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diff --git a/old/50963-0.txt b/old/50963-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index d5e8119..0000000 --- a/old/50963-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2279 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Future Development of Japanese Dwelling -Houses, by Shigetsura Shiga - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: Future Development of Japanese Dwelling Houses - -Author: Shigetsura Shiga - -Release Date: January 18, 2016 [EBook #50963] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JAPANESE DWELLING HOUSES *** - - - - -Produced by Fay Dunn and the Online Distributed Proofreading -Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from -images generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber’s Note - - -This thesis has been transcribed from a hand written document, some -Japanese and Latin words were differentiated by printing them, these -are marked with _underscores_. - -All text in illustrations was originally printed in capital letters. - -Words in small capitals are shown in UPPERCASE. - -Plates have been moved to the start of the paragraph which they -illustrate. Titles, notes and labels from the plates have been -transcribed at the very end of the book. - -Footnotes have been moved to the end of the paragraph to which they -refer. - -Inconsistent hyphenation, variant spelling and the author’s -romanization of Japanese words have been retained. No changes have -been made to correct grammar, but minor changes have been made to -punctuation. Other changes that have been made are listed at the end of -the book. - - - - - FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF JAPANESE - DWELLING HOUSES - - BY - - SHIGETSURA SHIGA, B.S., 1893 - - - THESIS - - - FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE - - IN THE - - GRADUATE SCHOOL - - UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS - - - PRESENTED, JUNE 1905 - - - - -UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS - - - June 1 1905 - - - THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER MY SUPERVISION BY - - Shigetsura Shiga, B.S. 1893. - - ENTITLED Future Development of Japanese Dwelling Houses - - IS APPROVED BY ME AS FULFILLING THIS PART OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE - DEGREE OF Master of Architecture - - N. Clifford Ricker - - HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF Architecture - - - - -Future Development of Japanese Dwelling Houses. - - Shigetsura Shiga, B.S. - - - - -Introduction. - - -It was comparatively recently that it became in vogue for the educated -circle in Japan to tour over Europe and America to observe and -investigate the manner and customs of those civilized nations. And at -length they deduced a conclusion that the so-called civilization of the -West is not only based on superficial progress of materialism but it -had profound root in the mental training of the citizens; comparison -and discussion have taken place in every institution of education -throughout the Empire. This is one of the procedures of pushing one -step further toward the advancement of this country. We hear also too -often of late years as to the questionable qualities of the behavior -of citizens toward the public, and so much talk about the improvement -of general customs of the country. All these are only reflections -arising from sharp observation of intelligent Japanese Globe trotters -who carefully compared with keen eyes all the conduct and behavior of -natives. - -The manners and customs of a nation are only the reflection of means of -existence, which mainly consist of clothing, food, and shelter; what -we call improvements of national living is in the main improvements -in these three things. Other thing, such as etiquette, form only an -insignificant part which necessarily comes from the method of living; -when the latter undergoes a change a corresponding change will follow -in the former. - -Here the question comes on the start and which at least is a most -predominant factor governing the design of our dwelling houses. Have -we to design our houses so as to sit on the mat, or to sit on the -chair? This may sound strange to a person alien from Japan, yet it -is a most important question for the native Japanese in this time -of transition. It will be too severe to urge one to chose one in -preference to another. If he likes to sit on the mat as he has done, or -sit on the chair as all European nations do, either make no difference -according to my own view, and under the circumstances of our modern -mode of living the houses should be suitable for either way; the -future will decide this question. Remember, however, that the way of -bending the legs under the weight of the body to which we have so long -been accustomed and which has characterized Japanese from all other -nations is surely a great impediment for the development of our legs; -comparative shortness of legs of all Japanese has as believed by some -its cause in this habit. Stretching a body on the Futon (a bed, without -bedstead, simply spread over the mat[A] on the floor) at night is not -healthy mode of sleeping from hygienical stand point taking in the -air much loaded with carbonic acid gas at night. Only common sense is -enough to know whether it is evil or not. Still I do not insist upon -changing our mode of daily life instilled in us from time unknown; it -might be too severe to persuade one to accomplish the work which is -almost impossible to do at present; it would be better to leave this -question to one’s own judgement for awhile. It will not take more than -a century before the problem is solved; and meanwhile it is enough to -remember that the only way for progress is to abandon what one consider -wrong and to adopt what is right. An inclination of a few minutes of -a navigator’s compass when he leaves a port makes a divergence of -thousands of miles in a course of a few days, so the discrimination -of the majority of people however small the matter may be, greatly -influences the civilization of a country. - - [A] Japanese mat is 2 ft. 10¾ ins. by 5 ft. 9½ ins. having thickness - of 2½ ins. laid on wooden floor. - -The second question is whether our dwelling houses should take an -appearance of European style or Japanese in aspect. According to my -own view, if one choose his habitation to look European he need not -hesitate to do so; but if he prefer to treat his house with Japanese -design he may do it so: Chinese, Hindoo, Greek, or Roman make no -difference whatever as far as the selection of design is concerned; the -determination of national art is another question not involved here. -The freedom of design should strictly be observed in any time and place -provided the precautions hereafter set forth be carefully heeded. - -To live in a perfect house is an ideal or ambition quite out of reach; -but if he is wealthy enough to start a new home, that impartial -judgement and trained eyes with which he should discriminate what the -result will be is always necessary. It is dangerous for an uninitiated -to live in a house designed by an uninformed builder or an ignorant -amateur architect; the outlay for the house is too high to merely -display one’s vulgarity or low taste. A result which is an outgrowth -of inexperienced hands with little or no attention to the modern -application of science, and a sequence of a gathered knowledge of -worthless, scattered information would undoubtedly be surpassed by that -which worked upon common sense as its foundation and was finished by -the principle of aesthetics. This is a paramount important point to be -considered by either an architect or a house owner, and is the only way -to attain a result near to the perfect and not far from ideal. In this -time of transition the design of the Japanese dwelling houses has no -definite course by which to follow. And I deem it necessary to point -out what to be done and what not to be done for architects and clients, -for it concerns greatly the future development of Japanese dwelling -houses. - -The object of human habitation is not only to keep out the weather or -to sustain the life alone; the habitation of primitive aborigines were -just for that purpose and had no further need arising from the want of -daily necessity. The development of human intellect improves the method -of living and its reflection is made apparent by the mode of cloth, -food, and dwelling. Civilized nations are not satisfied with houses -which were built only to keep out weather or to sustain the life alone, -but seek the dwellings which keep their life most safely and at the -same time most comfortably. The modern requirements of houses are much -complicated and involve so many principles. Notwithstanding that the -subject is one of the most interesting as well as comprehensive among -architects, yet it is viewed by Japanese architects with somewhat of -indifference. The aim and object of dwelling houses is of course safety -and comfort in living, but in order to meet the requirements of the -house we have to further consider it from scientific, economical, and -artistic stand points. It would therefore be appropriate to establish -a maxim according to reasoning, as is generally done, either in -criticizing or creating any thing; and my discussion on Japanese houses -is no exception. - -Principles involved in house designing are not so simple as one would -suppose, for the work of house designing is simply an application -of the scientific, economical, and artistic idea. In other words, -stability, sanitary, convenience, economy, comfort, and beauty are six -principal elements which no architect or house owner should lose sight -of. These elements are principles which govern the designing of houses -and conditions which are to be fulfilled, if a house is desired to be -perfect, in any time and place. All houses should be erected on these -foundations. But the further we think the more we feel the question -becomes complicated; for the question of the houses is not so simple -that we can grasp it under the elements cited above. A house as the -abode of man as a social being; has it no relation to the development -of human society and human culture? Also has it no concern with human -character and conduct? In discussing dwelling houses, all these should -be taken into consideration. And though it seems to be entirely beyond -the scope of an architect’s work, yet it has a great concern with the -future development of Japanese houses. - -There can be nothing perfect in this world; in order to fulfil one -desire something else may or must be sacrificed: for economy’s sake -beauty may be sacrificed; for sanitation convenience will perhaps, be a -victim. On the whole, the work of a house architect is plainly a matter -of compromise. - -Modern Japanese dwelling houses should not be regarded like curios -which only gratify the owner’s curiosity by decorating _Tokonoma_ (the -recess in which _Kakemono_ is hung) and _Chigai-tana_ (a shelf in -the recess next to _Tokonoma_, art objects being generally displayed -on it) in a parlor. A house erected in its rational and appropriated -form, on lot in the circle of the metropolitan city of the empire, -attracts attention of all nations at large; no matter whether it is a -private or a public building is entirely of a public nature. The house -is undoubtedly the property of the owner, yet in its widest sense the -property of a country, and has a great influence upon public happiness, -and at once reveals the standard of living of the natives. We see -many a beautiful residence in Europe and America and notice that they -are not only boasted of by the owners themselves but by the citizen -who guides us to the quarter where wealthy people dwell. They are -apparently proud of the beautiful houses, but it may be understood that -they are inconceivably proud of the country which possesses them in its -realm. A house is surely a decoration of a state, an embellishment of -a city, an achievement of the fine arts. Natural supremacy of scenic -beauty is no special credit to the country. Artificial supremacy in art -and science is true pride of a nation. - -[Illustration: PL. 1 - -Drawings of fences with diagonal supports.] - -[Illustration: PL. 2 - -Drawing of fences with horizontal and vertical supports.] - -[Illustration: PL. 3 - -Drawing of fence, and of a roofed fence.] - -[Illustration: PL. 4 - -Drawing of fences with various types of support.] - -[Illustration: PL. 5 - -Drawing of gates.] - -[Illustration: PL. 6 - -Drawing of gates in fences.] - -Japanese houses in general are destitute of nature of publicity; they -are confined in the enclosure of earth wall or tall wooden fence so -that they are hardly seen from outside (see the drawings of different -style of fences). Does this not mean that the house is build for one’s -own sake not being for the purpose of showing it to others? This -spiritual selfishness is well manifested in the predominant feature -of Japanese dwelling houses. Or we may draw a conclusion in -another way. The Japanese are generally known as reserved or modest -people and do not like to show off what they possess or what they have -done; they feel quite a shame if they are regarded by others to be -pretentious or vain. This prevalent motives common to all Japanese, -pervades all the doings of the people. The seclusion of Japanese houses -from the sight of the public is mainly ascribed to this fact; the true -phase perhaps not being in the selfishness but in the reserve. It -may be admitted, however, that Japanese houses in their construction -are not suitable to show whole structure to the public thoroughfare. -There is another reason that compelled the Japanese houses to take -the feature of seclusion; in the feudal time of Tokugawa Shōgun, more -than three hundred lords or Daimio being scattered over the whole -empire ruled their subjects or retainers with what we now might call -despotism. A subject who is in a habit somewhat of showing off his -wealth could not escape from the eyes of a lord, or a lord of lords -the Shōgun. The heavy tax was levied from him not as a charge for -vanity but it considered his wealth to be capable of giving as much -substantial assistance as he could endure for his lord.--The Corean -people of today is unfortunately a victim of authority under the same -circumstance.--Under such circumstances, is it not natural that a -person conceal his wealth from the inquisitive eyes of authority? The -seclusion of houses became necessary and it was, in fact, a natural -consequence. Japanese are modest or reserved as most Europeans call -them, but notice there is a difference between reserve and concealment. -Are Japanese houses modest or reserved as a result of national spirit? -Or are they so in order to conceal their true phase? This is a -question not easily determined, still it is safe to regard the result -as a sequence of mental reserve and material concealment, altogether -inadmissible to the modern idea. - -If one is loyal enough to his country give up the principle of -seclusion.--I do not for a moment mean to persuade to show off--widely -open the gate and manifest the true phase of the house and beautify -it with his might, and, as a group, decorate the city; it is a duty -as a citizen, and is charity to the poor as a certain English lady -puts it. Tall wooden fence, heavy earth wall inclosing both houses and -gardens, altogether impressing an idea of a prison, should be avoided -in the houses to be erected hereafter. - -This wide open idea much deviates from the statement made by the author -of “Successful Houses” on the American dwelling houses; “it certainly -lends no picturesque element to the landscape, and affords not the -slightest trace of privacy to its owner, but simply boldly proclaims -the ownership of the enclosed earth, as if to say: ‘I own these 60 -× 175 feet; you may look over and covet my house, but you may not -enter’.” I do not believe that American wide open principle of house -lot may involve any selfishness or means to excite covetousness of -passing strangers. This principle, however, may not prove to be harmful -if it introduced, to a certain extent, in a seclusion principle of our -Japanese houses. Here I should again state that the seclusion principle -of Japanese houses does not involve any sense that “each man’s house -is his castle” which was said by laying most stress upon man’s proper -right. On the whole, the comprehensive idea of reserve and modesty -pervades all Japanese houses from exterior treatment and to interior -decoration. If it is one of the principles of human nature that things -half seen appeal most strongly to our taste and tempt us most with -interest and appreciation, as the same author said, American fences are -too low, and those of Japanese are too high; we should take the average -of the two. - -The question of home education is a much talked of subject of late -years. It is of paramount importance for the parents and elders of a -family to lead their youngers and children by behaving themselves so -that the latter can be moulded after the mould which had been laid -down by the former. Most Japanese emphatically call attention to this -point when they talk of the home education. But we should acknowledge -that this is not all that will affect the character or culture of young -people. Every body knows that a school, in its nature is a place where -the young people are educated; yet the majority of people do not know -how the preliminary considerations had been taken in to account before -the erection of the school was carried out; the kind and arrangement of -the seats and desks, the position of black boards, the size of windows, -the descriptions of curtains, the size and shape of class rooms, -the height of ceiling, and even the minor detail of open and close -arrangement of doors. These and many other particulars are subjects -which one cannot lose sight of before the final end of education is -fulfilled. Thus, if such preliminaries be necessary in schools, why are -not like cautions, if not the same, necessary for our dwelling houses -in order that they may serve the purpose of home education? - -It may have a certain effect upon undeveloped minds of children to -impart the mental taste of fine arts if one decorates the rooms with -pictures and curios. The hanging of atlas and the exhibits of the -specimens of plants and animals in rooms for decoration may help the -development of their scientific idea. Any picture or bust of an -illustrious man may give a hint in regard to their future career. These -are not important factors, however, from an architectural stand point, -as the decoration of a house though they may have no small influence -upon childrens’ character. - -A father is the man who knows best his son’s character. Japanese is the -man who is most fully aware of the weak points of his fellow-citizen; -every body admits that we are inclined to irregularity in doing things, -destitute of selfrespect, indifferent regarding individual proper -rights, these are only a few among many which are to be cited. I feel -myself that these weak points as a nation may be attributed, for the -most part, to the construction and arrangement of the houses we live -in. We know that our present houses are the consequence of a change of -our national character which has been taking place from time to time, -and I deem it quite high time for us to form a new character by picking -up every thing that is good and throwing away every thing that is evil -without any regard to prejudice and to give birth to a new form in this -land of whirlpool of occidental and oriental current. Let me give -examples how our houses exerted an influence upon our character, and -thus the conclusion may be drawn that in order to bring about a new -character we have to remodel our houses accordingly. - -Notice the manner of the working class when they are doing work; -they take rest irregularly while working; tea, tobacco, newspapers -are things to interrupt the continuity of working hours, and even -a little time is stolen by talking over some matter which appeared -in the newspaper. This is not only the case with working class, but -in some extent may be applied to the officials of some public and -private establishments. There may be various causes of this manner of -irregularity of working, still I dare to say that the construction of -our houses is one of the influences which tends to this abominable -habit. At least we are trained to do so in our houses. If we do so in -the house, why not so outside of the house? Nearly all wall surfaces of -Japanese houses are open for _Shōji_ (sliding sashes lined with white -paper having grooves on a sill, sashes sliding on these grooves) or -_Fusuma_, so that the temperature of inside and outside is nearly the -same in winter. The perfect ventilation is secured only at the expence -of heating. And if this imperfectness of heating be ascribed to the -situation of the country which, in most part, lies in the temperate -zone, we find quite a contradiction to this in the fact that Japan -contains states in the south whose average temperature is just as warm -as the Sandwich Island and in the north the states whose temperature -is just as cold as Boston, and yet the feature of houses is about the -same in both extremities except a little modification in construction. -We find such a fact in all countries in the world. Architecture is more -affected by the influence of style and materials than climate itself. - -Japanese houses are heated by “_hibachi_” (literally means a fire -box: a box generally made of wood, the inside of which is lined with -a sheet of metal and in it fine ashes are filled and in the middle of -it charcoal fire is placed. It is an exquisite piece of cabinet work. -The average size is One foot six inches square and about one foot high -though there are great many different sizes and designs) in winter. -It is not indeed sufficient to meet the requirement for heating, and is -not admissible from the sanitary point of view. As we have nothing for -heating purpose but this “_hibachi_”, the only way to get warm is to -expose our face and hands over the fire so that our working hands are -practically tied up, for “_hibachi_” is not intended to warm the room, -inasmuch as the box is not designed to do so. Tea, teapot, teacups, -and hot water are generally seen around “_hibachi_” and attract one’s -temptation. This is a part of home life and often seen even in old -business offices and work shops. In winter we have such a system of -heating far more primitive than fireplace which was much admired by -J.P. Putnum. How can we hope from such institution a satisfactory -result of working? This custom leads us to do work irregularly indoors -as well as outdoors. In a word the construction of our houses is -responsible for a large share with this evil result. - -[Illustration: PL. 7 - -“SHŌJI”] - -[Illustration: PL. 8 - -“FUSUMA”] - -The rareness of partition walls is a main feature in our houses. -“_Shōji_” and “_Fusuma_” are only partitions which divide one room -from another. (“_Shōji_” and “_Fusuma_” are illustrated in the plates) -A house itself is one vast room if “_Shōji_” and “_Fusuma_” be -removed, and from a master’s room a kitchen and servants’ room are -visible, for there is no distinct partition between them. Because -“_Shōji_” and “_Fusuma_” are not sufficient partition to separate one -room from another, simply we are careful not to intrude one another’s -rooms. In respectable families etiquette is strictly observed, and by -this imaginary partition alone one room is divided from another. As -we cannot expect such an imaginary partition in ordinary families, an -inevitable rude practice of intruding on other’s room is unavoidable. -Although in our houses a long narrow veranda serves the requirements -of a hall or a passage in European houses, still the lack of hall -system might be a main cause of the careless practices referred to. -Even though one dares not pass through the “_Fusuma_”, for instance in -a hotel, the voices can be heard and dust can penetrate through the -open joint of “_Fusuma_” into the next room. This makes evident that -the fact that our houses are so arranged that the privacy of rooms -is totally neglected. On the whole, abolish “_hibachi_” so as to -avoid an irregularity of working; put up partition in order to secure -privacy. Then one of the material aids of promoting the spirit of -selfrespect may be established. - -It is generally conceived that Japanese do not lay much stress on -individual rights. This is well understood from the utter lack of -privacy of rooms. We can notice it specially in hotels under pure -native plan. Privacy of a room as I said is not well observed by the -average Japanese, notwithstanding much attention has been paid to that -in the form of etiquette by the higher class of people, though the -planning and construction of Japanese houses make it inconvenient to -enforce it. “Privacy”, said the authors of “The Decoration of Houses”, -“would seem to be one of the first requisites of civilized life, yet -it is only necessary to observe the planning and arrangement of the -average house to see how little this need is recognized. Each room in -a house has its individual uses: some are made to sleep in, others are -for dressing, eating, study, or conversation; but whatever the uses -of a room, they are seriously interfered with if it be not preserved -as a small world by itself”. The authors do not recognize that -privacy has been well observed even in European houses. How far this -was observed in our houses needs to be considered. - -[Illustration: PL. 9 - -PLAN OF A JAPANESE HOUSE] - -[Illustration: PL. 10 - -PLAN FOR A DWELLING HOUSE.] - -In a word we should build houses for the appearance sake so far as -architectural aspect is concerned, and as to the interior the privacy -should never be lost sight of. Our houses run from one extreme to the -other; unless they are kept strictly secluded by walling the house lot -by tall fences they are so widely open that one can see at a glance -from one corner of a house. We frequently notice it among the lower -classes of people. Fences are walls in Japanese houses; if they be -taken away a house stands naked or defenceless. How the nakedness of a -house exerts an influence upon the moral effect of inhabitants of the -house, we can tell it at once by their indifference to the individual -right, and their rude demeanor to the general public. - -Vicissitude of the mode of living represents the alteration of the -custom of a country, and the latter is the result of the change of a -mental taste of the people forming a majority of a nation. In this -time of transition a considerable change in mental taste has occurred -and many a rite of old has been rooted out since the revolution of -1867. The houses in feudal times were chiefly planned to comply with -the mode of living of aristocracy or fashioned after the spirit -of _Samurai_ class. (The martial class). The “_Shinden-tsukuri_” -(living-palace-type) or “_Adzumaya_” of more than one thousand years -ago was a nature of pure aristocracy; indulgence in gratification of a -pleasure being the predominant object of its plan. The whole group of -buildings was like a summer house in modern sense. On the other hand, -“_Shoin-tsukuri_” (Study room-type) was a type which well represents -the spirit of _Samurai_, and it became undoubtedly the prototype of -modern Japanese dwelling houses. - -To turn our attention for a while to an immaterial side of Japanese -domestic architecture noticing how it had been subjected under the -spiritual influence which at least in Japanese houses is efficaciously -influenced by other elements like religion, climate, and foreign -country, I deem it not quite amiss in this theme. - -[Illustration: PL. 11 - -A LARGE GATE AND ‘MUKURI-HAFU’ ROOF] - -_Samurai_ class, the heart of the citizen represented the nature and -characteristic of all Japanese. Beside this there were agriculturists, -mechanics, and merchants forming four classes of Japanese society. -May it be understood that the social classes of Japan was not so -severely divided as Hindoo castes intermarriage between classes being -comparatively free, and occupations not necessarily descended rigidly -from father to son. Although these classes had been withdrawn from -society since the political revolution of 1867, still the spirit -remains. It may be interesting to note how this spirit is expressed -in our domestic architecture; _Samurai_ likes to dignify himself -and rule his retainers accordingly; so the house has a ridiculously -large gate and occupies exceedingly vast area in its plan. _Samurai_ -observes the propriety of etiquette in the highest degree as he thinks -it a most important factor of a social decorum; for that reason, even -though there is no proper partition in the house etiquette works like -a strong wall. _Samurai_ will be regarded as mean if he displays -his possession like an exhibition, he intends it to be recognized -that his mind is as clean and simple as clean water is in spite of -having much valuable contents within; so in his parlor nothing is to -be seen as decoration but “_kakemono_” (paper or silk hanging scrolls -on which there may be paintings by eminent artists or ideograms -of famous personages) flower vase, if any, in “_Tokonoma_”, and a -few valuable articles on “_Chigai-tana_”, and perhaps one or two -“_gaku_” (painting or ideogram in a frame) over a lintel of “_Shōji_” -or “_Fusuma_”. These are all that we can find in the parlor while -hundreds or thousands, if he is wealthy enough, of these descriptions -are stored in “_Kura_”. (a detached store room of half fire-resisting -construction) _Samurai_ thinks it a greatest honor to keep his family -name among the martialhood as long as he can. He feels the greatest -disdain or shame if his family name is discarded from a list of -martialhood by any silly conduct, which can be redeemed only by death. -This naturally inspires him with reverence of forefathers who had -handed down the stainless family to his reign. Hence we see in many -plans of houses of respectable _Samurai_ a room preserved for images -of forefathers. This is not only found in the house of class but in -all classes of citizens and this for the most part may be ascribed to -the effect of Buddhism and Shintoism, the national religions of Japan. -_Samurai_, however is rather indifferent in regard to religious matters -in comparison with other classes of society; though the spirit of -honor or something like chivalric idea of middle ages in Europe was -heightened to the utmost. As to the idea or conception of _Samurai_ -Professor Inazo Nitobē in his recent work “Bushido, the soul of Japan” -treats it in full detail, my conception on the same may not precisely -conform with Professor Nitobē, still I believe there may not be a -great contradiction between us. On the whole in the feudal system of a -government the relation of a _Daimio_ or a leader of _Samurai_ to the -latter is well manifested in a like feature in the relation between -_Samurai_ and his retainers. The shadow of feudal systems is cast in -everywhere in social life and even the planning and construction of a -house is greatly modified by it. - -It is curious to note that so called American balloon frame -construction represents the idea of Americanism, the democracy, each -member having no special office particularly assigned to it, yet -stands firmly by joint strain. I do not for a moment deduce that -a system or a form of government has any direct connection to the -construction of a house; but it modifies greatly in the planning of -a house for the reason that a plan of a house evolves a national idea. -This is well illustrated by the plan of both American and Japanese -dwelling houses. Is it not also strange to observe that by studying -the construction of our peasant’s house which has a middle, main post -called a “_Daikoku-bashira_” (“_Daikoku_” is a name of god of wealth, -“_hashira_” or “_bashira_” for euphony means a post or column) to which -all structural stability is concentrated? A construction well suited -to the aristocratic form of state only having no king post or queen -post; but have “_Daikoku-bashira_”! When aristocracy in connection with -feudal system was the form of government the family life of _Daimio_ -was simply a smaller type of it and _Samurai_ and other wealthy -families were still smaller of types of government; thus the house -plan was made to conform with their traits. The fact that the form of -government of a state modifies the architecture of the dwelling house -is also exemplified by the house of England and France of the sixteenth -century. Indeed, most of our houses of today were chiefly modeled -after the prototype of former _Samurai_ houses. Now the spirits of -commonwealth and liberty pervade all through the country; _daishō_ -(long and short swords borne by _Samurai_) were thrown away, _mage_ -(hair tied up at the top of a head. The old custom of Japan) was cut -off, even the clothing was partly changed and yet we are faithfully -following a mode of living which is half obsolete. Japan is in the -state of transition from old to new from destruction to upheaval in -architecture and in every thing. Cannot we hope to create a new design -unless the old had been destroyed? - -The houses as any other objects of utility should be improved by -keeping abreast with the advancement of science. The house as a thing -which has a money value and useful object to contain human beings, -is not different from the railroad train and the steam boat. While a -marked progress in these is being noticed from time to time what have -we done for the house? We have shown a certain improvement in aspect -by adopting European architectural style in house design, but a -very little alteration has been done in its plan. What improvement -have we accomplished toward its construction, materials, decoration, -and workmanship? Besides the use of glass in “_shōji_”, iron and zinc -plates in roof and gutter, what else have we used but ordinary building -materials which have been handed down from time immemorial? What is the -difference between our houses and those of our ancestors in aspect, -construction, materials, and workmanship? - -The history of Japanese dwelling houses is a subject not well studied -by any architect or man of literature. Though much light has been -thrown on the history of Japanese religious architecture by Professor -Itō of the Imperial university of Tokyo, we can infer very little from -him as to how our dwelling houses were in the past. Religious buildings -and palaces form an important element in the history of architecture -in all nations, and Japan is no exception. But it is not the aim of -this theme to give a historical sketch of Japanese architecture from -its earliest time, the object being only to show here the stage of -development of our houses and thus I mean to infer that an important -change should take place in the future. - -The history of Japan dates as far back as six hundred sixty years -before the Christian era. Before this date we call it the legendary -era. According to the decree of administrative court of _Shinki_ -it says “in our legendary era the people were primitive, living in -caves in winter and nestling on trees in summer”, we can imagine from -this that in earliest time we were cave dwellers in winter and tree -nestlers in summer like natives of New Guinea of the present time. In -time of Jimmu the founder of the Japanese Empire (660 B.C.) the houses -developed in wooden type and henceforth wood became the only building -material. Early Japanese houses had no decoration whatever and it seems -to me that since 190 A.D. when Coreans brought some coloring pigments -as tribute to the government of Jingo-Kōgō the painting was applied for -the first time to the building, but it is certain that the color was -applied only to the palace not to the “_Yashiro_” (_Shintō_ temple) nor -to the dwelling houses. The dwelling houses. The dwelling houses were -much improved in the time of Shōmu, (767 A.D.) the zenith of religious -architecture. It was then that tiles were used for the first time as -the roof covering in common dwelling houses which before that time were -mostly covered by the bark of _hinoki_. (_Thuya Obtusa_, _Benth_) In -common houses tiles were not yet used so abundantly as in temple roofs; -they were used on the ridge only; the rest being covered by barks of -wood. The plastered wall was also introduced at this time. It may, -however, be remembered that that plaster consisted of lime and sand. -Perhaps having some mud in the mixture; no gypsum was in use as in -European plaster. - -The ages between eighth and twelfth centuries, which includes a little -more than three hundred and eighty years, when the Fujiwara family -played an important role in the government formed a most prominent -epoch of art and literature in the history of Japan. The long, peaceful -reign generally ensues an effeminate tendency to the spirit of a -nation especially to the nobility who had every facility to possess -every thing at call. The result is the production of “_Azumaya_” -or “_Shinden-tsukuri_”. The plan of which is by no means a desirable -type of residence even for a nobility of today. But, to be sure, it -served the requirement of the day in which the higher class of people -indulged mostly in music and poetry, festival and pleasure. The plan of -the _Shinden_ type reminds me of the notable building the “_Hō-oh-dō_” -which was built at this time that is some eight hundred years ago in -Yamashiro and which still remains in this day in the same spot after -long defacing action of nature. It had the honor of being reproduced -in Jackson Park at Chicago in 1893 as a representation of Japanese -architecture. - -[Illustration: PL. 12 - -SHINDEN-TSUKURI - -TAKEN FROM OLD DRAWING] - -The plan of “_Shinden-tukuri_” consists of a main or middle building -flanked with two wings or detached rooms on the east and west connected -by porches. The size of the main building was generally 70 feet -square, sometimes as large as 120 feet square and even as small as 50 -feet square according to circumstances. The interior of the building -consists of a main middle room surrounded by a wide corridor laid with -mats, reception room, store room etc. being arranged in this corridor -each room divided by curtains. The east and west wings were used as -living rooms, and perhaps the kitchen was in a detached house. It is -imagined from the arrangement of rooms that the house was not planned -merely for the purpose of pleasure. The ninth century of Christian -era which corresponds to Tun dynasty of China was a great era -for introducing art and literature from China through the hands of -Buddhist preachers who had been sent by the government to observe the -civilization of China; Kōbō-daishi and Saicho were most influential -persons among scholars and religionists of the time. They returned home -from their mission abroad well laden with the knowledge of art and -literature which had been scattered all through the empire. The palace -was planned on the largest scale ever carried on after the plan of a -Chinese palace. The “_Shinden-tsukuri_” is undoubtedly a modification -of the latter. - -“_Shōji_” and “_Fusuma_” were not used in “_Shinden-tsukuri_”, and in -outside openings what is called “_Kōshi_” (the framed lattice window -hung vertically in a manner something like a vertical trap-door with -thick white paper stretched on one side) was used. It is divided -into two sashes the upper part of which is pushed outward, by means -of stays, for ventilation. The hanging arrangement, it seems to me, -was general in these times, for the means of partition was achieved -by hanging tapestry, reed mats etc. which were hung on lintels of -openings. Insufficient function of partitions, the negligence of -privacy of rooms were already manifested in these times in our houses; -no wonder that our houses of today are built with no regard to this -point. The “_Tatami_” (floor mats, literally meaning to fold) had not -taken the form of modern “_Tatami_”, it was so shaped that when not -in use it was put away folding in suitable size, and made of leather, -reeds, silk cloth etc. - -From the early part of the fifteenth century, the latter part of -middle ages in Europe, the whole empire had fallen into a scene of -chaos; innumerable old edifices, public documents, private writings, -in a word, the whole art and literature were destroyed under the -merciless fire of war. Amid this confusion, we can trace the gradual -outgrowth of another type of art; the _Shinden_ type gave place to -_Shoin_ type or “_Shoin-tsukuri_”. _Shoin_ in modern idea means a room -for study; but on certain occasions it was used as a reception room. -The _Shoin_ type proves that the mere copying of Chinese palace like -“_Shinden_” no longer satisfactorily fulfilled the requirement of -the day. The “_Shoin-tsukuri_” is indeed a prototype of our modern -house. Our “_Zashiki_” (parlor) was surely modeled after it, for it -has “_Tokonoma_”, “_Tsuke-shoin_” (a recess for books) and “_Tana_”, -(“_Chigai-tana_” in the modern house) all of which are main feature -of our parlor. _Shinden_ being surrounded by corridor, a vast main -middle room is shut out from light, on the contrary the _Shoin_ has -light in abundance. It may not be amiss to add a few lines here in -regard to “_Tokonoma_”. What the “_Tokonoma_” is in Japanese parlor -the fireplace is in American parlor. The use of “_Chigai-tana_” in the -former house is like an alcove and shelf put together in the latter -house. The fireplace or mantel-piece in American house affords dignity -and cheerfulness to the room besides the proper use beautifying and -warming the room. “_Tokonoma_” and “_Chigai-tana_” in our houses may -give thoroughness of the room by breaking up the feeling of vastness -and bareness of the whole appearance, and the nature of decorative -treatment may impart the sense of reverence and dignity but no -feeling of cheerfulness is imparted. It is altogether too formal, too -traditional, and too conservative, and is more formal than is the -American fireplace. - -[Illustration: PL. 13 shows “_Zashiki_”] - -[Illustration: PL. 14 shows “_Tokonoma_” and “_Chigai-tana_”] - -Without “_Tokonoma_” and “_Chigai-tana_” and a few hanging frames of -paintings or ideograms a Japanese parlor is one empty box surrounded -by “_Shoji_” and “_Fusuma_”; no furniture, no carving, no moulding -to give grace to the form, no ceiling cornice, no chandelier, these -places are being filled by using wood in the horizontal and vertical -pieces specially rare species as a post at “_Tokonoma_”, in all showing -beautiful natural grain without varnishing or painting. It only -displays the skill and manipulation of handling tools in joints and -in dressing the face of the pieces. In the interior the wall surfaces -are plastered with natural sand[B] glittering with minute particles of -mica and felspar. It gives a very good effect. If comfort is one of the -main objects, as I said, in the designing of a house, Japanese parlor -affords no comfort whatever either to the host or to the guest mentally -or physically. Too much conventional rule of procedure in the design -of the Japanese parlor unnecessitated the hands of architects and as a -consequence no scientific idea was evolved in the design. Here I should -not hesitate to state that the comfort was not an object to be observed -in the Japanese parlor, nay, not in the Japanese house. Comfort was not -much cared for; how can the science develop in such a country? - - [B] Sand is found everywhere along the sea coast of Japan in various - colors according to places, some times it is colored. - -We had been taught from our boyhood not to complain of cold or heat, -not to strive after attaining physical comfort, not to show any -meanness or sillyness in the traits of daily life, somewhat like -an old Spartan mode of training children connected with an oriental -religious feeling: the idea is quite oriental or rather Japanese. -This unwritten code of _Samurai_ had strictly been observed in former -times and educated conservative families are still adhering to it; and -I should say that this idea put our country much behind our brother -nations on earth in the advancement of science. The modern architects -of Japan are often compelled to struggle with this conception which is -quite military and not scientific. Simple, natural, tasteful, and clean -are words which will express the pervading feature of the Japanese -parlor. Should we follow or maintain this unscientific and consequently -uncomfortable method of treating our parlor in the future dwelling -house? - -The Japanese dark ages, the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, -left us a memento the architecture of “_Chashitsu_”, (tea-house -architecture) the oddest and most unique architecture the world has -ever known. Without an adequate knowledge of the treatment of this -architecture no one can reach a true kernel of Japanese domestic -architecture. “_Chashitsu_” is a little house in which a _Cha-no-yu_ -(tea sipping ceremony) is to be held. The practice of _Cha-no-yu_ was -much encouraged by the Ashikaga and Toyotomi families, the supreme -lords or Shōgun of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. This partly -as a policy, as I understand, to subdue the rough, rigorous, warlike -spirits of _Daimio_ and _Samurai_ at the time of a confused order of -society. Let me quote from Professor Nitobē’s “Bushido, the Soul of -Japan” a very interesting article concerning _Cha-no-yu_. - -“As an example of how the simplest thing can be made into an art -and then become spiritual culture, I may take _Cha-no-yu_, the tea -ceremony. Tea-sipping as a fine art! Why should it not be? In the -children drawing pictures on the sand, or in the savage carving on a -rock, was the promise of a Raphael or a Michael Angelo. How much more -is the drinking of a beverage, which began with the transcendental -contemplation of a Hindoo anchorite, entitled to develop into a -handmaid of Religion and Morality? That calmness of mind, that -serenity of temper, that composure and quietness of demeanor which -are the first essential of _Cha-no-yu_, are without doubt the -first conditions of right thinking and right feeling. The scrupulous -cleanliness of the little room, shut off from sight and sound of the -madding crowd, is in itself conducive to direct one’s thoughts from -the world. The bare interior does not engross one’s attention like the -innumerable pictures and bric-a-brac of a Western parlor; the presence -of _Kakemono_ calls our attention more to grace of design than to -beauty of color. The utmost refinement of taste is the object aimed -at; whereas anything like display is banished with religious horror. -The very fact that it was invented by a contemplative recluse, in a -time when wars and rumors of wars were incessant, is well calculated -to show that this institution was more than a pastime. Before entering -the quiet precincts of the tea-room, the company assembling to partake -of the ceremony laid aside, together with their swords, the ferocity -of battle-field or the cares of government, there to find peace and -friendship. - -“_Cha-no-yu_ is more than a ceremony; it is a fine art; it is poetry, -with articulate gestures for rhythms: it is a _modus operandi_ of -soul discipline. Its greatest value lies in this last phase.--” - -[Illustration: PL. 15 - -A CHASHITSU - FRONT ELEVATION] - -[Illustration: PL. 16 - -A CHASHITSU - REAR ELEVATION] - -[Illustration: PL. 17 - -A CHASHITSU - FLOOR PLAN - -CEILING - -RIGHT SIDE ELEVATION] - -In “_Chashitsu_” any thing in the way of display is banished and the -utmost refinement of taste is the object aimed at. Every thing was so -simplified and rusticated that Mr. Eastlake would look with amazement. -There is nothing more simple than to use natural object just as it is; -the post at the “_Tokonoma_” is almost invariably a natural form of -wood the bark only being removed. The small rafters which are visible -from outside of “_Chashitsu_” are simply round sticks about an inch in -diameter placed every foot. Sometimes the post of “_Chashitsu_” are so -peculiarly finished that the marks of an adze may be noticeable. The -face of walls are of sand of beautiful natural tint of bluish green, -gray or reddish brown. The furniture and utensile of _Cha-no-yu_ -are the simplest things imaginable. This spirit of simplicity and -rustication is well exemplified in the so called refined parlor of -a modern Japanese house. There is no doubt that _Shoin_ type and -_Chashitsu_ construction have given much influence to the modern -Japanese houses. - -The Greece borrowed the motives of art from Egypt, Assyria, and -Phoenicia and composed them so splendidly that it seemed as if they -were quite original to the Greeks. Greeks are no doubt an artistic -people, they formed an artistic idea from an inartistic source, -giving grace of form to a disfigured object and perfect harmony to -an inharmonious color; and their architecture unconditionally stands -beyond criticism. Romans may perhaps have been more artistic and at -the same time more practical than Greeks, but we must acknowledge that -without Greeks Roman art could not have existed. Japan, no doubt, -acquired her artistic idea from China and Corea, but it is a question -whether she was a Greek or a Roman at the Far East. If quietude, -reserve, tranquility are the characteristics of Greek art we find them -likewise in our domestic architecture, the “_Chashitsu_” and still more -in the art of landscape gardening. - -I gave _Chashitsu_ and _Cha-no-yu_ as an example of Japanese artistic -conception shown everywhere. Here I will give another example of -this kind which necessarily associates with them; that is the art of -landscape gardening. This also has its origin with certain Corean -who invented the art at the time of Suiko, the emperor of the sixth -century. But there is not any evidence that such an art had existed in -Corea, and it seems to me that the art of miniature landscape gardening -is an outcome of the scenic nature of the country. The abundance of -hills and waters, rocks and trees gave naturally the rise to the unique -scenery in inland as well as the sea coast. The tasteful imitation of -this scenery is an involving idea of this accessory art, and at the -later period of Tokugawa Shōgun it had taken a systematic form of an -art, and peculiarly connected with the _Chashitsu_ architecture, for it -has unique, odd, picturesque conception in common with both. Manifold -formulas, traditions, and classifications made it so difficult for -one to attempt the art that he cannot place even a single stepping -stone without knowing the name given, and the meaning accorded to it. -It is true that one cannot manage the garden so as to make it look -picturesque without knowing how to arrange appropriate objects in -appropriate places and the nomenclatures of them, for instance “the -moon shade stone”, “the three body stone”, “the twilight woods” etc., -make it more interesting and poetical. The idea is quite oriental. A -well, a stone basin, a stone post lantern, a flat-top stone, all these -necessary elements of Japanese miniature landscape gardening have -poetical nomenclature referring to history, religion and tradition. -To the bystanders it may merely seem quite an odd, unsymmetrical, -picturesque and artful imitation of natural scenery, but profound -spiritual meaning which only educated Japanese can understand permeate -each of the elements of a garden. It is altogether too practical as -European landscape gardening is too scientific. Here I show just one -type of gardens which is said to correspond to the Roman type of -lettering (Plate 18); Roman, Gothic, Italic etc. are classification -of lettering, so Japanese classify the work of landscape gardening -according to the style of treatment in referring to the style of -lettering. - -[Illustration: PL: 18 -Drawing of garden, reproduced as a blueprint.] - -[Illustration: PL. 19 -Photograph of house with garden.] - -[Illustration: PL. 20 -Photograph of a lake, with garden and castle in background.] - -If the governing art of the twentieth century the “art nouveau” has -more or less connection to the fanciful products of Japanese art as -some American writer asserts, the amalgamation of accessory art like -landscape gardening of Japanese with that of European may succeed in -producing some thing which is acceptable to the whim and fantastic -thought of modern architects. - -If the influence of social habits and manners is the most important -in the effects on domestic architecture as one of the writers of “Our -Homes” puts it, it will be interesting to compare our houses to those -of England whose social organization is more like ours than any other -nations in Europe. We have had four classes in society until just -immediately before the abolition of the feudal system in 1867 above -referred to. England had also four classes in society at the period -immediately following the Norman Conquest; they were nobles and small -landowners, the clergy, the townfolks, and the agricultural classes. -The English nobles correspond to our Daimio and small landowners -to _Samurai_, the townfolks to our artisans and merchants, and the -agricultural classes to our soil tillers. Our clergy not being -enumerated in the social classes they were considered as recluse. -English nobles’ castles like the Tower of London, Rochester, Dover -etc. are of the same nature as our castles of Nagoya, Kumamoto and -others which are scattered all over the country as the seats of -Daimio. Sub-feudatories’ houses in England were frequently constructed -of wood and in cases of danger they took refuge in their lords’ -castles. Their houses rarely contained more than two or three rooms. -Our small _Samurai_ houses were probably not larger than those of -sub-feudatories, and unquestionably they were made of wood. But -fortunately, our smallest _Samurai_ houses were not so wretched as -English villeins’ houses which were “commonly rude hovels of mud and -thatch, in the one apartment of which the whole family slept. Some -times two apartments existed, one of which was allotted to the cow. The -floors were either of mud or roughly paved with pebbles”. - -The development of English domestic architecture is of the same nature -as ours; this is particularly noticed by comparing the idea of “an -assize” of 1189 the first “Building Act” of England to our first -building ordinance of Shōmu dynasty in 768 A.D. The house in these -times in England being mostly built of wood had roofs of straw, reeds, -and similar materials, and frequent fires compelled the adoption of a -new mode of building. Therefrom, the stone houses covered with thick -tiles was one of the requisites of “an assize”. The Imperial decree -of 768 A.D. we can hardly call a building act, as it only consists of -a few lines concerning the regulation of building an imperial palace -and the houses of subjects; for instance “officers and laities who can -afford to build their own houses should use tiles to cover roofs, and -the walls are to be decorated with red and white earth”. Before this -period thatched roofs had mostly been used. It is evident that the fear -of a calamity of conflagration was the cause of the forthcoming of the -first building acts of both nations. In England the building act having -passed revision after revision, the domestic architecture was improved -slowly, but steadily keeping pace with other continental nations in -Europe. Improvements of domestic architecture partly owe their cause to -the command of materials to be used. In the twelfth and thirteenth -centuries, England was not much ahead of us in the use of building -materials. Before the assize of 1189 the outside of houses was covered -with reeds or rushes, but after the issue plaster was used both outside -and inside of the houses and tiles, wooden shingles, and lead were used -as roof coverings. Windows, before the thirteenth century, were mere -holes having frames on which oiled paper and canvas were stretched -until glass was used for the first time in this period. - -English houses of the twelfth century were certainly no better than our -_Shinden_ type. Let me give an example of what condition the English -houses were in in the twelfth century. The following quotation well -explains it: “the floor was frequently of earth, and strewn with rushes -or straw. When it is considered that refuse from the table was, as a -matter of course, thrown on to the floor; that dogs, hawks and other -domestic animals lived in the hall, it will scarcely be wondered at -that the state of the floor became highly offensive. It is related as -an instance of the extreme refinement of Thomas Becket that he ordered -his floors to be covered with fresh straw in winter, and in summer -with fresh rushes, in order that such of his guests as could not find -room at the tables might not get their clothes soiled by sitting on a -dirty floor.” This may be an example of an extreme case. Every student -of architecture knows that the thirteenth century in England is a -zenith of Early English Gothic, why is it that the manor-house and the -great landowner’s residence did not come under the influence of art -then flourishing in the country? Perhaps they did to a certain extent, -but not until as late as the Tudor period. One should not imagine that -the splendid painted glass of Westminster Abbey was found everywhere -in England. It was a costly luxury in this period; for it was imported -from abroad and still more expensive because skilled workmen were rare. -It is said that in these days common dwelling houses had glass in the -upper part of windows and wooden shutters in the lower part. - -It was during the time of Elizabeth’s reign, the sixteenth century, -that English houses assumed a character altogether different from that -of the middle ages. This is a result of commerce and navigation which -has ever since been making England so pre-eminent. “The long galleries, -the projecting oriels and bay windows, the broad terraces and stately -flights of stairs, mark a new departure in domestic architecture”. Once -the lavish use of glass called forth the protest of Lord Bacon, and the -use of carpets, except on extraordinary occasions, was considered a -mark of extreme luxury and foppishness. This was the state of things in -the sixteenth century in England. - -At the same time that the beautiful fan-vaulting of Westminster Abbey -astonished the world with splendor and delicacy of detail, an order -was given by Henry III to make “a certain conduit through which the -refuse of the king’s kitchen at Westminster flows into the Thames; -which conduit the king ordered to be made on account of the stink of -the dirty water which was carried through his halls, which was wont to -affect the health of the people frequenting the same hall.” And in the -reign of the same sovereign the royal kitchens at Oxford were blown -down by a strong wind. If the house of the sovereign was in such a -condition in sanitation and construction, it may be inferred that the -houses of the lower classes were utterly miserable. I do not wonder -that the plagues, pestilences and leprosy of the middle ages checked -the increase of population in England. England of the present period, -when compared with that of seven hundred years ago, is like another -world: and what difference is there between the houses of the present -day and those of seven hundred years ago in our land? - -When the four classes of society were firmly established in former -ages, the plans of the houses were much modified by the vocation, -though not much difference in architectural aspect. In the time when -domestic manufacturing was in general a predominant feature of trade, -and the co-operative system of business was in an undeveloped state, -a factory, a store, and a dwelling house were one and the same; a -store in front and a factory in the rear of a house was a general -feature of the house of a merchant and a mechanic. This kind of -house should of course not be treated under the heading of dwelling -house proper. We have such houses everywhere in the city at present -and cannot expect to exterminate them in the near future. But the -advancement of civilization may not allow such varied forms of houses -to exist; the rise of land value and increase of lease bring forth the -co-operative system of business or compel a man to work on a large -scale and thereby drives the good natured hamlet dwellers, gratifying -themselves with a beautiful world of their own, out of the field of -fierce struggle for existence. No one can afford to indulge in luxury -by dwelling at the centre of a city unless he is exceptionally wealthy -and has little regard for the quietness of home life. Wonderful -power of organs of communication shortens the distance, thereby -forming two distinct type of dwelling houses that is the city and -the suburban, the real classification of domestic architecture. The -flats, apartment or tenement houses which are classed among the city -houses are the outgrowth of an advancement of communication organs, -and the cottages of the suburbs are peaceful homes of strugglers for -life sustenance. Thus the circumstances do not permit the existence -of houses which consist of stores in front and factories in the rear. -The classification of houses according to the classes of society, -as formerly in vogue, has no meaning in this time of enlightenment. -The plan of a house necessarily becomes narrower in front in the city -dwelling as we often notice in houses at Kioto and Osaka. London and -New York and all other Western great cities lay examples before us, -but it is curious to note that Tokyo furnishes many examples which are -contrary to this fact. Domestic architecture develops in this direction -only not in any other way. I do not wonder at the subject much talked -of of late about the tax to be levied on gardens belonging to houses -within urban district. Fortunately the proposition was not carried -into effect; but the searching eyes of wise, inquisitive politicians -have already been turned to the virgin soil for resource, it is almost -certain that sooner or later they will succeed. The alteration of -Japanese houses has been necessitated from even a political stand -point. At any rate, as to the laying down of principles and the -printing out of methods of carrying out the alteration of the plan, -Japanese architects are fully responsible. - -Dwelling houses are divided, according to an architectural treatment, -into two classes viz. city and suburban houses. The characteristics -of the two and the reasons why they should be so classified need no -explaining here; only a few illustrations of the two different types of -dwelling houses are sufficient to remind us of the truth. - -I have pointed out six elements and a few principles which govern -the erection of dwelling houses. It is more convenient to treat -negatively than to attempt positively the discussion of domestic -architecture. In order to protect or fulfill the established principles -all hindrances from all sides should be overcome. What I cite in the -following has reference only to the Japanese and does not refer at -all to the foreigners. It is an appeal made only to the Japanese. -I consider prejudice one of the impediments in the way of progress -which we have to strive to remove. So long as we are adhering to it no -advancement can be expected and improvement of our houses is entirely -hopeless. There is in Japan a certain prejudice which amounts even to -superstition among weak minded people. They choose a place for water -closet according to a superstitious notion. They think that a water -closet is the most impure or unholy place, and that the reckless choice -of the place for it in a house causes misfortune to the family who -occupies the house. They select a place for the well, the entrance -etc. according to the same groundless superstition. And they say that -thus the national character should be retained through all ages. -“The roofs should always be covered with tiles otherwise be thatched -or shingled. The shape of roofs should be “_Chidori-hafu_” if not -“_Mukuri-hafu_” or “_Kara-hafu_”. A gate should be “_Kabuki-mon_” if -not “_Heijiu-mon_”. The wall should be plastered if not finished with -“_Sasarako-shitami_”. (thin, wide weatherboarding over which vertical -narrow strips are nailed) The posts are invariably square in section, -and the ceiling should necessarily be “_Go-tenjō_”. (panelled ceiling) -or “_Saobuchi-tenjō_.” (same as “_Sasarako-shitami_” only horizontal, -the strips being deeply chamfered) Such and such parts should be so -and so; this is the national style of architecture handed down from -our forefathers. If we change it at random, how can tell that we are -Japanese. This is a house just suited to the people of this peculiar -land; we cannot feel comfort or enjoy convenience but for this peculiar -house”. There is nothing more absurd than these peculiar ideas. I cited -in the introduction that the importance of freedom of design should -always be kept in mind and here will not speak further any more than -that the overthrowing of those prejudices which lie across the royal -road to civilization is always necessary. - -[Illustration: PL. 21 -Photograph of front of a house with chidori-hafu gable.] - -[Illustration: PL. 22 -Photograph of front of a house with chidori-hafu gables.] - -[Illustration: PL. 23 -CHIDORI-HAFU] - -[Illustration: PL. 24 -Photograph of a house with karu-hafu gable.] - -[Illustration: PL. 25 -KARU-HAFU] - -[Illustration: PL. 26 -Plan of a house -FLOOR PLAN, ROOF PLAN and FRONT ELEVATION.] - -[Illustration: PL. 27 -MUKURI-HAFU] - -[Illustration: PL. 28 A DWELLING HOUSE -SIDE ELEVATION and FRONT ELEVATION] - -[Illustration: PL. 29 SECTION OF A HOUSE] - -I have dwelt so much on the reservedness and seclusion of Japanese -dwelling houses. Once again I take up this point and call the attention -of all Japanese. Works of art, no matter what they are, should express -the sentiment or impression of the artist. The work which has beauty -as its object should call forth the sentiment or impression of beauty -to the observer or hearer. If the aim and object of any work of art -cannot be recognized by others the work is nothing but failure. As -the work of domestic architecture is a part of architecture, which -has beauty as one of its objects, all possible efforts to beautify a -house are quite rational. One might say that our houses being far from -gaudiness do not aim to attract attention by showy colors like European -houses. Still if attractiveness is an important element to be observed -in domestic architecture, our way is one of the methods of treatment -which is sufficient to charm admirers. This might be true if a house -be built with the aim, among many other aims, to give pleasure to the -eye. Japanese houses are uniformly of the same pattern and it seem as -though they were not intended to beautify. Well, we might call them -beautiful, yet if one get used to one thing continually he will get -tired; variety is necessary to give pleasure to the eye. - -I must add one more word in regard to the love of nature and -simplicity. “In fact, Art”, says Goethe, “is called Art simply because -it is not Nature”. A bird, a flower, we use them as materials to give -a sensation of pleasure to the eyes, there the fine arts exist. To -treat them with taste and refinement needs experience and an educated -eye. Japanese domestic architecture, in a word, is, I believe, good -in its spirit but leaves a large field to be cultivated in its -treatment. If the remark that “Art nouveau” has its source partly in -Japanese art is true, why may it not be true that the general adoption -of straight lines, which has lately been much preferred by certain -European architects in interior decoration, owes its origin to Japan? -We furnish a spirit and general idea of treatment to European artists -and they well digest them completing in perfect shape, and are kind -enough to teach us how to imitate; just as we furnish raw materials of -manufacture to Europe and she export them back to this country after -working them up into manufactured goods. Most of the imitations of -European houses in Japan which have been produced of late like shoots -of plants are mostly of the nature of hybrid works and fail in the -design; no truth being noticeable in their features; it is altogether -too expensive to do such a ginger-bread work with cement and plaster. - -My object is not to suggest the imitation of palatial European -houses which are beyond every man’s reach: but to propose certain -plans, though they may be commonplace character, under the guidance -of principles involved in the house planning, which I presume to be -practicable in this time of transition: and also I would aim to bring -our houses more nearly up to the universal stand. - -[Illustration: PL. 30 - -ELEVATION OF DOZO, DOOR, WINDOW] - -[Illustration: PL. 31 - -SECTION OF DOZO.] - -[Illustration: PL. 32 - -A MODEL SHOWING THE CONSTRUCTION OF DOZO] - -Our houses are peculiar in many respects when compared to the Western -houses as the result of difference in customs, yet there are many -things in common to both if names were changed. But the most singular -feature is a “_Dozō_” (a treasure house of a half fire-resistance -construction) whose necessity is never felt in any foreign house. In -all civilized countries valuable articles can be insured for the -fear of fire. The system is also provided in this country; then why -the necessity of a “_Dozo_”? The Japanese as a nation who observe the -reverence of ancestors to the utmost as stated before, the treasures -collected by ancestors are carefully kept by their posterity; these may -be cloths, objects of fine arts, household utensiles, gold and silver -ware, no matter what these are the owner would not give away for any -price if the family is in high standing in society. And moreover the -custom of avoiding to display these things necessitates a place in -which these valuables may be kept. The number of “_Dozo_” is the pride -of a family; thus the “_Dozo_” is the outcome of the custom of Japan. -The construction of it is shown in the plates. Wood and earth are the -chief materials for construction. The thickness of earth put on the -wall is nine or ten inches suspended by the lattice work of bamboo of -small diameter, say half an inch, tied together in place with the rope -made of fibres of the palm tree. The work is exceedingly tedious, for -one coat of earth is to be done after another had been dried. Lastly -the black or white coating of plaster which is made of mixture of lime -paste, (generally the mixture of lime and calcined oyster shells) -fibres of hemp, boiled sea weeds, and the pulp of Japanese paper is put -on as the finish. If one cannot content or feel safe without a “_Dozo_” -or big earthen safe I have no strong reason to object to the use of it. -But constant attention to the new materials which are making appearance -from time to time in the market is necessary though the new materials -and appliances cannot always be said to be exclusively good. And I -believe there may be a variety of designs to make it look better to -assume an aspect of monumental character. - -There is no house in the world in which more mechanical energy has been -utilized in the house building than the American house. Considering a -house as a commodity there is no other way of producing it economically -than to use mechanic power. The Americans have broadest view, wisest -choice, and most practical ideas in this respect. They will understand -the subject and manage it with wonderful skill while we are discussing -on the definition of fine arts and commenting on the subject of -nationalism. Architects and house owners need to consider why, taking -our standard of living into consideration, our houses cost so much -more than those of America. What cost seventy five dollars a “_tsubo_” -(a “_tsubo_” is six feet square which is a unit of measuring the -buildings and grounds) in the United States will cost more than one -hundred and fifty yen (one yen is about fifty cents of U.S. money) -in this country. If its cause be attributed to the lack of mechanical -appliances to the production of the building materials, why cannot we -use machinery in order to get better houses at lower cost? We could -not do it at present; the reason is manifold and very complicated, but -in a word the labor saving machine is not labor saving, labor is still -cheaper than machinery. Why then do the things made by hands which -are cheaper than machinery cost more than the things made by machine? -This is a most important question to be solved by present Japanese -architects and is one after which they are striving. According to my -own view, the love of nature, admiration of simplicity and irregularity -which are so much a part of the national taste or character are the -greatest barriers to the way of progress of our domestic architecture, -if the mechanical appliances to house building is called a progress. -Most economical questions concerning houses depend on this and decide -the future development of our houses. And our endeavor as architects is -to so guide the people that they may not deviate from sound common -sense on dwelling houses. - -[Illustration: PL. 33] - -[Illustration: PL. 34] - -Plates 33 and 34 are proposed plans for Japanese dwelling houses. - -[Illustration: PL. 35] - -[Illustration: PL. 36] - -[Illustration: PL. 37] - -Plates 33 and 34 are proposed plans for Japanese dwelling houses. - -Plates 35, 36 and 37 are examples showing a method of treatment of -Japanese parlor. - - - - -Transcriber’s Note - - -The title page was fully typeset. This was followed by a typeset form -which was filled in by hand. On these two pages the typeset words are -all in uppercase, and the handwritten words are in lowercase. - -As mentioned in the Transcriber’s Note at the start of this book, a -few minor changes have been made to punctuation. However the author -frequently omits punctuation after a closing bracket, and this has not -been changed. - -The spelling of words that the author elsewhere spells conventionally -have been made consistent, “peculiar” and “peculiarly” have been -changed from “peculier” and “pecurially” throughout, and “t”s have been -crossed. Other changes that have been made are: - - Page From To In - ==== ==== == == - 2 Glove Globe Globe trotters - 5 amateaur amateur amateur architect - 10 quater quarter the quarter where wealthy people - 15 it safe it is safe it is safe to regard the result - 19 carier career their future career - 28 Vicisitude Vicissitude Vicissitude of the mode of living - 29 occured occurred change in mental taste has occurred - 37 Guinia Guinea New Guinea - 41 influencial influential influential persons among scholars - 41 The They They returned home - 47 Daimio _Daimio_ warlike spirits of _Daimio_ - 51 dicipline discipline soul discipline - 51 the way the way of in the way of display - 54 unsymetrical unsymmetrical odd, unsymmetrical, picturesque - 62 carpects carpets the use of carpets - 67 naild nailed strips are nailed - 75 palacial palatial palatial European houses - - - - -Transcriber’s Note - Plates - - -The scales on plates 23, 25, 26, 27, 28 and 29 are no longer legible. - -The labels and notes written on the plates are: - - -Plate: 1 - - Labels: - Lintel - Door - Boarding - Post - Stone - Scale: - One fence is marked as 3 feet high. - - -Plate: 3 - - Labels: - Bamboo stick - - Sub-title: - Roofed Fence - Labels: - Boarding - - -Plate: 4 - - Scale: - Fences are marked as 6, 9 and 8 feet high. - - -Plate: 5 - - Labels: - Gate. - Labels: - Ridge - Roof board - Wooden post - Door - Double swinging door - - -Plate: 6 - - Note: - Top and base of the wooden post and ends of lintel are covered - with copper plates. - - Labels: - Lintel - Key - Large double-swinging door - Wooden post - Small swinging door - Sill - Sill - Sill - Stone - - Sub-title: - Roofed Fence - Labels: - Plaster - Wooden post - Wood - - -Plate: 7 - - Title: - “SHŌJI” - Note: - Lattice work one side of which is covered by white - semi-transparent Japanese paper. - - Labels: - Lintel - Post - Post 5 inches square - Post - Sill on which the groove is cut. - Scale: - Height 5 feet 9 inches. - - Sub-title: - Horizontal Section - Labels: - Groove - - -Plate: 8 - - Title: - “FUSUMA” - Note: - Construction is about same as “Shōji”. - Design in Ramma is generally cut through with carving knife. - Both of two surfaces of wooden lattice work are covered by - thick papers which are composed of a number of thin sheets - of paper. Cloth is often used. Elaborate designs are - sometimes painted. - Labels: - Ceiling - “Ramma” wooden panel - - Sub-title: - Horizontal Section - - -Plate: 9 - - Title: - PLAN OF A JAPANESE HOUSE - Note: - This illustrates conventional method of a plan drawn by - Japanese Builder. - Black square spots represent posts. - Walls are represented by single lines. - S. ... Shōji. - F. ... Fusuma. - Section lines are board floor. - Labels: - Garden - Room: - Old Man or Children’s Room - Labels: - Wall - Closet - Tana - Fusuma - Shōji - Door sash pocket - Wall - Sliding fusuma - Room: - W.C. - Labels: - Wall - Room: - Urinal - Room: - Veranda - Labels: - Closet - Door sash pocket - Room: - Veranda - Labels: - Door sash pocket - Room: - Servants’ Room - Labels: - Shōji - Window - Sliding door - Closet - Room: - Master’s Room - Labels: - Closet - Shōji - Fusuma - Fusuma - Room: - Living Room - Labels: - Shōji - Fusuma - Wall - Fusuma - Wall - Closet - Fusuma - Room: - Parlor - Labels: - Shōji - Shōji - Window seat - Sill - Chigai-tana - Tokonoma sill - Tokonoma - Room: - Veranda - Labels: - Door sash pocket - Room: - Passage - Labels: - Urinal - Room: - W.C. - Labels: - Wall - Room: - Bathroom - Labels: - B.T.(Bath tub) - Swinging door - Room: - Kitchen - Labels: - Sink - Wall - Sliding door - Door sash pocket - Room: - Dining Room - Labels: - Fusuma - Shōji - Shōji - Fusuma - Closet - Sliding window - Window pocket - Room: - Hall - Labels: - Fusuma - Wall - Fusuma - Window seat - Projected window - Room: - Small Portico - Labels: - Wall - Room: - Vestibule - Labels: - Partition wall - Fusuma - Shōji - Room: - Reception Room - Labels: - Swinging door - Glass window - Glass window - Projected window - Room: - Portico - Labels: - Double swinging door - Window - Scale: - Scale 1/100 shaku to 1 shaku. 1 shaku = 0.994 feet. - - -Plate: 10 - - Title: - PLAN FOR A DWELLING HOUSE - Labels: - Flower - Pond - Chashitsu - Room: - Room for religious service - Labels: - Closet - Closet - Room: - Old Man’s Room - Labels: - Closet - Room: - Childrens Play Room - Labels: - Closet - Room: - Master’s Room - Labels: - Closet - Room: - Mistress’ Room - Labels: - Closet - Closet - Room: - Toilet Room - Labels: - Shelf - Room: - Bath Room - Room: - Parlor - Room: - Dining Room - Labels: - Closet - Closet - Room: - Second Parlor - Room: - Servants’ Dining Room - Room: - Reception Room - Room: - Preparation Room - Labels: - Closet - Room: - Kitchen - Labels: - Sink - Closet - Room: - Reception Room - Room: - Second Reception Room - Labels: - Closet - Room: - Vestibule - Room: - Door Attendant’s Room - Labels: - Closet - Room: - Hall - Room: - Servants’ Room - Labels: - Closet - Closet - Room: - W.C. - Room: - W.C. - Scale: - Same scale as plate 9 - - -Plate: 12 - - Title: - SHINDEN-TSUKURI - Note: - Taken from old drawing - Labels: - Shinden - East wing - West wing - Stream - Middle gate - Wall - Fishing pavilion - Islet - Pond - Fishing pavilion - Miniature landscape - - -Plate: 30 - - Sub-title: - Elevation of Dozo - Scale: - Scale 1/50 shaku to the shaku. - - Sub-title: - Door - Labels: - Earth - Scale: - Scale 1/20 shaku to the shaku. - - Sub-title: - Window - - -Plate: 31 - - Title: - Section of Dozo - Scale: - Scale 1/20 shaku to the shaku. - Labels: - Earth and plaster - -Plate: 33 - - Sub-title: - First Floor - Room: - W.C. - Room: - Bathroom - Room: - Preparation Room - Room: - Kitchen - Room: - Dining Room - Room: - Sitting Room - Room: - Parlor - Room: - Hall - Room: - Porch - - Sub-title: - Second Floor - Room: - Chamber - Labels: - Closet - Room: - Chamber - Labels: - Closet - Room: - Chamber - Labels: - Closet - Room: - Chamber - Labels: - Closet - Room: - Library - Room: - Hall - - Sub-title: - First Floor - Room: - Bathroom - Room: - W.C. - Room: - Urinal - Room: - Kitchen - Room: - Sitting Room - Labels: - Closet - Room: - Preparation Room - Room: - Dining Room - Room: - Hall - Room: - Parlor - Room: - Vestibule - - Sub-title: - Second Floor - Room: - Chamber - Labels: - Closet - Room: - Chamber - Labels: - Closet - Room: - Chamber - Labels: - Closet - Room: - Chamber - Labels: - Closet - Room: - Hall - Room: - Library - Room: - Balcony - - -Plate: 34 - - Sub-title: - First Floor - Room: - W.C. - Room: - Kitchen - Room: - Bathroom - Room: - Preparation Room - Room: - Dining Room - Room: - W.C. - Room: - Hall - Room: - Parlor - Room: - Vestibule - Room: - Sitting Room - Labels: - Closet - -Sub-title: - Second Floor - Room: - Chamber - Labels: - Closet - Closet - Room: - Chamber - Room: - Hall - Room: - Library - Room: - Guest Chamber - Labels: - Closet - Closet - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Future Development of Japanese -Dwelling Houses, by Shigetsura Shiga - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JAPANESE DWELLING HOUSES *** - -***** This file should be named 50963-0.txt or 50963-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/9/6/50963/ - -Produced by Fay Dunn and the Online Distributed Proofreading -Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from -images generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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