate Director of that institution. - -Including Dr. Hayes, the party numbered fifteen persons. They left -Boston on 7th July 1860, and after a rough passage crossed the Arctic -Circle on 30th July. The first iceberg was met on the previous day. Some -rough weather was experienced in Davis’ Strait, and is thus described by -Hayes:— - -“We were running before the wind and fighting a wretched cross-sea under -reefed fore and mainsail and jib, when the fore fife-rail was carried -away;—down came everything to the deck, and there was left not a stitch -of canvas on the schooner but the lumbering mainsail. It was a miracle -that we did not broach to and go to the bottom. Nothing saved us but a -steady hand at the helm. - -“Notwithstanding all this knocking about, everybody seemed to take it -for granted that this sort of thing is very natural and proper, and a -part of the engagement for the cruise. It is at least gratifying to see -that they take kindly to discomfort, and receive every freak of fortune -with manly good-nature. I really believe that were affairs otherwise -ordered they would be sadly disappointed. They are ‘the small band of -brave and spirited men’ they read about in the newspapers, and they mean -to show it. The sailors are sometimes literally drowned out of the -forecastle. The cabin is flooded at least a dozen times a day. The -skylight has been knocked to pieces by the head of a sea, and the table, -standing directly under it, has been more than once cleared of crockery -and eatables without the aid of the steward. My own cabin gets washed -out at irregular intervals, and my books are half of them spoiled by -tumbling from their shelves in spite of all I can do to the contrary. -Once I caught the whole library tacking about the deck after an -unusually ambitious dive of the schooner, and the advent of a more than -ordinarily heavy rush of water through the ‘companion-way.’” - -Land was first sighted on the 31st July, and proved to be the southern -extremity of Disco Island. Owing to a calm, Proven was not reached till -6th August. The entry into the harbour is thus described by Dr. Hayes:— - -“We were escorted into the harbour of Proven by the strangest fleet of -boats and the strangest-looking boatmen that ever convoyed a ship. They -were the far-famed Kayakers of Greenland, and they deserve a passing -notice. - -“The Kayak of the Greenlander is the frailest specimen of marine -architecture that ever carried human freight. It is 18 feet long and as -many inches wide at its middle, and tapers, with an upward curving line, -to a point at either end. The skeleton of the boat is made of light -wood; the covering is of tanned seal-skin, sewed together by the native -women with sinew thread, and with a strength and dexterity quite -astonishing. Not a drop of water finds its way through their seams, and -the skin itself is perfectly waterproof. The boat is about 9 inches -deep, and the top is covered like the bottom. There is no opening into -it except a round hole in the centre, which admits the hunter as far as -his hips. This hole is surrounded with a wooden rim, over which the -Kayaker laces the lower edge of his water-tight jacket, and thus fastens -himself in and keeps the water out. He propels himself with a single oar -about 6 feet long, which terminates in a blade or paddle at either end. -This instrument of locomotion is grasped in the centre, and is dipped in -the water alternately to right and left. The boat is graceful as a duck -and light as a feather. It has no ballast and no keel, and it rides -almost on the surface of the water. It is therefore necessarily -top-heavy. Long practice is required to manage it, and no tight-rope -dancer ever needed more steady nerve and skill of balance than this same -savage Kayaker. Yet, in this frail craft, he does not hesitate to ride -seas which would swamp an ordinary boat, or to break through surf which -may sweep completely over him. But he is used to hard battles, and, in -spite of every fortune, he keeps himself upright.” - -Hayes expected to obtain a supply of dogs at Proven, but he found that a -disease which had prevailed among the teams during the previous year had -diminished the stock to less than half of what was required by the -people themselves, and he had to be satisfied with a few dogs of -inferior quality. The Danish officials, however, rendered Hayes all the -assistance in their power, and gave him hope of being more successful at -Upernavik, for which settlement he left on 12th August. - -During the night, before reaching Upernavik, the carpenter of the -expedition, Gibson Caruthers, died suddenly. Besides Mr. Sonntag and Dr. -Hayes, he was the only member of the party who had been in the Arctic -seas, having served in the First Grinnell Expedition in search of -Franklin. He was buried at Upernavik. - -Having obtained about two dozen dogs, and a supply of reindeer, seal, -and dog-skins, Upernavik was left after four days’ delay. Three -Esquimaux, an interpreter, and two Danish sailors were engaged at -Upernavik. At Tessuissak, a place about 60 miles from Upernavik, a team -of dogs, the property of the interpreter, was obtained. - -When Melville Bay was reached, Hayes was delighted to find open water -with only an iceberg here and there. This was crossed in the short space -of fifty-five hours. Near the northern part of the bay a loose pack -about 15 miles wide was encountered, but under a full pressure of -canvas, little difficulty was experienced in “boring” it. - -Standing close in under Cape York, Hayes kept a careful look-out for -natives. He wished if possible to ascertain whether Hans of the Kane -expedition was there. In this he was successful. Hayes writes:— - -“Six years’ experience among the wild men of this barren coast had -brought him to their level of filthy ugliness. His companions were his -wife, who carried her first-born in a hood upon her back; her brother, a -bright-eyed boy of twelve years, and ‘an ancient dame with voluble and -flippant tongue,’ her mother. They were all dressed in skins, and, being -the first Esquimaux we had seen whose habits remained wholly -uninfluenced by contact with civilisation, they were, naturally, objects -of much interest to us all. - -“Hans led us up the hillside, over rough rocks and through deep -snow-drifts, to his tent. It was pitched about 200 feet above the level -of the sea, in a most inconvenient position for a hunter; but it was his -‘look-out.’ Wearily he had watched, year after year, for the hoped-for -vessel; but summer after summer passed and the vessel came not, and he -still sighed for his southern home and the friends of his youth. - -“His tent was a sorry habitation. It was made after the -Esquimaux-fashion, of seal-skins, and was barely large enough to hold -the little family who were grouped about us. - -“I asked Hans if he would go with us. - -“‘Yes!’ - -“Would he take his wife and baby? - -“‘Yes!’ - -“Would he go without them? - -“‘Yes!’ - -“Having no leisure to examine critically into the state of his mind, and -having an impression that the permanent separation of husband and wife -is regarded as a painful event, I gave the Esquimaux mother the benefit -of this conventional suspicion, and brought them both aboard, with their -baby and their tent and all their household goods. The old woman and -bright-eyed boy cried to be taken along; but I had no further room, and -we had to leave them to the care of the remainder of the tribe, who, -about twenty in number, had discovered the vessel, and came shouting -gleefully over the hill. After distributing to them some useful -presents, we pushed off for the schooner. - -“Hans was the only unconcerned person in the party. I subsequently -thought that he would have been quite as well pleased had I left his -wife and child to the protection of their savage kin; and had I known -him as well then as, with good reason, I knew him afterwards, I would -not have gone out of my way to disturb his barbarous existence.” - -Cape Alexander, at the entrance to Smith Sound, was reached without any -special difficulty. Standing over towards Cape Isabella on the opposite -side of the sound, there seemed a good prospect of being able to reach -it, but soon a heavy pack was met with, and a furious gale coming on -compelled Hayes to run back to the coast for shelter. On the 31st -August, during this gale, the schooner dragged its anchors. What -followed is thus described by Hayes: “McCormick managed to save the -bower, but the kedge was lost. It caught a rock at a critical moment, -and, the hawser parting, we were driven upon the bergs, which, as before -stated, had grounded astern of us. The collision was a perfect crash. -The stern boat flew into splinters, the bulwarks over the -starboard-quarter were stove in, and, the schooner’s head swinging round -with great violence, the jib-boom was carried away, and the bowsprit and -foretopmast were both sprung. In this crippled condition we at length -escaped most miraculously, and under bare poles scudded before the wind. -A vast number of icebergs and the ‘pack’ coming in view, we were forced -to make sail. The mainsail went to pieces as soon as it was set, and we -were once more in great jeopardy; but fortunately the storm abated, and -we have since been threshing to windward, and are once more within Smith -Sound.” - -Hayes again attempted to reach Cape Isabella, but the pack was again -met. He then attempted to pass up the Greenland coast so as to try to -cross farther north. However, another gale set in, and he was forced to -take shelter behind Cape Alexander. When the gale subsided he again -entered the sound, but was soon beset in the ice, and the schooner was -seriously damaged. Even after this, another attempt was made to pass up -the coast, but it ended in failure, and Hayes was forced to put into -Hartstene Bay for the winter. The harbour was named Port Foulke, in -honour of William Parker Foulke, of Philadelphia, who was one of the -earliest, and continued to be throughout one of the most constant -advocates of the expedition. Port Foulke is situated about 8 nautical -miles in a north-easterly direction from Cape Alexander. An abundance of -game was found in the neighbourhood, and consisted of deer, hares, -foxes, and birds. - -During October, Hayes made a journey inland, ascending a glacier, named -by Kane after his brother John, with five men, and taking with him a -sledge loaded with eight days’ provisions, a small canvas tent, two -buffalo-skins for bedding, and a cooking-lamp. The party reached a point -70 miles from the coast, at an elevation of 5000 feet. Hayes describes -it as a vast frozen Sahara, immeasurable to the human eye. He goes on to -compare the river systems of the Temperate and Equatorial Zones with the -glacier systems of the Arctic and Antarctic, and draws a delightful -picture of the great law of Circulation and Change:— - -“The dewdrop, distilled upon the tropic palm-leaf, falling to the earth, -has reappeared in the gurgling spring of the primeval forest, has flown -with the rivulet to the river, and with the river to the ocean; has then -vanished into the air, and, wafted northward by the unseen wind, has -fallen as a downy snowflake upon the lofty mountain, where, penetrated -by a solar ray, it has become again a little globule of water, and the -chilly wind, following the sun, has converted this globule into a -crystal; and the crystal takes up its wandering course again, seeking -the ocean. - -“But where its movement was once rapid, it is now slow; where it then -flowed with the river miles in an hour, it will now flow with the -glacier not more in centuries; and where it once entered calmly into the -sea, it will now join the world of waters in the midst of a violent -convulsion. - -“We have thus seen that the iceberg is the discharge of the Arctic -river, that the Arctic river is the glacier, and that the glacier is the -accumulation of the frozen vapours of the air. We have watched this -river, moving on its slow and steady course from the distant hills, -until at length it has reached the sea; and we have seen the sea tear -from the slothful stream a monstrous fragment, and take back to itself -its own again. Freed from the shackles which it has borne in silence -through unnumbered centuries, this new-born child of the ocean rushes -with a wild bound into the arms of the parent water, where it is -caressed by the surf and nursed into life again; and the crystal drops -receive their long-lost freedom, and fly away on the laughing waves to -catch once more the sunbeam, and to run again their course through the -long cycle of the ages. - -“And this iceberg has more significance than the great flood which the -glacier’s southern sister, the broad Amazon, pours into the ocean from -the slopes of the Andes and the mountains of Brazil. Solemn, stately, -and erect, in tempest and in calm, it rides the deep. The restless waves -resound through its broken archways and thunder against its adamantean -walls. Clouds, impenetrable as those which shielded the graceful form of -Arethusa, clothe it in the morning; under the bright blaze of the -noonday sun it is armoured in glittering silver; it robes itself in the -gorgeous colours of evening; and in the silent night the heavenly orbs -are mirrored in its glassy surface. Drifting snows whirl over it in the -winter, and the sea-gulls swarm round it in the summer. The last rays of -departing day linger upon its lofty spires; and when the long darkness -is past it catches the first gleam of the returning light, and its -gilded dome heralds the coming morn. The elements combine to render -tribute to its matchless beauty. Its loud voice is wafted to the shore, -and the earth rolls it from crag to crag among the echoing hills. The -sun steals through the veil of radiant fountains which flutter over it -in the summer winds, and the rainbow on its pallid cheek betrays the -warm kiss. The air crowns it with wreaths of soft vapour, and the waters -around it take the hues of the emerald and the sapphire. In fulfilment -of its destiny it moves steadily onward in its blue pathway through the -varying seasons and under the changeful skies. Slowly, as in ages long -gone by it arose from the broad waters, so does it sink back into them. -It is indeed a noble symbol of the Law,—a monument of Time’s slow -changes, more ancient than the Egyptian Pyramids or the obelisk of -Heliopolis. Its crystals were dewdrops and snowflakes long before the -human race was born in Eden.” - -By the 28th October, 74 reindeer, 21 foxes, 12 hares, 1 seal, 14 eider -ducks, 8 dovekies, 6 auks, and 1 ptarmigan had been shot and brought on -board. In addition to these, some 20 to 30 reindeer had been cached in -various places. Hayes naturally came to the conclusion that men might -live indefinitely at Port Foulke without being troubled with scurvy. - -On the 19th November, one of the Esquimaux, Peter, disappeared. For some -time Hayes had observed a rivalry between Hans and Peter, and he took -the side of the latter. Hans was jealous of every act of favour towards -Peter, and Hayes was inclined to believe that Hans had been the means of -frightening Peter and of making him run off. No news was received as to -his whereabouts until months afterwards, when some Esquimaux found his -dead body in a hut a long distance from the ship. - -Early in December a serious disease attacked the dogs, similar to what -Kane had to deal with. Hayes had at this time thirty-six, and the first -attacked by the disease was shot. However, seven died within four days, -and during the first two weeks of December eighteen died. At the end of -the following week only nine dogs were left. This was a serious blow to -Hayes, as he relied chiefly on the dogs for transport across the ice. It -was now necessary to devise means for remedying the loss, or to arrange -new plans in conformity with the changed circumstances. The first -expedient which suggested itself was to open communication with the -Esquimaux of Whale Sound, from whom some animals might be obtained. From -Hans it was learned that there was a family living on Northumberland -Island, several families on the south side of Whale Sound, and possibly -one or more on the north side. Northumberland Island was about 100 miles -distant, and the south side of the Sound about 150. It was decided that -if a sufficient number of dogs remained alive when the moon came in -December, Sonntag should make the journey at that period, taking a -single sledge, and Hans for a driver. They set out on the 21st December, -and nothing was heard of them until the 29th January, when two Esquimaux -arrived with the news that Sonntag had died. Hans appeared two days -afterwards, and told his story:— - -“The travellers rounded Cape Alexander without difficulty, finding the -ice solid; and they did not halt until they had reached Sutherland -Island, where they built a snow-hut and rested for a few hours. -Continuing thence down the coast, they sought the Esquimaux at Sorfalik -without success. The native hut at that place being in ruins, they made -for their shelter another house of snow; and after being well rested, -they set out directly for Northumberland Island, having concluded that -it was useless to seek longer for natives on the north side of the -sound. They had proceeded on their course about 4 or 5 miles, as nearly -as I can judge from Hans’s description, when Sonntag, growing a little -chilled, sprang off the sledge and ran ahead of the dogs to warm himself -with the exercise. The tangling of a trace obliging Hans to halt the -team for a few minutes, he fell some distance behind, and was hurrying -on to catch up, when he suddenly observed Sonntag sinking. He had come -upon the thin ice, covering a recently open tide-crack, and, probably -not observing his footing, he slipped upon it unawares. Hans hastened to -his rescue, aided him out of the water, and then turned back for the -shelter which they had recently abandoned. A light wind was blowing at -the time from the north-east, and this, according to Hans, caused -Sonntag to seek the hut without stopping to change his wet clothing. At -first he ran beside the sledge, and thus guarded against danger; but -after a while he rode, and when they halted at Sorfalik, Hans discovered -that his companion was stiff and speechless. Assisting him into the hut -with all possible dispatch, Hans states that he removed the wet and -frozen clothing, and placed Sonntag in the sleeping-bag. He next gave -him some brandy which he found in a flask on the sledge; and, having -tightly closed the hut, he lighted the alcohol-lamp, for the double -purpose of elevating the temperature and making some coffee; but all his -efforts were unavailing, and, after remaining for nearly a day -unconscious, Sonntag died. He did not speak after reaching the hut, and -left no message of any kind.” - -Hayes was not altogether satisfied with the explanation given by Hans. -He wrote; “Although I have no good reason for doubting the truth of his -narrative, yet I cannot quite reconcile my mind to the fact that -Sonntag, with so much experience to govern him, should have undertaken -to travel 5 miles in wet clothing, especially as he was accompanied by a -native hunter who was familiar with all of the expedients for safety -upon the ice-fields, and to whom falling in the water is no unusual -circumstance. The sledge and the canvas apron which enclosed the cargo -furnished the means for constructing a temporary shelter from the wind, -and the sleeping-bag would have insured against freezing while Hans got -ready the dry clothing, of which Sonntag carried a complete change. Nor -can I understand how he should have lived so long and have given Hans no -message for me, nor have spoken a word after coming out of the water, -further than to have ordered his driver to hasten back to the snow-hut. -However, it is idle to speculate about the matter; and since Hans’s -interests were concerned in proving faithful to the officer who, of all -those in the ship, cared most for him, it would be unreasonable as well -as unjust to suspect him of desertion.” - -Towards spring, Hayes had the body of Sonntag brought to Port Foulke and -buried. “And here,” writes Hayes, “in the drear solitude of the Arctic -desert, our comrade sleeps the sleep that knows no waking in this -troubled world,—where no loving hands can ever come to strew his grave -with flowers, nor eyes grow dim with sorrowing; but the gentle stars, -which in life he loved so well, will keep over him eternal vigil, and -the winds will wail over him, and Nature, his mistress, will drop upon -his tomb her frozen tears for evermore.” - -When Hans returned from his visit to the Esquimaux, he brought with him -his wife’s father and mother. Hayes gives the following description of -them:— - -“The personal appearance of this interesting couple was not peculiarly -attractive. Their faces were broad, jaws heavy, cheek-bones projecting -like other carnivorous animals, foreheads narrow, eyes small and very -black, noses flat, lips long and thin, and when opened, there were -disclosed two narrow, white, well-preserved rows of polished -ivory,—well worn, however, with long use and hard service, for the -teeth of the Esquimaux serve a great variety of purposes, such as -softening skins, pulling and tightening cords, besides masticating food, -which I may here mention is wholly animal. Their hair was jet black, -though not abundant, and the man had the largest growth of beard which I -have seen upon an Esquimaux face, but it was confined to the upper lip -and the tip of the chin. The face of the Esquimaux is indeed quite -Mongolian in its type, and is usually beardless. In stature they are -short, though well built, and bear, in every movement, evidence of -strength and endurance. - -“The dress of the male and female differed but little one from the -other. It consisted of nine pieces—a pair of boots, stockings, mittens, -pantaloons, an under-dress, and a coat. The man wore boots of bear-skin, -reaching to the top of the calf, where they met the pantaloons, which -were composed of the same materials. The boots of the woman reached -nearly to the middle of the thigh, and were made of tanned seal-skins. -Her pantaloons, like her husband’s, were of bear-skin. The stockings -were of dog-skin, and the mittens of seal-skin. The under-dress was made -of bird-skins, feathers turned inwards; and the coat, which did not open -in front, but was drawn on over the head like a shirt, was of blue -fox-skins. This coat terminates in a hood which envelops the head as -completely as an Albanian capote or a monk’s cowl. This hood gives the -chief distinction to the dresses of the sexes. In the costume of the man -it is round, closely fitting the scalp, while in the woman it is pointed -at the top to receive the hair which is gathered up on the crown of the -head, and tied into a hard, horn-like tuft with a piece of raw -seal-hide,—a style of coiffure which, whatever may be its other -advantages, cannot be regarded as peculiarly picturesque. - -“Their ages could not be determined; for, since the Esquimaux cannot -enumerate beyond their ten fingers, it is quite impossible for them to -refer to a past event by any process of notation. Having no written -language whatever, not even the picture-writing and hieroglyphics of the -rudest Indian tribes of North America, the race possesses no records, -and such traditions as may come down from generation to generation are -not fixed by any means which will furnish even an approximate estimate -of their periods of growth, prosperity, and decay, or even of their own -ages.” - -Towards the end of February three other Esquimaux appeared from the -south, and from them Hayes obtained some dogs. - -About the middle of March, Hayes made a preliminary journey in order to -explore the track for his extended journey to the north, and cached some -provisions at Cairn Point. He visited Rensselaer Harbour, where the -_Advance_ had been left, but no vestige of the ship remained, except a -small bit of a deck-plank which Hayes picked up near the site of the old -observatory. - -The long sledge-journey began on the 3rd of April 1861. A quantity of -provisions had previously been taken to Cairn Point, which Hayes had -decided to make the starting-place for crossing the Sound. On one sledge -was mounted a 20-foot metallic lifeboat with which Hayes hoped to -navigate the Polar Sea. When Cairn Point was reached, Hayes decided to -leave the boat there, as he saw that it was impossible to take the boat -and cargo across the Sound in one journey. A storm delayed the party -several days at Cairn Point, and soon after encountering the -ice-hummocks, Hayes wrote:— - -“I need hardly say that I soon gave up all thought of trying to get the -boat across the Sound. A hundred men could not have accomplished the -task. My only purpose now was to get to the coast of Grinnell Land with -as large a stock of provisions as possible, and to retain the men as -long as they could be of use; but it soon became a question whether the -men themselves could carry over their own provisions independent of the -surplus which I should require in order that the severe labour should -result to advantage. In spite, however, of everything, the men kept -steadfastly to their duty, through sunshine and through storm, through -cold, and danger, and fatigue.” - -Hayes tried to make for Cape Sabine, but found the hummocks quite -impassable, and he had to bear more to the northward. On the 25th of -April he reported: “My party are in a very sorry condition. One of the -men has sprained his back from lifting; another has a sprained ankle; -another has gastritis; another a frosted toe; and all are thoroughly -overwhelmed with fatigue.” - -On the 27th April he determined to send back the men, with the exception -of Knorr, Jensen, and McDonald. Only about half of the Sound had been -crossed, but Hayes decided to struggle on. Jensen became partially -snow-blind, and on the 3rd of May, when stumbling along, his leg -received a severe wrench in a crack in the ice. The land, at Cape Hawks, -was not reached until the 11th of May. Thirty-one days had been occupied -in crossing the Sound. Hayes writes:— - -“The journey across the Sound from Cairn Point was unexampled in Arctic -travelling. The distance from land to land, as the crow flies, did not -exceed 80 miles; and yet, as hitherto observed, the journey consumed -thirty-one days—but little more than 2 miles daily. The track, however, -which we were forced to choose, was often at least three times that of a -straight line; and since almost every mile of that tortuous route was -travelled over three and five times, in bringing up the separate -portions of our cargo, our actual distance did not probably average less -than 16 miles daily, or about 500 miles in all, between Cairn Point and -Cape Hawks. The last 40 miles, made with dog-sledges alone, occupied -fourteen days—a circumstance which will of itself exhibit the difficult -nature of the undertaking, especially when it is borne in mind that 40 -miles to an ordinary team of dogs, over usually fair ice, is a trifling -matter for five hours, and would not fatigue the team half so much as a -single hour’s pulling of the same load over such hummocks as confronted -us throughout this entire journey. - -“In order to obtain the best results which the Esquimaux dog is capable -of yielding, it is essential that he shall be able to trot away with his -load. To walk at a dead drag is as distressing to his spirits and -energies as the hauling of a dray would be to a blooded horse; and he -will much more readily run away with a 100 pounds over good ice than to -pull one-fourth of that weight over a track which admits only of a slow -pace.” - -The failure to get the boat, or even a foot-party, over the Sound -disarranged Hayes’ original plans. Of the 800 lb. of dog-food which he -had when he sent back the men, only about 300 lb. remained. Small dépôts -had, however, been made for the return journey. The most that Hayes now -hoped to do was to explore the route to the shores of the Polar Sea, as -a basis for further exploration to follow the event of his reaching the -west side of Smith Sound with his vessel late in the summer. - -The first day’s march from Cape Hawks carried the party across the wide -bay to Cape Napoleon, and they were pleased to find that the whole load -could be carried at one time, although the travelling was far from good. -Deep snow was met, and in wading through it Jensen’s leg gave way, and -he had to be carried on the sledge. From Cape Napoleon to Cape Frazer -the travelling was good, and camp was made near the farthest point -reached by Hayes in 1854. The little flag-staff, which Hayes had -planted, was discovered, still standing erect among the rocks; but not a -vestige of the flag remained. The winds had whipped it entirely away. - -On the 16th of May, Jensen’s injured leg was so painful that Hayes -decided to leave him behind in charge of McDonald. - -From Cape Frazer northward the description given by Hayes of his route -is extremely meagre and vague. He states that when Jensen was left -behind he was about 60 miles to the northward and westward of Cape -Constitution, reached by Morton. About two days after leaving Jensen, -Hayes reached the southern cape of a bay which was so deep that, as in -other cases of like obstruction, he determined to cross over it rather -than to follow the shore-line. He writes: “We had gone only a few miles -when we found our progress suddenly arrested. Our course was made -directly for a conspicuous headland bounding the bay to the northward, -over a strip of old ice lining the shore. This headland seemed to be -about 20 miles from us, or near latitude 82°, and I was very desirous of -reaching it; but, unhappily, the old ice came suddenly to an end, and -after scrambling over the fringe of hummocks which margined it, we found -ourselves upon ice of the late winter. The unerring instinct of the dogs -warned us of approaching danger. They were observed for some time to be -moving with unusual caution, and finally they scattered to right and -left, and refused to proceed farther. This behaviour of the dogs was too -familiar to me to leave any doubt as to its meaning; and moving forward -in advance, I quickly perceived that the ice was rotten and unsafe. -Thinking that this might be merely a local circumstance, resulting from -some peculiarity of the current, we doubled back upon the old floe and -made another trial farther to the eastward. Walking now in advance of -the dogs, they were inspired with greater courage. I had not proceeded -far when I found the ice again giving way under the staff with which I -sounded its strength, and again we turned back and sought a more eastern -passage. - -“Two hours consumed in efforts of this kind, during which we had worked -about 4 miles out to sea, convinced me that the ice outside the bay was -wholly impassable.” - -An attempt to cross farther up the bay also proved a failure, and by -walking a few miles along the shore Hayes believed he saw the head of -the bay about 20 miles distant. Next day he climbed to the top of a -cliff supposed to be about 800 feet above the level of the sea. - -“The view which I had from this elevation furnished a solution of the -cause of my progress being arrested on the previous day. - -“The ice was everywhere in the same condition as in the mouth of the -bay, across which I had endeavoured to pass. A broad crack, starting -from the middle of the bay, stretched over the sea, and uniting with -other cracks as it meandered to the eastward, it expanded as the delta -of some mighty river discharging into the ocean, and under a water-sky, -which hung upon the northern and eastern horizon, it was lost in the -open sea. - -“Standing against the dark sky at the north, there was seen in dim -outline the white sloping summit of a noble headland—the most northern -known land upon the globe. I judged it to be in latitude 82° 30′, or 450 -miles from the North Pole. Nearer, another bold cape stood forth; and -nearer still the headland, for which I had been steering my course the -day before, rose majestically from the sea, as if pushing up into the -very skies a lofty mountain peak, upon which the winter had dropped its -diadem of snows. There was no land visible except the coast upon which I -stood.” - -The large bay which Hayes here refers to was named Lady Franklin Bay. -The place from which his observations were made, Hayes gives as in -latitude 81° 35′, longitude 70° 30′ W. Finding his way to the north -impassable, he decided to return. Hayes at this point came to the -conclusion that he was near the shores of the Polar Basin, and that -Kennedy Channel expanded into it. After building a cairn and leaving a -record in a small glass vial, he started on his return journey. - -A storm came on soon after Hayes and his companion set out. They at -first tried to shelter in the lee of a huge ice-cliff, but as they had -now given the dogs the last of their food, they decided to face the -snowstorm and make for the camp where Jensen had been left. This was -reached in twenty-two hours under great difficulties. Hayes and Knorr -had fasted thirty-four hours, and were completely exhausted. On the -return journey to the ship they had to depend entirely on the small -caches which had been left on the outward journey. Fortunately, all of -these, with one exception, were undisturbed. By the time they reached -Cape Hawks and were about to cross the Sound, Jensen’s leg had so far -improved that he was able to walk. Near the Greenland coast the ice was -beginning to give way, and it was with difficulty that they reached -land. Part of the journey to the ship had then to be made on foot across -the mountains. - -During the absence of Hayes, McCormick the sailing-master had examined -the ship, and found that the damage sustained in the ice was serious. He -repaired it as well as he could, but it was not now in a condition to -stand any further collision with the ice. This was a great -disappointment to Hayes, as he intended, as soon as the ice broke up, to -make another attempt with the ship to cross the Sound, and pass up the -west coast. - -On the 3rd of July, Hayes describes a walrus-hunt:— - -“I have had a walrus-hunt and a most exciting day’s sport. Much ice has -broken adrift and come down the Sound during the past few days; and, -when the sun is out bright and hot, the walrus come up out of the water -to sleep and bask in the warmth on the pack. Being upon the hilltop this -morning to select a place for building a cairn, my ear caught the hoarse -bellowing of numerous walrus; and, upon looking over the sea, I observed -that the tide was carrying the pack across the outer limit of the bay, -and that it was alive with the beasts, which were filling the air with -such uncouth noises. Their number appeared to be even beyond conjecture, -for they extended as far as the eye could reach, almost every piece of -ice being covered. There must have been, indeed, many hundreds, or even -thousands. - -“Hurrying from the hill, I called for volunteers, and quickly had a -boat’s crew ready for some sport. Putting three rifles, a harpoon, and a -line into one of the whale-boats, we dragged it over the ice to the open -water, into which it was speedily launched. - -“We had about 2 miles to pull before the margin of the pack was reached. -On the cake of ice to which we first came, there were perched about two -dozen animals; and these we selected for the attack. They covered the -raft almost completely, lying huddled together, lounging in the sun or -lazily rolling and twisting themselves about, as if to expose some fresh -part of their unwieldy bodies to the warmth,—great, ugly, wallowing -sea-hogs, they were evidently enjoying themselves, and were without -apprehension of approaching danger. We neared them slowly, with muffled -oars. - -“As the distance between us and the game steadily narrowed, we began to -realise that we were likely to meet with rather formidable antagonists. -Their aspect was forbidding in the extreme, and our sensations were -perhaps not unlike those which the young soldier experiences who hears -for the first time the order to charge the enemy. We should all, very -possibly, have been quite willing to retreat had we dared own it. Their -tough, nearly hairless hides, which are about an inch thick, had a -singularly iron-plated look about them, peculiarly suggestive of -defence; while their huge tusks, which they brandished with an -appearance of strength that their awkwardness did not diminish, looked -like very formidable weapons of offence if applied to a boat’s planking -or to the human ribs, if one should happen to find himself floundering -in the sea among the thick-skinned brutes. To complete the hideousness -of a facial expression which the tusks rendered formidable enough in -appearance, Nature had endowed them with broad flat noses, which were -covered all over with stiff whiskers, looking much like porcupine -quills, and extending up to the edge of a pair of gaping nostrils. The -use of these whiskers is as obscure as that of the tusks; though it is -probable that the latter may be as well weapons of offence and defence -as for the more useful purpose of grubbing up from the bottom of the sea -the mollusks which constitute their principal food. There were two old -bulls in the herd who appeared to be dividing their time between -sleeping and jamming their tusks into each other’s faces, although they -appeared to treat the matter with perfect indifference, as they did not -seem to make any impression on each other’s thick hides. As we -approached, these old fellows—neither of which could have been less -than 16 feet long, nor smaller in girth than a hogshead—raised up their -heads, and, after taking a leisurely survey of us, seemed to think us -unworthy of further notice; and then, punching each other again in the -face, fell once more asleep. This was exhibiting a degree of coolness -rather alarming. If they had showed the least timidity we should have -found some excitement in extra caution; but they seemed to make so light -of our approach that it was not easy to keep up the bold front with -which we had commenced the adventure. But we had come quite too far to -think of backing out; so we pulled in and made ready for the fray. - -“Beside the old bulls, the group contained several cows and a few calves -of various sizes,—some evidently yearlings, others but recently born, -and others half or three-quarters grown. Some were without tusks, while -on others they were just sprouting; and above this they were of all -sizes up to those of the big bulls, which had great curved cones of -ivory, nearly 3 feet long. At length we were within a few boats’ lengths -of the ice-raft, and the game had not taken alarm. They had probably -never seen a boat before. Our preparations were made as we approached. -The walrus will always sink when dead, unless held up by a harpoon-line; -and there was therefore but two chances for us to secure our -game—either to shoot the beast dead on the raft, or to get a harpoon -well into him after he was wounded, and hold on to him until he was -killed. As to killing the animal where he lay, that was not likely to -happen, for the thick skin destroys the force of the ball before it can -reach any vital part, and indeed, at a distance, actually flattens it; -and the skull is so heavy that it is hard to penetrate with an ordinary -bullet, unless the ball happens to strike through the eye. - -“To Miller, a cool and spirited fellow, who had been after whales on the -‘nor’-west coast,’ was given the harpoon, and he took his station in the -bows; while Knorr, Jensen, and myself kept our places in the -stern-sheets, and held our rifles in readiness. Each selected his -animal, and we fired in concert over the heads of the oarsmen. As soon -as the rifles were discharged, I ordered the men to ‘give way,’ and the -boat shot right among the startled animals as they rolled off pell-mell -into the sea. Jensen had fired at the head of one of the bulls, and hit -him in the neck; Knorr killed a young one, which was pushed off in the -hasty scramble and sank; while I planted a minie-bullet somewhere in the -head of the other bull and drew from him a most frightful -bellow—louder, I venture to say, than ever came from wild bull of -Bashan. When he rolled over into the water, which he did with a splash -that sent the spray flying all over us, he almost touched the bows of -the boat, and gave Miller a good opportunity to get in his harpoon, -which he did in capital style. - -“The alarmed herd seemed to make straight for the bottom, and the line -spun out over the gunwale at a fearful pace; but having several coils in -the boat, the end was not reached before the animals began to rise, and -we took in the slack and got ready for what was to follow. The strain of -the line whipped the boat around among some loose fragments of ice, and -the line having fouled among it, we should have been in great jeopardy -had not one of the sailors promptly sprung out, cleared the line, and -defended the boat. - -“In a few minutes the whole herd appeared at the surface, about 50 yards -away from us, the harpooned animal being among them. Miller held fast to -his line, and the boat was started with a rush. The coming up of the -herd was the signal for a scene which baffles description. They uttered -one wild concerted shriek, as if an agonised call for help; and then the -air was filled with answering shrieks. The ‘huk! huk! huk!’ of the -wounded bulls seemed to find an echo everywhere, as the cry was taken up -and passed along from floe to floe, like the bugle-blast passed from -squadron to squadron along a line of battle; and down from every piece -of ice plunged the startled beasts, as quickly as the sailor drops from -his hammock when the long-roll beats to quarters. With their ugly heads -just above the water, and with mouths wide open, belching forth the -dismal ‘huk! huk! huk!’ they came tearing toward the boat. - -“In a few moments we were completely surrounded, and the numbers kept -multiplying with astonishing rapidity. The water soon became alive and -black with them. - -“They seemed at first to be frightened and irresolute, and for a time it -did not seem that they meditated mischief; but this pleasing prospect -was soon dissipated, and we were forced to look well to our safety. - -“That they meditated an attack there could no longer be a doubt. To -escape the onslaught was impossible. We had raised a hornet’s nest about -our ears in a most astonishingly short space of time, and we must do the -best we could. Even the wounded animal to which we were fast turned upon -us, and we became the focus of at least a thousand gaping, bellowing -mouths. - -“It seemed to be the purpose of the walrus to get their tusks over the -gunwale of the boat, and it was evident that, in the event of one such -monster hooking on to us, the boat would be torn in pieces, and we would -be left floating in the sea helpless. We had good motive, therefore, to -be active. Miller plied his lance from the bows, and gave many a serious -wound. The men pushed back the onset with their oars, while Knorr, -Jensen, and myself loaded and fired our rifles as rapidly as we could. -Several times we were in great jeopardy, but the timely thrust of an -oar, or the lance, or a bullet saved us. Once I thought we were surely -gone. I had fired, and was hastening to load; a wicked-looking brute was -making at us, and it seemed probable that he would be upon us. I stopped -loading, and was preparing to cram my rifle down his throat, when Knorr, -who had got ready his weapon, sent a fatal shot into his head. Again, an -immense animal, the largest that I had ever seen, and with tusks -apparently 3 feet long, was observed to be making his way through the -herd with mouth wide open, bellowing dreadfully. I was now as before -busy loading; Knorr and Jensen had just discharged their pieces, and the -men were well engaged with their oars. It was a critical moment, but -happily I was in time. The monster, his head high above the boat, was -within 2 feet of the gunwale, when I raised my piece and fired into his -mouth. The discharge killed him instantly, and he went down like a -stone. - -“This ended the fray. I know not why, but the whole herd seemed suddenly -to take alarm, and all dove down with a tremendous splash almost at the -same instant. When they came up again, still shrieking as before, they -were some distance from us, their heads all now pointed seaward, making -from us as fast as they could go, their cries growing more and more -faint as they retreated in the distance. We must have killed at least a -dozen, and mortally wounded as many more. The water was in places red -with blood, and several half-dead and dying animals lay floating about -us. The bull to which we were made fast pulled away with all his might -after the retreating herd, but his strength soon became exhausted; and, -as his speed slackened, we managed to haul in the line, and finally -approached him so nearly that our rifle-balls took effect, and Miller at -length gave him the _coup de grâce_ with his lance. We then drew him to -the nearest piece of ice, and I had soon a fine specimen to add to my -Natural History collections. Of the others we secured only one; the rest -had died and sunk before we reached them. - -“I have never before regarded the walrus as a really formidable animal; -but this contest convinces me that I have done their courage great -injustice. They are full of fight; and had we not been very active and -self-possessed, our boat would have been torn to pieces, and we either -drowned or killed. A more fierce attack than that which they made upon -us could hardly be imagined, and a more formidable-looking enemy than -one of these huge monsters, with his immense tusks and bellowing throat, -would be difficult to find. Next time I try them I will arm my boat’s -crew with lances. The rifle is a poor reliance, and but for the oars, -the herd would have been on top of us at any time.” - -Upon the top of the hill on the north side of the harbour a cairn was -constructed, and under it Hayes deposited a brief record of the voyage. -On the 11th July 1861, the ice broke up in the harbour, and the schooner -was once more afloat, after ten months’ imprisonment. - -On the 13th July, Hayes took leave of the Esquimaux, who were sorry to -see him depart. - -Hayes, although doubtful as to the prospect ahead, was determined not to -quit the field without making another attempt to reach the west coast -and endeavour to obtain some further information that might be of -service in the future. He still had a vague hope that, even with his -crippled vessel, some such good prospect might open before him as would -justify him in remaining. He therefore held once more for Cape Isabella, -but met the pack about 10 miles from the Greenland shore. He turned back -and anchored between Littleton and McGary Islands. After a few days’ -delay, another attempt was made, and in two days the west coast was -reached near Gale Point, about 10 miles below Cape Isabella. Hayes then -took a whale-boat to the cape, but found it impassable. - -His opinion of the situation was thus recorded at the time:— - -“I am fully persuaded, if there still remained a lingering doubt, of the -correctness of my decision to return home, and come out next year -strengthened and refitted with steam. If my impulses lead me to try -conclusions once more with the ice, my judgment convinces me that it -would be at the risk of everything. As well use a Hudson River steamboat -for a battering-ram as this schooner, with her weakened bows, to -encounter the Smith Sound ice. - -“I have secured the following important advantages for the future, and -with these I must, perforce, rest satisfied, for the present:— - -“(1) I have brought my party through without sickness, and have thus -shown that the Arctic winter of itself breeds neither scurvy nor -discontent. - -“(2) I have shown that men may subsist themselves in Smith Sound -independent of support from home. - -“(3) That a self-sustaining colony may be established at Port Foulke, -and be made the basis of an extended exploration. - -“(4) That the exploration of this entire region is practicable from Port -Foulke—having from that starting-point pushed my discoveries much -beyond those of my predecessors, without any second party in the field -to co-operate with me, and under the most adverse circumstances. - -“(5) That, with a reasonable degree of certainty, it is shown that, with -a strong vessel, Smith Sound may be navigated and the open sea reached -beyond it. - -“(6) I have shown that the open sea exists.” - -In returning home, Hayes visited Whale Sound and explored it as far as -he could, and named Inglefield Gulf. - -At Upernavik news was received of trouble in the United States, but it -was not till they put in to Halifax, Nova Scotia, that they learnt that -civil war had broken out. This was terrible news to Hayes. He had -intended to return to the Arctic regions with a ship fitted with -steam-power, and to continue his explorations. The war altered -everything. As soon as he reached Boston he wrote to the President, -asking for immediate employment in the public service, and offering his -schooner to the Government as a gun-boat. - -Hayes’ book is written in delightful language, but grave doubts have -been cast upon the extent of his discoveries. It was afterwards found -that Lady Franklin Bay was 6 degrees farther east than Hayes placed it, -and the description given by Hayes of his farthest north does not agree -with what is seen in the neighbourhood of Lady Franklin Bay. - - - - -[Illustration: CHART of the Northern Portion of EAST-GREENLAND.] - - - - - CHAPTER IV - THE GERMAN EXPEDITION (1869−70) - - -The German Expedition left Bremerhaven on 15th June 1869. There were two -boats—the _Germania_ and the _Hansa_. The expedition was to make the -east coast of Greenland and then penetrate to the north as far as -possible. - -The ice was reached on 15th July. On the 20th of July the two ships were -separated through a misunderstanding, and they never met again. - -From the 20th of July till the end of August the _Hansa_ struggled -through the pack-ice which drifts along the coast of Greenland. -According to instructions, it was to attempt to reach Sabine Island, but -that was found impossible. At the end of August it became fast in the -ice, and drifted south. - -On the 27th September the crew of the _Hansa_ began building a house -with coal-tiles on the floe. It was 20 feet long, 14 feet broad, and 6½ -feet in the gable, while the side walls were 4 feet 8 inches high. For -cement, powdered snow was used, and over this water was poured, which -soon froze the whole into a compact mass. - -About the middle of October the _Hansa_ was wrecked by the pressure of -the ice. It sprang a leak and slowly sank, and the crew had sufficient -time to save a good many necessary articles which were stacked round the -house on the floe. - -The ice-field slowly but steadily drifted to the south. By the 3rd of -November it had passed the Liverpool coast, and had reached Scoresby’s -Sound. A walrus and several bears were shot, and supplied the party with -fresh meat. November and December passed, and nothing particular -happened. Christmas was spent in quite an enjoyable manner, after the -German fashion. On the 2nd of January 1870 a storm arose, and when it -was over it was discovered that half of the floe had been destroyed. On -the 11th another storm did great damage, and greatly reduced the size of -the floe. A huge gap opened in the ice near to the house, and all the -firewood drifted into the raging sea. The floe was now only 150 feet in -diameter, but during the night the masses of ice became closely packed -again. On the 14th another frightful storm was experienced: a fissure -opened in the ice under the house and the roof fell in, but fortunately -the inmates all escaped. Some shelter was obtained in the boats during -the next five nights, until a new house half the size of the old one was -built. This house had sleeping-room for only six men, so that from this -time the remainder had to sleep in the boats. It was not until the 7th -of May that the opportunity came to leave the floe in their boats. They -had spent 200 days on the ice. On the 4th of June they succeeded in -reaching the island of Illuidlek. They left the island on the 6th and -made for Friedrichsthal, the nearest colony on the south-west coast of -Greenland, which was reached on the 13th of June, and where they -received a hearty welcome. After a few days here, they journeyed to -Julianashaab, about 80 miles distant, from which they obtained a boat -for Europe. - - * * * * * - -After parting with the _Hansa_ on the 20th of July, the _Germania_ -battled with the ice in various latitudes, and after great difficulties -succeeded in reaching Sabine Island on the 5th of August. - -Sabine Island is one of the Pendulum Islands discovered by Clavering in -1823. The _Germania_ finally wintered in a little bay in the south-east -corner of the island, after making a trip to the north of Shannon -Island. - -Several short sledging expeditions were made before winter set in, but -the main expedition to the north was made in the following spring. -Musk-oxen were plentiful, and several bears were shot. Deserted -Esquimaux huts were found, but no natives were seen by the Expedition. - -The party had several serious adventures with bears. One of them is thus -described:—“Theodor Klentzer climbed the Germaniaberg to view the -landscape in the increasing midday light. Reaching the top, he seated -himself on a rock, and sang a song in the still air. As he looked behind -him, however, he saw, not many steps off, a huge bear, which with great -gravity was watching the stranger. Now, to our ‘Theodor,’ who was as -quiet and decided a man as he was powerful, this would, under other -circumstances, have been nothing; for the bear stood wonderfully well -for a shot, and could not easily be missed; but Klentzer was totally -unarmed, not having even a knife. Incredible! is it not? But, as -Lieutenant Payer writes, ‘the bears always come when one has forgotten -all about them.’ - -“Thus Klentzer saw himself unarmed and alone, far from his companions, -and close to the bear. Flight was the only, though a doubtful, chance of -safety, and the audacious thought struck him of plunging down the steep -side of the glacier; but he chose the softer side-slope, and began to -hurry down the mountain. Upon looking back, after a time, he perceived -the great bear trotting behind him at a little distance, like a great -dog. Thus they descended the mountain for some time. If Klentzer halted, -so did the bear; when he went on, the bear followed slowly; if he began -to run, the bear did the same. Thus the two had gone some distance, and -Klentzer thought seriously of saving himself, as the bear, finding the -chase somewhat wearisome, might press close upon his heels. He therefore -uttered a loud shout, but the bear, only disconcerted for a moment, -seemed to get more angry and approached quicker, so that he seemed to -feel the hot breath of the monster. At this dreadful moment—and it was -most likely his preservation—he remembered the stories he had heard, -and while running, pulled off his jacket, throwing it behind him. And -see! the trick answers: the bear stops and begins to examine the jacket. -Klentzer gains courage, rushes on down the mountain, sending out a shout -for help, which resounds through the silent region. But soon the bear is -again at his heels, and he must throw away cap and waistcoat, by which -he gains a little. Now Klentzer sees help approaching—several friends -hurrying over the ice. Collecting his last strength, he shouts and runs -on. But help seems in vain, for the pursuer hurries too, and he is -obliged to take the last thing he has, his shawl, which he throws -exactly over the monster’s snout, who, more excited still by renewed -shouting, throws it back again contemptuously with a toss of the head, -and presses forward upon the defenceless man, who feels his cold black -snout touch his hand. Klentzer now gave himself up for lost; he could do -no more; but the wonderful thought struck him of fastening up the bear’s -throat with the leather belt which he wore round his body. Fixedly he -stared into the merciless eyes of the beast—one short moment of -doubt—the bear was startled, his attention seemed drawn aside, and the -next moment he was off at a gallop.” - -Another bear incident had a more serious ending:— - -“We were sitting (writes Lieutenant Payer) fortunately silent in the -cabin, when Koldewey suddenly heard a faint cry for help. We all -hurriedly tumbled up the companion-ladder to the deck, when an -exclamation from Börgen, ‘A bear is carrying me off!’ struck painfully -on our ears. - -“It was quite dark; we could scarcely see anything, but we made directly -for the quarter whence the cry proceeded, armed with poles, weapons, -etc., over hummocks and drifts, when an alarm-shot, which we fired in -the air, seemed to make some little impression, as the bear dropped his -prey and ran forward a few paces. He turned again, however, dragging his -victim over the broken shore-ice, close to a field which stretched in a -southerly direction. All depended upon our coming up with him before he -could reach this field, as he would carry his prey over the open plain -with the speed of a horse, and thus escape. We succeeded. The bear -turned upon us for a moment, and then, scared by our continuous fire, -let fall his prey. - -“We lifted our poor comrade up on to the ice, to bear him to his -cabin—a task which was rendered somewhat difficult by the slippery and -uneven surface of the ice. But after we had gone a little way, Börgen -implored us to make as much haste as possible. On procuring a light, the -coldest nature would have been shocked at the spectacle which poor -Börgen presented. The bear had torn his scalp in several places, and he -had received several injuries in other parts of his body. His clothes -and hair were saturated with blood. We improvised a couch for him in the -rear of our own cabin, as his own was not large enough. - -“The first operation was performed upon him on the cabin table. And here -we may briefly notice the singular fact that, although he had been -carried more than 100 paces with his skull almost laid bare, at a -temperature of −13° F., his scalp healed so perfectly that not a single -portion was missing.” - -Börgen’s narrative was as follows:— - -“About a quarter before 9 p.m. I had gone out to observe the occupation -of a star, which was to take place about that time, and also to take the -meteorological readings. As I was in the act of getting on shore, -Captain Koldewey came on to the ice. We spoke for a few moments, when I -went on shore, while he returned to the cabin. On my return from the -observatory, about 50 steps from the vessel, I heard a rustling noise to -the left, and became aware of the proximity of a bear. There was no time -to think, or to use my gun. The grip was so sudden and rapid that I am -unable to say how it was done; whether the bear rose and struck me down -with his fore-paws, or whether he ran me down. But from the character of -the injuries I have sustained (contusions and a deep cut of the left -ear), I conclude that the former must have been the case. The next thing -I felt was the tearing of my scalp, which was only protected by a -skull-cap. This is their mode of attacking seals, but, owing to the -slipperiness of their skulls, the teeth glide off. The cry of help which -I uttered frightened the animal for a moment; but he turned again and -bit me several times on the head. The alarm had meanwhile been heard by -the captain, who had not yet reached the cabin. He hurried on deck, -convinced himself that it was really an alarm, roused up the crew and -hastened on to the ice, bringing assistance to his struggling comrade. -The noise evidently frightened the bear, and he trotted off with his -prey, which he dragged by the head. A shot fired to frighten the -creature effected its purpose, inasmuch as he dropped me, and sprang a -few steps aside; but he immediately seized me by the arm, and, his hold -proving insufficient, he seized me by the right hand, on which was a fur -glove, and this gave the pursuers time to come up with the brute, which -had by its great speed left them far behind. He was now making for the -shore, and would certainly have escaped with his prey, had he succeeded -in climbing the bank. However, as he came to the edge of the ice, he -turned along the coast-side, continuing on the rough and broken ice, -which greatly retarded his speed, and thus allowed his pursuers upon the -ice to gain rapidly upon him. After being dragged in this way for about -300 paces, almost strangled by my shawl, which the bear had seized at -the same time, he dropped me, and immediately afterwards Koldewey was -bending over me with the words, ‘Thank God! he is still alive!’ The bear -stood a few paces on one side, evidently undecided what course to -pursue, until a bullet gave him a hint that it was high time to take -himself off. - -“No one thought of pursuing him, for their first care was to carry the -wounded man on board, whither the doctor and Herr Tranmitz had gone in -order to prepare the requisites for binding up the wounds. The main -injuries were in the head, where, amongst numerous other wounds from the -bites, two especially from 4 to 6 inches long ran along the scalp, the -edges of which hung loose, leaving the skull bare for one-third to -two-fifths of an inch. The other wounds, about twenty in number, were in -part caused by striking against the fragments and rough broken edges of -the ice. It is worth while mentioning that, neither during the act of -receiving the wounds nor during the process of healing, which progressed -favourably, did I experience the smallest pain.” - -The sledge-journey to the north left on the 8th March 1870. The party -consisted of ten men, and they had two sledges. The smaller sledge had -four men who were to accompany the expedition for a week, and then -return after laying a dépôt. A storm and the low temperature forced them -to return to the ship a few days after leaving. - -On the 24th March they started again. During the first day one of the -men had the whole of his right foot frost-bitten, and the convoy-sledge -had to return to the ship. A herd of musk-oxen was seen on Hochstetter’s -Promontory, but none was shot. A bear was killed on the 4th of April, -and supplied the party with meat, and his fat served as fuel four days. -On the 6th of April they crossed the 76° of latitude, and on the south -side of Cape Karl Ritter discovered traces of Esquimaux summer tents. On -the 11th April, Cape Bismarck in 76° 47′ was reached, and this was the -end of the actual sledge-journey. Leaving their tent here, they -journeyed to a mountain in 77° 1′ north latitude, and 18° 50′ west -longitude, where a cairn was erected. Provisions were now running short, -and they were compelled to return. Two musk-oxen were shot at Cape -Bismarck. Like many of the other expeditions about this period, they -suffered greatly from want of snow-shoes, and frequently had to wade -through snow up to the thighs. The difficulties of such a sledge-journey -are well described by Lieutenant Payer:— - -“Amongst other disagreeables of an Arctic sledge-journey is its -monotony. The ideas and wishes contained within the limited horizon of -life in the Arctic world pass as quickly away as the eye is wearied by -the monotony of the landscape. - -“Conversation carried on by men straining at the traces can certainly -not be very animated. The frost prevents smoking, for the pipes freeze. -There is a continued conflict against the loss of warmth; and the cold -penetrates in a hundred different ways. Now the chin is numbed, a -painful straining of the forehead sets in, or a violent pricking of the -nostrils, which are exposed to the wind. Sometimes one stands in danger -of the heels, the toes, or the hands being frost-bitten. The hair of the -face, and even the eyelashes, get hoar with frost,—indeed, the eyes are -often completely closed,—and every frozen spot on the body must at once -be rubbed with lumps of snow resembling pumice-stone, until a warm, -pricking glow succeeds. When, as in the case of many of our party, the -frozen hands or feet were not rubbed with snow until too late, it led to -numerous blisters. The fingers swelled up into lumps, and became quite -numbed; but the noses (the whole eight of which were frozen) were more -fortunate: they emerged from a white into a red stage of enlarged -dimensions, were eventually covered with a parchment-like skin, -remaining for some time most sensitive, and by slow degrees regained -their normal condition, so that by the time we landed in Europe they -were all right again. The heat of our bodies, which we did our best to -retain by warm woollen clothes, was carried away in a moment by the -slightest wind; and if it increased, the cold crept between every button -of our seal-skin clothing; the penetrating icy wind was felt at every -stitch; the arms hung down like lead, deadly cold, and no one dared to -walk about without a mask. If the wind rose still more, curtains of -penetrating snow-crystals rose with it from the ground; then a -snowstorm, which always comes from the north, might be expected, -announcing itself by a lofty white appearance in the south, the violet -colour and close proximity of the mountains, and low-hanging clouds. But -still we risk the march forward against the thickening snow, until -painful breathing and stiffening limbs warn us to pitch our tent. - -“Under ordinary circumstances this was done about 6 or 7 p.m., on a -smooth surface. A hole was quickly dug with shovels, on which the tent -was erected, and the dug-out blocks of snow laid round it for safety -against the storm, and the sledge placed as a shield to the north. The -tent was kept upright by means of four long poles, each crossed at the -top, stretched by ropes fastened to axes or piles driven into the -ground. When the sleeping-sack had been laid down in the tent, our -personal baggage settled, the kettle filled with blocks of snow by the -cook, the lamp lit, and the rations given out, our comrades, who, owing -to the increased cold since the setting of the sun, had meanwhile been -running and jumping to keep themselves warm, were allowed to enter. - -“During our last half-hour’s march, each man had been busy thawing his -beard with his hands, for it had been changed into a lump of ice, so -that it might not melt whilst the cooking was going on, and so wet their -clothes and coverings. As soon as all were in their places in the tent, -the aperture was closed, and preparations made for passing the night. - -“The stiff sail-cloth boots, fast frozen to the stockings which were to -form our pillows, were thawed between the hands, and with difficulty -taken off; the stockings, thick with rimy snow, were scraped, then wrung -and laid upon the breast, to dry by our only available means—our bodily -heat—so as to prepare them for the following day’s work. - -“At last all have wriggled themselves into the sleeping−sack, each one -lying partly on his neighbour, and in this modest space waiting for the -evening meal. - -“The first hour is spent in melting the snow, the second in preparing -the meal, which is devoured eagerly, and as cool as possible. The -development of steam during the cooking (which in the very cold weather -consumed one bottle of spirit, or 1 lb.) put us into such a vapour-bath -that we could not even see our next neighbour; the tent walls were -completely wet through; and the temperature rose rapidly. The dampness -of the coverings and clothes, from the condensation of the steam on the -rime, of course increased, and the opening of the tent door occasioned a -fall of snow within, so that by the time the cooking was over, all was -covered with a thick coating of ice or crust of snow. - -“It is about eight or nine o’clock: the small rations of boiled beef, -soup, and vegetables are no longer enough to allay the daily increasing -hunger; but sleep buries that, as well as our burning thirst, in -oblivion. Only occasionally did our sparing supply of spirits allow us -to prepare an extra quantity of water. - -“During the march each one carried an india-rubber or tin bottle full of -snow, on his bare body, turned as much as possible to the sun, and often -after many hours only a few spare spoonfuls (and sometimes nothing) -could be obtained from it. - -“Last of all, the cook, after cleaning out the kettle, also fights his -way into the sleeping-sack, which thus attains its proper complement. A -side position is the only one possible—to-night all lie to the left, -to-morrow all to the right. Comfortable positions, such as stretching on -one’s back for example, meet with a miserable protest, as well as any -other after-movement; and when at length silence falls upon all, the -eight men form one single lump. - -“The nose acts no longer merely as a condenser, as on the spring -journey; it now becomes a cold-pole, and leaving it outside the rimy and -icy covering is preferable to burying it in the questionable atmosphere -of the sack. The mouth, as the only outlet of exhalation, must remain -open, but the teeth get so cold that they feel like icicles, and the -mask, which it is necessary to wear in the night, freezes to the long -beard. - -“Happy were those who, during the lowest temperature within the first -fourteen days of our journey, could really lose themselves during the -hours of rest, if only for a short time, for they were generally passed -in a painful waiting for a happy release, by—dragging! - -“This general wakefulness made it unnecessary to set a special watch for -bears and foxes, which occasionally made a bold raid upon the stores in -the sledge, for they had never yet succeeded in approaching us quite -noiselessly. - -“In spite of all efforts to the contrary, the cutting cold too soon -penetrated the sleeping-sack; within the tent the temperature sinks from -60° or 65° to below zero, and the body has to be again refreshed with -artificial warmth, by motion and hot food. - -“The natural consequences of this state of temperature is a continually -increasing sensation of freezing until the morning. During the day the -sack has got thoroughly cold on the sledge, and must again be warmed by -bodily heat, being frozen into thick folds as hard as iron. Whoever lies -upon these seems to be lying on laths, which towards morning begin to -lose their sharpness. One or the other, we keep a bottle of snow about -us. All are shivering, scarcely any sleep. For hours together we are in -a state of suffocation, the pressure on either side causing a feeling as -though the collar-bone was being forced into the chest and the shoulders -crushed. Each lies upon his arm (which of course goes to sleep), and is -often prevented from breathing by the smell of train-oil proceeding from -his neighbour’s seal-skin. The breath condenses over the face and upon -the sloping tent-side, in long snow-webs, which fall at the slightest -movement. - -“The misery of tent-life reaches its maximum during an uninterrupted -snowstorm of sometimes three days’ duration. So long as this assumes the -form of a hurricane, no one can leave the tent without danger of either -being suffocated or blown away. These Greenland snowstorms, which carry -small stones with them, greatly resemble West Indian hurricanes, only -that the sun is completely darkened by the rush of snow. - -“Of course our tents would soon have been blown over, if some -precautions had not been taken. Great distress reigned within. The wind -greatly lessened the already small space by pressing in the walls. -Through the canvas, through every stitch or smallest opening, spurts a -small flood of the finest snow, like flour out of a flour-mill, or -collects itself on the inner surface, where its ever-increasing weight -at length brings it down like small avalanches. As long as the storm -rages the cold is alleviated from the equalisation of warm air over the -sea, though it seldom allows any heat to remain in the tent, so that we -were still in a cold of from 14° to 5° F. - -“By degrees a covering of snow at least an inch thick lies on the sack, -under which we must patiently wait till the storm ceases. We scrape it -away with the knife, but it soon returns again. On some occasions this -snow began to melt, and penetrate the clothes, making us look like seals -coming up out of the water. - -“In a steadily rising temperature, too, the snow on which we lay would -melt, and the sack get wet underneath, not to dry again till the summer, -but freeze on the sledge in those hard folds we dreaded so much. We -repeatedly felt the want of india-rubber coverings. - -“This state of things often lasted from two to three days, and we waited -with an indifference bordering on stupidity, sitting squeezed, with -numbed hands, mending the gloves or stockings, almost freezing, masked; -beards full of ice, stuffed up with a chaos of frozen clothes and boots, -and, worst of all, fasting. The duration of the journey, as well as the -extent of country to be explored, depended upon the use of the -provisions. If, therefore, some part of the time was lost through -storms, this loss, in spite of hunger, thirst, and loss of strength, -could only be regained by reduced rations, which often only consisted of -a thin soup. - -“The saucepan has become leaky, a small sea has formed on the sack, the -spirit-lamp runs, and repeatedly threatens to destroy the tent by fire, -which, during the storm, would be the work of a moment. The cook -grumbles, burns his fingers to-day which were frozen yesterday;—urged -on by hunger, his cooking is subject to sharp criticism, as each is -waiting for the eventful moment when the meal shall be ready. - -“All food was frozen—even brandy began to freeze one night—meat in the -tins or ham had to be chopped with the axe; butter could, without any -fear, be carried in the waistcoat-pocket, to be enjoyed on the march. - -“Woe to the unfortunate man who, in a lull of the storm, goes into the -open air. He is almost torn to pieces, stifled by the snow-filled air, -betrayed into snow-drifts, and yet not daring to open his eyes. Numbed -with cold, white as a miller, he returns to the tent. Here he is a -subject of horror to his neighbours in the sack, whom he intends robbing -of their warmth to thaw himself. The snow-powder blown in upon the -opening of the tent door has penetrated through all the clothes, and the -skin has to be scraped and any frost-bites that may have set in have to -be dispersed by rubbing. Indeed, the disturbance and excitement -consequent upon a walk in the open air does not subside for some hours. - -“But the snow-blind suffer the most from such a state of things. Out of -consideration to them, smoking was dropped. - -“The irritation caused by the white snowflakes, which with us are easily -beaten aside, cause great suffering in Greenland, from the inflamed -state of the eyes and the thick heavy atmosphere, to those who may have -been unfortunate enough to break their snow-spectacles. - -“Beating them off while on the march is impossible, for the damp cloth -freezes at once to a lump of ice, making the eyes insupportably cold. -The simple bandage, on the other hand, does not save one from the steady -burning pain, which acts like needle-pricks. Opening the eye for a -moment is not to be thought of. The blind are obliged to pull with the -others, as the laden sledge cannot be moved but by our united strength. - -“As a rule, we break up about 5 a.m. The thin black coffee is taken with -some ice-cold bread-dust, which effectually destroys all its warming -properties, mixed into it like a mash, and then follows laborious -packing up of the clothes, in order to be prepared for all weathers. The -frozen boots must first be thawed with the hands, and the folds taken -out, the tent freed from snow, and beaten until pliable. The -sleeping-sack receives the same treatment, which, as a sign of our -disgust and its daily increasing weight from the ice, we named ‘the -Walrus.’ - -“The soaked seal-skin clothing freezes at once in the air, and damp -condenses on the hair in frost-blossoms. One or the other rubs his face -with scraped snow to refresh his eyes—a novel kind of washing, in -default of water, though with the slightest breath of wind his hands are -in danger of freezing. After every snowstorm, tent and sledge have to be -dug out, and the contents cleaned with difficulty. - -“All this business occupies about two hours, when the traces are taken -up with great satisfaction, as a long-looked-for release from the pain -of the nightly couch. The sledge is loosened from its frozen position, -and the journey continued, which, after twenty-three days, brought us to -77° of latitude, the most northerly point ever reached on the east coast -of Greenland.” - -The coast along which this sledge-journey was made was found to be much -broken up, and the opinion was formed that the land might possibly -resolve itself into a group of islands. - -The ice having broken up, the _Germania_ left its winter harbour on 22nd -July, and steamed northwards. In 75° 29′ it was stopped by ice, and had -to return to the south. Kaiser Franz-Joseph’s Fjord was afterwards -explored; and on the 17th of August the return home to Germany was -begun. By the 25th of August they were clear of the ice. - -“On the 10th of September we were a few miles from Heligoland. A heavy -storm blew from the south-west, but in the evening shifted to the -north-west, enabling us to run in to shore. At daybreak, though we had -seen no pilot, we recognised Langerooge, and steered along the Southwall -to the mouth of the Weser. No sign of a ship! The Weser seemed to have -died out. Where are the pilots hidden? Are they lying _perdu_ on account -of yesterday’s storm? Well, then, we must run into the Weser without -them; the wind is favourable, the weather clear, the outer buoy will be -easy to find; there is the church-tower of Wangerooge. Suspecting -nothing, we steered on; the tower bears S.S.W., south-west by south, -south-west, but no buoy in sight. The captain and steersman look at each -other in astonishment. Can we have been so mistaken and out of our -reckoning? But no! That is certainly Wangerooge; the depth of water -agrees, our compass is correct. No doubt about it, we are in the Weser; -something unusual must have happened! Still no sail in sight! But what -is that? Yonder are the roads. There are several large vessels under -steam; they at least can give us some information. So we make for them. -We saluted the German flag, and soon the cry was heard, ‘War, war with -France; Napoleon is prisoner! France has declared a Republic; our armies -are before Paris!’ And then, ‘_Hansa_ destroyed in the ice, crew -saved.’” - - - - - CHAPTER V - VOYAGE OF THE _POLARIS_ (1871−73) - - -Captain Charles Francis Hall, after having dwelt with the Esquimaux -about eight years, during which he lived like one of them and acquired -their language, returned to America in 1869. - -He had a great ambition to reach the spot “where there is no North, no -East, no West.” Early in 1870 he began his agitation for an expedition -to the North Pole. He lectured in various parts of the United States, -and received encouragement from the Hon. George M. Robeson, Secretary of -the United States Navy. Ultimately a wooden river gun-boat of 387 tons, -called the _Periwinkle_, was given to Hall, and was afterwards -rechristened _Polaris_. Congress also granted 50,000 dollars. - -Hall, who was not himself a seaman, engaged Captain S. O. Budington as -sailing-master. Captain Budington had made thirteen whaling voyages to -Baffin’s Bay, and was therefore an experienced ice-navigator. Dr. -Bessels was naturalist, and Mr. Meyer meteorologist. Morton, of Kane’s -expedition, also accompanied Hall. Mr. Grinnell, the munificent promoter -of expeditions for the search of Franklin, presented Hall with the flag -which, in 1838, had been with Wilkes to the Antarctic regions, and which -had since been in the northern Polar seas with De Haven, Kane, and -Hayes. - -Hall’s first intention was to proceed up Jones Sound, but his opinion -regarding this route changed before he left the States. He trusted -chiefly to dogs for his sledge-travelling, and did not expect to reach a -higher latitude than 80° during the first year. - -The _Polaris_ left New London on 3rd July 1871, and St. John’s on 19th -July. The coast of Greenland was first seen on 27th July, and Upernavik -was reached on 19th August. Here Hans, of Kane’s and Hayes’ expedition, -was engaged as dog-driver and servant, and received a salary of 300 -dollars per annum. His wife and three children, who were dressed in -ragged and filthy skin clothing, accompanied him. Their luggage -consisted of tents, tools, cooking utensils, implements of the chase, -and three or four puppies whose eyes could scarcely bear the light. - -The _Polaris_ was first stopped by the ice off the western shore of -Hakluyt Island, about 5 a.m. on the 27th August, but by forcing ahead, -open water was reached the same day. At 3 p.m. on that day the _Polaris_ -was opposite Cape Alexander; at 5 p.m. it was off Littleton Island; -Cairn Point was passed at 6.30; and at 8 p.m. the parallel of Rensselaer -Harbour was reached. - -Smith Sound was found quite open. At midnight a heavy pack was seen, but -in about two hours its south-western point was rounded. At 3.30 a.m. on -the 28th, Cape Hawks was on the port beam, about 15 miles distant. - -The width of the southern entrance of Kennedy Channel was estimated to -be about 35 miles, and it was found to narrow towards the north to about -25 miles. - -The highest latitude, estimated by Hall to be 82° 26′, but afterwards -corrected to 82° 11′, was reached at 6 a.m. on the 30th August. Hall had -therefore passed from Cape Alexander, at the entrance of Smith Sound, to -his highest point in Robeson Channel, in about two and a half days. He -had carried his ship much farther north than any ship had ever reached -before. - -The barrier of ice had now been reached, and it became necessary to -search for a harbour. Steaming southwards, a little bay was seen, but -after two attempts to enter it, Hall had to acknowledge defeat. He named -it “Repulse Harbour.” - -Budington wished the _Polaris_ to take winter quarters in Newman Bay, -but Hall decided to try and reach the west coast. After boring for a -distance of 12 miles, the _Polaris_ was beset, and was not released -until the 4th September, when a course was made for the eastern shore. -On the 5th September the anchor was dropped about 300 yards from shore, -in latitude 81° 37′, and about 4 miles south of Cape Lupton. - -Hall named Robeson Channel after the Secretary to the Navy, and the -Harbour was named “Thank-God Harbour.” - -A large quantity of provisions and stores was now landed, and -preparations were at once made to explore the surrounding neighbourhood. - -Traces of Esquimaux were soon found; and on the 6th September, Hall and -some of his companions ascended Cape Lupton, from which Robeson Channel -could be seen as far as Cape Union. The bay extending from Cape Lupton -to Cape Budington was named “Polaris Bay.” - -A hunting-party was sent out on 18th September. It returned on the 23rd, -and reported having killed a musk-ox. This was very interesting news, as -it was the first musk-ox ever seen on the west coast of Greenland. - -On 10th October, Captain Hall, Mr. Chester, and the Esquimaux Joe and -Hans started on a sledge-journey towards the north. On the 15th, Hall -camped in sight of a bay which he named “Newman Bay.” On the 18th, Hall -and Mr. Chester ascended to the top of Cape Brevoort, situated on the -north side of this bay. The return journey was made from this point. - -During this journey the party slept in snow-houses. They returned to the -ship on 24th October. All were well with the exception of Captain Hall. -He complained of not having his usual amount of energy. Soon after his -return he became sick and vomited a good deal. Dr. Bessels announced -that same evening that Hall’s left side was paralysed and that he had -had an apoplectic attack. On the 29th he had marked symptoms of -insanity, and believed that an attempt was being made to poison him. -However, by the 6th November he had largely recovered, but at night he -again became alarmingly ill. On the 7th he became comatose, and died on -the morning of the 8th November. On the 10th November he was buried on -the shore of Polaris Bay, and a wooden monument was erected over his -grave. - -It was a sad and unexpected ending to a life full of high hope. - -On the death of Captain Hall, the command devolved upon Captain -Budington. - -On the 18th November a severe gale began. It increased in violence on -the 19th, until the wind reached 52 miles per hour. It continued on the -20th and 21st, and on the latter date the _Polaris_ was found to be -afloat. With great difficulty the ship was secured to a large grounded -iceberg which was named “Providence Berg.” The _Polaris_ was thus saved -from being carried into the pack. - -Nothing of special interest occurred during the remainder of the winter. -In March 1872, Joe the Eskimo, in one of his hunting expeditions, -discovered Petermann’s Fiord. - -On 27th March a sledge-party in charge of Dr. Bessels set out with the -object of reaching Cape Constitution, Morton’s farthest, and -ascertaining its correct position. The party reached within 30 miles of -the cape, but had then to return. - -The whole expedition were anxious to explore the region to the north, -but the strange conclusion was arrived at that it was necessary to -proceed in boats. The idea of the “open sea” had evidently some -influence with them. When a small channel formed it gave rise to high -hopes that a start with the boats would be made, but these hopes were -soon dashed when the channel closed again. Instead of setting out with -sledge-parties along the coast, the spring and part of the summer were -allowed to slip away while they waited for open water. Yet they were in -a more favourable position for making an advance towards the north of -Greenland than any party before or since. - -On the 8th June a start was made from Cape Lupton with a boat, which had -previously been taken there, but it was crushed in the ice next day. - -Another start was made on the 10th with two boats, and the party -succeeded in reaching Newman Bay without much difficulty, but found it -impossible to proceed farther north with the boats. - -During the month of June the _Polaris_ leaked badly, and the pumps had -to be kept frequently at work. On the 26th of this month the ship was -liberated from the ice by means of saws, and Budington at once -determined to start for the north. On approaching Cape Sumner, however, -the pack was found to be impenetrable. After crossing to Cape Lieber -without finding an opening, the _Polaris_ returned to “Thank-God -Harbour.” On the 28th June, Budington received the news that the -boat-party was at Newman Bay, and he attempted to take the _Polaris_ -north so as to pick up the boats, but the pack was again met at Cape -Sumner. He then sent instructions for the boat-party to return. The -boats were abandoned at Newman Bay, and the last of the party returned -to the _Polaris_ on 22nd July. - -At the beginning of August, Budington determined to start towards the -south as soon as an opportunity presented itself. This occurred on the -12th August at 4.30 p.m. Next day a close pack was met, and the -_Polaris_ was fastened to a large floe and allowed to drift slowly down -the channel. Cape Constitution was passed on the 14th. During the rest -of the month, and throughout the whole of September, the drift southward -was very slow. On the 12th October the _Polaris_ was within 2 miles of -Cairn Point, and on the 14th Northumberland Island was visible. During -September and October a house was built on the floe. - -On the 15th October a severe gale sprang up, and preparations had to be -made in case it was found necessary to abandon the ship. During her -drift southwards the _Polaris_ had been nipped several times, and was -leaking badly. During this gale she was again nipped so severely that -Budington ordered provisions and stores to be thrown upon the ice. The -Esquimaux women and children took refuge on the floe. While some of the -crew were carrying articles to a safe place on the floe, the _Polaris_ -was suddenly drifted away from the ice. So quickly did this catastrophe -take place that the floe-party soon disappeared from view. - -Budington now called all hands to muster, and found that fourteen men -remained on board. The _Polaris_ drifted rapidly until toward midnight, -when she ran into some young ice, and her progress was stayed. Next -morning the ship’s position was found to be half-way between Littleton -Island and Cairn Point. No trace of the missing party could be seen. -Later in the day the _Polaris_ reached the coast, and was secured with -heavy hawsers to large grounded hummocks. - -On the 19th October two Esquimaux appeared at the ship, and on this date -it was decided to build a house on shore. More Esquimaux arrived on the -21st, and they gave great assistance in sledging articles to the shore. -The house was soon erected, and was used by the party throughout the -winter. Large numbers of Esquimaux made frequent visits, and were very -friendly with the party during the whole time of their stay. - -Towards the end of February 1873 it was decided to begin the -construction of two boats in which the party intended to make a retreat -to the Danish settlements. - -On the 30th May almost all the land-ice broke away, and with it the -_Polaris_ went adrift. She was carried about 200 yards towards the -south, when she again grounded. At high tide her upper deck was 2 feet -under water. - -On the 3rd June 1873 the party set out for the south in their two boats. -On the 23rd of this month, in Melville Bay, not far from Cape York, they -were gladdened by the sight of a whaler. It turned out to be the -_Ravenscraig_ of Kirkcaldy, Scotland, owned by Ninian Lockhart, and -commanded by Captain William Allen. The _Polaris_ party were -enthusiastically received, and were treated with the greatest kindness. -They were ultimately taken to Dundee. - -We must now return to the party on the floe. It consisted of ten -Americans and nine Esquimaux. The Americans were Tyson, Meyer, Herron, -Jackson, Kruger, Jamka, Nindemann, Aunting, Lindqvist, and Johnson. They -had two boats, two kayaks, a canvas boat, and some navigation -instruments, besides a moderate quantity of provisions. - -Next day, after their separation from the _Polaris_, the floe on which -they were was found to be near Littleton Island. The party took to their -boats, intending to make for the land and to look for the _Polaris_, but -a breeze sprang up and obliged them to haul the boats on the ice. Soon -after this, the _Polaris_ was seen rounding a point 8 or 10 miles away. -Signals were made, but were not noticed by those on the vessel. After -this, the floe drifted away from land towards the west coast, then -across to the neighbourhood of Northumberland Island, and finally -southwards to the east of the Carey Islands. - -The Esquimaux during this time were successful in capturing a number of -seals. The provisions were served out by weight, 11 oz. being a day’s -allowance. - -During October three snow-houses were built. By November the temperature -became very low, and the effects of exposure and want of food began to -tell on the party. Some of the men trembled when they tried to walk, and -the Esquimaux children often cried with hunger, although all was given -them that could possibly be spared. The services of Joe and Hans were -invaluable: without them, the chances of life would have been very much -diminished. So keen had the appetites of the party become that the -seal-meat was eaten uncooked, with the skin and hair on. - -On the 7th December the latitude of 74° 4′ was reached. During this -month the allowance of food was 16 oz. Christmas was celebrated by an -extra meal. At breakfast, an additional ounce of bread made the soup a -little thicker than usual. New Year’s Day did not pass so well. One of -the party described the dinner as “mouldy bread and short allowance.” -Captain Tyson stated that he had dined “on about 2 feet of frozen -entrails and a little blubber.” - -On the 6th January 1873 the latitude was approximately 72° 7′. On the -15th of this month the temperature went down to 40° below zero. On the -19th, the sun reappeared after an absence of eighty-three days. - -On the 21st February the rations were reduced to 7 oz., so that they -might last till April. At the beginning of March the temperature was -over 30° below zero, and food was scarce. On the 2nd of the month Joe -was fortunate in shooting a large seal, an “ookgook,” and it can be -imagined with what delight the starving party received it. They feasted -on it till most of them became ill. Soon after this seal was captured a -storm came on, and it was feared that the floe would break up: the noise -of the ice was like that of artillery. All the party remained dressed -and ready in case of sudden disaster. After the gale began to moderate, -it was found that the ice all around had been broken up, and that the -piece on which they were was now only about 175 yards in size. - -On the 12th March the latitude was found to be 64° 32′. On the 27th of -this month a bear was shot. This was very much appreciated: the flesh -was compared to pork. On the last day of March the latitude was about -the same as Cape Farewell—the most southern point of Greenland. - -On the 1st April it was found necessary to abandon the floe and take to -the boat. When all the party entered, the boat was found to be -overloaded, and 100 lb. of meat and nearly all the clothing had to be -thrown overboard. During the next few days the party were kept -continually launching and then hauling up the boat on the ice. On the -7th April the ice split across the tent; the party managed to save -themselves, but lost their breakfast. Next day the ice split between the -tent and the boat, and it was only with great difficulty that the latter -was secured. - -During the next eight days they were imprisoned on the ice, and the -amount of food ran very low. On the 18th April a seal was shot by Joe -and was eaten raw. Next day a sea struck the floe on which they were -camped and washed away the tent, skins, and most of the bed-clothing. It -was with the utmost difficulty that the men prevented the boat from -being lost. They held on to the boat from 9 p.m. till 7 next morning. -During this time many of them were frequently struck by blocks of ice -and severely bruised. On the 22nd April they were saved from starvation -by the capture of a bear. - -At 4.30 p.m. on the 28th April a steamer hove in sight, but failed to -see them. Next day another steamer was seen, but after the party -believed they were observed, it changed its course and disappeared. On -the 30th April, on some fog clearing away, they were overjoyed to see a -steamer close at hand. Shots and shouting soon attracted attention, and -in a few minutes it was alongside. The vessel was the sealer _Tigress_, -Captain Bartlett of Newfoundland. The party were picked up in latitude -53° 35′, off Grady Harbour, Labrador. - -The return to civilised life and its food and comforts was attended with -swollen legs and feet, diarrhœa, and severe headache. The _Tigress_ -landed the party at St. John’s on 12th May. - -The voyage of the _Polaris_ extended considerably our knowledge of the -Smith Sound route towards the Pole. It also did much to explode the -theory of an open Polar Sea. The _Polaris_ was carried to a more -northern point than a vessel had ever before reached, and it prepared -the way for the British Expedition of 1875. - -One might naturally suppose that the Arctic regions would offer no -further attractions to those who suffered the terrible experience on the -drifting ice, but it will be afterwards seen that at least one of the -party played a noble rôle in another American Expedition which met with -disaster. - - - - -[Illustration: KAISER FRANZ JOSEF LAND AS KNOWN IN 1874.] - - - - - CHAPTER VI - THE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EXPEDITION (1872−74) - - -The failure of the second German Arctic Expedition to reach a high -latitude on the east coast of Greenland directed attention to the seas -of Novaya Zemlya. In order, however, that large sums of money might not -be spent on a plan which might be unfeasible, it was decided to dispatch -a pioneer expedition under the joint command of Lieutenant Weyprecht and -Julius Payer. The latter had greatly distinguished himself in the German -Expedition. - -In order to diminish expenses, a small sailing ship, the _Isbjorn_, of -55 tons, was chartered at Tromsoe. She was new and strong, and this was -her first voyage. Her bows were protected with sheet iron, 2 feet above, -and 2 feet under water. The crew consisted of eight Norwegians. - -Tromsoe was left on the 20th June 1871. They were detained two days at -Sandoe by contrary winds, and on the 28th the first ice was met in 73° -40′ south-east of Bear Island. Here they passed through 40 miles of -loose drift-ice, and then met the pack in 74° 30′. Calms set in, and the -_Isbjorn_ was beset for ten days. On the 10th July it escaped and sailed -eastward. They reached longitude 40° E., and then were forced to return -westward. Hope Island was reached, and the course was then directed -north, but ice was met with in 76° 30′. Three attempts were made to -reach Stor-Fiord from the western side of Cape Lookout, but each time -the _Isbjorn_ was driven back by the current. - -Towards the middle of August the ice to the east of Hope Island had -cleared away, and on the 22nd August 76° 45′ was reached, but contrary -winds prevented a higher latitude being attained. The course was again -set eastwards along the margin of the ice, and on the 31st of August the -latitude was 78° 30′. - -They had now arrived at the conclusion that the Novaya Zemlya Sea was -not filled with impenetrable ice, as was generally supposed, but that it -was probably open every year up to 78°, and that the most favourable -time for navigation was towards the end of August. - -The _Isbjorn_ returned to Tromsoe on 4th October. - -It was now considered desirable that a well-equipped expedition should -be dispatched to the Novaya Zemlya seas, either to penetrate towards the -north, or to attempt the North-East Passage—hence the Austro-Hungarian -Expedition. - -The _Tegetthoff_, a vessel of 220 tons burden, was fitted out for two -and a half years. The engine was of 100 horse-power, and the ship -carried 130 tons of coal. The officers and crew numbered twenty-four. -Some spoke German, some Italian, and others either Slavonic or -Hungarian. The command was twofold: Weyprecht had charge of the ship, -and Payer had command of the sledge-expeditions. - -The _Tegetthoff_ left Bremerhaven on the 13th of June 1872, and Tromsoe -was reached on the 3rd of July. Here they remained a week while the ship -was overhauled and repaired and the supply of coal replenished. Captain -Olaf Carlsen joined the ship as ice-master and harpooner. He had -deservedly gained fame through having circumnavigated Spitzbergen and -Novaya Zemlya. Tromsoe was left on 13th July. - -Ice was first seen on 25th July in latitude 74°. On the 29th they were -able to continue their course only under steam, and the vessel -encountered heavy shocks in charging the ice. Next day they were beset, -and did not escape from the ice until 3rd August, when they broke -through into the open coast-water of Novaya Zemlya. A belt of ice 105 -miles broad lay behind them, and they steered due north in view of the -mountainous coasts. - -Great was their astonishment and joy when on 12th August they met the -_Isbjorn_ and found on board Count Wilczek, who had given a large -donation towards the expense of the expedition, and who was about to -establish a dépôt of provisions at Cape Nassau. The two ships now -proceeded north in company to the Barentz Isles, where a dépôt of -provisions was established. Here they parted from the _Isbjorn_, and -steamed towards the north on the 20th August. Within a few hours the -_Tegetthoff_ became beset, and was destined never to be again released. -The position was now 76° 22′ N. latitude, 63° 3′ E. longitude. Well -might Payer write: “Happy is it for men, that inextinguishable hope -enables them to endure all the vicissitudes of fate, which are to test -their powers of endurance, and that they can never see, as at a glance, -the long series of disappointments in store for them!” - -From day to day they hoped they would be able to escape from the ice; -then they hoped from week to week, then from season to season, and -lastly in the chances of new years! - -The ship drifted slowly towards the north, and had passed the 77° on 2nd -October. On the 6th October the first bear was killed and was divided -among the dogs. They had on board eight dogs, six of which had been -brought from Vienna, and the other two from Lapland. - -On the 12th October only a line of heights some 30 miles away to the -south could be seen, and soon afterwards every trace of land -disappeared. As winter approached, the ice pressures began, and during -the next few months the crew were kept in a state of terror. -Preparations were made to abandon the ship if necessary, and for long -periods the crew did not undress. Nightly they rushed on deck, more than -once believing that at last the ship was doomed. Floes were crushed and -piled around the ship high above the level of the deck, and noise and -confusion reigned supreme. They lived as if they constantly expected an -earthquake. This condition of affairs continued in greater or lesser -measure for 130 days. Some of the crew must have been very -superstitious, as indicated by the fact that the antlers of a reindeer -which were on board were suspected of having something to do with the -ice pressure, and were thrown overboard. This not having the desired -effect, the skull of a bear was treated likewise. It may be mentioned -here that during this expedition no fewer than sixty-seven polar bears -were killed. - -The _Tegetthoff_ still slowly drifted to the north, and on the 19th -February 1873 had reached latitude 78° 15′. Payer formed the opinion -that wind was the main cause of the drifting, and that sea-currents were -only of secondary importance. De Long and Nansen in later years were to -prove that Payer’s opinion was true. - -Life on board the _Tegetthoff_ was extremely monotonous, especially -during the darkness of winter. With the arrival of summer in 1873, they -had great hope of deliverance from the ice, but this hope was not -realised. - -The second summer was drawing to a close when the most remarkable event -of the voyage occurred. It was on the 30th August, in latitude 79° 43′ -and longitude 59° 33′ E., that the startling discovery was made that -land could be seen in the distance. This discovery, totally unexpected, -infused new life into the whole expedition. The new land received its -name from that of the Austrian Emperor, and was christened Kaiser -Franz-Josef’s Land. By the end of September the _Tegetthoff_ had drifted -to 79° 58′, which was the highest latitude it attained. An attempt was -now made to reach the land, but a fog compelled the party to return to -the ship. - -At the beginning of November the ship had drifted to a point not far -from land, and a second attempt to reach it proved successful. The sun, -however, had now disappeared, and the twilight did not enable them to -make any extended exploration. There was also a danger of the ship -drifting away. - -The second winter passed much more pleasantly than the first. The ice -pressures were not very severe, and the crew had become much more -accustomed to them. The exploration of the new land which was to take -place in the spring of 1874 gave food for much speculation, and tended -to relieve the monotony. - -In February 1874, Payer, as commander of the expedition on shore, held a -council to whom he explained his plan for the projected sledge-journeys. -As there was a possibility of the ship drifting away from the land, it -was decided that provisions for three months should be deposited on -land, and that in the event of the sledge-party being cut off from the -ship they should attempt to reach Europe. The sledge-expeditions were to -begin in March and be continued for six or seven weeks. It was also -agreed that after the termination of the sledge-expeditions the -_Tegetthoff_ should be abandoned, and that the whole expedition should -attempt to reach Europe in their boats. - -The greatest activity now reigned in the ship, in order to be prepared -for the sledge-journey. Some of the crew had suffered from scurvy, but -with the exception of the engineer, who was suffering from consumption, -there was no dangerous case of sickness. - -The sledges used had runners 6, 8, and 11 feet long, and 1½, 2, and 2¾ -inches broad, respectively, and were gently curved at each end. The -height of the sledges above the snow was about 1 foot, and they were -constructed of the best ash. They carried loads amounting to 7, 12, and -20 cwt. The two runners were fastened together by two strong front -boards, and by four cross-pieces of wood firmly lashed to the upright -standards of the sledge, which were themselves dovetailed into the -runners. - -As regards the cooking apparatus, Payer points out that it should be -made of sheet iron, each of its parts of one piece, and there should be -no soldering, in order to diminish the risk of breakage and the setting -fire to the tent by the escape of the spirit in a state of combustion. - -The covering for the feet consisted of sail-cloth boots, lined with -flannel, and soled with stout felt. They were made wide so that they -could be put easily over three pairs of strong woollen stockings. - -The first sledge-party left the ship on 11th March 1874. It was equipped -for one week, and its object was to reconnoitre a route for an extended -journey towards the north. Payer took six men and three dogs. In about -two hours after leaving the ship they had passed the south-west cape of -Wilczek Island, on which they had previously landed. During this journey -Payer began the determination of the localities of Franz-Josef Land, by -a triangulation of elevated points, to which the measurement of a base -was afterwards to be added. The ascent of high mountains therefore -formed part of the programme. - -Hall Island at Cape Tegetthoff was reached on the 12th March. Part of -the journey had to be made against driving snow with a temperature about -26° F. below zero. In the afternoon of the 12th, Payer with two Tyrolese -ascended the plateau of Cape Tegetthoff. Those who remained behind spent -their time in rubbing their feet with snow. The summit was reached in -two hours, and the height was ascertained to be 2600 feet. The weather -conditions were not favourable, and the view in consequence was limited. -Next morning they entered Nordenskjöld Fiord, and at noon reached the -high, precipitous termination of Sonklar Glacier. In the afternoon, -Payer with the Tyrolese ascended Cape Littrow, 2500 feet in height, and -early on the morning of the 14th they ascended to the summit of the -precipitous face of the Sonklar Glacier. Here the temperature went down -to the lowest ever experienced by Payer, about 59° F. below zero. They -had taken some rum with them, and as each took his share, he knelt down -and allowed another to shake it into his mouth, without bringing the -metal cup in contact with the lips. The rum seemed to have lost all its -strength and fluidity. It tasted like milk, and its consistence was that -of oil. The bread was frozen so hard that they feared to break their -teeth in biting it, and it brought blood as they ate it. They attempted -to smoke cigars, but the icicles on their beards always put them out. -The instruments used in surveying seemed to burn when they were touched. -Payer found that this extreme cold was depressing in its influence, and -enfeebled the powers of the will. At first, cold stimulates to action, -but when extreme, this vigour is quickly followed by torpidity; exertion -is soon followed by the desire to rest. Persons exposed to these -extremely low temperatures feel as if they were intoxicated: from the -stiffness and trembling of their jaws they speak with great effort. When -dragging a sledge, their breath streams forth like smoke, which is soon -transformed into a mass of needles of ice, almost hiding their mouths -from view. Ice becomes so hard that it emits a ringing sound; wood is as -difficult to cut as bone; butter becomes like stone; meat must be split, -and mercury may be fired as a bullet from a gun. Snow of a temperature -of 30° below zero feels in the mouth like hot iron, and does not quench -but increases thirst by its inflammatory action on the mucous membrane. - -After descending from the Sonklar Glacier, they decided to return to the -ship, which was reached on the 15th March. Two of the party had -frost-bitten feet, one had his face frost-bitten, and a fourth had both -his hands severely affected. Next day, Krisch, the engineer, died from -consumption. He was buried on Wilczek Island. - -The second sledge-journey began on the 26th March. Payer again took six -men and three dogs. The provisions consisted of boiled beef, bread, -pemmican, bacon, extract of meat, condensed milk, coffee, chocolate, -rice, grits, salt, pepper, peas-sausage, and sugar. The total weight -carried, including two sledges, amounted to about 14 cwt. - -They had not gone more than 1000 yards from the ship when driving snow -compelled them to pass twenty-four hours in the tent. A start was again -made on the 27th March, but when near Wilczek Island they had to halt -for an hour in order to rub the frost-bitten hands of one of the men. On -the 29th, Payer ascended the rocky heights of Koldewey Island. On the -shore of this island the winter retreat of a family of bears was -discovered. It was a cavity hollowed out in a mass of snow lying under a -rocky wall. As they proceeded north they went round Schönau Island, -named after Payer’s birthplace. Here a dépôt of provisions was placed in -a cleft of the rocks and covered with 4 feet of snow. - -When nearing Cape Frankfurt, which is a promontory of Hall Island, they -could not make out whether the opening between this and the Wullersdorf -Mountains would be the proper route to the north. In order to settle -this question, Payer and Haller left the sledge and made a forced march -to Cape Frankfurt, which they ascended, and from a height of 2000 feet -were able to ascertain the route. From here the coasts of Wilczek Land -appeared to run in a northerly direction, and then to trend gradually to -the north-east. A broad inlet, to which the name “Austria Sound” was -given, was seen to run far towards the north. A great many icebergs were -met here, indicating the presence of large glaciers. On the day that -they entered this sound, a bear was killed, from which they took 50 lb. -of flesh for their own use, and gave the rest of the carcass to the -dogs. At the same time they deposited 50 lb. of boiled beef on an -iceberg close by. - -On the 4th April they passed Cape Tyrol in driving snow, and on this day -one of the dogs was lost. A gull flew past and the dog burst away from -the sledge, and in hot pursuit of the bird disappeared from sight, and -was never seen again. On the 5th April the 81st degree was reached. -Before setting out on this journey, Payer guaranteed to give the men -1000 florins if the 81st degree was reached, and 2500 florins if they -reached the 82nd degree. Two bears were killed on this day, and their -flesh formed the principal food. It was not, however, much appreciated. -Payer describes it as tolerable food for sea-gulls, but hardly fit even -for devils on the fast-days of the infernal regions. - -When approaching Becker Island the atmospheric conditions were such that -it could not be seen until it was only about 100 yards away. Instead of -rounding this island, it was decided to cross it. When the highest point -was reached, Austria Sound was seen to still stretch towards the north, -but the sea presented the appearance of a chaos of ice-hills and -icebergs. - -On the 7th April, in latitude 81° 23′, could be seen the faint outlines -of mountains in Crown-Prince Rudolf’s Land. Here Payer writes: “At this -latitude it seemed as if Wilczek Land suddenly terminated, but when the -sun scattered the driving mist we saw the glittering ranges of its -enormous glaciers—the Dove Glaciers—shining down on us. Towards the -north-east we could trace land trending to a cape lying in the grey -distance—Cape Buda-Pesth, as it was afterwards called.” This passage -was destined to form a great puzzle to Nansen in later years. It is -evident, however, that the atmospheric conditions were not favourable -for accurate observations, and on his map Payer shows that this part of -the coast-line was considered doubtful. - -As it appeared to Payer that Crown-Prince Rudolf’s Land and Karl -Alexander’s Land formed a continuous whole, and therefore barred the way -to the north, he diverged into Rawlinson Sound. The track lay between -countless hummocks, some of which Payer estimated to be 40 feet high. -The advance now became one continual zigzag. On the 9th April an iceberg -was ascended from which it was seen that the hummocks in Rawlinson Sound -appeared to stretch on without end. The course was therefore altered to -a north-westerly direction in order to come under Crown-Prince Rudolf’s -Land, but the character of the ice still remained unchanged, and Payer -was compelled to make for Hohenlohe Island in the west, where he decided -to divide the expedition into two parties. - -Payer determined that he, with Orel, Zaninovich, and Klotz, should push -on with the dog-sledge, and that the other three men should remain -behind at Cape Schrötter. Payer explained the plan he meant to follow, -and stated that he should be absent from five to eight days, but that if -he should not return within fifteen days they were to march back to the -ship with the sledge. A pocket-compass, a watch, an aneroid barometer, -and a thermometer were left with the remaining party. The tent was -divided in two, each party receiving a half. The advance party took -provisions for eight days, and the two remaining dogs had to drag the -sledge with a weight of about 4 cwt. - -As they approached the promontory on the south of Crown-Prince Rudolf’s -Land, numerous icebergs were met, which according to Payer were from 100 -to 200 feet high. The Middendorf Glacier was now reached, and an attempt -was made to cross it. Towards its lower part many crevasses were bridged -over with snow. Farther on, the glacier appeared smooth and free from -crevasses, and it was anticipated that it could be crossed without -difficulty. Here, Klotz confessed to Payer that one of his feet was -swollen and ulcerated. Payer decided at once that it would be necessary -to send Klotz back to the other party at Hohenlohe Island. Laden with a -sack and carrying a revolver, he set off, and soon disappeared. - -Meanwhile Payer and the other two men had again packed the sledge and -harnessed the dogs, and were setting out, when, without the slightest -warning, the snow gave way beneath the sledge, and Zaninovich, the dogs, -and the sledge disappeared in a crevasse. Payer, who was attached to the -rope, was dragged backwards to the edge of the crevasse, and expected to -be precipitated into it, but at this moment the sledge stuck fast -between the sides of the crevasse. Orel now advanced to the edge and -stated that he could see Zaninovich lying on a ledge of snow in the -crevasse, with precipices all round him, and the dogs attached to the -traces of the sledge. Payer, who was lying on his stomach near the edge -of the crevasse, had still one of the traces fastened round his waist. -This he decided to cut, although Zaninovich cried up that he was afraid -that the sledge would then fall on him. When the trace was cut, the -sledge made a short run and then stuck fast again. Payer now jumped the -crevasse and shouted to Zaninovich that he would require to run back to -Hohenlohe Island to fetch men and ropes for his rescue; that if he could -contrive for four hours to keep himself from freezing, all would yet be -well. Payer at once started to run down the glacier back to Cape -Schrötter, 6 miles off. Bathed in perspiration, he threw off his -bird-skin garments, his boots, and his shawl, and ran in his stockings -through the deep snow. On the way he passed Klotz, who at first feared -that Payer had lost his senses. On reaching Cape Schrötter a rope was -detached from the large sledge, and the whole party, with the exception -of Klotz, set off for the glacier. Reaching the glacier, they tied -themselves together, Payer leading. On arrival at the crevasse, Payer -shouted, but at first could hear no reply. At last he heard the whining -of a dog, and then an unintelligible answer from Zaninovich. Haller, who -was immediately let down by a rope, found Zaninovich still living, but -almost frozen, on a ledge of snow 40 feet down the crevasse. He fastened -himself and Zaninovich to the rope, and they were drawn up after great -exertion. Haller again descended, and fastened the dogs to the rope. -They had managed to free themselves from their traces and had sprung to -a ledge near where Zaninovich had lain. After they were drawn up, they -gave expression to their joy, first by rolling themselves vigorously in -the snow, and then by licking the hands of the party. Haller was next -raised to the level of the sledge, so that he might cut the ropes which -fastened the loading. The articles were brought up one by one. Nothing -of any importance had been lost. The party now descended the glacier, -and the three men from Cape Schrötter returned there, while Payer and -his companions camped at Cape Habermann. - -A route along the west coast of Crown-Prince Rudolf’s Land was now -followed. When Cape Brorok was reached, the latitude was found to be 81° -45′. Payer here writes: “To the north-west we saw at first nothing but -ice up to the horizon; even with the telescope of the theodolite I could -not decide for the existence of land, which Orel’s sharp eye discovered -in the far distance.” Payer also remarks that, in the Arctic regions, it -often happens that banks of fog on the horizon assume the character of -distant ranges, for the small height to which these banks rise in the -cold air causes them to be very sharply defined. It is also very common, -he says, to make the same mistake in the case of mists arising from the -waste water of enormous glaciers. - -When Cape Auk was reached, a dark water-sky appeared in the north, and -great numbers of birds were seen. Seals lay on the ice, and traces of -bears and foxes were numerous. Had Payer been inclined to believe, like -Hayes, in the existence of an open Polar Sea, these signs of a richer -animal-life would have gone far to support the belief. Payer, however, -called this belief an “antiquated hypothesis.” - -The ice was now so thin that they thought it expedient to tie themselves -together with a long rope. Ascending an iceberg in Teplitz Bay, the open -sea was seen stretching far to the west; and at Cape Säulen the open -water reached the coast. Here Payer ascended a height to reconnoitre the -track for next day. Land was no longer visible towards the north. The -12th April was the last day of advance in a northerly direction. The -march lay over snowy slopes to the summits of the coast-range, from 1000 -to 3000 feet high. At noon the latitude was taken at Cape Germania, and -found to be 81° 57′. They reached Cape Fligely in five hours, and here -decided to turn back. Payer estimated the latitude of this point to be -82° 5′. Rudolf’s Land still stretched in a north-easterly direction -towards a cape named after Sherard Osborne. From Cape Fligely it could -be seen that the open water was simply a “Polynia” surrounded by old -ice. Blue mountain-ranges were believed to be visible in the distant -north, and were named “King Oscar Land” and “Petermann Land.” - -After enclosing a brief account of the journey in a bottle and -depositing it in a cleft of rock, the return journey was begun. Cape -Schrötter was reached on the evening of the 13th April. It was well for -those left there that nothing serious happened to Payer’s party, for -although all the means of ascertaining their position had been given to -them, when asked what direction they would have taken to return to the -ship, they pointed north-east up Rawlinson Sound! - -Cape Schrötter was left on the 14th April, and the party made for the -Coburg Islands, in very bad weather. Klotz’s foot had become much worse, -and all those who had been left behind were more or less snow-blind. It -struck Payer as peculiar that the dogs did not suffer from this -affection, close as they were to the glare of the snow and without any -protection against it. Coburg Islands were reached in the evening. Next -day, after a severe march, they got clear of the region of ice-hummocks, -and were able to use their sledge-sail. On the return journey Payer -ascended Cape Hellwald, 2200 feet, and Cape Tyrol, 3000 feet, above -sea-level. - -On the 19th April, south of Cape Tyrol, they came on open water, and had -to take to the coast of Wilczek Land. The iceberg on which one of the -dépôts had been placed was afloat, and could not be reached. Their -provisions were now running short, and they were still 55 miles from the -ship. During the next two days they struggled on in terrible weather. -Their last dépôt, fortunately, was discovered, and also the remains of a -bear killed on the way north. The open water was now found to have -retreated to the west, and this enabled them to reach Cape Frankfurt, on -Hall Island. From here the ice could be seen stretching away to the -south. When Cape Orgel was reached, it was with anxious feelings that -Payer began its ascent. It was from here he would be able to ascertain -whether the _Tegetthoff_ had been drifted away from its former position. -He was overjoyed to find the ship about 3 miles off. The whole party -reached it on 23rd April. - -The weather towards the end of April was good, and favoured the carrying -out of the third and last sledge-expedition. Payer was anxious to -ascertain, if possible, how far Franz-Josef Land extended towards -Spitzbergen. On the 29th April he again left the ship, with Haller, -Lieutenant Brosch, and the two dogs. Provisions for a week were carried. -Cape Brünn, on McClintock Island, was to be their objective. This was -ascended on the 2nd May, and was found to be 2500 feet high, but the -boundaries of the land towards Spitzbergen could not be determined. On -the night of the 2nd May they began a forced march of twenty-two hours -back to the ship. The total distance of the sledge-journeys was -estimated to be about 450 miles. - -Preparations were now made to abandon the _Tegetthoff_, and to make an -attempt to reach Europe. Three boats were selected for the return: two -of these were Norwegian whale-boats, 20 feet long. Each of the boats was -placed on a sledge, and the weight to be dragged, including everything, -amounted to the formidable total of 90 cwt. - -The plan was to reach the dépôt of provisions on the Barentz Islands, -which lay almost directly south. After replenishing stores there, they -proposed to follow the coast of Novaya Zemlya with the hope of reaching -one of those ships which go there for the salmon fishery. They also had -the hope that they might come across a Norwegian seal-hunter farther -north. - -The _Tegetthoff_ was left on 20th May 1874. The first day’s advance -amounted to 1 mile. They had to pass three times heavily laden, and -twice empty, over every bit of the road. The snow was deep, and more -than half of the expedition was required to move a boat. During the -first week Payer and two men returned daily to the ship with the -dog-sledge in order to replenish the store the party had consumed. A -bear was shot on the 23rd, another on the 26th, and a third on the 31st -May. At the end of May, when only 5 miles from the ship, they approached -a water-space, but found the margins so surrounded with broad barriers -of broken ice that the boats could not be launched. They therefore -decided to camp, and wait for more favourable conditions. It was not -until the 17th June that the ice opened near to them, and the boats were -launched on the 18th. They had not proceeded more than 3 miles when they -were stopped by ice, and the boats had to be drawn on to it. Next -morning there was no water to be seen. On the 20th they crossed a -“lead,” and then were detained in the same position two days. During the -rest of June they had continually to cross “leads” and water-holes. At -noon on the 1st July they had only reached 79° 38′. On the 4th the -latitude was found to be 79° 43′, so that they had drifted north. From -the 9th to the 15th July they rested and waited for the ice to open. On -the 20th July the latitude was 79° 11′, so that during two calendar -months they had advanced only 47 geographical miles. The water-spaces -now became larger, and more satisfactory progress was made. - -On the 7th August they believed they had reached the open sea, as they -observed the ice alternately rising and falling. Next day they were -again shut in the ice, and there was now no appearance of open water. -From the 10th to the 13th they waited on the ice opening, and employed -part of the time in caulking their boats. On the 13th the latitude was -77° 58′, so that they were now exactly 2 degrees south of the -starting-point. On the 15th August the open water was at last reached, -in 77° 40′. - -The sledges were now left behind, but although the boats were much -crowded, the two remaining dogs were at first taken on board. Later, -however, it was found that they would put the crew to great -inconvenience, and with reluctance they had to be killed. The course was -now shaped towards the Barentz Islands. On the 16th, the snowy summits -near Cape Nassau were sighted. Next day a fog came on, and before it -cleared they found they were far beyond the Barentz Islands. Instead of -returning to the dépôt, they preferred to take the risk and push on. - -On the 18th August they first landed on Novaya Zemlya, where they found -coltsfoot (_Tussilago farfara_), the leaves of which were dried and used -as tobacco. They were greatly disappointed in not finding a vessel in -Matoschkin Bay. On the 23rd August, only ten days’ provisions remained. -In the evening on the 24th they passed Cape Britwin, and suddenly they -beheld a small boat with two men in it. There was a great cry of joy -from the Austrian boats, and as the two men pulled towards them, and -before either party could explain, a corner of rock was turned, and now -in full view lay two ships. These were two Russian vessels from -Archangel, and were engaged in the salmon fishery. The Austrians were -received by the Russians with the greatest friendliness. It was the -intention of the latter to remain where they were for fourteen days -longer, and to spend about the same number in fishing and hunting at the -southern extremity of Novaya Zemlya. This programme did not suit the -Austrians. It was therefore arranged that one of the vessels should take -the expedition to Vardo, in Norway, without delay, and that in return -for this service the Russians should receive three of the Austrian -boats, two rifles, and be guaranteed a sum of 1200 silver roubles. - -The _Nikolai_ sailed on the 26th August, and reached Vardo on 3rd -September. Two days later the mail steamer from Vardo to Hamburg took -the expedition on board, and stopping at Tromsoe, put ashore Captain -Carlsen. - - * * * * * - -The discovery of Franz-Josef Land was an important one, and stimulated -further Arctic exploration. It also served as a new point from which to -attack the Pole. - - - - - CHAPTER VII - THE BRITISH EXPEDITION OF 1875−76 - - -The Government of Queen Victoria having determined that an expedition of -Arctic exploration should be undertaken, the ships _Alert_ and -_Discovery_ were specially fitted out for this service, and the command -given to Captain George S. Nares. The ship _Valorous_ was also to -accompany the expedition to Disco with stores and then return. The -primary object was to attain the highest northern latitude, and, if -possible, to reach the North Pole. The expedition was fitted out -regardless of expense. According to the Admiralty instructions, the -second ship was not to be carried northward of the 82nd parallel, so -that the crew of the advance ship might fall back on it in case of -emergency. - -The two ships left Portsmouth on 29th May 1875, and arrived at the -island of Disco without special incident. Here the services of Frederick -the Eskimo were obtained, and at Proven, Hans Hendrick was also engaged. -This was the same Hans who had previously accompanied three American -expeditions. - -A dépôt of 3600 rations was landed on the most south-eastern of the -Carey Islands, and also a boat. On the 27th July the two ships passed -between Northumberland and Hakluyt Islands. - -On the south-west brow of Littleton Island a cairn was erected, in which -was placed a notice containing a short account of the movements and -prospects of the expedition up to that time. - -Nares formed the opinion that “Hartstene Bay is the best winter-station -on the North Greenland coast; its shores are washed by a warm current -coming from the southward, whilst the projecting promontories of Cape -Hatherton and Cape Ohlsen deflect the Polar current to the other side of -the Sound. Owing to the narrowing of the channel at the entrance of -Smith Sound the velocity of the tidal currents is greatly augmented, and -even in winter large water-spaces are kept open. The moisture and warmth -imparted to the atmosphere by the uncovered water moderates the climate -in its vicinity to some extent, and consequently we find in the -neighbourhood of Hartstene Bay a land comparatively well vegetated and a -great abundance of animal-life. As Port Foulke can be visited yearly -from the southward in all but very exceptional seasons, it can be -recommended as an important base if further explorations by Smith Sound -are hereafter undertaken.” - -On 29th July the two ships crossed Smith Sound, steering direct for Cape -Isabella. The snow-clad coast of Ellesmere Land was very clearly -defined, the black headlands, separated by glacier-filled valleys, -standing out prominently from the white background. - -A cairn was erected on the outer spur of Cape Isabella, 700 feet above -the water-line; a cask for letters and a few cases of preserved meat -being hidden away on a lower point, about 300 feet high, magnetic west -of the cairn. - -Proceeding northward, shelter had to be taken in a harbour, named after -Payer, beside Brevoort Island. Nares mentions this as a most convenient -waiting-place for vessels attempting to proceed northward by Smith -Sound. A dépôt of 240 rations was placed on the peninsula that forms the -southern protection of the harbour. A cairn was built on the summit of -Brevoort Island, in which a record paper was subsequently placed. These -provisions were not afterwards touched. - -The second large dépôt of 3000 rations, for use in the event of a -compulsory retreat, was landed at a small protected bay 2 miles north of -Cape Hawks. - -Cape Frazer, where the Polar and Baffin’s Bay tides meet, was passed on -the 19th of August. During the previous three weeks they had advanced 90 -miles, or about 4¼ miles a day. - -At Cape Collinson a dépôt of 240 rations was landed about 100 yards -inshore and 30 feet above the water-line. These provisions were not -afterwards disturbed by the expedition. - -On reaching Kennedy Channel it was decided to make for open water, which -was seen in the middle of the strait. This was reached after some -difficulty, and the ships were soon advancing up the channel, which was -comparatively free of ice, and was therefore in much the same condition -as when seen by Morton. They steered for Cape Morton, at the north-east -extremity of Kennedy Channel. Here a dépôt of 240 rations was landed for -the use of travelling parties which were to be afterwards dispatched for -the purpose of exploring Petermann Fiord. - -Hall Basin being filled with ice, the two ships crossed to the western -coast, and entered Lady Franklin Sound, where the _Discovery_ was left -in a bay named “Discovery Bay.” This point was reached on the 25th of -August. - -The _Alert_ had to wait until the 28th before an opportunity offered to -proceed northwards. A dépôt of 1000 rations was placed on a hillside 30 -feet above the sea, on the northern shore of Lincoln Bay. A cairn, which -could be seen from the ice a mile from land, was built a few yards -inshore of where these provisions were deposited. They were not -afterwards disturbed. - -Floeberg Beach was reached on the 1st of September, and here the _Alert_ -was fated to remain eleven months. The ice was occasionally driven -offshore by gales, but after September 16th the ice never left the shore -to the westward of the _Alert_, although to the eastward a large space -of clear water remained between the _Alert_ and Robeson Channel whenever -the wind prevailed from the westward. - -On the 18th of September the thermometer rose to 36° F.; on the 19th it -had fallen to 15° F. The first star was seen on the night of the 20th -September. - -With the object of exploring the land about Cape Joseph Henry, -Lieutenant Aldrich, with Frederick and two seamen, Ayles and Simmons, -started on the 22nd, with fourteen dogs dragging two sledges laden with -fourteen days provisions. The dogs were allowanced at the rate of 2 lb. -of preserved meat daily. - -On the 26th a large party started with the object of establishing a -dépôt of provisions as far in advance to the north-west as possible. -This party consisted of two seven-man sledges and one eleven-man sledge; -they were provisioned for twenty days. The sledges were weighted to 200 -lb. a man. The eleven-man sledge proved too heavy for the young ice, and -another seven-man sledge had to be taken instead. The temperature during -the first night fell to 1 degree below zero. - -On the 5th of October, Lieutenant Aldrich returned with eleven dogs -harnessed to one sledge on which his light gear was secured. Everything -else had been left a few miles behind to enable him to reach the ship -that night. The dogs, sinking as they frequently did in the soft snow up -to their muzzles, had proved to be nearly useless, and but for the help -of the men the sledge would have had to be abandoned. Aldrich had -succeeded in reaching Cape Joseph Henry, and had spent three days in -exploring the neighbourhood. The floebergs and rugged ice piled directly -against the precipitous face of the cliffs, with an extremely rough pack -in constant motion, effectually prevented sledges being dragged round -the cape; but fortunately there was a fair prospect of finding a level -road overland to the sea on the other side of the cape in the spring. On -the 27th September, Aldrich had succeeded in reaching latitude 82° 48′ -N., a higher latitude than had ever before been attained, Parry’s 82° -45′ reached in 1827 having now been beaten. - -As regards the use of dogs, Aldrich on this journey formed the opinion -that when the snow becomes more than a foot deep, they are not of much -value. - -The large sledge-party which succeeded in establishing a dépôt of -provisions at Cape Joseph Henry returned on September 14th. Out of the -party of twenty-one men and three officers, seven men and one officer -returned to the ship badly frost-bitten, three of them so severely as to -render amputation necessary, the patients being confined to their beds -for the greater part of the winter. The frost-bites were attributable -entirely to the wet sludgy state of some of the ice that had to be -crossed. The temperature ranged between 15° above and 22° below zero. On -this journey attention was drawn to the fact that the barrels of the -breech-loading fowling-pieces became contracted by the cold to such an -extent that the paper cartridges which at a higher temperature fitted -well could not be inserted until the outside paper had been stripped -off. - -The sun disappeared on the 11th October, but for some time afterwards -there was twilight during five or six hours of the day. The first sign -of an aurora was seen on the 26th October; on the 27th stars were -visible at noon. On the 8th November, with a perfectly clear sky, the -noon twilight was insufficient to enable one to make out the words in a -_Times_ leading article, when the paper was held up facing the south. On -the 9th November, Nares writes:— - -“To-day the moon reappeared above the southern horizon. Her movements -are so important to us that a monthly bulletin is published giving the -precise account of when she will appear and when depart. She is truly -the ‘presiding goddess’ of the long Arctic night; reflecting to us, -during each of her visits, the light of the totally absent sun for ten -successive days and nights as she circles round the heavens without ever -setting. During some period of her stay full moon occurs, and she -displays her greatest beauty. At the time of new moon, when her light -would be of the least value, she is absent in southern latitudes. Thanks -to her we can never realise what existence would be if totally deprived -of light.” - -On the 23rd of November mercury became frozen for the first time, at -−45° F. The mean temperature of February was −38° F. The mean for the -3rd and 4th March was −69.6°. On the 3rd March two reliable thermometers -registered below −73° F., or 105° below the freezing-point of fresh -water. - -Nothing of special importance occurred during the winter. Christmas was -spent cheerfully; a school was started, and a course of lectures and -entertainments was given every Thursday evening. There was little but -the weather to chronicle. - -On the 12th of March, Mr. Egerton and Lieutenant Rawson, accompanied by -Petersen and nine dogs, started for the _Discovery_, the sledge being -weighted to 51 lb. per dog. This party had to return on the 15th owing -to the illness of Petersen. “He was taken ill on the 2nd March with -cramp, and afterwards, being unable to retain any food whatever, nothing -could keep him warm, and he became badly frost-bitten. By depriving -themselves of their own warm clothing and at great personal risk, the -two officers, his only companions, succeeded in restoring circulation. -The following day, Petersen being no better, they wisely determined to -return with him to the ship. But the gale of the 14th rendering it -impossible to travel, and the tent being very cold, they burrowed out a -hole in a snow-bank, and with the aid of a spirit-lamp raised the -temperature inside to 7°. With a noble disregard of themselves, they -succeeded in retaining some slight heat in the man’s body by alternately -lying one at a time alongside of him while the other was recovering his -warmth by exercise. On the morning of the 15th, the patient being -slightly better, and the weather permitting, they started to return to -the ship with the sledge lightened to the utmost. - -“During the journey of 16 miles over a very rough ground, although -frequently very seriously frost-bitten themselves, they succeeded in -keeping life in the invalid until they arrived on board. He was badly -frost-bitten in the face and feet. - -“Notwithstanding the professional ability and incessant care of Dr. -Colan, Petersen never recovered from the severe shock which he had -received, and eventually expired from exhaustion three months -afterwards.” - -On the 20th March, Mr. Egerton, with Lieutenant Rawson, accompanied by -John Simmons and Michael Regan, one of the crew of the _Discovery_, -started with a sledge drawn by seven dogs for Discovery Bay, the dogs -dragging 78 lb. each. - -They returned on the 4th April. They arrived at Discovery Bay on the -25th of March, and left again on the 30th. The temperature was very low -during this journey, and great difficulties as regards snow and ice had -to be overcome. - -The great sledge-party to the west and north left the ship on the 3rd of -April. It consisted of fifty-three officers and men. Each man in the -northern division dragged 230 lb., and those of the western division 242 -lb. - -“The programme was as follows: Lieutenant Aldrich, assisted by a -sledge-crew under the command of Lieutenant Giffard, was to explore the -shores of Grant Land towards the north and west, along the coast-line he -had discovered the previous autumn. Commander Markham, seconded by -Lieutenant Parr, with two boats, and equipped for an absence of seventy -days, was to force his way to the northward over the ice, starting off -from the land near Cape Joseph Henry; three sledge-crews, under the -commands of Dr. Moss and Mr. George White, accompanying them as far as -their provisions would allow.” - -On the 20th April, Lieutenants Beaumont and Rawson, and Dr. Coppinger, -with twenty-one men dragging four sledges weighted to 218 lb. a man, -started for the north coast of Greenland. - -On the 25th of May, Captain Nares decided to go to Cape Joseph Henry to -obtain a view of the northern ice from the lofty mountains in the -locality. He arrived there on the 29th, and ascended Mount Julia, the -highest peak near the sea, which rises to an elevation of not less than -2000 feet. The atmosphere being very clear, an extensive view was -obtained. The hills of Greenland, 120 miles distant, were plainly seen -in the neighbourhood of Cape Britannia. He was satisfied that no land -exists to the north within 50 miles of Cape Joseph Henry, and no high -land within 80 miles. In his narrative of this journey he writes:— - -“Whether or not land exists within the 360 miles which stretch from the -limit of our view to the northern axis of the globe is, so far as -sledge-travelling is concerned, immaterial. Sixty miles of such pack as -we now know to extend north of Cape Joseph Henry is an insuperable -obstacle to travelling in that direction with our present appliances; -and I unhesitatingly affirm that it is impracticable to reach the North -Pole by the Smith Sound route.” - -Let us now follow the northern sledge-party which left the _Alert_ on -3rd April 1876. The dépôt of provisions at Cape Joseph Henry was reached -on 10th April, and the remainder of that day was employed in bringing -the provisions off to the sledges, which were left on the ice. Up to -this point the northern and western parties had travelled together. Next -day they separated, and the two supporting sledges returned to the ship. - -The ice over which the northern party had to travel was of an extremely -rugged character. Roads had frequently to be made before the sledges -could be dragged forwards. To make matters worse, the snow in many -places had drifted to such a depth that the men were frequently -floundering in it up to their waists. Little mention is made of -snow-shoes throughout the expedition, and here undoubtedly they would -have been of great service. At first they attempted to console -themselves with the idea that the irregular and broken sea of ice was -only caused by the proximity to the land, and that they should -afterwards meet with smooth level floes, on which they should advance -rapidly. The belts of hummocks that separated the floes varied from 20 -yards to half a mile in breadth, and were from 15 to 50 feet in height. -In order to keep the sun as much as possible at their backs, they -travelled between noon and midnight. During the first week the -temperature was usually about 30° below zero, and little sleep could be -obtained. On the 14th one of the crew complained of pains in his ankles -and knees. Although ignorant of the fact, this was the first appearance -of the dreaded scurvy. During the 15th and 16th they were confined to -tent by a gale, with a temperature of 67° below freezing-point. On the -17th another of the crew was found suffering from swollen and puffy -knee-joints. - -On the 19th, Markham decided to abandon the larger boat. This boat had -always been regarded as an incubus by the party, and every one was well -pleased to get rid of it. Even then, in order to advance the three -sledges, the road had to be frequently walked over five times. On this -day, the 19th, a third man fell ill. On the 24th the 83rd parallel of -latitude was crossed. Other two of the party exhibited symptoms of -scurvy on the 27th. The temperature on the 28th rose to 2°, the first -day the thermometer registered above zero. On the 2nd of May Markham -became convinced that his invalids were suffering from scurvy. Great as -were the natural difficulties which surrounded him, this was rightly -regarded as the most formidable of all obstacles to their advance that -could possibly be imagined. On the 7th May three of the invalids had to -be carried on the sledge, and the other two could scarcely walk. On the -10th, Markham arrived at the determination of dragging the sledges no -farther in a northerly direction. He decided to give the invalids two -days’ rest. In order to insure being within 400 miles of the North Pole, -the whole of the party, with the exception of the invalids and two men -to look after them, started on the 12th to the northward, carrying with -them the sextant, artificial horizon, and all their colours and banners. -Shortly before noon, the artificial horizon was set up, and the flags -and sledge-standards displayed. The latitude was found to be 83° 20′ 26″ -N., or 399½ miles from the North Pole. The announcement of the position -was received with three cheers, with one more for Captain Nares; then -all sang the “Union Jack of Old England,” winding up, like loyal -subjects, with “God Save the Queen.” - -The return journey was then commenced. Day by day their strength -diminished. Gradually, but surely, the men, one after the other, began -to feel the cruel grasp of the scurvy, as they struggled manfully on, -dragging their helpless companions. Towards the end of May, although the -temperature of the outside air was below the freezing-point, the sun was -so powerful that it would raise the temperature inside the tent to as -much as 70° or 80°. Snow fell heavily during the greater part of the -return journey, and fogs were very prevalent. On the 19th of May ominous -symptoms of a disruption of the pack were seen. A crack in some ice had -opened considerably. On the 25th the 83rd parallel of latitude was -recrossed. - -The condition of the party was so critical on the 27th that it became -only too painfully evident that, to insure their reaching the land -alive, the sledge must be considerably lightened in order to admit of a -more rapid advance. The state of the party was on that day as follows: -five men were in a very precarious condition, utterly unable to move, -and consequently had to be carried on the sledges; five others nearly as -bad, but who nobly persisted in hobbling after the sledges, which they -could just manage to accomplish, for, as the sledges had to be advanced -one by one, it gave them plenty of time to perform the distance; whilst -three others exhibited all the premonitory scorbutic symptoms. Thus only -the two officers and two men could be considered as effective! - -“I therefore,” writes Markham, “decided to abandon the remaining boat, -which would materially lessen the load to be dragged.” - -On the 29th May the tents were pitched close to the boat that they -abandoned on their outward journey. It was exactly in the same condition -as when left. - -On the 31st, whilst crossing some young ice between two heavy floes, one -of the sledges broke through, and it was with difficulty that it was -dragged out again. - -On the 5th of June they reached land. Two days later, Lieutenant Parr -started on an arduous march to the ship, in order to obtain assistance. -Next day one of the invalids, George Porter, died. On the 9th a -dog-sledge arrived from the ship, and on the following day a larger -party, headed by Captain Nares, arrived. The ship was reached at 1.30 -a.m. on the 14th of June. Out of the original party of fifteen men, -three only were capable of dragging the sledge, the remaining eleven -having to be carried alongside the ship on the relief-sledges. - -Commander Markham on his return reported: “I feel it impossible for my -pen to depict with accuracy, and yet be not accused of exaggeration, the -numerous drawbacks that impeded our progress. One point, however, in my -opinion is most definitely settled, and that is, the utter -impracticability of reaching the North Pole over the floe in this -locality; and in this opinion my able colleague, Lieutenant Parr, -entirely concurs. I am convinced that with the very lightest equipped -sledges, carrying no boats, and with all the resources of the ship -concentrated in the one direction, and also supposing that perfect -health might be maintained, the latitude attained by the party I had the -honour and pleasure of commanding would not be exceeded by many miles, -certainly not by a degree.” - -To this Nares added: “In this I most fully concur. Markham’s journey, -coupled with the experience gained by Sir Edward Parry in the summer of -1827, and more recently the memorable retreat of Lieutenant Weyprecht -and his companions after having abandoned the _Tegetthoff_ off the coast -of Franz-Josef Land, proves that a lengthened journey over the Polar -pack-ice with a sledge-party equipped with a boat fit for navigable -purposes is impracticable at any season of the year.” - -It was left for Nansen and Peary to prove that Nares and Markham were -wrong. - -We will now follow the sledge-party to the west. After parting company -with Markham on the 11th of April, Aldrich and Giffard with their two -sledges crossed Feilden Peninsula—the watershed of which was estimated -to be 500 feet above the sea-level. They reached the shore of James Ross -Bay on the 15th. Four hares were shot and traces of ptarmigan seen. -These hares were the only game obtained. Crossing the bay, Crozier -Island was visited on the 17th. On the 19th, the Parry Peninsula, 2½ -miles in breadth, was crossed, and the shore of Clements Markham Inlet -reached. On the 22nd, Cape Colan, the west point of the inlet, was -arrived at, and a dépôt of provisions left for the return journey. - -On the 25th, Giffard and his crew, after completing the other sledge to -forty-four days’ provisions, parted company, to return to the _Alert_. - -For the next seven days, when Cape Columbia was reached, Aldrich’s -sledge being fully laden, the daily advance was extremely slow, as usual -in similar journeys, and the soft snow entailed very severe labour. On -the 30th April, Aldrich wrote: “The Sergeant-Major has just shown me a -very ugly-looking red patch or blotch just above the ankle; the limb is -slightly swollen.” This was a sign of scurvy, which was not suspected -for some time afterwards. Cape Aldrich, where a dépôt of provisions was -left, was reached on 1st May. Cape Columbia, the most northern point -attained, was also reached on 1st May. The latitude was found to be 83° -7′ N. On the 8th of May another dépôt was formed; and on the 10th, -Aldrich writes: “The men are nearly all suffering a great deal with -their unfortunate legs, which appear to get worse every day. This we all -feel to be very disappointing, as it affects the journey, and although -stiff limbs were expected, every one thought the stiffness would wear -off in time.” Milne Bay was crossed on the 14th, and the camp was -pitched in Yelverton Bay on the 15th. On the 18th May, Aldrich decided -to return. Provisions were running short, and the condition of his crew -was becoming worse. He had then reached longitude 85° 33′ W. On the -homeward journey the attack of scurvy gradually became more pronounced, -and the fast-increasing weakness of the men rendered the daily distance -accomplished so short that the provisions placed in dépôt on the passage -out were insufficient to last them, on full allowance, while travelling -from one dépôt to another. - -On the 5th of June they passed Cape Columbia on their return; and on the -7th the dreaded word “scurvy” was used for the first time. The dépôt at -Cape Colan was reached on the 11th. On the 13th, Aldrich writes: “Got on -very fairly till eight o’clock, when Good nearly fainted. There appears -to be utter inability to get breath, no pain, and no difficulty to speak -of in breathing when at rest. The least exertion brings it on.” - -On the 20th, when it was becoming evident that they could not reach the -ship without assistance, they met a party of three who had been sent to -their relief. On the 23rd other two came to their assistance; and on the -25th a party of officers with Captain Nares hurried them to the ship. - -The only other sledge-journey of importance was that along the Greenland -coast, in charge of Lieutenant Beaumont. Accompanied by Dr. Coppinger -and sixteen men dragging two sledges, he started from the _Discovery_ on -the 6th of April for Floeberg Beach, intending to make the _Alert_ his -base for the exploration. The _Alert_ was reached on the 16th, and after -four days’ rest, Beaumont with Rawson, Coppinger, and twenty-one men, -dragging four sledges weighted to 218 lb. per man, started for Repulse -Harbour, Greenland. Robeson Channel was crossed without much difficulty, -but a great mass of hummocks had to be cut through at the entrance to -Repulse Harbour. Here the provisions were redistributed on three -sledges, a cairn built, and a site selected for the dépôt to be left for -the return journey. - -They started northward on the 27th April, and as it had been impressed -upon Beaumont that it was necessary to keep to the land so as to prevent -leaving an impassable barrier in the rear in the event of the ice -breaking up, he struggled on along steep snow-slopes where roads had to -be cut, rather than take to the comparatively level floes. At Black Horn -Cliffs, however, it was found impossible to keep to the land; they -therefore took to the ice, but again returned to the land a short -distance beyond the cliffs. On the 4th of May a dépôt was formed for the -return journey, and Coppinger left on this date. On the 6th of May one -of the crew complained of stiffness in the legs, and next day when he -was examined by Beaumont the latter suspected scurvy. On the 10th he -decided that Lieutenant Rawson, with his party, should take this man -back, and on arrival at Repulse Harbour either cross over to the _Alert_ -or go on to Polaris Bay. - -On the 10th of May, Beaumont ascended Mount Wyatt, 2050 feet, from which -he saw that the line of hummocks stretched for 10 or 12 miles in the -direction of Mount Hooker, and then turned to the northward, and ran -straight for the west end of the distant land. All to the eastward of -this boundary was smooth and level, while to the westward lay the Polar -pack, with its floes and chains of hummocks. - -A dépôt was left at Cape Bryant, and then Beaumont made for Cape -Fulford, which is the north extremity of the line of cliffs on the west -side of St. George’s Fiord. The road across the mouth of the fiord was -very good, and, arrived at Dragon Point, they opened out another wide -reach of bays and fiords. Beaumont was anxious to reach Mount Hooker, -from which he expected to see not only the islands to the north, but get -the best idea of the trend of the mainland; he encountered, however, -soft snow which varied from 2 to 4½ feet in depth: they had “literally -to climb out of the holes made by each foot in succession.” Why -snow-shoes were not used seems beyond comprehension. Beaumont writes: -“The shore for which we were making did not seem more than 2 miles off, -so I went ahead to see if the travelling was better under the cliffs. I -got about a mile and a half ahead of the sledge in three hours, and then -gave it up. I was nearly done; so I hailed them to go to lunch, but -would rather have missed three meals than gone back all that distance.” -The men struggled on, sometimes dragging the sledge on their hands and -knees to relieve their aching legs, or hauling her ahead with a long -rope and standing pulls. - -On the 19th of May, Beaumont writes: “Nobody will ever believe what hard -work this becomes on the fourth day; but this may give them some idea of -it. When halted for lunch, two of the men crawled for 200 yards on their -hands and knees, rather than walk unnecessarily through this awful -snow.” This snow was too much for them: on the 22nd May they started on -the return journey without having reached Mount Hooker. A record was -left in a cairn on the north end of Reef Island. At Dragon Point a chart -and another record were left in a cairn, and Beaumont and Alexander Gray -set off to ascend the highest mountain in the neighbourhood. The -elevation was 3700 feet and the view was magnificent, but Beaumont did -not see what he wanted:—“The Mount Hooker Land hid the islands, and the -Cape Buttress channel was shut in. Mount Albert I could see was a -separate island. Cape Britannia, as far as could be seen, had very high -land far back. Stephenson Land was quite hidden behind Mount Hooker -Land, which latter towards Cape Buttress extended very far back to the -eastward. Cape Buttress overlapped it, but inside and above the cape -could be seen either a hummocky floe or a _mer de glace_; it looked like -a floe, but its skyline had a perceptible curve in it—a haze hung over -this part. By the look of the land and shore, a passage seemed to -connect St. George’s Fiord with St. Andrew’s Bay. St. George’s Fiord -could be traced continuing to the south, after making a slight bend to -the west. The view inland in that direction stretched away without a -break as far as the eye could reach, all much about the same elevation. -Mount Punch stood out from most of the other mountains, and Grant’s Land -was distinctly visible, the United States’ range being very -conspicuous.” - -After a short rest, they once more started, making for Cape Fulford. -Heavy snowfalls with thick fogs retarded their advance, and on the 28th -of May a dépôt was formed with 200 lb. of articles which they could -dispense with. With the exception of Beaumont and Gray, all the party -were suffering from scurvy, and steadily getting worse. Soon after this, -Paul fell down quite powerless, and had to be carried on the sledge; and -on the 7th June another man had to be placed beside him. Repulse Harbour -was reached on the 10th of June. It was decided to cross over to the -_Alert_, but after travelling about 1 mile over the ice they came to -water, and had to return and make their way to Polaris Bay, 40 miles -off. Next march Dobing broke down, and Jones felt so bad he did not -think he could walk much longer. They toiled painfully through McCormick -Pass, and reached Newman Bay. On the 22nd, Craig and Dobing almost -dragged themselves along, their breath failing entirely at every 10 -yards. On the 23rd it became necessary to carry both Dobing and Craig. -The last journey under such terrible conditions may be described in -Beaumont’s words: “On the evening of the 24th we started for our last -journey with the sledge, as I thought; for finding that Jones and Gray -were scarcely able to pull, I had determined to reach the shore at the -plain, pitch the tent, and walk over by myself to Polaris Bay to see if -there was any one there to help us; if not, come back, and sending Jones -and Gray, who could still walk, to the dépôt, remain with the sick and -get them on as best I could. But I thank God it did not come to this, -for as we were plodding along the now water-sodden floe towards the -shore, I saw what turned out to be a dog-sledge and three men, and soon -after had the pleasure of shaking hands with Lieutenant Rawson and Dr. -Coppinger. Words cannot express the pleasure, relief, and gratitude we -all felt at this timely meeting.” - -Newman Bay dépôt was reached next day. Hans, who arrived with Rawson and -Coppinger, made good use of his skill as a driver. Both Paul and Jenkins -were now in a critical condition, so it was decided on the 28th that Dr. -Coppinger and Hans, with the two men on the eight-man sledge drawn by -the dogs, should start for the Polaris Bay dépôt. Paul, however, -gradually grew weaker, and died on the afternoon of the 29th. - -It will be convenient here to go back to Rawson’s journey to Polaris Bay -after leaving Beaumont. Owing to two more of his crew breaking down, -leaving only himself and one man, E. Rayner, strong enough to drag the -sledge, they did not succeed in reaching Polaris Bay till the 3rd of -June, after a most arduous journey on reduced rations, and during -several days of which Rawson was himself so badly affected with -snow-blindness that he had to pull the sledge while blindfold. James -Hand expired a few hours after their arrival at Polaris Bay. - -On the 8th August, Beaumont with his companions started on their -perilous journey across Hall’s Basin to Discovery Bay. After two hours -on the ice, they came to a large space of water 3 miles broad, and -launched their boat, which had previously been taken across from the -_Discovery_. They had repeatedly to draw the boat on the ice, haul it on -their sledge till water was again met, and then launch. While crossing -they found themselves drifting south, and were in the greatest danger of -being swept into Kennedy Channel; fortunately, a wind from the -south-east set in, and they eventually reached land between Cape Lieber -and Cape Baird on the 12th, and arrived at Discovery Bay on 14th August. - -After the return of the northern and western sledge-parties so -completely broken down, Captain Nares determined to give up all further -exploration, and to proceed to the southward with both ships as soon as -the ice should break up and release them. On the 31st July the _Alert_ -succeeded in escaping from the ice at Floeberg Beach, and after meeting -many difficulties reached Discovery Bay on 12th August. - -Nares writes: “On the 16th, the weather still remaining distressingly -fine and calm, an excursion was made to the coal-beds near Cape -Murchison. This deposit of coal, or, more correctly, lignite, is exposed -in a ravine near Watercourse Bay, for a distance of over 200 yards. At -its greatest exposure the thickness of the seam is 25 feet, but we had -no means of ascertaining how much deeper it descended below the level of -the stream. Above the coal are beds of shale and sandstones. The coal -was pronounced after trial by our engineers to be equal to the best -Welsh. The seam where exposed is at an elevation of about 200 feet above -the sea-level, and at a distance of about a mile from the shore of -Watercourse Bay, in Robeson Channel. Unfortunately, very little shelter -is obtainable for a large vessel among the small floebergs stranded in -this indentation. The distance between the coal-seam and Discovery Bay -is about 4 miles, and the track leads over the brow of a hill about 800 -feet high. - -“A short distance above the quarry, in a narrow part of the ravine where -a large quantity of snow, collected in a shaded part, remains unmelted -during the summer, the mountain torrent has melted away a watercourse -for itself through the snow-bank. In winter this ice grotto, with a -trifling expense of labour, could be readily formed into a convenient -Arctic residence.” - -On the 18th August, Captain Stephenson deposited an account of their -proceedings in a cairn which had been constructed out of the empty -preserved meat-tins, refilled with gravel. A post-office box was placed -in the centre of the pile. - -On the 20th August the ice opened sufficiently to allow the two ships to -leave for the south. At Cape Isabella they found a package of letters -and newspapers left there by Sir Allen Young a few weeks previously. - -Nares writes: “After our long sojourn within the Polar ice it was a -strange transition to feel the ship rise and fall once more on the -‘north water’ of Baffin’s Bay, and to look astern and see Cape Isabella, -one of the massive portals of Smith Sound, fading away in an obscurity -of snow and midnight darkness; whilst an ice-blink stretching across the -northern horizon reminded us forcibly of the perils, dangers, and -anxieties that we had contended against for so many months. - -“In comparing the voyage of the _Polaris_ and that of the _Alert_ and -_Discovery_, it is evident that the navigation of the ice which is to be -met with every year in Kane Sea is entirely dependent on the westerly -winds. Both in 1875 and 1876 we met navigable water off Cape Victoria in -latitude 79° 12′ with only a narrow pack 15 miles in breadth between it -and Grinnell Land, which a westerly wind of a few hours’ duration would -certainly have driven to the eastward. The same wind would have opened a -channel along the shore, and any vessel waiting her opportunity at Payer -Harbour could under those circumstances have passed up the channel with -as little difficulty as the _Polaris_ experienced in 1871. - -“The quantity of one season’s ice met with in the bays on the south-east -coast of Grinnell Land in 1876 proves that on the final setting in of -the frost, after we passed north in 1875, the pack had been driven from -the shore, leaving a navigable channel along the land. Nevertheless, I -do not recommend future navigators who wish to obtain a high northern -latitude by this route to wait for such a favourable occurrence. -Certainly no one could have made a passage through the ice in 1876 -before the 10th September by doing so. At that date the season had -advanced so far that the attainment of sheltered winter-quarters would -have been extremely problematical.” - -The two ships arrived at Portsmouth Harbour on the 2nd November. - -This expedition, sent out regardless of expense, achieved very much less -than had been anticipated. The chief cause of failure was the outbreak -of scurvy, which completely paralysed the undertaking. The real cause of -the outbreak was never discovered, but it was probably due to the want -of fresh meat. The methods adopted to reach a high latitude were -practically identical with those of Parry used half a century before. -After all their experience, both Markham and Nares emphatically declared -their conviction that it was impossible under any circumstances for a -sledge-party, even without boats, and with all possible resources, to -reach 1 degree beyond that reached by the expedition. It was an American -naval officer, Commander Peary, who proved in 1906 that a point nearly 4 -degrees farther north could be attained over the same sea; and in 1909, -starting from the coast a little to the west of his previous route, he -succeeded in reaching the Pole itself. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - THE VOYAGE OF THE _JEANNETTE_ (1879−81) - - -The _Jeannette_ was the new name given to Sir Allen Young’s _Pandora_ -after it was purchased by James Gordon Bennett, who had decided to equip -a North Polar expedition. - -The commander of the expedition, Lieutenant George W. De Long, had taken -an active and distinguished part in the search for the _Polaris_. In -making an attempt to reach the Pole, he favoured the route by Behring -Strait, and he was supported by Bennett himself, who had been influenced -by the views of Dr. Petermann, the German geographer. One of the chief -reasons for choosing the Behring Strait route was the supposed existence -of a Japan current, which, it was hoped, would open a way towards the -Pole. Another reason was the view held as to the extent of Wrangel Land. -Petermann actually believed that it extended right across the Pole and -was the continuation of Greenland. It was afterwards proved to be only a -small island. - -Lieutenant Chipp, the second in command, acted with De Long in the -search for the _Polaris_. George W. Melville, chief engineer, had been a -comrade of De Long’s in the navy. The ice-pilot was William Dunbar, who -had been master of whale-ships in and north of Behring Strait. -Nindemann, the ice-quartermaster, was one of the crew of the _Polaris_ -who underwent the terrible winter-drift on the ice-floe. - -The _Jeannette_ left San Francisco on the 8th July 1879. A schooner, -laden with 100 tons coal and such provisions as the _Jeannette_ could -not conveniently carry, followed on the same date. - -Ounalaska Island was reached on the 2nd August, and left on the 6th. -Here, coal, dog-food, and furs were obtained. De Long mentions that -there was not a white woman in the place. The native women evidently do -not expect a long courtship. A number of men had been brought from St. -Paul’s Island on the Thursday; they made their selections on the Friday -and Saturday, and were married on the Sunday. - -St. Michael’s was reached on 12th August, but the schooner did not -arrive until the 18th. Here, forty dogs, five sledges, snow-shoes, -boots, and a large quantity of skin-garments were obtained. Two natives, -named Alexey and Aneguin, were hired as interpreters and dog-drivers. -The total number of persons on board the _Jeannette_ was now -thirty-three. - -De Long had been instructed to make inquiries concerning Professor -Nordenskjöld, who had nearly reached Behring Strait in making his famous -north-east passage during the previous year. For this purpose he left -St. Michael’s on 21st August, and made for St. Lawrence Bay, Siberia, -which he reached on the 25th, after a stormy passage. Here he -ascertained that a ship which had been frozen in during the previous -winter in Koliutchin Bay, had left St. Lawrence Bay some time before. De -Long believed that this must have been Nordenskjöld’s ship, but to make -certain he decided to make inquiries near where the Professor wintered. -He visited Koliutchin Bay, and found satisfactory proof that -Nordenskjöld had wintered there, and had left in safety. It was now the -31st August, and De Long was free to continue his voyage to the north, -but unfortunately the navigation season was drawing to a close. The -lateness of the date when the _Jeannette_ left San Francisco, her want -of speed, and the delay caused by her search for Nordenskjöld placed De -Long at a great disadvantage. - -Pack-ice was met as early as the 2nd September. Herald Island was -sighted on the 4th, and on the same date land was seen away to the -south-west. - -On the 6th September the _Jeannette_ was beset, within a week after -leaving the Siberian coast, and was never afterwards released. On the -9th September the position by observation was found to be 71° 35′ N., -175° 5′ 48″ W. - -On the 13th September, De Long sent four men with a sledge to make an -attempt to reach Herald Island. They returned next day and reported that -they had been forced to return when about 5 miles from the island. Broad -leads and rotten ice had been met, and it was evidently impossible to -sledge to the island. - -By this time it was observed that the _Jeannette_ was being slowly -drifted in the ice towards the north-west. On the 15th September the -position was 71° 46′ N., 175° 36′ W., or about 15 miles to the -north-west of the position on the 9th. All hope of getting out of the -ice before next summer was now almost given up, and the best that could -be expected was that the _Jeannette_ might drift to Wrangel Land before -spring. However, after drifting some distance to the north-west, the -_Jeannette_ was drifted to the east, and then to the south-west, thus -forming a triangle, and after a month’s drift she reached a point near -where she began. - -On the 21st October the thermometer fell to zero for the first time. -Preparations were made for the winter, and De Long took great -precautions to see that everything possible was done to insure the -health of the party. Special attention was paid to the proper -ventilation of the ship and the avoidance of damp. The surgeon, Dr. -Ambler, frequently tested the amount of carbonic acid gas in the air; -and a thorough examination of the whole party was made monthly. - -During October the land to the south-west of Herald Island was -frequently seen, and De Long came to the conclusion that it was Wrangel -Land, and must either be an island or an archipelago. - -Before the sun disappeared on the 16th November a considerable number of -seals, several bears, and some walruses had been shot, and served as an -important addition to the stock of food for both men and dogs. - -During November ice pressures became severe. On the 24th, the floe in -which the _Jeannette_ had been fixed was split, and the ship was once -more afloat, but in a most dangerous position. On the 25th, it was -driven by the ice about a mile from its previous position, until it held -fast in some young ice. - -At this time considerable difficulty was experienced in obtaining water -of proper purity. There was little snow on the ice, and what there was -contained a large quantity of salt, due to the wind drifting it and -mixing it with the salt on the surface of the ice. It was therefore -necessary to commence distilling. - -The ice pressure was much less severe during December. From the 2nd to -the 18th the change of position was only 8 miles towards the west. -Christmas was passed merrily. About the end of December, Danenhower, the -navigator of the ship, began to suffer from an inflammatory trouble in -one of his eyes, from which he did not recover during the remainder of -the cruise. - -The year 1880 was ushered in by a minstrel entertainment given by the -crew. On the 19th January the disagreeable discovery was made that the -ship was leaking seriously. The ice pressure had evidently caused -serious injury. On examination it was found that the water already stood -3 ft. in the forehold. - -The deck-pumps were at once manned, and fortunately were able to keep -the water in check until steam could be raised to work the steam-pump. -This was a serious drain on the small supply of coal, but Melville was -equal to every emergency. He ultimately succeeded in pumping by means of -a windmill. Every effort was made to stop the leak, and although partly -successful, pumping had to be resorted to more or less continuously -throughout the remainder of the cruise. Nindemann and Sweetman took -turns about in standing in the water in the forepeak building a bulkhead -across it. For this work they received high commendation from De Long. - -On the 26th January they had the pleasure of welcoming the reappearance -of the sun. On the 1st of February a bear was killed, and as no fresh -meat had been available for some time, this was a welcome addition to -the stock of food. Another bear was killed on the 2nd, and when the -stomach was examined it was found to contain only a few small stones. - -On 6th March 1880 the position of the ship was 72° 12′ N., 175° 30′ W., -which was only 26′ north and 6′ east of the position on the 15th -September 1879. This proves the absence of a definite current. The depth -of water varied from 30 to 40 fathoms, and the bottom usually consisted -of blue mud. On the 20th March, De Long stated that he was now convinced -that the drifting during the winter had been entirely caused by the -winds, and not by any current. During March the north side of Wrangel -Land was frequently visible. - -On the 1st of May the sun could be seen at midnight. On the 5th May the -position was found to be 73° 11′ 24″ N., 179° 37′ 30″ E., indicating a -considerable drift since the beginning of March. It also showed that the -180th meridian had been crossed. On the 20th May the stock of coal -amounted to only 60 tons, and De Long became impatient to get out of the -ice. The total drift towards the north-west during the month of May was -very good, amounting to 82 miles. - -The drift during June was nearly the reverse of what it was during May, -the _Jeannette_ at the end of the month being 50 miles south of where -she was at the beginning of it. There was still no sign of release from -the ice, and the consequent disappointment was very great. - -During July the temperature was usually near freezing-point, and yet De -Long felt the cold much more than when the temperature was 30° below -zero. The latter was what he described as a hard, dry cold, whereas the -former was a soft, wet cold that penetrated at once. At the end of the -month they were back again to the 180th meridian; the summer had nearly -gone, and still there were no signs of a change. The monotony of waiting -for “something to turn up” was found extremely trying. - -On the 1st of August one of the dogs died, and on a post-mortem being -made it was discovered that the dog’s death was caused by his swallowing -a sharp bone, which cut through his intestines. Several other dogs were -lost from the same cause. - -Throughout the cruise, De Long took the strictest precautions to see -that the water used for drinking and cooking was as free as possible -from salt. After very thorough investigation, he arrived at the -conclusion that sea-water ice, under whatever circumstances it may be -found, is a treacherous and unsafe element to use. - -The drift during August amounted to about 50 miles towards the -north-east. The navigable season was now nearly at an end, and another -monotonous winter in the pack awaited them. At the end of twelve months -the _Jeannette_ was only 150 miles from the point where she was first -beset. - -Preparations for winter had again to be made: a deck-house was erected, -a porch was built around the cook-house, snow was banked against the -ship’s side, and various alterations were made for the greater comfort -of the crew. On the 29th September, when fresh meat was nearly gone, a -bear weighing 943½ lb. before skinning was killed, and another was -obtained next day. - -The sun disappeared on the 6th November, and on this day the temperature -was 30° below zero at noon. Severe ice pressures were again experienced, -but did not excite so much alarm as did those of the first winter. On -the 30th November the 74th degree of latitude had been reached for the -second time. - -A bear weighing 800 lb. was killed on the 2nd December. On the 11th -December the temperature was 39° below zero, and the ice gave loud -reports like the discharges of heavy guns. De Long believed that the -noise was due to the splitting of the ice under contraction caused by -the intense cold. At midnight on the 15th December the temperature was -−48°. On the 21st a post-mortem was made on another dog, and the cause -of death was ascertained to be the presence in the intestines of several -mutton-bones, two pieces of a tin can, a piece of cloth, and the fag end -of a rope. Christmas Eve was spent in the enjoyment of a minstrel -entertainment, and Christmas had a more than usually elaborate dinner, -consisting of soup, roast seal, apple jelly, tongue, macaroni, tomatoes, -mince pies, plum pudding, figs, raisins, dates, nuts, candy, chocolate, -and coffee. - -The year 1881 was welcomed by another entertainment by the “Jeannette -Minstrels.” The ship was now 220 miles north-west of where it was first -beset, and the whole party, with the exception of Danenhower, were in -good health. No serious case of frost-bite had occurred, although both -officers and men were frequently out on the ice when the temperature was -more than 40° below zero. On the 27th January the latitude was 74° 20′ -56″, the highest yet attained. - -The sun was again seen on 5th February, so that their night had been 91 -days, against 71 of the previous year. On the 14th the 75th parallel was -reached, and soundings gave 44 fathoms. Next day great astonishment was -caused when the lead-line gave 57 fathoms. A bear was killed on the -18th. - -During March, as the latitude increased, so did the depth of water. On -the 17th it was 67 fathoms, and on the 19th, 71 fathoms; latitude, 75° -15′. On 8th April, in latitude 75° 46′, the depth was 75½ fathoms; and -in 75° 53′ 30″, on the 16th, it was 84 fathoms. - -The 76th parallel of latitude was reached on the 21st April, and during -the next four days the drift towards the west was no less than 47 miles. - -On the 16th May great excitement was caused by the discovery of land. -The latitude on this date was 76° 43′ 20″ N., and longitude 161° 53′ 45″ -E. The land was only a small island, Jeannette Island, but its discovery -caused great rejoicing among the party, who had looked at nothing but -ice and sky during fourteen months. Another island, Henrietta Island, -was discovered on the 24th May. The latitude on this date was 77° 16′. - -On 31st May a party of six in charge of Melville started for Henrietta -Island. They took a light boat, a sledge and fifteen dogs, and seven -days’ provisions. De Long wished to know whether there was any bay in -which he could place the ship, and whether there was animal or bird life -with which he could replenish his waning stock of provisions. - -On the 1st of June the doctor made the startling announcement that -several of the party on board were suffering from lead-poisoning. An -examination was made, and traces of lead were found in the water, and in -still larger quantity in the tomatoes. It was supposed that the juice of -the tomato had acted on the solder used in the tins. - -The Henrietta party returned on the 5th June. They landed on the island -on 2nd June, and left a record in a cairn. The island was found to be -desolate rock, surmounted by a snow-cap. The cliffs were inaccessible; -and dovekies nesting in the face of the rock were the only signs of -life. - -On the 10th of June the ice suddenly opened alongside the ship, which -settled down nearly to her proper bearings. There was now a small canal -on the port side, and into this De Long had a heavy floe hauled so as to -receive the pressure in the event of the ice closing. This was at first -successful, but later the ice closed in with great force, jamming the -ship hard against the ice on the starboard side, and causing her to heel -16° to starboard. Orders were at once given to lower the starboard boats -and haul them to a safe position. Melville, while below in the -engine-room, saw a break across the ship in the wake of the boilers and -engines, and it was evident that the ship was breaking in two. Orders -were now given to remove sledges and certain provisions which had long -been kept in readiness in case the ship might have to be abandoned. At -4.30 p.m. there was a lull in the pressure, and De Long began to hope -that the worst was over, but at 5 p.m. the pressure was renewed with -tremendous force. Everything needful for a retreat over the ice was now -hurriedly removed to a place of safety. At 6 p.m. it was found that the -_Jeannette_ was beginning to fill, and at 8 p.m. everybody was ordered -to leave the ship. At 4 a.m. of the 12th the _Jeannette_ disappeared -beneath the water, in latitude 77° 14′ 57″ N., longitude 154° 58′ 45″ E. - -Preparations were at once begun for the retreat to the Siberian coast. -The first and second cutter and the whale-boat had to be mounted on -their travelling-sledges; bags had to be made to hold bread, tea, -coffee, and sugar; and sledges had to be overhauled and relashed. To get -their weights as exactly as possible, they had to start with an ounce -weight and the doctor’s scales, and work up by a number of Remington -cartridges to a pound. Two empty meat-tins tied to the end of a stick -suspended by its centre formed the scale. - -During this time they lived on plenty of food, as they had saved more -than they could take with them. The clothing allowance for each officer -and man was limited to what he was actually wearing and the contents of -a packed knapsack. - -All arrangements having been made, the start to the southward began on -the evening of the 18th June. The party had three boats, seven sledges, -and twenty-three dogs. Dunbar was sent ahead to select a route and plant -flags for the party’s guidance. Danenhower, Chipp, Alexey, and Kuehne -were on the sick list, but could walk. The five McClintock sledges -carried 1659 lb., 1318 lb., 1252 lb., 1342 lb., and 1325 lb. -respectively. During the first day these loads were found to be too -heavy, and De Long saw that instead of being able to advance the boats -and provisions in three separate hauls as he had hoped, he must be -satisfied if he could do it in six. It was therefore necessary to repack -the sledges. Even with the lighter loads, the runners of the sledges -were frequently doubling under during the first few days. On the 20th -June it rained steadily for eight hours, and instead of starting as -usual at 6 p.m., the party did not get off till 2.30 a.m. of the 21st. -Openings in the ice were already met, and caused great delay. Small -ice-floes had to be dragged into position to form a bridge over which -the sledges were dragged. - -On the 25th June, after a severe week’s work, De Long obtained his first -opportunity of ascertaining his latitude. His feelings may be imagined -when he found that he was 28 miles farther north than where he started -from a week before! He wisely kept this discouraging fact from the -knowledge of the general party. He now altered his course from south to -south-west. On this date Chipp was so weak that he had to be carried on -a sledge. - -On the 26th June five bridges had to be built over leads: the heaviest -sledge fell into the water, but was dragged out; and Melville went in up -to his waist. On the 27th eleven hours’ hard work carried them only 1¼ -mile. One lead 40 feet wide, and another 60 feet wide, had to be -crossed. Yet under all these difficulties everybody was bright and -cheerful. It was no uncommon thing to have four leads to bridge in half -a mile, and sometimes as soon as one was bridged another opened in the -rear. Over this rough and ever-changing path six, and sometimes seven -trips had to be made. It is not to be wondered at that the work was -terribly laborious, and progress slow. - -On the 3rd of July the latitude was found to be 15 miles farther south -than on the 25th June, so that the drift had not been against them. The -6th July was a wet and stormy day, and the party remained in their tents -until 6 p.m. of the 7th. On the 9th they were well satisfied with an -advance of 3 miles. On the 10th July some excitement was caused by the -appearance of land to the south-west. De Long was doubtful whether it -was really land, but next day from the top of a hummock he saw -unmistakable land, and also water. - -Cocoa and chocolate were now exhausted, and the tea was reduced to half -an ounce per man. The ice became comparatively loose, and boats and -sledges had to be continually ferried across large openings on small -floes. On the 13th July the first serious breach of discipline among the -crew took place. E. Starr, one of the seamen, found a pair of wet soles -on his sleeping-bag. He flung them some distance on the ice, in a -temper, and refused to pick them up when ordered to do so by Melville. -For some time he also paid no attention to De Long, who at once put him -off duty. - -On the 15th July a seal was shot, and proved useful both for food and -grease for leaking boots. Another seal was obtained on the 16th, but on -the other hand 270 lb. of pemmican was lost through the capsizing of a -dog-sledge. On this day also De Long was unfortunate enough to break -through the ice when jumping across an opening, and went up to his neck -in the water. - -On the 20th July a walrus was shot and secured. The choice pieces were -used by the party, and the rest went to the dogs. The skin was cut into -pieces and divided for boot-soles. They had now to contend with a -moving, rotting pack, and they were greatly hindered by fog. Leads were -continually opening and closing, and large blocks of ice were being -swirled around, and carried first west and then east. On the 24th they -had the good fortune to kill a bear. On the 25th land seemed quite close -at hand, but after working 24 hours they had again to camp on the ice. -Fog delayed the next start till the evening of the 27th, when they again -hoped to reach land, but within half a mile of it they were stopped by -broken ice, and had again to camp. On the 28th, after great -difficulties, the land was at last reached. De Long took possession of -it in the name of the President of the United States, and named it -“Bennett Island.” After crossing the 180th degree of longitude, De Long -should have advanced his date one day, but he did not do so, as the -_Jeannette_ was sometimes drifted east and sometimes west of this line. -At Bennett Island he corrected the date, so that possession of it was -taken really on the 29th July. - -Preparations were now made to take tidal observations, make sketches, -collect natural history specimens, and hunt for game, etc. Large -quantities of driftwood were scattered about the shore, and Melville -found a vein of bituminous coal. The face of the cliffs was alive with -dovekies, of which they obtained a fair number. - -Bennett Island was left on 6th August, after a record had been deposited -in a cairn. Ten of the poorest dogs were shot, leaving twelve. On the -7th the party were able to take to their boats, and the men were -distributed as follows:—In first cutter, De Long, Ambler, Collins, -Nindemann, Ericksen, Kaack, Boyd, Alexey, Lee, Noros, Dressler, Görtz, -Iversen. In second cutter, Chipp, Dunbar, Sweetman, Sharvell, Kuehne, -Starr, Manson, Warren, Johnson, Ah Sam. In whale-boat, Melville, -Danenhower, Newcomb, Cole, Bartlett, Aneguin, Wilson, Lauterbach, Tong -Sing, Leach. - -Soon after the boats started, four of the dogs jumped out and were lost. -Two St. Michael’s sledges and four McClintock sledges had been left -behind. On the 8th August other four dogs jumped from the boats, and two -dogs were shot, leaving only two. - -A good deal of ice was still met with, and the boats had frequently to -be hauled on the ice and dragged across until open water was again -found. A seal was shot and secured on the 11th August. On this date they -calculated that they had advanced about 20 miles. Another seal was -obtained on the 15th, and as provisions were now running low, it was -very acceptable. The last ration of bread was served out on the 18th. On -the 19th the ice closed on the second cutter and stove a hole in the -bow. Chipp repaired it with a piece of Liebig box. On the 20th August -land was seen to the south-west. Preparations were now made for sea. -Snow was melted for water, and the boats overhauled, etc. On the 21st, -however, before they could start, the ice had closed around them, and it -was not until the 29th that they were able to take to the water. - -On the 30th August they reached and landed on Faddejew Island. The -“Faddejew Hut” marked on the Russian chart was found tumbling to decay. -The island was left on the 31st August. On the 1st September the second -cutter was separated from the other two boats, and did not rejoin them -till the afternoon of the 3rd. In order to let Chipp have a better -chance of keeping up with the other two boats, De Long ordered one man, -Ah Sam, to his party, and another, Manson, to go in Melville’s boat. -This resulted in the saving of Manson’s life. - -On the 4th September they landed on a low beach running out from the -island of Kotelnoi. Some of the party, next day, came across several -ruined huts, and in one of them was found an elephant tusk, a wooden -cup, a spoon, and a fork. - -Kotelnoi Island was left on the 6th September. Semenooski Island was -reached on the 10th, and on this day the last of Liebig’s Extract was -used. It had been much liked by the party. On this small island they -were fortunate in killing a deer. They rested here till the 12th, and on -leaving deposited a record. They had still seven days’ provisions, and -De Long hoped to reach the Lena without difficulty. - -A breeze sprang up on the afternoon of the 12th, and at 9 p.m. De Long -lost sight of the whale-boat ahead, and at 10 p.m. he lost sight of the -second cutter astern. The wind had now freshened to a gale. On the 13th -there was a tremendous sea, and the boat shipped a good deal of water. -An attempt was made to ride out the gale under the lee of a sail, but -after doing well for an hour, the sheet parted, and sail and yard were -lost. Nothing more was seen by De Long of the other two boats. - -Land was sighted on the 16th September, but when more than a mile from -the shore the water was not deep enough to float the boat. They passed a -miserable night attached to some thin ice, and next morning several -attempts were made to reach land in the boat, but it always grounded. A -raft was then made, and on this were placed tents, cooking-stoves, and -boat-box. All the party had to wade knee-deep 1½ mile to the shore. -After a second load was landed, the boat was dragged to within half a -mile of the land. The remainder of the load had then to be carried. This -was completed at 10.20 p.m. in a snowstorm. - -They rested over Sunday, 18th September, and set out on the 19th to walk -to a settlement believed to be 95 miles distant, on the Lena River. They -had about 3½ days rations. Everything not absolutely necessary was -cached, and a record left in the instrument-box. Even then it was found -soon after starting that the loads were too heavy, and log-books, stove, -some alcohol, a tent, and binoculars were sent back to the cache. The -road was bad, several of the men were lame, and occasionally they were -wading up to the knees. - -On the 20th September another tent was left behind, as they found they -could not carry it. The day’s march took them over ponds with thin ice, -and mossy swamps. Ericksen had frost-bitten feet, and kept the rest of -the party back. At the end of the fourth mile De Long was compelled to -halt and open the last tin of pemmican. On starting out again, they -struck deer-tracks, and this gave great encouragement. They accordingly -pushed ahead, but soon afterwards De Long was informed that Ericksen had -lain down and desired to be left. De Long and the doctor went back and -got Ericksen on his feet again, but he was in a serious condition, and -it was evident that the progress of the party would be slow if they were -all to keep together. Nindemann and Alexey were sent ahead to trace the -deer, but they were unsuccessful, although they saw a herd of seven or -eight. They were again sent off, accompanied by Collins, and the -remainder of the party camped. De Long decided that if game were not -obtained he would send a small party forward to bring relief. Next day, -however, he pushed on again, although no game had yet been obtained. On -this march they came to two huts, and De Long decided to halt here. It -was his intention to send the doctor and Nindemann on next day for -relief. Alexey, however, who had been sent to examine some hut-like -objects, found deer-tracks, and as they seemed fresh, he followed them, -and was successful in killing two deer. He cut off a hind-quarter of -meat and set off for the hut. When he arrived, the remainder of the -party had retired for the night, but when the announcement was made that -deer had been obtained sleep was forgotten. Cooking soon began in both -huts, and the whole of the meat was consumed, with the exception of two -tongues, before they felt satisfied. - -De Long now decided to remain at the huts and rest another day and live -on the deer. It was not, however, till two days had passed that a fresh -start was made. A record of the movements of the party was left in one -of the huts. De Long also left his Winchester rifle. - -On the 24th September they passed a wretched night. Beds were made of a -few logs, and wrapped in their blankets the party tried to sleep, but -could not, and in the morning they were all cold and stiff. On the 25th -the remainder of the deer-meat was eaten for dinner. At night two other -huts were reached, and here they halted. Next day they had only food for -three more meals. They had also one dog. - -On the 27th September another deer was shot, and the danger of -starvation was again averted. The hungry men at once commenced eating -fried deer-meat, and took about 3 lb. each. The party then went on -again, but Ericksen’s foot was very bad, and progress was slow. - -On the 28th September they came to a point where they had no alternative -but to cross a river a quarter of a mile wide. No wood could be obtained -to build a raft large enough for the purpose, and they were forced to -stay here in an old hut until 1st October, when the river had frozen -over sufficiently to allow them to cross. - -A large gull was shot on the 29th, and with this they made soup. Fires -were made when it was dark at night, in the hope of drawing attention. -On the 30th the doctor removed several of Ericksen’s toes. - -On the 1st October a record was left in the hut, and the party then -crossed the river with Ericksen on a sledge. De Long now saw that the -chart in his possession was practically useless. He had been hoping to -reach a place marked on the chart as “Sagastyr,” but he now looked upon -this as a myth. - -On the 2nd and 3rd they struggled on, and had to camp in the open at -night. On the 3rd October the last of the pemmican was eaten, and -nothing now remained but the dog, which was killed for supper. De Long -and other two men broke through the ice during the day’s march and got -thoroughly wet. At night they tried to dry themselves before a fire of -driftwood. Ericksen groaned and rambled in his talk, and the whole party -spent a most miserable night. On the morning of the 4th they moved to a -hut which had been discovered by Alexey the previous night. From his -chart De Long now arrived at the conclusion that he was on Tit Ary -Island, and about 25 miles from Ku Mark Surka, which he took to be a -settlement. It may here be mentioned, as indicating the worthless -character of De Long’s chart, that instead of being at Tit Ary Island as -he supposed, he was about 120 miles from it, and Ku Mark Surka lay 33 -miles beyond that. - -Ericksen died on the 6th, in the hut. He was buried in the river, and a -board with his name was stuck in the river-bank abreast of his grave. A -Winchester rifle, some ammunition, and a record were left in the hut, -and the party again moved on. The last of the dog-meat and the last of -the tea were used for breakfast. Some old tea-leaves and 2 quarts -alcohol were all that remained. Towards night, Alexey obtained a -ptarmigan, and with this soup was made. Breakfast on the 8th consisted -of 1 oz. alcohol in a pint of hot water. Dinner and supper were the -same. - -On the 9th October, Nindemann and Noros were sent ahead for relief. They -carried their blankets, one rifle, 40 rounds ammunition, and 2 oz. -alcohol. The remainder of the party followed an hour afterwards. During -the march they all broke through the ice, and were wet up to the knees. -They stopped and built fires, and tried to dry their clothes. Alexey -shot three ptarmigans, with which they made soup. For supper they had -only half an ounce of alcohol. - -On the 10th October the last of the alcohol was taken for breakfast, and -they began to eat deer-skin scraps of clothing. Lee showed signs of -collapsing, and wished to be left. For supper they had a spoonful of -glycerine. “All hands weak and feeble, but cheerful.” - -On the 11th there was a gale of wind with snow, and they were unable to -move. On the 12th the last of the glycerine was taken for breakfast. For -dinner they tried two handfuls of Arctic willow infused in water. On the -13th willow-tea was again taken. On the 14th, Alexey shot a ptarmigan, -and soup was made. On the 15th the willow-tea was again repeated, and -two old boots were eaten. - -All this time they were hoping to hear from Nindemann and Noros. On the -16th October, Alexey broke down, and died on the 17th. After this, no -food was obtained. Lee and Kaack died on the 21st, Iversen on the 28th, -Dressler on the 29th, Görtz on the 30th October. On the latter date -Collins was dying. Here the record of De Long ceases. The doctor and Ah -Sam must still have been alive. - -It will now be convenient to follow the fortunes of Nindemann and Noros, -who were sent for relief. During their first march, on the 9th October, -Nindemann shot a ptarmigan, which served for their dinner. At night they -made a fire, drank willow-tea, and tried to obtain a little nourishment -from a burned boot-sole; then wrapping themselves in their blankets, -they lay down near the fire. For breakfast next morning they had a -little willow-tea and another boot-sole. Their course along the main -stream was a confused morass, and they were hindered by a high wind and -drifting snow. At night they made a hole in a snow-drift, in which they -camped. The wind was so high that although there was driftwood, a fire -could not be lighted. At noon on the 11th they stopped and kindled a -fire, meaning to heat a little of the alcohol which they carried; but -Noros, who had it in his pocket, found the bottle broken and the alcohol -lost. They had therefore to fall back on willow-tea and boot-sole. At -night they reached a hut in which they found some deer-bones. A fire was -kindled and the bones charred, and an effort was made to eat them. Next -morning a gale was blowing, and nothing could be seen but drifting snow. -They had therefore to remain in the hut. The journey was resumed on the -13th. A hut was seen on the opposite bank of the river, and an attempt -was made to cross the thin ice. They repeatedly went through up to their -waists, but finally succeeded in gaining the bank. Noros while searching -for firewood found a box containing two fish. Nindemann was fortunate -enough to seize a lemming, and on this and the fish they made their -supper. The fish were almost rotten, but they were soon devoured. Next -day they made a start, but were driven back by drifting snow to the hut, -where they stayed another twenty-four hours. - -On the morning of the 15th October another start was made along the -river-bank. The night was passed in a kind of cave at the side of the -river. Their supper consisted of a piece of seal-skin pantaloons, which -was soaked in water and then burned to a crust. They passed a wretched -night. Next day they made for some hills they saw in the distance. No -willow could be found, and a piece of seal-skin was their only food. -They passed the night in a ravine, where they dug a hole in the snow. - -On the 17th they struggled over streams and sand-spits, and had again to -pass the night in a hole in the snow. The wind was too high to allow a -fire, and it was too cold to allow sleep. On the 18th they reached a -ruined hut almost filled with snow. They cleared out sufficient to give -them sleeping-room, and after taking some willow-tea and a piece of -seal-skin, they lay down for the night. On the 19th they were so weak -that they had to rest about every five minutes. In the afternoon they -reached three huts, and in one of them was a kayak containing something -like sawdust. It was blue-moulded and tasteless, but it was believed to -be fish. As they found nothing more, they ate it, and soon after they -had an attack of dysentery. They stayed in the hut all day, and on the -21st found themselves too weak to move farther. - -On the 22nd October they heard a noise outside, and Nindemann, when he -looked through a crack in the door, saw something move, and thought it -was a reindeer. He took down the rifle and was moving to the door when -it opened, and at the entrance stood a man. Seeing Nindemann with the -rifle, he expected to be shot, and immediately fell on his knees and -began to supplicate. Nindemann threw the rifle down and beckoned eagerly -to the man to come in. After some hesitation, the stranger entered, and -the two men, anxious to be friendly, offered him some of the fish. He -shook his head, and made signs that it was not fit to eat. Nindemann and -Noros went out, and found that the man had come in a sleigh with -reindeer; but there was nothing to eat. He gave Nindemann a pair of -deer-skin boots and a deer-skin, and in return Nindemann gave him a -shirt. The man made signs that he would require to go, and held up three -or four fingers to indicate that he would return. Whether he meant in -three or four hours, or three or four days, they could not tell. - -About 6 p.m. the man returned with two others, and brought a frozen fish -which he skinned and sliced. They also brought some deer-skin coats and -boots for them, and then made signs that Nindemann and Noros were to go -with them. The latter made various attempts to make the natives -understand the critical condition of De Long and party, but utterly -failed. Putting Nindemann and Noros into the sleighs, they drove off -with them along the river to the westwards. They kept on their drive for -about 15 miles, when they came to a couple of deer-skin tents. Here -Nindemann and his companion received boiled venison. The natives -numbered seven men and three women. One of the women gave Nindemann -water in order that he might wash, but as he found himself unable to use -it, she took pity on him and washed his face. Again attempts were made -to make the natives understand about the party, but it was impossible to -say how far they were understood. Next day over one hundred head of deer -were harnessed to twenty-seven sleighs loaded with reindeer meat, skins, -and fish, and driven over the mountains to the southward. About the end -of the second day they came to a collection of huts, Ku Mark Surka, -where there was a great crowd of people feasting. On the following day, -the 25th October, Nindemann made another desperate attempt to make -himself understood. A model of a boat was produced, and using sticks, -Nindemann showed that the ship had masts and yards, and that it was a -steamer. He then made models of the ship’s boats. Obtaining two pieces -of ice, he showed how the ship had been crushed. He next put in each -little boat so many sticks to represent the men in each boat. He then -showed a chart of the ocean and coast-line, and tried to explain how the -boats were separated in a gale. He showed the way they had walked along -the river, and by putting his head down and closing his eyes he tried to -explain how many days the rest of the party had been left. Sometimes -they seemed to be able to follow him, but no assistance was offered. - -Next day an incessant but fruitless attempt to make themselves -understood was made. On the 27th October, Nindemann could contain -himself no longer, and broke into sobs and groans. A woman in the hut -took pity on him, and began talking earnestly to one of the men, who -came to Nindemann and said something about a commandant. Late in the -evening, a tall Russian, whom Nindemann took to be the commandant, -arrived, but he understood neither English nor German. He evidently, -however, knew something of affairs, for he uttered two words, -“Jeannette,” “Americansk.” Noros, meanwhile, was in the hut writing out -an explanatory note which Nindemann and he had composed, and the Russian -picked this up and put it in his pocket, and refused to return it. - -On the morning of the 28th they were taken charge of by a man who was to -take them to Bulun, where they arrived on the 29th October. Here they -saw the commandant, who turned out to be a different individual from the -one previously seen. He seemed to understand Nindemann’s signs and -pantomimes, and spoke of telegraphing. Nindemann made signs for pen, -ink, and paper, and dictated to Noros a dispatch to the American -Minister at St. Petersburg. This was taken by the commandant, who said -he would leave with it next morning. - -A hut was assigned to them, and on the 2nd November, three days after -the commandant had gone off with their dispatch, they were electrified -by the arrival of Melville. - -We must now leave Nindemann and Noros, and return to Melville’s party in -the whale-boat. It consisted of Melville, Danenhower, Newcomb, Cole, -Leach, Wilson, Bartlett, Lauterbach, Tong Sing, Aneguin, and Manson. - -On the night of the 12th September, Melville lost sight of the other two -boats, and contrived to ride out the gale. He then ran all night of the -13th, to the west and south-west. On the morning of the 14th the boat -grounded in 2 feet of water, and there was no land in sight. By running -some distance to the east, deeper water was obtained, but it was not -until the morning of the 16th that land was sighted, consisting of two -low headlands forming the mouth of a large river. They ascended the -river and tried to effect a landing, but the shoals constantly prevented -it. Towards night a hut was seen, and they succeeded in making a landing -near it. The boat was hauled up, and a fire was kindled. The men were -scarcely able to walk. During four days of their rough passage they had -no water to drink, and their legs were terribly cramped. After working -up the river two more days, they came to a collection of huts where they -met three natives, and feasted on venison, goose, and fish. They -endeavoured to get the natives to pilot them to Bulun, but failed. Next -day they pushed on, but were forced to return to the huts. The head-man -of the village had, in the meantime, arrived, and Melville induced him -to agree to pilot the party to Bulun. They started on the 22nd -September, and on the 26th reached a village where he was informed that -it was a journey of sixteen days to Bulun. Melville insisted on being -taken there, and an attempt was made; but after struggling with the ice -and against the wind, they had to return to the village. They were given -a hut and an allowance of provisions. Melville prepared a telegram to -the Secretary of the Navy and to the American Minister at St. -Petersburg, and letters were written in several languages. The head-man -of the village undertook to send these forward. - -About the 10th October there came to the village a Russian exile, who -seemed more intelligent than the others. This was the man who later fell -in with Nindemann and Noros, and who was first mistaken for the -commandant. He arranged with Melville to go to Bulun and bring reindeer -teams for the transportation of the party, as well as food and clothing. -He returned on the 29th October, when Melville had almost given him up, -and he brought the note from Nindemann and Noros. As soon as Melville -heard that De Long and his party were in need of assistance, he started -by dog-team for Bulun, which he reached on the 2nd November, as already -related. - -Melville now arranged for Danenhower to take charge of the party while -he started north in search of De Long. He was absent twenty-three days, -and during that time he travelled 663 miles, but although he recovered -the log-books and other articles cached, and found several of the -records left in the huts, he failed to find the bodies. Winter had now -set in severely, and the search had to be given up. - -No news had yet been heard of Chipp’s party, and it may here be -mentioned that no trace of them was ever found. It is probable that the -boat went down in the gale. - -Early in the year of 1882, Melville began preparations to renew the -search in the spring. He received instructions from the American -Government to spare no expense. Food and clothing were transported from -Yakutsk to the Lena Delta, a distance of over 1500 miles. Melville had -Nindemann and Bartlett to assist him when he started for his second -search on the 16th March. On the 23rd March the bodies were found. De -Long, Dr. Ambler, and Ah Sam, the three who lived longest, were found -lying together. - -Melville ascertained that the whole of this district, at certain seasons -of the year, was under water, and he therefore had the bodies removed -some distance to the south, where he had them buried on a rock about 300 -or 400 feet high. - -A long search was now made for Chipp and his party, but, as already -mentioned, no trace of them was found. - -During 1883 the American Government appropriated the sum of 25000 -dollars for the purpose of having the bodies conveyed from the Lena -Delta to America and for a further search to be made for the missing -boat. This was carried out by Lieutenant Harber, of the U.S.N. - -The fate of this expedition was one of the saddest in the history of -Arctic exploration. It achieved little in the way of discovery, but yet, -as will be hereafter explained, the loss of the _Jeannette_ had an -important bearing on a future expedition which was destined to add -greatly to our knowledge of the Arctic regions. - - - - -[Illustration: CHART OF GREENLAND AND ELLESMERE ISLAND.] - - - - - CHAPTER IX - GREELY’S EXPEDITION (1881−84) - - -Lieutenant Weyprecht, of the Austro-Hungarian Expedition, at the meeting -of the German Scientific and Medical Association, at Gratz, in September -1875, presented a plea for systematic Polar exploration and research. - -A Commission, appointed by Prince Bismarck to consider the question, -strongly commended the plan to the Bundesrath and to all interested -nations. - -The Turko-Russian War delayed the question until 1879, when an -International Polar Conference met at Hamburg in October. At this -Conference twelve stations were agreed upon, one of which was to be in -the Archipelago of North America. - -The United States did not at first take any action in the matter, but -ultimately they decided that the Signal Service should form a Polar -station at Lady Franklin Bay, and carry out the programme outlined by -the Hamburg Polar Conference. - -A sum of 25000 dollars was appropriated for the expedition, and -Lieutenant Greely was appointed to the command. He was instructed to -establish the station near Lady Franklin Bay and contiguous to the -coal-seam discovered by the English Expedition of 1875. The steamer on -arrival at the station was to discharge her cargo and then return to St. -John’s, Newfoundland. Lieutenant Greely was also instructed that it was -contemplated that the station would be visited in 1882 and in 1883 by a -steamer, sailing, or other vessel, by which supplies as would be deemed -needful would be sent. In case the vessel was unable to reach the -station in 1882, she was to cache a portion of her supplies at the most -northerly point attained on the east coast of Grinnell Land. In case no -vessel reached the station in 1882, the vessel sent in 1883 was to -remain in Smith Sound until there was danger of its closing by ice, and, -on leaving, was to land all her supplies and a party at Littleton -Island. This party was to be prepared for a winter’s stay, and was to be -instructed to send sledge-parties up the east side of Grinnell Land to -meet Greely’s party. - -If not visited in 1882, Lieutenant Greely was to abandon his station not -later than 1st September 1883, and to retreat southward by boat, -following closely the east coast of Grinnell Land until the relieving -vessel was met or Littleton Island reached. - -The arrangements promised in these instructions to Greely are of great -importance in the light of subsequent events. - -The steamer _Proteus_ was selected to convey the party to Lady Franklin -Bay. She was a barkentine-rigged steamer of oak with two compound -engines, 110 horse-power, 467 tons register, had an iron-armed prow, and -was sheathed with iron-wood from above the water-line to below the turn -of the bilge. Her screw was self-lifting, she had spare rudder and -propeller, and was in every respect suitable for ice-navigation. The -charter of this vessel consumed over ¾ of the appropriation, leaving -less than 6000 dollars for the special outfit of the party. - -The master of the _Proteus_, Richard Pike, had for many years been -engaged in the seal fishery of the Labrador ice, and was one of the most -experienced captains and ice-navigators of Newfoundland. - -Greely’s party, numbering twenty-three men in all, left St. John’s, -Newfoundland, on 7th July 1881. Lieutenant Kislingbury was the second in -command, and Lieutenant Lockwood was third. Dr. Pavy, the surgeon of the -expedition, had spent the preceding year in Greenland, and joined the -party at Godhavn. - -Gales and thick weather delayed the _Proteus_, and the island of Disco, -at Godhavn, was not reached until the 15th July. Twelve dogs with a -supply of dog-food were purchased here, and the _Proteus_ again sailed -on 21st July. Some more dogs with food and other supplies were obtained -at Ritenbenk, and a considerable number of sea-birds were shot and hung -up in the rigging to dry. At Upernavik two Eskimo were engaged: Thorlip -Frederik Christiansen, aged thirty-five, and Jens Edward, aged -thirty-eight. - -From the Berry Islands a direct course was laid for Cape York, which was -sighted on the 31st July. Melville Bay had been found almost clear of -ice, and was crossed in the remarkably short period of thirty-six hours. - -The Carey Islands were reached on the 1st of August, and the cairn -erected by Sir George Nares in 1875, and also the dépôt of 3600 rations, -were examined. On the whole, the dépôt was still in good condition. - -A quantity of coal was landed on the extreme south-western point of -Littleton Island, and the mail landed by Sir Allen Young for the English -Expedition was discovered at the extreme northern end of the west coast. - -To the northward from Littleton Island the sea was entirely free from -ice, and Greely decided not to touch at Cape Sabine, but to shape a -course for Cape Hawks. The dépôt left here by the English was visited, -and, with the exception of a portion of the bread, was found to be in -good condition. As Greely was short of boats, he took on with him the -English jolly-boat. - -The cairn on Washington Irving Island was searched, and the record of -Nares was taken, and a copy left with a new record giving a brief -account of the expedition to date. Near Cape Frazer the first -palæocrystic floeberg was seen. A cache of 200 lb. of meat and 280 lb. -of bread was left at Carl Ritter Bay. Greely points out that the -indentation here is so slight, and the curve so great, that it is a -bight rather than a bay. The south-eastern part of Lady Franklin Bay was -reached on the 4th August, but here a heavy pack was met, and it was not -until the 11th that the _Proteus_ entered Discovery Harbour. - -On entering the harbour, eleven musk-oxen were seen. They were -immediately followed, and all were shot. It was found that the _Proteus_ -could not safely approach Watercourse Bay, and Greely therefore decided -to make his station on the shore of Discovery Harbour, near the quarters -of the English Expedition. - -The site for a house was soon chosen, and the unloading of the vessel -was proceeded with. The station was named “Conger,” after Senator -Conger, who had interested himself specially in behalf of the -expedition. In addition to the general supplies, 130 tons of coal were -landed. - -Greely records that, on the 25th August, Lieutenant Kislingbury, the -second in command, spent the day on the _Proteus_, and next day, -dissatisfied with the expeditionary regulations, requested that he be -relieved from duty with the expedition. His request was granted, and he -was ordered to report himself to the Chief Signal Officer on his return -to the States. However, just as Lieutenant Kislingbury was leaving the -station, the _Proteus_ got under way, and he was obliged to go back to -Conger. He did not afterwards return to duty as an officer. Greely gives -no explanation of the matter, but Lockwood in his diary states that one -of the annoyances complained of by Kislingbury was the rule that -officers should rise in the morning with the men. - -A wooden house was constructed, 60 by 17 feet. Its walls were double, -the two coverings of ½-inch boards being separated by an air-space of -about a foot. The roof was only a single board thick, but was covered -(like the sides) with tar-paper. The house had also a ceiling, and the -space between this and the roof afforded an excellent storage-place for -articles which would have been injured by exposure. The interior of the -house was divided into three rooms, one 17 by 15 feet for the officers, -another 8 by 17 feet served partly as the cook’s kitchen and partly as -an entry, and the third room was used by the men. The house was -conveniently and pleasantly situated within 30 yards of the water’s -edge, on a small tableland between two brooks, which for a few months in -the year ran into the sea. The coal-mine was 4 miles distant, and could -be reached through a valley to the eastward. - -The house had not been quite finished when field-work commenced. Greely -expresses the view that autumn sledging should be carefully planned, -attempted with great caution, and never pushed to great distances. He -states that in autumn temperatures the travelling-gear of a man once -wet, the chances of dangerous frost-bites and disaster increase. - -On 30th August Dr. Pavy and Sergeant Rice, the photographer of the -expedition, were sent north as far as practicable towards Cape Joseph -Henry. They were to examine the condition of the English dépôt at -Lincoln Bay, and report on the practicability of autumn and spring -travelling by sledge along the Grinnell Land coast. They travelled with -packs, carrying a dog-tent, blankets, and provisions to last them as far -as the English dépôt, where their supplies could be renewed. - -The dépôt at Lincoln Bay was missed in going north, and the party pushed -on to Cape Union before returning south. Here a channel of open water, 2 -miles wide, was seen to stretch as far northward as the eye could reach. -In returning, the dépôt at Lincoln Bay was discovered, and was found to -be in bad order. Greely recommends that water-tight cases of very light -tin should be used in protecting stores thus cached. - -Sergeant Rice, who had broken through the young ice on his way north, -was attacked on the way south by acute rheumatism. In spite of the -severe pain, he made a determined attempt to walk to the station, but -was ultimately forced to yield. The doctor made him as comfortable as -possible in the tent, and proceeded to Conger for assistance. A party of -men with a sledge and improvised stretcher was immediately dispatched, -and after considerable difficulty Rice was conveyed to the station. He -rapidly recovered, and ten days later was again in the field. - -During Dr. Pavy’s absence, Greely established a large supply dépôt near -Cape Beechy. On 7th September, Greely visited the Bellows, a valley -about 15 miles from the station. Ten eider ducks were obtained, and nine -out of fourteen musk-cattle were killed. - -Dr. Pavy, with Private Whisler and Eskimo Jens, left the station on 2nd -October to proceed to Cape Joseph Henry and lay out along the Grinnell -Land coast such dépôts of provisions as would facilitate spring travel -in that direction. A point near Mount Parry was ultimately reached, and -here 150 lb. of pemmican and 50 lb. bread were cached. The open -condition of the floe-ice in Robeson Channel prevented further advance. -Conger was again reached on the 9th. - -On the 10th October, Lockwood established a small dépôt near Cape Baird. -On the 13th September a large pack of wolves made their appearance, and -for some time they were a source of danger. Greely decided to attempt to -poison them, and ultimately succeeded in poisoning four. The rest then -disappeared for that season. - -On 17th September the first birthday occurred, and the occasion was -taken to inaugurate a practice, which was afterwards adhered to at -Conger, of exempting the man from duty and of allowing him to select the -dinner. - -The temperature fell below zero on the 20th September, which Greely -believed was the earliest date on record. The first star at midnight was -seen on 9th September, and so extremely rapid is the approach of -darkness in all very high latitudes that on the 8th October lamps had to -be used throughout the twenty-four hours, except for an hour at midday. - -Scientific observations were conducted regularly and very carefully at -Conger during the whole stay of the expedition. Some idea of the amount -of labour involved may be conveyed by the statement that the number of -observations recorded daily was as follows: Meteorological, 234; tidal, -28; magnetical, 264—aggregating 526 daily. On what were called -term-days the number of magnetical observations was increased to over -1200. Pendulum, time, and sound experiments were also made. - -As regards food-supply, the expedition was fortunate in being able to -obtain sufficient musk-meat to enable each man to have 1 lb. daily -during two years at Conger. Condensed milk, butter, and oatmeal had been -taken in large quantities, and there was a liberal supply of cheese, -macaroni, and condensed eggs. They had also a large amount of fruits and -vegetables. Tomatoes were found to be the best vegetable, and apples and -peaches were considered the best fruits. One ounce of limejuice was -issued to each man daily. - -Even after the disappearance of the sun, it was decided to continue -sledging work. On 23rd October, Lockwood and three men were sent to -Dépôt “B,” at Cape Beechy, to construct a large commodious snow-house -for the use of the sledge-parties. About 4 cwt. of coal from Watercourse -Mine was taken as fuel to be used in a small stove. At Dépôt “A,” at -Cape Murchison, about 3000 lb. of coal, also from the mine, was -accumulated. - -On 3rd November, Lockwood with seven men left the station to attempt to -cross Robeson Channel from Cape Beechy. Next day Dr. Pavy, Lieutenant -Kislingbury, Sergeant Rice, and Eskimo Jens, with two dog-sledges, left -to add stores to the dépôt in Wrangel Bay. This latter party succeeded -in adding a small quantity of stores to the dépôt, but Lockwood was -unsuccessful in his attempt to cross Robeson Channel, owing to the open -condition of the straits. - -The results of these winter journeys satisfied Greely that it was not -advisable to send sledge-parties to any considerable distance after the -sun has left or before its return. The sun was last seen at the station -on 14th October, and again reappeared on 28th February, 137 days later. -Very dark nights were, however, uncommon, and except on a few cloudy and -stormy days they were never prevented by darkness from taking their -regular exercise. - -During October a wall of ice, 6 feet high, was constructed some 3 feet -from the house, and was rendered windproof by a coating of wet snow. The -space between the house and the wall was later filled in with loose, dry -snow, which formed an excellent protection. - -As regards clothing, Greely came to the conclusion that for ordinary use -first-class woollen under-garments, with heavy woollen clothing, are all -that is essential in Arctic service. - -In December a number of men gave indications of being mentally affected -by the continual darkness. The Eskimo were extremely depressed, and on -the 13th, Jens Edward disappeared without eating his breakfast, or even -taking his seal-skin mittens. A search was made, and he was discovered -near Cape Murchison, travelling rapidly northward. He returned to the -station without objection, and in time recovered his spirits. - -The lowest temperature during the winter occurred on 3rd February 1882. -The minimum was −62.2°, the maximum −44.1° F. The protective influence -of a snow-hut was shown by the fact that after a mean temperature below -−50° for five consecutive days, the thermometer inside read −17°. Even -in these extremely low temperatures some hunting was done. On 16th -February the mercurial thermometers thawed out, after having been frozen -for sixteen days. - -Preparations for spring sledging were actively commenced early in -February. The saddler, the tinman, the carpenters and others were kept -busy with sledges, boat, cooking-lamps, sleeping-bags, foot-gear, etc. - -Of twenty-seven dogs purchased in Greenland only twelve were living at -the end of 1881. In addition to these twelve there were three private -dogs. This allowed two teams. As regards sledges, Greely decided to use -the Hudson Bay pattern for the supporting sledges on the North Greenland -coast. This form of sledge is suitable for the deep snow experienced by -Lieutenant Beaumont. Light strips of ash were fastened to the bottom on -each side to serve as runners, and it was found necessary to shod these -with steel. Greely afterwards recommended future explorers to use Hunt’s -pattern of the St. Michael’s sledge, with the addition of steel runners -so arranged as to be attached or detached at pleasure. The Hudson Bay -sledges, with lashings and coverings complete, weighed only 35 lb. The -Greenland sledge was adopted as the pattern for the dog-sledge. The -lashings of this sledge being of seal-skin permit rough handling without -the sledge being materially injured. Its only drawback is the liability -of the runners to split longitudinally through the row of holes bored to -receive the lashings. Greely strengthened the upstanders and runners of -his sledges by setting in plates of wrought iron. The pine slats -commonly in use in Greenland were replaced by the best American ash, -hickory, or oak. The weight of the sledge used was 105 lb. - -The sledging ration in 1882 was 39 oz., but it was increased in 1883 to -about 42 oz., consisting of 22 oz. meat, 2 of butter, 4 of vegetables, -10 of bread, 2 of sugar, ½ oz. of milk, 1 oz. of tea and chocolate, salt -¼ and pepper 1/20 of an oz. The meat consisted of pemmican, bacon, -musk-meat, canned sausage, and corned beef. Limejuice pemmican was found -to be very unpalatable, and was only eaten under press of hunger. -Greely’s parties generally complained that chocolate taken in the field -made them thirsty. No rum was ever sent as a sledge-ration, but it was -furnished as medicine to be used under extraordinary occasions at the -discretion of the officer in charge. The alcohol allowance of fuel for a -party of three or four, at first 5 oz., was increased to 6 oz., as being -the smallest amount on which the food could be cooked. As the result of -his experience, Greely recommended that the vegetable-ration should be 3 -oz. preserved potatoes, and that the other ounce should be replaced by -half an ounce each of milk and of extract of beef. Of the meat, only -half should be of pemmican, the balance to be divided between bacon and -fresh meat; the latter to be sliced fine and frozen. In case fresh meat -cannot be obtained, Greely recommended that of the 11 oz. meat, 4 oz. -should consist of bacon and the balance of sausage and canned fresh -meat. The limejuice was frozen into small squares, each of which -represented a ration. It thaws at a temperature of 14° F. - -Greely recommends alcohol of great strength for fuel in the field, and -that it should be carried in tightly sealed vessels of about 2 gallons. -This enables caches to be frequently made for the return journey. The -lamp and all the cooking vessels were fireproof, made as far as -practicable of single pieces of heavy tin without solder. A lamp with -five wicks was used, and at a temperature of −20° melted enough snow in -sixteen minutes to produce 2½ quarts of water, and in ten minutes more, -raised it to the boiling-point. At the same time, in an open vessel, -there was melted 1½ quart of water. The amount of alcohol expended was 4 -oz. - -On 19th February 1882, Lieutenant Lockwood with two men and a dog-sledge -left the station to visit Dépôt “B,” near Cape Beechy, and to examine -the ice in Robeson Channel with a view of selecting the best route to be -followed in a later trip to Thank-God Harbour. The party returned on the -22nd, having found the ice favourable. - -On the 1st March, Lockwood with three men set out for Thank-God Harbour. -Two other men with a second dog-team were to support him as far as -possible. The distance of 28 miles to Dépôt “B” was travelled in five -hours and twenty minutes. The night was spent in the snow-house there, -and next day the whole party set out across Robeson Channel. When the -bad ice near the shore had been crossed, the supporting sledge-party -returned. Lockwood reached the Greenland coast the same day as he left -Cape Beechy. On the 3rd March he travelled south along the coast, and -arrived at the observatory above Thank-God Harbour, occupied by Bessels -and Bryan in 1871−72. The sides and one end of this building were still -standing. Six 45 lb. cans of pemmican, 35 lb. of farina, a half-barrel -of limejuice, a barrel of yellow corn-meal, and 10 barrels of hard bread -were found in the building, in fairly good condition. There were also -hatchets, saws, shovels, lead, shot, gunpowder, and cartridges for rifle -and pistol. - -On the 5th March, Lockwood proceeded to Cape Sumner over the route -followed by Captain Hall in 1870. During the whole of this day the -temperature remained below −50°, and the party were compelled to -continually keep the warm hand to the face in order to prevent it from -freezing. At night a deep snow-drift was found in a small ravine, and a -hole was dug in this and a house formed by using the tent and poles for -a roof. Next day Newman Bay was reached in a snowstorm, and shelter had -to be taken in a house made in a snow-bank, where they had to remain -until the morning of the 9th. Here they had an experience they were not -likely to forget. Lockwood and Jewell had used up or had lost their -stock of matches. Brainard had some, but they seemed damp and would not -light. They were 60 miles from the station, and there was a temperature -of freezing mercury outside. Without fire they could not obtain water, -and without water they could not live long. The matches were tried again -and again, but only gave a flicker and went out. At last Jewell produced -a love-letter which had been carefully kept in an inside garment, and -holding a piece to the next match it caught the flame, and with this the -alcohol-lamp was at once lighted. The cause of the matches not lighting -eventually proved to be the vitiated, damp atmosphere of the hut. - -Eight hours’ travelling on the 9th brought the party to Boat Camp, where -the canvas and whale-boats were found in very much the same condition -described by the English. From this camp, Cape Sumner was readied in an -hour and a half, and the tent pitched. Here Lockwood decided to leave -the tent, sleeping-bag, and some other articles of use for further -exploration, and to return to Conger. The party started on the 10th in a -temperature of −41°, and crossed Robeson Channel to Dépôt “B” in 12½ -hours. - -On 5th March, Dr. Pavy, with two men and a dog-sledge, was sent to -convey a sledge-load of provisions to as northerly a point on the -Greenland coast as could be reached in one day’s march from Cape Beechy. -They reached the Greenland coast, and cached the supplies at a point -called the “Gap.” They returned to Conger on the 9th. - -On the 13th March, Sergeant Brainard, with seven men, was ordered to -take a small boat with such additional supplies as could be hauled, to -the dépôt near Cape Sumner. The party left the snow-house near Cape -Beechy on 15th March, in a temperature of −50.5°. The Greenland coast -was reached on the 17th, after very severe labour. On the way one man -had to be sent back to Dépôt “B.” Brainard reported that he placed the -boat beside a huge rock, and fastened her down securely with boxes, -rocks, etc., first placing hard bread, medical knapsack, etc., under -her, to prevent them from being blown away. The channel was then -recrossed, and Dépôt “B” reached on the 19th, and Conger on the 20th -March. - -On 19th March, Dr. Pavy, Sergeant Rice, and Eskimo Jens, with a -dog-team, were sent north in an attempt to reach land to the northward -of Cape Joseph Henry. Greely states that Pavy was confident that land -would eventually be discovered in that direction. Sergeant Jewell and -Eskimo Christiansen were detached as a supporting party as far as -Lincoln Bay. Dr. Pavy on reaching the dépôt previously formed by him -near Mount Parry found that a bear had eaten 70 lb. of the pemmican. - -At Cape Union the party were storm-stayed for twenty-two hours. Two -trips had to be made back to Lincoln Bay to bring north supplies. On the -31st March they left Lincoln Bay with the last load, but when near Cape -Union the right runner of the sledge broke longitudinally through the -lashing-holes. Rice offered to return to Conger for a new runner, and -started at once with Eskimo Jens. They made the journey to Dépôt “B” in -one march, but the Eskimo was completely exhausted. - -The sledge having been repaired, the party finally left Lincoln Bay on -the 6th April, and reached the _Alert’s_ winter quarters on the 11th. -Beneath the large stone that covers the grave of Petersen they found -that a hare had taken up its residence. The signal flag-staff, with -attached halliards, at Cape Sheridan, was still standing in as firm a -condition as when erected in 1875. - -Instead of crossing the Feilden Peninsula, Dr. Pavy decided, on account -of the bare ground in some places, to follow the coast to Cape Joseph -Henry. This decision, though it seemed wise at the time, probably proved -fatal to the success of the journey. During the 18th and 19th April a -severe storm confined them to their tent. During the 20th and 21st they -succeeded in transporting their stores to a point on the polar pack -about 4 miles north of Cape Joseph Henry. On the 21st another storm was -experienced, which continued as a severe gale during the night. On -advancing north on the 23rd, Jens suddenly announced the presence of -water. This was found to be an open channel a mile wide, which had -probably been caused by the gale. The ice on which the party was seemed -to be in motion, and Dr. Pavy therefore decided to return to Cape Joseph -Henry. On arriving opposite the cape, open water of three-quarters of a -mile in extent was found between the ice and the land. Ultimately the -ice closed in against the shore and allowed the party to retreat in -haste, abandoning their tent, some provisions, and part of the -scientific instruments. Dr. Pavy, under the impression that Robeson -Channel was open, decided to return in haste to Conger, in case his -retreat might be cut off. The station was reached on the 2nd of May. - -On the 26th April, Greely with three men started for the interior of -Grinnell Land. They entered Conybeare Bay, and discovered that it was a -large fiord, which was named “Chandler Fiord.” On reaching the head of -this they passed along the bed of a river, and at certain places could -hear the water running under the ice. Ultimately they came to a point -where the river was open, and they were forced to take to the hillside. -A short distance farther a surprise awaited them in the form of an -immense ice-bound lake, which was named “Lake Hazen.” The station at -Conger was again reached on 7th May. - -The most important sledge-journey undertaken by the expedition began on -the 3rd of April, under the command of Lieutenant Lockwood. Its object -was the exploration of the North Greenland coast. The advance sledge was -to be hauled by dogs, with Eskimo Christiansen as driver, and Lockwood -was to select one man from the supporting party before their return. -This latter party consisted of twelve men, with four sledges of the -Hudson Bay pattern. - -The average amount of extra clothing was 10 lb. per man. The clothing -worn was generally double suits of underclothing, three pairs of socks, -with outer ordinary wool clothing, over which a light duck suit was -worn, to keep the snow from adhering to the wool. A few only wore outer -clothing of skin. The foot-gear consisted of moccasins, and Greenland, -Labrador, and canvas boots. - -The party left Dépôt “B” to cross Robeson Channel on the evening of 5th -April. The load was equal to 130 lb. to each man, and 100 lb. to each of -the dogs. Next day one man suffering from rheumatism was ordered to -return to the station; and later another man who had frozen one of his -toes was taken back to Cape Beechy by Lockwood. On the 7th the party -experienced a violent gale, which confined them to their sleeping-bags -forty-five hours. - -On reaching Polaris Boat Camp, one of the Hudson Bay sledges had been so -injured by the rough ice that it was practically useless. At this camp -the wind again became very violent, blew down the tent, and one gust -lifted the dog-sledge, with its load of 200 lb., bodily from the ground. -The sledge struck one man, knocking him several yards and injuring him -severely. Two other men, owing to illness, had to be sent back from this -camp. - -The party were employed until the 16th April in accumulating at Boat -Camp the stores from the other dépôts, and while this was being done -Lockwood returned to Conger for an extra set of runners, as he was -afraid that the runners of the dog-sledge might break down. - -The party started from Boat Camp with 300 rations on 16th April. The -eight dogs hauled about 800 lb., and each man hauled about 217 lb. on -the second sledge. On the third and fourth sledges the men dragged about -150 lb. each. The constant weights of the dog-sledge were 243 lb., and -of the remaining sledges 375 lb. - -During the first six days they had to travel over land, and after -tremendous exertions the sea-coast was again reached on 22nd April. The -party arrived at Cape Bryant on 27th April. On this journey one of -Beaumont’s caches was discovered, and the rations found were taken on to -Cape Bryant. - -At this point the supporting party were sent back, and Lockwood, -Brainard, and Christiansen, with rations for twenty-five days, set out -on 29th April towards their farthest north. The weight carried amounted -to about 783 lb., and consisted of rations 227 lb., dog-pemmican 300 -lb., equipments 176 lb., and dog-sledge 80 lb. - -A course across the fiord towards Cape May was taken, and the weather -was delightful. Sixteen miles were covered in eight hours. Next day the -snow was soft and deep, like that experienced by Beaumont, and it was -found necessary to advance with half-load and then return for the other. -Lockwood now gave up the idea of visiting Cape May, and directed his -course towards Cape Britannia. After this hard work Lockwood and -Brainard could not sleep well, but the Eskimo invariably snored two -minutes after composing himself to rest. On the 2nd May they came to a -crack in the ice, and had to follow it several hundred yards before they -could cross it. Thinking this would be a good chance to get a deep-sea -sounding, Lockwood ran out all the line he had, but did not reach -bottom. He then attached coils of seal-thongs, then some rope, and -finally the dog-whip, but still did not reach bottom at 820 feet. After -hesitating whether he would also use the dog-traces, they began to pull -up the line, and had drawn out the whip, when the rope broke, and -everything below was lost. All further attempts at sounding were thus -prevented. - -Cape Britannia was reached on 4th May. This was the _Ultima Thule_ of -Beaumont’s hopes, and quite as far as Greely expected Lockwood to reach. -A cairn was built, and in it was deposited a record, five days’ rations, -three days’ dog-food, the extra sledge-runner, shelter-tent, little -lamp, and the snow-shoes. Lockwood and Brainard ascended to the top of -the cape, 1950 feet high, where a cairn was built and a record -deposited. The latitude was found to be 82° 44′. - -Rounding Cape Frederick next day, they camped opposite Nordenskjöld -Inlet. A tidal-crack was here again met with. On the 6th May, Mascart -Inlet was reached, after a ten hours’ march which exhausted both men and -dogs. Numerous signs of animal-life were seen here; a hare was captured, -and traces of foxes, lemmings, bears, and musk-oxen were observed. - -On the 7th May, Low Point was reached. The latitude of this place is the -same as Cape Columbia, the most northern point of Grinnell Land. On the -10th May, De Long Fiord was crossed, and cairns constructed on the -northern and southern points. The party camped on Mary Murray Island, in -latitude 83° 19′, and were here delayed 63½ hours by a violent gale. A -lemming was captured by the dogs at this camp. - -Lockwood Island was reached on the 13th of May, and England’s record was -at last broken. The honours of the farthest north had been held by -England for three centuries. The highest latitude reached by Lockwood -was 83° 24′, against Markham’s 83° 20′ 26″. - -From the summit of the island, which was ascended by Lockwood and -Brainard, could be seen a rocky headland, Cape Kane, to the north, and -still some distance beyond, another, Cape Washington. On Lockwood Island -numerous traces of foxes, lemmings, hares, and ptarmigan were seen. On -the summit, Lockwood left a record in a small tin box under a few small -stones, as no large ones could be found. - -The return journey was commenced on the evening of the 16th May, and -Cape Bryant was reached in nine marches. After leaving Cape Britannia, -where they again obtained the snow-shoes, deep snow was met, and -Lockwood and Brainard used the shoes for the first time, and found -immense relief. Both bitterly regretted they had not used them going -north. - -From Cape Bryant to Polaris Boat Camp was passed over in six marches. -Here three of the supporting party awaited their return. From this camp -the whole party crossed Robeson Channel to Cape Beechy in fourteen hours -in face of a violent snowstorm. Conger was reached on 1st June, after an -absence of sixty days. - -The mean temperature during the outward part of this journey was below -zero. The distance of 276 miles entailed travel of 470 miles. Lockwood -personally during the sixty days covered 1070 miles in forty-six -marches. His discoveries extended 95 miles along the North Greenland -coast beyond the farthest point seen by Beaumont. - -The winter at Conger had been of great severity, the mean temperature -for the 131 days without the sun being −32.3°. - -On 19th May 1882, Greely visited the coal-mine. He found the seam 200 -yards long and extending 8 feet above the level of the creek. An immense -quantity of coal could be easily mined. - -On 24th June, Greely with four men left for the interior of Grinnell -Land, through Black Rock Vale. A two-wheeled wagon was used to carry the -provisions, etc. This valley was entirely barren of snow, and in most -places was covered with a comparatively luxuriant vegetation. Grasses or -sedges 10 or 12 inches in height were frequently noticed on the banks of -a river. The temperature during the journey remained extremely high. On -one occasion the thermometer reached 74° F. in the shade, and as many as -fifty butterflies were seen in one day! - -Beyond this valley, a system of small lakes, draining from one into -another, was found to finally discharge into Lake Hazen. Numerous birds -and herds of musk-oxen were met with. Traces of Eskimo were discovered -in many places both in the form of summer encampments and permanent -winter huts. These must have been inhabited within a comparatively -recent period. From the various relics found, Greely formed the opinion -that these Eskimo had dogs, sledges, arrows, and skinning-knives, and -that they fed on musk-oxen, seals, hares, and occasionally fish. - -After travelling over 100 miles from Conger, the wagon broke down -completely, and had to be abandoned. The remainder of the journey was -made with knapsacks. Skirting the south shore of Lake Hazen until its -termination was reached, they ascended a river which entered the lake. -One of the men became exhausted carrying a heavy load, and had to be -sent back. Near the source of the river Greely ascended a mountain with -great difficulty. The height was ascertained to be 4500 feet above -sea−level, and Greely believed it to be the highest mountain in Grinnell -Land. He named it “Mount Arthur.” It is the crest of the land, and the -farther side drains to the western sea. - -They now started on their return journey, and reached Conger on 10th -July. The journey entailed an aggregate of 352 miles’ travel in nineteen -marches—an average of 17½ miles, which was a remarkably good -performance over rough country. - -A ship was anxiously expected in either July or August, but these months -passed without it making an appearance. - -The first serious breach of discipline took place on 28th August. The -engineer having stolen some of the fuel-alcohol, was found drunk. About -the beginning of October a bear visited Conger on several occasions, and -Greely thought it necessary to require the men to obtain authority for -any extended absence from the station. In connection with this order, -Sergeant Lynn was reduced to the ranks for having made a “disrespectful -remark.” - -From 14th to 19th November there was a great magnetic storm, which was -general throughout the world. During this time the auroral displays were -magnificent, and on the 17th the magnetic needle ranged in variation -considerably over 19°. - -The second winter passed, and left the party in much better health and -spirits than had been anticipated. There had been an abundance of fresh -meat, and no scurvy made its appearance. - -The spring work of 1883 was to be a renewal of explorations in North -Greenland. Lockwood left Conger for his preliminary journey on 10th -March, with five men and dog-teams. During an absence of seven days he -accumulated about 1300 lb. of field-supplies near Cape Sumner. - -He started on his final journey northwards on 27th March. He was -instructed to return to Polaris Boat Camp not later than 31st May. The -party left thoroughly equipped, and had the former year’s experience in -their favour. The journey to Black Horn Cliffs from Conger was made in -six days, against twenty-two days in 1882. Here, however, open water was -met, and the party had to return. They reached Conger on the 12th of -April. - -In discussing this journey, Greely expresses his belief in an open Polar -Sea which could only be entered by a ship in extremely favourable years -by the Spitzbergen route. The huge floebergs of the north are given off -by glacial lands in the vicinity of the North Pole, according to -Greely’s view. The discoveries of Nansen prove the non-existence of an -open Polar Sea, and Peary claims to have discovered that the source of -the floebergs is in the glaciers of the extreme north of Greenland. - -On the 25th of April, Lockwood with Brainard and Christiansen left -Conger to attempt to cross Grinnell Land to the western ocean. They had -a team of the best ten dogs, and provisions to last thirty-one days. A -supporting sledge was to accompany them for two marches. Lockwood’s -fourth camp was situated about 67 miles from Conger. Lieutenant Archer -in 1876, with an eight-man sledge, took fourteen days to do the same -distance. This illustrates the great difference between sledging with -dogs and with men. - -From Archer Fiord, Lockwood passed along the Ella Valley to the base of -a glacier 150 feet above the sea. The glacier stretched from side to -side of the valley, and was found impassable. Lockwood next decided to -try the route _via_ Beatrix Bay. From the head of this bay they passed -along a valley to its termination, and then had to turn off to the north -up a steep rocky ravine. Here the large sledge had to be left, and a -small one brought specially for land-travelling was afterwards used. -From this camp they started for Musk-ox Valley on 8th May. The following -day’s march carried them to the apparent end of the valley, and they -then entered a cañon which seemed to end in a glacier 8 or 10 ten miles -distant; but as no other route seemed possible it was followed. This -cañon took them into a broad valley with a lake in its centre. The wall -of a glacier apparently rose all along the south side of the valley, and -the country behind seemed one continuous glacial surface. Travelling in -a south-west direction, they found the ice-capped land presented to -their view a vertical face of solid ice from 125 feet to 200 feet in -height. This wall of ice ran across the country in such a manner that -Lockwood named it “The Chinese Wall Glacier,” but later it was -designated Mer de Glace Agassiz. The next march brought them to the -watershed of Grinnell Land. They now descended a narrow gorge bounded on -either side by towering mountains, and finally reached a narrow valley -1000 feet lower down. Passing along this valley, and still rapidly -descending, they reached the head of a fiord where the water was salt. -This was named “Greely Fiord.” Proceeding about 26 miles down the fiord, -they reached their farthest on 13th May, and camped in a heavy -snowstorm. By fasting nineteen hours, they were enabled to remain here -until the storm abated. - -The return journey had to be made on short rations. This party travelled -437 miles during their month’s absence. - -The work of exploration was now practically completed, and preparations -for the contingency of a retreat southward began to receive serious -attention. Greely had already established a large dépôt of provisions at -Cape Baird, on the south side of Archer Fiord, and 12 miles from Conger. -This work was begun as early as the 1st February. Dr. Pavy protested -against the work as entailing unnecessary exposure, and some warm words -evidently passed between the doctor and Greely. The latter makes the -charge that this was the first of a series by which Dr. Pavy opposed all -the work initiated during 1883. The doctor’s objection was no doubt to -the work being done during the coldest month of the year. Greely takes -great credit for establishing this dépôt 12 miles from the station, but -it is only just to the doctor to state that Lockwood in his diary -mentions the fact that as early as March 1883 Dr. Pavy and two others of -the party were in favour of abandoning all further explorations, and -applying their efforts to depositing provisions down the straits to -secure their safe retreat in boats in August and September. No mention -of this fact is made by Greely. He states that the correspondence -between them formed part of his official report, but has no place in his -book. - -Lockwood also states that, on his return from his North Greenland -journey of 1883, Lieutenant Kislingbury’s only thought seemed to be that -a sledge-party should be sent down to Littleton Island to have the ship -leave her supplies at Cape Sabine instead of at the island, and that in -expressing this view Kislingbury merely reflected the latest opinion of -the doctor. - -The reader may be left to judge what effect it would have had on the -ultimate fate of the party had these ideas been carried out. - -In order further to insure a safe retreat, Greely decided to bring from -Thank-God Harbour the English ice-boat left there by Beaumont in 1876. -This boat was brought across the channel by twelve men, who made the -trip of 90 miles in six days in a mean temperature of −21°. - -On 1st June, Greely being dissatisfied with the manner in which Dr. Pavy -had kept the specimens of natural history and the notes concerning them, -transferred the work to Lockwood. On the 19th July the bitter feeling -between Greely and Dr. Pavy was aggravated by the latter declining to -renew his contract, which expired on the 20th July, and refusing to give -up his diary. As Dr. Pavy insisted that he was out of service and -refused to obey orders, Greely thought it necessary to place him under -arrest, with permission to take such exercise as was necessary within a -mile of the station. - -All preparations for the retreat having been completed by 29th July, an -order was issued announcing that Conger would be deserted on 8th August -if no vessel should arrive. All private property was to be left behind, -except 8 lb. of baggage for each man and 16 lb. for each officer. - -The station was abandoned on 9th August, the weather conditions on the -8th not being favourable. The dogs were left behind, and several barrels -of seal-blubber, pork, beef, and bread were opened, so that they might -maintain life for several months in case the party might be compelled to -return to Conger. Three tons of coal remained, and a sufficient quantity -of provisions to have supplied scant army rations for one year, with the -exception of flour, sugar, vegetables, milk, and butter. The entire -collection of natural history specimens and the original records of the -expedition were left at Conger. - -Cape Baird was reached on 10th August. Here the caches were taken up, -and then the launch, with three boats in tow, was steered down Kennedy -Channel. The whole party of twenty-five were then in good health, and -little could they dream of the horrors they were to undergo. - -On the 12th August, Sergeant Cross, the engineer, was found to be under -the influence of liquor. He had allowed the launch to ground on the -falling tide. On this date Carl Ritter Bay was reached, and the cache -made by Greely on his way north was taken up. On the 13th their progress -was arrested by an enormous floeberg, 60 feet in height above the water, -which had grounded 1 mile from the shore, and between it and the shore -was an unbroken floe. A later examination of the floeberg discovered -that it had split and formed a narrow cleft about 12 feet wide and over -100 yards long. Into this narrow passage, with walls of ice about 60 -feet high on either side, the boats were steered, and the dangerous run -was made without accident. - -On the 15th August, Cross was again intoxicated, and Greely found it -necessary to put Private Frederick permanently in charge of the engine. -On the 21st August the boats were caught between the moving pack and an -ice-foot 10 feet high, and rather severely nipped. The English cache at -Cape Collinson, consisting of 240 rations of meat, salt, pepper, -onion-powder and fuel, and 120 rations of bread, was taken up on 22nd -August. Cape Hawks was reached on 26th August. Here it was found that -the record left on the northward journey had been untouched. This proved -that no vessel had reached this point either in 1882 or 1883, and Greely -began to see that the position of his party was critical. He calculated -that on this date he had still sixty days’ provisions, except sugar. The -English dépôt left here was also found. The bread was very mouldy, but -all that was eatable was taken, and the barrels were broken up for -steaming purposes. - -Cape Hawks was left on the afternoon of 26th August, and on the same day -they became beset. The temperature was now low, and young ice formed -rapidly. The Eskimo killed a seal on 1st September, and another on the -2nd. - -On 3rd September, Greely took the wise course of calling together the -officers and two of the sergeants and pointing out to them the necessity -of hearty and united action. He expressed a desire for the frankest -opinion of each one as to what would be the wisest measures to take. -Various opinions were expressed, but Greely decided to make no immediate -movement. - -Meanwhile they slowly drifted southwards. A tepee after the Indian style -was made of the sails, and could accommodate eighteen men. The ice-boat -with a canvas shelter could hold nine. On 6th September they were only 3 -miles from Bache Island, and about 17 from Cape Sabine. On the 10th -September the launch was abandoned, and a start was made for the land -with two boats dragged on sledges. On the 12th one of the two boats had -to be left, as it was feared that it would break down the sledge. On -this date the last of the sugar was used. A high south-west wind sprang -up on the 14th, and in three hours drove the party farther north than -they had travelled south in three days. This gave rise to much -disappointment, and Greely’s troubles were aggravated by the criticisms -of Dr. Pavy. On the 15th the latitude was found to be 1 mile farther -north than where the launch was abandoned. On the 16th they were -directly north of Littleton Island, at a distance of 30 miles from Cairn -Point, Greenland, and 19 miles from Cape Sabine. Greely now held the -view that the next start should be for the Greenland coast, and although -he received little support from the officers, he was prepared to avail -himself of any chance of moving in that direction. Unfortunately, next -day it was found that they had drifted 3 miles to the west, and this -changed Greely’s intention of attempting to reach the Greenland coast. -On the 18th land seemed comparatively near, but on the 19th a south-west -gale sprang up, and they were drifted far to the east again. Greely now -held a conference with the officers and two of the sergeants, and -expressed the opinion that everything but 2000 lb. selected baggage -should be abandoned, and with twenty days’ rations the party should -start across the pack for the Greenland shore, about 23 miles distant. -The sergeants were inclined to favour Greely’s plan, but the others -recommended delay. Greely decided to wait till next day, but fog -prevented any move being made. The drift later set again to the west, -and on the 25th they were within 3 miles of Brevoort Island. On the 26th -a gale caused the floe, on which the party were, to break up, and it was -with great difficulty that they escaped destruction. Land to the south -of Cape Sabine was at last reached on 29th September. The retreat from -Conger involved over 400 miles’ travel by boats, and fully 100 with -sledge and boat. The condition of the party during the drift had been -wretched in the extreme. In spite of all difficulties, however, the -party reached land in fairly good health and with undiminished numbers. - -On the 1st October, Rice and Jens started for Cape Sabine, taking with -them a record to deposit in the cache. They returned on the 9th October, -and brought momentous news. Three caches were found at the cape, and in -one of them a record brought back by Rice explained that the relief -steamer had been wrecked and sunk on the 23rd July 1883; that a dépôt of -some of the provisions had been made at Cape Sabine, and that a second -steamer was on her way to Littleton Island. Lieutenant Garlington, who -wrote this record, also stated that he was leaving for the eastern -shore, and that everything within the power of man would be done to -rescue Greely’s party. - -On the strength of this record, Greely decided to proceed to Cape Sabine -and await the promised help. The whale-boat abandoned on the ice was -found by Rice at Payer Harbour safe and whole. On the 11th October, Rice -started for Cape Isabella to ascertain whether the second relief ship -had left supplies there. Cross, on this day, again managed to get under -the influence of liquor. Next day the whole party left their temporary -shelter to proceed to Cape Sabine, so as to avoid having to bring the -supplies from that point. The cache left by the wrecked party was -reached on the 15th, and Greely decided to take up quarters near it. On -the cache being examined, it was found that instead of 500 rations (as -mentioned in Garlington’s record) there were scarcely 100. In this -record the statement was also made that a boat had been left at Cape -Isabella. On the 15th, Rice returned and stated that no boat could be -found, and that only 144 lb. English meat was cached there. On the 17th -the temperature was 6° below zero, and the party had practically no -shelter. It was decided to build a stone house 25 feet by 18. Owing to -the scarcity of rocks, the walls were made only 3 feet high, and a boat -was placed on the top to form a roof. When sitting in their bags the -heads of the tall men touched the roof. Under the boat was the only -place where a man could get on his knees and hold his head erect. In -this miserable dwelling the winter had to be passed on starvation -rations. Holes were cut in the sides of the boat, in which oars were -inserted, which reaching to the side walls and fastened by ropes, -supported the canvas and overlying blocks of snow which formed part of -the roof. The house was surrounded with snow, and at one end a -snow-house was built for the stores. Sand was put on the floor over the -uneven rocks. - -The provisions from the various caches were slowly brought to the house -under great difficulties. The records of the expedition and the pendulum -were cached on Stalknecht Island in a prominent position, so that no one -visiting Payer Harbour could miss seeing it. A record similar to the one -placed on Brevoort Island was put in the sextant-box and left in the -cache. - -On 29th October the party decided that one of two mattresses should be -set aside for Greely, who directed that the other should be disposed of -by lot. Greely also generously turned over his own mattress to Sergeant -Gardiner, who was ill. A considerable part of the dog-biscuits was found -mouldy, but although Greely gave orders that the bad ones should be -thrown away, the whole were afterwards eaten by the famished men. - -On 1st November the daily ration was cut down to about 6 oz. bread, 4 -oz. meat, and 4 oz. vegetables, etc.; a total of about 14 oz. On this -ration it was calculated that the party could be provided for until 1st -March 1884, at which date there would be ten days’ rations of 20 oz. -each in which to cross Smith Sound by sledge. - -On 2nd November, Rice, Frederick, Elison, and Lynn left for Cape -Isabella to obtain the English meat cached there. The Arctic night had -commenced a week before this date, and the moon had chiefly to be -depended on for light. Cape Isabella was reached on the 7th November. -The first march of fourteen hours on the return journey was a very -exhausting one, and had to be done on a cup of tea and no food. During -this march Elison froze both his hands and feet. Frederick and Rice lay -on either side of Elison, and tried in many ways to impart heat to his -frosted limbs. Next day Frederick had to support and half carry Elison. -On the 9th, in order to save Elison, it became necessary to abandon the -meat. On the 10th, Rice started for the camp at Cape Sabine to obtain -assistance. He had to travel 25 miles almost in total darkness, and he -accomplished the distance in sixteen hours. - -During this time, and until assistance arrived, Frederick and Lynn tried -to keep Elison warm, but in a few hours the sleeping-bag became frozen -so hard that they could not turn over, and had to lie in one position -eighteen hours. - -Elison’s feet and hands were frozen solid, and his face was little -better, yet he arrived at Cape Sabine alive, although in a very critical -condition. The rescue party, enfeebled through want of food, made a -journey of nearly 40 miles in forty-four hours, over very rough and -heavy ice, exposed to temperatures ranging from 19° to 34° below zero, -and almost in darkness. Sad to relate, this party of rescuers and -rescued, with the exception of two, all afterwards perished. - -On the 4th November it was found that some one had been tampering with -the stores. On the 9th, Lockwood discovered an opened but full can of -milk hidden away. About the middle of November, Greely began to give -lectures, so as to interest the men and kill time. On 4th December, -Greely states that he heard Dr. Pavy taking bread from Elison’s -bread-can, but did not charge him with it. A considerable number of -foxes were killed during December, and allowed a slightly increased -ration. For Christmas an attempt had been made to save some provisions, -although the whole party were starving. Breakfast on that day consisted -of a thin pea-soup, with seal-blubber and a small quantity of preserved -potatoes. The dinner was a more elaborate affair, and included -seal-stew, potatoes, bread, pickled onions, and a kind of rice pudding. -At night everybody was required to sing a song or tell a story, and the -proceedings continued till midnight. The only extra rations for New -Year’s Day were cloudberries and a quarter of a lemon and gill of rum to -each man. - -On the 2nd January 1884, Elison’s right foot separated from the ankle -when the doctor severed a fragment of skin. The patient was quite -unconscious of the fact. Later he lost the other foot and both hands in -the same manner, and for long afterwards he still believed he possessed -them. - -On the 4th January it was found that a hole had been cut through the -canvas roof of the storehouse and a piece of bacon fished out. On the -7th some one made a hole with an axe in one of the barrels of bread and -stole several pounds. - -Up till the 12th January water had been obtained from a lake near the -house, but after that date ice had to be melted. This meant a heavy -drain on their fuel, and the quantity of tea had to be reduced one-half. -On the 16th January, Lockwood was so weak that he could not rise without -assistance. Cross was unable to walk, and several others of the party -were becoming very weak. - -Cross died on the 18th January; his habits had no doubt undermined his -constitution, and he was therefore the first to succumb. He was buried -15 inches deep on the summit of a hill near the camp. Next day was his -birthday, and it was found that he had saved up a considerable quantity -of bread and butter to celebrate it. - -On the 19th January it was found that the bread was overrunning the -estimate, and the ration was increased a half-ounce. This partly -dispelled the gloom caused by the first funeral. On the 21st January it -was discovered that at some time twelve cans of milk had been stolen. On -the 26th, Rice and Jens received an extra allowance of food, so as to -strengthen them for a proposed trip to Littleton Island. At this time -old leather boots were being burned to augment the fuel. The general -ration was again slightly increased on the 28th. A still further -increase was made on 1st February. On the 2nd, Rice and Jens started for -Littleton Island, accompanied by Brainard and Christiansen for a short -distance. They carried six days’ rations. They returned on the 6th -February, having found open water. Rice believed that he reached within -10 miles of Littleton Island. The trip exhausted Jens very much. - -On 27th February the last of the onions, dog-biscuits, and coffee was -reached. On 2nd March the last general issue of lemons took place, and -the last can of milk was opened for Elison. On 3rd March, Frederick was -promoted by Greely to be sergeant in place of Cross, who had died. This -and similar promotions were afterwards disapproved of on the ground that -there was “no precedent for them”! Red tape in its most vivid colours -can evidently flourish in the land of “liberty.” - -On 11th March, Long and Christiansen were sent to Alexandra Harbour in -search of game. They returned on the 13th very much exhausted. They saw -no game and no tracks, except of a single fox. On the 14th, Brainard -shot three ptarmigans, the first game obtained since early in February. -Three other were shot on the 15th, and four dovekies on the 16th. On the -17th the rations had to be reduced to 7 oz. of bread and 4 oz. of meat. -On the 21st a net was made in which to catch shrimps, and next day about -a pint was obtained. By this date the idea of crossing Smith Sound had -been given up, as the strength of the party was insufficient for the -task. On the 24th of March the entire party were in great danger of -perishing from the fumes of the alcohol-lamp used in cooking. The -chimney had been closed with rags, as usual, so that as much heat as -possible might be retained in the hut at night, and the cooks had -forgotten to remove the rags before beginning cooking. Several of the -men were rendered unconscious, but soon recovered in the air outside the -hut. It was remarked afterwards by all the men who got out of the hut, -that every one attempted to assist his neighbour except Henry, who held -himself aloof, evidently caring for no one but himself. Greely and -several of the men suffered severely from frost-bites as the result of -the exposure. After order was restored, and the breakfast cooked, it was -found that a piece of bacon had been stolen. Jens had seen Henry take -the bacon and conceal it within his shirt. Just before dinner, Henry -complained of being sick, and soon after he vomited. Frederick, on -examination, found that the vomited matter contained a considerable -quantity of undigested bacon. A general investigation of Henry’s conduct -was made on the 25th, which clearly established his guilt, not only of -the bacon, but that he took a double allowance of rum after the theft. -Greely relieved Henry from duty, and he was prohibited from leaving his -sleeping-bag except under the supervision of one of his comrades. Two -days later, 10 oz. chocolate reserved for Elison was stolen, and Henry -was suspected. - -For the first time in five months a ray of sunlight entered the wretched -hut on 25th March. On the 27th, Long was fortunate in obtaining -thirty-three dovekies. On the 28th, Rice got 27 lb. of shrimps, Long -secured fourteen more dovekies, and Christiansen shot a ptarmigan. This -success caused great rejoicing among the starving men. - -On the 29th March, Elison wished the doctor to do something for his -itching feet, unconscious that they had been gone since early in -January. On the 3rd April all that remained of provisions consisted of 5 -lb. of meat, 3 lb. of bread, and about 2 lb. of stearine to each man. -From 20 to 30 lb. of shrimps were, however, being obtained daily. - -The second death took place on 5th April. Christiansen, one of the -Eskimo, had been thoroughly used up in the hunting expedition with Long, -and never quite recovered. Extra food was given to him during the week -previous to his death, in the hope of saving him. Lockwood had a great -affection for him, and had much to say in his praise. - -Deaths now followed one another quickly. Lynn became unconscious at 1 -p.m. on 6th April, and died at 7 p.m. When dying he asked for water, but -there was none to give him. The Isabella trip had weakened him both -physically and mentally. - -On the 6th April, Rice and Private Frederick started to attempt the -recovery of the English beef which had to be abandoned to save Elison. -They had wished to make the attempt earlier in the year, but Greely -would not consent. Now, when provisions were almost gone, he agreed. -Before leaving, Rice slept in the same bag containing his dead comrade -Lynn, all unconscious of the fact that, in two days more, he too would -pass away. The temperature when they started was 8° below zero. Next day -they were confined to their bag twenty-two hours by a violent storm. -They reached the place where the meat had been abandoned, but could not -find it. Soon afterwards Rice showed signs of weakness. Frederick gave -him some spirits of ammonia in rum, until he made some tea. Then, giving -him some warm food and drink, he urged him to walk, in order to avoid -freezing. His condition had now, however, become so alarming that he -could not stand up, and his mind continually reverted to home, -relations, and friends. Frederick stripped himself of his jumper, in -which to wrap Rice’s feet. In his shirt-sleeves, sitting on the sledge, -in a driving storm of wind and snow, he held his dying comrade in his -arms for several hours, until he passed away. The feelings of Frederick -may be imagined; his sleeping-bag had been left some miles away, and to -reach it he must struggle against a cutting blast filled with drifting -snow. Recovering strength by sleep and a little food, he returned 6 -miles to cover his comrade with snow and ice. In returning to the camp -at Cape Sabine, he dragged his sledge as far as his feebleness would -permit, then took a little food, and getting into his bag, drank a -spoonful of ammonia and rum, which enabled him to sleep. As soon as he -awoke, he travelled on as before. In this way he hauled everything back -to the camp, even including Rice’s rations. It may truly be said that -Rice laid down his life for his comrades. On several other occasions he -had ventured it, especially on his extraordinary trips to Isabella, and -towards Littleton Island. Rice’s death deeply affected the party. - -On the same day that this tragedy was being enacted on the ice, Lockwood -breathed his last in the hut at Cape Sabine. Since the beginning of the -year he had been extremely weak, but lingered on till the 9th of April. -He was the most distinguished man of the party, his explorations having -been the main achievements of the expedition. His name will remain in -Arctic history. - -“Jewell is much weaker to-day,” were the last words Lockwood wrote. This -was on the 7th April, and on the 12th Jewell died. On the 11th, Brainard -fortunately shot a bear, which probably saved the lives of some of the -party; and on the following day Long shot a small seal. On the 13th the -ration was increased to a pound of meat daily. On the 20th it had to be -reduced to 10 oz. Towards the end of April, Greely was seriously ill, -and in danger of dying. Henry, taking advantage of his illness, stole -alcohol, and became hopelessly drunk. - -On the 29th April, Jens and Long were out hunting, and watched a seal -lying on an isolated floe. They hoped the floe would drift in to the -fast ice, but after a long delay, Jens decided to try and reach it in -his kayak. He crossed one lead, dragged his kayak across the ice, and -entered a second. Long, who was looking on, saw Jens suddenly begin to -paddle rapidly, and the next moment the kayak began to sink. Jens made -an effort to get up on the ice, but it was new and could not bear his -weight, and he was drowned. The kayak was probably cut when being -dragged over the ice. - -On the 3rd of May the last of the bread was used, and only nine days’ -meat remained. On the 6th a violent scene took place between Greely and -Dr. Pavy regarding the doctor’s reports. On the 12th, Greely decided to -divide the last of the regular rations, as he was afraid that one or two -of the worst men of the party might appropriate the remaining food, -which was only sufficient to last till the 15th of May. - -The want of provisions rapidly told on the starved men. Ellis died on -the 19th, Ralston on the 23rd, and Whisler on the 24th. They now tried -to feed on saxifrage (_Saxifraga oppositifolia_). On the 24th they had -for dinner a handful of saxifrage, two or three spoonfuls of shrimps, -and a pint and a half of tea. On the 26th there was a severe storm, -which prevented Brainard going to obtain shrimps, and in consequence -stews had to be made of the seal-skin thongs used for lashing the -sledge. - -Sergeant Israel, the astronomer, died on the 27th May. At the beginning -of June, fourteen of the party were still alive, but did not expect to -live long, unless the hunters were more fortunate or relief came -quickly. On the 1st June they had a breakfast of shrimps and seaweed -after a fast of thirty-four hours. Lieutenant Kislingbury died at 3 p.m. -He was the only one of the party known by Greely before contemplating -Arctic work. Although he had trouble with him at the commencement of -their work at Conger, Greely acknowledged that he was a hard-working -officer, and that he never spared himself in labours which would add to -the personal comfort of others. - -Salor died on 4th June. On this date, Greely, against the doctor’s -advice, decided to try to eat tripe de Roche. As Henry had been found -stealing again, he was cautioned by Greely that he would come to grief -if he did not stop it. Greely also gave written orders to Brainard, -Frederick, and Long that if Henry was again caught stealing he was to be -shot. Next day Frederick detected Henry stealing shrimps, and Greely -found that he had been stealing seal-skin thongs contrary to positive -orders. He was ordered to be shot, Greely giving the order in writing. -It was carried out the same day. - -On the 6th June, Dr. Pavy drank about 3 oz. of extract of ergot, having -evidently mistaken it for a preparation of iron. He died the same day at -6 p.m., and Bender fifteen minutes before him. Greely states that Dr. -Pavy was a man of fine education, polished manners, and great Arctic -ambition. His medical skill was great, and contributed much to the -general welfare of the party during the last winter. He thought, -however, that his previous Bohemian life unfitted him for duty where his -actions were subject to restriction or limitation from others. - -For breakfast on the 7th all the shrimps were eaten, and everybody began -collecting reindeer-moss, tripe de Roche, and saxifrage. On the 11th -June the party obtained a guillemot, and a second went to the hunters. -Next day the nets for catching shrimps were lost through the floes -breaking up. Gardiner appeared to be dead at 11 a.m. of this day, and -was carried from the tent in which the party had been living for some -time; but later he showed signs of life, and did not die until 5 p.m. - -On 13th June, Greely issued to the party his seal-skin jumper for -dinner. He also divided between them the dirty, oil-tanned covering of -his sleeping-bag. Schneider died on 18th June. - -Near midnight of the 22nd the whistle of a ship was heard. At first the -party could hardly believe their ears. Brainard went to the brow of the -hill, but no ship was to be seen. The party had resigned themselves to -despair, when suddenly strange voices were heard, and they realised that -they were saved. During the forty-two hours prior to their rescue a few -square inches of soaked seal-skin was all the nutriment they received. - -No relief or expeditionary vessels ever before ventured at so early a -date the dangers of Melville Bay. Congress had offered a reward of 25000 -dollars for the first information regarding the expedition, and this had -an important bearing on the rescue. The Scotch whalers set forth on -their voyage many days earlier than was customary, and there was a -friendly rivalry in the search between them and the American vessels in -charge of Captain Schley, who, profiting by their experience and advice, -won in the race for Cape Sabine. - -Of the twenty-five men of the party eighteen had died. The living were: -Greely, Brainard, Long, Frederick, Bierderbick, Connell, and Elison. It -was found necessary, however, to perform secondary amputation in the -case of Elison, and he died at Godhavn on the 8th of July. - -As regards the responsibility for the great disaster which overtook this -expedition, Greely admitted that, although not under orders to do so, he -should have done more than arrange for a retreat to Cape Sabine in the -event of not being reached at Conger. But little blame can be attached -to him for this omission. It is easy to criticise after the event, but -it seemed in the highest degree improbable that, if he could not be -reached at Conger, there would be the least difficulty in the relief -ships leaving sufficient supplies at Cape Sabine or other point on the -west coast. - -The disaster can be traced in the first place to the instructions given -to Greely to abandon the station and retreat to the south in the event -of no relief ship reaching him. It would have been much better to have -left this question to Greely’s discretion. If the party had remained at -Conger another winter, it is highly probable that no disaster would have -occurred. - -In the second place, the chief responsibility undoubtedly lay with those -who had charge of the relief. A ship was sent north in 1882, and failed -in its mission; but instead of leaving its stores, or even part of its -stores, at some point likely to be reached by Greely, those in command -took the incredible course of returning south with the stores intact. - -In 1883 those in authority must have known that absolutely nothing had -been done in 1882, and that in the event of a failure to reach Conger -taking place in 1883, Greely would certainly retreat southwards. One -would therefore have expected that all possible precautions would be -taken to insure the safety of the expedition. The possible wreck of one -of the relief ships should have been arranged for, and steps taken to -insure that sufficient supplies would not only be left at Littleton -Island, but at some point on the west coast. - -Serious responsibility was incurred by Lieutenant Garlington when he -made the written statement that everything in the power of man would be -done to relieve the expedition. All through the horrors of the winter -nearly the whole of Greely’s party believed to the last that a relieving -party was at Littleton Island watching the first favourable opportunity -to cross the Sound. - -The whole arrangements for the relief ended in a gigantic muddle, and -while nothing was done to lend assistance, Greely’s party were induced -by fair promises to camp in a practically barren region. - - * * * * * - -This expedition, and others which had preceded it, gave little -encouragement to Americans to continue Arctic exploration, although the -results achieved had been important. Kane lost the _Advance_; his party -had to undergo great privations, and had ultimately to retreat in boats. -The _Polaris_ was lost, and many of the members of the expedition had to -suffer greatly. De Long lost the _Jeannette_, and a large number of his -party met a terrible fate; and now Greely’s expedition was the climax of -them all. - - - - -[Illustration: MAP OF FRANZ JOSEF LAND] - - - - - CHAPTER X - THE NORWEGIAN POLAR EXPEDITION (1893−96) - - -In many respects this expedition is unique. It was planned by Dr. Nansen -after careful consideration of many scientific facts connected with the -Polar Sea, and although his theories and conclusions were opposed by -many of the leading authorities of the day, the expedition was carried -out almost to the letter. - -The _Jeannette_ expedition had a very important bearing on that of Dr. -Nansen. In 1884, Professor Mohn published a paper in which it was stated -that various articles which must have come from the wreck of the -_Jeannette_ had been found on the south-west coast of Greenland. He -believed that they must have drifted on a floe right across the Polar -Sea. These articles included a list of provisions signed by De Long, the -commander of the _Jeannette_; an MS. list of the _Jeannette’s_ boats; -and a pair of oilskin breeches marked “Louis Noros,” the name of one of -the _Jeannette’s_ crew who was saved. - -It occurred to Dr. Nansen that a ship might be allowed to be frozen in -the ice and to drift as the articles from the _Jeannette_ must have -done. This idea was propounded in an address before the Christiania -Geographical Society on 18th February 1890. - -In this address Dr. Nansen brought forward various evidences in support -of the theory that a current flows across or near the North Pole from -Bering Sea on the one side to the Atlantic Ocean on the other. A -“throwing-stick” used by the Alaskan Eskimo in hurling their bird-darts -had been found among the drift-timber on the west coast of Greenland. It -was also known that the driftwood that is carried down by the polar -current along the east coast of Greenland and up the west coast consists -largely of wood from the coast of Siberia. - -After discussing the various possible routes by which this drift might -take place, Dr. Nansen came to the conclusion that a current flows at -some point between the Pole and Franz-Josef Land from the Siberian -Arctic Sea to the east coast of Greenland. - -Nansen’s plan was to build a ship as strong as possible, so as to enable -it to withstand the pressure of the ice. The sides were to slope -sufficiently to prevent the ice, when it presses together, from getting -firm hold of the hull, as was the case with the _Jeannette_ and other -vessels. Nansen’s idea was that the ice, instead of nipping the ship, -must raise it out of the water. - -The _Fram_ was built on the principles suggested by Nansen: its sides -were from 24 to 28 inches in thickness, of solid water-tight wood. The -inside of the ship was also shored up and strengthened in every possible -way. The equipment was of the best, and special attention was devoted to -the commissariat; most of the provisions were soldered down in tins, as -a protection against damp. - -The members of the expedition numbered thirteen. Several places were -visited in passing up the coast of Norway, and the party received a -great reception. Norway was left at Vardo; and about four days -afterwards, on the 27th July 1893, ice was met with. - -It was Nansen’s intention to pass through Yugor Strait and make his way -along the coast until he reached the New Siberian Islands, and then up -the west coast of these as far as possible before he allowed the _Fram_ -to be frozen in. - -At Khabarova, Yugor Strait, thirty-four dogs which had been sent there -by previous arrangement were obtained. Some days were spent here in -making repairs, shifting coal, etc. A ship loaded with coal was to meet -the _Fram_ here, but turned up two days late, having been delayed by -ice. The _Fram_ left Khabarova on 5th August, and after careful -navigation in a fog, succeeded in passing through the Yugor Strait into -the Kara Sea. Cape Chelyuskin, the northernmost point of Asia, was -reached on the 10th September. On the 12th September two walruses were -shot and secured. On the 18th September the course was shaped -northwards, to the west of the New Siberian Islands, and the _Fram_ had -a straight run until the 20th September, when it was stopped by ice near -latitude 78°. The edge of the ice was now followed towards the -north-west, and about 78½° was reached. On the 24th September they found -that the ship was being frozen in. An observation taken on the 29th gave -latitude 79° 5′. By 8th November they had drifted as far south as 77° -43′; on the 19th November they were north to 78° 27′; and on the 23rd -November they reached 79° 11′, which was the highest yet reached. On the -27th November an altitude of Jupiter was taken, and the latitude found -to be 78° 36′, from which it was believed that a mistake had been made -on the 23rd. By the end of the year they were not much farther north; -sometimes the drift was one way and sometimes the other. Several bears -made their appearance and were shot; foxes were also seen. - -As early as 15th January 1894, Nansen began to speculate about the -possibility of leaving the ship and making a sledge-journey over the ice -towards the Pole, but he decided to first wait and see the result of the -drift. On one point Nansen’s calculations had proved incorrect: he had -presupposed a shallow Polar Sea in which all currents would have a -strong influence. Instead of this, it was found in latitude 79° that -with a line of 1000 fathoms the bottom could not be reached. The -greatest depth hitherto found in these regions was 80 fathoms. - -It was not until the 1st of February 1894 that the 80th degree of -latitude was reached. On the 6th of April a remarkable event took place, -which had been looked forward to with lively interest. It was an eclipse -of the sun. Hansen, who had charge of the astronomical observations, -calculated that the eclipse would begin at 12.56. It really was seen to -begin 7½ seconds later than the time calculated. This proved the -chronometers to be in excellent order. Four bears made their appearance -on 8th April; none had been seen during the three previous months. The -81st degree of latitude was reached about 17th May 1894, and the 82nd -not until the 31st October 1894. - -On the 5th of November a curious incident happened, and is worth -mentioning. One of the young dogs was heard howling fearfully on deck. -It was found to have touched an iron bolt with its tongue, and was -frozen fast to it. The poor beast was straining to get free, with its -tongue stretched out so far that it looked like a thin rope proceeding -out of its throat. The bolt was heated by means of the hand, and the -puppy then managed to get the tongue free. - -On 16th November, Nansen elaborated his plan for the sledge-journey -towards the Pole in the spring of 1895. He made his calculations from -the 83rd degree of latitude, and he expected that the _Fram_ would reach -a higher latitude than this. The distance to the Pole from this latitude -is 483 English miles. Nansen thought it reasonable to expect that this -distance could be covered in fifty days, which would give about 9½ miles -a day. The expedition was to consist of twenty-eight dogs, and two men, -with 2100 lb. of provisions and equipments. Nansen calculated that in -fifty days the dogs would consume 1400 lb. of pemmican, allowing a pound -a day for each dog. Two pounds of provisions daily for each man was -allowed. In returning, he intended to make for either the Seven Islands, -north of Spitzbergen, or Cape Fligely in Franz-Josef Land, according to -circumstances. Setting out on the 1st of March, he expected to reach the -Pole at the end of April, and have about 500 lb. of provisions left for -the return journey. This would not allow anything for the dogs, so it -was intended to kill some to feed the others. Allowing for the gradual -reduction of weight on the return journey, Nansen calculated that Cape -Fligely should be reached about the 1st of June. From here he would -decide whether to return along the north-west coast of Franz-Josef Land -by Gillis Land towards North-East Island and Spitzbergen, or south -through Austria Sound towards the south coast of Franz-Josef Land, and -thence to Novaya Zemlya or Spitzbergen. - -Nansen decided that Johansen should be his companion. He was a -lieutenant in the Reserve, and was so eager to go in the _Fram_ that, as -no other post could be found for him, he accepted that of stoker. He -afterwards assisted Hansen in taking scientific observations. - -On 20th November, Nansen delivered an address to the whole ship’s -company, in which he announced his determination to make the -sledge-journey. Preparations were now made in earnest. During the summer -Nansen had already begun to make a kayak, the frame of which was of -bamboo carefully lashed together. When completed, the framework weighed -16 lb. It was afterwards covered with sail-cloth, when the whole boat -weighed 30 lb. It was 12 feet long, 28 inches wide in the middle, and 12 -inches deep. Another kayak was made with a depth of 15 inches. These -kayaks were chiefly intended for crossing over channels and open spaces -in the ice, and coasting along possible land. They were essentially like -Eskimo kayaks, full-decked, save for an aperture in the middle for a man -to sit in. This aperture was encircled by a wooden ring, after the -Eskimo fashion, over which the lower part of the seal-skin jacket could -be adjusted so that the junction between boat and jacket was -water-tight. Besides this aperture in the middle, there were small -trap-doors fore and aft in the deck, for the convenience of stowing -provisions. Two sledges were made about the same length as the kayaks. - -On 12th December 1894 it was found that the _Fram_ had attained a higher -latitude than had ever before been reached by a ship, the observation -giving 82° 30′. A great feast was held in its honour. - -On the 3rd of January 1895 the _Fram_ received such an alarming pressure -from the ice that all preparations had to be made in case the ship would -have to be abandoned. By the 6th of January the ice became quiet, and -the danger was over. On this day the latitude was found to be 83° 34′, -so that the expedition had now reached the most northern latitude; the -record of Lockwood had been beaten. - -Preparations for the long sledge-journey were now hastened. Bolsters -filled with pemmican and dried-liver pie were made to fit the sledges -and form a bed on which the kayaks were to rest. These bolsters when -filled weighed from 100 to 120 lb. each. Three sledge-sails were made of -very light calico, and were about 7 feet 2 inches broad by 4 feet 4 -inches long; they were made so that two of them might be laced together -and used as one sail for a double sledge. - -On 26th February, Nansen and Johansen left the ship along with five of -their companions who were to accompany them a short distance. During the -first day, however, one of the sledges broke down seriously, and the -whole party returned to the ship, so that all the sledges might be -strengthened. - -On 28th February a start was again made, with six sledges instead of -four. A broad board was fitted lengthwise to the sledge, underneath the -cross-bars, so as to protect them against projecting pieces of ice. They -had not proceeded far from the ship when Nansen came to the conclusion -that the load was too heavy, and several sacks with food for the dogs -were left behind. On the 3rd of March, Nansen again decided to return to -the ship. The progress made with six sledges was unsatisfactory, and the -cold was severe. - -On the 14th of March they left the _Fram_ for the third and last time. -As regards clothing, Nansen had on the upper part of the body two -woollen shirts; outside these a camel’s-hair coat, and last of all a -thick rough jersey. Instead of the jersey, Johansen wore an “anorak” of -thick homespun, provided with a hood. On the legs they had, next the -skin, woollen drawers, and over these knickerbockers and loose gaiters -of close Norwegian homespun. To protect them from wind and fine-driven -snow, they wore a suit made of a thin, close kind of cotton canvas, and -consisting of an upper garment to pull over the head, provided with a -hood, and a lower one in the shape of a pair of wide overalls. Instead -of wearing long stockings, Nansen preferred to use loose stocking-legs -and socks, as these were more easily dried on the chest when asleep at -night. For travelling over snow in a low temperature, Nansen recommends -Finn shoes. They are warm and strong, are always flexible, and very easy -to put on and take off. They must, however, be made of the skin of the -hind-legs of the reindeer buck. In milder weather they had leather boots -of the “komager” type, made of under-tanned ox-hide, with soles of the -skin of the blue seal. Inside the Finn shoes they used “sennegraes,” or -sedge grass, which absorbs moisture and keeps the feet dry. - -On their hands they wore ordinary woollen mittens, and above these large -gloves of wolf-skin, neither of them having divisions for the fingers. - -On their heads they wore felt hats, which shaded the eyes from the -dazzling light, and were not so pervious to the wind as an ordinary -woollen cap would be. Outside the hat they generally had one or two -hoods of cloth. - -To sleep in, they used a double bag of adult reindeer-skin. - -In Nansen’s opinion, a tent should always be carried. He thinks that the -inconsiderable increase in weight is more than compensated for by the -extra comfort. The tent used was square at the base and pointed at the -top, and was pitched by means of a snowshoe-staff which served the -purpose of a tent-pole. The walls were kept down by pegs, and then -banked carefully round with snow to exclude wind and draughts. At first -Nansen tried a tent with a canvas floor attached, but found that snow -and moisture collected on this and added much to the weight. The whole -tent weighed a little over 3 lb. - -The cooking apparatus consisted of two boilers and a vessel for melting -snow or ice. A Swedish gas-petroleum lamp, known as “The Primus,” in -which the heat turns the petroleum into gas before it is consumed, was -used for heating. Nansen used petroleum because it generates more heat -in comparison with its weight than alcohol. He took with him 4 gallons, -and this enabled them to cook two hot meals a day and melt an abundance -of water during 120 days. - -Several pairs of snow-shoes were taken. Their firearms consisted of two -double-barrelled guns, each having a shot-barrel of 20 bore, and a -barrel for ball of about 360 calibre; and the ammunition amounted to -about 180 rifle-cartridges and 150 shot-cartridges. - -The instruments were: a small theodolite, a pocket sextant and -artificial horizon, a light azimuth compass and two other compasses, two -aneroid barometers, two minimum spirit-thermometers, three quicksilver -sling-thermometers, an aluminium telescope, and a photographic camera. - -As regards provisions, the chief article was pemmican, but there was -also a good supply of butter, calf’s liver, albuminous flour, -wheat-flour, whey-powder, cornflour, sugar, vril-food, chocolate, -oatmeal, white bread, aleuronate bread, fish-flour, dried potatoes, -cocoa, a “special food” made of pea-flour, meat-powder, fat, etc., and a -few others. An important point as regards provisions is that the food -should be in a condition to be eaten without cooking, in case the fuel -be lost or used up. - -During the first week the travelling was good, from 9 to as many as 20 -miles being covered daily. On the 22nd of March the latitude was found -to be 85° 9′. From this time onward the ice was bad. The temperature at -first was very low, frequently more than 40° below zero. On 29th March -the latitude was found to be 85° 30′, although Nansen expected that he -had reached 86°. This probably indicated that the ice was drifting -southwards. On 30th March, when one of the sledges was going over a -crack in the ice, all the dogs fell in, and had to be hauled out. The -next sledge fell in, and had to be unloaded before it could be got out. -Next day Johansen in crossing a lane went through the edge of the ice, -wetting both legs, which soon became covered with a mass of ice. - -A great deal had always to be done before starting off on the day’s -journey. The breakfast had to be cooked; sometimes a sledge had to be -relashed; a hole would be found in a fish-flour sack which had to be -sewed up; and the dogs’ traces had to be disentangled with great -difficulty. On the 1st April they kept on the move so long that it was -too late to wind up their chronometers. Johansen’s had stopped -altogether, but Nansen’s was still ticking. The ice was now becoming -worse and worse, and Nansen began to have doubts as to the wisdom of -going northwards much longer. - -On the 3rd April the second dog was killed as food for the others. -Nansen now calculated that the distance to Franz-Josef Land was three -times as far as the distance they had come. He saw that it was -impossible to reach the Pole or its immediate vicinity over the ice they -were encountering, with the dogs they had. He now wished that the number -of dogs had been much greater. On 4th April the latitude was 86° 3′. On -the 8th April, Nansen finally decided to return and shape his course for -Cape Fligely, in Franz-Josef Land, about 450 miles distant. The latitude -of the farthest north point was found to be 86° 13.6′, and the longitude -about 95° E. - -During the first few days on the return journey they met with -comparatively level ice, much to their surprise; but they soon began to -meet more open lanes. On the 12th April they had the misfortune to let -their chronometers run down. This was the cause of much worry -afterwards. On 16th April, Nansen calculated that they were 60 miles on -their way home. The temperature had now risen to about 15° below zero, -and they considered this mild. A dog had to be killed every few days in -order to feed the others. They considered this slaughtering of the -faithful animals a horrible affair, but it was an absolute necessity. - -On the 21st April they came across an immense piece of timber sticking -out of the ice. Nansen believed it to be Siberian larch. Johansen marked -it “F. N., H. J., 85° 30′ N.” On the 25th April fox-tracks which were -fresh were seen in the snow. This discovery raised the question whether -land could be near, but the weather was so thick that it might have been -near and could not be seen. - -Open water in the form of lanes in the ice now became more frequent, but -Nansen was still reluctant to use the kayaks. There were several large -holes in them which would require to be repaired, and in the present -condition of the ice Nansen believed that it would be difficult to -protect the bows of the kayaks from being cut, and in the event of water -getting in, ice would immediately form, and to remove it would be -impossible. - -On 3rd May the dogs had been reduced to sixteen. Two days later the -latitude was found to be 84° 31′, and longitude 66° 15′ E. This was not -so far south as Nansen expected, but farther west. - -In some places the snow was very deep among the rough ice, and as the -snow-shoes had frequently to be taken off for the purpose of helping the -sledges over difficulties, Nansen regretted that he had not also Indian -snow-shoes, which would have been of more use in such circumstances. - -On the 14th May, during a storm, the opportunity was taken to remove the -load from one of the sledges which was not now required. An attempt was -made to use the wood of the sledge as fuel, but after burning nearly the -whole of it and succeeding in obtaining only one pot of boiling water, -they gave it up as a failure, and went back to the “Primus.” - -They had for some time been expecting to see land daily, but there was -still no appearance of it. The open lanes of water were causing more and -more trouble. On the 17th May a school of narwhals was seen in one of -them, but none was obtained. On the 19th May the first bear-tracks were -seen. On the 25th the latitude was found to be 82° 52′, and yet there -was no land in sight. Payer had supposed Petermann Land to be in -latitude 83°. - -The first bird was seen on 29th May, and seals made their appearance -soon afterwards. On the last day of May only seven dogs remained. On the -2nd of June it was found that it was necessary to make use of the -kayaks, and preparations were made to put them in proper order. The -covers were patched and the frames relashed. It was not until the 8th of -June that everything was ready for a fresh start, and then it was found -that all the lanes had closed, so that the kayaks were not yet required. -For the first time the temperature rose above the freezing-point on 6th -June. - -The travelling was now extremely difficult, and they had to be satisfied -with journeys of 1 and 2 miles daily. Sometimes it was found that they -had drifted about as far northward as they had travelled southward, and -it became a serious question whether they were likely to reach land. -Although about the latitude of Cape Fligely, there was no appearance of -land, and Nansen was in great difficulty over his longitude, due to the -time when the chronometers ran down. He calculated and recalculated his -observations without making the matter any more clear. Sometimes he -thought he might be east of Cape Fligely, and sometimes that he might be -to the west. - -About the middle of June, three months after they left the _Fram_, they -began to see signs of returning life. Little auks were numerous, more -bear-tracks were seen, and on the 22nd June they were fortunate enough -to kill a seal. This seal was one of the large bearded variety (_Phoca -barbata_), and supplied sufficient food and fuel to last a month. - -The killing of the seal furnished a very exciting incident. It was on -the first occasion that the kayaks were used. They had just crossed a -pool, and Nansen had hauled one of the sledges half-way on to the ice -when the seal appeared and was shot by Johansen. Nansen seized a harpoon -and threw it deep into the fat back of the seal. Meanwhile the sledge, -which had been drawn partly on to the ice, slid down again, and the -kayaks with Johansen and the dogs were set adrift. He tried to drag the -sledge up on to the kayak, but failed. The sledge gradually heeled the -kayaks over until one side of Johansen’s was in the water. The cooker -which was on the deck fell off and drifted away; the snow-shoes -followed. Nansen meanwhile was holding on to the seal, but had to let go -and assist in preventing the kayak from sinking. In the end, the lost -articles were rescued, and the seal hauled on to the ice. They had -previously reduced their rations and fuel to a minimum, but now they -feasted on seal’s flesh and blubber. It was decided to remain here some -time, to see if the ice would open to allow the kayaks to be used. About -this time they abandoned everything that was not absolutely necessary, -so as to lighten the load as much as possible—even the sleeping-bag was -left behind. - -From this camp they first saw land without being aware of what it was. -While still waiting at this camp, a bear with two cubs put in an -appearance, and after a difficult chase over ice and lanes, all three -were shot. This fortunate occurrence supplied an abundance of food. -Nansen and his companion remained at this place, which was named -“Longing Camp,” until the 22nd July. A great deal of meat had to be left -behind, and a good many articles, such as a hammer, Finn shoes, a -frying-pan, sail-cloth, etc. In place of these articles, some flesh from -the seal and bear was carried. - -Land was first detected on 23rd July. It had been observed before, but -the snow-fields were mistaken for clouds. It had long been expected, and -now it gave the travellers great joy. - -On 29th July, Nansen began to suffer from lumbago, probably caused by -sleeping on the bare ice. It gave him severe pain during several days. - -When land was first seen, Johansen expressed the opinion that it would -be reached next day. Due, however, chiefly to the drift, the journey -occupied thirteen days. - -On the 4th of August, Johansen nearly lost his life. They had reached a -lane, and were preparing to launch the kayaks, when Nansen heard -Johansen cry to him to take the gun. On looking round to see what was -the matter, he saw an enormous bear standing over Johansen, who was on -his back. Nansen tried to seize his gun, but his kayak slipped into the -water, and it took some little time to pull it out again and to reach -the gun, which was in its case on the fore-deck. Luckily one of the dogs -came to the rescue, and the bear turned its attentions to it. This -enabled Johansen to wriggle himself out of its grasp, and the next -moment Nansen fired, and the bear dropped dead. - -At last, on the 6th of August, open water was reached. For some time the -dogs had been reduced to two in number, and now that open water had been -gained, Nansen could not see how the two dogs could be taken farther. He -was sorry to part with them; they had been faithful and enduring, and -had followed him the whole journey through. A cartridge was sacrificed -on each. - -The two kayaks were lashed together, and the sledges placed on deck, one -in front and one behind. Before going far, the wind rose sufficiently to -enable a sail to be used, and soon the margin of a glacier was reached. -This was from 50 to 60 feet in height, and landing was therefore -impossible. The margin of the glacier was followed towards the west, and -it was found necessary to land on a drifting floe in order to obtain -sleep. Next day, when they turned out, they found the ice packed around -them; but fortunately the open water was not far off to the west, and -they reached it without much difficulty. Birds were now plentiful, and -it was with great satisfaction that they observed the signs of -animal-life, and knew that they could obtain food. Later on they -discovered that the land they were coasting along consisted of islands. -The first three Nansen named “Eva’s Island,” “Liv’s Island,” and -“Adelaide’s Island” respectively. South of these the land had probably -been seen by Payer. - -On the 11th of August, while Nansen was on a hummock inspecting the -waters ahead, a huge monster of a walrus came up near the kayaks. No -notice was taken of it, but it came up snorting, sometimes on one side -and sometimes on the other, and threatened to thrust its tusks into the -frail kayaks. Ultimately Johansen shot it through the eye, and with a -terrific bellow it rolled over and disappeared. Not long afterwards, -Johansen’s kayak received a violent shock from another walrus, which was -shot dead through the forehead by Nansen. With great difficulty, they -managed to cut a hole in the thick skin, and obtained some walrus-meat -and blubber. - -On the 12th of August it was decided to cut off the ends of the sledges, -so as to be able to use the kayaks singly. This was done, and better -headway was made; but frequently the channel closed, and the sledges had -to be hauled over the ice. On the 14th of August an iceberg some 50 to -60 feet in height was seen, and this was the highest met with off -Franz-Josef Land. On this day they had bare land under their feet for -the first time in two years. The Arctic poppy was here in flower. The -imperfections of Payer’s map at this point greatly confused Nansen, and -he was not yet certain whether the land reached was part of Franz-Josef -Land. A sound to the west, which he at first supposed to be Rawlinson’s -Sound, did not at all agree with the description given by Payer. Nothing -was to be seen of Dove Glacier, which was supposed to bound the Sound on -one side. Nansen reasoned that if they were in Rawlinson’s Sound they -must have traversed the glacier and Wilczek Land without seeing any -trace of either, for they had travelled westwards a good half-degree -south of Cape Buda-Pesth. Nansen, therefore, was inclined to believe -that the land was new, and must be to the west of Franz-Josef Land. But -the next puzzle was that if this was the case, the new land must be very -far to the west, for nothing had been seen of Oscar’s Land. For the -present the question was left in a state of doubt. - -When they rounded the headland to the west, they were delighted to find -open water as far as they could see, and that the land was trending -south-west. Their hopes of getting home now ran high, but soon -afterwards a storm delayed them four days and three nights, and the ice -packed close along the coast. This, at one blow, destroyed all hope of -getting home that year. While camping during the storm, a bear came to -the tent and was shot by Nansen. As food was becoming scarce, this was a -fortunate occurrence. - -From the 24th of August till 6th December there was a gap in Nansen’s -diary. On the latter date he began to fill up the blank. - -After being stopped by the storm, and then drifted out to sea on the -ice, they sailed for a whole day in open water in their kayaks. On the -following day the weather became stormy, and they were obliged to land. -Scarcely had they reached the shore when a bear was seen and promptly -shot. Walruses were also seen in great numbers. After feasting on the -bear’s flesh, they lay down to sleep, but were awakened during the night -by a peculiar sound outside the tent. This was found to be caused by a -she-bear and her young one, but as Nansen thought they had already -sufficient food for the present, they were allowed to escape. Next day -the ice had again been driven against the shore, and as they could not -proceed they decided to make themselves more comfortable by building a -temporary hut of stone. The roof was made of the silk tent spread over -snow-shoes and bamboo rods, and the doorway was closed with their coats. -Daylight could be seen between the stones on all sides, but yet they -considered it comfortable. The way south was still blocked on the -following day, which was the 28th of August, and Nansen finally resolved -on remaining here during the winter. He was afraid that if he went much -farther south he might not have sufficient time to build a house and -obtain food. He therefore decided to begin at once and lay in stores -while game was yet plentiful. They first decided to attack the walruses, -and as they were emptying the kayaks in order to be prepared, a she-bear -and her cub were seen coming along the edge of the ice, and both were -shot. This was a good beginning. Next day they tried their luck at -walrus-hunting. A walrus was soon found, but nine cartridges had to be -expended before the monster was killed, and then, before they could get -near enough to use a harpoon, it sank and disappeared. They returned to -the shore very much crestfallen. - -They now found two walruses lying asleep on the shore-ice, and stole -cautiously up to them. Nansen fired at the back of the neck of one, and -killed it with the first shot. The other one was struck too far forward -in the head, and required three bullets to kill it. They had now to skin -them, but as there was a danger of being sent adrift, the wind having -risen, Nansen took the wise precaution of bringing up the kayaks and -sledges. It was as well he did so, for while they were busily engaged -skinning the animals, the wind rose rapidly, and they suddenly -discovered that the ice had broken off and that they were adrift. They -hurriedly cut off as much walrus-flesh as possible and flung it into the -kayaks, but it was a hard pull to reach the shore in the storm. -Meanwhile the ice on which the bodies of the walruses were, drifted out -to sea and disappeared. During the following night they were again -awakened by a bear outside the hut. It was a she-bear with two large -cubs. The mother was shot, but the cubs took to the water, where they -reached a piece of floating ice. Nansen decided to go out in the kayaks -after the cubs. When they went to get the kayaks, they found that the -bears had been at the walrus-meat and devoured every piece of fat and -blubber on it. One of the kayaks was thrown half into the water, and the -other high up among the stones, but fortunately they were still -seaworthy. The kayaks were launched, and the cubs chased to land, where -they were shot. Three bears in one day was good work, and to add to -their satisfaction, the sunken walrus shot on the previous day was found -floating at the edge of the ice. It was towed into a place of safety in -a creek and made fast. After skinning the bears and covering up the -flesh, they turned in for sleep, as they had obtained little the two -previous nights. On the 2nd September they set to work on the skinning -of the walrus. Another walrus, evidently curious to see what was going -on, came into the channel where the dead walrus was lying, and -approached right up to the edge of the ice where Nansen and Johansen -stood. Its curiosity cost it its life, and there were now two walruses -to skin instead of one. This work was far from agreeable: they had to -lie on the animals and cut down as far as they could reach below the -water, and they were soon saturated from head to foot with blubber and -oil and blood. To make matters worse, they had no chance of changing -their clothes during the winter; but it was a work of necessity, as the -walrus-blubber was needed for fuel. - -On 7th September the building of the permanent winter-hut was commenced. -Stones were quarried from among the débris at the foot of a cliff near -by, and part of a sledge-runner had to do duty as a pick. A spade was -made out of a shoulder-blade of a walrus tied to a piece of a broken -snowshoe-staff. The walls were built of stone, with moss and earth -between, and were finished in one week. They were scarcely 3 feet in -height, but an equal distance had been dug into the ground, so that the -hut was high enough to stand in. The forming of the roof was the -greatest difficulty. However, a piece of driftwood had been found on the -shore, and after a day’s work Johansen succeeded in cutting it in two -with a small axe. These formed the ridge-piece, and walrus-hides formed -the rest. In one corner of the hut a little hearth was made to cook -upon, and above this a round hole was cut in the walrus-hide. A -smoke-board was made of a bear-skin. The hearth had not been used long -before it was found necessary to build a chimney. This was erected on -the roof, and as the only materials were ice and snow, it was not -altogether free from the drawback of sometimes dripping down on the -hearth. Lamps were made by turning up the corners of some sheets of -German silver. These were then filled with crushed blubber, and wicks -were made from bandages. They gave a good light, but assisted very -little in raising the temperature. A sleeping-shelf made of stone was -erected along the back wall of the hut, but although bear-skins were -spread on this it always remained hard and uncomfortable. The door -consisted of an opening at one corner of the wall, which led into a -short passage, dug out in the ground, and then roofed over with blocks -of ice. The inner opening was covered with a bear-skin, and another skin -was laid over the outer opening. The hut was 10 feet long and 6 feet -wide. The cooking was very simple: it consisted in boiling bear’s flesh -and soup in the morning, and frying steak in the evening. Large -quantities were consumed at every meal, and yet they never tired of it, -and had always good appetites. - -While building the hut an anxious look-out was kept for bears, as none -had been seen for some time, and too little meat had yet been obtained -to last during the winter. On the 23rd September one was found beside a -walrus-hide which had been put in water to thaw. Soon afterwards a -second bear was seen gnawing at the hides on the roof of the hut. Both -were shot. On the 24th September two more walruses were shot, and from -these they obtained all the blubber they now required. On the 26th -September a bear was seen out on the ice, but when Nansen approached it -made off. He fired twice at long range, the second shot wounding the -animal. It leaped and struck the ice, and finally broke through into the -water. It then made desperate efforts to regain the ice, but the ice -always broke under its weight, and ultimately it died in the water. -Nansen and Johansen by means of a rope attempted to haul the bear up on -to the ice, but they found the weight beyond their powers, and the ice -always gave way. By making a narrow crack sufficient to allow the rope -to pass, they dragged the bear under the ice to the shore, where they -made a hole and managed to draw it out. After skinning the animal, they -carried as much of the meat as they could to the hut. When they neared -the place where their blubber was heaped, they were astonished to see -three bears tearing at it—a she-bear and two young ones. The mother was -killed, but the two young ones escaped. On the morning of 28th September -a large bear was found sleeping on the blubber-heap, and was shot. It -had eaten an enormous quantity of the blubber, and had also killed the -two young bears which escaped. - -The foxes caused a good deal of trouble during the winter. They stole -everything they could move. Pieces of bamboo, steel-wire, harpoons and -harpoon-lines, a collection of geological specimens, a ball of twine, -and lastly a thermometer, were all carried off. - -On the 15th of October they saw the sun for the last time above a ridge -to the south. The last bear was shot on the 21st October, and no more -were seen until the spring. - -The life during the winter was very monotonous. It consisted chiefly of -cooking and eating, and taking a little exercise when weather permitted. -On Christmas Eve preparations were made to celebrate Christmas, but -these preparations were of a very limited character. Johansen turned his -shirts and put the outside one next the skin. Nansen did likewise, and -washed himself in a quarter of a cup of warm water, using a dirty pair -of drawers as sponge and towel. For supper they ate a small portion of -the provisions they had preserved for the journey south in the spring. -Only on this occasion and on New Year’s Eve were these provisions -touched during the winter. - -Birds again made their appearance on 25th February, and a bear was shot -on 8th March. This bear came in good time; the supply of oil was running -low, and they could only afford to cook once a day. Another bear was -shot on 2nd April, and as they now had a considerable quantity of -blubber and meat, preparations were made for the journey south. But a -great deal required to be done. New clothes had to be made out of -blankets; the windclothes had to be patched; the “komager” had to be -soled; and socks and gloves had to be made out of bear-skin. Then a -light sleeping-bag of bear-skin had also to be made. The hut was -therefore suddenly transformed into a tailor’s and shoemaker’s workroom. -Thread was obtained by unravelling the cotton canvas of some -provision-bags. - -Nansen was as pleased as a child with a new dress when on 12th May he -was able to put on his blanket-trousers, strengthened inside and out -with pieces of an old pair of drawers and of a shirt. - -The stores which had been buried at the beginning of the winter were now -dug up, and greatly to Nansen’s disappointment it was found that several -articles had been spoiled by the damp of the previous autumn. The flour -had got mildewed; the chocolate had been dissolved by the damp; the -pemmican was uneatable. There remained a limited quantity of fish-flour, -some aleuronate flour, and some half-moulded bread, which they carefully -boiled in train-oil, partly to dry it, and partly to render it more -nutritious by impregnating it with fat. They also cut up as much raw -bear’s flesh and blubber as they could carry. Train-oil took the place -of petroleum as fuel. They still had 100 rifle-cartridges and 110 -smallshot-cartridges, and their rifles were in good condition. - -The hut was left on 19th May, after a short record of the journey had -been deposited in a brass tube plugged at each end and hung by a wire to -the roof. During the first few days they made short marches, until they -again became accustomed to the work. On 22nd May they had to shelter -from a snowstorm, and on the 23rd the weather was still bad, and they -only went a short distance. On the 24th, Nansen narrowly escaped being -drowned. While Johansen was busy with his kayak, Nansen pushed ahead to -look for a camping-ground, but suddenly the ice gave way, and he found -himself lying in a broad crack which had been concealed in the snow. He -tried to get out again, but his snow-shoes were firmly fastened, and he -was also tied by the harness to the sledge, so that he could not turn -round. Fortunately, he had been able, when falling, to dig his -pike-staff into the ice on the opposite side of the crack, and he held -himself up by that, and lay waiting for Johansen to come up. The latter, -however, had not noticed the accident, and was still busy at his sledge -and kayak. Meanwhile the water was creeping farther and farther up -Nansen’s body, and he began to shout for help. At last he was observed -by Johansen, who arrived just in time to prevent Nansen from going -completely under the water. In future the snow-shoes were not firmly -attached when the ice was thought to be dangerous. From the 26th to the -28th May they were weather-bound, and after advancing a short distance -on the latter date, they had again to take shelter until the 3rd of -June. As provisions were now getting low, a walrus was shot, and a -supply of meat and blubber thus obtained. On the 4th June they were able -to launch their kayaks for the first time, and made great progress. On -the 6th they had again to take to the ice, but as there was a strong -north wind and the surface was favourable they were able to make good -use of the sledge-sail. On the 8th they were stopped by a furious storm, -and next day they had to make a long détour westwards in order to avoid -treacherous ice. On the 12th they were able to sail all day long. In the -evening they felt their legs stiff with sitting in the kayak all day, -and they landed on the edge of the ice so that they might stretch them a -little. They then wished to ascend a hummock, so that a view might be -obtained over the water. After the kayaks, which were lashed together, -had been moored by means of one of the braces, they ascended a hummock -close by, and had been standing only a short time when Johansen raised -the cry that the kayaks were adrift. A rush was made to the edge of the -ice, but the kayaks were already a little way off and were drifting -quickly. The position was a terrible one, for all they possessed was on -board the kayaks. Nansen at once threw off some of his clothing, handed -his watch to Johansen, and sprang into the icy water. He knew that if -the kayaks were lost it meant death to him and his companion. At first -it seemed more than doubtful whether he could manage to regain them. -When he got tired, he turned over and swam on his back. At length he -gained a little on the kayaks, and he redoubled his exertions. By this -time Nansen felt his limbs gradually stiffening and losing all feeling. -His strokes became more and more feeble, but the distance from the -kayaks became shorter, and at last he was able to grasp a snow-shoe -which lay across the sterns. He now tried to pull himself up, but his -body was so stiff with cold that this seemed an impossibility. After a -little, he managed to swing one leg up on to the edge of the sledge -which lay on the deck, and then raised the rest of his body. They were -saved! With some difficulty he paddled the kayaks back to Johansen, who -confessed that these were the worst moments he had ever lived through. -Johansen now pulled off Nansen’s wet clothes, put on the few dry ones -they had in reserve, spread the sleeping-bag upon the ice, and covered -Nansen with the sail and everything he could find to keep out the cold. -Next day Nansen was all right again, and in the evening the journey was -continued. - -On 14th June great herds of walruses were met, and as meat and blubber -were at a low ebb, a young one was shot. Two days afterwards, a walrus -nearly turned the tables on them. It came up close beside Nansen’s -kayak, threw itself on the edge of it, took hold farther over the deck -with one fore-flipper, and tried to upset the frail craft. Nansen struck -at its head with the paddle, while it in turn struck at the kayak with -its tusks. It was only when the deck was almost under water that it -suddenly disappeared. Nansen was congratulating himself on his fortunate -escape, when he noticed his legs getting wet, and he had only time to -run the kayak on a sunken ledge of ice when it sank. It was as well that -the ice was near at hand, or the result would have been serious. - -In the afternoon of the 17th June, Nansen had ascended a hummock to have -a look at the land beyond. Flocks of auks were flying to and fro making -a confused noise, and as Nansen listened, a sound suddenly reached his -ear, so like the barking of a dog that he started. He waited for some -time, listening intently, till the barking began again and there was no -room for doubt. He shouted to Johansen that he heard dogs. Johansen -started up from the bag where he lay sleeping, and tumbled out of the -tent. He tried to hear the sound, but could only make out the noise of -the birds. Nansen, however, was convinced that he heard dogs, and he -prepared to make for the land, leaving Johansen to stay behind with the -kayaks, so that there might be no risk of their drifting away again. He -had not gone far when he observed tracks which were probably those of a -dog. Then he again heard the yelping of a dog more distinctly than ever. -It was with a strange mixture of feelings that he made his way towards -land. Suddenly he thought he heard a shout from a human voice, and he -ran up on to a hummock and hallooed with all his might. Soon he heard -another shout, and saw a dark form moving among the hummocks. It was a -dog, and farther off was seen a man. Nansen approached quickly and waved -his hat; the man did the same. Nansen heard him speak to the dog, and -recognised that the language was English. As he drew nearer, Nansen -thought he recognised Mr. Jackson, whom he had once seen. They extended -a hand to one another, with a hearty “How do you do?” Explanations -quickly followed, and Nansen was led to Jackson’s hut at Cape Flora. -Here he received a royal welcome from the members of the -Jackson-Harmsworth Expedition. Men were immediately sent to Johansen’s -assistance, and his reception at the hut was scarcely less hospitable -than Nansen’s. Their feelings may be imagined when they were able to -throw off their dirty oily rags and have a hot bath, and to be able to -put on clean clothes. To add to Nansen’s delight, Jackson had a packet -of letters for him, and these contained only good news. - -It is an interesting fact that Nansen when he arrived at Cape Flora -weighed no less than 22 lb. more than when he left the _Fram_, and -Johansen weighed 13 lb. more. Bear’s flesh had evidently agreed with -them. - -On a comparison of Nansen’s chronometers being made, it was found that -they were not so far out as had been anticipated. They were about 26 -minutes wrong, making a difference of 6½° in longitude. - -The _Windward_, which was to bring supplies and take home some of -Jackson’s party, arrived on the 26th July. By this time Nansen and -Johansen began to fear that the vessel could not get through the ice and -that they would have to spend another winter in the Arctic regions. News -soon arrived that all was well at home, and that nothing had been heard -of the _Fram_. - -The _Windward_ left Cape Flora on 7th August, and reached Vardo, in -Norway, on the 13th. Nansen and Johansen immediately set out for the -telegraph-station, and soon the news of their arrival spread over the -civilised world. - -On the 17th August, Nansen arrived at Hammerfest. On the 20th August, -while still here, he received a telegram from Sverdrup announcing the -arrival of the _Fram_ in Norway. This filled the cup of rejoicing to -overflowing. Next day the _Fram_ was joined in Tromsö harbour, and again -they were all together, well satisfied with their success. - - * * * * * - -We may now return to the voyage of the _Fram_ after the departure of -Nansen and Johansen on their sledging expedition. It then lay in 84° 4′ -N. latitude, and 102° E. longitude. - -Sverdrup, after carting away a great pressure-ridge from the port side -of the vessel, made various preparations for a sledge-journey southward, -in the event of the _Fram_ being wrecked. Sledges, kayaks, snow-shoes, -and many other articles had to be made, and this work kept all busy for -a considerable time. Sverdrup considers Canadian snow-shoes superior to -Norwegian ones, when it is a question of hauling heavily loaded sledges -over rough ice. - -During the summer of 1895 the drift was very slow; the latitude on 22nd -June was 84° 32′, and on 6th September, 84° 43′. The longitude on these -dates was 80° 58′ and 79° 52′ respectively. During the next three months -the drift towards the west was much greater: on the 30th October the -longitude was 70° 50′, on the 1st December it was 58° 45′, and on the -9th January 1896 it was 41° 41′. The meridian of 60° passing near Cape -Fligely, in Franz-Josef Land, was passed towards the end of November. On -the 15th November the latitude was 85° 55.5′, and on the 9th January -1896 it was down to 84° 57′. - -In these high latitudes the change from sunlight during the whole -twenty-four hours to darkness during the same period is very sudden. On -12th September the sun was above the horizon at midnight; on 8th October -it disappeared at noon—a change from constant light to constant -darkness in twenty-six days. - -As early as the beginning of February 1896 numerous lanes of water were -found both to the north and to the south. By this time they had drifted -to the 25th degree of longitude, while the latitude kept steady at about -84° 50′. On the 15th February the longitude was 23° 28′, but by the 29th -February they had gone back to 27°. After this date the drift to the -west was very slow, but it was more rapid towards the south. On 16th May -the latitude was 83° 45′, and the longitude 12° 50′. - -For some months no animals had been seen, and the appearance of two -bears on 28th February caused some excitement. When about 150 yards from -the ship, they stood for a time, but as it was still very dark, Sverdrup -waited in the expectation that they would come nearer. Instead of coming -nearer, they went off. Pettersen was asked whether he had something to -fry which would smell strongly, so as to entice the bears back. After -the bears had been long out of sight, Pettersen produced a pan of fried -butter and onions. Before long, the bears were seen coming back, and -both were shot by Sverdrup. It was sixteen months since they last shot a -bear, and during that time they had very little fresh meat. - -Soundings were taken several times during the winter, but the bottom was -not reached with a line over 9000 feet in length. - -An interesting experiment was made on the 13th April. Scott-Hansen and -Sverdrup took an observation with the theodolite, and Nordahl an -observation with the sextant, on the natural horizon. According to the -theodolite, the latitude was 84° 11.5′, and by the sextant 84° 13′. It -had previously been ascertained that there was a difference of about two -minutes between the artificial and natural horizons. - -As spring advanced, the openings in the ice became larger, and -preparations were made for forcing the _Fram_ ahead as soon as the -opportunity offered. Everything that was on the ice was taken on board, -and on the 18th May the engine was made ready for getting up steam. - -Towards the end of May blasting operations were begun to release the -_Fram_ from the ice, and on 2nd June, Sverdrup and his crew had the -satisfaction of seeing the ship once more free. There was still, -however, too much ice all around for the _Fram_ to make much use of her -freedom. It was not until the 12th June that a movement could be made, -and then only for a short distance. On the 27th June the _Fram_ was -forced ahead about 2 miles. On the 3rd July 3 miles were made, and on -the 7th about 1 mile. On the 8th July, in latitude 83° 2′, the bottom -was reached at 1841 fathoms. On the 19th July the _Fram_ made about 10 -miles, and on the following day it advanced from 83° 14′ to 82° 39′. -Good progress was now made, and at midnight on the 27th July latitude -81° 32′ had been reached. During the next fortnight they made little -headway, and on the 9th August the latitude was found 16′ farther north -than on 27th July. - -On the 13th August the _Fram_ steered through the last ice-floes into -open water, north of the 80th degree of latitude. - - * * * * * - -Nansen’s expedition lifted the veil of mystery from a large portion of -the Arctic regions. It proved that no land existed over the long zigzag -route traversed by the _Fram_ from the New Siberian Islands to a point -north of Spitzbergen within 350 miles of the Pole, nor over the long -sledge-route traversed by Nansen and Johansen. It discovered that the -Polar Sea, instead of being shallow as hitherto supposed, is a deep -basin, exceeding in many places 11000 feet. - -The _Fram_ drifted very near the route sketched by Nansen before the -expedition set out, and although Nansen had to admit that the real force -which caused the drift was the wind—an opinion previously formed by De -Long from the drift of the _Jeannette_—this did not alter the final -result. - -The drift of the _Fram_ also forcibly proves that the great mass of ice -in the Polar Sea is in a constant state of movement. It was found that -in the sea north of Siberia the prevailing winds were south-easterly or -easterly, and therefore the drift was towards the north-west or west. On -the other hand, to the north of Spitzbergen the winds are -north-easterly, and the drift is to the south-west. - -The manner in which the _Fram_ drifted also allows speculations to be -made as to the likelihood of the existence of land to the north of the -_Fram’s_ track. It was found that with a southerly wind the ice moved -easily towards the north. This is in favour of the view that no land -exists within a considerable distance to the north. The depth of water -and the absence of bears during 1895 also favour this view. There is a -greater probability that land may exist north of Greenland or north of -Grinnell Land.[1] The _Fram_ began to drift to the south when it reached -the neighbourhood of 66° E. longitude, or to the north of Franz-Josef -Land. The latitude was then 85° 55.5′. It is probable, however, that the -_Fram_ was now within the direct influence of the drift which constantly -passes down the east coast of Greenland, and that the drift to the south -was not due to land towards the north or west. More ice is formed in the -Polar Sea during the long winter than is melted during the short summer, -and the surplus must find an outlet into the warmer water of the south. -The ice of the Polar Sea may be compared to the ice of a mighty glacier: -the surplus of both moves on until it finds an outlet, and moves in the -path of least resistance. The chief and almost only outlet from the -Polar Sea is between Greenland and Norway. A comparatively small amount -of ice finds its way through Robeson Channel or Behring Strait. The -drift of the _Jeannette_ proves that from Behring Strait the set of the -ice is towards the west and north-west. Between the longitude of Behring -Strait and the longitude of the north-east of Greenland there must -somewhere be a dividing-line where it will be easier for the ice to find -its way east round the north of Greenland than westward over the great -extent of Polar Sea. It is probable that the ice from north of latitude -84° and westward at least as far as 100° W. longitude drifts to the east -round the north of Greenland, if land does not extend farther north in -that direction. - -The sledge-journey by Nansen and Johansen was the most daring ever -undertaken. In the case of any other sledge-journey there was always a -base of supplies to fall back upon; in Nansen’s case there was none. In -taking only one companion with him, his daring amounted to rashness. Had -any serious accident happened to one of them it would have meant the -sacrifice of both lives, for it cannot be supposed for a moment that a -comrade could have been deserted under any circumstances. A party of -three would have been much safer, although it would have involved a -larger quantity of provisions. Two men might struggle on with a disabled -companion, but it would be practically impossible for one to do so. - ------ - -[1] These remarks were written before the discovery of Crocker Land and -Bradley Land. - - - - -[Illustration: CHART OF SVERDRUP’S DISCOVERIES.] - - - - - CHAPTER XI - SVERDRUP’S EXPEDITION (1898−1902) - - -A few days after the return of the _Fram_, Sverdrup was asked by Nansen -whether he wished to go on another expedition to the north. He then -explained that Consul Axel Heiberg and the firm of brewers, Messrs. -Ringnes Brothers, were willing to equip a new Polar expedition with -Sverdrup as the leader. The offer was quickly accepted. - -The route agreed upon was up Smith Sound and through Robeson Channel, -and as far along the north coast of Greenland as possible before -wintering. Sledge-journeys were then to be made to the northernmost -point of Greenland, and as far down the east coast as could be attained. - -The Norwegian Government not only gave the loan of the _Fram_, but -granted about £1100 for necessary alterations. - -It was intended to provision the _Fram_ for two or three years, but in -the end there was enough for five. - -The only member of the first expedition to accompany Sverdrup was -Hendriksen. The full party numbered sixteen, and included a botanist, a -zoologist, and a geologist. - -The _Fram_ left Christiania on 24th June 1898, and on the 27th it left -Christiansand, a course being set for the south of Greenland, which was -sighted on the 17th July. - -On 28th July a stop was made at Egedesminde, where it had been arranged -that the Royal Greenland Trade Service would have dogs for the -expedition. In Sverdrup’s opinion the two indispensable adjuncts to the -carrying out of polar research are ski and dogs, and for the Eskimo dog -he has a great admiration. His experience was that one man cannot manage -more than eight dogs. - -Egedesminde was left on the 29th July, and next day Godhavn was reached. -Here, coal, water, and more dogs were taken on board, and on the 2nd -August a course was shaped for Upernavik, which was reached on the 4th. - -Upernavik was left behind on the 5th August, and Melville Bay was -entered on the following day. Here the _Fram_ was detained six days in -the ice, and did not reach open water till the 16th. - -The first place visited was Foulke Fiord, where they expected to obtain -large game, but were disappointed. The _Fram_ was next steered for -Littleton Island, where records were deposited. The view of the ice from -the island was not encouraging, but Sverdrup continued along the coast -of Greenland. The ice, however, lay immovable close in to land, and the -_Fram_ was forced to turn back on the night of 17th August. - -When abreast of Littleton Island a course was steered to Ellesmere Land, -and then the coast was followed northwards; but when north of Cape -Sabine the _Fram_ was stopped by impenetrable ice. To avoid being -pressed ashore, it was found necessary to anchor the _Fram_ in the -northern part of Rice Strait. For some time it was hoped that the ice -would drift south and allow a passage to the north, but ultimately the -party were compelled to take up winter quarters in Rice Strait. - -Preparations were soon made for autumn sledging through Hayes Sound, and -before the winter darkness set in it was discovered that the Sound -divided into two fiords, and one of these was penetrated to its head. -The valleys in this region were found to support large numbers of -musk-oxen, but as Sverdrup failed to detect the flavour of musk either -in the flesh or in the milk, he preferred to use the term “polar oxen.” - -A more or less permanent camp was formed on the point of land where -Hayes Sound divides into Beitstadfiord and Jokelfiord. It received the -name of “Fort Juliana.” While Sverdrup was here on 6th October he met -Peary, who was out on a sledge-journey. Peary’s ship had passed Cape -Sabine on 13th August, and on the 15th had been beset off Cape Hawks, -where it had to winter. - -Sverdrup’s party passed the winter busily engaged in various -preparations for exploration in the spring. The winter quarters were not -far from Greely’s starvation-camp, but little trace of it could be -found. - -On the 18th March 1899 an Eskimo from Inglefield Gulf on his way to -Peary’s ship paid the _Fram_ a visit, and other Eskimo arrived during -the course of the spring. - -On the 19th March, when the Eskimo left the ship on his way to Peary, he -was accompanied by Baumann, Sverdrup’s second in command, and by Hassel, -one of the crew, who wished to visit Peary. The _Windward_ was reached -without incident, but at that time Peary himself was confined to his -cabin. In February, during a sledge-journey, most of his toes were -frost-bitten, and had to be amputated. - -On 17th April, Sverdrup with three men left the ship to make an attempt -to cross Ellesmere Land to the west coast. Two days were taken to reach -Fort Juliana, which was left on 20th April. After leaving this camp, the -ice was found very favourable, and a distance of 38 miles was covered -during the first day. At the head of the fiord Sverdrup decided to -continue the journey with Bay the zoologist, while the other two were to -make a survey from the head of the fiord back to the _Fram_. - -Sverdrup’s route now lay along the bed of a river, but in the afternoon -of the first day rapids were met, and a halt had to be made so that the -country ahead could be examined. By making a détour round the rapids, -across some sand-hills, better travelling was found, and the ground up -to the watershed was covered quickly. - -Polar oxen were met in considerable numbers. When attacked, they form a -square with the calves and heifers in the middle, and the bulls and cows -standing in line of defence at equal distances. Sometimes the fiercest -of the bulls form a kind of outpost about 25 yards distant from the -square, and make individual attacks. When once the square has been -formed, the animals remain at their posts until the attack is repulsed -or the entire square fallen. They have developed their strategic -reasoning powers to a wonderful extent. - -West of the watershed the country became bare of snow, and progress was -arrested by an impassable cañon. After various endeavours to find a -passage for the sledges, Sverdrup decided to carry provisions for three -days, and to take the dogs loose. In two days they reached a large -fiord, which was named “Bay Fiord” after Sverdrup’s companion. The -return journey was made without special incident. - -On 23rd May, Isachsen, the cartographer of the expedition, with -Braskerud, set out to cross the glaciated part of Ellesmere Land. The -west coast was reached on 4th June. They found considerable difficulty -on many occasions in extricating themselves and the dogs from the -crevasses in the glaciers, but the journey was completed without serious -accident. They reached the _Fram_ on 2nd July. - -On the 2nd June two expeditions left the ship. One was composed of Schei -the geologist, and the doctor, Johan Svendsen. The other was composed of -Simmons the botanist and Sverdrup. Both parties travelled together -during the first day, and then separated. On the 6th June, Sverdrup and -his companion were at Fort Juliana, when the other party unexpectedly -arrived. The doctor had taken ill while driving up the fiord. He was -made as comfortable as circumstances would allow. He was snow-blind, and -also complained of pains in his chest. Sverdrup wished to take him back -to the _Fram_, but he said he would soon get well, and he preferred to -stay where he was. Two days afterwards the doctor was much better, and -helped to harness the dogs and lash the loads when the rest of the party -were setting out on a four-days’ trip to Beitstadfiord. The doctor said -he would stay behind at Fort Juliana and employ his time in collecting -insects and in shooting. They then parted, little thinking what was -about to happen. On their return to camp they were horrified to find the -doctor dead. The body was removed to the _Fram_, and then received a -seaman’s funeral in Rice Strait. The doctor’s death was a great blow to -the whole party, and some of the strongest did not recover from it until -months afterwards. - -During July the dépôt at Fort Juliana was withdrawn, and preparations -were made to sail north. An attempt was made on the 24th July, but the -_Fram_ could not get beyond Pim Island. Next day, in order to avoid the -pressure of the pack, the ship had to retreat to its winter harbour. - -On 4th August another attempt was made to proceed north. Things went -well until the _Fram_ was abreast of Cape Camperdown, but here the ice -compelled them to steer a course more and more to the east. While in -this position, a steamer was seen to issue from Payer Harbour. Sverdrup -at once came to the conclusion that it was looking for Peary, and would -probably have letters from Norway. An attempt was made to meet each -other, but they could not get nearer than about 5 miles. Then the -American ship signalled that she had letters on board for Sverdrup, and -steered off southward. The farthest point reached by the _Fram_ was -about abreast of Cape Hawks. Here she lay in the ice several days, and -at last got free only a few miles north of Cape Sabine. - -Sverdrup now decided to go across to Foulke Fiord. There one of Peary’s -ships was found, and it was ascertained that the Norwegian mail had been -left at Payer Harbour. - -Foulke Fiord was left on 12th August, and a course was steered for Payer -Harbour to fetch the mail. It was soon seen, however, that it was -impossible to reach it through such masses of ice as were encountered. A -course was tried farther south, but with no better result. Then several -attempts were made along the Greenland side, and across towards Payer -Harbour, but each ended in failure. - -After a good deal of deliberation, it was finally decided to make for -Jones Sound. It was a great disappointment that they were unable to -proceed through Kane Basin towards the north of Greenland; and the -failure to reach their letters very much depressed the spirits of the -party. - -A course was now set for the walrus-shoals off Northumberland Island, -where twenty-two of the animals were killed to serve as dog-food during -the winter. - -Jones Sound was entered on 24th August. A place of anchorage was found -in a fiord a little west of Cone Island. It was afterwards named “Fram -Fiord.” On the night of 28th August this fiord was left, and the _Fram_ -proceeded west as far as Havnefiord, where a winter harbour was secured. - -After various short trips, Sverdrup with three men set out on 8th -September to put down dépôts of dog-food as far west as possible, so as -to be prepared for long journeys. The water was still open, and the -party went by boat. On the 10th they reached a fiord, afterwards named -“Baadsfiord,” and they formed a dépôt on its eastern side. They now -decided to return to the ship, but found it impossible to row the boat -through a thick layer of snow and slush which had formed on the surface -of the water. - -When they saw that there was little chance of being able to take the -boat back to the ship, and that they must wait until ice formed strong -enough to allow them to walk back, they set to work to make a house, -with the boat for a roof. A hole was dug in a mound, and the boat put on -the top with shingle along the sides, and over the whole was put a layer -of snow 2 feet deep. - -On 6th October the ice was strong enough to bear, and a start was made -for the _Fram_. On the way they met a relief party from the ship, and -learned that Braskerud was dead. He had caught a bad cold in Jones -Sound, and had been ill two weeks with a cough and great difficulty in -breathing. It is probable that both he and the doctor had suffered from -pneumonia. - -The time for the autumn sledge-journeys had now arrived, and it was -Sverdrup’s intention to make a dépôt at as great a distance to the west -as possible. Various preparations had to be made, but these were -completed in time to let Sverdrup with five men set out on 13th October. -During this trip a double tent was made use of for the first time, and -proved very successful. The inner tent was made of thin cotton lining -material. There was a space of about a foot in height between the two -tents, and a space of 3 or 4 inches between the vertical walls. - -Two days were spent in the house at Baadsfiord, from which they again -set out on 18th October. On the 19th they were stopped by open water -beyond Stormkap, and here formed a dépôt in which was also placed the -most of the meat from two bears which had been shot on the way. In -returning they explored a large fiord between Baadsfiord and Stormkap, -where they shot twenty-six polar oxen. The fiord received the -appropriate name of “Moskusfiord.” It was a large task to carry all the -meat to the ship, but after several trips it was completed by the 18th -of November. - -In Sverdrup’s opinion, Eskimo dogs should be fed once every day. He -believes that if well fed and protected from cold in suitable kennels -there is no reason why so many should die during the winter. He found -his dogs in full vigour even at the darkest period of the year. - -The winter passed in making preparations for the spring journeys. On the -23rd February 1900 four men set out for the westernmost dépôt, where -they were to leave their loads. When they reached it they found it -destroyed by bears, and nearly the whole of the food eaten. Sverdrup now -decided that a man should remain at the dépôt as long as any -sledge-parties were travelling west of it. Bay at once applied for the -post, and was appointed “Commandant of Bjorneborg.” Here he lived alone -for three months. - -On the 20th March the great spring expedition started off. On the 17th a -party of four had left for the dépôt. The larger party consisted of six -men, who were ultimately to form three parties of two men each. The dogs -numbered fifty-five. The provisions consisted of bread, butter, sugar, -coffee, chocolate, pea-soup, vegetables, figs, French plums, raisins, -nectarines, egg-powder, groats, potatoes, meat-fat, pemmican, golden -syrup, and fish-flour. The dietary allowed each man per day weighed -2-1/5 lb. The loads amounted to over 670 lb. each. - -At Bjorneborg the provisions for the different parties were weighed and -arranged, and then a start was made westward. The first fiord west of -Bjorneborg was named Gaasefiord, from the number of geese found in it. -When crossing the second fiord, three walruses were shot, and after -feeding the dogs well, the remainder was left as a dépôt of dog-food. -This fiord was named “Hvalrosfiord,” or “Walrus Fiord.” Next day they -reached a sound where huge masses of ice were grinding round in a -tearing current. Sverdrup had never seen waters so absolutely impossible -to navigate as he saw here. The difficulties which had to be overcome -before it could be passed were so great that it received the name of -“Helvedesporten,” or “Hell Gate.” On one occasion three men, eighteen -dogs, and three sledges with their loads fell into a hole in the snow 12 -feet deep, but by great good fortune no serious damage was done. On -another occasion one of the sledges slipped over a wall of ice into the -sea. The dogs would have been carried with it, but the traces broke. One -of the men, with a rope round his waist, had to be lowered down, and the -load and sledge were ultimately hauled up. - -The land at last began to trend to the north-east, and the point was -named “Land’s End.” The whole of the west coast of Ellesmere Land was -subsequently called “King Oscar Land.” Next day a high mountain crag -appeared above the horizon away to the north. It was named “Store -Bjornekap,” or “Great Bear Cape.” Still farther to the north another -cape appeared, and was named “Little Bjornekap,” or “Little Bear Cape.” -Near here a bear was shot, and served as a good feed for the dogs. - -On the 31st March the returning party retraced their steps. Sverdrup -with three others proceeded westward. At the parting a bottle of brandy -was produced, but somewhat to their astonishment they found it solid, -and it had to be poked from the bottle with a stick. The temperature was -44° below zero. - -The party now met loose snow, and during the first day made only 9 -miles; during the second day only 8 miles were covered. In the evening -of the second day they fortunately killed a bear, and decided to camp -for a day or two while the meat lasted, in the hope of the travelling -and weather improving. On this and many other occasions the liver of the -bear was offered to the dogs, but they will touch it only when -excessively hungry. It has been a common belief that the bear’s liver is -poisonous to both men and dogs, but Sverdrup has eaten it many times -without feeling any disagreeable consequences. He never found it in the -least unpalatable when care had been taken to remove the gall-bag as -quickly as possible. The last of the bear-meat was consumed on the 7th -April, and next day a fresh start was made. A high mountain in the west -had been visible for some time, and Sverdrup formed the opinion that it -was not part of Ellesmere Land. He thought that a sound probably passed -north between Ellesmere Land and this new land, and later exploration -proved that this opinion was correct. The high headland received the -name of “Cape Sydvest,” or “Cape South-West.” - -Beyond the headland bare ice was met, and travelling became much faster. -On 16th April, while Sverdrup was standing on a pressure-ridge scanning -the country, he suddenly became aware that he was looking at land far -away in the west. A new plan was at once formed: Isachsen with Hassel -were to visit the new land in the west, while Sverdrup and Fosheim were -to continue to the north along what was afterwards named “Axel Heiberg -Land.” - -Isachsen decided to leave behind a small dépôt where he was to place a -letter on his return. During the first day Sverdrup and Fosheim covered -18 miles. Next day they had strong wind and drift, and as a consequence -went out of their course and found themselves far inland among some -sand-hills, and all the time they had thought they were driving on the -sea-ice. A little farther to the north they experienced very severe -weather, and were compelled to remain at one camp five days. - -On the 2nd May they found themselves in latitude 80° 31½′, and the coast -was trending due north. The tracks of reindeer were seen on several -occasions, but not the animals themselves. There was now no extra food -for the dogs, and it became evident that their strength was failing. The -latitude of 80° 55′ was reached on 5th May, and here they decided to -erect a cairn and then return. It is remarkable that along the whole of -this coast Sverdrup saw nothing approaching to palæocrystic ice. - -As food was getting short, the return journey had to be made with all -possible speed. A short record was found from Isachsen, who had returned -to his dépôt on 28th April. Sverdrup and Fosheim reached it on 16th May. -Before they arrived at Land’s End, a bear was shot, and was much needed -for the dogs. As had been prearranged, Baumann left a record in a cairn, -with a description and sketch-map of a passage across the land to Goose -Fiord. Sverdrup attempted this passage, but in foggy weather he missed -the way, and found himself suddenly stopped by a high wall of ice, which -entirely cut off the valley. On investigation, however, a tunnel made by -a river was found to lead into the glacier. Rather than drive all the -way back, it was decided to try the tunnel. From the roof hung gigantic -blocks of ice, and along the walls were grotto after grotto. It was a -fairy scene, but fear-inspiring as well as beautiful. The tunnel led -through to the valley on the other side. The remainder of the journey to -Bjorneborg was made without incident. - -Bay had now been a hermit three months, and had many adventures with -bears to relate. Sverdrup took him on to the ship, and left Fosheim at -Bjorneborg in Bay’s place. - -Before Sverdrup reached the ship a serious fire had taken place on 27th -May. A spark from the galley chimney is supposed to have set the -winter-awning on fire. The flames spread so rapidly that soon the -rigging was on fire, sixteen paraffin-prepared kayaks which were lying -under the awning were totally destroyed, as well as a score of prepared -polar-ox skins and some bear-skins. Several cases of powder were removed -at the last moment. An iron tank containing 50 gallons of spirit could -not be moved, but although the heat melted the tinning on the outside of -the tank, the spirit did not catch fire. - -Schei and Peder arrived from their journey on Whitsunday morning. They -had visited North Kent, where they shot some reindeer; and then went to -Buckingham Island and Graham Island. From there they had visited some -fiords in the south of Axel Heiberg Land. - -Isachsen and Hassel returned on board on 19th June. On 16th April they -separated from Sverdrup and Fosheim to explore the land seen in the -west. The weather was foggy, and nothing was seen of the land till the -20th April, when they found themselves near the ice-foot. After getting -a general view of the land, they returned to Axel Heiberg Land, where -they arrived on 28th April, and left a record as arranged. They then -travelled south round Cape South-West, and visited some of the fiords in -the south-east. The summer was spent in shooting, dredging, botanising, -and in making short trips to places not far from the ship. - -On the 8th August the _Fram_ was able to steam out of its winter harbour -and make its way westward. At the termination of Jones Sound, Cardigan -Strait was entered and the north end reached; but here fast ice was met. -The _Fram_, however, was able to bore its way some distance to the west, -but was finally stopped by the ice and drifted back. Later, the _Fram_ -became beset, and was not liberated till the 15th September. Next day -they were due west of Graham Island. A course was now steered for Jones -Sound, and a winter harbour was found in Goose Fiord. The valleys in -this neighbourhood were well stocked with game, and large numbers of -polar oxen were shot for food during the winter. - -On the 18th October, Sverdrup and Olsen left the ship, equipped for ten -days. They were to make an attempt to discover a sound leading north -towards Greely Fiord. The following day, a terrific gale came on, and -while sledging, a gust of wind carried Olsen’s sledge with such violence -against a block of ice that Olsen was shot several yards, and came down -on his shoulder. Olsen thought his arm was dislocated, but Sverdrup -hoped it would soon get right again, and pushed on. The arm, however, -became more and more painful, and they were forced to turn back. The -wind and drift were now in their faces, and Olsen’s sufferings became -very acute. They had passed the previous night at a camp with Baumann -and the mate, who were out shooting, and to this they returned. Olsen -was put into the tent, his clothes taken off, and his arm examined. His -companions felt sure that the shoulder was dislocated, but all their -attempts to put it in again were unavailing. During the night Olsen had -no sleep, and next day the storm was so violent that no move could be -made. On the following day the storm had abated, and Olsen was taken -back to the ship. As soon as Sverdrup arrived on board, some of the -doctor’s books were searched to find out what was to be done with -Olsen’s shoulder. Sverdrup did not dare to give chloroform, but as the -arm was now extremely painful he decided to make Olsen drunk with -brandy. After the patient had taken about half a bottle, an attempt was -made by Fosheim and Simmons to reduce the dislocation, but they failed. -Then Sverdrup and Fosheim tried, and to their great relief the arm -slipped into its socket. Olsen stood the ordeal well. The pain and -excitement had kept him sober, but as soon as the dislocation was put -right he became dead drunk. Next day he was quite himself again. - -Winter preparations, such as covering the skylights and making kennels -for the dogs, were now carried out, and various kinds of work in -preparation for spring were started. New sledges, odometers, and -sleeping-bags had to be made; and many articles required repairs. Schei -was set the task of making a new travelling-camera, and did it -successfully. - -Wolves made their appearance during the winter, and two were caught in a -trap, and ultimately grew quite tame. - -On the 8th April 1901 the long spring journeys started. Sverdrup and -Schei were to investigate whether the new land discovered during the -previous year was separate from Ellesmere Land. Isachsen and Hassel were -to explore the land in the west. The latter party had formed a dépôt at -Cape South-West earlier in the spring, and Sverdrup had also formed a -dépôt. Baumann and Stolz were to carry out a surveying expedition. - -Sverdrup first explored several of the fiords which run northward from -Baumann Fiord. From Troldfiord they passed over the land, and reached a -large fiord running east and west. A course was made for the north-west -point, from which a waterway was seen extending northward as far as the -eye could reach. To this was given the name of “Heureka Sound.” In the -north was seen a high, bluish-black, precipitous promontory, which was -called “Blaamander,” or “The Blue Man,” and the course was set on this. -Farther north it was decided that Fosheim and the mate, who were still -with Sverdrup, should follow the east side of the sound, while Sverdrup -and Schei should follow the west side. From this point, far to the -north, rose a mountain crag which appeared like an island. It was later -found that it was not an island, but that large fiords penetrated the -land towards the north and east. From there, Greely Fiord runs -north-east. - -Sverdrup and Schei now made for the west coast, which they followed -northward over rough ice and in bad weather. They finally reached a -point which was termed “Smorgrautberget.” From here they received the -impression that a large sea opened out to the north-west, and that Axel -Heiberg Land was separated from Grant Land by a sound which was named -“Fridtjof Nansen Sound.” - -On 13th May the return journey was begun. Not far south of the most -northern point reached they found Eskimo ruins. Near Blaamander they -crossed to the east coast. On the journey north, and also on the way -south, they encountered wolves. A pack of twelve attacked a dog-team, -and one of the dogs was severely bitten before the wolves were driven -off. On the return journey several fiords were explored and examined -geologically by Schei, who was always on the look-out for fossils. The -_Fram_ was reached on 18th June. - -Baumann and Stolz had returned on 28th May, Isachsen and Hassel on 6th -June, and Fosheim and the mate on 13th June. - -The first two had seen a herd of three deer, and had shot a good many -polar oxen, a bear with two cubs, and two wolves. They surveyed a large -tract in the neighbourhood of Baumann Fiord. - -After leaving Sverdrup, Fosheim and the mate made for Greely Fiord, -which they followed eastwards in order to ascertain whether a fiord or -sound cut into the land in a southerly direction. It was thought -possible that such a fiord might communicate with Bay Fiord. - -One running to the south was found, and followed to its head. Instead of -going back the long way they had come, an attempt was made to cross the -land to Heureka Sound, but after driving nearly 12 miles they found the -way impassable, and had to return. Part of the Bay Fiord was explored on -the way south, and then they shaped their course for the _Fram_. - -Isachsen and Hassel reached Cape South-West on their outward journey on -13th April. They found the cache scattered about in all directions, but -little of the food was missing. It was supposed that this had been the -work of polar oxen. - -They left Cape South-West on 14th April with loads of about 550 lb. on -each sledge, and reached the new land on the 17th. A sound was -discovered between the new land and North Cornwall, which was already -known. It received the name of “Hendriksen’s Sound.” They passed through -this sound, and reached the south-west point of what was afterwards -named “Amund Ringnes Land,” and followed the coast northward. On the -23rd April, land was seen in the west and south-west, and they decided -to drive west. They arrived next day at Nathorst Peninsula, and this new -land received the name of “Ellef Ringnes Land.” The sound between this -and the land they had left was named after Hassel. Towards the west and -south-west still another land was seen, and was called “King Christian’s -Land.” The sound between the two latter was called “Danish Sound,” and -they passed through this and drove north. At the most northern point of -the land, the trend began to be east and then south. They followed the -coast-line until 20th May, when they saw land in the east, which proved -to be “Amund Ringnes Land,” the northern point of which they reached on -24th May. They then made for Axel Heiberg Land, and reached Cape -South-West on 29th May. - -On the new land they had explored they saw reindeer and ptarmigan, and -the tracks of bears, foxes, wolves, and hares. They reached the _Fram_ -on 6th June. - -The summer work was now commenced, such as dredging and botanising, and -a trip was made to North Devon. - -As summer advanced, the party became anxious about the prospects of the -_Fram_ getting free from Gassefiord, as it was intended to return to -Norway that year. An attempt was made to bore the ice on 12th August, -but it ended in failure. On the 26th the _Fram_ advanced a thousand -yards, but on the 27th it could only make three ship’s lengths. By 5th -September the ship had gone about 10 miles through the ice, but some 6 -miles of ice was still between it and the open water. They had now to -give up all hope of getting free that year, and had to make preparations -to spend their fourth polar night. - -Again the winter was passed in hard work for the coming spring. It was -intended, in case a ship might come into Jones Sound in search of the -_Fram_, to build cairns and leave a record of the expedition on Cone -Island, and on different points in the sound. It was also intended to -send a sledge-expedition to Beechy Island, partly to correct their -chronometers, and partly to look at the dépôts left there half a century -before. Schei and Sverdrup were to go north and map the tracts west of -Greely Fiord. - -On 1st April 1902 three parties went off. The patent dog-food was nearly -finished, and they had to carry stockfish instead, which weighed much -heavier. Trusting to being able to obtain bears, Sverdrup did not take -blubber nor meat. No bears were obtained when expected, and the dogs -soon became very weak. It was not until the 10th April that a bear was -seen and shot. - -Instead of travelling over the heavy ice towards Smorgrautberget, -Sverdrup kept to the east shore, and then steered straight across Greely -Fiord to Blaafjeld, in the south of Grant Land. They kept to the east -side of a pressure-ridge which stretched straight across the fiord, and -seemed to be the boundary between the fast ice of the previous year on -Greely Fiord and the drift-ice outside. - -When near land, the ice became heavy, and it was with great difficulty -that advance could be made. West of Blaafjeld they passed into a fiord -where a large number of hares were seen. It was the pairing season, and -they were scampering about in all directions. Sverdrup supposed they had -lost their heads from love, and he slyly remarks that this is a thing -which may happen to others besides hares. The fiord was named -“Harefiord.” - -On 30th April they set off from the headland on the west side of the -fiord. In the evening they camped near the most westerly foreland they -had seen the previous year from Smorgrautberget. Next day they reached -another fiord and entered it for a short distance, but as they were -anxious to ascertain the extent of land to the west they did not venture -to its head. Next day the land trended about due north, and when the -weather cleared land was seen to the north-west, and they recognised -they were in a bay. A straight line was made for the part farthest off, -which was reached on the 6th May. Sverdrup here ascended a height, and -found that he was on an island separated by a narrow sound from the land -in the east. From a point about 3 miles north of the camp, the land -turned to the north-east. North and west of this land, only sea could be -made out. To the south was Axel Heiberg Land. Sverdrup built a cairn to -mark their farthest north, as he had now decided to return. The latitude -was found to be 81° 40′. - -In returning, a course was made across Fridtjof Nansen Sound to the -northern extremity of Axel Heiberg Land. In passing south they proved -that Schei Island was really an island, and not a peninsula. Some polar -oxen were shot and the dogs feasted, and the way south was covered at a -good speed. When Bay Fiord was reached, they entered it and explored it -to its head, where they arrived on 29th May. - -The _Fram_ was reached on 16th June, after an absence of seventy-seven -days. - -Isachsen, Fosheim, and Hassel had left the records as arranged, and had -returned to the ship on 18th April; and on the 23rd April, Baumann, -Fosheim, and Raanes started for Beechy Island, which was reached on 4th -May. It is really not an island, but constitutes the south-west corner -of North Devon. The dépôt was found destroyed. The cutter _Mary_, which -had been left there, was a wreck; whether the work of Eskimo or -seal-catchers could not be said with certainty. They discovered that -Arthur Strait was really a fiord. The return journey was started on the -6th May, and the _Fram_ was reached on the 20th May. - -On the 12th April, Isachsen and Bay made a trip to North Devon, and did -not return till 21st May. On 25th May, Isachsen and Simmons set out to -examine a bed of coal discovered by Baumann, and returned on 9th June. - -The work of exploration was now over. The usual summer dredging was -begun, and the geologist hunted for fossils. Olsen managed to fall from -a pressure-ridge and dislocate his other shoulder. This time it was -reduced without the assistance of brandy. - -On 20th July the _Fram_, with steam up, began to leave her winter -harbour, but it was not until the 6th August that she entered Jones -Sound. On the 10th the _Fram_ was in Baffin’s Bay, heading for the -Devil’s Thumb. Godhavn was reached on the 17th August, and here they -were well received. They left on the 21st, and although there was a -break-down of the engine, Norway was sighted on 18th September. -Stavanger was reached on the 19th, and soon they received a most -enthusiastic reception wherever they went. The owners of the expedition -incurred expenses to the amount of £12,014. - -This expedition, although it unfortunately was prevented from carrying -out its original plans, did important work. It not only explored the -whole of Jones Sound, but discovered the existence of large islands -extending toward the north. The fact that no palæocrystic ice was met -with in this region makes it highly probable that land exists still -farther to the north.[2] - ------ - -[2] The discovery of Crocker Land and Bradley Land proves that this view -was correct. - - - - - CHAPTER XII - ITALIAN EXPEDITION (1899−1900) - - -Between the discovery of Franz-Josef Land by the Austro-Hungarian -Expedition and the expedition of the Duke of the Abruzzi a good deal of -exploration had taken place. In 1880 and 1881, Leigh Smith in his yacht -_Eira_ reached Franz-Josef Land without much difficulty, and surveyed -the coast up to Cape Lofley. The _Eira_, when leaving for the second -time, was crushed by the ice near Cape Flora, and sank. The crew built a -wretched hovel in which they passed the winter. In the following summer -they sailed in their boats to Novaya Zemlya, where they were taken on -board a ship which had been sent to their assistance. - -In 1894, Jackson, in the _Windward_, built a station at Cape Flora, on -Northbrook Island, and remained there till the autumn of 1897. He made -three expeditions with sledges. In the first two he was prevented from -advancing towards the north by stretches of open sea. He reached 81° -20′. In the third journey he went towards the west, making the circuit -of Alexander Land. He named the most westerly point of the group “Cape -Mary Harmsworth.” The sea to the north was called “Queen Victoria Sea.” - -In 1898, Wellman in the _Fridtjof_ landed at Cape Tegethoff, and after -making some discoveries in the eastern part of Franz-Josef Land, -returned home next year in the _Capella_. - -The Duke of the Abruzzi left Christiania on board the _Polar Star_ on -12th June 1899. It was his intention to proceed to Emperor Franz-Josef -Land and attempt from there to reach the North Pole. - -The expedition was composed of eleven Italians and nine Norwegians. The -ship was a whaler, and had been previously named the _Jason_. It had -been commanded by Captain Evensen, who retained the command by being -appointed captain of the _Polar Star_. - -The second in command of the expedition was Umberto Cagni, captain in -the Italian Navy. - -Archangel was reached on 30th June. Here 121 dogs were obtained. They -had been brought by Trontheim, who was also employed by Nansen. - -Archangel was left on 13th July; the first ice was met on the 17th, and -Northbrook Island was sighted on the 20th July. - -The five huts left by Jackson at Cape Flora were visited, and a dépôt of -provisions for eight months was landed, in addition to five tons of -coal. - -Cape Flora was left on 26th July, and an attempt was made to pass to the -north through Nightingale Sound, but the passage was blocked by ice. -Next an attempt was made to double Cape Mary Harmsworth, but this also -ended in failure. - -Nightingale Sound was again entered on the 28th July, but in the evening -of this day the ship was surrounded by ice-fields, and had to remain -near the northern extremity of Bruce Island three days. On the 1st -August an attempt was made to bore the ice, but the ship advanced only -about 300 yards. Some channels formed on the 3rd and allowed some -progress. On the 5th the whaler _Capella_, with Wellman’s party, was -sighted near Scott Keltie Island, and Wellman and three of his -companions visited the ship. - -From this point the _Polar Star_ had open water until it reached -Maria-Elizabeth Island, but here it was stopped by thick ice ahead and -foggy weather. When the fog cleared, a passage was found to the east of -the island, and the _Polar Star_ advanced rapidly northwards, and -reached 82° 4′ to the north-west of Prince Rudolf Island. The _Alert_ -reached 82° 27′, the _Polaris_ attained 82° 11′, so that the _Polar -Star_ took third place among the ships which had been navigated towards -the Pole. The _Fram_ reached a much higher latitude, but it was by means -of the drift. From the farthest north reached by the _Polar Star_ the -horizon was carefully observed, but no trace could be found of Petermann -Land and King Oscar Land, which Payer thought he sighted from Cape -Fligely. It was found that the latitude of this cape was 81° 50′ 43″, -and not 82° 5′, as given by Payer. - -The _Polar Star_ was now steered towards the south-east to Teplitz Bay, -the most northern bay of Franz-Josef Land, in latitude 81° 47′, where it -went into winter quarters. The bay did not provide a very safe -anchorage, but its position far to the north made it of great importance -for the contemplated sledge-expeditions. - -On the 27th August the _Polar Star_ was driven by the pressure of the -ice against the ice fixed to the coast, and heeled over about 13 -degrees. When the pressure ceased, she remained in the same position. On -the 7th September the ice pressure again became severe, and the ship was -so seriously damaged that it had to be abandoned. - -Steps were at once taken to have the stores landed, and two large -field-tents were erected on the shore to serve as winter quarters. -Outside these a second tent was formed to cover the two field-tents, and -a third tent covered the whole. - -A space between the two inner field-tents was occupied on one side by -the kitchen, and on the other by bags and cases containing clothing. -Between the field-tents and the second tent tins of milk were built in -the form of a wall, and between the second and third tents were stored -the provisions likely to be consumed during the winter. - -After all these preparations had been completed, an attempt was made to -repair the damaged ship, which still kept its position heeled over in -the ice. The water which had leaked into the ship was pumped out, and as -far as possible the damaged parts were repaired with tarpaulin and -boards. - -During the winter preparations were made for the long sledge-journey in -the spring. On the 23rd December the Duke of the Abruzzi went out with -some of his party in order to train the dogs to draw sledges. They drove -to the bottom of the bay, and then turned back. On the return journey a -storm came on, and the way was lost. Instead of keeping on the ice of -the bay, they wandered unknowingly up on the island, and were only made -aware of the fact when two sledges with their dogs, as well as the Duke -and Captain Cagni, fell from the glacier down to the bay, a height of -some 23 feet. Fortunately, neither was hurt. Owing to the drifting snow -and the darkness, great difficulty was experienced in regaining the -tent. When it was reached, it was found that several of the party were -frost-bitten. The Duke and Captain Cagni had suffered most. The -circulation in the terminal joints of two of the Duke’s fingers of the -left hand could not be restored. - -Christmas and the beginning of the New Year were celebrated with the -utmost enthusiasm. Fireworks consisting of rockets and fiery fountains, -salutes from the small gun, and bonfires of wood steeped in petroleum, -all united to form a striking scene in a land far removed from -civilisation. - -With the beginning of the New Year the preparations for the -sledge-journey received most attention. The daily ration was fixed at 2 -lb. 12 oz. 9 dr., which was about 3 oz. more than the weight used by -Nares and Greely. It consisted of biscuit, tinned meat, pemmican, -butter, milk, Liebig’s extract, desiccated vegetables, Italian paste, -sugar, salt, coffee, tea, and onions. - -The lamps used were made on the Primus system, and the cooking-stove was -that designed by Nansen. The quantity of petroleum was fixed at 3 oz. 8 -dr. for each man daily. The dog’s ration of pemmican was 1 lb. 1 oz. 10 -dr. - -The expedition carried flat-bottomed kayaks. These had a framework of -thin rods over which canvas was stretched. Their greatest length was 11 -ft. 7 in., their width 2 ft. 6 in., and their height 11 in. They were -provided with a small sail, a pump to empty out water, and a pair of -oars with their rowlocks. - -The sledges were 11 ft. 5 in. long, 1 ft. 6 in. wide, and 6½ inches -high. The runners were slightly convex, so as to turn easily; they were -shod with white metal, and wooden runners were strapped beneath them. -The foremost ends of the runners were joined by a bow, to which the -trace was attached, and no nails were used. Each sledge was provided -with a small steel rope, with as many rings as there were dogs to tie -them to, at a distance of 4½ feet from each other. - -On 18th January 1900 the Duke had nearly all the first joint of the -middle finger of his left hand amputated, and ten days later a part of -the fourth finger. This rendered him quite unable to take any part in -the sledge-expedition, and Captain Cagni was given the command of it. - -This expedition set out on 19th February. As open water reached the -mouth of the bay, it was found necessary to haul the sledges overland to -a point north of Cape Germania. With thirteen sledges drawn by 108 dogs, -the ice-pack was reached on the 21st February. During the first night on -the ice the temperature reached 45.4° F. below zero, and on 23rd -February it reached 61.6° F. below zero. Many of the party were -frost-bitten, and few could sleep. This extreme temperature was more -than they could stand, and Captain Cagni wisely decided to return to -Teplitz Bay, which was reached on the night of the 23rd. - -The expedition left again on the 11th March. During the interval various -alterations had been made. It was found necessary to diminish the loads -so as to avoid damage to the sledges when crossing the broken and -difficult ice near the island. The allowance of petroleum was increased -to 6 oz. 5 dr. for each man. Cagni had also observed that it would be -necessary to always send forward at least two men to prepare the way for -the sledges. He therefore decided to take an additional man. - -The expedition consisted of three detachments. One was composed of four -men, and the other two of three men each. The four men were to accompany -the party twelve days, and then return. The provisions were so divided -that this party carried the whole of the rations for the ten men during -the twelve days, and also the rations for their own return. The second -detachment carried the rations to last the remainder other twelve days -and their own return. According to this arrangement, the third or -advance party would not begin on their own rations until the -twenty-fifth day, when the second detachment would return. - -The entire camp equipment and the clothing for the three detachments -amounted to 978 lb. 13 oz. 8 dr., or nearly 100 lb. per man. The weight -to be carried amounted to the remarkable total of 6718 lb. 9 oz. 13 dr., -or almost exactly 3 tons. Twelve sledges were used, so that the average -weight for each was 5 cwt. The dogs numbered 103. - -On the second departure the expedition was able to travel out of the bay -without having first to drag the sledges overland. On the first day the -temperature was 27.4° F. below zero. An auxiliary detachment accompanied -the party two days. - -At first, Captain Cagni set out towards the west, so as to get away from -land, but on the second day he tended a little east of north, so as to -allow for the probable drift towards the west. During the night of the -13th March the temperature fell to 45.4° F. below zero. On the 12th an -advance of 7 miles was made; on the 13th, about 10 miles; but on the -14th the ice-axes had frequently to be used to make a road, and only 3½ -miles were covered. - -For some days the temperature kept remarkably low. On the morning of the -16th it reached 58° F. below zero. On the 19th it rose to 16.6° F. below -zero, but on the 21st it again fell to 36.4° F. below zero. - -On the 21st March, Cagni decided to take three men with him in the third -or advance detachment. He found it necessary to send two men forward to -prepare the way for the sledges. With three men in the detachment, only -one would be left to look after the most of the dogs and sledges. He -therefore decided to send back three men in the first detachment, -instead of four. To meet the extra rations required for the additional -man, he intended to send back the first detachment two days, and the -second detachment four days earlier than originally intended. - -The first detachment, composed of Lieutenant Querini, the guide Ollier, -and the engineer Stökken, was sent back on the 23rd March. At this time -the expedition was about 45 miles distant from the island which had been -seen two days previously. Nothing more was ever heard of this -detachment. The Duke came to the conclusion that an accident must have -happened. It is quite possible, however, if not probable, that the party -was drifted so far out of the proper course that the island could not be -reached before all the food had been consumed. It will be seen that the -third detachment failed to make headway against this drift, and was -saved only by giving up the attempt to reach Prince Rudolf Island, and -by making its way towards the islands in the south. - -Some of the dogs caused a great deal of trouble. One had deserted on two -occasions. It was a fine, strong animal, and it would have been a pity -to kill it. The doctor undertook to tame it and prevent it deserting. He -secured it with two chains and a steel-wire rope. In spite of this, it -was found trying to escape, and the doctor gave it a severe beating. -During the night the dog broke the two chains, and in some incredible -way managed to get free. As if to be revenged on its tamer, it made a -hole in the doctor’s tent and stole all the butter which was to serve -for the detachment’s breakfast. - -Towards the end of March the temperature was still very low, and Captain -Cagni suffered greatly from one of his forefingers which had already -been twice frost-bitten. The sleeping-bag slowly filled with snow formed -by the frozen moisture of the breath. During the night their bodies -gradually thawed this snow, and they rose in a cold bath in the morning. -Soon after getting up, the moisture froze again into a mass of ice. On -27th and 28th March the temperature was more than 40° F. below zero. - -On the 28th March, Captain Cagni was able to take an observation for -latitude, and was astonished to find that it was only 83°. He had -calculated that it ought to be about 83° 50′. The drift to the south -must therefore have been considerable. - -On 31st March the second detachment, composed of Dr. Cavalli, Cardenti, -and Savoie, was sent back. It received rations for eighteen days, and -had twenty-four dogs. Considerable difficulties were met with on the -return journey, but the detachment reached the coast of the island on -the 17th April. Here a broad channel of water prevented them from -reaching land. A kayak was repaired, and Cardenti was sent in it across -the channel. He reached the glacier face, but it took him two hours to -ascend to the top by making steps with his ice-axe in a crevasse. He -then was unable to find his way to the tent in Teplitz Bay. After -wandering about on the island all night, he saw the tent when daylight -dawned. A boat was at once dispatched to bring the doctor and his -companion. - -Meanwhile the party in Teplitz Bay had been anxiously awaiting the -arrival of the first detachment. When the second arrived and reported -that the first had left seven days before them, all hope was practically -given up, although a relief party was sent out to make a search in the -neighbourhood of the islands discovered by Nansen. - -Cagni and his three companions set out after the departure of the second -detachment. They had forty-nine dogs and six sledges. The load on each -sledge varied from 410 to 485 lb. On the first day they made a splendid -march of about 18 miles. With the beginning of April the temperature -rose, and life became less miserable, but the higher temperature was -accompanied by a strong wind. On the 3rd and 4th April this high wind -and snow-drift confined the party to their tent. They set out again on -the 5th, but found great movement going on in the ice. Channels were -constantly opening and closing, and pressure-ridges were being formed -all around. One of the sledges broke through the ice, and was dragged -out with difficulty. - -It was part of the scheme of the expedition to gradually kill a certain -number of the dogs in order to assist in feeding the others. At first -none of the dogs cared to eat the flesh; later the few which ate it -waited till it was frozen; but ultimately the whole of the survivors -devoured it with even more greediness than pemmican, and while it was -still warm. - -On the 7th April the latitude was found to be 83° 54′. This was near the -latitude calculated by Cagni, so that the drift to the south had almost -ceased. The recent tracks of two bears were seen on this date. On the -8th April channels were crossed by means of bridges built of large -blocks of ice detached from the hummocks. - -Cagni was still suffering greatly from his frost-bitten forefinger, -which the doctor had generously promised to amputate when Cagni returned -to Teplitz Bay. On the 12th April a huge pressure-ridge, which Cagni -estimated to be from 36 to 45 feet in height, was seen to form about 100 -yards from the camp. On this day they travelled a distance estimated at -22 miles. Next day one of the guides suddenly broke through the ice, and -would have been lost but for the assistance of his companion. Cagni took -half a bath shortly afterwards, and the second guide slipped into the -water with one leg. In spite of these difficulties, the day’s march was -reckoned at 13 miles. These two days, however, greatly exhausted the -dogs, and on the following day only 5 miles were covered. - -On the 15th April a snowstorm confined them to the tent. Cagni’s finger -had kept him awake two nights, and he took advantage of the delay to -unbandage it and remove with forceps some of the dead flesh. On this day -a hole was burnt through one of the two saucepans. This was looked upon -as a serious accident, but it occurred to one of the guides to use the -cover as a second bottom, and this fortunately answered fairly well. The -storm lasted till the afternoon of the 17th April. This was the date -originally fixed for the return, but Cagni decided to still push on. At -midday on the 21st April the latitude was found to be 85° 29′. This gave -great encouragement, and determined Cagni to make an effort to break -Nansen’s record. On the 22nd the latitude was 85° 48′; on the 23rd it -was 86° 4′; and on the 24th it was 86° 18′. - -Cagni had now beaten Nansen’s record of 86° 14′, but he decided to still -push on. About six o’clock they were stopped by a large channel, and -here it was decided to return. The latitude was found to be the record -one of 86° 34′. Great praise is due to Cagni for his pluck and -determination under difficulties which would have made most men give up -in despair. Coming from a country which enjoys a warm climate, the -severe temperatures must have caused the party to suffer greatly, but -added to this in Cagni’s case was the torture he had to undergo from his -mortifying finger. - -The return journey was begun on the 25th with four sledges, thirty-four -dogs, provisions for thirty days, 200 rations of pemmican for the men -and 300 rations for the dogs. On the first day’s march the party covered -the remarkable distance of 29 miles. The outward track assisted greatly -on the return. The progress at first was very good; in four days the -party advanced 1 degree towards the south. - -On the 2nd May, Cagni improved the condition of his finger, which had -again pained him greatly. The glands in the armpit were also inflamed. -When the finger was unbandaged, it was found to be greatly swollen. With -a lancet in his left hand, Cagni opened the swelling and gave outlet to -a large quantity of matter. After taking away a covering of dead flesh, -a piece of bone was found sticking out of the wound. Cagni had only -scissors to work with, but with these he managed to cut off the -projection. The whole proceeding occupied him fully two hours. His -courage was beyond praise. - -On the 8th May the latitude was found to be 83° 42′. On this date the -temperature had risen to freezing-point. On the 10th, Cagni discovered -that he had drifted about 8 degrees of longitude to the west of Teplitz -Bay. In the latitude he was in this represented about 57 geographical -miles. He therefore steered a course more to the east. In spite of this -new direction, Cagni found two days later that he was still farther to -the west. He now hesitated to steer more to the east in case his -chronometers had been going more slowly, due to the rise in temperature. -This decision had an important bearing on the future trials of the -party. - -On the 18th May it was found that though the party had been travelling -nine days towards the south-east, they were still on the same meridian. -Channels now became so frequent that the course was difficult to keep, -and the weather became stormy and foggy. On the 23rd May latitude 82° 1′ -was reached, so that the party was now nearly on a level with the -northern part of Prince Rudolf Island. The drift was, however, so great -that during the next six days only about 10 miles were covered towards -the island. Provisions were now running short, and both the physical and -mental condition of the men began to deteriorate. According to the -longitude, they were still 6 degrees west of Teplitz Bay. - -It now became necessary to ferry the sledges and dogs across the -channels on large pieces of ice, and progress became very slow. After -struggling desperately towards the east, it was found on the 7th June -that they were farther to the west than on the 1st of the month. The -week’s toil had therefore been in vain. This made Cagni come to the wise -decision to give up fighting against the drift, and to proceed -southwards, where he would probably reach islands from which he would -have a better chance of reaching Prince Rudolf Island. - -On the second day after setting out to the south, land was sighted, and -turned out to be Harley Island. On the 10th the party found it necessary -to begin eating dog’s flesh. The coast of Harley Island was reached on -13th June, but still they kept to the ice, and followed the coast until -they reached the north-west extremity of the island. They then steered -for Ommaney Island, where they arrived at midnight on the 13th. This -island was crossed, but on attempting to leave it the ice was found -impracticable, and twice the party were forced to retrace their steps. -The third attempt was successful, after great labour among moving ice. A -broad channel was found open along Karl Alexander Land, and Cagni -therefore steered a course in the direction of Cape Germania. - -When they awoke on the morning of the 20th June, they found they were -afloat on a floe about 60 yards in diameter. Here they had to remain two -days at the mercy of the wind. Prince Rudolf Island was reached on the -23rd June, and the party arrived at the tent at Teplitz Bay on the same -date. - -This sledge-journey by Cagni is the longest ever made over the ice of -the Arctic Ocean before that of Dr. Cook. Starting from a comparatively -low latitude, he yet was able to surpass the record made by Nansen. He -had, of course, advantages which Nansen did not possess: he had a base -to fall back upon, and he had the assistance of other two detachments; -but on the other hand he had to start from a much lower latitude. The -achievement of the Italians is one of which any country might be proud. - -Steps were now taken to free the ship from the ice, which was from 10 -feet to 18 feet thick. Holes were drilled in this ice along one side of -the ship, and into these holes guncotton was placed and exploded. All -their efforts at first were of little avail, but they eventually -succeeded in righting the ship. A channel 180 yards long had next to be -blasted in order to get the ship out of the bay. In forming this channel -nearly all the explosives were exhausted when it was completed on 10th -August. The provisions and equipment were now put on board, and -everything being ready on 16th August, the _Polar Star_, which was still -seaworthy, left Teplitz Bay on the return journey. - -Cape Flora was reached on 31st August, after considerable difficulties -with the ice on the passage south. There was still a faint hope that the -missing detachment might be here, but no trace of it was found. As a -final precaution, provisions sufficient for twenty men during eight -months were left here; a still larger quantity had been left at Teplitz -Bay. - -On the 2nd September the _Polar Star_ escaped from the drift-ice; on the -5th the rugged mountains of Norway were in view, and Tromsö was reached -on the 6th. - -Although this expedition added no new land to our maps, the results were -important. It proved that a ship could be taken to the northern part of -Franz-Josef Archipelago, and that a properly equipped sledge-expedition -could travel a distance of 5° of latitude over the ice of the Arctic -Ocean. - -Franz-Josef Archipelago has since been visited by two Polar expeditions -known as the “Ziegler Expeditions,” but these have added little to our -previous knowledge. - - - - -[Illustration: CHART OF NORTHERN PART OF GREENLAND.] - - - - - CHAPTER XIII - PEARY’S EXPEDITIONS (1886−1909) - - -Commander R. E. Peary is the most persevering and the most daring of all -Arctic explorers. He tells how he was induced to take an active interest -in Arctic exploration. An old book-store in Washington was a favourite -haunt of his, and one evening he there came across a paper on the Inland -Ice of Greenland, and found the subject so interesting that he followed -it up. He consulted various authorities, but found very conflicting -statements. He therefore determined to visit Greenland and investigate -the matter himself. He was then a lieutenant in the United States Navy. - -The Navy Department having granted his application for leave, he made -the necessary arrangements, and left Sydney on the steam-whaler _Eagle_ -in May 1886. - -Arriving at Godhavn on 6th June, he left the whaler, and made -preparations to explore the Inland Ice from the neighbourhood of Disco -Bay. He was delayed two weeks at Godhavn by the ice before he could -embark for Ritenbenk, at the head of the bay. - -On the 23rd June he left Ritenbenk with Christian Maigaard, who was -Assistant-Governor there, and eight natives, and made for Pakitsok -Fiord. The head of the fiord was reached on the 25th, and on the 28th -everything had been carried up to the ice-cap. - -Peary’s sledging equipment had been made under his own supervision. He -had two 9-foot sledges, 13 inches wide, made of hickory, steel, and -hide, on a modified Hudson Bay pattern. With drag-ropes and lashings -each weighed 23 lb. He carried jacketed alcohol-stoves, 9-foot -double-ended ash alpenstocks with steel point and chisel, rubber -creepers, snow-shoes, and ski. His rations consisted of tea, sugar, -condensed milk, hard bread, pemmican, cranberry jam, baked beans, Liebig -extract, and an experimental mixture of meat, biscuit, and desiccated -potato. - -The natives left the party at the edge of the ice-cap. On the 29th June, -Peary and Maigaard started due east. A few hours after setting out, a -furious storm came on, and it was deemed advisable to return to the head -of the fiord and wait there till the weather improved. - -On the 5th July the storm abated, and Peary and Maigaard set out once -more. They reached the sledges, dug them out of the snow, and started -due east again. - -After crossing a network of crevasses, they encountered a series of -lakes which were not frozen hard enough to support them. They had -frequently to wade through a morass of saturated snow. - -On the 15th July another storm compelled them to lie up four days at an -elevation of 7525 feet above the sea. This camp was 100 miles from the -margin of the ice-cap, and was the farthest point reached. Only six -days’ provisions were left, and Peary decided to return. - -The return journey was made rapidly, but they had several exciting -experiences. On one occasion Maigaard was nearly lost in a crevasse, and -on another Peary was swept away in a glacier stream. - -On his return to Ritenbenk, Peary set out for the Noursoak Peninsula, -which he crossed alone to the edge of the Great Kariak Glacier, and then -returned. This journey across the peninsula occupied three days. - -From this expedition to Greenland, Peary states that he returned with -the northern bacilli in his system, the Arctic fever in his veins, never -to be eradicated. He was full of enthusiastic plans for accomplishing -the crossing of Greenland. Duty, however, absorbed his energies during -the next few years, and in the meantime Nansen effected the crossing of -Southern Greenland over one of the routes which Peary had suggested. - -Peary now fell back on his more ambitious scheme—the determination of -the northern limit of Greenland overland. - -He laid his plans before the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences -and other learned bodies, and received their support. He then obtained -eighteen months’ leave, and made the necessary preparations for his -expedition of 1891−92. He approached the Dundee whaling companies and -the Director of the Greenland trade, but they refused to transport his -party to Greenland on any terms. He was therefore compelled to charter a -vessel, but was fortunately successful in raising funds to meet the -greatly increased cost. - -Peary and a party of six, which included his wife, left Brooklyn in the -_Kite_ on 6th June 1891. His party consisted of Frederick A. Cook, -surgeon and ethnologist; Langdon Gibson, ornithologist and chief hunter; -Eivind Astrup; John M. Verhoeff, mineralogist and meteorologist; Matthew -Henson, body-servant. - -The master of the _Kite_ was Captain Richard Pike, who was a famous -Arctic skipper. It was he who took Greely’s expedition to Lady Franklin -Bay, and he was in command of the _Proteus_ when Lieutenant Garlington -attempted to relieve Greely. - -Peary had two whale-boats built for the expedition, and in these it was -intended to return to the Danish settlements from Whale Sound. He also -carried wood for a 12 by 20 feet house. - -Godhavn was reached on 27th June, and left on the 29th. A stop was made -at Upernavik, where Peary expected to obtain a kayak and a native -interpreter, but failed to get either. - -No obstruction to the _Kite’s_ progress was met until about 16 miles -north of the Duck Islands. Here the dreaded Melville Bay pack was -encountered, and the _Kite_ after boring her way from the 2nd till the -4th July was completely beset, and did not escape till the 17th. - -On the 11th July the ice slackened a little, and the _Kite_ made -attempts to forge ahead. While at this work a large cake of ice struck -the rudder, jamming it hard over, and tearing the wheel from the hands -of the two men on duty. One of the men was thrown clear over the wheel, -and the next instant the iron tiller had caught Peary’s leg between it -and the deck-house, and snapped both bones just above the ankle. He was -immediately carried to the cabin, where his leg was set. - -This was an extremely serious accident for Peary, and a man with less -determination would have given up the expedition and returned home. This -idea did not seem to occur to Peary. Even with a broken leg at this -critical period, he decided that everything must go on. - -It was his intention to secure a winter camp on the north shore of -Inglefield Gulf; but the _Kite_ met unbroken ice, and was ultimately run -into McCormick Bay. Here a site for the house was soon selected, and -preparations were at once made to land provisions and stores. - -On the 26th July work was commenced on the house. During the delay in -Melville Bay pack, Peary had the wood cut and fitted, and now it had -only to be nailed together and erected. - -The interior dimensions of the house were to be 21 feet in length, 12 -feet in width, and 8 feet in height from floor to ceiling. It consisted -of an inner and an outer shell, separated by an air-space, formed by the -frames of the house, and varying from 10 inches at the sides to over 3 -feet in the centre of the roof. - -On the outside of the frames was attached the outer air-tight shell -composed of a sheathing of closely fitting boards and two thicknesses of -tarred paper. To the inside of the frames was fastened the inner shell, -composed of thick trunk boards, and made air-tight by pasting all the -joints with heavy brown paper. This inner shell was lined throughout -with heavy blankets. - -To still further protect it, a wall was built entirely around the house, -about 5 feet distant from it. The foundation of this wall was composed -of stones, turf, and empty barrels. Above this, the wooden boxes -containing tinned supplies were piled in regular courses in such a way -that the contents could easily be reached. From the top of these, canvas -was stretched to the side of the house so as to form a corridor. - -When the snow came, a wall of this was built outside of the other, and -the roof of the house was also thickly covered with snow. - -On the 27th July, Peary was taken ashore, strapped to a plank, and -placed in a tent near the site of the house, so that he might supervise -the work. - -The _Kite_ departed for the south on the 30th July, and Peary and his -party were left to their own resources. - -Near at hand rose cliffs of a reddish colour, and this fact induced -Peary to name his house “Red Cliff House.” Its position was found to be -77° 40′ north latitude, and 70° 40′ west longitude. It was therefore -about half-way between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole. - -On the 12th August, Dr. Cook, Verhoeff, Astrup, and Gibson were sent to -Herbert, Northumberland, and Hakluyt Islands. They left provisioned for -fourteen days. The object of the journey was to obtain birds from the -loomeries, to make plans of Eskimo houses and villages, to communicate -with the natives and obtain from them furs and clothing. They were also -to try and induce a family of natives to settle near Red Cliff House. - -They returned on 18th August with 130 guillemots, and also brought an -Eskimo family, consisting of a man, his wife, and two children, with a -kayak and harpoon, a sledge and a dog. They had shot a small walrus near -Herbert Island, and had towed it to Cape Cleveland, a little over 2 -miles from the house. Several other walruses were obtained before the -end of the month. - -On the 4th September the entire party, with the exception of Henson, set -out for the head of McCormick Bay with supplies intended for a dépôt to -be established on the Inland Ice in the neighbourhood of the Humboldt -Glacier. - -On the 5th September, Astrup went up the slopes to the ice-cap to select -the best route for carrying up the provisions. He returned with a -favourable report, and estimated the distance to the ice-cap at less -than 4 miles. - -On the 6th September, Astrup, Gibson, Verhoeff, and Cook started up the -bluffs with loads varying from 52 to 58 lb., and towards night on the -same day they carried up a second load. On the 7th the last loads were -taken up, and Astrup, Gibson, and Verhoeff, who were to form the Inland -Ice party, remained at the ice-cap, while the others returned to Red -Cliff House. - -This Inland Ice party returned to Red Cliff on 12th September, and -reported that the attempt to establish a dépôt had been a failure. Owing -to the presence of deep soft snow, it was found that not more than one -sledge could be dragged at a time, and on the 8th September the party -advanced only 1 mile. On the 9th they were kept in camp by a snowstorm -and high wind. On the 10th they advanced 1 mile by noon, and as there -was no prospect of better sledging, they deposited one of the -sledge-loads on a nunatak at an elevation of 2600 feet above sea-level, -and returned to Red Cliff without their sledges or sleeping-gear. - -On 22nd September, Peary sent Astrup and Gibson back to the Inland Ice -to study the condition of travel as far north-east as possible. They -dragged their sledges five days, and attained an altitude of 4600 feet; -but owing to snow-squalls, high winds, and hard hauling, they then -decided to return. - -During October many Eskimo arrived at Red Cliff, and from this time -onwards various parties were coming and going all through the winter. -Some came from Cape York, nearly 200 miles away. Several of the women -were engaged to make fur clothing for the party. - -During the winter Peary kept his party busy making sledges, odometers, -and various other articles required for the spring sledge-journey. - -Peary devised and cut the patterns for the suits and sleeping-bags. -These were made from the skins of the deer shot by Peary’s men. The -skins were stretched and dried at Red Cliff, and the chewing was done by -the Eskimo women. This latter process makes the skins thoroughly soft -and pliable. A skin is folded with the hair inside, and is chewed along -the fold; then another fold is made, and the process is repeated until -the whole skin has been carefully chewed. After this, it is scraped and -worked with a blunt instrument. It takes two women about a day to chew a -big buck-skin, and they usually require to give their jaws a rest every -alternate day. - -Peary took a series of photographs of seventy-five Eskimo, and Dr. Cook -took the anthropometrical measurements. It may here be mentioned that -Peary’s photographic work was excellently done, and added very much to -the value of his explorations. - -On 18th April 1892, Peary started on a trip round Inglefield Gulf. The -purpose of the journey was to complete the necessary complement of dogs -for the ice-cap march, to purchase furs and materials for the equipment, -and as far as practicable map the shores of the gulf. Peary was -accompanied by his wife. He returned on 24th April, having in the short -space of one week made a sledge-journey of some 250 miles. - -During the month of April most of the supplies for the great journey -over the ice-cap had been carried up to the edge of the ice. On the last -day of April, Dr. Cook, Gibson, Astrup, and five Eskimo left Red Cliff -with two sledges and twelve dogs, dragging the last of the supplies. -Peary and Henson followed on the 3rd May with the remaining eight dogs -and a large dog-sledge. - -The three sledges used by Peary on this journey consisted of two long, -broad wooden runners curved at both ends, with standards supporting -light but strong cross-bars. The largest sledge was 13 feet long and 2 -feet wide, with runners 4 inches wide, and standards 6 inches high. It -was composed entirely of wood, horn, and raw-hide lashings. It weighed -48 lb., and carried easily a load of 1000 lb. - -The second sledge was 11 feet long and 2 feet wide, with 3½-inch runners -and 6-inch standards. It weighed 35 lb., and carried a load of 500 lb. - -The third sledge, made by Astrup, was 10 feet long and 16 inches wide, -with 3-inch runners and 2-inch standards. It weighed 13 lb., and carried -a load of 400 lb. - -The clothing consisted of a hooded deer-skin coat weighing 5¼ lb., a -hooded seal-skin coat weighing 2½ lb., a pair of dog-skin knee-trousers -weighing 3-9/16 lb., seal-skin boots with woollen socks and fur soles -weighing 2 lb., and an under-shirt; total, about 13 lb. With various -combinations of this outfit, Peary could keep perfectly warm and yet not -get into a perspiration, in temperatures from +40° F. to −50° F., -whether at rest, or walking, or dragging a sledge. - -Peary had twenty dogs for the journey, but one died from the fatal -_piblockto_, at the edge of the ice-cap. His dog-food consisted of -pemmican. - -The provisions included pemmican, butter, Liebig extract, biscuit, -condensed milk, compressed pea-soup, compressed tea, and extract of -coffee. The daily ration was 2½ lb. per man. - -From the edge of the ice-cap the sledges had to be dragged up one -snow-slope and down another for a distance of 15 miles, before reaching -the gradual slope of the true Inland Ice. This point was not reached -until the 15th May. - -Peary took a true north-east course, and hoped to clear the heads of the -Humboldt, Petermann, and Sherard-Osborn indentations. From this point, -two short marches of 5 and 7 miles brought them to an elevation of 5000 -feet, and early in the third march the highest summits of the Whale -Sound land disappeared, and they found that they were descending. They -had passed over the divide between Whale Sound and Kane Basin, and were -on the descent towards the basin of the Humboldt Glacier. This third -march was 12 miles, and the fourth was 20, and the distant mountain-tops -of the land between Rensselaer Harbour and the south-eastern angle of -Humboldt Glacier rose into view in the north-west. - -On the fifth day they covered 20 miles over a gently undulating and -gradually descending surface. On the sixth march the surface became much -more hummocky, and Peary thought it advisable to deflect about 5 miles -to the eastward. At the end of this march there were signs of an -approaching storm, and a snow igloo was built for shelter. - -The storm lasted forty-eight hours, and it took a long time to dig out -the sledges, which had been completely buried in snow-drifts, and reload -them. - -Starting out from here, they found that the storm had made a good road -for them, and they covered 20 miles during the first march. On the -following day they again made 20 miles, and reached the point where -Peary decided the supporting party should leave him. They were now 130 -miles from the shore of McCormick Bay. - -It was here that Peary resolved to take only one companion with him. It -had originally been his intention to take two, but due to a frozen heel, -Henson had to be sent back to Red Cliff from the edge of the ice-cap. -All three of his companions volunteered to go with him. Peary decided -that Astrup should be his companion, that Gibson should return in -command of the supporting party, and that, on their return to Red Cliff, -Dr. Cook was to assume charge. - -Next day, Gibson and Dr. Cook started on the return journey, and Peary -and Astrup continued the march towards the north-east. Peary had now -thirteen dogs. On the second march all the dogs were made to drag the -big sledge, and the other two sledges were put in tow of the big one. -Peary went ahead as guide, and Astrup followed driving the dogs. They -had gone but a short distance on this march when the big dog-sledge -broke down, one side bending inward and breaking all the standards on -that side. This at first seemed a serious accident, but by lashing the -broken sledge alongside another, and so making a broad 4-foot-wide -sledge with three runners, the difficulty was overcome. The accident, -however, had the effect of reducing the march to one of 10 miles. Next -day the snow was deeper and softer, and but 15 miles were covered. -During this latter march they began to ascend, and the snow was so deep -that the sledges sank in it nearly to the cross-bars. This made the -hauling so heavy that Peary contrived an impromptu sledge from an extra -pair of ski, and transferred to it 120 lb. from the big sledge. On this -day one of the dogs was ill, and at night it was killed and fed to the -others. - -On the following day the up-grade and the deep snow compelled them to -make two journeys in hauling the sledge. Next day the surface -fortunately improved, and 15 miles were covered. - -They were now evidently at the top of the grade, and soon began a -gradual descent toward the basin of the Petermann Fiord. During this -march they made 20 miles, and sighted land to the north-west. - -On the last day of May the head of Petermann Fiord, with its guarding -mountains, suddenly came into sight, and Peary found it necessary to -deflect some 10 miles to the eastward to avoid the inequalities of the -glacier basin. Peary camped here thirty-six hours, and determined his -position and took bearings of the land. - -From this camp the surface was comparatively level, and the highest -summits of the Petermann Mountains were kept in sight for 40 miles. Then -began a gradual rise, the snow becoming softer and deeper. - -On the 5th June the summit of the next divide was reached at an -elevation of 5700 feet above sea-level. From here the travelling was -very good, and 19½ and 21 miles were made in two marches; and on the 8th -June they camped in sight of St. George’s Fiord, but they believed it -was Sherard-Osborn Fiord. At the end of this march a storm broke upon -them, and they were imprisoned in a rough shelter two days. - -Peary now found that he was on the southern edge of a great glacier -basin, and to avoid this he deflected his course to the south-east, -which forced him to ascend steep icy slopes. It took two days of the -hardest work to get out of this trap, and at the end of them he had lost -15 miles of his hard-earned northing. During this climb, Peary’s best -dog, the king of the team, received a sprain. After limping at the rear -of the sledges for two or three days, he lagged behind, and was lost in -one of the ice-cap storms. Two dogs fell into a crevasse and hung -suspended at the end of their traces until hoisted out. - -Starting again on a north-east course, they had not advanced far when -they were brought up by a group of enormous crevasses, and just as these -were reached a dense fog swept up from the glacier basin and delayed -them eighteen hours. - -Peary now decided to strike farther into the interior, so as to avoid -these glacier basins, but in carrying out this plan he found the snow -increasing and the grade so steep that he was compelled to steer more to -the north. - -He had advanced in this direction only 4 miles when the big sledge again -broke down, and an entire day was lost in repairing it. Next day the -temperature became so high and altered the surface of the snow so much -that they found it impossible to go on. They had to wait a fall of -temperature, and this did not occur for two days. At this camp spare -articles weighing 75 lb. were thrown away. - -Starting again, they made a march of 6¼ miles, going over the road -twice. The following day, land again made its appearance ahead of them, -and Peary deflected first to the north-east and then to the east. -Advancing 8 miles, they found themselves hemmed in by a series of huge -concentric crevasses, and to cross these it was necessary to take a -south-easterly direction. At one time two dogs fell into a crevasse, and -at another one of the sledges broke through. - -Next day they covered nearly 18 miles, and on the following one they -made 20½ miles. Land was now visible to the north-west, north, and -north-east. - -Towards the close of the next march a fiord with high sharp peaks on its -northern side came clearly into view. Starting again on the 26th June in -a north-east direction, Peary soon changed the course to east true, and -then to south-east, so as to avoid a fiord which was seen ahead. -Assuming this fiord to be Victoria Inlet, and thinking he could round -it, Peary kept on to the south-east till the 1st of July, but still the -mountains of the shore were in view. On this day a wide opening, bounded -on either side by high vertical cliffs, showed up in the north-east over -the summits immediately adjacent to the Inland Ice. Through this opening -could be seen neither the reflected ice-blink of distant ice-cap nor the -cloud-loom of land. - -Peary now decided to reach this opening and discover whether it looked -out into the East Greenland Arctic Ocean. Changing his course to -north-east, he made for the red-brown mountains of the strange land. The -grade now became so steep that it was necessary to descend diagonally -along the slope. - -The highest convex of a crescent moraine which climbed well up into the -ice-cap was selected as a landing-place, and after wading many streams, -and floundering through a mile of slush which covered the lower portion -of the ice, they clambered upon the rocks of the moraine 4000 feet above -the sea. - -Here Peary left Astrup to look after the clogs while he hastened down to -the land for the purpose of climbing a summit some 5 miles from the edge -of the ice. He had not gone far when a snow-bunting fluttered up from -behind a rock, and not long afterwards he came across the traces of -musk-oxen. As he got farther from the ice, flowers of various hues made -their appearance, among them the yellow Arctic poppy. - -Instead of 5 miles, the distance of the mountain lengthened to at least -12, and when it was reached at the end of an eight hours’ march, it was -only to find that two or three other summits intervened between Peary -and the view he wished. By this time the soles of Peary’s kamiks were -cut through, and some of the sharp stones had cut his feet. He patched -his foot-gear with a pair of seal-skin mittens and a skull-cap, and -after an hour’s rest he started on his return to Astrup, and reached him -after an absence of fifteen hours. - -Peary now decided to take Astrup and the dogs, which numbered eight, and -three or four days’ supplies, and march overland. They started out on -3rd July 1892, carrying about 40 lb. each on their backs. On the second -day’s march they were fortunate in coming across musk-oxen, and -succeeded in killing two. This gave both the men and the dogs a welcome -change of food, and they feasted till they could eat no more. - -After several hours’ rest, they again set out, and succeeded in gaining -a rocky plateau, 3800 feet above sea-level. This dropped in a -perpendicular cliff into a bay below. Looking out over a mighty glacier -on the right and through the broad mouth of the bay, they saw stretching -away to the horizon the great ice-fields of the Arctic Ocean. To the -west was the opening of a fiord which Peary believed was the one which -barred his northern advance, and he had paralleled its course across the -northern end of the mainland from Robeson Channel to the shores of -North-East Greenland. This channel, which Peary believes marks the -northern boundary of the mainland of Greenland, now receives the name of -“Peary Channel.” - -To the north-west, north, and north-east stretched steep red-brown -bluffs on the other side of the bay. To the northward could be seen the -entrance of a second fiord, or channel, apparently extending to the -northwestward. - -The land which stretched away to the north-east was free of snow. In -this direction land could be seen 60 miles away. From observations taken -by Peary on the cliff, afterwards named “Navy Cliff,” the position was -found to be 81° 37′ 5″ north latitude, and 34° 5′ west longitude. After -building a cairn and leaving a record, they retraced their steps towards -the ice-cap. - -On this northern land, besides snow-buntings, two or three sandpipers, a -Greenland falcon, a pair of ravens, two bumble-bees, several -butterflies, innumerable flies, and about twenty musk-oxen were seen. -Flowers of numerous species were blooming in abundance. - -Two days were occupied in getting back to Moraine Camp, and when it was -reached the feet of six of the dogs were cut and bleeding. It was -therefore necessary to rest and allow the dogs to recover, and it was -also necessary to thoroughly overhaul the impedimenta and put everything -in good order for the return journey. - -The big three-runner sledge was reduced to its original dimensions, and -the foot-gear required a good deal of attention. At last, on 7th July, -all was ready, and they started up the icy slope. - -In order to avoid crevasses and glacier basins, Peary returned on a -course well to the east of his upward one. On the first day only 10 -miles were covered, but on the second they made 21½ miles, and ascended -1300 feet. On the 10th July an advance of 20 miles was made, and an -ascent of nearly 1000 feet. On the 11th the altitude rose 600 feet in -another march of 20 miles. The elevation was now 7300 feet above -sea-level. On this date one of the eight dogs became exhausted, and was -killed and fed to the others. - -They now experienced a severe storm, which detained them two days. On -the first march after the storm they travelled 20 miles over a level -plateau in a thick fog. - -Next day one of the dogs died, and now only six were left, and Peary -became anxious about the remainder. On the 18th July the fog cleared. On -the 21st, Peary decided to abandon one sledge and leave behind articles -weighing about 50 lb. The load was repacked on the small sledge. - -Another of the dogs died on 28th July, but the remaining five were in -fairly good condition. On this day 22 miles were covered, and the next -few marches were even better. They were now east of the Humboldt -Glacier. - -On the 2nd August they neared the divide between the Kane Basin and the -Whale Sound region, and next day they sighted land, after travelling 35 -miles. - -On the following day, when nearing the edge of the ice-cap, a relief -party came into view, and soon Peary had the pleasure of meeting -Professor Heilprin, who had come north in the _Kite_ to take Peary home. - -Two days after his return to Red Cliff, Peary set out on a boat-voyage -into Inglefield Gulf, with the object of becoming better acquainted with -the northern shore. He explored Bowdoin Bay to its head, and at this -point Verhoeff, who formed one of the party, left to cross the glacier -to McCormick Bay, where he was to meet Gibson. - -Leaving Bowdoin Bay, Peary passed eastwards along the gulf, and reached -a striking, precipitous island, which he named “Josephine Peary Island.” - -On returning from this boat-voyage, Peary learned that Gibson had landed -Verhoeff at Five-Glacier Valley a few days after he had left Bowdoin -Bay. Verhoeff’s intention was to make an overland trip to the Eskimo -settlements in Robertson Bay, and he arranged with Gibson to return for -him at a certain time. The day after Peary’s return, Gibson arrived with -the news that Verhoeff had not turned up according to promise. - -Peary at once set out with Gibson and a crew of his best Eskimo to -search for Verhoeff. Heilprin’s party and the _Kite’s_ crew also took -part in the search, which was continued six days and six nights. The -Eskimo ultimately succeeded in finding traces along the side of a -glacier, and these were found to pass on to the glacier itself, but they -disappeared on the unyielding surface of the ice. - -The search was now given up. The conclusion arrived at was that Verhoeff -had fallen into one of the innumerable crevasses of the glacier and had -there perished. This sad incident naturally cast a deep gloom upon the -party, and on Peary especially. - -Preparations were now made for the return home. Mrs. Peary distributed -many household utensils to the delighted Eskimo, who also received -numerous presents of wood, knives, iron, kettles, etc., which had been -brought in the _Kite_ from friends of the expedition. - -At Godthaab, on the way home, some of the kayakers of the place treated -them to an exhibition of aquatic feats, such as turning a somersault in -the water and jumping one kayak over another. The remainder of the -voyage was completed without special incident. - - * * * * * - -Soon after his return from this expedition, Peary made preparations for -a more ambitious one. In order to raise funds, he delivered one hundred -and sixty-eight lectures in ninety-six days. From these he realised -13000 dollars. He also obtained some funds from other sources, and was -able to charter a ship named the _Falcon_ to take his party north, and -return the following season to bring him back. - -Peary left Philadelphia in the _Falcon_ on 23rd June 1893. The ship -carried a steam-launch, and the two whale-boats, the _Mary Peary_ and -the _Faith_. The six dogs of the _White March_ and some carrier-pigeons -were also taken. In order to make a new experiment in Arctic work, Peary -took some burros which had been brought from Santa Fé. Several places on -the American coast were stopped at, and St. John’s was not left till -15th July. On the same day one of the dogs managed to slip its harness, -and was lost overboard. On the 17th, during heavy weather, two of the -burros died. The _Falcon_ touched at Battle Harbour on the Labrador -coast, in order that dogs might be purchased; but Peary met with but -little success. Other two stations were visited, but as a total result -only twenty dogs were obtained. On the 22nd July the _Falcon_ was headed -for the Greenland coast, and it arrived at Holsteinborg on the 26th. -Here seventeen dogs were obtained, and near midnight of the same day the -_Falcon_ left for Godhavn, where it arrived on the 28th. Fur clothing, -ordered from Copenhagen, was found ready, and twenty dogs were obtained. -Peary had been mindful enough to take a present of oranges, lemons, and -pine-apples to Mrs. Anderson, the Inspector’s wife, and it gave great -delight to her and her family. Godhavn was left about 10 p.m. on the -28th, and Upernavik was reached on the 30th. Peary was disappointed in -finding that only ten dogs were to be obtained here, but he was informed -that he would get more at Tasiusak, about 40 miles to the north. The -latter place was reached early in the morning of 31st July, and -seventeen dogs were obtained. Peary had now on board eighty-seven dogs, -and the pandemonium caused by these howling, fighting, restless animals -was indescribable. The Duck Islands were reached about noon, and after a -few hours’ stay, the passage of the dreaded Melville Bay was begun. The -weather was excellent, and where two years before the _Kite_ had to -battle with the pack, there was open water with only a few scattered -icebergs. The passage was made in the record time of 24 hours and 50 -minutes. - -Peary landed and climbed Cape York. None of the natives here had seen or -heard anything of Verhoeff. - -Bowdoin Bay, in Inglefield Gulf, where Peary intended taking up -quarters, was reached on the morning of 3rd August. - -Peary selected the site of the house, and they soon set to work to build -this and unload the stores. The house was named the “Lodge.” - -On the 12th August the _Falcon_ left the bay on a cruise for the -winter’s meat-supply. Near Herbert Island they were successful in -obtaining twenty-four walruses. During the hunt there was one exciting -event. A walrus had been shot, and a man was beside it on a cake of ice, -when the ice was struck by the _Falcon_ and capsized. The man was thrown -into the water under the ship’s stern, but he succeeded in clinging to -the rudder, from which he was released in safety. - -The _Falcon_ next steamed north as far as Littleton Island, where four -other walruses were shot. While here, Peary and his party examined the -site of Polaris House, and found the place littered with miscellaneous -articles of no use to the natives. Peary also climbed to the top of -Littleton Island. He describes it as a terribly desolate, barren-looking -piece of rock. - -The _Falcon_ now turned southward on the way to Olriks Bay, on the south -coast of Inglefield Gulf, for deer. During one night the party shot -seventeen deer, and as a sufficient supply of meat had now been obtained -for the dogs and natives during the winter, the _Falcon_ went back to -Bowdoin Bay. - -On the 20th August the ship returned to America. Peary’s party, -including himself, now numbered fourteen persons:— - -Samuel J. Entrikin, first assistant George H. Carr -Eivind Astrup, second assistant James Davidson -Edward E. Vincent, surgeon Walter F. Swain -E. B. Baldwin, meteorologist Hugh J. Lee -George H. Clark, taxidermist Mrs. Peary -F. A. Stokes, artist, an independent member -Mrs. Susan J. Cross (Mrs. Peary’s nurse) -Matthew Henson (Peary’s coloured man) - -On 29th August, Astrup left the Lodge in charge of an Inland Ice party, -consisting of Carr, Davidson, and Lee. They took with them five sledges -and fifty dogs, with the intention of establishing a dépôt of supplies -as far in on the Inland Ice as possible. - -On 7th September a letter was brought by one of the carrier-pigeons from -the Inland Ice party, asking for more dogs; and Peary visited the camp, -which he found 6 miles in on the cap. Astrup was suffering from -something in the nature of a chill, and the doctor had to be sent to -him. In a day or two he was much better, and able to continue his work. - -On 12th September a little blue-eyed snowflake was born at the Lodge, -and named Marie Ahnighito Peary. She was bundled in soft, warm Arctic -furs and wrapped in the Stars and Stripes. This wonderful baby was of -extraordinary interest to the natives. Families journeyed from Cape York -in the south, and from Etah in the north, to satisfy themselves that she -was not made of snow. Until about six months old she lived in continuous -lamp-light. - -On 13th September, Astrup was brought down from the ice-cap, suffering -from gastric trouble. The supplies were then 12 miles from the edge of -the ice, with the exception of two sledge-loads which were 3 miles -farther in. Carr and Davidson, who had brought down Astrup, started back -to rejoin Lee, but they lost themselves in a storm and had to return to -the Lodge. A day or two later they made a second attempt, and succeeded -in reaching Lee, who had been alone for a week. Here again a storm came -on, and confined them to the tent another week. They then all returned -to the Lodge, which they reached on 23rd September. - -Two days later, Peary set out with the party; but at the moraine, at the -edge of the ice, it was found that three sledges which had been left -there had been blown away. They had in consequence to return to the -Lodge and make new sledges. - -On 30th September, Peary, Davidson, and Lee succeeded in reaching the -camp on the ice-cap, and found the advanced sledges. Again they returned -to the Lodge for more dogs, and with these they advanced all the -supplies to a point 26½ miles from the moraine. - -Peary wished to have them advanced still farther, but a gale kept the -party to their camp two days. They then descended to the Lodge, but the -storm lasted an entire week. Another attempt was made by nearly the -whole party to reach the ice-cap, but in consequence of a constant -succession of snowstorms and high winds it had to be given up. - -The season was now so far advanced that Peary abandoned the idea of -taking the supplies farther until the spring. - -On 31st October a large wave caused by a huge iceberg from the Bowdoin -Glacier burst up through the solid ice near the shore, rolled the -steam-launch over and over, and stove it in; dashed the whale-boat a -hundred yards up the valley, and ruined it; then, receding, carried away -all the oil-barrels. It had been Peary’s intention to put up an -electric-light plant, but the loss of the oil rendered this -impracticable. - -While the ice-cap work was going on, Entrikin was busy hunting deer, in -which he was most successful. In two hunts he obtained no less than -sixty animals. - -The long sunless winter had now begun, but the party were still kept at -work. Much in the way of Inland Ice equipment had to be got ready, and -various sledge-journeys were made for dog-food. About 700 miles were -travelled, and some 3000 lb. of dog-meat brought to the Lodge, and yet -no member of the party suffered any great discomfort. These journeys -were made in the moonlight. - -The sun made its appearance on the 18th February 1894, and on this day -Lee, with two Eskimo and a team of dogs, set out for the cache on the -Inland Ice. Lee, unfortunately, lost his way during a storm, and after -wandering about for a night and a day, reached the Lodge in an exhausted -condition and with a frozen toe. This mishap disarranged Peary’s plans. -He had intended to start from the cache on 1st March. Lee was to free -the cache from the winter’s snows, bag the pemmican, and construct snow -igloos. The delay necessitated a further supply of dog-meat, which had -to be hauled a distance of at least 50 miles. - -On the 6th March eight members of the party, with five Eskimo and some -eighty dogs, started for the ice-cap. Next day Peary left with two -Eskimo carrying several gallons of boiling hot tea in canteens, and -found the party about 2 miles from the moraine. Peary then returned to -the Lodge, which he finally left on 8th March, and reached the ice-cap -party in the evening. - -Next day the cache was reached, and the snow was found to have drifted -about it during the winter to a depth of 4 feet. The Eskimo formed snow -igloos, and two days were spent here making preparations for the final -start. On the 10th March one of the dogs died from _piblockto_, the -dreaded dog-disease of Greenland, and this was naturally considered a -serious incident. - -A start was made on 12th March, after considerable difficulty with the -dogs. Lee’s toe had been nipped again, and at night it was found that he -could not proceed much farther. Astrup also informed Peary that he was -threatened with the illness which attacked him in September, and that he -was not able to go on. This loss of two of his best men was a serious -blow to Peary’s plans. It had been his intention, should he reach -Independence Bay, to send one party northward, another south to Cape -Bismarck, and thence over the ice-cap to Whale Sound; while a third -party was to remain at Independence Bay and survey that region while -awaiting the return of the northern detachment. - -On the 14th March, Peary, accompanied by Clark, returned to the Lodge -with Lee and Astrup. The Lodge was again left on the afternoon of the -15th. The night was passed in a snow igloo, and the party was reached -during the following afternoon. Next day the weather made it impossible -for them to advance, and so continued for three days. The temperature -was from 35° to 40° F. below zero. - -On 22nd March a start was made, but the weather was still unfavourable, -and only 3 miles were covered. The party now experienced a violent -storm, which lasted till the 25th March. The velocity of the wind -averaged over 48 miles per hour during thirty-four hours, and the -average temperature was 50° F. below zero. In Peary’s opinion this storm -was the most severe ever experienced by any Arctic party. - -After the storm was over, half of the dogs were found frozen fast in the -snow, some by the legs, some by the tails, and some by both. Two were -dead. - -During the storm Davidson had his heel, and Clark a toe and three -fingers, frost-bitten. Davidson had to be sent back to the Lodge with -the doctor. This now reduced the party to four, and Peary made a cache -of supplies, and readjusted the loads. - -Each of Peary’s companions now had a large sledge drawn by eighteen -dogs. During the first march they advanced 7 miles in a temperature of -46° F. below zero. On the 27th March they had considerable difficulty -with the sledges: one broke in the bend of one of the runners, and it -was converted into a three-runner sledge by lashing another sledge -alongside it; and a second one was seriously damaged. - -While engaged in repairing the sledges, Entrikin had the soles of his -feet frost-bitten. To make matters worse, next day he strained his back -in making efforts to start the sledge. During the night the temperature -remained between 55° and 57° F. below zero. - -The dogs were now in bad condition: three had been killed and used as -dog-food, another died from the effects of the storm, and several had -frost-bitten feet. - -At the next camp Peary decided to rest two days, so as to give Entrikin -a final chance of recovery, and also with the object of getting the dogs -into better condition. - -On the 3rd April, Entrikin’s feet were much better, and the party pushed -on a distance of 15 miles. On this day, however, one of the dogs was -attacked by the _piblockto_, and bit many of the other dogs before he -was shot. On each of the next two days a distance of 15 miles was -covered. During the next three days a storm confined them to their tent, -and two dogs died from exposure. - -Another start was made, but only 7 miles were travelled. Two more dogs -died of _piblockto_, after biting nearly all the other dogs. The dread -disease had evidently gained a firm foothold. - -On 10th April, Peary had reached a point 128 miles from the Lodge. One -man had frosted feet and must return. Another had both heels and great -toes frost-bitten, and had daily attacks of bleeding from the nose. The -third man had not quite recovered from cramp. Added to these troubles -was the serious condition of the dogs. Peary now saw that he could not -possibly carry out his plans. He might reach Independence Bay, but this -would consume all his pemmican, alcohol, and other provisions, and -destroy any chance of making another attempt next spring. He therefore -decided to cache his pemmican and return to the Lodge, and make another -attempt during the following year. - -On the return journey a great many of the dogs died, only twenty-five -reaching the Lodge. Peary admits that previous to this experience he -believed that the Eskimo dog was capable of enduring the most severe -weather possible on the ice-cap. It is also evident that the members of -the party suffered greatly from the extremely low temperatures usually -experienced during the month of March. The serious outbreak of the -dog-disease could not have been foreseen. - -The party on their return to the Lodge were very much exhausted, and it -required about a fortnight to recover from the strain and exposure. - -Soon afterward, Peary set out to explore and survey Olriks Bay. He was -accompanied by Mrs. Peary. He found it to be a long narrow fiord 50 -miles in length by about 2½ miles wide. - -On 16th May he again left the Lodge to search for the “Iron Mountain” of -Melville Bay. He took Lee with him and ten dogs. On the way to Cape York -an Eskimo was met who undertook to act as guide to the object of Peary’s -search. Cape York was reached in ten days, after considerable -difficulties. Another march brought them to the meteorite, which Peary -measured and photographed. - -The return journey was made under great difficulties. Sometimes they -were storm-bound and had to dig shelters in snow-drifts, at other times -they were wading through deep slush; again they were compelled to take -to the shore and climb the bluffs and make long detours overland. -Several glaciers were crossed, and at one place they were 3362 feet -above sea-level. The Lodge was reached on 6th June. - -On 31st July news was received that the _Falcon_ had returned. During -August, Peary endeavoured to obtain deer, but was not very successful. - -On 26th August the _Falcon_ again sailed for America. All Peary’s party, -with the exception of Lee and Henson, had decided to return home. The -_Falcon_ carried them safely to Philadelphia, but in returning to St. -John’s she was lost with all on board. - -It will be most convenient here to give a brief account of a -sledge-journey made by Astrup after he returned invalided from the -ice-cap. On 6th April he started out with the intention of exploring the -shores of Melville Bay. He took with him Koolootingwah, the Eskimo. Cape -York was left on the 15th April, and over 40 miles were travelled the -first day. Astrup found the shore, from Cape York eastward, continually -broken by large and active glaciers. The night was passed in a snow -igloo, and next day 30 miles were covered. On the third day Thom Island -was reached. All the dog-food was now gone, and Astrup had provisions to -last only ten days. He therefore decided to examine the coast more -closely, and gradually work back to Cape York, where he arrived on 23rd -April. The Lodge was afterwards reached without special difficulty. - -Peary and Matthew Henson, with five Eskimo, accompanied the _Falcon_ -about 200 miles from the Lodge, and returned in the whale-boat. Lee -remained at the Lodge. Soon after Peary’s return he made preparations -for securing his winter’s meat-supply. Henson with some Eskimo went off -after deer, and returned a week later with six animals. Then Peary -arranged a walrus-hunt. Both whale-boats and five kayaks were employed, -and all the able-bodied men and boys of the village of Karnah. Such an -imposing flotilla had never been seen before in these waters. Peary had -decided to use a harpoon like the Eskimo, and in this he was very -successful. Off Herbert Island several large walruses were obtained, and -the boats returned loaded with meat. - -Peary was now anxious to have the nearest of his caches on the ice-cap -visited and rearranged, and proper signals put up where the original -ones might be blown down. With this object in view, Lee, Henson, and the -Eskimo Nooktah set out on the 2nd October with twelve dogs. To Peary’s -great disappointment, they returned in four days without having found -any of the caches. There had been a most extraordinary fall of snow, and -poles which had stood 8 and 9 feet above the snow were now only 1 foot -above. - -On 8th October, Peary, with Henson, and the Eskimo Maksingwah, more -familiarly known as “Flaherty,” set out for the ice-cap. On the second -day they reached the vicinity of the first cache, but no trace of it -could be found. Next morning signs of a coming storm induced Peary to -make preparations to meet it, and for some time it was not observed that -Maksingwah had decamped rather than face a storm on the dreaded ice-cap. -It was afterwards ascertained that it took the Eskimo four days to reach -the Lodge, and he was then in an extremely exhausted condition. - -The storm confined Peary and Henson to the tent six weary days. Peary’s -thoughts during this time were far from pleasant. He saw that this -terrible storm was destroying the last chance of finding his caches, and -this meant not only the destruction of all the work of that year, but -also of the resources on which depended his chance of success next year. - -When the storm passed over, a diligent search was made for the cache, -but no trace of it could be found. Peary had to acknowledge the terrible -fact that all his alcohol and pemmican, which with other provisions -weighed nearly a ton and a half, were buried beneath the ice-cap. - -The blow was a severe one, but with his characteristic tenacity of -purpose Peary determined that venison and walrus-meat must take the -place of pemmican, and that coal-oil must serve instead of alcohol. The -idea of abandoning the journey, even after this overwhelming disaster, -he could not entertain. - -During December, Peary and Lee made a sledge-journey to Cape York. One -of the main objects was to determine accurately the positions of some of -the capes, but the weather was unfavourable most of the time. During the -last stage of the return journey Peary was without food or sleep -forty-six hours, and travelled 60 miles. - -Several other journeys were made during the winter, for dog-food and -various articles of equipment. Every effort was made to be prepared for -the ice-cap journey, but when the time came to depart Peary was far from -satisfied with his resources. - -On 1st April 1895, Peary, Henson, and Lee, with six Eskimo, six sledges, -and sixty dogs, left the Lodge. On one of the sledges, drawn by thirteen -picked dogs, were the supplies for the return trip, and also those for -consumption at and beyond Independence Bay. It had also the tent and -sleeping and cooking-gear, the total weight being about 1000 lb. Another -sledge drawn by ten dogs held about 750 lb. of dog-food. - -On the second day’s march the vicinity of one of the caches was reached, -and another determined attempt was made to find it, but in vain. - -When the neighbourhood of the next cache was reached, a stop was made, -and the Eskimo were sent out to make a search. In a short time a bag was -found attached to a pole projecting only 3 inches above the surface. -Peary had stopped within 100 yards of it. This cache contained ten cases -of biscuit and a case and a half of milk, and was very acceptable. -During the search, one of the Eskimo took the opportunity to decamp with -his sledge and dogs. - -During the next three days, journeys of 22, 28, and 30 miles were made, -and carried the party well into the snow-shed of the Humboldt Glacier. -They had now arrived near the pemmican cache, and a twenty-four hours’ -search was made for it, but it ended in failure. Peary and Henson had -their noses frozen, and Lee and Peary each had a frost-bitten toe. Peary -had hoped against hope that this cache would be found, although he had -made up the rations of the journey without reference to it. - -From this point the Eskimo returned along the tracks made by the -sledges. Never before had any of their tribe penetrated the heart of the -ice-cap. - -Peary now took the lead with a sledge drawn by twelve dogs, and set the -course by means of a boat-compass lashed on the top of the load. Henson -followed next with a sledge and trailer drawn by sixteen dogs; and Lee -brought up the rear with a long sledge and trailer drawn by fourteen -dogs. - -When near the Petermann Fiord Basin, a storm delayed them forty-eight -hours. At this camp two dogs were fed to the others. During the next -week the long sledge was abandoned, and the loads rearranged. - -An average elevation of 7670 feet had now been attained, and breathing -was much more rapid on increased exertion. Henson and Lee frequently -bled at the nose. The maximum elevation was found to be 7865 feet. - -At the 400th mile one of the runners of Henson’s sledge broke, and the -greater portion of a day was spent in repairing the sledge with a runner -from one of the trailers. This new runner, however, only did duty for 12 -miles, when it broke beyond repair. The sledge was now converted into a -three-runner one. On this day the last of the walrus-meat was fed to the -seventeen remaining dogs. It was now a case of dog eat dog, and in a few -days only eleven were left. - -Peary saw that the land must be reached with all speed. He therefore -dismantled the three-runner sledge and cached everything except a week’s -supplies. They were now on the downward grade, and on the second day -they sighted land. - -They were now over 500 miles from the Lodge in a direct line, and three -of the eleven dogs were thoroughly exhausted. Peary decided to leave Lee -here with the dogs, and push on with Henson in search of musk-oxen. - -Peary and Henson started out from an elevation of 4800 feet above -sea-level. Four miles from the tent many huge crevasses were passed. -Peary recognised the group as one he had seen in 1892. Some miles beyond -these large crevasses a great number of small ones were met, into which -both Peary and Henson frequently fell, but were always able to save -themselves. - -At the junction of the ice-cap with the land was a vertical wall of ice -impracticable of descent. Finally a glacier was found over which they -had to pick their way among crevasses. - -The land consisted of bare jagged rocks which cut their boots and -bruised their feet. Leaving the sledge behind, they wandered about the -greater part of a day in a drizzling snowstorm in search of a -practicable route, but failed to find one, or to see any game. Next day -they returned to the tent on the ice-cap. - -A serious condition of affairs now stared them in the face, but after -very little discussion all agreed to stake everything on finding -musk-oxen. They therefore started back for the cache, and when it was -reached Peary and Henson were quite used up. - -One sledge and scant rations for themselves on the return journey were -left at this camp, and everything else was taken on towards the north. - -When a point about 15 miles from the edge of the ice-cap was reached, -Peary found that they were approaching the land on a course about 5 -miles east of the one on which he had descended to it in 1892. He was -here able to look over the eastern edge of the Academy Glacier basin, -and make out the summits of the east-coast land considerably farther to -the south than in 1892. Away due north a magnificent mountain was seen -which was not observed in 1892. - -A large cone of detritus passed in 1892 was reached just in time to take -shelter from a storm which held them prisoners two days. - -Peary here decided to leave Lee in the tent to give a frozen toe a -chance to recover, and to take Henson and all the dogs with him in an -attempt to find musk-oxen. - -After travelling some miles, the sledge was stopped by a shallow cañon -when abreast of Musk-ox Valley. Here Peary left the sledge and dogs and -examined the valley, but could find no trace of musk-oxen. After making -an attempt to pass down the cañon, and failing, they climbed out of it -and made across country. A few miles beyond the valley, Peary shot a -hare. Previous to this they were having recourse to the dog-food, but -they now cooked and ate the entire hare. It was the first full meal they -had had in thirty-five days. - -Next morning they started for a valley between Musk-ox Valley and Navy -Cliff. At the entrance of this valley traces of musk-oxen were found, -and ultimately they were tracked to near the crest of some mountains. -When about 200 yards from the oxen, Peary and Henson lay down behind a -large boulder to regain their breath. It was almost a matter of life or -death with them, and they quivered with excitement. At last they made a -rush for the oxen, and fortunately, instead of running away, the oxen -formed in line with lowered heads. In a few minutes several were shot, -and the remainder took to flight. So hungry were the men that as they -skinned the animals they ate the meat raw and thought it delicious. - -After resting, they took up the trail of the remaining oxen. Having -followed them for twenty hours, Peary’s chagrin may be imagined when the -oxen were ultimately found near the camp he had left. Being now -thoroughly tired, they decided to take a few hours’ sleep before -attacking them, but when they awoke the oxen had gone. The trail was -again taken up, but after a chase of several miles a snowstorm came on, -and completely obliterated all tracks. - -They now returned to the sledge, and using the musk-oxen skins, they -formed a kind of tent into which they crawled, and were soon asleep. - -Next day, Henson was sent back with the sledge and a load of meat to the -moraine where Lee was. On the way there he came across the musk-oxen, -but the dogs gave chase and thoroughly frightened them. - -About the fourth day, Henson and Lee joined Peary, and an attempt was -now made to reach the sea. Several days were spent in incessant -climbing, scrambling, and jumping over rocks, but at the end of it they -found themselves still some 3000 feet above sea-level. To reach the bay -ice it would be necessary to carry supplies on their backs for some -distance over rocks, then down a precipitous shore, across a glacier’s -lateral cañon, and then over several miles of crevasse-riven glacier. - -Peary now found himself compelled to retrace his steps. A sharp look-out -was kept for fresh traces of musk-oxen, but no signs were discovered. - -To reach the moraine was a hard struggle, but they were able to leave it -on the 1st of June to begin the homeward journey over the ice-cap. On -the second day they were fortunate in finding the cache without much -trouble. - -Peary had now nine dogs and fourteen days’ rations for them. For himself -and his two companions he had thirty days’ half-rations of tea, biscuit, -and oil, and several days’ rations of frozen venison. - -On the 3rd June the distance travelled was 25¼ miles, but all the party -had trouble with their feet and legs as a result of the severe work -among the rocks. On the 6th June, Lee was ill and quite used-up, but by -means of a line from the sledge to support himself by, he managed to -struggle along. On the 7th two dogs were quite exhausted, and were fed -to the other seven. On the 8th the larger of the two sledges was -abandoned. On the 9th, after 4 miles’ travelling, they were obliged to -camp on account of Lee. After fifteen hours’ rest and an extra supply of -milk, Lee was able to travel 20 miles during the following march. -Another dog fell exhausted on the 11th, and another on the 12th, leaving -five. On the 13th the five had been reduced to four, and on the 16th -only three were left. On the latter date the last of the dog-food was -consumed. On the 21st June the remainder of the venison was given to the -two remaining dogs, and on the 22nd one of the two dogs died. On the -23rd the summits of the land appeared. The remaining dog was now given a -pair of seal-skin boots and several yards of raw-hide line. Peary and -his companions had four biscuits remaining for supper and breakfast. The -Lodge was reached on the 24th June, and found to be intact. - -The only dog to reach the Lodge was Panikpah, and it was fed by Peary -before he ate anything himself. The memory of the famine-days on the -ice-cap remained with the dog long after, and he might be seen at all -times hiding away every bit of meat or blubber, and every bone he could -find about the place. These noble dogs saved the lives of the party. - -The journey of 500 miles across the ice-cap, from moraine to moraine, -was made in twenty-five marches of an average of 20 miles. The weather -on the whole was exceptionally good, or it would have been impossible to -cover the distance in so short a time. - -Early in the morning of the 3rd August the _Kite_ arrived to take them -home. On the way south two of the Cape York meteorites were successfully -removed and shipped. - -Peary made a summer voyage in 1896 for the purpose of obtaining the -third and largest of the meteorites. Before, however, it could be got on -board, the ship had to leave, in order to avoid being crushed by the -ice. - -Still determined to obtain the meteorite, Peary made another voyage in -the summer of 1897, and was successful in shipping the meteorite and -taking it to the United States. This meteorite is the largest known, and -its estimated weight is between 90 and 100 tons. - -On 12th January 1897, Peary announced his plan for reaching the North -Pole. A sufficient sum was to be raised to continue the work of -exploration for five years, if necessary. A ship was to be taken north -through Robeson Channel to the highest latitude possible along the -Greenland coast. Stores were then to be landed and advanced in stages -until the northern terminus of the North Greenland Archipelago was -reached, and from this point a dash to the Pole would be made. Should -the ship be unsuccessful in the passage of Robeson Channel, the party -was to land at Hayes Sound and devote the first year to explorations of -that unknown region. - -In the spring of 1897, Morris K. Jesup suggested the formation of the -“Peary Arctic Club,” which raised funds for the expedition. At the end -of 1897, Alfred Harmsworth offered the _Windward_ to Peary, who accepted -it. As it could steam only at the rate of 3½ knots at most, Harmsworth -offered to have the _Windward_ re-engined, but unfortunately this could -not be done owing to an engineers’ strike. In consequence of this, Peary -had also to charter the _Hope_ as an auxiliary ship. - -The _Windward_ left New York on 4th July 1898, but Peary sailed from -Sydney, C.B., in the _Hope_ on the 7th. As soon as the Whale Sound -region was reached, Eskimo were engaged, and the work of hunting walrus -for dog-food was prosecuted by both ships. - -At Etah, on 13th August, the two ships separated, the _Hope_ bound for -home, and the _Windward_ for the north. After a good deal of trouble -with the ice, the _Windward_ reached Cape D’Urville, near Cape Hawks, on -the 18th, but was here stopped by a large floe, and before the ship -could get farther it was frozen in. - -As soon as Peary saw that preparations for winter would require to be -made, he landed a year’s supplies at the cape. He then took steps to -secure fresh meat, and in a short time a considerable number of -musk-oxen were obtained. He also began to survey the region near Hayes -Sound. He discovered that Bache “Island” is a peninsula, and that “Hayes -Sound” does not exist. - -Peary now decided to utilise the winter moons in pushing supplies north -as far as Fort Conger, where he purposed to take his party in February. -From Fort Conger he intended to make an attempt on the Pole in the -spring. - -Now commenced a series of desperate sledge-journeys. Snow igloos were -formed at several of the capes. At the end of October, Peary advanced -some supplies as far as Cape Frazer. At the end of the November moon -about 30 cwt. of supplies had been sledged as far as Cape Wilkes, on the -north side of Richardson Bay. The mean daily minimum temperature was -more than 40° below zero, and on four successive days it was 50° below -zero. - -In the first light of the December moon, Peary with Henson and the -doctor and four Eskimo left the ship with the intention of reaching Fort -Conger. On the 28th all the supplies had reached Cape Lawrence on the -north side of Rawlings Bay. Next day Peary started from Cape Lawrence -with light sledges for Fort Conger. On the way the cold was so intense -that it was too much for one of the Eskimo, who had to be left in a -burrow in a snow-drift with a companion to look after him. Before Fort -Conger was reached the moon had departed, and Peary had to grope and -stumble in complete darkness across Lady Franklin Bay. On the 6th -January 1899 the party passed through the doorway of Fort Conger. -Biscuit from the table where it had lain fifteen years formed a lunch. -On reaching Fort Conger, Peary had a suspicious “wooden” feeling in his -feet, and on having them examined it was found that both were -frost-bitten. He ultimately lost eight of his toes. - -The party remained at Fort Conger until the 18th February, when a start -was made for the _Windward_, which was reached in eleven days. The mean -minimum daily temperature during this period was the astonishing one of -−56.18°F., and on the day the _Windward_ was reached the temperature -went down to −65° F. - -During April the supplies left at Cape Lawrence were moved to Fort -Conger. On 19th April, Peary again left for Fort Conger, although he -could not move without crutches, and Discovery Harbour was reached on -the 28th. Early in May he attempted to make a reconnaissance of the -Greenland north-west coast, but found Robeson Channel impracticable. - -On the 23rd May, Peary and his party started for the ship, and covered -the 250 miles in six days. - -In July, Peary crossed Ellesmere Land to the west coast. Soon after his -return from this trip, the _Windward_ was able to make its way to Etah, -where Peary communicated with a relief expedition in charge of Bridgman. -At the end of August both the _Windward_ and the relief ship were sent -home, and Peary and his party were left at Etah, where the winter was -passed. - -On the 19th February 1900, Peary sent off a division of seven sledges to -Fort Conger; on the 26th February six other sledges left; and on the 4th -March he followed with nine sledges. He reached Fort Conger on 28th -March, and learned that the advance parties had killed twenty-one -musk-oxen close to Conger. - -At Fort Conger, Peary decided to make a sledge-journey along the north -coast of Greenland. He left on the 11th April with seven sledges, and -followed very much the same route taken by Lockwood, but did not go -overland. The northern part of Cape Britannia Island was reached on the -4th May. From here he sent back the last of the supporting party, and -pushed on north with Henson and one Eskimo. Lockwood Island was reached -on the 8th May, and from the cairn erected by Lockwood, Peary took the -record, which had been perfectly preserved. From here one march carried -the party to Cape Washington, the farthest point seen by Lockwood. On -rounding this cape, Peary saw another headland still farther north. Near -this cape were very large glaciers which Peary believes are the -birthplaces of the “floebergs.” Still farther north another cape was -found, to which Peary gave the name “Cape Morris Jesup.” This was the -most northern point of the Greenland Archipelago. From this point Peary -started over the ice-pack towards the north, but found the ice -impracticable. He reached 83° 50′, and returned. He then travelled -eastward along the coast, which soon began to trend to the south-east. -In the same latitude as Cape Washington was found a magnificent cape, -which Peary named “Cape Bridgman.” Two marches beyond this cape brought -Peary to a point from which he recognised a mountain he had seen from -the ice-cap south of Independence Bay. The weather was now very foggy, -and Peary was compelled to stop at what he believed was an island in the -mouth of a large fiord. To this island he gave the name “Clarence -Wyckoff Island.” He had now reached the 83rd degree on the east coast. -After waiting two nights and a day for the fog to lift, he found it -necessary to start on the return journey. He left records at this camp, -and also at Cape Morris Jesup and Cape Washington. Quite a large number -of musk-oxen were seen along this most northern land. - -The return journey was begun on the 22nd May, and Cape Morris Jesup was -passed on the 26th. They reached Fort Conger on 10th June. - -The most northern point of the land to the north of Greenland had now -been determined, and Peary arrived at the conclusion that it was not a -favourable one from which to reach the Pole. The ice was very much -broken, and there was a comparatively rapid motion towards the East -Greenland current. - -Peary now decided to winter at Fort Conger and make another attempt on -the Pole, starting from Cape Hecla, on the north coast of Grant Land. -During the autumn no fewer than 101 musk-oxen were killed. - -On the 5th April 1901, Peary left Fort Conger with Henson, one Eskimo, -two sledges, and twelve dogs for his northern trip. A few days after -starting, he found that the condition of the party and of the dogs was -such that he could not hope for success, and he therefore returned to -Fort Conger. - -On 17th April he started for the south with his entire party, and found -the _Windward_ at Payer Harbour on 6th May. He soon commenced to form -new caches along the coast towards Conger; and in July no fewer than 128 -walruses were killed for dog-food. - -The winter of 1901−2 was passed at Payer Harbour, where six of the -Eskimo died. On the 3rd March 1902, Henson was sent north in charge of -six sledges, and on 6th March, Peary followed with seventeen sledges. -The temperature was from 43° to 49° F. below zero. The distance of 300 -miles to Fort Conger was covered in twelve marches. - -On the 24th March 1902, Peary started north from Fort Conger with nine -sledges for Cape Hecla. Finding deep snow near Cape Joseph Henry, Peary -preferred to take the ice-foot route round it rather than cross Feilden -Peninsula. At the very extremity of the cape the sledges had to be -passed along a shelf of ice 3 feet in width and 75 feet above the sea. - -On 6th April, Peary, Henson, and four Eskimo left Crozier Island, and -when opposite Cape Hecla turned north over the polar pack. Now began a -desperate struggle over rough ice. The route was a continual zigzag, and -the pickaxe had to be used constantly. In deep snow the dogs floundered -and were almost useless, and a sledge had now and again to be dug out of -a hole among snow. - -On the 12th April they were storm-bound by a gale from the west which -caused leads to form. Under great difficulties the journey was continued -till the 21st April. On this date the latitude was 84° 17′ 27″. The ice -was still very rough, and the snow so deep that it was almost -impracticable. The entire pack seemed to be in slow motion towards the -east. Peary here decided to return. He hurried his departure in order to -utilise as much of his outward tracks as possible. He found, however, -that the movement of the ice had faulted the trail in various places, -and it was only with great difficulty that it could be followed. Crozier -Island was again reached on 29th April, and Fort Conger on 3rd May. - -Fort Conger was left on 6th May, and Payer Harbour was reached on the -17th. The _Windward_ arrived on the 5th August, and conveyed Peary and -his party to America. - -The year 1905 saw Peary again on his way to the north. His expedition -sailed from New York on 12th July 1905 on board the _Roosevelt_. Etah -was left on 16th August, and after various encounters with the ice the -_Roosevelt_ succeeded in reaching Cape Sheridan on 5th September. The -vessel here suffered severe pressure, which did considerable damage. It -was not floated again until the following summer, and this position -perforce became headquarters. The winter proved much milder than that -which the _Alert_ experienced in the same region. - -During October many of the dogs died, and it was found that the cause of -the trouble was cured whale-meat, several tons of which had to be thrown -away. To make good this loss, many musk-oxen were obtained in the Lake -Hazen district and along the slopes of the United States Range. - -At the end of February 1906, Peary started on a sledge-journey with the -object of reaching the Pole. In three marches he reached Cape Hecla, -where his whole party assembled. From here he advanced over the pack-ice -with one main and several supporting parties. Open leads and rough ice -made progress slow, and a considerable portion of the track had to be -cut with pickaxes. At latitude 84° 38′ a broad lead extending east and -west as far as it could be seen completely barred the way. After a delay -of six days, Peary’s party managed to cross on young ice which bent -beneath their weight. Three days later a gale began to blow, and lasted -six days. The ice was broken up, and Peary and Henson were driven 70 -miles to the eastward on a large floe. Peary could now receive no aid -from his supporting parties, and he decided to make a dash northwards. -His party now numbered eight. Everything was abandoned that was not -absolutely necessary, and every energy was bent on establishing a -record. The character of the ice was now much better than farther south, -but cracks and narrow leads increased. By forced marches Peary reached -87° 6′ on 21st April. By this time his sledges were nearly empty, and -the ice was still in motion towards the east. He was therefore compelled -to start on the return journey. - -On reaching latitude 84° a lead was encountered over which no crossing -could be found, and they were forced to camp on a large floe which -drifted steadily eastward. Here some sledges were broken up to cook -dog-meat for the party. On the 5th May two Eskimo, sent out as scouts, -reported young ice a few miles distant. It was decided to attempt to -cross it. The thin ice bent beneath them, but by using snow-shoes the -crossing was effected in safety. - -During the next week the party had to cut their way through a terrible -chaos of ice, and on the 12th May they reached the Greenland coast at -Cape Neumayer. Here they succeeded in obtaining four hares. - -Near Cape Neumayer sledge-tracks were found, and as these had no doubt -been made by one of the supporting parties, Peary sent two Eskimo to -follow the tracks. They returned next day with Clark and his three -Eskimo, who were in a terribly famished condition. Fortunately, seven -musk-oxen were secured, and for two days the party ate and slept. - -The remainder of the march back to the _Roosevelt_ was accomplished -without any special difficulty. Peary now called in the relief parties -who were still out. After a short rest, a trip was made to the west of -Grant Land. New land, named “Crocker Land,” was seen to the north-west. -On the 30th July, Peary again returned to the _Roosevelt_, which next -day started on the return journey. - -Peary had decided that the ship was so badly damaged that it could not -safely remain another winter exposed to the ice. He therefore determined -to return home for repairs, and to sail again for the north during the -following year. At Lady Franklin Bay it was feared that the ship would -have to pass the winter there, but it fortunately managed to get free, -and the voyage was resumed. - -At Etah the _Roosevelt_ was beached four days for repairs. Again the -journey was resumed, but severe storms were encountered, and it was not -till 13th October that the vessel reached Hebron, Labrador. - -On 6th July 1908 the _Roosevelt_ left New York to carry Commander Peary -and his party once more to the Arctic regions. The necessary repairs to -the ship had not been finished in time for an expedition in 1907. -Sydney, Nova Scotia, was left on 17th July, and Etah on 18th August. The -usual course was taken across Smith Sound to Cape Sabine, and then -northward. Fog and ice were soon encountered, but the _Roosevelt_ slowly -worked her way north as far as Lincoln Bay, where she had to shelter -several days. On 2nd September Cape Union was passed, and on the 5th of -this month the _Roosevelt_ went into winter quarters near Cape -Sheridan—a little north of the position of three years before. - -Commander Peary had decided to set out on his final attempt to reach the -Pole from Cape Columbia. The winter was occupied in transporting -supplies to this point. - -On 15th February 1909 the first of the sledges left the _Roosevelt_, and -Peary brought up the rear on 22nd February. The total of all divisions -was 7 men of Peary’s party, 59 Eskimo, 140 dogs, and 23 sledges. A start -was made over the ice from Cape Columbia on 1st March. Bartlett had been -sent on ahead to make a trail. From this point the party consisted of 17 -Eskimo, 133 dogs, and 19 sledges, in addition to the 7 men in command. -On the first day’s march 10 miles were covered, and on the second the -record made by Markham in 1876 was passed. A wide lake of open water was -encountered on 4th March, and here the party were delayed till the 11th. -A sounding taken here gave 110 fathoms. On the 14th the temperature -registered minus 59° F. The first supporting party was sent back on the -15th in charge of Dr. Goodsell, and on the following day Peary found it -necessary to send back Professor McMillan, who was suffering from a -badly frost-bitten foot. A sounding taken at this camp gave a depth of -825 fathoms, so that the Continental Shelf had now been passed. When -latitude 85° 23′ had been reached, the second supporting party, -commanded by Borup, turned back. The advance party had now been reduced -to 20 men, 10 sledges, and 70 dogs. Leads were frequently met, but good -marches were made daily. The third supporting party returned from -latitude 86° 38′ with Professor Marvin in command. This reduced the -advance division to 9 men, 7 sledges, and 60 dogs. The character of the -ice was now favourable for long marches, but still there was danger from -open leads. At the end of the second day’s march progress was stopped by -open water, and during the night the party found themselves in imminent -danger. The ice had broken Bartlett’s igloo adrift, and others were -threatening to follow suit. It was with great difficulty that the party -managed to save themselves and the dogs. There was considerable -commotion in the ice during the remainder of the night and the whole of -the next day. The ice then closed together and allowed the party to -proceed. North of this point the surface improved, and consisted mostly -of heavy old floes covered with hard snow and comparatively level. From -latitude 87° 48′ the fourth and last supporting party, commanded by -Bartlett, turned back. - -Peary had now with him his servant Henson, who had been his faithful -companion on nearly all his journeys; Ootam, who had been with him when -he made his record three years before; two of the Eskimo who had been -with Clark when they narrowly escaped death from starvation; and a fifth -man was a young Eskimo who had shown great eagerness for the work. Forty -of the best dogs were selected, and five of the best sledges. The -supplies were ample for forty days, and Peary believed that with the -dogs he could make them last fifty days more. - -A determined effort was now to be made to reach the Pole. During the -first march of ten hours 25 miles were covered, and after a few hours’ -sleep another march of ten hours covered another 20 miles. Again a few -hours’ sleep, and a further march of 20 miles brought the party within -sight of latitude 89°. The temperature at this time was 40° F. below -zero. After a short sleep, the fourth march was made against a bitter -wind, and the distance covered was estimated to be at least 25 miles. -The party were now getting much fatigued, and it was found necessary to -take a longer sleep before beginning the fifth march. - -During these four marches the weather had been brilliant, but with the -fifth it changed to a dense pall overhead, and the ice beneath was a -ghastly white with no relief. The surface, however, was even better than -before; there was scarcely any snow on the old floes, and a rise of -temperature to 15° F. below zero reduced the friction of the sledges. In -twelve hours no less than 40 miles were covered without a sign of a -lead. A hasty noon observation was now made, and the latitude was found -to be within 3 geographical miles of the Pole. Thirty hours were spent -in making observations, in going some 10 miles beyond the camp and about -8 miles to the right of it. Flags were planted, photographs were taken, -and the horizon was carefully searched through the telescope for -possible land. The minimum temperature during the thirty hours was 33° -F., and the maximum 12° F. below zero. - -Peary had now at last reached the goal of his ambition—the goal he had -been fighting to reach through many years and under tremendous -difficulties. His dogged perseverance and stern determination must -excite the warmest admiration of every one. During the twenty-three -years from 1886 to 1909 he passed fifteen summers and eight winters in -the Arctic regions. No matter what view we may take of Dr. Cook’s great -achievement, we must admit that Commander Peary, much more than any -other man, deserved the great honour of being the first to reach the -North Pole. - -The return journey was begun on the afternoon of 7th April. The distance -from Cape Columbia had been travelled in thirty-seven days, but Peary in -returning wished to cover five of the outward marches in three, and he -practically succeeded. For a large part of the way he was able to return -on his former track, and he had therefore the further advantage of not -requiring to build snow-huts. Cape Columbia was reached on 23rd April, -so that the distance of 475 English miles from the Pole had been -travelled in the astonishing time of sixteen days—an average of about -30 miles per day. - -On arrival at the _Roosevelt_, Peary learned that Professor Marvin had -been drowned. Returning in command of the third supporting party, Marvin -had reached within 45 miles of Cape Columbia. He had gone on ahead of -his Eskimo, and had broken through young ice covering a recent lead. -When the Eskimo arrived, they found Marvin’s body floating in the water -some distance out from the ice. - -On 18th July the _Roosevelt_ left her winter quarters, and reached Cape -Sabine on 8th August. - -Peary’s final expedition brings out in a striking manner the contrast -between his methods and those of the British Expedition of 1875−76. -Commander Markham and Sir George Nares were emphatic in their opinion -that it was utterly impracticable to reach the North Pole over the ice -from the north of Grant Land. Peary’s route was considerably to the west -of Markham’s, and no doubt escaped much of the crushed-up ice -encountered by the British, but the fact that the full distance to the -Pole was covered in thirty-seven days, on at least eight of which Peary -was detained by open water, proves that the methods adopted were -incomparably superior. - - - - -[Illustration: CHART OF NORTH POLAR REGIONS.] - - - - - CHAPTER XIV - DR. COOK’S EXPEDITION (1907−9) - - -=[=Dr. Cook’s statements, both as regards Mount McKinley and his -discovery of the North Pole, have been seriously called in question. The -writer prefers to accept his statements until his opponents prove that -they are false. - -According to the latest reports, a committee of the American Explorers’ -Club have examined Dr. Cook’s data regarding his ascent of Mount -McKinley, and have come to the conclusion that his data do not stand the -test to which they were submitted. - -The Council of the Copenhagen University, to whom Dr. Cook sent certain -documents for examination, have decided that from the material supplied -no proof can be adduced that he reached the North Pole. - -As Dr. Cook’s instruments and most of his astronomical observations were -left behind at Etah, and are still there in consequence of Peary’s -refusal to allow them on his ship, it is impossible at present to -pronounce a final judgment.=]= - -Dr. Frederick A. Cook first took part in Arctic exploration as surgeon -and ethnologist to Peary’s expedition of 1891. He was then twenty-six -years of age. Before the expedition reached Greenland his services were -required in a critical emergency. Peary received a fracture of both -bones of his leg, and it was to Dr. Cook’s skill that he owed a rapid -and successful recovery. - -Dr. Cook was one of the party on the ice-cap as far as Humboldt Glacier, -and when Peary asked for a volunteer to accompany him to the farthest -north, Dr. Cook was the first to offer his services. Peary decided to -take Astrup, probably because he wished Dr. Cook to take charge of the -base camp where Mrs. Peary and the remainder of the expedition had to -wait anxiously till his return. Peary states that “to Dr. Cook’s care -may be attributed the almost complete exemption of the party from even -the mildest indisposition, and personally I owe much to his professional -skill, and unruffled patience and coolness in an emergency. In addition -to his work in his special ethnological field, in which he has obtained -a large mass of most valuable material concerning a practically -unstudied tribe, he was always helpful and an indefatigable worker.” - -After his return from the Arctic, Dr. Cook had a great ambition to try -the Antarctic, but did not obtain an opportunity till 1897, and he then -had to go on very short notice. The Belgian Expedition had considerable -trouble and some disappointment in connection with the surgeons -appointed. The first candidate was put aside, after acceptance, for -personal reasons, and the second declined to go at the last moment for -family reasons. Without a knowledge of this difficulty, Dr. Cook cabled -to Belgium from America, volunteering his services, though at the time -he had not previously written a line, nor was he acquainted with a -single individual of the expedition or its representatives. In reply, he -received the instruction, “Meet us at Rio, end of September.” He had -only a few days to prepare himself and his outfit for a journey which -might take one year or several. French was the language spoken on the -ship, but Dr. Cook could not speak a word of it. The Commandant, -however, could speak English, and all the scientific staff could speak -German, with which Dr. Cook was familiar. This expedition, after doing -some valuable work, was beset in the ice, and drifted throughout the -whole winter. After an absence of fifteen months, it returned to -civilisation in the spring of 1899. - -Dr. Cook’s next venture was an attempt to reach the summit of Mount -McKinley, in Alaska, the highest mountain in North America. His first -attempt was made in 1903, and although he reached a height of only -11,400 feet, he explored a good deal of new territory. His second -attempt was made in 1906, and was successful. He began the ascent with -two companions, but one of them became afraid of the crevasses in the -glaciers and returned to the base camp. The summit, 20,390 feet above -sea-level, was reached by Dr. Cook and Edward Barrille on 16th September -in a temperature of 16° F. below zero. - -In the following year, 1907, Dr. Cook quietly made preparations for a -daring expedition to the North Pole. He was fortunate in having a -wealthy friend, John R. Bradley, who paid all expenses. A strong fishing -schooner was purchased and well stocked with suitable supplies. Mr. -Bradley was especially interested in Arctic game, and a considerable -time was spent in hunting walruses and other large animals. At Annootok, -25 miles to the north of Etah, a large settlement of natives was found, -in a most prosperous condition, and here Dr. Cook decided to make his -winter quarters. Rudolph Francke was chosen to be his only companion. -The necessary supplies of food and fuel were landed from the schooner, -and a winter house was soon erected. Steps were at once taken to secure -a large supply of meat and blubber to support the Eskimo during the -winter, and to make provision for the families during the absence of the -men accompanying the expedition in the spring. The whole of the winter -was occupied in preparing furs and equipment of all kinds. - -Cook had an abundance of the best hickory wood, and the sledges were -made of a pattern combining the qualities of the Yukon and the Eskimo. -Unlike many others, he did not abandon the old-fashioned iron shoes for -strips of German silver. For dog-harness the Eskimo pattern was adopted, -but in order to prevent the dogs eating the harness, the shoulder-straps -were made of folds of strong canvas, while the traces were cut from -cotton log-line. - -Pemmican, made of pounded dry beef, sprinkled with a few raisins, some -currants, and a small quantity of sugar, was selected as the staple food -both for men and dogs. - -Early in January 1908 some sledges were sent across Smith Sound to -explore a route and to advance supplies. These advance expeditions were -only partly successful, however, owing to storms having rendered the -moonlight of little service. - -The main expedition left Annootok on 19th February 1908. It consisted of -eleven men, one hundred and three dogs, and eleven heavily loaded -sledges. The crossing of Smith Sound to Cape Sabine was found to be -about the most difficult part of the whole journey. The temperature was -low, and as the season was early, there were only a few hours of -sunlight daily. From Cape Sabine a course was made into Flagler Fiord. -From the head of this fiord Ellesmere Island was crossed to Bay Fiord. -In crossing the land the temperature went down to the astonishingly low -figure of 83° F. below zero. - -In Bay Fiord a large number of musk-oxen were obtained, which enabled -the party to save their provisions. From Bay Fiord the expedition -entered Eureka Sound, and proceeded northward along the coast of Heiberg -Island. The ice was fairly smooth, and long marches were made. Caches of -food and ammunition were left along Heiberg Island for the return -journey, which Dr. Cook intended to make by way of Cañon Fiord. As an -abundance of musk-oxen, bears, and hares were obtained, it was found -unnecessary to use the provisions taken from Greenland. This also -supplied them with sufficient fat to use as fuel in the snow-houses -which were nightly built for sleeping-quarters. - -Svartevog, at the north end of Heiberg Island, was reached on the 17th -March. A distance of nearly 400 geographical miles had been covered in -twenty-eight days. This included the difficult and dangerous crossing of -Smith Sound, and the crossing of Ellesmere Island. It was a remarkable -feat, and justified the leader in daring the remaining 525 miles which -lay between him and the Pole. - -At Svartevog a cache was made in which were placed not only a large -quantity of food, but also many discarded articles of equipment. Dr. -Cook had decided to take only two Eskimo with him on the final part of -the journey to the Pole. The two men chosen were Etukishuk and Ahwelah, -each twenty years old. Twenty-six dogs were picked, and provisions for -eighty days were loaded on two sledges. The sledges were made of hickory -and had iron shoes. The provisions consisted of pemmican, musk-ox meat, -tea, coffee, sugar, condensed milk, biscuits, and pea-soup. By way of -fuel, 40 lb. petroleum, 2 lb. wood-alcohol, 3 lb. of candles, and 1 lb. -of matches were carried. Each sledge carried 600 lb., which included the -following articles of equipment: pails, cups, and teaspoons made of -aluminium; 1 tablespoon, 3 tin plates, 6 pocket-knives, 2 -butcher-knives, 1 saw-knife, 2 rifles, 110 cartridges, 1 hatchet, 1 -Alpine axe, a 12-foot folding canvas boat, 1 silk tent, 2 reindeer -sleeping-bags, and screws, nails, and rivets. The sledges weighed 52 lb. -each, and the weight of the canvas boat was 34 lb. In addition to these, -Dr. Cook had 3 compasses, 1 sextant, 1 glass artificial horizon, 1 -pedometer, 3 pocket chronometers, 1 watch, 3 thermometers, 1 aneroid -barometer, and a camera with films. - -On the march Dr. Cook wore woollen drawers, a bird-skin shirt, a -blue-fox coat, bear-skin pants, kamiks and hare-skin stockings. A band -of fox-tails was fastened under the knee and about the waist. A -seal-skin coat and some extra clothing were also carried in the personal -bag. - -On the morning of 18th March six of the Eskimo left Svartevog on the -return journey. Koolootingwah and Inugito were taken on by Dr. Cook as a -supporting party to give assistance over the rough ice of the pack-edge. -Shortly after noon Dr. Cook started over the polar floes, on a course -slightly west of north. The first day’s march covered 26 miles. Next -morning the temperature was minus 56° F. Some troublesome crushed-ice -was encountered on the second march, but yet the party added 21 miles to -their credit. The difficulties increased on the third day, and the -distance travelled was reduced to 16 miles. Here Dr. Cook sent his two -supporting Eskimo back. They returned with empty sledges, and although -their dogs had received no food during the previous three days, they -hoped to cover the 63 miles to land in one long day’s travel! They -carried a letter instructing Francke to wait until 5th June 1908, and if -Dr. Cook had not returned he was to place Koolootingwah in charge and go -home, either by the whalers or by Danish ships to the south. - -Dr. Cook believed that he had now passed beyond the zone of ice crushed -by the influence of land-pressure. On the morning of the fourth march -the temperature was at the low figure of 63° below zero F., but -fortunately there was no wind. Heiberg Island was now nearly lost to -view. A march of fourteen hours carried the party 29 miles. Soon after -the usual snow-house was built, a storm arose, and a further start was -not made until the afternoon of the following day. From minus 59° the -temperature rose to minus 46°, but the wind made the party feel the -piercing cold very keenly. This march brought them to a great lead -several miles wide. It was covered with ice too thin to be crossed with -safety. A partially bridged place was, however, discovered about a mile -from camp, and the low temperature during the night had strengthened the -ice sufficiently for an attempt to be made to cross it. On snow-shoes, -Dr. Cook led the way with spread legs. In two crossings all the supplies -were landed on the other side. - -This was probably an extension westwards of the same lead encountered by -Peary, and may indicate the dividing line between the central polar pack -and the land-ice. - -A course was now set to reach the 85th parallel on the 97th meridian. At -noon on the 24th March a satisfactory observation gave the position as -latitude 83° 31′; longitude, 96° 27′. From here a glimpse was obtained -of what was believed to be Crocker Land away to the west. - -The bright light of the sun now began to trouble the eyes, but -amber-coloured goggles were found to be a very satisfactory protection. - -On the 25th March a hurricane was experienced, and during the storm the -temperature rose to minus 26° F. The ice cracked with thundering noise, -and Dr. Cook sank into a crevasse which formed under the floor of the -snow-house where he was lying in his sleeping-bag. He was, however, -quickly pulled out by the Eskimo. - -During the next three marches it was estimated that 53 geographical -miles were travelled. A cold wind was blowing from the west, and added -much to the misery of the party by forming icicles on every hair about -the face. - -On the night of 28th March a violent storm swept away the dome of their -snow-house and buried them under a considerable quantity of snow, from -which they extricated themselves with difficulty. - -Next day the weather improved, and on the 30th March the clear -atmosphere enabled them to discover land some distance to the west, -extending parallel to the line of their route. The position at this time -was found to be 84° 50′, and longitude 95° 36′. This land gave the -impression that it probably consisted of two islands, and was named by -Dr. Cook “Bradley Land.” It was seen to extend from about 83° 20′ to -about 85° 11′ near to the 102nd meridian. It was buried under snow, and -resembled the high lands of Heiberg Island. - -Dr. Cook has stated that from latitude 83° 31′ a glimpse was obtained of -what was believed to be Crocker Land away to the west. He now states -that Bradley Land extends as far south as 83° 20′. If this is correct, -Bradley Land must include Crocker Land. - -The weather again changed on the 31st March, and hid the land from view. -Strong winds made progress rather slow for several days. On 7th April -the sun was first observed above the horizon at midnight. The journey -had now lasted from the time the sun first appeared above the horizon at -midday until it did not set during the twenty-four hours. - -On 8th April the position was ascertained to be 86° 36′, longitude 94° -2′. In nine days 106 miles had been covered, in a temperature ranging -from 36° to 46° F. below zero. Dr. Cook at this time remarked that in -dreams Heaven was hot, and the other place was cold. - -On 11th April the latitude was 87° 20′, and the longitude 95° 19′. Ice -conditions now improved, and good distances were made. For two days the -march was over old ice without pressure-lines or hummocks. The winds, -however, were still bitterly cold, and on 13th April Ahwelah nearly -collapsed. The position on the 14th was 99 miles from the Pole. Some of -the dogs had already been killed to feed the others, but a sufficient -number remained to enable the party to make a determined effort to cover -the remaining distance to the Pole. - -On to the 89th parallel the ice was in large fields and comparatively -smooth. The noon observation on 19th April gave the latitude as 29 miles -from the Pole, and the longitude 94° 3′. The next march was made under -great excitement, and when camp was pitched it was within 14 miles of -the goal, in longitude 94° 52′. Shortly after midnight of 21st April the -party again set out, and when the pedometer had registered 14½ miles -camp was made. The observation here gave latitude 89° 59′ 45″. A -distance equal to the 15″ was advanced, the tent was pitched, and a -snow-house was built so that the party might stay long enough for two -rounds of observations to be made. The temperature was 38.7° below zero. - -The North Pole had at last been conquered. The struggle which had been -carried on more than three centuries was finally over. It had cost many -lives and unparalleled hardships before man’s ambition was satisfied. -And what a desolate spot to have aroused the competition of nations! No -land was in sight, no life had been seen within a long distance of it, -and nothing but endless fields of ice and snow stretched away to the -horizon. Yet here was the most interesting geographical point on the -surface of the earth; here was the axis on which the world turned. - -Soon after midnight of 22nd April, Dr. Cook and his two companions began -their return journey. They set their course along the 100th meridian, -and during the first few days, with fair weather and good ice, they -succeeded in making long marches. On 30th April the latitude was found -to be 88° 1′, and the longitude 97° 42′. As this showed a drift to the -eastward, a more westerly course was set. The temperature still remained -between 30° and 40° below zero, and the wind was again troublesome. Dr. -Cook, with compass in hand, marched ahead of the sledges. Near the 88th -parallel very heavy ice was crossed. - -On the 6th May they were stopped by a very severe snowstorm. An attempt -was made to build a snow-house, but the wind swept the blocks away. An -effort was then made to put up the tent, but this was found impossible. -In sheer despair, they crept under the tent without erecting the pole. -For several days the wind was too strong to allow them to travel, and -the atmospheric conditions made it impossible to take observations. -Added to these difficulties was the fact that the food-supply was -running short. - -On 24th May the weather cleared sufficiently to enable Dr. Cook to make -an observation, which placed them on the 84th parallel, near the 97th -meridian. - -The temperature now gradually rose to zero, and caused the formation of -a fog which proved a serious obstacle to progress. It was Dr. Cook’s -intention to make for his cache in Nansen’s Sound, but when next the sky -cleared, after a long struggle, the party found themselves far south, in -Crown-Prince Gustav Sea. Open water and broken ice made it impossible -for them to reach Heiberg Island. - -Dr. Cook was still anxious to return home in 1908, and when he saw that -he was cut off from Annootok, he decided to make for Lancaster Sound, -where he hoped to find one of the Scottish whalers. This allowed him to -take advantage of the southerly drift of the ice. Passing through Hassel -Sound, the party were fortunate in securing both bears and seals. Dr. -Cook states that from this point they travelled southward over Norwegian -Bay into Wellington Channel.[3] Here, however, they found the ice so -much broken up that sledging was impossible, and early in July they -crossed the island of North Devon into Jones Sound. Open water was again -met, and the party were forced to take to the folding canvas boat. As -there was no food for the dogs, they were left behind to shift for -themselves. One of the sledges had also to be left, and the other was -taken to pieces and carried in the boat. - -Now followed a long struggle, partly by boat and partly by sledge. Birds -formed their chief food, and in securing these the last of the -ammunition was expended. Baffin’s Bay was reached early in September, -but it was found impossible to return to Greenland or to reach a place -of safety farther south. The only alternative was to make a winter-hut -and endeavour to secure sufficient food to carry them through till the -following spring. They returned westwards to search for a suitable place -to winter, and found it at Cape Sparbo, in Jones Sound. Here an -underground hut was made of stones, bones, and turf; and by means of -primitive weapons they succeeded in killing a sufficient number of -animals to enable them to live through the winter, and to provide food -and equipment for the return journey to Greenland. - -On 18th February 1909 the winter quarters were left, and Annootok was -reached on 15th April. Anxious to return home as speedily as possible, -Dr. Cook set out for the Danish settlement at Upernavik, where he -arrived on 21st May. From there he travelled to Copenhagen by Danish -steamers. - -This journey by Dr. Cook is unparalleled in the history of Arctic -exploration. The bare idea of attempting to reach the North Pole, in one -season, from the latitude of Annootok, was daring in the extreme. It is -probably correct to say that no Arctic authority could expect that he -would have the smallest chance of success. Many expeditions with much -greater resources than Dr. Cook possessed had in the same region made -the attempt from points hundreds of miles nearer the Pole, and had -suffered utter defeat. Markham’s starting-point was about 240 -geographical miles nearer the Pole, and his farthest north was 400 miles -from the Pole. Lockwood’s base was over 200 miles nearer the Pole, and -his record was only 4 miles farther than Markham’s. Dr. Cook was well -aware that Commander Peary himself, by far the most experienced of -Arctic explorers, had repeatedly made attempts from a base much nearer -the Pole. Starting from Lockwood’s base in 1900, his farthest point -reached was 370 miles from the Pole. A second attempt from the same -point in 1902 reached a latitude 343 miles from the Pole. In 1906 his -third trial was made from a ship situated more than 240 geographical -miles nearer the Pole than Annootok, but the farthest north attained was -still 174 miles from the Pole. - -This was the position when Dr. Cook decided to make the attempt from -Annootok. It is not surprising, therefore, that those acquainted with -the history of the subject should find a serious difficulty in at once -accepting Dr. Cook’s statement that he had accomplished such an -extraordinary achievement. - -His idea of avoiding the route through Kennedy Channel and adopting a -course sufficiently west to escape the crushed-up land-ice was no doubt -a good one, but making every allowance for this advantage, the contrast -between his expedition and Commander Peary’s expedition of 1909 is very -great. Commander Peary had relief parties to assist him until he was -within 132 geographical miles of the Pole. His problem then was to -travel these 132 miles and return to land 413 miles distant. Dr. Cook, -on the other hand, was about 462 miles from the Pole when his last -supporting party left him. To reach the Pole he had therefore to travel -462 miles against Peary’s 132, without being able to obtain any further -supply of food. The return journey, again, was very different. Dr. Cook -expected to find his cache 525 miles distant, but in reality the first -land reached was more than 670 miles from the Pole. The total distance -in latitude covered by Peary with the supply he was able to carry on his -sledges was therefore 545 miles, whereas Cook states that he covered the -extraordinary distance of 1132 miles. - -Dr. Cook has still to satisfy experts, but no one will question the fact -that Commander Peary has reached the North Pole; so that, no matter what -the result of the unfortunate controversy may be, to the American nation -belongs the great honour of winning the coveted prize. - -During more than three centuries the record was held by the British. It -was then captured by America in 1882. In 1895 it passed into the hands -of the Norwegians, who held it until won by the Italians in 1900. -America regained it in 1906, and now must keep it finally. - -The chief records are as follows:— - - British {Parry 82° 45′ on 25th July 1827. - {Markham 83° 20′ ” 12th May 1876. - American Lockwood 83° 24′ ” 13th ” 1882. - Norwegian Nansen 86° 13′ ” 7th April 1895. - Italian Cagni 86° 34′ ” 24th ” 1900. - American Peary 87° 6′ ” 21st ” 1906. - American {Cook 90° 0′ ” 21st ” 1908. - {Peary 90° 0′ ” 6th ” 1909. - ------ - -[3] Dr. Cook seems to have made a mistake here. His route was evidently -west of Norwegian Bay. - - _Printed by_ MORRISON & GIBB LIMITED, _Edinburgh_ - - - - - SOME RECENT PUBLICATIONS. - -WITH CLUB AND CADDIE. -Verses and Parodies by E. M. GRIFFITHS. Fcap. 8vo, cloth extra, t.e.g., -=2s. 6d.= net. - -“Since the Granta days of Calverley and J. K. 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