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diff --git a/old/50910-0.txt b/old/50910-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 105e1e0..0000000 --- a/old/50910-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9590 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Story of Napoleon, by Harold F. B. Wheeler - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Story of Napoleon - -Author: Harold F. B. Wheeler - -Release Date: January 13, 2016 [EBook #50910] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF NAPOLEON *** - - - - -Produced by Charlie Howard and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -THE STORY OF - -NAPOLEON - - - - -_Uniform with this Volume_ - - - THE STORY OF NAPOLEON - By HAROLD F. B. WHEELER, F.R.Hist.S. - - THE STORY OF NELSON - By HAROLD F. B. WHEELER, F.R.Hist.S. - - THE STORY OF WELLINGTON - By HAROLD F. B. WHEELER, F.R.Hist.S. - - FAMOUS VOYAGES OF THE GREAT DISCOVERERS - By ERIC WOOD. - - THE STORY OF THE CRUSADES - By E. M. WILMOT-BUXTON, F.R.Hist.S. - - STORIES OF THE SCOTTISH BORDER - By Mr and Mrs WILLIAM PLATT. - - HEROES OF THE MIDDLE AGES - By E. M. TAPPAN, Ph.D. - - HEROES OF MODERN EUROPE - By ALICE BIRKHEAD, B.A. - - THE CONQUERORS OF PERU - Retold from Prescott by HENRY GILBERT. - - THE NORTHMEN IN BRITAIN - By ELEANOR HULL. - - STORIES FROM DUTCH HISTORY - By ARTHUR H. DAWSON. - - THE STORY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION - By ALICE BIRKHEAD, B.A. - - THE CONQUERORS OF MEXICO - Retold from Prescott by HENRY GILBERT. - - STORIES FROM GERMAN HISTORY - By FLORENCE ASTON. - - THE STORY OF LORD ROBERTS - By HAROLD F. B. WHEELER, F.R.Hist.S. - - -[Illustration: Napoleon I., Emperor of the French - -From the painting by David - - _Fr._ -] - - - - - THE STORY OF - NAPOLEON - - _BY_ - HAROLD F. B. WHEELER - F.R.HIST.S. - - JOINT-AUTHOR OF - ‘NAPOLEON AND THE INVASION OF ENGLAND’ - AND ‘THE WAR IN WEXFORD’ - AUTHOR OF ‘THE MIND OF NAPOLEON’ ETC. - - - ‘_There was an eye to see in this - man, a soul to dare and do. He rose - naturally to be the King. All men - saw that he_ was _such_.’ CARLYLE - - - LONDON - GEORGE G. HARRAP & COMPANY - 2 & 3 PORTSMOUTH STREET KINGSWAY W.C. - - - - - DEDICATED - TO - WINIFRED AND JOAN - - - _Printed in Great Britain - by Turnbull & Spears, Edinburgh_ - - - - -Foreword - - -There is no more marvellous story in human history than that -of Napoleon I., Emperor of the French. His career is one long -demonstration of the reality of the proverb, “Truth is stranger than -fiction.” So fascinating are the details of a life in which so much -was attempted and accomplished that many thousands of volumes have -been published dealing with its various phases. The demand is by no -means exhausted, the supply continuous, as witness the present work. -Busy pens are still employed in reviewing the almost superhuman -activities of the once obscure Corsican, whose genius for war and -conquest upset many a throne, secured for him the Overlordship of -Europe, and eventually consigned him to an island prison. Indeed, there -seems little likelihood of a lull in interest while the chief source -of instruction and amusement of human nature is humanity--in other -words itself. Most of us are content to be pupils in the school of -experience, willing to sit at the feet of such a master as Napoleon, -and learn the lessons he has to teach. The result cannot be other than -profitable. - -Napoleon has been dead nearly ninety years, but the dazzling brilliancy -of his exploits has left a rich afterglow which enables us to get a -much less distorted view of him than were our forefathers who were his -contemporaries. A subdued light is more useful than one so strong that -it almost blinds. With the former we can see details more distinctly, -note faults and flaws if there be any, get a clearer idea of an object -in every way. Within living memory the name of Napoleon, particularly -in Great Britain, was associated with everything that was base and -vile, now we know that he was neither the Borgia of his enemies nor the -Arch-Patriot of his friends. Nevertheless it is easier for a sightless -person to thread a needle than for the most conscientious historian -to arrive at an absolutely just summing-up of the case. The “Memoirs” -of those with whom the Emperor was intimately acquainted are seldom -impartial; the majority of the writers are either definitely for or -against him. Take those of Baron Méneval as a typical example. The -author was one of Napoleon’s secretaries, and every page of his work -is a defence of his master. In the matter of the execution of the Duc -d’Enghien, for instance, he takes up the cudgels on behalf of the man -who was responsible for the tragedy at Vincennes, boldly stating that -“One is forced to admit that Napoleon fulfilled a painful duty, as -Head of the Government, and that instead of charging him with a crime, -one should rather pity him for having been placed in the necessity -of accepting all the odium of an act, the deplorable consequences of -which, in the future, his foresight only too clearly pointed out to -him.” - -Far from Napoleon being concerned as to probable political -consequences, he asserted it would teach the Bourbons a lesson. On the -other hand, the “Memoirs” of Barras, a prominent figure in the French -Revolution, might have been of considerable service to us in gathering -information as to Bonaparte’s early career, had it not been proved -beyond question that much he tells us is sheer bare-faced untruth, -and he everywhere seeks to belittle the accomplishments of the young -soldier. - -“Bonaparte, on the 13th of Vendémiaire,” he says, “performed no -functions but those of an aide-de-camp of mine. I was on horseback, -he was on foot; he could not follow my movements. The only order he -received from me was to go to the Pont Royal, and to report to me -what was taking place. He did not give, and had not to give, a single -order, and was seen at only one point of the attack, at the Carrousel. -He did not stir from thence; Brune was in command.” The statements -of Thiébault, Marmont, and many others prove beyond question that -Napoleon, and he alone, saved the day. - -Books which unduly eulogise or condemn should be read therefore with a -certain amount of reserve. Of partisans such as Jung there are many, -and they doubtless fulfil a useful purpose provided always that a -representative of the other side is given a similar hearing. Lanfrey, -whose vitriolic volumes may be perused in English, represents a school -of thought which has no place in an age which refuses to listen or to -read only of the evil in a man. - -Special attention has been paid in the present work to the genesis of -Napoleon’s career, because it is in what is known as the formative -period that we plant the seeds of future success. To-day and to-morrow -are inextricably interblended, although we so often fail to appreciate -what is assuredly one of the most vital facts of life. Periods of time -are no more real boundaries than periods of history, which are merely -make-believe divisions for purposes of clearness and reference. Of -course, one reign may be more enlightened than another, one Statesman -may confer more benefits on his country than his predecessor, but there -is always a previous foundation on which to build. Napoleon did not -create his vast Empire from nothing. A mosaic-worker who is given a -pile of vari-coloured marble chips with which to glorify a cathedral -pavement does not disdain the fragments because they are in confusion -and appear of little worth. With infinite patience and skill he sorts -them into their various grades, then combines them again, but giving -each its proper order in the scheme. Presently from apparent chaos he -produces a work of beauty. Napoleon came on the scene when the giant -upheaval known as the French Revolution had thrown the whole nation out -of gear. He brought the scattered masses together, recreated Government -and the army, made laws, re-established religion--in a word, led the -people back from anarchy and savagery to civilisation and order. -Napoleon’s true place in history is as an organiser. Conqueror he -undoubtedly was, and his overgrown ambition in this direction was the -cause of his downfall. Had he chosen to rule France solely all would -have been well; neighbouring nations could not have raised legitimate -objections. As it was they owe a debt of gratitude to him. Although -no part of his scheme to awaken dormant ideals of nationality and of -liberty, he unwittingly did so in the archaic Holy Roman Empire, Italy, -Spain, and Tyrol, to mention the more important. A century ago, Europe -hated the Man of Destiny, and not without cause; to-day, she has every -reason, if not to revere his memory, to be thankful for having felt -the iron grip of Napoleon. Surgical operations are extremely painful -whether individual or national. - -Napoleon cannot be called a “good” man in the usually accepted sense -of so latitudinarian a word. He was the instigator of more than one -political crime, yet he had a heart that could beat for the afflicted; -he would say the most unkind and cruel things of Sir Hudson Lowe, to -whose care he was committed at St Helena, and play at bears with -little Betsy Balcombe during her stay in the same island. So complex a -personality must necessarily defy to a great extent the set-square and -compasses both of panegyrist and detractor. Guided by no standard code -of morality, he created his own, that of expediency. “No name,” says -Lord Rosebery, “represents so completely and conspicuously dominion, -splendour and catastrophe. He raised himself by the use, and ruined -himself by the abuse, of superhuman faculties. He was wrecked by the -extravagance of his own genius. No less powers than those which had -effected his rise could have achieved his fall.” - -In a book limited to a certain number of pages many phases of a -crowded life such as Napoleon’s must necessarily receive somewhat -scant treatment. It has been found impossible to treat military events -in full, but the general outlines of the various campaigns have been -given, and the narratives of first-hand authorities quoted whenever -practicable. For general reading a description of a battle by a man who -was present is always to be preferred to the minute details of the most -painstaking student. - -As regards authorities, special reference must be made to Volume IX. -of the monumental “Cambridge Modern History,” Dr J. Holland Rose’s -just and impartial “Life of Napoleon I.,” Sir John Seeley’s somewhat -disparaging “Short History of Napoleon the First,” Mr F. Loraine -Petre’s masterly studies of the Polish, Prussian, and Austrian -campaigns, Sir Archibald Alison’s “History of Europe,” which has by no -means lost its usefulness since more modern research has added to our -knowledge of the epoch, Mr Oscar Browning’s interesting “Boyhood and -Youth of Napoleon, 1769-1793,” and Mr Hereford B. George’s “Napoleon’s -Invasion of Russia.” A host of other volumes dealing with the same -inexhaustible subject which line the shelves of my crowded library have -also been utilised, I trust, to good purpose. - -When the late Admiral Eden was a senior midshipman he was told by -his Admiral that he should accompany him on a visit to the fallen -Emperor at St Helena. “We waited for Napoleon in an outer room,” he -afterwards told a friend, “and you must imagine how eagerly I expected -his entrance. The door was thrown open at last, and in he came. He was -short and fat, and nothing very attractive but for his eye! My word, -sir, I had never seen anything like it. - -“After speaking to the Admiral he turned to me, and then I understood -for the first time in my life, what was the meaning of the phrase ‘A -born ruler of men.’ I had been taught to hate the French as I hated the -devil; but when Napoleon looked at me there was such power and majesty -in his look that if he had bade me lie down that he might walk over me, -I would have done it at once, Englishman although I was. The look on -Napoleon’s face was the revelation of the man and the explanation of -his power. He was born to command.” - -And there you have part of the secret of Napoleon’s career. - - HAROLD F. B. WHEELER - - - - -Contents - - - CHAP. PAGE - - I. NAPOLEON THE BOY 15 - - II. THE SCHOOLDAYS OF NAPOLEON 21 - - III. NAPOLEON AS OFFICER AND AUTHOR 29 - - IV. NAPOLEON AND THE CORSICAN VOLUNTEERS 41 - - V. THE EVE OF THE REIGN OF TERROR 47 - - VI. NAPOLEON’S FIRST FIGHT WITH THE ENGLISH 57 - - VII. NAPOLEON THE SOLDIER OF FORTUNE 65 - - VIII. “THE SPARK OF GREAT AMBITION” 74 - - IX. THE ITALIAN CAMPAIGN 82 - - X. THE EXPEDITION TO EGYPT 91 - - XI. FROM CAIRO TO FRÉJUS 99 - - XII. HOW NAPOLEON SEIZED THE REINS OF GOVERNMENT 106 - - XIII. THE PASSAGE OF THE ALPS 111 - - XIV. BLESSINGS OF PEACE 124 - - XV. THE DAWN OF THE EMPIRE 131 - - XVI. THE THREATENED INVASION OF ENGLAND AND ITS SEQUEL 138 - - XVII. THE WAR OF THE THIRD COALITION 146 - - XVIII. THE PRUSSIAN CAMPAIGN 155 - - XIX. THE POLISH CAMPAIGN 168 - - XX. FRIEDLAND AND TILSIT 174 - - XXI. NAPOLEON’S COMMERCIAL WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 181 - - XXII. THE GENESIS OF THE PENINSULAR WAR 192 - - XXIII. GLORY AT ERFURT AND HUMILIATION IN SPAIN 206 - - XXIV. THE AUSTRIAN CAMPAIGN 219 - - XXV. THE AUSTRIAN CAMPAIGN--_Continued_ 233 - - XXVI. THE WAR IN POLAND AND TYROL 241 - - XXVII. A BROKEN FRIENDSHIP AND WHAT IT BROUGHT 253 - - XXVIII. THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN 265 - - XXIX. THE TRIUMPHAL ENTRY INTO MOSCOW--AND AFTER 276 - - XXX. THE MARCH OF HUMILIATION 284 - - XXXI. THE BEGINNING OF THE END--THE LEIPZIG CAMPAIGN 291 - - XXXII. THE CONQUEST OF THE CONQUEROR 302 - - INDEX 315 - - - - -Illustrations - - - NAPOLEON I., EMPEROR OF THE FRENCH _J. L. David_ _Frontispiece_ - PAGE - NAPOLEON AT BRIENNE _Réalier Dumas_ 24 - - “IT IS THE EMPEROR!” _H. de T. Glazebrook_ 86 - - INSTALLATION OF NAPOLEON AS FIRST - CONSUL _L. Couder_ 108 - - THE DEATH OF GENERAL DESAIX _A. Le Dru_ 118 - - ON THE SANDS AT BOULOGNE _A. C. Gow, R.A._ 132 - - NAPOLEON GIVING THE EAGLES TO HIS - ARMY _L. David_ 140 - - NAPOLEON DECORATING HIS SOLDIERS - AT BOULOGNE _F. G. Roussel_ 146 - - THE NIGHT BEFORE AUSTERLITZ _A. Dawant_ 152 - - THE BATTLE OF FRIEDLAND _Horace Vernet_ 176 - - THE RETREAT FROM MOSCOW _V. Werestchagin_ 266 - - AFTER MOSCOW: “ADVANCE OR - RETREAT?” _V. Werestchagin_ 280 - - MARSHAL NEY DEFENDING THE - REAR-GUARD _Adolphe Yvon_ 288 - - 1814 _J. L. E. Meissonier_ 302 - - THE FLIGHT FROM WATERLOO _A. C. Gow, R.A._ 308 - - NAPOLEON ON BOARD THE BELLEROPHON _Sir W. Q. Orchardson, R.A._ 312 - - - - -The Story of Napoleon - - - - -CHAPTER I - -Napoleon the Boy - -(1769-1778) - - -Whenever we hear the name of Napoleon mentioned, or see it printed -in a book, it is usually in connection with a hard-fought victory on -the battlefield. He certainly spent most of his life in the camp, -and enjoyed the society of soldiers more than that of courtiers. The -thunder of guns, the charge of cavalry, and the flash of bayonets as -they glittered in the sun, appealed to him with much the same force -as music to more ordinary folk. Indeed, he himself tells us that “the -cries of the dying, the tears of the hopeless, surrounded my cradle -from the moment of my birth.” - -We are apt to forget that this mighty conqueror, whom Carlyle calls -“our last great man,” had a childhood at all. He was born nearly a -century and a half ago, on the 15th August 1769 to be exact, in the -little town of Ajaccio, the capital of picturesque Corsica. This -miniature island rises a bold tree-covered rock in the blue waters -of the Mediterranean, fifty miles west of the coast of Italy. It had -been sold to France by the Republic of Genoa the previous year, but -the inhabitants had fought for their independence with praiseworthy -determination. Then civil war broke out, and the struggle finally ended -three months before the birth of the boy who was to become the ruler -of the conquering nation. The Corsicans had their revenge in time, -although in a way very different from what they could have expected. - -Letizia Bonaparte, Napoleon’s mother, was as beautiful as she was -energetic, and her famous son never allowed anyone to speak ill of her. -“My excellent mother,” said he, not long before his death, “is a woman -of courage and of great talent ... she is capable of doing everything -for me,” and he added that the high position which he attained was due -largely to the careful way in which she brought him up. - -“It is to my mother, to her good precepts and upright example, that I -owe my success and any great thing I have accomplished,” he averred, -while to a general he remarked, “My mother was a superb woman, a woman -of ability and courage.” A truly great man always speaks well of his -mother. - -Napoleon was Letizia’s fourth child, two having died in infancy, -while Joseph, the surviving son, was still unable to toddle when the -latest addition to the family was in his cradle. His father was a -happy-go-lucky kind of man of good ancestry, a lawyer by profession, -who on the landing of the French had resigned the pen for the sword. -He enlisted in the army raised by Pascal Paoli to defend the island, -for the Corsicans were then a very warlike people and much sought -after as soldiers, and it is supposed by some that he acted as Paoli’s -secretary. It is certain that the patriot showed him marked favour, -which was never repaid. - -When Paoli and his loyal band were forced to make their escape to the -hospitable shores of England, Charles Bonaparte meekly accepted the -pardon offered to those who would lay down their arms and acknowledge -Louis XV. of France as their King. After events proved the wisdom of -his choice, but scarcely justified his action. - -The house in which the Bonaparte family lived at Ajaccio is still -standing, but has been patched up and repaired so frequently that -probably little of the original fabric remains. It now belongs to the -ex-Empress Eugénie, the consort of Napoleon’s ill-fated nephew who is -known to history as Napoleon III. You would not call it a mansion, -and yet it contains a spacious ballroom, a large square drawing-room, -Charles Bonaparte’s study, a dining-room, a nursery, several bedrooms, -and a dressing-room. Some of the old furniture is left, namely the -Chippendale sofa on which the future Emperor was born, his mother’s -spinet, and his father’s desk. There is also a little etching of -Napoleon on horseback by the late Prince Imperial, and one or two -statuettes and portraits. In the Town Hall near by is a picture of -Letizia which testifies to her good looks--she was known as “the beauty -of Ajaccio!” - -As a child Napoleon was impetuous, self-confident, and apt to be -bad-tempered. If a playmate did something which displeased him the -culprit was rewarded with kicks, bites and scratches. Letizia did -her best to break him of this bad habit, with little success, for he -resented interference to the end of his days. When he was Emperor he -used to tell an anecdote of his early life which proves that his mother -did more than scold him when he got into mischief. - -There were some fig-trees in the garden attached to his home, and -Napoleon was very fond of climbing them. Letizia, fearing an accident, -forbade him to do so. “One day, however,” he relates, “when I was -idle, and at a loss for something to do, I took it in my head to long -for some of those figs. They were ripe; no one saw me, or could know -anything of the matter. I made my escape, ran to the tree, and gathered -the whole. My appetite being satisfied, I was providing for the future -by filling my pockets, when an unlucky gardener came in sight. I was -half-dead with fear, and remained fixed on the branch of the tree, -where he had surprised me. He wished to seize me and take me to my -mother. Despair made me eloquent; I represented my distress, promised -to keep away from the figs in future, and he seemed satisfied. I -congratulated myself on having come off so well, and fancied that the -adventure would never be known; but the traitor told all. The next day -my mother wanted to go and gather some figs. I had not left any, there -was none to be found: the gardener came, great reproaches followed, and -an exposure.” The result was a thrashing! - -Probably the busy housewife taught Napoleon his letters, assisted by -his uncle Joseph Fesch, who was but six years his senior, while from -his great uncle, Archdeacon Lucien Bonaparte, he learned a little -Bible history. The three “R.’s” were drilled into him by nuns, and -as the establishment admitted girls as well as boys, Napoleon took a -fancy to one of the former, thereby incurring the ridicule of some -of his schoolfellows. They were never tired of jeering at him with a -little rhyme, specially composed for the occasion, to the effect that -“Napoleon with his stockings half off makes love to Giacommetta.” The -translation, of course, does not jingle as in the Corsican patois. It -must not be inferred that he was a good-looking or attractive boy. On -the contrary, he had a sallow complexion, was invariably untidy, and -inclined to be moody. - -Later, he went to a more advanced school, and from thence to the -seminary of the Abbé Recco. If he was not a brilliant scholar he was -certainly more interested in mathematics than is the modern boy in -locomotives, and that is admitting a good deal. He also excelled in -geography. Both studies proved useful _aides-de-camp_ when Napoleon -began to master the intricate arts of strategy and tactics. It is on -record that when Napoleon was very young he rode on a high-spirited -pony to a neighbouring windmill, and after persuading the miller to -tell him how much corn it ground in an hour, quietly sat down and -worked out the quantity used per day and week. The tyrant then returned -to his panic-stricken mother, who had convinced herself that the boy -had probably fallen off his fiery steed and been trampled to death. - -When opportunity occurred, the youthful Napoleon scribbled sums on -the nursery walls and drew crude outlines of soldiers marching in -regimental order. A fondness for the open air early manifested itself, -and the earnest student would remain out-of-doors for hours at a -stretch, provided he was allowed to follow his favourite pursuits -without being disturbed. Should his brother dare to interfere when he -was working in the little wooden shanty which his thoughtful mother had -caused to be erected for him, Napoleon’s hasty temper would get the -upper hand, and the intruder would be forced to beat a hasty retreat, -perhaps in a shower of sticks and stones. - -“My brother Joseph,” he tells us, “was the one with whom I was oftenest -in trouble: he was beaten, bitten, abused. I went to complain before -he had time to recover from his confusion. I had need to be on the -alert; our mother would have repressed my warlike humour, she would -not have put up with my caprices. Her tenderness was allied with -severity: she punished, rewarded all alike; the good, the bad, nothing -escaped her. My father, a man of sense, but too fond of pleasure to -pay much attention to our infancy, sometimes attempted to excuse our -faults: ‘Let them alone,’ she replied, ‘it is not your business, it -is I who must look after them.’ She did, indeed, watch over us with a -solicitude unexampled. Every low sentiment, every ungenerous affection -was discouraged: she suffered nothing but what was good and elevated to -take root in our youthful understandings. She abhorred falsehood, was -provoked by disobedience: she passed over none of our faults.” - -Napoleon’s father had no difficulty in deciding what profession to -choose for his second son. As for Joseph, he determined that he should -enter the priesthood. Napoleon was positive his brother would make a -good bishop, and said so. - -In this matter of settling the life-work of his boys Charles Bonaparte -was helped by the kindly-disposed Marbœuf, one of the two French -commissioners appointed by the King to govern Corsica, who frequently -visited the house in the Rue St Charles. Napoleon, although only nine -years old was now about to enter a larger world, to have an opportunity -to appreciate the benefits of education on sounder lines, and to tread -the soil of the country which received him as a humble pensioner of the -King, and elevated him twenty-five years later to the Imperial throne. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -The Schooldays of Napoleon - -(1779-1784) - - -In France there were twelve royal military schools to which a certain -number of sons of the poor aristocracy were admitted without payment. -Marbœuf was successful in securing this benefit for Napoleon, although -his father had to prove to the satisfaction of the authorities that he -was without fortune and to present a certificate to the effect that his -family had belonged to the nobility for at least four generations. This -done, the way was made clear for the boy to begin his first serious -studies in the art of warfare. As the Corsicans spoke Italian and knew -very little, if anything, of the French language, it was decided that -Napoleon should stay for a time with his brother Joseph at the College -of Autun so that he might acquire some knowledge of the language both -were henceforth to speak. To the end of his days Napoleon never learnt -to spell correctly, his pronunciation was oftentimes peculiar, and his -writing invariably abominable. - -Charles Marie de Bonaparte, duly accompanied by Joseph, Napoleon, Uncle -Fesch, and a cousin named Aurelio Varese, set off for the land of -their adoption in the middle of December 1778. The good Letizia sobbed -bitterly when she parted with her two sons, but there were now several -other children to be cared for, which must have consoled her to some -extent. The travellers passed through Tuscany, where the beautiful -city of Florence left an impression on the plastic mind of the embryo -soldier, and a momentary sight of the Grand Duke afforded him intense -pleasure. They were fragmentary foretastes of things to come, when -Napoleon’s troops would overrun the land of the Medici and the scions -of royal houses would appreciate a nod or a glance from the now unknown -lad whose eyes opened wide with astonishment at the sights and scenes -of pre-Revolutionary Europe. - -On the 1st January 1779, Autun was reached, and the boys had their -first experience of what it means to be hundreds of miles from home -and in a country where rugged little Corsica, if mentioned at all, -was sneered at, and its inhabitants regarded as scarcely better than -savages. Another separation came towards the end of the following -April, when Napoleon left for Brienne, now inseparably associated with -his name and fame. Tradition has it that Joseph wept copiously at the -moment of departure, but down his brother’s cheek there coursed a -solitary tear. In the opinion of the Abbé Simon, who held the important -post of sub-principal of the College, this was proof that Napoleon felt -the wrench none the less keenly. Joseph allowed his emotions to govern -him; Napoleon controlled his heart by his will, then as always. - -It may be thought peculiar that Brienne, like the other military -schools, was controlled by monks. The arrangement was really not so -extraordinary as it would appear. Religion, up to the time of the -Revolution, had always played an important part in the State, and that -great epoch-making volcano had done nothing more than rumble at the -period with which we are dealing. The Superior was, of course, the head -of the establishment, the various Fathers having particular subjects -to teach in which they more or less excelled. Occasionally a member -of the laity assisted in a subordinate capacity. Pichegru, who was -to become famous in the profession of Napoleon’s choice, taught the -elementary class at Brienne. - -The pupils lived in almost monastic seclusion. They were not allowed to -leave the precincts for the whole of the six years which were allotted -to them for education, and during the holidays were never quite free -from lessons. What seems a most exacting régime in some ways was, -however, neutralised to some extent by rules judiciously forgotten. - -St Germain, the energetic Minister of War who had advised the King to -found the military schools, had spent much time and thought in drawing -up elaborate regulations for their government. The studies included -geography, history, grammar, mathematics, Latin, French poetry, German, -drawing, music, and eventually English. Special attention was paid, -as was only natural, to the art of war, “the trade of barbarians,” -as Napoleon once termed it in a capricious moment. Although rich in -promise the colleges fell far short of the high ideals which St Germain -had hoped for them, as do so many plans for the improvement of the -existing order of things. - -Notwithstanding all that has been written of Napoleon’s morose and -sullen disposition during his student days, it must not be forgotten -that the young cadet was at a decided disadvantage in making friends. -The matter of language alone was a sufficient barrier to intimate -intercourse at this stage of his scholastic career, and his habit of -diligent study ill-accorded with the frivolous frittering away of -time indulged in by so many of the King’s scholars. Napoleon was a -hard worker, but only in subjects which most appealed to him, such as -history, geography, and mathematics, all of which had a special bearing -on his future career. Latin he despised as being of no practical value -to a soldier; translations he positively loathed. He early learned -to eliminate the non-essential and trivial, and the easy mastery of -details became almost second nature to him. - -[Illustration: Napoleon at Brienne - -By Réalier Dumas - -Photo Neurdein] - -His patriotism for his own country burned like a consuming fire. It -is related that one day Napoleon came across a portrait of Choiseul, -the hated Minister of Foreign Affairs under Louis XV. who had been -the main instigator of the seizure of Corsica by the French. The most -insulting remarks were hurled at the painted presentment of the man he -so detested. On another occasion it is said that he averred he would -do the French as much harm as he possibly could. If the story is not -legendary, the statement was doubtless made in a moment of anger; -perhaps after some thoughtless fellow student had taunted him about the -poverty of his family, or the downfall of Paoli, the Corsican patriot -whom he so much admired. His hot Southern blood boiled with indignation -when anything was said which gave offence, and he scarcely, if ever, -endeavoured to curb his hasty temper. He went so far as to challenge -a cadet to a duel. To Bourrienne alone, a lad of his own age, did he -show a marked attachment, and a warm friendship was cemented between -them. Napoleon did not forget his school-chum in later years, and -when a General appointed him to the important position of his private -secretary. In his “Memoirs” Bourrienne gives us several intimate -glimpses of the obscure lad who was to make Europe his footstool. He -tells us that Napoleon frequently meditated on the conquest of his -native island; that the unworthy part played by his father was never -forgiven; that he spent much of his time in solitude. Bourrienne also -confesses that in exchange for assistance in Latin the future Emperor -would lend him a helping hand with his mathematics, the calculations -being made with extraordinary clearness and rapidity. - -“At Brienne,” his school-fellow adds, “Bonaparte was remarkable for the -dark colour of his complexion, which the climate of France afterwards -very much changed, as well as for his piercing and scrutinising -glance, and for the style of his conversation, both with his masters -and companions. His conversation almost always gave one the idea of -ill-humour, and he was certainly not very sociable. This I think may be -attributed to the misfortunes of his family during his childhood, and -the impressions made on his mind by the subjugation of his country.” - -In these trying days Napoleon’s reticent disposition served him in good -stead. He preferred the library of the school to the playground. While -the other boys were enjoying a game Napoleon was usually poring over -the pages of Plutarch, and deriving inspiration and encouragement from -the deeds of old-time heroes who figure in the “Lives of Illustrious -Men.” Greek poetry had a fascination for him not evident in many lads -of his tender age. “With my sword by my side,” he writes to his mother, -“and Homer in my pocket, I hope to carve my way through the world.” -Cæsar’s “Gallic War” was also a favourite. Although Napoleon was by no -means generally popular, and certainly never inclined to be genial, -the majority of the students gradually began to respect him. It is on -record that he was never a sneak, preferring to bear punishment himself -rather than to divulge the name of a miscreant. - -The love of monks for the soil is proverbial; this may have been the -reason why a small portion of ground was allotted to each student at -Brienne. Whatever healthy exercise Napoleon was supposed to derive -from his garden was speedily discounted. He set to work with feverish -activity, transformed the desert into an oasis, planted trees and -shrubs, and surrounded the whole by a palisade in true military -fashion. This done, he troubled no more about agricultural pursuits -but was content to sit in his bower and read with little fear of -disturbance. - -In the winter of 1783-4, an abnormally severe season, the anchorite -had an opportunity to show his military powers. Napoleon suggested to -the students that they should build a fort of snow complete in every -detail. The school was then divided into two armies, Napoleon sometimes -directing the assault, at others defending the fortifications. It was -rough play, and several serious accidents befel the cadets, who entered -into the spirit of the thing with more alacrity than the peace-loving -monks approved. Day after day this mock warfare was kept up, and -Napoleon was usually the hero of each encounter. - -You can imagine him standing there in his picturesque costume: blue -coat with red facings and white metal buttons, blue breeches, and -a waistcoat of the same colour faced with white. Horace Vernet has -depicted the scene in one of his many Napoleonic paintings. The young -commander, erect and defiant, is directing the storming of the fort by -cadets who, for the most part, have taken off their coats in order to -secure a better aim. An attacking party is climbing the ramparts, some -of the units with success, others with disaster. The picture has been -reproduced many times, and is one of the few dealing with the early -period of the Conqueror’s career. - -Without question these were the happiest days of Napoleon’s youth. He -was not a brilliant scholar, and there are no records to show that he -won particular distinction beyond sharing a first prize for mathematics -with Bourrienne, which goes to prove that the latter profited by the -teaching of his chum. Napoleon however, was made commander of a company -of cadets which amply atoned, from his own point of view, for all the -“ploughing” he underwent at examinations. The opinion of M. de Keralio, -one of the inspectors of the military schools, as to Napoleon’s -efficiency is as follows: - -“SCHOOL OF BRIENNE: State of the King’s scholars eligible from their -age to enter into the service or to pass to the school at Paris; -to wit, M. de Buonaparte (Napoleon) born the 15th August, 1769, in -height 4 feet 10 inches 10 lines, has finished his fourth season; of -good constitution, health excellent; character submissive, honest and -grateful; conduct very regular; has always distinguished himself by his -application to mathematics; understands history and geography tolerably -well; is indifferently skilled in merely ornamental studies and in -Latin, in which he has only finished his fourth course; would make an -excellent sailor; deserves to be passed on to the school at Paris.” - -In the light of after events this diagnosis of his character is -peculiar; it may be added that he had a deep-rooted affection for those -at home in the far-off little island in the Mediterranean. He took upon -himself the burden of thinking for the family, and provided them with -plenty of gratuitous advice not altogether without wisdom. - -A few months before Napoleon placed his foot on the next stepping-stone -to fame and fortune he was joined at Brienne by his brother Lucien, who -had been at Autun. In a note to one of his uncles Napoleon expresses -his satisfaction with the newcomer, “for a beginning,” but pours out a -fierce diatribe against Joseph’s wish to give up his idea of becoming a -priest and entering the army. In reality there were more difficulties -in the way than those mentioned by the writer, and eventually the -eldest son was taken home to Corsica by his father. Neither was it -destined that Napoleon should become a sailor. Another inspector -named Reynaud de Monts visited the school in 1784, and decided that -the promising cadet should enter the Military School of Paris, for -which institution he left on the 30th October. To the certificate -which was forwarded, a brief but sufficiently comprehensive note was -added: “Character masterful, impetuous and headstrong.” A complete -contradiction of M. de Keralio’s statement. - -No one seeing the dwarfed figure of the lad of fifteen, as he passed -through the entrance of the École Militaire, would have cared to -prophecy that in a few years the King’s scholar would be sitting as -Emperor of the French on the throne of his benefactor. Time reveals its -own secrets. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -Napoleon as Officer and Author - -(1784-1791) - - -Without waiting to see if he would like the school and the tutors at -Paris, or making the hundred and one excuses which usually crowd a -schoolboy’s brain before definitely settling down to work, Napoleon -applied himself to the various subjects necessary to enable him -to enter the artillery. This branch of the service held out most -possibilities from the point of view of sheer merit, and he chose -wisely. At the examination held in September 1785, his name appears as -forty-second on the list of candidates, which is neither particularly -good nor particularly bad, and would suggest that a certain portion of -his time was devoted to studies outside the immediate radius of the -official course. - -Napoleon had the good fortune to find a friend in Alexandre Desmazis, -who shared his room with him and became Administrator of the Crown -Buildings during the Consulate. Many other instances might be given of -Napoleon’s kindness of heart to those who were not so successful in the -race of life as was their benefactor. It is a point, and an important -one, lost sight of by many of his biographers. There was certainly a -better side of the mighty Corsican--he was not all blood and iron. - -Apparently the studies of the chums at the École Militaire were -successful, for they were appointed in the succeeding October, to -the regiment of La Fere, stationed at Valence, Napoleon as second -lieutenant. The two newly-fledged officers had so little money that -they were forced to tramp a considerable distance on foot. It was very -ignominious and humiliating, but pride is best swallowed quickly and -forgotten, like a blue pill. Napoleon was now fatherless, and he felt -his responsible position very keenly. Although not the head of the -family in reality, he was nominally, for Joseph was far behind his -brother in every material respect. - -Besides his ordinary military duties Napoleon had to attend -lectures on many subjects connected with his profession, including -fortifications, chemistry, and mathematics. He seems to have worn -off some of the rugged corners of his character. We find him with -many friends, including one or two members of the fair sex. Upon one -lady in particular, namely Mme. Grégoire de Colombier, he made a most -favourable impression, and he received many invitations to her country -house at Basseaux. She flattered him, but also tendered much practical -advice. Napoleon was too young to fall in love seriously, but he -passed many bright hours with Caroline, the daughter of his hostess, -and a warm attachment sprang up between them. He ate fruit with her -in the garden, and afterwards remarked that those days were some of -the happiest in his triumphant but pathetic life. “We were the most -innocent creatures imaginable,” he says, “we contrived little meetings -together; I well remember one which took place on a midsummer morning, -just as daylight was beginning to dawn. It will scarcely be believed -that all our happiness consisted in eating cherries together.” - -Bonaparte also visited the Permons; and Madame Junot, afterwards -Duchess of Abrantès, has left us a witty pen-picture of him as he -appeared in full regimentals at the age of sixteen. - -“There was one part of his dress,” she writes, “which had a very droll -appearance--that was his boots. They were so high and wide that his -thin little legs seemed buried in their amplitude. Young people are -always ready to observe anything ridiculous, and as soon as my sister -and I saw Napoleon enter the drawing-room, we burst into a loud fit -of laughter. Buonaparte could not relish a joke; and when he found -himself the object of merriment he grew angry. My sister, who was some -years older than I, told him that since he wore a sword he ought to -be gallant to ladies, and, instead of being angry, should be happy -that they joked with him. ‘You are nothing but a child, a little -school-girl,’ said Napoleon, in a tone of contempt. Cécile, who was -twelve or thirteen years of age, was highly indignant at being called a -child, and she hastily resented the affront by replying to Bonaparte, -‘And you are nothing but a Puss in Boots!’ This excited a general laugh -among all present except Napoleon, whose rage I will not attempt to -describe.” A few days later the young officer went to a bookseller’s -shop, purchased a dainty edition of “Puss in Boots,” and presented it -to the culprit. This was his way of apologising. - -For a time he relaxed his close application to study without neglecting -his books altogether, and turned author. There is a pessimistic -strain in all his literary efforts at this period, due no doubt -to home-sickness, overwork, and perhaps lack of means, his income -certainly never totalling more than twenty shillings a week. He even -contemplated suicide, evidence of which is found in a manuscript dated -the 3rd May, 1786. - -“Always alone in the midst of men,” he complains, “I come back to my -rooms to dream with myself, and to surrender myself to all the vivacity -of my melancholy. Towards which side is it turned to-day? To the side -of death. In the dawn of my days I can still hope to live a long time, -but I have been away from my country for about six or seven years. What -pleasures shall I not enjoy when in four months’ time I see once more -my compatriots and my relations? From the tender sensations with which -the recollections of the pleasures of my childhood now fill me, may I -not infer that my happiness will be complete? What madness leads me, -then, to wish my death? Doubtless the thought: What is there to do in -this world?” - -This makes strange reading, but it shows that even the greatest men -have periods of depression like ordinary folk. He continues in this -strain, passes sentence on France for having humiliated his beloved -Corsica, and says scarcely less hard things of his own countrymen: -“They are no longer those Corsicans, whom a hero inspired with his -virtues, enemies of tyrants, of luxury, of demoralized towns.” Towards -the end he shows a tinge of enthusiasm; his fighting instinct gets the -better of him: “A good patriot ought to die when his Fatherland has -ceased to exist. If the deliverance of my fellow-countrymen depended -upon the death of a single man, I would go immediately and plunge the -sword which would avenge my country and its violated laws into the -breast of tyrants.” He again lapses into melancholy, concluding with a -disgust for everything. - -The second lieutenant did not take his own life; he lived down his -troubles instead. Indeed his favourite motto, and one well worthy -of note by every reader of this volume, was “The truest wisdom is a -resolute determination.” In August 1786, a rift in the cloud showed -the proverbial silver lining, and the chance of a little excitement, -which was bread and meat to him, came along. A miniature rebellion -had broken out at Lyons, and it was deemed necessary to call out the -military. The company at Valence to which Napoleon belonged was marched -to the seat of the trouble. Before it arrived the insurrection had -blown over, thereby shattering the officer’s hope of distinguishing -himself. - -From Lyons he proceeded northward to Douay, in Flanders, where he -contracted malarial fever which tended to undermine his constitution -for several years afterwards. Bad news also reached him from Corsica. -His mother appealed to him to come home and give her the benefits of -his advice and assistance. Archdeacon Lucien--Napoleon’s great-uncle, -who had hitherto acted as head of the family--was daily growing more -feeble: the good Letizia feared the worst. Her means were distressingly -small, her family inordinately large for the scanty resources at her -disposal. On the 1st of September 1786, he set out for his beloved -island. Passing through Aix, he was cheered by a visit to his uncle -Fesch and his brother Lucien, both of whom were studying at the -Seminary with a view to entering the priesthood. Exactly a fortnight -afterwards, Napoleon landed at Ajaccio with a small trunk of clothes -and a larger one of books. The works of Plutarch, Plato, Cicero, Nepos, -Livy, Tacitus, Montaigne, Montesquieu, Raynal, Corneille, Racine, -Voltaire, and the poems of Ossian were all represented. - -Napoleon applied himself with his usual industry to straightening -out the tangled skein of family troubles. He found it by no means an -easy matter, especially as the French Government was involved. The -latter had been anxious to introduce the silk industry in their new -dependency, and Charles Bonaparte had been one of the first to seize -upon the idea because he thought there was “money in it.” In 1782 -he had made a plantation of young mulberry trees for the purpose of -rearing silkworms, but instead of handing over the whole of the money -which had been agreed upon in advance, 2700 livres still remained to -be paid by the State. On the strength of a certificate of ill-health, -Napoleon’s leave was extended from the end of March 1787, to the -beginning of December, and later until the 1st June 1788. He wandered -about the island, visiting his old haunts and companions, but more -often finding his greatest consolation in lonely communion with -Nature. Sometimes he would turn to his literary pursuits, adding a few -paragraphs to a “History of Corsica,” which was occupying some of his -leisure moments. He also composed a short story dealing with English -history, entitled “The Count of Essex.” A novel having its setting in -Corsica followed, and another attempt at fiction, which he called “The -Masked Prophet,” perhaps the best of the three as regards literary -style. - -On the 12th September 1787, he left Corsica for Paris, in order to -clear up the matter of the mulberry trees. He found it impossible to -exact money from a bankrupt exchequer, and although he pressed the -claim no success attended his efforts. Napoleon accordingly returned -to Ajaccio, where he spent part of his spare time drawing up plans for -the defence of places round the coast, and postponed his departure -until the day he was due to join his regiment at Auxonne. Ever of a -calculating nature, the young officer rightly surmised that in those -days of lax discipline his absence would not be noticed, or if it were -that the insubordination would be passed over. - -In the following August (1788) it became evident that the serious -work he had put in while his companions were lounging about or -frittering away their time was beginning to have its due effect. He -became a member of a commission appointed to inquire into the merits -or demerits of certain pieces of artillery, and one of the duties--no -slight one--which fell to his share was the drawing up of the report. -Misfortune, however, had not altogether ceased paying him unwelcome -attentions, and, for some reason or other, probably a matter connected -with some work on the fortifications of which he had the oversight, -Napoleon was placed under arrest for a day. - -His own scheme of education went on apace, as his manuscript -note-books, now in the Lorenzo Medici Library at Florence, abundantly -testify. One of the works singled out by him for attention was a French -translation of Barrow’s “History of England, from the Times of Julius -Cæsar to the Peace of 1762.” His remarks show that he had a special -admiration for such men as Hereward the Wake, familiar to all of us in -the pages of Kingsley, or in the more recently published historical -romance, “The Story of Hereward,” by Mr Douglas C. Stedman; Simon de -Montfort, whom Napoleon terms “one of the greatest Englishmen”; and the -Earl of Arundel, who “died a martyr for the liberty of his country.” -Cromwell, he says, “was in his early days a libertine. Religion took -possession of him, and he became a prophet. Courageous, clever, -deceitful, dissimulating, his early principles of republican exaltation -yielded to the devouring flame of his ambition, and, after having -tasted the sweets of power, he aspired to the pleasure of reigning -alone. He had a strong constitution, and had a manly but brusque -manner. From the most austere religious functions he passed to the most -frivolous amusements, and made himself ridiculous by his buffoonery. -He was naturally just and even-tempered.” Many of these remarks might -be applied not inaptly to Napoleon himself, and if he is not absolutely -just to Cromwell, they show that he had a very good understanding of -the Protector’s general character, and that he read to learn and not -simply to “kill time,” or for amusement. - -In April 1789 was heard the distant rumble which heralded the French -Revolution, before it broke out in all its hideous extravagancies. -Riots had taken place at Seurre, but as in the case of the affair at -Lyons, they were quelled before Napoleon or his colleagues put foot in -the place. Two months of enforced idleness were spent in the former -town before the company was marched back to its headquarters at Auxonne -without having had the slightest chance to distinguish itself. When it -could have proved useful it broke into open mutiny. This was in July -1789, when a riot took place and the soldiers joined the rebels. - -Napoleon had now completed his “History of Corsica,” and on the -disgrace of Marbeuf, Bishop of Sens, to whom he had hoped to dedicate -it, he decided to ask Paoli to become his patron. He sent him his -precious manuscript feeling assured that it would be well received, but -the acknowledgment was a rebuff couched in courteous terms. Moreover, -the original was mislaid by Paoli, and this unfortunate happening went -far to shake the faith of its writer in the great Corsican leader at a -later date. - -It is now necessary for us to try to understand in some measure the -aims and objects of the vast disturbance known to history as the French -Revolution. For generations the monarchy and aristocracy of France -had refused to listen to the cry of the oppressed people whom they -governed. The State was grossly mismanaged; money which should have -remained in the pockets of the distressed people was exacted from them -and given to unworthy Court favourites, who spent it in a variety of -ways which did not benefit the nation. The nobles and titled clergy -paid no taxes, the burden thus fell with undue weight on the middle -classes--even now the milch-cow of the State--and the peasants, who -toiled day and night for bread. Serious reform was always postponed, -although it had been attempted by King Louis XVI. in a feeble and -half-hearted way. - -A bitter hatred of the persons, institutions, and traditions which -contributed to this undesirable state of things was the inevitable -consequence; as so often happens, those who desired the righting -of wrongs carried their measures too far. “Liberty, equality, and -fraternity” were the passwords of the leaders of the new order, but -obviously the ideal could not be brought about when nearly everybody -held a different theory as to how the abuses were to be rectified. The -writings of such philosophers as Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau, -all of which had been diligently perused by Napoleon, had done much to -fan the smouldering embers into flames. Soon the whole land was ablaze, -massacres became of daily occurrence, the King and Queen paid the price -with their heads, the monarchies of Europe were shaken to their very -foundations. And what did the people get in exchange for this giant -upheaval? The iron despotism of one man, who continued the Revolution -in his own person; made the Continent one vast battlefield; drew from -France her best manhood and her treasure, and left her territory -smaller than when he first put foot on her soil. - -At the moment it was impossible for Napoleon to realise the true -meaning of the dreadful events which were approaching with such -unrestrained rapidity. He foresaw the end of the old state of affairs, -and rightly conjectured that they would be swept away never to return; -but Corsica was the centre of his interests rather than France. Rent -asunder by conflicting ambitions and civil war, his native island might -yet tear herself from her hated conquerors. So at least he told himself -in his moments of reflection. - -In September 1789, Bonaparte again obtained leave of absence until -the 1st June 1790. His health was by no means good when he embarked -at Marseilles; a mutiny had occurred in his regiment, and altogether -his outlook was as gloomy as ever. Freedom from his irksome military -duties, however, and the bracing effect of the sea-air rapidly revived -his drooping spirits and failing energy. - -The echo of the Revolution had been heard in far-off Corsica; there -were disturbances, and serious trouble seemed likely, as soldiers -were on the move intent upon restoring the sway of the hated royalist -authorities. Napoleon called a meeting of patriots, harangued them, -and headed a petition to the democratic National Assembly to restore -independence to Corsica. He began to organise a National Guard, which -was almost immediately dissolved by Vicomte de Barrin, the French -Governor. The ardent young man of twenty thereupon set out for Bastia, -the official capital of the island, where a passage of arms took place -between the soldiers and the people. The latter won the day, and Barrin -was forced to order the arming of the Civic Guard as they wished. - -Shortly afterwards news arrived that the National Assembly had decided -that Corsica should become a part of the Kingdom of France and enjoy -the same constitution. All thought of independence seems to have -instantly vanished from Napoleon’s mind. He laid down the cudgels -without further ado, saying that France “has opened her bosom to us, -henceforth we have the same interests and the same solicitudes; it is -the sea alone which separates us.” Joseph being elected a member of -the Municipal Council, the Bonaparte family was able to lift up its -head again. Further leave of absence on the score of ill-health was -again requested by Napoleon and granted. In reality he was taking an -active part in affairs, and enjoying it, for Corsica was more or less -in a state of anarchy. At Ajaccio he joined a Radical Club called the -Patriotic Society, and wrote and printed a “Letter” to Buttafuoco, one -of the most hated men in Corsica, who, since the death of Napoleon’s -father, had represented the nobility of the island at Versailles. It -is full of abuse, the writer in his passionate ardour going so far as -to say that, having burnt Buttafuoco in effigy, most of the Corsicans -would like to burn him in person. Moreover, Paoli was returning, and -he foresaw an opportunity of serving him. Paoli received a magnificent -reception at Bastia when he arrived on the 17th July. The time for -aiding the General of the Corsicans had not yet come, however, and -Napoleon again set sail for France, reaching Auxonne, a picturesque -little town on the river Saône, in February 1791. - -Several years afterwards, in 1803 to be precise, when he was planning -the invasion of our own fair land, Napoleon thus summed up his youthful -days to Madame de Rémusat: “I was educated at a military school, and -I showed no aptitude for anything but the exact sciences. Every one -said of me, ‘That child will never be good for anything but geometry.’ -I kept aloof from my schoolfellows. I had chosen a little corner in -the school grounds, where I would sit and dream at my ease; for I have -always liked reverie. When my companions tried to usurp possession -of this corner, I defended it with all my might. I already knew by -instinct that my will was to override that of others, and that what -pleased me was to belong to me. I was not liked at school. It takes -time to make oneself liked; and, even when I had nothing to do, I -always felt vaguely that I had no time to lose. - -“I entered the service, and soon grew tired of garrison work. I began -to read novels, and they interested me deeply. I even tried to write -some. This occupation brought out something of my imagination, which -mingled itself with the positive knowledge I had acquired, and I often -let myself dream in order that I might afterwards measure my dreams -by the compass of my reason. I threw myself into an ideal world, and -I endeavoured to find out in what precise points it differed from the -actual world in which I lived. I have always liked analysis, and, if -I were to be seriously in love, I should analyse my love bit by bit. -_Why?_ and _How?_ are questions so useful that they cannot be too often -asked. I conquered, rather than studied, history; that is to say, I did -not care to retain and did not retain anything that could not give me -a new idea; I disdained all that was useless, but took possession of -certain results which pleased me.” - -It was this skilful combining of the practical and the imaginative -which enabled Napoleon to project his vast schemes for the reformation -of Europe; it was the elimination of the former and the substitution of -an overweening self-confidence which deprived the mighty conqueror of -“the throne o’ the world.” - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -Napoleon and the Corsican Volunteers - -(1791-1792) - - -Napoleon again had a companion on his return voyage to France in the -person of his brother Louis, a bright little fellow twelve and a half -years old. If the latter could not be expected to take any intelligent -interest in the many schemes for advancement which were now coursing -through Napoleon’s super-active brain, he was at least a living link -with the family in Ajaccio. The young lieutenant’s political ambitions -which had received so marked an incentive in Corsica were not allowed -to sink to zero, as is so frequently the case when one is away from the -whirl and excitement of their practical influence. Rather were they -nourished and fed by the sights and scenes Napoleon beheld as the two -made their way to Auxonne after they had landed. The fact that he had -exceeded his leave of absence worried him not at all, the penalty of -six months’ imprisonment, should his excuse be deemed invalid, being -dismissed from his mind as an unlikely sequel. In his pocket were -certificates from the Directory of the district of Ajaccio setting -forth in glowing terms the services Napoleon had rendered to Corsica, -and stating that his had been an enforced absence from duty owing to -the unfavourable weather precluding the vessel from leaving. These -credentials proved sufficient; he did not so much as lose a sou of his -pay. - -Napoleon quickly returned to his old habits of hard work, and his -democratic opinions were voiced with greater vehemence to his -fellow-officers, many of whom failed to agree with him and were not -afraid to say so. Polite discussions frequently led to less gentlemanly -arguments. - -The room which the two Bonapartes occupied was almost as poorly -furnished as was Chatterton’s garret. Facing the window was a table -loaded with books, papers, and writing utensils. There was a chair -apiece: should a visitor come, either Napoleon or Louis had to sit on -the edge of the bed, the younger brother being accommodated at night on -a mattress in an adjoining apartment, which was in reality a part of -the room and scarcely larger than a cupboard. If at a later period of -his career Napoleon showed a desire for lavish display, he certainly -was not able to indulge in luxury at Auxonne. He paid for everything -required by Louis, clothed him, educated him, and thrashed him when he -was disobedient or particularly dense in the matter of lessons. The -younger Bonaparte soon became a general favourite, both in and outside -the regiment. Napoleon writes with a certain amount of satisfaction -that “all the women are in love with him.” His faults seem to be summed -up in the comprehensive but cynical phrase, “All he needs is knowledge.” - -In the middle of June 1791, Napoleon bade farewell to Auxonne and -set out for Valence, where the Fourth Regiment was in garrison, he -having been made first lieutenant of the first company of the second -battalion. His brother accompanied him, lodging elsewhere, as it was -not found convenient for Louis to remain in the same house. By way -of recreation, frequent visits were paid to Madame de Colombier, but -politics more and more absorbed Napoleon. He entered with great zest -into the doings of the Society of the Friends of the Constitution, an -avowedly revolutionary and republican gathering, and soon became so -popular with its members that he was elected secretary and librarian. - -The Academy of Lyons having offered a handsome prize, amounting to -about £50, for the best essay on “What Truths and what Sentiments is it -most Important to impress upon Men for their Happiness?” Napoleon found -further scope for his literary gifts. “By sentiment,” he assures us in -his competitive composition, “we enjoy ourselves, nature, our country, -and the men who surround us,” and in support of the statement he draws -on his own experience. “You return to your country,” he writes; “after -four years of absence, you visit the spots where you played in your -earliest age, where you first experienced the knowledge of men and -the awakening of the passions. In a moment you live the life of your -childhood, you enjoy its pleasures, you are fired with the love of -your country, you have a father and a tender mother, sisters still -innocent, brothers who are like friends; too happy man, run, fly, do -not lose a moment. If death stop you on your way you will never have -known the delights of life, of sweet gratitude, of tender respect, of -sincere friendship. These are the real pleasures of life, and they -are greater if you have a wife and children.” He says hard things of -immoderate ambition, the very disease which was to prove his own ruin, -and calls it “a violent unreflecting madness, which only ceases with -life--a conflagration, fanned by a pitiless wind, which does not end -till it has consumed everything.” We wonder whether the Emperor, in -his hours of introspection on the island of St Helena, when he was -proving the truth of the above statement, ever thought of his essay. It -did not gain the prize--Napoleon’s name was last but one on the list of -competitors. - -Yet another leave of absence was requested and granted. It seems little -short of extraordinary that, when France was at white heat, holidays -should have been granted to soldiers, but such was the case. Napoleon -and Louis saw the blue mountains of Corsica and their family in -September 1791, a few weeks before the death of Archdeacon Lucien. It -almost seemed, from Napoleon’s point of view, as though Fate invariably -had an unpleasant surprise for him when he visited Ajaccio, but Letizia -always regarded her second son’s homecoming as an act of Providence. -Fortunately, his venerable relative left a handsome sum of money to the -Bonapartes, a certain amount of which was invested by Napoleon in the -purchase of a house in Ajaccio and two properties some little distance -away. - -It looked for a time as though the tide of fortune was beginning -to turn in their favour. Joseph was elected a member of the -Directory, the executive committee of the island, and on the 22nd -February 1792, Napoleon was appointed Adjutant-Major of the Corsican -Volunteers at Ajaccio. Some six weeks later, he was elected second -lieutenant-colonel, a position which allowed him to absent himself from -his French regiment but made for him an enemy in Pozzo di Borgo, a man -who afterwards rose to distinction at the Russian Court, and had much -to do with his successful rival’s fall in after years. - -Napoleon’s opportunity for action soon came. Revolutionary principles -regarded religion as of little consequence, and it was decided that -the convents in the four most important towns of Corsica should be -suppressed. This was not to be achieved without difficulty, and as -strife and possibly bloodshed were thought highly probable, it was -decided that a number of volunteers should be on hand at Ajaccio. -On Easter Day 1792, a disturbance occurred in one of the streets. A -dozen volunteers marched out to end it, only to make the disorder more -general. Napoleon felt it his duty to interfere, but was obliged to -take refuge after one of the men had been killed. The action of the -volunteers was, of course, illegal, as they had acted on their own -responsibility. Napoleon defended them, and in company with Quenza, -his senior in command, endeavoured to persuade Colonel Maillard, the -commander of the fortress, to deliver it into their hands. The Colonel, -however, would have nothing to do with them beyond giving food for -their men. - -Early the following morning another band of volunteers entered the -Seminary, fired indiscriminately, and angered the inhabitants. Disorder -increased to such an extent as the day began to wane that it became -necessary to proclaim martial law--in other words, the regular military -were given absolute control until order should be restored. Various -outrages on the part of the volunteers, of which Napoleon was by no -means innocent, followed during the night. He endeavoured to corrupt -the regular soldiers without success, and thus began that scheme of -lying and plotting which he was to pursue even after he had been -elected Emperor of the French. He was absolutely unscrupulous when, as -always, he had his own ends to serve. In the case under consideration, -he undertook that his men should be kept under restraint, the -authorities promising that they would see that the people did not -interfere with the volunteers. Napoleon’s intention may have been -good, but his men certainly continued to behave in a most disgraceful -manner. Eventually order was restored, and a rebuke administered to -Napoleon by his battalion being ordered to retire to Corte. - -The part he had played did not increase his popularity, and he thought -it well to return to the French capital a month after war had been -declared against Austria. As he himself said, “The beginning of a -revolution was a fine time for an enterprising young man!” - - - - -CHAPTER V - -The Eve of the Reign of Terror - -(1792-1793) - - -Paris was in a ferment. The King had to be guarded by a double cordon -of soldiers, so bitter was the animosity against the Royal Family -and all that it stood for. With his usual shrewdness and faculty for -penetrating into the probabilities of the future, Napoleon correctly -anticipated events, and wrote to his brother Joseph that “everything -tends to a revolution.” On the 20th June 1792, a wild procession of -insurrectionists, accompanied by cannon, made its way to the Tuileries, -and intimidated the Guard. The latter opened the gates of the courtyard -and the motley mob crowded into the beautiful palace, openly insulting -King Louis and Queen Marie Antoinette. A republican Assembly had been -forced upon the monarch, who was duly reaping the first-fruits of the -harvest. Bourrienne gives a graphic account of what happened and how -it affected the ardent politician of twenty-three. Napoleon’s remarks -clearly show that he had no belief in the aspirations of the rebels, -notwithstanding his own ardent republicanism. Throughout his life he -always held the _canaille_ in profound contempt. - -“We met,” Bourrienne tells us, “by appointment, at a _restaurateur’s_ -in the Rue St Honoré, near the Palais Royal. On going out we saw a mob -approaching in the direction of the market-place, which Bonaparte -estimated at from five to six thousand men. They were a parcel of -blackguards, armed with weapons of every description, and shouting -the grossest abuse, whilst they proceeded at a rapid rate towards -the Tuileries. This mob appeared to consist of the vilest and most -profligate of the population of the suburbs. ‘Let us follow the -rabble,’ said Bonaparte. We got the start of them, and took up our -station on the terrace bordering the river. It was there that he was -an eye-witness of the scandalous scenes that ensued; and it would be -difficult to describe the surprise and indignation which they excited -in him. ‘Such weakness and forbearance,’ he said, ‘could not be -excused’; but when the King showed himself at a window which looked -out upon the garden, with the red cap, which one of the mob had just -placed upon his head, he could no longer repress his indignation: ‘What -madness!’ he loudly exclaimed, ‘how could they allow that rabble to -enter? Why do they not sweep away four or five hundred of them with the -cannon? and then the rest would take themselves off very quickly.’ When -we sat down to dinner, he discussed with great good sense the causes -and consequences of this unrepressed insurrection. He foresaw, and -developed with sagacity, all that would follow; and in this he was not -mistaken.” - -In a letter to Joseph written on the 3rd July, Napoleon again reveals -himself as a philosopher. “Every one seeks his own interest,” he -says, “and wishes to rise by means of lying and calumny; men intrigue -more contemptibly than ever. All that destroys ambition. One pities -those who have the misfortune to play a part, especially when they -can do without it. To live quietly, to enjoy the love of one’s family -surroundings--that, my dear fellow, if one had 4000 or 5000 francs a -year, would be the wise thing to do. One should also be between the -ages of twenty-five and forty, when one’s imagination has calmed down, -and is no longer troublesome. I embrace you, and recommend to you -moderation in everything--in everything, do you understand?--if you -wish to live happily.” - -A week later Napoleon received a welcome letter from the Minister of -War appointing him Captain of the 4th regiment of artillery, and his -arrears of pay were also sent. Life seemed to be worth living once -more. Promotion is a fine antidote against depression. - -It soon became evident that nothing short of civil warfare would -satisfy the rioters, and on the 10th August 1792, the long pent-up -storm burst with awful fury. The King, Queen, and other members of -the royal family made their way to the Assembly, or Parliament, where -they sat in a reporter’s box listening to a debate as to whether Louis -should be deposed or suspended, and which ended in a unanimous vote -for the latter course. Meanwhile the mob was quickly gathering, a -dozen pieces of artillery were drawn up, and the insurgents assumed a -threatening attitude. Many of the Swiss and National Guards, whose duty -it was to defend the Tuileries, found it necessary in the face of such -overwhelming numbers to withdraw into the palace. Firing commenced, -and for a time the royalists triumphed. Probably the crowd would have -thinned away had not a foolish message arrived from Louis to the effect -that the Swiss were to withdraw to their barracks. While this was -being done the rioters rushed into the palace and in their mad frenzy -slaughtered indiscriminately nearly every male attendant to be found, -shooting wildly at the body-guard as they retreated. Another order -came from the King that the Swiss were to lay down their arms. This the -brave fellows did, although they knew what might happen. Those who were -not killed by the mob were taken prisoners and put in the Church of the -_Feuillants_, and on the following day many of them were mercilessly -massacred. Those of my readers who have been to Lucerne have doubtless -seen the noble monument in bas-relief of a dying lion erected to -the memory of the brave Swiss. Napoleon himself saved one of the -body-guard, and asserted that “If Louis XVI. had mounted his horse, the -victory would have been his--so I judge from the spirit which prevailed -in the morning.” He always believed in a bold front; the King’s action -was an unmistakable sign of weakness. - -Years after at St Helena Napoleon related the events of the fatal day -as he watched them from a furniture shop belonging to Bourrienne’s -brother, Fauvelet. “Before I arrived at the Carrousel,” he says, “I -had been met in the Rue des Petits Champs by a group of hideous men -carrying a head on the end of a pike. Seeing me well dressed, and -looking like a gentleman, they came to me to make me cry, ‘_Vive la -Nation!_’ which I did without difficulty, as you may believe. The -_château_ was attacked by the violent mob. The King had for his defence -at least as many troops as the Convention had on Vendémiaire 13th, when -they had to fight against a better-disciplined and more formidable -enemy.[1] The greater part of the National Guard was on the side of -the King--one must do them this justice. When the palace had been -fired, and the King had taken refuge in the bosom of the Assembly, I -ventured to penetrate into the garden. Never since have any of my -battle-fields given me such an idea of death as the mass of the Swiss -corpses then presented to me, whether the smallness of the space made -the number appear larger, or whether it was because I was to undergo -this experience for the first time.... I visited all the _cafés_ in the -neighbourhood of the Assembly; everywhere the irritation was extreme, -rage was in every heart, it showed itself in all faces, although the -people present were not by any means of the lower class, and all these -places must have been daily frequented by the same customers, for -although I had nothing peculiar in my dress--but perhaps my countenance -was more calm--it was easy to see that I excited many looks of -hostility and defiance as being unknown and a suspect.” - - [1] 5th October, 1795.--See _post_, chapter vii. p. 71. - -August 1792 was indeed a month of events fraught with far-reaching -consequences. The decree went forth that all religious houses should -be confiscated and sold. Along with the death-knell of royalty was -sounded that of religion. Élise, the most determined and resolute -of Napoleon’s three sisters, was then at the College of St Cyr, and -he felt it would not be safe for her to stay in France a single -moment longer than was absolutely necessary. He still put family -ties before patriotism; in reality each is part and parcel of the -other. His position was difficult, for it would have been foolish to -have jeopardised his captaincy, but he thought he saw a way out, and -applied for a commission which would insure his going to Corsica, -which was not granted. A petition to the Directory of the district -of Versailles, requesting that he be allowed to accompany Élise, met -with a more favourable response. On the 1st September, the day before -the revolutionary Commune of Paris began the massacre of hundreds -of citizens because they did not happen to sympathise fully with the -Revolution, Napoleon conducted his sister from St Cyr. In October they -were in their native town once more, Napoleon resuming his duties as -second lieutenant-colonel of the volunteers. - -The island of Sardinia, which is separated from Corsica by the -Strait of Bonifacio and now belongs to Italy, had cherished dreams -of declaring her independence. It was therefore determined that -Admiral Truguet and a number of troops and volunteers should sail -from Marseilles, call at Ajaccio for additional men, and under the -command of Raffaelle Casabianca, endeavour to assist the rebellious -islanders. Almost as soon as they had landed in Corsica there was -trouble between the sailors and the unruly volunteers, three of the -latter being hanged in consequence. Paoli, now President of the -Administration and Commander-in-Chief of the National Guards, felt -that this was indeed a sorry prelude to an expedition in which loyal -co-operation was an absolute essential. The aged patriot therefore -wisely decided that only regular troops should be sent. Cagliari, the -capital of the island, was deemed the most important point of attack; -San Stefano was to be occupied by a second division under the command -of Colonel Cesari-Colonna, Paoli’s nephew, and accompanied by Napoleon. -The attempt on the first place failed miserably owing to a want of -confidence on the part of the besiegers, and the troops at San Stefano -accomplished little. They certainly effected a landing, and on the -night of the 23rd February, 1793, Napoleon and his men hastily erected -a battery, from which point of vantage they proceeded to bombard -Maddalena. On the following evening, however, the troops showed that -they had no more heart for warfare than their compatriots at Cagliari, -and a retreat became absolutely necessary. For this Napoleon is in no -way to be blamed. There is more than a suspicion of treachery, and -it has been suggested that either Paoli or some of his followers had -arranged that the expedition should fail in order to humble the too -enterprising and over-confident Bonaparte, who was nearly left behind -in a disgraceful struggle to get into the boats. - -Napoleon’s dream of a free Corsica had long since passed away; he -was convinced that without France she might fall a prey to any Power -or bold maritime adventurer who cared to risk the attempt upon her. -Relations between him and Paoli became more and more strained. Probably -he felt in his own mind that the dictator’s cause was hopeless, and -consequently offered no advantages. France on the other hand, appeared -likely to become all-powerful. She seemingly stopped at nothing, and -was as bent on “setting Europe to rights” in her fashion as was Pitt -in his. But what was of more immediate importance was the startling -and unexpected intelligence that the Convention had ordered Paoli’s -arrest, as well as that of Pozzo, his right-hand man. The author of -this ill-service was none other than Lucien Bonaparte, who had acted as -Paoli’s secretary for several months and was now in France occupying -his leisure moments in securing the downfall of the patriot by -denouncing him to the authorities at Toulon. This conduct can only be -described as infamous, and goes to prove that a keen sense of morality -was not a conspicuous trait of the Bonaparte family. Lucien had not -taken his brother into his confidence, and no one was more astonished -than Napoleon when the truth of the matter was revealed to him. The -net result was to embroil more deeply the island in a civil war which -had been carried on in a desultory kind of way for some time, breaking -out into flame here and there, and dying down almost as speedily. - -We now catch a glimpse of Napoleon as a diplomatist. He sent a -communication to the Convention glowing with fulsome flattery and -pleading that “the patriarch of liberty, and the precursor of the -French Republic,” might be spared this last ignominy. The young officer -was playing a double part. With Salicetti he planned to secure the -citadel of Ajaccio by artifice, but without success. He then decided to -tramp to Bastia, where the French Commissioners were investigating the -condition of affairs and making preparations for resistance against the -islanders. Here he hoped to meet Joseph, who had also attached himself -to the French cause. One cannot but admire the dogged determination -which prompted such a proceeding. His precept that “It is only by -perseverance and tenaciousness that any object can be obtained,” was -not a mere moral maxim, a passing thought to be dismissed as casually -as it had entered the brain. - -Napoleon’s journey across the island was quite an adventurous one. -Accompanied only by a poor but sagacious shepherd he traversed rugged -ravines and valleys, every recess of which was dangerous and might -shelter a band of Paolists. In passing through the village of Bocognano -he fell into the hands of the enemy and was locked up in what was -considered a safe place. But under cover of night, and by the aid of -friends, he effected his escape through a window, and the whole of -the following day he was forced to conceal himself in a garden. From -this unhappy and insecure hiding-place he made his way to the house -of a cousin, but on the evening of his third day there a Nationalist -brigadier entered and demanded to search the place. Good fortune again -attended the fugitive. The unwelcome visitor was cajoled into a belief -that Napoleon, against whom an order for arrest had now been issued, -had neither been seen nor heard of in that quarter, and he did not -persist in his demand. Shortly after he had left the house he was -followed by the refugee, who had been sitting in another room with the -servants, all of whom were sufficiently well armed to offer a desperate -resistance if necessary. - -A ship was riding at anchor awaiting him, and, stealthily finding his -way to the dinghy on the beach, Napoleon was quickly on board. It was a -case of touch and go, for the Nationalists would not have allowed him -to escape from their hands a second time. - -Eventually he reached Bastia, and made such a good impression on the -Commissioners that a naval expedition against Ajaccio was fitted out -and he was given command of the artillery. A week later the little -band of some four hundred men sighted the harbour. The attempt to make -the patriotic citizens surrender was a complete fiasco, for while -Lacombe Saint Michel, Salicetti, Napoleon, and Joseph were joined -by a few dozen soldiers and citizens, Paoli was being reinforced by -people from all over the island. The men were disembarked, captured a -fortress known as the Torre di Capitello, which they soon evacuated, -and returned. Another failure had been added to Napoleon’s record. The -Bonaparte family paid dearly for the part they played at this time. -Their enemies, and they were many, wrecked Madame Letizia’s house. -Fortunately her resourceful son had foreseen such an event, and -not only warned his mother but arranged for her escape. She and her -children were thus enabled to leave the place before the angry Paolists -set about their work of destruction, and after a long tramp were taken -to Calvi by sea. Eight days after their arrival a small merchant vessel -was chartered for a voyage to Toulon, and late on the night of the 11th -June 1793, the dispossessed family, including Napoleon, sailed in the -direction of France and of Fortune. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -Napoleon’s First Fight with the English - -(1793) - - -The first six months of the year 1793 were notable ones in France. No -more fortunate than many others who did not wear the imperial purple, -the King paid for his incompetency with his head. Louis XVI. was one -of those weak persons who mean well but carry their good intentions -to no practical issue. His execution on the 21st January brought more -important and far-reaching results than his thirty-eight years of life. -Republican France, proclaimed on the 22nd September 1792, was no longer -a mere dream of enthusiasts, but a reality, although the foundations -were insecure and the superstructure top-heavy. The seed of liberty -had been planted, and it was fondly hoped that it would bring forth an -increase which would blossom in every country. - -In the previous April the luckless Louis had been reluctantly compelled -to declare war on Austria, the latter Power receiving the support of -Prussia. The attempt on the part of the half-disciplined French troops -under General Dumouriez to invade the Austrian Netherlands signally -failed. This poor beginning was amply retrieved at Valmy and by the -seizure of the Netherlands after the battle of Jemappes on the 6th of -the following November. Savoy and the Rhine Valley were also occupied, -and promises of assistance made to all countries that cared to raise -the standard of revolt. - -With the execution of Louis XVI. monarchical Europe assumed a more -threatening aspect. The Convention had already stated that its -business was to drive out “tyrants” who occupied thrones, and such a -proclamation was not pleasant reading for those whom it most concerned. -Owing to an “attachment to the coalition of crowned heads” on the part -of George III., France declared war against England on the 1st February -1793, and as the latter had allied herself to Holland, that country -also received the same unwelcome challenge. The two Powers shortly -afterwards joined hands with Russia, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire -for the purpose of mutual support. France had more than her hands full, -especially as she was in an unsettled state within her own borders. -The momentary triumphs of the Revolutionary troops did not last. The -Convention supported the war in the Netherlands half-heartedly, and -so enraged Dumouriez that he deserted to Austria and subsequently -retired to England, where he spent his remaining days. Government -passed into the hands of a select few known as the Committee of -Public Safety. In the Convention were two parties, the Girondists or -moderate republicans, and the Mountain, whose views were considerably -more advanced and far less reasonable. They could not rule themselves -much less the nation. The Mountain prevailed, and the cause of the -Girondists was taken up with enthusiasm by the people of La Vendée, -a department of Brittany, which had no sympathy with the extreme -measures advocated by the Mountain. In company with several other -populous centres Marseilles revolted, and it was to this city that -the Bonapartes proceeded in September, 1793, after having led a dreary -existence on the outskirts of Toulon. By this time affairs had quieted -down again. Napoleon’s sympathy was with the policy of the Mountain. -Having been promoted to the position of _capitaine commandant_ he had -joined his regiment at Nice in the previous June. He sent his family -every sou he could spare from his meagre pay, but this did not suffice -to keep its members from actual want, and the proud Letizia and her -children were obliged to eat the bread of charity. Gradually things -took on a rosier complexion, and Joseph, Lucien, and Joseph Fesch, who -was of the party, obtained positions which presumably left a small -margin for the benefit of their sorely-stricken relations. It seemed as -though Dame Fortune were indeed smiling when small pensions from a fund -which had been voted for Corsican refugees were granted to the mother -and each child under the age of fifteen. - -Being unable to get an appointment on active service, for which he -ardently longed, Napoleon sought solace in literature. Had he failed -in the army it is not at all improbable that he would have become a -literary man; although it is doubtful if his achievements in this -field would have made his name famous. For the moment he sheathed his -sword and took up his pen, producing a pamphlet written in the form of -a dialogue, entitled “The Supper at Beaucaire.” To quote the opinion -of Sir John Seeley: “It is highly characteristic, full of keen and -sarcastic sagacity, and of clear military views; but the temperature -of its author’s mind has evidently fallen suddenly; it has no warmth, -but a remarkable cynical coldness.” It was published at Avignon in -August 1793. Like his previous publications it attracted little or no -attention in the days when printing presses were turning out pamphlets -by the thousand, but as if to counterbalance the failure, Napoleon was -about to have an opportunity to show his talents along the line they -were slowly but surely developing. - -The inhabitants of the great southern seaport and arsenal of Toulon, -the majority of them royalists to the core, had openly rebelled. Unlike -those of Marseilles, who had raised an army against the Convention, -they had gone so far as to call in the assistance of the enemy. English -and Spanish fleets under Hood and Langara respectively, blockaded the -harbour; in other words prevented or attempted to prevent the entry -and exit of vessels; and troops which had been hastily landed were in -command of the town. It soon became evident that the Convention would -have to re-take the place by force. - -The commander of the artillery having been wounded, Napoleon, now _chef -de bataillon_, was called upon to take his place. The army which he -joined consisted of a motley crowd hastily gathered together. Trained -officers were in the minority, for the simple reason that until the -fall of Louis XVI. none but the nobility had been allowed to hold a -command. Their plebeian successors endeavoured to make up for a lack -of military education by a zeal which was not infrequently manifested -in the wrong place and at the wrong moment. For instance, Carteaux, -originally an artist, having been invested with the command of the -army marching on Toulon and failing miserably, his place was taken -by Doppet, a retired doctor who succeeded no better. Not until the -amateurs had been tried and found wanting was the position given to -Dugommier, a veteran who had served with the colours for half a -century, and who was to meet his death by a Spanish bullet in the -following year. - -Modern authorities regard with suspicion the oft-repeated assertion -that Napoleon persuaded the Council of War to adopt the plan he had -drawn up for the purpose of capturing the well-nigh impregnable town. -There is no doubt that he behaved with consummate bravery throughout -the siege. He seemed to know instinctively what to do in a case of -emergency. Examples could be multiplied, but one must suffice. A -soldier who was serving a big gun was struck lifeless while Napoleon -was standing near. Without hesitation he took the dead man’s place and -proceeded to ram home the ammunition until another artilleryman stepped -forward. He did not expect others to do what he feared to undertake -himself, and he was never backward in appreciating bravery and resource -in others. - -One day he was directing the construction of a battery when it became -necessary for him to dictate a despatch. He called for some one to -write it for him, and a young man named Junot offered to do so. A heavy -shot came to earth within such a short distance of them that Junot was -literally covered with dust. “Good,” he exclaimed, “we shall not want -sand this time,” referring, of course, to the old method of blotting -wet ink. Napoleon never forgot the incident, and Junot received his -reward when Napoleon came into his own. Victor Perrin also came under -the notice of Napoleon at the siege of Toulon. He was twice wounded, -but stuck to his guns, which he fired with much skill. - -Having ordered a battery to be erected in an exposed position in -the near vicinity of Fort Mulgrave, one of the most important of -the English strongholds, Napoleon named this “the battery of the -fearless.” His keen sense of the dramatic told him that henceforth it -would be deemed an honour to be there, either dead or alive. Doppet -says that “whenever he visited the outposts of the army, he was always -sure to find the Commandant of Artillery at his post; he slept little, -and that little he took on the ground, wrapped in his mantle: he -hardly ever quitted his batteries.” Napoleon developed extraordinary -initiative. He sent for the guns not in use by the Army of Italy, -procured horses by requisition, established a repair shop, ordered five -thousand sand-bags to be made every day at Marseilles to be used for -purposes of defence, and had a small army of smiths, wheelwrights, and -carpenters at his command. “Nothing was done but by Bonaparte’s orders -or under his influence; everything was submitted to him,” Marmont -assures us. “He made tables of what was required; indicated how this -was to be obtained; put everything in motion, and, in a week, gained an -ascendancy over the Commissioners almost impossible to be concealed.” - -Fort Mulgrave, called by its besiegers “the little Gibraltar,” was -the key of the position, for it commanded the inner harbour. Before -dawn on the morning of the 17th December, three columns of soldiers -set out to reduce it, a previous attack having failed largely owing -to the premature sounding of the retreat. Twice the attacking party -was all but successful, and as a last resource the reserves under -Napoleon were called up. Although his battalion was not the first to -scale the walls, young Bonaparte and his men did magnificent work, -and soon the guns which had been trained on the French were firing in -the direction of the enemy. On the same day the Tricolour waved over -two more forts which had been evacuated, the enemy finding Toulon -untenable and resistance impossible in the face of the 37,000 men who -were confronting them; the English, Spanish, Piedmontese and Neapolitan -forces not numbering more than 17,200. Napoleon began to bombard the -now doomed city and the fleet which still lay in the roadstead. That -night Sidney Smith, a gallant young English captain, with a little -body of men equally brave, set fire to a dozen French ships in the -harbour. The naval stores were soon well alight, the flames spreading -with bewildering rapidity, and the Spaniards exploded two powder-ships. -On the 19th, Lord Hood in the _Victory_ weighed anchor, and the -British fleet left the scene of disaster with over 14,000 of the -terror-stricken inhabitants on board, and four ships-of-the-line, three -frigates and several smaller vessels as spoil. - -The luckless Toulonese paid heavily for their defection. For hours -the city was given up to pillage, the Republican troops losing all -restraint and refusing to listen to the humane pleadings of Dugommier. -Nor was this all, for about 1800 persons perished by the guillotine or -were shot. The Reign of Terror was not confined to Paris. - -“Who is that little bit of an officer, and where did you pick him -up?” some one is reported to have asked Dugommier. “That officer’s -name,” was the reply, “is Napoleon Bonaparte. I picked him up at the -Siege of Toulon, to the successful termination of which he eminently -contributed, and you will probably one day see that this little bit of -an officer is a greater man than any of us.” - -It is certain that Dugommier was highly pleased with the conduct of -his able lieutenant, indeed he “mentioned him in despatches,” an -honour for which every soldier longs. “Among those who distinguished -themselves most,” he writes, “and who most aided me to rally the -troops and push them forward, are citizens Buona Parte, commanding the -artillery, Arena and Cervoni, Adjutants-General.” Generals Du Teil and -Salicetti also said kind things of the Corsican. “Words fail me to -describe Bonaparte’s merit”; says the former, “to a mind well stored -with science, he brings great intelligence and unlimited courage. Such -is a weak sketch of the qualities of this incomparable officer.” - -For the services thus rendered Napoleon received another step in rank, -and on the 1st February 1794, he became General of Brigade. His duties -were to inspect the defences of the southern coast and to supervise -the artillery and stores of the Army of Italy, commanded by General -Schérer, whose headquarters were at Nice. Napoleon arrived at that town -in the following March, and a month later was appointed General in -Command of the Artillery. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -Napoleon the Soldier of Fortune - -(1794-1796) - - -France resounded with the tramp of armed men. No fewer than five -armies, largely made up of volunteers and probably numbering nearly -700,000, in addition to those on garrison duty, were facing the enemies -of the Republic. There was the Army of the North, of the Moselle, of -the Rhine, of the West, and of Italy. It is interesting to note that -many of those who held important positions in these forces were men -who, like Carteaux and Doppet, had followed other trades or professions -previous to the Revolution. By adapting themselves to circumstances, -exercising ingenuity when their slight knowledge of tactics failed -them, and proving their ability in the field, they had risen to -positions of power and influence. Jourdan, with the Army of the North, -had been a dealer in cloth; with the Army of the Moselle were Hoche and -Moreau, the former the son of an ostler, the latter once a lawyer in -beautiful Brittany; Kléber, of the Army of the West, had been educated -as an architect, while Masséna, who was with the Army of Italy, had -started life as a sailor. The promise of the Revolution to every son -of France, “A career open to talent,” was not a mere boast, but was -realised in many cases. Napoleon himself studied to make his soldiers -feel that no rank was beyond their aspiration. There was a marshal’s -baton in every knapsack. - -Although Napoleon received an appointment in the Army of Italy in -the dual capacity of General of Artillery and Inspector-General, the -opportunity of showing his now recognised abilities as an executant -was denied him in this campaign. The chance came from another and an -unexpected direction, namely that of diplomacy. It cannot be said that -his diplomatic attempts in Corsica had been particularly brilliant; -this, however, did not preclude Augustin Robespierre, a Commissioner -of the Convention with whom Napoleon had struck up an intimate -acquaintance, from placing a difficult problem requiring the greatest -political skill and tact in his hands for solution. Genoa, once a -great Sea Power, but now in the evening of her decline and decay, was -supposed to be neutral, in other words, taking sides with none of the -warring nations. But she had allowed enemies of France to pass through -her territory, and by so doing had incurred the wrath of the mighty -Republic, notwithstanding her excuse that she was not powerful enough -to prevent them. - -To Genoa, the city of palatial buildings and gorgeous churches, -Napoleon accordingly proceeded in July 1794, and so well did he manage -his cause that his mission was completely successful. On the 28th of -the same month he returned to the headquarters of the Army of Italy in -the full expectation of an ample recognition. His hopes were shattered -by the astounding news that his friend and patron had been executed in -company with his brother Maximilien Robespierre, the cruel chief of the -Jacobins. - -During the reign of the “Incorruptible,” as the latter was named by his -friends and supporters, the streets of Paris ran with blood. By his -orders, and those of his satellites, scores of prisoners were dragged -daily from gaol and put to death. The flower of the Nobility of France -suffered in company with the lowest of the low, for the guillotine was -no respecter of persons. - -Napoleon found that his diplomatic triumph did not avail to prevent -his arrest on account of what was held to be his suspicious conduct in -connection with the Army of Italy, his recent mission to Genoa, and his -intimacy with the younger Robespierre, whose admiration had gone so -far as to prompt a reference to Napoleon in a despatch to Government -as “a man of transcendent merit.” For a time his destiny hung in the -balance. Had Salicetti, Albitte and Laporte, the Commissioners of the -Convention who examined his papers, cared to condemn him, the General -in all probability would have met the same terrible fate as his friend. -There is more than a suspicion that Salicetti now viewed Napoleon with -jealousy, but, according to Marmont, he used his influence to procure -his release. It is difficult to arrive at the truth in a matter such -as this, when contemporary narrators do not agree. In history one must -not take too much for granted, and perhaps it may be a reasonable -conclusion to assume that Salicetti was not ignorant of the potential -powers of his countryman, and that he recognised that no good could be -done by condemning such a man, while much advantage might accrue to -himself if he supported him. - -Meanwhile the enterprising General was deprived of his rank. Instead of -bemoaning his fate, Napoleon penned an energetic letter to his judges -in which he defended his case on the grounds of his patriotism, his -hatred of all tyrants, and his public services. On the 20th August a -counter-order was issued in which mention was made of the “advantages -which might be derived from his military information and knowledge of -localities, for the service of the Republic,” and recommending that -Citizen Bonaparte be “restored provisionally to liberty, and that he -should remain at headquarters pending further instructions from the -Committee of Public Safety.” - -Napoleon spent fourteen days in suspense at Fort Carré, near Antibes, -but he was mercifully allowed a supply of books and maps which helped -to pass the time. On the last day of his imprisonment an officer came -at two o’clock in the morning to announce the pleasing intelligence -that his release was ordered. - -“What! Are you not in bed yet?” he cried in astonishment as he entered -the cell and saw Napoleon poring over the litter of papers on the -little table. - -“In bed!” was the contemptuous retort. “I have had my sleep, and am -already risen.” - -“What, so early?” the officer replied, amazed beyond measure at so -unusual a statement. - -“Yes,” continued the prisoner, “so early. Two or three hours of sleep -are enough for any man.” - -To use a familiar and expressive simile, Napoleon had now “jumped -from the frying-pan into the fire.” Although he was restored to his -former rank he was not sent back to the army, but remained for a time -unemployed, living with his family at Marseilles. While there he fell -in love with Mademoiselle Désirée Clary, the daughter of a wealthy -soap merchant, whose sister Julie had married Joseph Bonaparte. The -enraptured lover went so far as to arrange for the wedding to take -place in the following autumn. “Perhaps I am doomed to shine like a -meteor,” he told the object of his affection, “but I will ensure you -a brilliant existence.” Love’s young dream was soon shattered by -the disturbing spirit of ambition, and vowing eternal faithfulness -Napoleon left his sorrowful sweetheart and promptly forgot his pledge. -An expedition against Corsica, which had passed into the hands of the -British, had been decided upon. In company with his brother Louis, now -a sub-lieutenant of artillery, he set sail on the 3rd March 1795, and -came near to being captured, two of the ships carrying the soldiers -falling prey to the “ravening wolves of the sea,” as Napoleon called -English sailors. The defeat sustained on this occasion added one more -to his long list of disasters in connection with Corsican affairs. - -At the beginning of May he went to Paris to anticipate or await future -events. He now resumed his friendship with Bourrienne, who had been in -Germany. Offered an appointment as Brigadier-General of Infantry in -the Army of the West, then engaged in putting down the civil war in La -Vendée, he refused it on his usual plea of ill-health. In reality he -considered it beneath his dignity to accept the command. The Central -Committee retaliated by having his name struck off the active list. - -This displeasure was not to be of considerable duration. Napoleon -turned his attention to the drawing up of a definite scheme of campaign -for the Army of Italy, now meeting with rebuffs at the hands of the -Austrians. The documents were sent to the Committee of Public Safety in -July, and helped him to secure a staff appointment in the topographical -department of the War Office, where he worked at plans and operations -for the benefit of the various French armies in the field. Incidentally -he made the acquaintance of various people likely to be of use to him -in the furtherance of his career, and renewing that with Barras whom -he had first met at Toulon. - -Meantime Paris, well named the Gay City, had assumed something of its -former aspect. There was marriage and giving in marriage, the theatres -and other places of amusement opened anew, and the infallible barometer -of business began to rise. Almost everywhere the half-trained armies -had been victorious. Apparently “better times” had begun. The change -in the political weather, although clearer, was not so noticeable. To -be sure a constitution had been framed by the National Convention and -was given to the world on the 22nd September 1795, but it did not give -the universal satisfaction hoped for by the more enthusiastic of its -supporters. In certain minor respects the Legislative Body upon which -they had decided was not unlike our own Parliament, in so far as it -consisted of two Houses, the lower chamber being called the Council of -Five Hundred and the upper chamber the Council of Ancients. The former -drew up the laws, the latter passed, adjusted, or rejected them. From -the two Councils a Directory of five men vested with the executive -power was to be chosen, one of whom was to retire for re-election every -year. - -Having decreed that one-third of the members of both Councils should -also retire in the same way, either to be re-elected or to surrender -their places to others, the Convention stirred up a hornet’s nest for -itself by deciding that two-thirds of its members should be retained -in the new Legislature, whereas it had originally assembled for the -purpose of drawing up a constitution and not to govern. Girondists and -supporters of the Mountain alike clung tenaciously to office, anxious -to retain the spoils of victory. The members of the Convention soon -found that public opinion was against them. “This measure,” says Baron -de Frénilly, “aroused general indignation, for nobody, apart from its -accomplices, wished that it should possess either power or impunity.” - -Paris was again in a ferment as serious as it was unexpected. The -old battle cry of “Down with the aristocrats!” gave place to that of -“Down with the two-thirds!” A rival government called the Central -Committee was set up and almost as speedily suppressed by the regular -troops, acting on the authority of the Convention. They met with -more difficulty in attempting to disperse the insurgent electors of -Paris, who had 30,000 National Guards on their side. General Menou, -the commander of the troops, was taken prisoner, only to be put under -arrest on his release by the party whom he had attempted to defend. The -command was then given to Paul Barras, who among others chose Napoleon -as a lieutenant. He could not have selected a better man, as subsequent -events proved. Barras ordered cannon from the Sablons camp, and the -trained eye of his colleague enabled him to place them in the best -possible positions to command the various thoroughfares and bridges -which led to the Tuileries, the building against which the National -Guard and the citizens were marching. Napoleon had certainly not more -than 7,000 armed men at his disposal, but his troops were victorious -on the ever-memorable 13th Vendémiaire (5th October 1795), and the -“whiff of grape shot,” as he termed it, helped materially to pave the -way to the throne. For the present his skill was rewarded by the rank -of second in command of the Army of the Interior, and later, when -his friend Barras vacated the senior position, Napoleon received the -appointment. - -The National Convention could afford to be generous to the beardless -young General who had saved the situation. It forthwith settled down -to elect five Directors, namely, La Réveillière-Lépeaux, Letourneur, -Rewbell, Carnot, and Barras. - -Napoleon now began to take an interest in Society. He frequented the -_Salons_ where wit and beauty gathered for mutual admiration and -intellectual entertainment. It is doubtful whether he cared for either -to any considerable extent. Certainly he had no mock modesty, and -realising more than ever the value of being on speaking terms with -those likely to be of service to him, he regarded the precious hours -thus apparently wasted as a future asset. He preferred the _Salon_ -of Barras to any other. This led to his introduction to his future -first wife, the fascinating Josephine de Beauharnais, whose courtier -husband had suffered the same fate as Robespierre during the Reign of -Terror. Addison, the famous essayist, tells us that “a marriage of -love is pleasant; a marriage of interest--easy; and a marriage where -both meet--happy.” Napoleon’s matrimonial venture may be regarded as -a judicious combination of the two, and to a certain extent it was -happy. The marriage, which was not blessed by the Church, it being a -Civil contract, took place on the 9th March 1796. The bridegroom was -twenty-six years of age, his bride thirty-four. - -Ten days before Napoleon had been given command of the Army of Italy -at the instigation of Carnot. Barras, in his _Mémoires_, insinuates -that his influence led the Directory to this decision. In reality -the General had largely won his own case. His pen had not lost its -cunning, and further plans which he had brought forward for a decisive -campaign by the now moribund Army of Italy had attracted considerable -attention, although when sent to Schérer, who had succeeded Kellermann -in the command, they met with a rebuff at the hands of that worthy. As -a direct consequence he was superseded by the soldier who had dared to -interfere. - -During his exile, when the glamour of his second marriage with the -daughter of the Cæsars had passed and the memory of better times was -the bitter-sweet consolation of his turbulent mind, Napoleon frequently -reflected on his affection for the vivacious woman who shared his -first triumphs and his throne. “Josephine was devoted to me,” he tells -Montholon, one of the little band of faithful followers who refused to -desert him in the hour of failure. “She loved me tenderly; no one ever -had a preference over me in her heart. I occupied the first place in -it; her children the next; and she was right in thus loving me; for -she is the being whom I have most loved, and the remembrance of her is -still all-powerful in my mind.” - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -“The Spark of Great Ambition” - -(1796) - - -“Soldiers! you are ill-fed and almost naked; the Government owes you -much, but can do nothing for you. Your patience, your courage, do you -honour, but bring you neither advantage nor glory. I am about to lead -you into the most fertile plains of the world. Rich provinces, great -cities will be in your power. There you will find honour, and fame, and -wealth. Soldiers of the Army of Italy, will you be found wanting in -courage?” - -Thus Napoleon addressed the half-starved and dejected legions who -had been struggling for two years on the Maritime Alps against the -Austrians and Sardinians in an apparently impossible attempt to gain -a footing in Northern Italy. The army was little more than a mob -of malcontents, lacking even the common necessaries of life. Forty -thousand outcasts, if you will, undisciplined, many of them without -boots, more of them in tatters, all of them with scarcely a ray of -hope; soldiers in name rather than in reality. Brave men and heroes -there were, order and subordination there were not. To introduce -cohesion and discipline into these unruly forces was the almost -superhuman task Napoleon had undertaken. - -He arrived at Nice, the headquarters of the Army of Italy, on the -26th March 1796; he began to investigate the conditions of his problem -the same day, issuing the above General Orders twenty-four hours -afterwards. His allies were the mountains which separated him from -his enemies; the Mediterranean which faced him was the highroad of -the English squadron. A concerted effort on the part of the land and -the maritime forces would most assuredly catch him like a rat in a -trap. Fortunately the Austrians and Sardinians were suspicious of each -other, their dispositions were faulty and not always in concert, and -their forces were scattered over a long line of territory, defending -the passes across the mountains. The officers viewed the Directory’s -choice of a commander with suspicion. If Schérer, a veteran over -seventy years of age, had not been able to lead them to victory, what -could be expected of this fledgling? They reckoned without their host. -Genius knows no age and takes no count of birthdays. Napoleon’s amazing -fertility of resource, his astounding energy and thorough grip of the -situation, gradually overcame their opposition whether acknowledged -or only felt. Masséna, Augereau, Sérurier, Cervoni, La Harpe, and -Rampon, to mention some of the more important, joined loyal hands with -Napoleon’s own chosen men, Murat, Berthier, Duroc, Marmont, and the -fear-nothing Junot. We shall find many of these names occurring again -and again, as the story develops and the career of the Master General -expands. Few, if any, individuals succeed unaided, least of all the -soldier and the statesman. Napoleon early recognised that the so-called -self-made man is very rarely entitled to the credit implied in the -name. He fostered the ambitions of his colleagues, but saw to it that -he was the chief gainer by them. - -After having provided so far as was possible for the creature comforts -of the troops and raised their drooping spirits by his enthusiasm and -the promise of good things to come, the commander prepared to strike -a quick and decisive blow at his enemies. The armies of the King of -Sardinia and Piedmont and of the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire were -not united in one large body, but separated by more than thirty miles. -The central idea of this arrangement was that in case of necessity each -could fall back on the capital of the country they were defending, -the Austrians on Milan and the Sardinians on Turin. The wiser way, -as Viscount Wolseley points out, would have been to concentrate at a -place commanding both cities, in the valley of the Eastern Bormida, for -instance. Napoleon saw the folly of the plan, and determined to force -his way between the two armies and fight them separately. “United,” -as he said, “the two forces would have been superior to the French -army: separated, they were lost.” Napoleon hurried troops along the -rut-wrinkled road to Voltri, within easy march of Genoa, to give the -impression that the latter place was about to be attacked. Meantime, -however, he and the main body encamped at the foot of the mountains, -above Savona. After strongly fortifying the pass of Montenotte, the -Austrians occupying a ridge above the village of that name, he prepared -to attack, and on the 12th April took the enemy completely by surprise. -The onset was deadly, the result certain. Masséna bore the brunt of -the fight, the commander contenting himself with the highly important -duty of preventing the enemy from reaching their Sardinian allies. The -Imperialists were driven from the field with a loss of 700 dead and -wounded. “My title of nobility,” said Napoleon, “dates from the battle -of Montenotte.” Another Austrian defeat took place at Millesimo on the -following day, and they were also ousted from the village of Dego, upon -which they had fallen back, on the 14th. - -Early on the morning of the 15th, an Austrian division, unaware of -the disaster which had overtaken their comrades, seized Dego. Had -not Napoleon acted with great promptitude, they might possibly have -retrieved the defeat of the previous day. While Masséna and La Harpe -bravely disputed the ground, Napoleon brought up reinforcements with -an energy which alone saved the occasion. Having shattered this army, -the Commander-in-chief turned his attention to the Sardinians at Ceva, -under Colli, and at first met with a rebuff. Hoping to catch Napoleon -in a trap, the enemy’s camp was hastily broken up and the army marched -off to occupy what the General fondly imagined were stronger positions. -Defeat awaited them, however, at the hands of Sérurier and Dommartin, -who came up with the Sardinians and forced them to fly towards Turin, -their base of supplies. The town of Mondovi fell to the French, Marmont -captured Cherasco. As a result of these operations, Savoy and Nice were -ceded to France and the Austro-Sardinian alliance came to an abrupt -end. The important fortresses of Coni, Tortona, and Alessandria were -surrendered to the French and others were demolished. These strategic -positions have been called “the keys of the Alps,” and were necessary -to the success of Napoleon’s next operations. The Commissioners who -represented Sardinia would not willingly grant demands which they held -to be extortionate and which left but two fortified places worthy of -consideration to the dismembered State. Napoleon told them that it was -for him to make conditions. “Listen to the laws which I impose upon you -in the name of the Government of my country,” he added, “or to-morrow -my batteries are erected, and Turin is in flames.” Arguments which can -be backed by deeds are unanswerable. Parma, also on the losing side, -likewise sued for peace, the arrangement being that she should furnish -specie and supplies for the French army. Napoleon during the course of -his negotiations made use of a striking phrase which explains another -of the secrets of his success. “It may happen to me to lose battles,” -he remarked, “but no one shall ever see me lose minutes either by -over-confidence or by sloth.” - -Having concluded his diplomatic measures, the General was now ready to -turn his attention to his remaining enemy. Before doing so he thought -it well to make a further appeal to the patriotic instincts of his -troops. Triumphant as never before, they were nevertheless beginning to -weary of the ceaseless marching and fighting: - -“Soldiers! you have gained in fifteen days six victories, taken -twenty-one standards, fifty-five pieces of cannon, many strong places, -and conquered the richest part of Piedmont. You have made fifteen -thousand prisoners, and killed or wounded ten thousand men. Hitherto -you have fought on barren rocks, illustrious, indeed, by your courage, -but of no avail to your country. Now you rival by your services the -Armies of Holland and of the Rhine. You were utterly destitute; you -have supplied all your wants. You have gained battles without cannon; -passed rivers without bridges; made forced marches without shoes; -bivouacked without bread! The phalanxes of the Republic--the soldiers -of liberty--were alone capable of such sacrifices. But, soldiers, you -have accomplished nothing while anything remains to be done. Neither -Turin nor Milan is in your hands; the ashes of the conqueror of Tarquin -are still trampled on by the assassins of Basseville! I am told that -there are some among you whose courage is failing, who would rather -return to the summits of the Alps and the Appenines. No--I cannot -believe it. The conquerors of Montenotte, of Millesimo, of Dego, of -Mondovi burn to carry still further the glories of the French name! -But, ere I lead you to conquest, there is one condition you must -promise to fulfil; that is, to protect the people whom you liberate, -and to repress all acts of lawless violence. Without this, you would -not be the deliverers, but the scourge of nations. Invested with the -national authority, strong in justice and law, I shall not hesitate to -enforce the requisitions of humanity and of honour. I will not suffer -robbers to sully your laurels. Pillagers shall be shot without mercy. - -“People of Italy! the French army advances to break your chains. The -French people are the friends of all nations. In them you may confide. -Your property, your religion, your customs shall be respected. We will -only make war as generous foes. Our sole quarrel is with the tyrants -who enslave you!” - -Without losing unnecessary time, Napoleon entered Piacenza, crossed the -river Po on a hastily-constructed bridge of boats in face of a hostile -force, and prepared to take the village of Fombio. Here some 5,000 -Austrian infantry and cavalry were prepared to make a stand. The place -literally bristled with artillery, even the churches were fortified; -but the French routed the enemy, and the Imperialists were forced to -retire. - -Behind the swiftly-flowing Adda a strong rear-guard was posted, and -on the 10th May Napoleon appeared at Lodi, on the opposite bank. A -narrow bridge, some 200 yards in length and thirty feet wide, was the -only means of crossing the turbulent stream. At first the Austrians -tried to hold the structure, then attempted to break it down, but the -steady fire of the French prevented them from doing so. To cross to -the opposite bank was absolutely essential for a decisive action, and -Napoleon gave orders that a column of picked men should be sent to -seize the bridge. He was told that such an attempt could not possibly -succeed. “Impossible!” he is asserted to have cried, “that word is not -French!” He started the column. It meant certain death to many, but in -warfare men are simply fighting machines controlled by the human dynamo -at their head. The troops pressed forward. Those in front fell like -leaves in autumn, as the shots from the opposite shore ploughed their -ranks. Some of the most daring reached the middle of the bridge only -to sink in a lifeless heap under the murderous hail. A retreat seemed -inevitable, the bravest wavered. - -Napoleon, quick to notice the slightest sign of weakness, again urged -his troops forward. Lannes, Masséna, and Berthier, threw themselves -into the thick of the fight, and shortly afterwards the bridge was -carried. The rest was comparatively easy. The Austrian cannon were -taken, the infantry which covered them was forced to give way, and the -Imperialists again retreated, leaving 300 dead and wounded. It was in -very truth a hard-fought field, for the victors lost a greater number -of men. Had they been able to follow the retreating army, the triumph -would have been complete. Napoleon declared that “it was not till -after the terrible passage of the Bridge of Lodi that the idea flashed -across my mind that I might become a decisive actor in the political -arena. Then arose, for the first time, the spark of great ambition.” It -was after this battle that the soldiers nicknamed Napoleon “the little -corporal.” Sebottendorf, who commanded the defeated troops, bent his -steps towards Mantua, to which Beaulieu, his superior officer, was also -making his way. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -The Italian Campaign - -(1796-1797) - - -On the 15th May 1796, the conqueror and his troops entered Milan, the -Austrians retiring behind the banks of the Mincio, a river inseparably -associated with the history of the Roman Empire. He encouraged the -soldiers by telling them that they had overwhelmed and dispersed -everything which had opposed their progress, that the Republic had -ordered _fêtes_ to be given in honour of the victories, and that on -their return home “fellow citizens will say of each of you in passing: -‘He was a soldier in the Army of Italy!’” He did not minimise the task -before them, however, and bluntly asserted that much still remained -to be done. “To restore the Capitol (at Rome); to replace there the -statues of the heroes who have rendered it immortal; to rouse the -Romans from centuries of slavery--such will be the fruit of our -victories: they will form an era in history; to you will belong the -glory of having changed the face of the most beautiful part of Europe.” -Such a proclamation was well calculated to inspire the inhabitants -with ideas of liberty as well as to encourage soldiers still flushed -with victory. The satisfaction of the people at these honied words, -however, gave way to consternation when the news was noised abroad -that 20,000,000 francs was the price of peace, to say nothing of free -supplies for the troops. A futile flicker of resistance was shown -by some of the more patriotic folk of Lombardy, who backed their -opinions by force and came to blows with the pretended “liberators” -at Milan and at Pavia. The retribution which followed swiftly, did -not encourage other towns to rise; the Italian national spirit was -but a weak thing then. The village of Brescia, although on Venetian -and therefore neutral territory, was razed to the ground by fire. -Napoleon himself marched on Pavia, which was carried by assault and -sacked. Again Beaulieu attempted to check Napoleon, but he might as -well have tried to prevent the sun from rising. The Austrians were -defeated at Valeggio, Verona was entered by Masséna, and Napoleon -prepared to lay siege to the well-fortified town of Mantua, the key -to Austria and Italy. Fifteen thousand troops were detailed for the -purpose in addition to those who were to guard their communications. -After compelling the insurrectionists at Milan to surrender, he entered -Modena and Bologna, and sent Murat to Leghorn, thus violating the -neutral territory of Tuscany. - -But Napoleon was not to have it all his own way. The Austrians having -revived their drooping spirits, were bent on making a last desperate -resistance, and for a time it looked very much as though success would -attend their efforts. They discomfited the French on more than one -occasion, but instead of concentrating they fell into the fatal error -of distributing their forces over a large area, and were thus precluded -from striking decisive blows and following up their victories. -Napoleon, equally determined, and much more wary, decided on a bold -stroke. In order to secure the greatest possible number of troops, he -raised the blockade of Mantua, which fortress was entered by Würmser, -Beaulieu’s successor, on the 1st August. After having gained a victory -at Lonato Napoleon barely escaped capture. He and a garrison of some -1200 men were summoned to surrender by a corps of 4000 Austrians. The -envoy, bearing a flag of truce, was led to Napoleon blindfolded, as is -the custom. When the bandage was removed the Commander coolly asked -him, “What means this insolence?” and added that he was in the middle -of the French Army! The envoy was so overcome with fright that he -told his superior officer more fiction than fact. Lonato was occupied -by French troops, he assured him, and if the corps did not lay down -their arms in ten minutes they would be shot. They preferred the less -unpleasant expedient. Their feelings, when they discovered the clever -trick which had been played on them, can be better imagined than -described. On the same day Augereau, after considerable difficulty -and much hard fighting, secured the important strategic position of -Castiglione. - -On the 5th August 1796, Würmser and Napoleon fought the battle of -Médola. A lull followed the retreat of the Imperialists after this -action, both sides utilising the time in repairing or attempting to -repair the injuries sustained by them. Napoleon advanced to Verona, and -Mantua was relieved by Würmser. Davidovich, the Austrian commander’s -colleague, met with defeat near Calliano, and Napoleon was thereby -enabled to enter Trent, the capital of the Italian Tyrol. Shortly -afterwards Würmser himself was defeated by Masséna near Bassano, -Napoleon again having a narrow escape from capture as the Austrians -retreated upon Mantua. - -The Imperialists had now been reinforced and numbered some 60,000 -troops. The force at Napoleon’s disposal did not exceed 42,000, -including the 8000 engaged in watching Mantua, who were therefore not -available for more active co-operation at the front. On the 8th October -1796, he confided to the Directory that the situation was critical, -that everything was going wrong in Italy, and appealed for further -soldiers and more skilful diplomatic measures. The seriousness of his -position became particularly evident in the following month, when -Napoleon was forced to retreat owing to Vaubois’ defeat in Tyrol. He -told the soldiers without reserve that he was displeased with them, -and even went so far as to say that he would have the standards of two -of their regiments emblazoned with the words, “They are no longer of -the Army of Italy.” At Arcola on the 15th November, the Imperialist -and Republican forces contested the ground with feverish and amazing -energy, and as at Lodi, Napoleon behaved with conspicuous bravery. He -carried a standard half way across the bridge, and was only prevented -from proceeding further, amidst a hail of shot, by some grenadiers. -Fearing for his life, they compelled him to return to a safer position. -As it was, the brave fellows and their commander were pushed into the -marsh by a body of the enemy who, taking advantage of the confusion, -were crossing from the Austrian side. Napoleon was dragged out of the -marsh by his brother Louis and Marmont. - -When night closed in upon the armies victory rested with the Austrians. -The battle was renewed, however, on the following day, and on the third -the tide turned in Napoleon’s favour. The repulse had robbed him of -some of the sweets of conquest, but his worn-out soldiers knew that -they had regained the confidence of their commander, and slept the -sleep of the contented as they lay around their bivouac fires. - -There is an oft-told story of this period which illustrates the -alertness of Napoleon and shows how he could make allowances for human -nature on occasions. One of the French sentries was discovered by -Napoleon fast asleep at his post. The poor fellow had been harassed by -frequent duty, and luckily Napoleon was in a sympathetic mood. He took -the soldier’s musket and stood patiently by, with tireless eyes, until -he awoke. The man’s consternation may be imagined when he saw who had -been keeping watch in his place. He prepared for the worst, but, to his -immense relief, Napoleon forgave him. - -[Illustration: “It is the Emperor!” - -By H. de T. Glazebrook - -By permission of Messrs. Goupil & Co.] - -For two months affairs were at a standstill. Negotiations were begun -and ended in a fierce war of words which settled nothing. Meantime -fresh troops joined both forces, and when Napoleon became aware that -the Austrians were concentrated not far from Rivoli, he was ready to -throw the full force of his army upon them, although it was the weaker -by nearly 10,000 men. On the 14th January 1797, the awful battle of -Rivoli was fought. At the commencement some of the French regiments -wavered under the Austrian attack, Masséna losing his temper so far as -to strike several of the officers with the flat of his sword. While -the fate of the day still hung in the balance a division of his troops -was brought up, and the enemy found themselves engaged in a very -determined manner. But try as they might to overthrow the white-coats, -the French could not do so. The position became so desperate at last, -that Napoleon had recourse to a stratagem which alone saved his army -from disaster. It was all but surrounded by the Imperialists when, -pretending that important despatches had just arrived from the seat -of Government with reference to proposed negotiations between the -conflicting parties, Napoleon sent a flag of truce to General Alvintzy. -While Junot talked to the Austrian commander, Napoleon quietly -re-arranged his forces. The conference broke up, as Napoleon intended, -without result, and soon the combatants were again in action. The day -ended in the triumph of the French. - -Much remained to be done. Under Napoleon’s command many of the weary -soldiers were forced to march towards Mantua, in the direction of -which Provera was hastening to raise the siege. The keen eyes of a -sergeant who was engaged in the homely occupation of chopping wood -at Fort George saved that French stronghold, in the early morning of -the 15th January 1797. A regiment of the enemy’s hussars, dressed -somewhat like the French, misled the garrison of Fort George into the -belief that they were friends come to their relief. The veteran gave -the alarm before the Austrian hussars could make good their entry, -and the drawbridge was hauled up and the enemy held in check while -reinforcements were approaching. On the following day Napoleon drew -near Mantua, and at La Favorita brought the Austrians to battle. Aided -by the superb daring of Victor, whose achievements at Toulon have -been noticed earlier, he forced Provera and some 6000 men to lay down -their arms. It was one of the most brilliant achievements in the whole -of this terrible campaign, and a fitting conclusion to the siege of -Mantua, which capitulated on the 2nd February. For many a long day the -regiment commanded by Victor was known as “The Terrible,” a name it -richly deserved. - -Napoleon, aided by Joubert and Masséna, followed rapidly on the heels -of the residue of the defeated army and gave it no rest. Pope Pius -VI. having made himself objectionable by stirring up strife, the -Commander-in-chief turned towards Florence preparatory to marching on -Rome. The latter, however, became unnecessary, as a humiliating peace -was signed at Tolentino on the 19th February 1797, by the terms of -which the Pope was compelled to pay 30,000,000 francs, and to cede a -considerable portion of territory, and various valuable works of art. -The French, moreover, gained certain military and maritime advantages. - -The contest with Austria continued to occupy the French, the -Imperialists now being under the command of the Archduke Charles, the -Emperor’s brother. Finding himself in an awkward situation, Napoleon -agreed to a suspension of hostilities, and preliminaries of peace were -signed at Leoben on the 18th April, 1797, preparatory to the Treaty of -Campo Formio on the 17th October. Dr J. Holland Rose thus summarizes -the terms of the latter: “Austria ceded to the French Republic her -Belgic provinces. Of the once extensive Venetian possessions France -gained the Ionian Isles, while Austria acquired Istria, Dalmatia, the -districts at the mouth of the Cattaro, the city of Venice, and the -mainland of Venetia as far west as Lake Garda, the Adige, and the -lower part of the River Po. The Hapsburgs recognised the independence -of the now enlarged Cisalpine Republic.... The Emperor ceded to the -dispossessed Duke of Modena the territory of Breisgau on the east of -the Rhine.” - -Having so successfully played the parts of conqueror and diplomatist -Napoleon went to Rastatt. One might have imagined that the journey was -the triumphal progress of an Emperor. Feted by townsfolk and cheered -by peasants as he went, the enthusiasm expressed might well have turned -his head but that Napoleon had learnt his lessons in the hard school of -experience. Bourrienne remarked on the admiration shown, that it must -be delightful to be so greeted. “Bah!” Napoleon replied with disgust, -“this same unthinking crowd, under a slight change of circumstances, -would follow me just as eagerly to the scaffold.” The Reign of Terror -and his intimacy with the younger Robespierre were too recent for their -moral to be forgotten. From Rastatt he proceeded to Paris. - -It is fortunate that a contemporary, who saw Napoleon at this time, -has committed his observations to paper. “I beheld with deep interest -and extreme attention that extraordinary man,” he writes, “who has -performed such great deeds, and about whom there is something which -seems to indicate that his career is not yet terminated. I found him -much like his portraits, small in stature, thin, pale, with an air of -fatigue, but not, as has been reported, in ill-health. He appeared to -me to listen with more abstraction than interest, as if occupied rather -with what he was thinking of, than with what was said to him. There -is great intelligence in his countenance, along with an expression of -habitual meditation, which reveals nothing of what is passing within. -In that thinking head, in that daring mind, it is impossible not -to suppose that some designs are engendering which will have their -influence on the destinies of Europe.” - -The magnificent reception accorded to Napoleon by the Directory -in the Luxembourg on the 10th December 1797 surpassed all others. -Madame de Staël, that witty woman whom Napoleon detested because of -her meddling in politics, tells us that “Bonaparte arrived, dressed -very simply, followed by his aides-de-camp, all taller than himself, -but nearly bent by the respect which they displayed to him. M. de -Talleyrand, in presenting Bonaparte to the Directory, called him ‘the -Liberator of Italy, and the Pacificator of the Continent.’ He assured -them that ‘General Bonaparte detested luxury and splendour, the -miserable ambition of vulgar souls, and he loved the poems of Ossian -particularly, because they detach us from the earth.’” Napoleon, who -had a keen sense of the dramatic, knew very well that the plainer he -dressed on such an occasion the more conspicuous he would be in a crowd -of such magnificence. One sentence of his short but telling speech is -worthy of notice: “From the peace you have just concluded,” he said, -“dates the era of representative governments.” In a certain sense this -was true, notwithstanding that his own despotism was destined to have -its day. - -Napoleon was now given command of the so-called Army of England, which -the Government fondly hoped would plant its standards on the banks -of the Thames. The general soon dispelled this delusion. The time -was not yet come for his gigantic preparations to subdue “perfidious -Albion.” The glamour of the East beckoned him. “All great fame comes -from that quarter,” he told Bourrienne. An expedition to Egypt and the -restoration of French rule in India were more to his liking at the -moment and offered more possibilities of enhanced fame. Not slow to -read the signs of the times, and knowing the Directors were jealous of -his reputation, Napoleon felt that an absence from France might have -the desired effect of showing how very useful he was to the Republic. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -The Expedition to Egypt - -(1798) - - -There is no more romantic phase of Napoleon’s career than that of his -expedition to the sunny land of the Pharaohs. He has himself told us -that “Imagination rules the world,” and although he was essentially -practical by nature, a man who invariably worked out his plans to -almost fractional details, whenever practicable, his ardent Southern -temperament readily responded to the glow and glamour of the Orient. -There history had been made, there history was to be made. He saw -vast possibilities in the slumbering East, perhaps an awakening -into prodigious activity under the rule of a military dictator with -liberal ideas. He might revitalise Asia as he had revivified some of -the moribund States of worn-out Europe. Briefly his object was to -conquer Egypt, oust the British from India, where their rule was by no -means consolidated, and on his return, crush the power of the Sultan. -Everything seemed to favour him in engineering the machinery of this -vast project. The scientists of France took up the scheme with avidity, -and learned members of the Institute, to which he had been admitted in -the place of Carnot, gave him the benefit of their researches. - -The notion of the expedition was not a sudden inspiration, acted upon -on the spur of the moment. So far back as the 10th August 1797, when -affairs in Italy were still far from settled, Napoleon had mentioned -the subject to the Directory, following it up by a lengthy letter a -month later. He now reasoned it out, read travel books, examined maps, -interrogated men of accurate knowledge, brooded over it in the solitude -of the study, and mentally weighed the chances of success and failure. -The scales turned in its favour, and Napoleon determined to rival the -doings of Alexander. - -Before long, extensive preparations were going on apace at Toulon, -Genoa, Ajaccio, and Civita Vecchia. It was eminently necessary -that Great Britain, which was still at war with France and had -commanded the sea since the Tudor Navy had broken the giant power of -Spain, should be deceived as to the destination of the fleets. As a -subterfuge the so-called Army of England solemnly paraded, marched, and -counter-marched. Those who were not in the secret thought the soldiers -were awaiting the signal to embark for England, but it became evident -as time passed that offensive operations against the English were not -intended, some of the smartest battalions being gradually drafted -into a newly-formed Army of Egypt. Everything was done with as much -secrecy and celerity as possible; the meetings of the Directory, when -the project was under discussion, were held with closed doors. It is -significant that the cost was largely defrayed by plunder and forced -contributions from the long-suffering Swiss. - -A magnificent fleet was fitted out at Toulon, and when all the -convoys at the various ports already mentioned had been concentrated, -it reached a total of thirteen battle-ships, fourteen frigates, -seventy-two corvettes, and nearly four hundred smaller craft, -chiefly merchant vessels. Even with this great armament there was -overcrowding, for quarters had to be found for no fewer than 35,000 -troops. In addition there were over a hundred members of the Commission -of the Arts and Sciences, all of whom were liberally provided with -instruments and books likely to be of service in the warfare against -ignorance and the intellectual conquest of the East. The admiral in -command was Brueys, who had weathered the battle and the breeze for -many a long year, the generals were the pick of the French Army, -doughty champions of the Republic and reliable upholders of Napoleon’s -supreme command; Kléber, Desaix, Berthier, Murat, Menou, Lannes, -Andréossi, to mention a few of the more prominent. - -Good fortune attended the expedition at the outset, and it was -regarded as of good augury that Nelson’s reconnoitring squadron had -been forced to retire by a gale and obliged to make for Sardinia, -and that the morning of departure was sunny and cloudless. The Fates -were surely with the French! For good or evil, the armada left Toulon -on the 19th May 1798, picking up the vessels lying in other ports, -as it proceeded eastward. Napoleon, accompanied by the _savants_, -sailed on _l’Orient_, reputed to be the finest three-decker afloat. -Malta was the first object of conquest, or rather of aggression. The -Knights of St John, to whom the island belonged, surrendered quietly -and without opposition. A Judas had been found willing to sell the -once great Order which had fought the infidel and the Turk in the Holy -Land, before Napoleon had put his foot on shore. Having garrisoned the -island, planned an incredible number of reforms within a week, and -replenished his coffers, Napoleon gave orders for the anchors to be -weighed. The monotonous voyage was continued; monotonous because the -lust of conquest coursed through the veins of commander and men alike, -and they were impatient to be in action, so long as it was not action -against Nelson, who was to be avoided at any cost. - -Napoleon was not a good sailor, and passed most of the time in his -cabin reading, one of the works in his travelling library being “Cook’s -Voyages.” Sometimes he would talk over nautical matters with Brueys, -or discuss abstruse subjects with one or other of the scientists. One -fine night on deck he pointed to the stars, and said: “You may talk as -long as you please, gentlemen, but who made all that?” He lost no time, -availed himself of every opportunity of adding to his already extensive -knowledge of the East, and was as energetic mentally as an athlete is -physically. - -On the 1st July the sandy shore of Alexandria was sighted, and in the -evening disembarkation began. It was a long and trying task to hoist -the horses from the holds and land the heavy artillery, ammunition -wagons, supplies, and the thousand and one impedimenta of warfare, -but by the following morning the task was accomplished. Napoleon had -already counselled moderation in his soldiers, telling them to respect -the Mohammedan religion and those who represented it as well as the -national customs. The conquest they were about to undertake was to be -“fraught with incalculable effect upon the commerce and civilization -of the world.” Having secured the city after a short fight, in which -the Mohammedans behaved with traditional daring, Napoleon issued a -proclamation to the people to the effect that he had come to restore -their rights and their religion, and to punish the usurpers, namely -the Mamelukes. He said harsh things of the savage hordes who held the -country in terror, threatening dire results to those who should join -their marauding forces against the French. “For them there will be no -hope; they shall perish!” - -He infused new life into the sleepy civic institutions of Alexandria, -gave orders for the repair of the age-worn fortifications, and for -the erection of new batteries as well as for building factories and -schools. In less than a week he was ready to make a move in the -direction of Cairo, leaving 3000 men at Alexandria under Kléber, who -had been wounded in the preliminary brush with the Mamelukes. - -A march across sixty miles of burning sand was but the beginning of -the hardships these tried soldiers of fortune were to endure in a land -which neither provided water nor flowed with milk and honey. It seemed -more like the abomination of desolation. Parched, footsore, dispirited, -soldiers and officers alike drew invidious comparisons between the -barren deserts of Egypt and the fertile plains of Lombardy. The die was -cast; there was nothing to do but to follow the leader who frequently -walked at the head of the columns supporting the same discomforts -with cheerful fortitude. Attacks by bands of Mamelukes occasionally -created a diversion and thinned the ranks. A cloud of dust in the -distance would put the army on the defensive. Presently little specks -would emerge which ultimately would resolve themselves into horses -and riders. A short, sharp tussle and again the wild warriors would -be flying over the sand on their swift Arab steeds. The troops soon -became inured to this kind of warfare and learnt to meet it by forming -into squares which the native cavalry, however swift their onslaught, -could not pierce. When the army reached the banks of the Nile the whole -aspect of the country changed and the soldiers took fresh courage. - -At last the minarets of Cairo glimmered through the haze. The city -boasted a population of many thousands, and their task-masters were -prepared to sell their lives dearly in its defence. Near the Pyramids, -those monuments of ancient greatness, the army halted. “Soldiers!” -Napoleon cried, “from those summits forty centuries contemplate your -actions.” A more pregnant sentence cannot be conceived; it acted on the -soldiers like a stimulant. There was difficult work to do, for the city -was intrenched and defended by artillery, musketry, and cavalry under -the command of Murad Bey, one of the chiefs of the Mamelukes. - -A flotilla with supplies had met the French previously, so there was -no question of lack of ammunition, but the enemy, probably numbering -18,000 men, looked as though they would make a brave fight of it. They -did not belie their appearance. The Mamelukes charged the dense squares -with amazing recklessness but were driven back. Presently Napoleon -gave the word, his troops surged forward, and Frenchman and Arab met -in a death-struggle in the trenches. Those of the enemy who could -make good their escape did so, others were mown down as they made the -attempt. Some expired on the wind-swept sand, others perished in the -turgid waters of the Nile. Thus ended the Battle of the Pyramids. At -nightfall the Egyptian camp presented a very different spectacle from -its appearance in the morning. Soldiers were ransacking the scarcely -cold bodies of those who had fallen in the rout, searching the camp for -booty, for jewels, for ornaments of silver and of gold. Never was there -richer plunder. Napoleon, now master of Cairo, made his headquarters -in a palace formerly occupied by the defeated Murad. As at Malta, -Napoleon at once began his scheme of reform, only on a necessarily -larger scale. A general Congress was established for the government of -the country. A scientific institute was founded, its chief object being -to collect facts and figures likely to be of use in the development of -Egypt. Many of the indispensable accessories of modern civilisation, -from windmills to printing presses, were introduced. Romantic fancies -were becoming realities, when Napoleon heard of the irreparable loss -of his fleet, news which burst upon him with almost stunning force. -Think for a moment what the disaster meant. The fleet was his sole -means of communication with France. Brueys had signally neglected to -carry out his master’s orders that he was either to enter the harbour -of Alexandria or to return to Corfu, and he had thereby given Nelson -the opportunity which he had long been seeking and which had eluded -him again and again. Some excuse is afforded Brueys by reason of his -bad health, and it is certain that he found it next to impossible to -control his insubordinate crews. On the 1st August 1798 the little -one-eyed, one-armed British seaman not only shattered a French fleet -considerably superior in strength, but dealt a crushing blow at the -supremacy of the Republic in Egypt, although the full effects were not -to be felt at once. The French, who fought with conspicuous bravery, -were aided by the batteries which they had erected on shore, whereas -the British had only their naval armament to rely upon. Within a short -time five French ships were put out of action; when fighting finished, -but two of Napoleon’s men-of-war and two frigates remained to make -good their escape. The magnificent _l’Orient_ caught fire, and “by the -prodigious light of this conflagration,” Southey tells us in his “Life -of Nelson,” “the situation of the two fleets could now be perceived, -the colours of both being plainly distinguishable. About ten the ship -blew up, with a shock that was felt to the very bottom of every -vessel. Many of the officers and men jumped overboard, some clinging -to the spars and pieces of wreck with which the sea was strewn, others -swimming to escape the destruction which they momentarily dreaded. Some -were picked up by our boats; and some, even in the heat and fury of -the action, were dragged into the lower ports of the nearest British -vessel by the British sailors. The greater part of the crew, however, -stood the danger to the last, and continued to fire from the lower -deck. This tremendous explosion was followed by a silence not less -awful. The firing immediately ceased on both sides; and the first sound -that broke the silence was the dash of her shattered masts and yards -falling into the water from the vast height to which they had been -exploded.... About seventy of the _l’Orient’s_ crew were saved by the -English boats. Among the many hundreds who perished were the Commodore, -Casa-Bianca, and his son, a brave boy, only ten years old. They were -seen floating on a shattered mast when the ship blew up.” - -Brueys paid for his carelessness with his life, and his victorious -antagonist was severely wounded. The French admiral fought with superb -daring, and his dying words: “Fight to the last!” muttered on the -quarter-deck as he bore the most excruciating agony, are a fitting -parallel to those of Nelson when he was struck down. “I will take my -turn with my brave fellows,” he said, as the surgeons came to attend -to his wounds. They were both worthy sons of their countries, and if -the gods had denied Brueys the genius they had so lavishly bestowed on -Nelson, he proved himself to be every inch a man. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -From Cairo to Fréjus - -(1798-1799) - - -Napoleon was not the type of man who meets troubles half way and -quietly accepts what some might consider to be the inevitable. He -certainly believed, or pretended to believe, in his star, which was -only another word for Fate, with a persistency worthy of an astrologer. -At the beginning of his career this did not preclude him from taking -the utmost precautions that his destiny should not be averted by any -want of energy or forethought on his part. Such a policy is by no means -the paradox it would appear. A soldier must pull the sword from its -scabbard if it is to be of service; faith must be supported by works. -Therefore, while the General recognised the seriousness of his position -in Egypt, he was no less determined to fight to the end. - -As Murad Bey was still at large, Desaix was sent with a detachment to -Upper Egypt, where he was known to be, Napoleon setting off for Suez -for the purpose of seeing at first hand whether the cutting of a canal -was a practicable proposition. While he was engaged in this peaceful -occupation, Europe, encouraged by Nelson’s victory, was preparing to -resist him in the field. England, Russia and Turkey were determined -to overthrow French influence in Egypt. At Rhodes 20,000 Turks were -ready to sail for the seat of war, in Syria a second army assembled to -assist the other, while a third army was preparing in India to land on -the shores of the Red Sea and attack the French in their rear. There -seemed, indeed, a possibility that Napoleon might be caught between the -upper and the nether millstones. - -With the craft of the Oriental, Murad Bey, defeated but not crushed, -still plotted and planned to rid Egypt of her conquerors. At his -instigation Cairo revolted, but was taught a severe lesson by Napoleon; -other conspiracies were dealt with in the same stern way. Presently -came the startling news that the vanguard of the Syrian army was -not only in the field, but had actually taken El Arish. With one of -those swift movements inseparably associated with his science of war, -Napoleon started with 10,000 troops on a five-days’ march across the -treacherous desert, the sun blazing down upon the men, scorching their -faces, baking their feet, and parching their tongues. At last the -dreary march came to an end, and at midnight the French bombarded El -Arish and captured the town. But there was to be no rest for the tired -troops; they resumed their march to Gaza, where another division of -the Turkish army was routed. On the 4th March 1799, Jaffa was reached. -It was more a massacre than a battle which ensued, and the Turks were -compelled to retreat in disorder before the iron hail which decimated -their ranks. - -After this battle Napoleon ordered many prisoners to be shot. Warfare -never has been child’s play, and it must be remembered that Napoleon -could ill afford to have his army hindered by the care of captives. At -the same time it is difficult to extenuate the act, although some of -the victims had been captured before and broken their promise not to -fight again. - -To reduce Acre, where a strong army was gathered, was the next item -on the French military programme. The Turks were fortunate in having -the assistance of so able an officer as Commodore Sir Sidney Smith, -who commanded a small fleet with which he captured a French flotilla -conveying a large number of guns and a considerable quantity of -ammunition for Napoleon from Damietta. The task of reducing Acre soon -began to look as difficult as that of Mantua in the last campaign. The -French General had also to fight an unseen enemy in the plague which -broke out in the army and caused serious mortality. To crown all, -news was received of the approach of some 30,000 Turks and Mamelukes. -Kléber, with an advance guard of 3,000 troops, was pushed forward in -the direction of the enemy, followed by Napoleon with an equal number. -Two thousand men were left at Acre to maintain the siege as best they -could. “The fate of the East depends upon the capture of Acre,” he told -Bourrienne. “That is the key of Constantinople or of India.” He counted -on being able to raise and arm the whole population of Syria on the -fall of the town. “My armed masses will penetrate to Constantinople, -and the Mussulman dominion will be overturned. I shall found in -the East a new and mighty Empire, which will fix my position with -posterity.” Vain and empty dream, but perhaps not so vain or so empty -as a casual reader might suppose. - -On the 16th April, Kléber came up with the enemy near Mount Tabor, and -notwithstanding the disparity in numbers, held out for hours against -the Turkish host. Napoleon and his troops arrived on the scene not a -minute too soon; another half an hour in all probability would have -decided the issue in favour of the Turks. The new detachments helped to -stem the tide, but the Mussulmans continued their valiant attacks upon -the French squares. The sterling courage of Murat was never seen to -greater advantage. Apparently throwing prudence to the winds he charged -with his troops into the enemy’s ranks regardless of consequences. It -may have been foolhardy, it was certainly dramatic, and turned the -scales in favour of the French. The issue of the battle of Mount Tabor -was an annihilation rather than a victory. - -By the 19th Napoleon had returned to his work at Acre. Three French -frigates brought him six cannon of large calibre and intelligence of a -rapidly-approaching Turkish fleet, two vessels of which they had been -fortunate enough to capture. - -Almost every conceivable method of concluding the siege was now tried -by both parties, and the place was literally honeycombed with mines. -When the vanguard of the Turkish fleet was sighted, Napoleon knew -that if he were to triumph it was to be now or never. With additional -forces, both naval and military, the enemy would outnumber him in an -alarming proportion, while his own ranks were diminishing hourly. Three -columns were hurled to the attack; one was driven back, the others -seized a tower which occupied an important strategic position. On the -following day it became evident that without assistance the defenders -would be forced to surrender. Sir Sidney Smith landed parties of -sailors and marines, and was afterwards joined by reinforcements from -the Turkish ships. By a subtle stratagem the French were prompted to -make a false move which led them into the palace garden, where they -were literally mown down. For ten days afterwards Napoleon struggled -against the inevitable, and then, during the night of the 20th May, he -began his first retreat to Cairo, via Jaffa and El Arish, a distance of -some 300 miles, harassed by many a sharp skirmish with the enemy on the -way. - -After defeating Murad Bey and restoring some sort of order in Upper -Egypt, Napoleon found it necessary to order Desaix to evacuate the -province, an immediate concentration of troops having become imperative -owing to the approach of yet another Turkish fleet at Alexandria and -the landing of 10,000 Turks at Aboukir. Two battles were fought at -Alexandria within a few hours, and many of the enemy were literally -driven into the sea, but it was a close shave and Napoleon was within -an ace of losing the second battle. Of the 10,000 Mussulmans who had -landed to annihilate the French and restore Turkish rule in Egypt, -2,000 prisoners alone remained to tell the tale. It was one of the -most marvellous of Napoleon’s many extraordinary achievements in that -country. - -When arranging for an exchange of prisoners Sir Sidney Smith took the -opportunity to send a little packet of newspapers containing news of -vital importance to the French commander. He read of French reverses, -of the great armies of the Second Coalition coming into being against -the Republic, of despair and discontent in official and public circles. -Indeed, the Directory had gone so far as to negotiate for Napoleon’s -return, so inextricable was the muddle they were in, but the General -did not hear of this until later. He determined upon a policy which has -been discussed in and out of season by historians for over a century; -he would go back to France. Modern philosophers would have us believe -that his decision was “perfectly justifiable on political grounds,” -but many Frenchmen at the time thought otherwise. To them it seemed -a flagrant injustice to the army he commanded. “Bonaparte had fled -from Egypt, as he fled from Russia and from Waterloo,” says Baron de -Frénilly. “A general does not flee--he retreats. But Bonaparte was ever -the general of Fortune, and every time that she abandoned him he fled -like a soldier, leaving the others to get out of the difficulty as best -they could. This man, then, crept out of Egypt by night, glided between -the English frigates and entered Paris. There he had to stoop and take -what he wanted. France--after passing, during eight years, from the -anarchy of revolutionaries to the anarchy of political comedians--was -eager for the despotism of a single man.” - -There is much truth in the Baron’s irony. For Napoleon the Orient had -lost much of its charms; his political horizon was bounded again by the -west solely because he had an eye for the main chance. His thoughts -frequently wandered to the east at later periods of his career, the -appeal becoming at times almost irresistible, so completely had the -spell enchanted him. For the time being, however, it had lost its hold. - -On the night of the 22nd August 1799, Napoleon left the inhospitable -land of the Pharaohs never to return. There were grumbles and -desertions on the part of the troops, which vague promises of relief -from France did little to compensate. Kléber remained in command. -On board the two frigates, alone available for Napoleon’s use, he -found accommodation for many of the best officers, including Lannes, -Berthier, Murat, Marmont, and Duroc, useful men to have at any time. -Few ships have ever had a more distinguished passenger list. God -may be on the side of the biggest battalions, as Napoleon said, but -assuredly Providence was with the little band which set out on so -hazardous a voyage on that still summer night. The undertaking was -fraught with perils, for many British ships were sighted, but having -once more gazed on his beloved Ajaccio, where he was greeted with every -sign of respect and admiration, Napoleon landed safely at St Raphael, -near Fréjus, on the 9th October 1799, after an absence from France of -nearly fifteen months. He had not accomplished all he had set out to -do, but he had added considerably to his military prestige, and that -was everything in the position in which _la belle France_ was now -placed. - -[Illustration: AFRICA] - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -How Napoleon Seized the Reins of Government - -(1799) - - -“We were plunging under full sail back to the abyss of the Terror, -without a gleam of consolation or of hope. The glory of our arms -was tarnished, our conquests lost, our territory threatened with -invasion.... All the efforts made by honest statesmen to secure the -legal enjoyment of their rights had been crushed by violence. There -seemed to be nothing before us but to return to a bloodthirsty anarchy, -the duration of which it was as impossible to foresee as it was to find -any remedy.” - -Thus writes the Duke de Broglie of this period, and his picture is -none too black for reality. The attempt to establish a Constitutional -Republic had failed; the Directors had proved their inability to hold -the reins of government or to check the disaster which almost everyone -felt must inevitably come. One gleam of sunshine alone brightened -the horizon of the bankrupt nation, namely the news of Napoleon’s -landing. From the point of view of the general public this was worth -more than Masséna’s victory at Zurich over the Austrians and Russians -in the previous month, which had alone saved the unhappy country from -invasion. - -Clearly the Republic needed a strong man at the head of affairs; and -in Napoleon it soon recognised its master. He arrived in Paris on the -16th October 1799, and as on the occasion of his return from Italy he -was feasted and fêted. Again he showed the same taciturnity and seeming -absence of interest. Perhaps to unbend would have been to unmask -himself; a haughty demeanour often hides a fluttering heart. He lived -quietly, affecting the unobtrusive dress of the National Institute, -seeming to take more delight in the company of philosophers than of -politicians. In reality he was waiting the turn of events, weighing his -chances of securing the reins of government, and carefully considering -the possible policies of Moreau and Bernadotte, the rival generals who -shared public sympathy with him. Either of the two great parties in -the government, the Moderates and the Democrats, the former under the -leadership of Director Sieyès, the latter under Director Barras, would -have been glad for Napoleon to throw in his lot with them; indeed, so -keen was popular enthusiasm that his glory, reflected in his brother -Lucien, carried the election of the latter as President of the Five -Hundred. Without undue haste Napoleon decided in favour of the less -aggressive and semi-monarchical policy represented by Sieyès and -supported by the majority of Ancients. Between them they determined -to overthrow the Directory, their immediate accomplices being Lucien -Bonaparte, Talleyrand, and Roederer. Later the conspirators received -the support of many of the leading generals, including Lannes, -Lefebvre, Murat, Berthier and Marmont, as well as of many influential -legislators. - -Meantime accomplices in the Council of Ancients had been skilfully -at work, and had induced their colleagues to decide to transfer -the meetings of the two legislative bodies from the too-accessible -Tuileries to the less-frequented St Cloud, ostensibly because of -a Jacobin conspiracy, in reality that the Parisian mob might not -interfere, for it was hoped that the coming _coup d’état_, or “stroke -of state,” might fall with as little disturbance as possible. Régnier -de la Meurthe, who was in the General’s confidence, proposed that -Napoleon be called upon to see that the decrees of removal were -executed, which was duly carried, a large number of troops thus being -placed under his command for that purpose, which was exactly what -he required for the complete success of the plot. Proceeding to the -Tuileries on the 18th Brumaire (November 9), Napoleon addressed the -assembled Ancients in a short flattering speech, assuring them that -they were the collected wisdom of the nation, and offering the support -of his generals and of himself. When the Council of Five Hundred heard -the decree which removed them to St Cloud, there were wild scenes -which they soon found could serve no useful purpose. Military under -the command of Lannes, Murat, Mureau, Serrurier, and others had been -so disposed as to be ready for any emergency either within or without -the building, and no amount of argument could have swayed Napoleon -from his purpose. If the Directors were not actually deposed they were -practically forced to resign; Gohier and Moulins, offering opposition, -were put under arrest. - -[Illustration: Installation of Napoleon as First Consul, December 25, -1799 - -By L. Couder - -By permission of Braun, Clément & Co., Dornach (Alsace)] - -On the following day Napoleon appeared before the Ancients at St Cloud -and made a short speech, then proceeded to an apartment known as the -Orangery in which the Five Hundred were sitting. The building itself -was surrounded by troops, and accompanied by a guard he made his -entrance, the soldiers remaining within call in case their presence -should be required. Immediately cries of “Down with the tyrant! No -Cromwell! Down with the Dictator! Outlaw him!” arose from different -parts of the hall. Attempts were made to lay violent hands on the -General, who was bodily removed in a half-fainting condition by a -couple of grenadiers acting under the orders of his supporter Lefebvre. -Lucien Bonaparte endeavoured to make himself heard, but without effect; -the utmost disorder reigned. General Augereau attempted to put the -question of outlawry to the vote, whereupon the former renounced his -office of President, flung off his official robes, left the building, -and joined his brother. He made a rousing speech to the troops, -declaring that the majority of the Council of the Five Hundred “is -enthralled by a faction armed with daggers who besiege the tribune and -interdict all freedom of deliberation. General, and you soldiers, and -you citizens, you can no longer recognise any as legislators but those -who are around me. Let force expel those who remained in the Orangery; -they are not the representatives of the people, but the representatives -of the dagger,” and so on. “Soldiers,” cried Napoleon, “can I rely on -you?” There seemed some hesitation, and Lucien swore to plunge his -sword in his brother’s breast should he make an attempt on the liberty -of France. This aroused the troops from their apathy, and they at once -threw in their lot with Napoleon. Bayonets were fixed and the order -given to march into the Orangery. Not a few of the politicians jumped -from the windows in their alarm. The Ancients were then informed by -Lucien that daggers had been used by their fellow politicians--probably -a figment of his imagination--and the Council of the Five Hundred -dissolved. Within an hour of midnight a little group of legislators -who sided with Napoleon passed a decree which abolished the Directory, -adjourned meetings of the Councils for three months, and created -Napoleon, Sieyès and Ducos provisional Consuls. - -“The 18 Brumaire,” to again quote the Duke de Broglie, “was the -salvation of France, and the four years that followed it were a series -of triumphs, alike over our external enemies, and over the principles -of disaster and anarchy at home. These four years are, with the ten -years of the reign of Henry IV., the noblest period of French history.” - -“The little Corporal” had won the day. Henceforth until his fall he was -to dominate France. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -The Passage of the Alps - -(1799-1801) - - -It must be conceded that Napoleon signalised this phase of his career -by measures which promised exceedingly well for the future. He showed -the velvet glove, but it was obvious that he, and he alone, was the -controlling power in France. The Republic was in chaotic disorder; -his first task was to unravel the tangled skein. Under the careful -nursing of Gaudin, subsequently Duke of Gaëta, aided by the energy -of Napoleon, some kind of business stability was ensured. The claims -of religion were recognised and re-established; the horrible law of -hostages, which visited the presumed sins of the fathers upon the -heads of their children, and made the latter responsible for the -actions of the former, was revoked; such eminent exiles as Lafayette -and Latour-Maubourg were allowed to return. Civil war was almost, if -not entirely, stamped out by the introduction of strong measures, and -several of the more untractable leaders were shot. - -Under Berthier, who became Minister of War, the army was speedily -rejuvenated. Sieyès produced a new constitution, a not too practicable -one be it said. It was obviously designed to limit the power of -Napoleon as much as possible, the actual reins of government being in -the hands of his two colleagues. Sieyès reckoned without his host, -who was not prepared to play second fiddle to anyone, and Napoleon -soon had everything in his grip. Eventually the Government, according -to the Constitution of the year VIII. of the Republican Calendar, -was established as follows: After the Consuls and Ministers came the -Council of State, consisting of not more than forty Members, all of -whom were appointed by the First Consul. They were divided into five -sections--Legislation, the Interior, War, Marine and Colonies, Finance. -The Consuls or their seven Ministers of State placed all proposed Bills -before the section to which they belonged, who reported upon them to -the Council as a whole. If they were deemed worthy they were passed on -to the Tribunat, who debated on them, and the Corps Législatif, who -adopted or rejected them, the Council carrying out those which were -accepted. Then there was the Conservative Senate, the members of which -held office for life. They discussed and decided whether acts or laws -submitted to them by the Government or the Tribunat were constitutional -or otherwise. A list of National Notability was to be formed from which -the Conservative Senate was to select the Consuls, members of the -Tribunat and Corps Législatif, and various other officials. - -The Sovereignty of the People was doomed; their power was strictly -limited. As to Napoleon’s own aim at the time perhaps Sir Walter Scott -is not far wrong when he suggests that “his motives were a mixture of -patriotism and the desire of self-advancement.” - -Before long Sieyès and Ducos resigned. Their places were filled by -Cambacérès, a lawyer who had been a member of the Convention, and -Lebrun, who had royalist sympathies--men eminently fitted for the -positions of Second and Third Consuls respectively. Neither was -too clever nor too dull to exercise the strictly limited power they -enjoyed, both were moderate in their views, and possessed a fair stock -of common sense. Of other persons whom Napoleon attached to himself and -his now rapidly-increasing prospects we need only mention Talleyrand, -who combined the wisdom of the serpent with its cunning, and who was -reinstated Minister of Foreign Affairs, and Fouché, of even more easy -conscience, who became Minister of Police, a department with which he -likewise had made acquaintance previously. - -Napoleon, now officially styled First Consul and having a salary of -half a million francs a year, speedily removed to the magnificent -palace of the Tuileries, where he had a Court worthy of a reigning -monarch. The levelling process of the Revolution gave place to the -observance of formal rules and the stateliest ceremonies. Napoleon was -monarch in all but name, which was to come. - -So much for home affairs; the outlook abroad was not so bright. A -second coalition had been formed by Russia Austria, England, Turkey, -Naples, and Portugal against France during Napoleon’s absence in Egypt, -and the Republic was still at war with Great Britain and Austria. In -order to make it appear that he was sincere in his expressions of a -desire for peace, Napoleon wrote personal letters to the heads of the -belligerent States. It is extremely unlikely that he meant what he -said. Neither the means by which he had obtained power nor his previous -career were calculated to give confidence in his sincerity. Nothing -practical came of the overtures. Austria and Russia had defeated such -tried generals as Schérer, Moreau, Macdonald, and Joubert, and as -“nothing succeeds like success,” the Emperor Francis was unusually -optimistic. In Northern Italy, Genoa alone remained to the French, and -although the Republicans had gained splendid victories in Holland and -Switzerland, Austria was determined to bring the war to the very doors -of the French. In order to make the succeeding operations clear the -movements of the various armies will be detailed separately. - -The French army of Italy, on the Riviera and at Genoa, which was in a -most distressing condition, was under Masséna, their opponents being -commanded by Melas, whose actual fighting strength was more than double -that of the Republicans. The Imperialists succeeded in dividing the -French army, whereby Suchet was cut off from the main force, but he -defended himself with conspicuous energy. Masséna retreated to Genoa, -the British under Lord Keith preventing exit and ingress at sea, the -Austrians besieging the city. The French general held out until the 4th -June, when he was allowed to evacuate the place by the Allies. - -The Republican army of the Rhine, commanded by Moreau, was distributed -between Strassburg and Constance, and was also in smaller numerical -strength than the Austrian forces under Kray, whose total forces -reached 150,000, or some 40,000 more than the French. The Imperialists -had also the additional advantage of occupying a magnificent strategic -position at Donaueschingen. Moreau crossed the Rhine, fought several -victorious battles, and prevented the enemy from keeping in touch -with Melas. Napoleon had wished him to strike a decisive blow at -Donaueschingen, but the more cautious Moreau, lacking the military -genius of the First Consul, regarded so drastic an operation as -extremely hazardous and exposing his force to annihilation. He -was successful, however, in enticing the Austrian general from -his commanding position, and Kray’s subsequent movements were so -disastrous that he was forced to take shelter in Ulm, a town so -strongly fortified as to be almost impregnable. - -There was much hard fighting before the city capitulated. Subsequently -Munich was entered, and it seemed as though nothing could stop Moreau’s -progress save only his want of faith in himself, for even a brave -soldier does not always realise his own strength. The Armistice of -Parsdorf, signed on the 15th July 1800, suspended hostilities in -Germany for a short period. - -Meantime Napoleon, with a reserve army numbering from 40,000 to -50,000 troops, decided to cross the Alps and so manœuvre that the -“white coats” would be placed between Masséna’s forces and his own. -In addition he was determined that Austria should surrender what he -doubtless considered her ill-gotten gains, namely those parts of -Italy which the French had lost. It was a bold plan, for the ranges -were in very truth “mountains of difficult.” The greatest secrecy -was observed, a corps being assembled at Dijon to deceive the enemy, -the troops intended for the expedition being quietly concentrated at -Geneva and Lausanne. It was a deep-laid plot and worked wonderfully -well. While Austria was poking fun in caricature and print at the -nondescript troops which were to be seen lounging about or parading -in the streets of the old capital of Burgundy, Napoleon and Berthier, -the latter of whom had been appointed Commander-in-Chief, were working -all day and oftentimes far into the night perfecting arrangements for -the great surprise. The means of transport for the heavy artillery -alone presented considerable difficulty, and this was but one of many -difficulties unknown in previous campaigns. It was finally decided that -the cannon should be placed in hollowed-out tree-trunks sawn in half -after the manner of primitive boats. When on the march these were to -be hauled by gangs of peasants or soldiers, for it was soon found that -sufficient mules were not procurable. - -In May 1800, Napoleon was at Geneva. After consultations with the -engineers it was determined that the main army should cross into -Lombardy by the Great St Bernard, smaller divisions travelling by the -St Gothard, Mount Cenis, and Little St Bernard routes, the better to -mislead the enemy. A start was made on the 15th. Column after column -began the weary tramp along the desolate, snow-covered tracks, feeling -their way across narrow ledges over precipices, cheered again and again -by a sight of the First Consul as, wrapped in a grey overcoat and -seated on a mule led by a guide, he traversed the rugged route of the -Great St Bernard. The twenty miles of soldiers crossed in less than a -week, and considering the treacherous nature of the march, or rather -scramble, very few lost their lives. - -The post of Bard, on the banks of the Aosta in the valley of that -name, garrisoned by the Austrians, had been attacked by the advance -guard under Lannes without success. It was the most serious opposition -they had yet encountered, and it was necessary to pass almost under -the shadow of the guns. Marmont conceived a happy device which proved -entirely successful. At night the streets through the village were -liberally strewn with straw and other stubble by the French soldiers. -The wheels of the gun-carriages were then carefully covered to avoid -rattling, and the passage was successfully achieved, although the alarm -was sounded and there was some desultory firing. - -On the 2nd June Napoleon, marching with the utmost rapidity, entered -Milan. A week later, and almost at the same time as the First Consul -was withdrawing his troops from the old city for further offensive -operations, Lannes with the advance guard won the important victory of -Montebello. The nature of the battle was such that the French general -said he could hear the bones crash in his division like hail falling -on a skylight. Cremona, Piacenza, and other places fell, but on the -14th, at a specially inopportune time, because Napoleon had thought -it necessary to divide his forces owing to his uncertainty as to the -precise whereabouts of the enemy, Melas and 31,000 Austrians appeared -in the plain of the Bormida. The skill of Lannes and Victor proved of -no avail; the reinforcements which the First Consul brought up could -not shake the determination of the Imperialists. The wounded Austrian -commander, foreseeing no further engagement and complimenting himself -on his success, left the field. In this he committed an irretrievable -blunder. Desaix, but recently returned from Egypt, was in command of -6000 men some miles away, and having heard the dull roar of cannon, was -hurrying to Napoleon’s assistance. He arrived late in the afternoon, -and is said to have assured the First Consul that “the battle is lost, -but there is time to gain another.” - -There must be no retreat on the part of the French. This was the -decision arrived at after a short council of war. New dispositions were -made; Desaix was to stop the Austrian columns, the main forces were to -fall upon the enemy’s flank. Thiers tells us what happened during the -second battle of Marengo. - -“General Marmont suddenly unmasked a battery of twelve pieces of -cannon; a thick shower of grape-shot fell upon the head of the -surprised Austrian column, not expecting any fresh resistance, for they -fully believed the French were decidedly retreating. It had scarcely -recovered from this sudden shock, when Desaix drove down the Ninth -Light Infantry. ‘Go tell the First Consul,’ said he to his aide-de-camp -Savary, ‘that I am charging, and want some cavalry to support me.’ -Desaix, on horseback, led this half-brigade. At its head he ascended -the gentle elevation which concealed him from the Austrians, and -abruptly disclosed himself to them by a volley of musketry from his -leading column, at point blank distance. The Austrians replied to this, -and Desaix fell, struck by a bullet in the chest. ‘Conceal my death,’ -said he to General Boudet, who was his chief of division; ‘it may -dispirit the troops.’ - -[Illustration: The Death of General Desaix - -By A. Le Dru - -Photo Neurdein] - -“Useless precaution of this hero! They saw him fall, and his soldiers, -like those of Turenne, with a terrific shout, insisted on avenging -their leader. The Ninth Light Infantry--which on that day earned the -title of ‘Incomparable,’ a name which it bore to the termination of our -war--having poured forth their fire, formed in column, and fell upon -the dense mass of the Austrians. At the sight of it, these two first -regiments which headed the line of march, taken by surprise, fell back -in disorder upon the second line, and disappeared in its ranks. The -column of grenadiers of Latterman then found itself alone at the head, -and stood this charge like troops inured to fight. It stood firm. The -conflict extended on both sides of the road; the Ninth was supported -on the right by Victor’s rallied troops, on the left by the Thirtieth -and Fifty-ninth half-brigades of the division of Boudet, which had -followed the movement. The grenadiers of Latterman were with difficulty -defending themselves, when suddenly an unlooked-for storm now burst -upon them. General Kellerman, who, on the application of Desaix, had -received the order to charge, galloped forward, and passing Lannes and -Desaix, posted part of his squadrons, to make head against the Austrian -cavalry which he saw before him, then with the remainder charged the -flank of the column of grenadiers, already attacked in front by the -infantry of Boudet. This charge, executed in brilliant style, divided -the column in two. The dragoons of Kellerman sabred the Austrians right -and left, until, pressed on all sides, the unfortunate grenadiers laid -down their arms. Two thousand surrendered prisoners of war. At their -head, General Zach himself was obliged to surrender.” - -The fight continued, Kellerman charged again and again, while Lannes -and Saint Cyr showed that they had lost none of their prowess. The -Austrian cavalry was driven back by Bessières and Eugene Beauharnais. -“The confusion at the bridges of the Bormida,” adds Thiers, “became -every moment still more irremediable. Infantry, cavalry, and artillery -crowded together in disorder, the bridges could not afford a passage -for the entire army, then _en masse_; multitudes threw themselves into -the Bormida for the purpose of fording it. An artilleryman attempted -to cross it with his gun, and succeeded. The entire artillery then -followed his example, but without success, as several of the carriages -stuck fast in the bed of the river. The French, now hotly pursuing, -took men, horses, guns, and baggage. The unfortunate Baron Melas, who, -but two hours before, had left his army in possession of victory, -galloped up on report of this disaster, and could scarcely credit what -he saw; he gave himself up to despair.” - -“Tell the First Consul,” gasped the dying Desaix, “that my only regret -in dying is to have perished before having done enough to live in the -recollection of posterity.” His fame, however, will always be recorded -in connection with the battle of Marengo. “A glorious day’s work,” said -Napoleon. “If only I could have embraced Desaix upon the battlefield! I -should have made him Minister of War, and a prince, too, had it been in -my power.” During his weary exile Napoleon also spoke lovingly of the -fallen general, as he did of Kléber, who perished on the same day in -Egypt, the victim of an assassin’s dagger. - -“Of all the generals I ever had under my command,” said the fallen -Emperor, “Desaix and Kléber possessed the greatest talent--Desaix -pre-eminently, as Kléber loved glory only as the means of acquiring -wealth and pleasure. Desaix loved glory for itself, and despised -every other consideration. To him riches and pleasure were of no -value, nor did he ever give them a moment’s thought. He was a little, -black-looking man, about an inch shorter than myself, always badly -dressed, sometimes even ragged, and despising alike comfort and -convenience. Enveloped in a cloak, Desaix would throw himself under a -gun and sleep as contentedly as if reposing in a palace. Luxury had -for him no charms. Frank and honest in all his proceedings, he was -called by the Arabs, ‘Sultan the Just.’ Nature intended him to figure -as a consummate general. Kléber and Desaix were irreparable losses to -France.” - -Melas, broken in spirit and wounded, requested an armistice. After -considerable dallying on the part of the Court of Vienna and ruthless -determination to have his own way on that of Napoleon, hostilities were -resumed in November, 1800. - -The First Consul had now returned to Paris, and the interest of the -campaign centres around the armies led by Moreau and Brune, who had -succeeded Masséna. It will be remembered that the former had agreed to -a truce in the previous July, and when the sword was again unsheathed -owing to the causes briefly mentioned in the previous paragraph his -opponent was no longer Kray, but the Archduke John, a brother of the -Emperor. At first the Archduke enjoyed a temporary triumph, but Moreau -wreaked a terrible vengeance at the battle of Hohenlinden, fought on -the 2nd December. No fewer than 20,000 Austrians were captured or left -dead or wounded on the snow-clad plain and in the under-growth of the -forest. - -The poet Campbell has painted a vivid picture of the tragic scene: - - On Linden, when the sun was low, - All bloodless lay th’ untrodden snow; - And dark as winter was the flow - Of Iser, rolling rapidly. - - But Linden saw another sight, - When the drum beat, at dead of night, - Commanding fires of death to light - The darkness of her scenery. - - By torch and trumpet fast arrayed, - Each warrior drew his battle-blade, - And furious every charger neighed, - To join the dreadful revelry. - - Then shook the hills with thunder riven; - Then rushed the steed to battle driven, - And louder than the bolts of Heaven, - Far flashed the red artillery. - - But redder yet that light shall glow - On Linden’s hills of stainèd snow; - And bloodier yet the torrent flow - Of Iser, rolling rapidly. - - ’Tis morn, but scarce yon level sun - Can pierce the war-clouds, rolling dun, - Where furious Frank, and fiery Hun, - Shout in their sulph’rous canopy. - - The combat deepens. On, ye brave - Who rush to glory, or the grave! - Wave, Munich! all thy banners wave! - And charge with all thy chivalry! - - Few, few shall part, where many meet! - The snow shall be their winding-sheet, - And every turf beneath their feet - Shall be a soldier’s sepulchre. - -Moreau gave the enemy no time to recover from the disaster, and brought -them to action again and again with the most favourable results. -Indeed, he was within easy distance of Vienna itself when he agreed to -sign an armistice at Steyer on Christmas Day 1800, the terms of which -were particularly advantageous to his own country. - -Macdonald hastened to the assistance of Brune. He crossed the Splügen -from Switzerland to Italy in the face of colossal difficulties, -difficulties far greater than those when Napoleon turned the Alps. The -passage was made in winter, snow beating in the faces of the soldiers, -some of whom were whirled to destruction by an avalanche. Eventually -the junction was effected, Brune having bravely forced his way to -Macdonald by overcoming the opposition of the Imperialists whenever he -had an opportunity. Finding that he could make no progress, Bellegarde, -the Austrian commander, proposed a truce, and the armistice of Treviso -was signed on the 16th January 1801. - -Peace, a “peace at any price” let it be said, was secured by the -signature of the Treaty of Lunéville on the 9th February 1801, by -which France added considerably to her greatness and Napoleon to his -fame, both in the Republic and abroad. Foreign admiration of the First -Consul’s genius, however, was not unmixed with disgust at the exacting -nature of his demands. Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine again -became French territory; the Batavian (Dutch), Helvetic (Swiss), -Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics were recognised, and various changes -effected in Tuscany and elsewhere. The River Adige became Austria’s -boundary in Italy, and she retained Venice. - -Brief mention must be made of an alliance arranged by the Czar and the -First Consul which almost certainly would have had far-reaching results -but for the assassination of the former and the British naval victory -off Copenhagen in which Nelson played so conspicuous a part. Alexander -I., who succeeded his father, refused to play into the hands of -Napoleon, and friendly relations between his Court and that of St James -was definitely re-established by the Treaty of St Petersburg, the 17th -June 1801. The Maritime Confederacy was dissolved, the Czar’s example -being followed by Sweden and Denmark. - -The First Consul felt Paul’s death very keenly, but more from a -political than a friendly point of view. “In concert with the Czar,” he -told Bourrienne, “I was sure of striking a mortal blow at the English -power in India. A palace revolution has overturned all my projects.” -One can imagine how the vexation caused by the complete abandonment -of such a scheme was intensified by the knowledge that Great Britain -continued to hold command of the sea. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -Blessings of Peace - -(1801-1803) - - -It now became eminently desirable that Napoleon should pay some -attention to the domestic affairs of France and of the countries -dominated by her. He determined to infuse a little of his own -inexhaustible energy into the departments of State, and to restore -public confidence generally. That some kind of mutual understanding -should be arrived at with the Powers who were not under his thumb was -a prime necessity. Affairs on the Continent were by no means without -possibilities of danger to the Republic. Russia and Great Britain had -become allies, the hitherto neutral scales of Prussia might at any -moment lean towards the latter, and Austria had not become reconciled -to the loss of her territories. - -When England set on foot proposals for a cessation of hostilities which -had continued since 1793, Napoleon was busily preparing a flotilla -for the invasion of that island, to which project he had devoted -considerable thought. Although he did not betray his eagerness, he -certainly felt that there could be no greater or more profitable -blessing than a period of peace, which would enable him to carry -out various reforms and also to consolidate his own interests. The -negotiations finally took definite shape in the short-lived Treaty -of Amiens. The British Government under the leadership of Addington -lacked the genius and foresight of Pitt, consequently the balance of -profit from the Treaty was on the side of France. The Egyptian question -was to be settled by that country being restored to the Sultan; Malta -was to be handed back to the Knights of St John, its former possessors; -Great Britain was to retain Ceylon and Trinidad alone of her colonial -conquests during the war. These were the principal items of the Treaty, -the preliminaries of which were signed in London on the 1st October -1801. France was at peace with all the world. - -Napoleon, whose term of office as First Consul had been extended -for ten years (at a later period he was made Consul for life), now -directed the whole of his powers on the internal government of France. -Neither afraid of God nor man personally, he early discerned that -religion had a deep political significance. France had tried to blot -out Christianity, but as a result of her efforts the old forms of -worship had merely given place to vague speculations and makeshifts. -The Christian faith was re-established by the Concordat, a “treaty of -peace with the Roman Catholic Church,” as an eminent modern scholar -terms it, the First Consul setting a good example by attending Mass at -Notre Dame. This was followed by the inauguration of the Civil Code, a -readjustment of laws involving the most arduous research on the part of -those learned in the intricacies of jurisprudence. - -Commerce received a fresh impetus, public works were undertaken, and -social life revived. So great was the confidence of Englishmen that -they again began to make the “grand tour” of the Continent, then deemed -a necessary part of the education of members of the upper classes. -The Diary of Robert Sym, clerk to his Majesty’s Signet, affords us an -interesting glimpse of Napoleon at this time. He writes in his quaint -way as follows:-- - -“On the ‘Quinze Thermidor’ (Tuesday, August 3rd, 1802) we saw Bonaparte -review in the ‘Cour des Tuileries’ what was certainly the flower of his -army, for they were very different men from those we had seen on the -road and at Calais. We never saw a finer body of men than these, nor -finer horses and accoutrements, and all clothed and equipped in the -most complete manner. The corps of Chasseurs and of the Gens d’Armerie, -in particular, were very fine men. The corps of Guides, too, seemed to -be all picked. These latter were commanded by young Beauharnais, the -son of the wife of Bonaparte.... - -“About twelve o’clock Bonaparte came down the great stair of the -Tuileries and one of our party, who happened to be right opposite the -porch, told us that he mounted his horse from wooden steps. He then -rode forward, accompanied by about fifteen or twenty generals and a -Mameluke from Egypt. All his suite were dressed and powdered in the -most showy manner, but Bonaparte himself wore a plain green coat with -a narrow white cloth edging at the seams, such as servants in this -country sometimes wear, and a cocked hat without any lace. His hair -is very black and is cropped very close to his head and neck, so that -his ears are all bare. It falls down over his brow. His complexion is -swarthy, his face long, a fine nose, his eyes are very dark and his -eyebrows fall, or are drawn down, much over his eyes. His cheek bones -are high, and his cheeks sink between the bones of the face and those -of the chin, which gives him a wasted, consumptive look. His upper -lip projects in the middle of his mouth, considerably over the under -one, and his chin is sharp and prominent. He does not seem to be above -five feet six, and is very thin. He is thirty-three years of age. -To me he appeared to have the look of anxiety, or rather of terror. -He was mounted on a beautiful Arabian grey horse, one of the most -perfect animals I ever saw. His saddle, or rather housing, on which -he sat, was purple velvet, richly embroidered with gold and a great -many nets and trappings.... Bonaparte was nearly an hour and a half -on horseback on this occasion. During all that period he never once -opened his lips, nor did he turn his head to the right or to the left. -He looked straight over his horse’s ears. No person spoke to him, nor -was he cheered or huzzaed, either when he came into the Cour or when he -departed.” - -The conquests of the Republic in Italy, Holland, Belgium, the left bank -of the Rhine, and Switzerland imposed considerable responsibility upon -the French, and it was necessary to reorganise the several governments. -They were encumbered by tradition, with which Napoleon had little or -no sympathy. As regards the independence which the inhabitants had -every reason to expect by the terms of the Peace of Lunéville, the -First Consul was rich in promise and poor in performance. Moderation -was a quality distinctly lacking in Napoleonic statesmanship. The -very thought of a national spirit was a nightmare to the man who was -now bent on building a vast Empire of the West. Northern Italy was -completely dominated by him; Piedmont, for long the football of Austria -and France, was incorporated with the Republic, Parma and Placentia -were occupied. The Cisalpine Republic speedily became the Italian -Republic, a high-sounding name calculated to please, with Napoleon as -President and a French army of occupation. Within certain limits the -First Consul’s jurisdiction was beneficial, even though he ruled on -despotic principles. - -To Holland, now the Batavian Republic, he granted a constitution, but -many of his measures were too arbitrary for the stolid Dutch; there -was no end to their grievances, both fancied and real. Probably the -provinces on the left bank of the Rhine, which were incorporated with -France, gained more lasting advantages if only because they were less -meddled with. Affairs on the opposite side of the river attracted more -attention; in Germany there was something worth playing for. With the -Czar’s consent, Napoleon set about rearranging the various German -States. This he did to his present satisfaction, Francis II. of the -unwieldy Holy Roman Empire, of which these territories formed a part, -meekly acquiescing, as befits a monarch who has no alternative but to -grin and bear unpreventable misfortunes. Over two hundred independent -States formerly belonging to bishops, abbots, and petty sovereigns were -eventually annexed to their larger neighbours, the idea being to gain -the good-will and friendship of the more important rulers. - -Switzerland, a neutral State according to the Treaty of Lunéville -but not held to be so by the First Consul, was more difficult of -settlement. After several systems of government had been tried and -failed, Napoleon himself drew up the Constitution of Malmaison. This he -forced the country to accept in May, 1801, but it was amended in the -following year. On the withdrawal of the French army of occupation, -civil war broke out among the patriotic Swiss, Ney speedily quelling -it, however, with a formidable body of troops. The Helvetian Republic -was too important from a military point of view to be allowed to snap -the fetters which linked it to France. - -European affairs, it might be thought, would have been sufficiently -exhausting to preclude colonial projects. But, to use an apparent -paradox, Napoleon never had more time to spare than when he was most -busy. He derived his recreation from change of work, shutting up one -drawer in his mind to open another, to use his own simile. Of leisure -and ease he had little; a visit to the theatre, a hunt occasionally, an -hour’s chat with Josephine and the ladies of the Consular Court, during -which he would tell them the most creepy ghost stories, and a game of -cards at which he cheated, sufficed him for pastime. He took exercise -while working, restlessly pacing the study while he dictated a torrent -of words on civil, military, and naval matters, or walking in the -garden discussing affairs with a Minister of State. - -At this period Napoleon’s intellect and powers of exhaustive -concentration were at their best, and it is characteristic of his -marvellous energy that he could find time to devote to the possessions -of the Republic overseas. He resolved upon an attempt to recover San -Domingo, in the West Indies, then ruled by the famous negro President -Toussaint L’Ouverture, the subject of one of Wordsworth’s greatest -sonnets: “Toussaint, thou most unhappy man of men.” France had -practically lost her supremacy of this important West India island -owing to a revolt of the negroes, and there seemed a likelihood of -Toussaint declaring its independence. - -The First Consul sent off 21,000 troops under General Leclerc, who had -married Pauline, the prettiest of the Bonaparte sisters, and the blacks -were eventually routed. Some months later, when the yellow fever had -laid low many of the French soldiers and England and the Republic were -again at war, the cause of the negroes was taken up by the British, -with the result that the independence of San Domingo was definitely -established. Only one-fifth of the expeditionary army returned to -France. - -In a diary kept by Rear-Admiral Sir George Cockburn’s secretary during -Napoleon’s voyage in the _Northumberland_ to St Helena, a conversation -is recorded in which the ex-Emperor referred particularly to the West -Indies. He said that “had he continued at the head of the French -Government, he never would have attempted the re-occupation of St -Domingo; that the most he would have established with regard to that -island would have been to keep frigates and sloops stationed around -it to force the blacks to receive everything they wanted from, and to -export all their produce exclusively to, France; for, he added, he -considered the independence of the blacks there to be more likely to -prove detrimental to England than to France. This latter remark is a -reiteration of his feelings with respect to England, as in all the -calculations he makes, the proportion of evil which may accrue to our -nation seems to bear in his mind the first consideration.” - -In the early days of 1803 the First Consul’s attention was distracted -by events nearer home, and he had no alternative but to abandon his -dreams of a Colonial Empire. If, as he afterwards stated, “the Saint -Domingo business” was “the greatest error in all my government I ever -committed,” he had been able to obtain Louisiana from Spain in exchange -for an extension of territory in Italy, and also to secure Guiana. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -The Dawn of the Empire - -(1803-1804) - - -While neither party kept strictly to the terms of the Peace of Amiens, -Napoleon’s aggressive policy was such as to disturb other Powers as -well as Great Britain. There was no knowing who might be the object of -his unwelcome attentions. Frontiers seemed suddenly to have lost their -significance and usefulness, treaties became of less value than the -parchment on which they were written. Great Britain complained that -whereas the Treaty of Lunéville had guaranteed the independence of the -Batavian Republic, French troops were stationed within her borders, as -well as in those of Switzerland. Napoleon retorted by saying that Great -Britain still kept Malta. Eventually England declared war on the 18th -May 1803, and it was to be a duel to the death. - -Napoleon, usually so wide awake, was taken by surprise. He did -not anticipate so quick a decision on the part of Addington’s -administration. He retaliated in an utterly senseless and cruel way -by ordering that every British subject on French territory should be -arrested and imprisoned. Small wonder that English newspapers vilified -the First Consul as the Corsican Ogre, that the pens of Gillray, -Cruikshank, Woodward, and a host of lesser artists caricatured him -almost out of recognition; that poets poured forth vituperation in -minor verse, and that Scott and Wordsworth wrote battle cries. Few -people in England entertained the sympathy and admiration for the ruler -of France shown by Dr Parr. “Sir,” he once remarked, “I should not -think I had done my duty if I went to bed any night without praying for -the success of Napoleon Bonaparte.” - -To strike a mortal blow at the very heart of the British Empire and -to ruin her commerce on the Continent now became the consuming object -of Napoleon’s ambition. He would cross the Channel, march on London, -subjugate the United Kingdom, and while preparations for this bold move -were being made, close the ports of Europe against her. “They want to -make us jump the ditch, and we’ll jump it,” to quote an expression -he used at an audience of ambassadors on the 1st May 1803. Frenchmen -joyfully anticipated the triumph of the man with so bold an ambition; -Englishmen armed themselves as eagerly to defend hearth and home. A -Territorial Army of which posterity may well be proud quickly came into -being. In March 1805 no fewer than 810,000 troops--Militia, Volunteers, -and Fencibles--were prepared to defy Napoleon. The politician and the -publican, the ploughboy and the squire, joined hands in the mutual -cause as though no difference of class existed. George III. announced -his intention of leading the troops in person if necessary. Pitt was -acting-colonel of a regiment, and Charles James Fox became a humble -private. - -[Illustration: On the Sands at Boulogne - -By A. C. Gow, R.A. - -By permission of the Berlin Photographic Co., London, W.] - -Fortunately Great Britain had a navy, while Napoleon had practically -to create one. Many of his finest ships were far away in the West -Indies, and the Dutch fleet was small and of little consequence. -England lost no time in maritime preparations: she was ready; -Napoleon wished to gain every minute he could. While the sound of -the shipwright’s hammer rang through the coasts of France, the white -sails of Old England kept watch to prevent all entry or exit from her -harbours. The most important command, that of the Mediterranean, was -given to Nelson. Cornwallis was stationed off Brest, the great western -arsenal of France, while Keith patrolled the North Sea and the Straits -of Dover. In addition, there were various smaller squadrons cruising -about ready for instant action. - -Three-deckers were laid down in many of the most important French -seaports, cities and towns vying with each other in offering money -to the Government for men-of-war. Smaller centres contributed in -proportion to their means; naval stores, artillery, and ammunition were -also supplied at the public expense. At Boulogne a flotilla of small -vessels of various kinds was collected, some fitted with artillery, -others for the conveyance of horses. Rowing boats were built on the -river banks for the transportation of the troops. Fishing smacks -were purchased and converted into miniature warships; the doings of -smugglers were winked at, provided they brought information about -the English coast likely to be of use. If ever a man was in earnest, -Napoleon certainly was during the time of the Great Terror. He formed a -vast camp at Boulogne, detailed battalions of soldiers to construct a -mammoth basin to hold part of the flotilla, and others to build forts -and learn to row. He showed himself frequently, inspiring the men by -his terse phrases of encouragement, and consulting Admiral Bruix and -others who had charge of the preparations on the most insignificant -detail. He tested cannon, made short voyages in the different types of -vessel, and lived for days at a stretch in a little château at the top -of a cliff. - -In the early stages of the war Napoleon had thought it would be -possible to convey his troops in the small craft without making use of -the navy proper. He hoped that on a dark or foggy night it might be -possible to elude the vigilance of the British cruisers and land on the -south coast of England before the enemy was aware of his intention. -Later, he recognised that a successful crossing was impossible without -the protection of the men-of-war, and the necessity for this added -immensely to his many difficulties. - -Napoleon did not content himself solely with preparations for the -campaign in England. He sent Mortier to overrun Hanover, the hereditary -territory of George III., seized the important commercial cities of -Bremen and Hamburg, and closed the rivers Elbe and Weser against -British commerce. In Italy the ports of Tarentum and Leghorn, with -which British merchants did a considerable amount of trade, were also -occupied. Not content with these drastic measures, Napoleon decreed -that any ship which had so much as called at a British port was liable -to be captured. With great good fortune the majority of the vessels -from San Domingo eventually reached home ports, but several put in -at the harbours of Coruña and Cadiz. Spain, unluckily for herself as -it afterwards appeared, allowed supplies to be sent to the blockaded -ships. Spain, indeed, helped France in other ways, including the -payment of an annual subsidy. Portugal also agreed to disburse £640,000 -a year. - -Beloved though he was by the majority of the nation, Napoleon had -enemies. Several attempts were made to take his life. In one of these, -he narrowly escaped being blown to pieces by an infernal machine -in the Rue St Nicaise, the plot being promoted by the Royalists of -La Vendée. Napoleon showed his vindictive nature by seizing the -opportunity to teach a lesson to the Jacobins, who had no hand -whatever in the affair, and a hundred and thirty innocent persons were -sentenced to transportation for life. Another Royalist conspiracy was -that of Georges Cadoudal and Pichegru. These men tried to implicate -Moreau, but without success. The famous Republican general, however, -was arrested, with the ringleaders; Pichegru was found strangled in -prison, Georges Cadoudal was guillotined, and Moreau was banished to -America. The last was entirely innocent, but he had the misfortune to -be Napoleon’s rival, and that was sufficient condemnation. He had won -his spurs in the early days of the Revolution by placing himself at -the head of a battalion of Breton volunteers, and he was popular with -the army. An instance of his sterling integrity, one of many which -redound to his credit, may be given. When the landed property of the -aristocracy was sold as belonging to the nation, an estate owned by M. -d’Orsay, adjoining that of Moreau, was sold to the Republican general -at an absurdly low figure. Not only did the new owner inform his former -neighbour of the transaction, but he insisted on paying him what he -considered was a legitimate price. - -The Duc d’Enghien, son of the Duc de Bourbon, was even more unfortunate -than Moreau. He also was charged with complicity in the Royalist plot, -and although no evidence was produced against him, he was shot and -buried in a grave dug before his trial, by a so-called special military -commission, in the fortress of Vincennes. The story of the way in which -the young duke’s father heard the news is pathetic. He was an exile in -London, living at the time in a small suite of rooms with one valet. -As breakfast did not appear at the prescribed hour one morning, and -no notice being taken of his repeated ringing of the bell, he entered -the kitchen and found his servant bowed down with sorrow. On the -table was a newspaper containing particulars of the grim tragedy. For -two hours the sorely stricken parent was overcome by agonising grief -in the humble little room. The Comtesse de Boigne, one of the many -French emigrants who sought a refuge in England, relates the above, -in her entertaining “Memoirs,” adding that this excessive grief was -“accompanied by fits of rage and cries for vengeance.” - -“This was the only means I had of leaving no doubt as to my intentions, -and of annihilating the hopes of the partisans of the Bourbons,” -Napoleon wrote callously to his brother Joseph. “If what I have done -were still to be done,” he continues, “I would do it again, and if I -had a favourable opportunity I would get rid of the rest.” Fouché’s -caustic comment, “it was worse than a crime, it was a blunder,” has -passed into a proverb. - -The conspiracy of Cadoudal and Pichegru was made a pretext on the -part of the Senate for sending a deputation to the First Consul, who -was told that, as he was founding a new era, he ought to perpetuate -it. “We do not doubt but this great idea has had a share of your -attention,” said the President during the course of his short and -flattering address, “for your creative genius embraces all and forgets -nothing. But do not delay: you are urged on by the times, by events, -by conspirators, and by ambitious men; and in another direction, by -the anxiety which agitates the French people. It is in your power to -enchain time, master events, disdain the ambitious, and tranquillise -the whole of France by giving it institutions which will cement your -edifice, and prolong for our children what you have done for their -fathers. Citizen First Consul, be assured that the Senate here speaks -to you in the name of all citizens.” - -The question was duly debated in the Tribunate, Carnot alone voting -against the proposal, and by a decree of the Senate Napoleon was -declared Emperor of the French on the 18th May 1804. That a conspiracy -and a “judicial murder” should herald so important an event was looked -upon by some as of evil omen. A few of the more sober members of the -nation began to whisper among themselves that France was being more and -more absorbed in Napoleon. Perhaps the remark made by the Duc de Raguse -to the Comtesse de Boigne in 1814 would not have been inapplicable -if uttered ten years before. The duke was explaining his connection -with the Emperor. “When he said: ‘_All for France_,’ I served with -enthusiasm; when he said: ‘_France and I_,’ I served with zeal; when he -said: ‘_I and France_,’ I served with obedience; but when he said: ‘_I -without France_,’ I felt the necessity of separating from him.” - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -The Threatened Invasion of England and its Sequel - -(1804-1805) - - -Napoleon’s first thought after he became Emperor was of the army, in -very truth the main support of his throne. He had seen too much of -life to believe that his great commanders lived solely to carry out -his will without reference to personal ambition. Experience had taught -him that “men are fond of toys, and are led by them.” He had remarked -on the fact when opposition had been raised to the institution of the -Legion of Honour in 1802, and he saw no reason to change his opinion. -Now was the moment for him to show that those who had contributed -to the success of his designs upon the Imperial throne were not to -be forgotten. He therefore elevated eighteen generals to the rank -of Marshals of the Empire, namely, Augereau, Bernadotte, Berthier, -Bessières, Brune, Davout, Jourdan, Kellermann, Lannes, Lefebvre, -Masséna, Moncey, Mortier, Murat, Ney, Pérignon, Soult, and Serrurier. -By honouring the heads of the army, Napoleon not only flattered them -and pleased the troops they commanded, but wove a silken cord which he -hoped would bind them to himself. Some failed him in the evil days of -1814-1815, but the majority were worthy of the distinction and of his -confidence. - -A host of other dignitaries were created apart from the Bonaparte -family, whose members assumed the title of Imperial Highness, their -mother being called Madame Mère, which was as simple and dignified as -the good soul herself. There was a Grand Elector, Arch-Chancellor of -the Empire, Arch-Chancellor of State, and High Constable, to mention -only a few of the many titles conferred at this time. - -Napoleon paid frequent visits to Boulogne, and in August 1804 the -vast camp was the scene of a grand review at which the crosses of the -Legion of Honour were distributed to those who had been awarded this -coveted distinction. The most intense enthusiasm was aroused: the -ancient throne of Dagobert, King of France eleven centuries before, -was used by the Emperor, and the platform on which it stood was gaily -decorated with two hundred flags. Unfortunately a catastrophe marred -the occasion. A flotilla of new boats for the projected invasion was -to arrive from Holland and elsewhere at the height of the proceedings. -Several of them struck a portion of the new harbour-works and were -swamped, causing Napoleon to lose his temper. The enjoyment of the -open-air dinner was also marred by heavy rain. - -Arrangements for an even more imposing ceremony were soon proceeding. -This was the coronation of the Emperor, which took place in the -cathedral of Notre Dame on Sunday, the 2nd December 1804, and the Pope, -thinking it prudent to respond to Napoleon’s wish, graced the service -with his presence. As the Emperor crowned both Josephine and himself, -the Sovereign Pontiff had to be content with anointing Napoleon and -blessing the sword and sceptre. “Vive l’Empereur!” thundered through -the magnificently decorated cathedral, cannon were fired, and in the -evening illuminations blazed forth all over Paris. It is said that when -Napoleon retired to his apartment at the end of the day’s proceedings -he exclaimed in tones of scorn worthy of Cromwell on a celebrated -occasion, “Off! Off with these confounded trappings!” His language -always seemed more in keeping with the camp than with the court. - -[Illustration: Napoleon giving the Eagles to his Army, December 5, 1804 - -By L. David] - -One of Napoleon’s first acts after his coronation was to write to -George III. on the subject of peace, just as he had done when taking -the reins of office as First Consul; it was his way of throwing dust -in the eyes of the enemy. War had broken out between Great Britain -and Spain at a most inopportune moment, for Pitt, who had again come -into power, had energetically entered into negotiations with some -of the more important European Powers for a third Coalition against -France. In April 1805, Russia signified her assent, and was followed -in August by Austria. Great Britain agreed to replenish the war-chests -of her allies, and, in addition, to furnish men, arms, and ships. The -political chess-board was in active use again, and with his usual -astuteness Napoleon made several moves before his opponents were aware -that the game had begun. On the 26th May he became King of Italy, -placing the crown on his own head in Milan Cathedral, and appointing -Josephine’s son, Eugène Beauharnais, to the important and scarcely -enviable post of Viceroy. Early in June the Ligurian Republic was -united with France, followed later by Parma and Piacenza; and Lucca -and Piombino were created a principality, the Emperor’s sister Élise -being recognised as Hereditary Princess. Napoleon was “consolidating -his interests,” just as Pitt was following the same principle under -somewhat different conditions. These aggressive measures had an -extremely irritating influence on Austria. But although her pride was -severely shaken, she was slow to move. The army was encumbered by -tradition, and the people, having been bitten, were twice shy. The -old proverb, “Better half a loaf than no bread,” fairly summed up the -situation from their point of view. But what if the half loaf were -taken? That side of the question had also to be considered. - -Shipbuilding still continued to proceed with unabated vigour along the -coasts of Holland and of Northern France. Three-deckers, gay with new -paint, left the slips and took their first plunge into sea-water. In -the Texel, and at Brest, Rochefort, and Toulon, squadrons came into -being, but, like unfledged birds in a cage, they had little opportunity -to try their wings. The men on England’s floating bulwarks saw to that, -watching every movement. When the various blockading squadrons had to -vacate their station, as occasionally happened, the frigates, “the eyes -of the fleet,” as Nelson happily termed them, were usually present, -although he complained that he had far too few of these useful vessels -at his disposal. - -Napoleon never thoroughly understood the difficulties of naval -warfare. He was disposed to think that a naval squadron could carry -out a manœuvre with the almost mathematical exactness of a regiment. -Tides and wind meant little or nothing to him; Sir Neil Campbell, the -Commissioner at Elba for Great Britain during Napoleon’s short-lived -rule of that island, perceived and noted this in his diary. And yet it -must be conceded that the strategy which the Emperor had been secretly -conceiving for the concentration of his scattered fleets was as clever -as it was bold. “The wet ditch that lay around England” was not to be -crossed by the flotilla alone; he had long since abandoned that plan -as impracticable. The navy proper was to have a share in the downfall -of the United Kingdom. By feints in directions calculated to deceive -the enemy as to his real designs he hoped to assemble sufficient ships -to command the Channel, if only for a few days. This would enable him -to slip across with his army, although how he proposed to get out of -England is not quite clear. A sufficient military force was to be left -in France to provide for the possibility that other enemies might take -advantage of so favourable an opportunity to cross the French frontiers. - -Napoleon’s general design was changed again and again as circumstances -dictated, and twice an attempt was made to rally the naval forces. -Suffice it to say that Missiessy with the Rochefort squadron eluded the -English fleets and reached the West Indies, where he was to be joined -by Villeneuve, his colleague at Toulon, the idea being that while the -British were chasing them the ships at Brest under Ganteaume should -land a force in Ireland and afterwards return to convoy the flotilla. -Villeneuve, owing to stress of weather, was forced to return to port, -Ganteaume being hemmed in by Cornwallis, a hero who has not had full -justice done to him, largely because the naval annals of the time are -dominated so completely by Nelson. Even the latter was deceived when -he found Toulon empty, and he chased an entirely spectral fleet in the -direction of Egypt, sufficient proof of the cleverness of Napoleon’s -elusive plan. - -In the early days of 1805 the Emperor determined to delay no further. -He who said that “God is on the side of the biggest battalions” -probably thought that the same maxim applied to fleets. The Spanish -naval resources were now allied to those of France, making them -numerically stronger than those of the enemy, although decidedly -deficient in fighting qualities and seamanship. In brief, Napoleon’s -last desperate attempt at the invasion of England was as follows: -Villeneuve with the Toulon squadron, after joining that at Cadiz, was -to make for the West Indies, there to be met by Missiessy. Ganteaume, -escaping from Brest, was to call at Ferrol for the vessels lying there -and join the others, making fifty-nine first-class ships in all, -excluding frigates. The combined fleets were then to make a dash across -the Atlantic and appear before Boulogne, where the flotilla would be in -readiness to sail. - -Villeneuve carried out his part, but Missiessy and Ganteaume failed, -the latter because he was unable to pierce the British cordon. -Napoleon, not to be discouraged, sent word to Villeneuve to come back, -drive the British from their station off Ferrol, secure the fourteen -ships in that harbour, repeat the operation at Brest, where there were -twenty-one ships, and then make for Boulogne. Nelson had given chase -and been outwitted, but by sending a swift-sailing brig to Plymouth -to inform the authorities of his misfortune and the approach of the -French fleet on its homeward voyage, they were enabled to order the -British ships off Rochefort and Ferrol to leave their position and -intercept Villeneuve. This, under Admiral Calder, they were successful -in doing, two Spanish ships being lost in the action that was fought. -Owing to fog and want of confidence on Calder’s part, however, the -contest was indecisive, and the Frenchman reached the Spanish fort of -Vigo, afterwards creeping into Ferrol, where fourteen sail-of-the-line -awaited him, the total force now being twenty-nine. Meanwhile five -French ships which had been hemmed in at Rochefort, taking advantage -of the absence of the British, were likely to join them, thus placing -thirty-four vessels at Villeneuve’s disposal for a dash to Brest. He -made the attempt and failed, neglected to inform the commander of the -Rochefort squadron, who was vainly searching for him, and retreated to -Cadiz, where six Spanish ships were added to his squadron. - -Calder and Collingwood “sat tight” outside the harbour with one eye -on the enemy and the other searching for signs of the British ships -which they knew would be with them before long. Nelson, after spending -a short time in England, hove in sight off Cadiz on the day before -his forty-seventh birthday and assumed supreme command. The officers -trooped into his cabin to congratulate him. “The reception I met with -on joining the fleet,” he declared, “caused the sweetest sensation of -my life.” - -On the 19th October the signal, “The enemy are coming out of port,” -flew from the mast-heads of the frigates stationed to watch the -goings-on in the harbour. Thirty-three sail-of-the-line, five frigates, -and two brigs had passed out by the following day. Nelson’s force -consisted of twenty-seven men-of-war, four frigates, a schooner, and -a cutter. The enemy therefore had the advantage as regards numbers -of six first-class ships. In armament the combatants were nearly -equal, as in bravery and daring, but the French were very inferior in -seamanship and general _morale_. The 21st October 1805, on which the -Battle of Trafalgar was fought, is a red-letter day in the history of -the British Empire, perhaps of the world. The story belongs rather to -the life of Nelson than of Napoleon, and as such cannot be dealt with -here. Eleven ships only escaped of the thirty-three which had ventured -to contest England’s command of the sea. The conflict in Trafalgar Bay -was Napoleon’s maritime Waterloo. It cost the life of the greatest -naval commander of modern times, but it sealed the supremacy of his -country on the element which she has made particularly her own. On -land, success still remained with the man whose gigantic schemes for -invasion were so completely shattered; at sea, it was never to attend -his efforts. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -The War of the Third Coalition - -(1805-6) - - -Swift decision was as essentially a characteristic of Napoleon as -was his policy of having an alternative scheme to fall back upon -should the first and more important plan miscarry. A typical example -in which both are to be seen is afforded by a study of the War of -the Third Coalition, against the allied Powers, Austria, Russia, -and Great Britain. Disappointed at the failure of his preparations -for the invasion of England, but clinging to his pet project, the -humiliation of that country, the Emperor suddenly, and with apparently -little forethought, led his legions in the opposite direction. England -remained unviolated, but he saw a chance of stealing a march on -Austria, her faithful friend. - -[Illustration: Napoleon decorating his Soldiers at Boulogne - -By F. G. Roussel - -Photo Neurdein] - -On the 26th August, 1805, two days after the Elector of Bavaria had -signified his intention of casting in his lot with France, the Army -of England, never destined to get nearer to the land whose name it -bore than its headquarters at Boulogne, and now known as the Grand -Army, began its long march from the coasts of the English Channel to -the banks of the Danube. Napoleon’s forces soon reached the enormous -total of 200,000 men, the majority of whom, braced up by their long -sojourn by the sea, were more fit physically for an arduous campaign -than any other army in Europe. Despite defects in organisation and -the free-and-easy methods of some of its officers, the Grand Army -was the army of achievement. It carried the eagles of France, not to -one victory only, but to many. No armament since the dawn of history -has failed to be criticised for its imperfections. It is easy to be -drill-perfect, and yet to fail in the field. - -That the invasion of England was a mere feint has often been asserted, -whereas the weight of evidence is on the other side. The multitude -of orders issued by Napoleon, the reckless expenditure of money on -the flotilla and the enlargement of Boulogne harbour, the medal -struck to commemorate the achievement destined never to be used, the -determination with which he waited until the last moment for the -appearance of his fleets, are surely sufficient proofs of his sincerity -in the matter. Moreover, on its first campaign the Grand Army had -to plunder or to starve because the commissariat arrangements were -hopelessly inadequate, the greater part of the provisions being left on -the coast. This in itself shows with what haste the camp was broken up -and the march begun. - -The army was divided into seven corps commanded by tried warriors of -France, namely, Ney, Lannes, Soult, Davout, Bernadotte, Marmont, and -Augereau. Murat was placed at the head of the cavalry. With the Emperor -was the magnificent Imperial Guard, at once the pride of Napoleon and -of the whole army. The Bavarians numbered some 27,000. - -The Imperialists had two principal forces. That in Italy numbered -nearly 100,000 troops, who were under Archduke Charles; the other in -Germany totalled 76,000, and was commanded in theory by Archduke -Ferdinand. As the latter was a youth of nineteen summers the real work -devolved on General Mack, chief of the staff, although the Archduke was -responsible to the Emperor. Unfortunately Mack was not particularly -popular, and consequently received but weak support from his immediate -subordinates. - -The Austrian service was steeped in tradition and crowded with -aristocratic nobodies. To be sure some of the cleverest officers -had studied the men and methods of the all-conquering French armies -since the last campaign, but the quick movements of the enemy at once -dismayed and deceived the slow-moving Imperialist columns. Augsburg -was speedily occupied by the French; at Wertingen, Lannes cut up a -division; and Ulm, Mack’s headquarters, was so completely at the mercy -of the enemy’s army owing to the rapid concentration of troops under -Lannes, Soult, and Marmont that the unfortunate general speedily -capitulated. He was made a scapegoat, court-martialled, deprived of his -rank, and placed in a fortress for two years. - -All these events happened within one month, and were the work of -men who had been forced to provide themselves with most of their -necessities. Bad weather had added to their troubles, marches had been -made in torrents of rain, and the wind had sometimes been so boisterous -as to prevent their lighting a fire by which to dry their soaking -uniforms. Says a contemporary officer whose information is beyond -dispute:-- - -“To surround Ulm it was necessary to concentrate. Numerous columns -defiled upon the same road, appeared at the same point. 100,000 men, -fatigued by long marches, destitute of provisions, come to take up a -position which grows more and more confined. They are now no more -allowed to straggle from their post, for then the whole enterprise -would fail. What a critical moment! The resources of the country -occupied by this mass are consumed in an hour. - -“To enhance the difficulty, the heavens seem to dissolve. A heavy rain, -continuing for many days, floods the country. The streams burst their -banks. The roads are frightful, and in more than one place altogether -disappear. The army marches in mud, and bivouacks in water; it is -ready to perish with misery and hunger; discouragement and murmuring -spread through it. What is to be done? A proclamation is read at the -head of each column, which praises, flatters, and caresses the army, -pours eulogy on its constancy, tells it the enemy is enclosed, and that -only a few moments more of perseverance are needed. Thus the soldiers -are kept quiet; but as they must have bread, active and intelligent -officers are sent through all the neighbouring districts, to obtain it -by threats, if requests fail. All yields to the power of requisition, -and in twenty-four hours bread is procured, and the horses and vehicles -of the inhabitants are used to bring it in.... Ulm is invested, -blockaded, capitulates, and the French army reap the fruit of its -endurance and of its incredible activity.” - -Napoleon next turned his attentions to the Russians under Kutusoff, -who had now entered the field on behalf of their allies, trusting to -disappoint their hopes as speedily as he had dispersed those of the -Austrians. Time was all-important, as extensive reinforcements were -shortly expected by the enemy. Without scruple or qualms of conscience -some of the French forces under Bernadotte were therefore marched -through the neutral territory of Prussia. It was unjustifiable, of -course, but Napoleon made no apologies for treading on national corns. -By the middle of November the Emperor was in Vienna, no opposition -being offered. - -In Italy all was not quite so well. Masséna was unable to overcome the -Austrian forces under Archduke Charles at Caldiero, which retreated -in good order to Laybach. There they concentrated with Archduke -John, who had been driven from Tyrol with severe losses by Ney and -the Bavarians. After failing to bring hostilities to a conclusion by -diplomatic measures, and foreseeing a winter campaign which would in -all probability prove a protracted one, Napoleon determined, as on many -other occasions, to put all to the hazard in an attempt to bring the -contest to an end by a crushing victory. His forces were necessarily -widely scattered, but 65,000 troops were available, whereas the allies -had some 90,000. On the morning of the 2nd December, 1805, the rays -of the sun quickly dispelled the mist which hung about the plateau of -Pratzen--“the sun of Austerlitz,” as the Emperor frequently termed it -in later campaigns. - -Rapp, with the authority of an eye-witness, thus describes “The Day of -the Anniversary,” as many of the soldiers called the battle, because -Napoleon had been crowned just twelve months before:-- - -“When we arrived at Austerlitz, the Russians, ignorant of the -Emperor’s skilful dispositions to draw them to the ground which he -had marked out, and seeing our advanced guards give way before their -columns, they conceived the victory won. According to their notions, -the advanced guard would suffice to secure an easy triumph. But the -battle began--they found what it was to fight, and on every point were -repulsed. At one o’clock the victory was still uncertain; for they -fought admirably. They resolved on a last effort, and directed close -masses against our centre. The Imperial Guard deployed: artillery, -cavalry, infantry were marched against a bridge which the Russians -attacked, and this movement, concealed from Napoleon by the inequality -of the ground, was not observed by us. At this moment I was standing -near him, waiting orders. We heard a well-maintained fire of musketry; -the Russians were repulsing one of our brigades. Hearing this sound, -the Emperor ordered me to take the Mamelukes, two squadrons of -Chasseurs, one of Grenadiers of the Guard, and to observe the state of -things. - -“I set off at full gallop, and, before advancing a cannon-shot, -perceived the disaster. The Russian cavalry had penetrated our squares, -and were sabring our men. In the distance could be perceived masses -of Russian cavalry and infantry in reserve. At this juncture, the -enemy advanced; four pieces of artillery arrived at a gallop, and were -planted in position against us. On my left I had the brave Morland, -on my right General d’Allemagne. ‘Courage, my brave fellows!’ cried -I to my party; ‘behold your brothers, your friends butchered; let us -avenge them, avenge our standards! Forward!’ These few words inspired -my soldiers; we dashed at full speed upon the artillery, and took -them. The enemy’s horse, which awaited our attack, were overthrown by -the same charge, and fled in confusion, galloping, like us, over the -wrecks of our own squares. In the meantime the Russians rallied; but, -a squadron of Horse Grenadiers coming to our assistance, I could then -halt, and wait the reserves of the Russian Guard. - -“Again we charged, and this charge was terrible. The brave Morland -fell by my side. It was absolute butchery. We fought man to man, and so -mingled together, that the infantry on neither side dared to fire, lest -they should kill their own men. The intrepidity of our troops finally -bore us in triumph over all opposition: the enemy fled in disorder in -sight of the two Emperors of Austria and Russia, who had taken their -station on a rising ground in order to be spectators of the contest. -They ought to have been satisfied, for I can assure you they witnessed -no child’s play. For my own part ... I never passed so delightful a -day. The Emperor received me most graciously when I arrived to tell him -that the victory was ours; I still grasped my broken sabre, and as this -scratch upon my head bled very copiously, I was all covered with blood. -He named me General of Division. The Russians returned not again to -the charge--they had had enough; we captured everything, their cannon, -their baggage, their all in short; and Prince Ressina was among the -prisoners.” - -The total loss of the allies reached the amazing figure of 26,000, or -not quite four times as many as that sustained by the victors. The -story told of Napoleon that when the fugitives of the defeated armies -were endeavouring to cross the frozen surface of Lake Satschan he -ordered the artillery of his Guard to fire on the ice, thereby drowning -the poor wretches, has now been proved apocryphal. - -[Illustration: The Night before Austerlitz - -By A. Dawant - -By permission of Messrs. Goupil & Co.] - -Those who have read Macaulay’s “Essays” will perhaps remember an -anecdote introduced to show that exact fulfilment of certain rules -does not necessarily constitute success. “We have heard of an old -German officer,” he relates, “who was a great admirer of correctness -in military operations. He used to revile Bonaparte for spoiling the -science of war, which had been carried to such exquisite perfection -by Marshal Daun. ‘In my youth he used to march and countermarch all -the summer without gaining or losing a square league, and then we went -into winter quarters. And now comes an ignorant, hot-headed young -man, who flies about from Boulogne to Ulm, and from Ulm to the middle -of Moravia, and fights battles in December. The whole system of his -tactics is monstrously incorrect.’ The world is of opinion in spite of -critics like these, that the end of war is to conquer, and that those -means are the most correct which best accomplish the ends.” Napoleon -was great enough to break rules which a man of mediocre ability would -not dare to defy. This is the secret of the Emperor’s skill in warfare, -of his short but decisive campaigns which astonished officers of less -intuition and daring. - -After Austerlitz an armistice was arranged, followed on the 26th -December 1805, by the signature of the Peace of Pressburg. Venetia, -Istria, and Dalmatia were ceded by Austria to Italy; Bavaria gained -Tyrol and Vorarlberg; Baden and Würtemberg also came in for a share -of the spoil, and their rulers, hitherto styled Electors, became -Kings. Prussia, deeming it wiser to appear as a strong ally than as a -weak neutral, attached herself to the Nation of Conquests, although -Frederick William had been within an ace of declaring war before -Austerlitz. An offensive and defensive alliance was first drawn up, -then the former clause was struck out, it being arranged that the -respective territories of the countries should be held sacred. Hanover -was handed over to Prussia in exchange for the territories of Clèves -and Neuchâtel, Anspach was ceded to Bavaria, and the principal rivers -were closed to British commerce. - -This high-handed action was partly nullified by a strict blockade on -the part of Great Britain and Sweden, and many Prussian ships were -secured as prizes. King Frederick William III. speedily began to regret -his bargain with Napoleon, and with the genius for double-dealing so -often characteristic of weak men, he came to a secret understanding -with the Czar, promising among other things that he would refuse to -attack Russia should he be called upon to do so by Napoleon. On his -part, Alexander was to come to the help of the House of Hohenzollern -should it need assistance. Time was to teach them, as it does most -individuals, that “no man can serve two masters.” - -Napoleon now parcelled out territory for the special benefit of his -family and friends. Joseph Bonaparte became King of the Two Sicilies -in April 1806, Naples having been occupied by French troops under -Saint-Cyr. In the following June Louis ascended the throne of Holland. -Caroline Bonaparte, now married to Murat, was granted the Grand Duchy -of Berg and Clèves the same year. Pauline was given the miniature -Duchy of Guastalla, near Parma. To Berthier Napoleon presented the -principality of Neuchâtel, to Talleyrand that of Benevento. Their power -was somewhat limited, it is true, but it pleased the recipients of the -honours for a time, and put gold in their purses, which was perhaps -even more desirable from their point of view. - -Napoleon was putting into practice the theory he had propounded in -1804 when he said “there will be no rest in Europe until it is under a -single chief--an Emperor who shall have Kings for officers, who shall -distribute kingdoms to his lieutenants, and shall make this one King -of Italy, that one of Bavaria, this one ruler of Switzerland, that one -Governor of Holland, each having an office of honour in the Imperial -household.” - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -The Prussian Campaign - -(1806) - - -Pitt breathed his last soon after the defeat of the allies at -Austerlitz, and three months after the death of Nelson. Lord Chatham’s -son, no less a martyr to his country than the hero of Trafalgar, had -been bent “on putting Europe to rights.” Scarcely had 1806 been ushered -in before the Emperor of the French gave fresh evidence to the world -that he, too, had a similar ambition. Austria, still smarting from -the wounds inflicted by the lash Napoleon had so unsparingly used, an -invalid not yet convalescent, and unable to offer any resistance, was -again the victim. - -For many centuries the ruling King of Austria had been Emperor of -the Holy Roman Empire, although many of the German States had become -practically independent in all but name. It was here that the ruler of -France did not hesitate to wound. To strengthen his position he formed -the Confederation of the Rhine, whereby sixteen states of various -sizes, including Bavaria, Würtemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt -severed themselves from the Germanic Empire and entered into an -offensive and defensive alliance with him as Protector. The new -arrangement added 63,000 soldiers to Napoleon’s reserves, and provided -additional barriers against his enemies. On his part he agreed in case -of war to put 200,000 men in the field on behalf of the Confederation. -Well might the Prussian minister at Paris assert that his master “saw -around his territories none but French soldiers or vassals of France, -ready to march at her beck.” Prussia was almost hemmed in by the new -Confederation; moreover the Grand Army continued to remain in Germany. - -For a month or two there was a faint glimmer of hope that the continued -war between France and England might cease. Charles James Fox, Foreign -Secretary and leading figure in the Grenville administration, was not -without admiration for Napoleon, and more or less informal negotiations -for peace were opened. There was an exchange of courtesies, Fox sending -particulars of a plot to assassinate the Emperor to Talleyrand, -Napoleon releasing a few British prisoners from French fortresses. When -Napoleon really showed his hand he disclosed a suspicious eagerness to -obtain Sicily, the possession of which would be of great importance in -his cherished scheme of establishing the supremacy of France in the -Mediterranean. The Emperor hungered and thirsted after sea-power; it -was the one world left for him to conquer. - -Hanover was held out as bait to Great Britain, quite regardless -of anything Prussia might have to say in the matter. It was this -unscrupulous juggling with other folk’s possessions on the part of -Napoleon that kept the Continent in so unsettled a state. None knew -who next might be bartered or overrun by French troops, irrespective -of previous agreements. When Napoleon played cards he cheated; in -political matters his morality was no more conspicuous. His sense of -right and wrong had long since given way to an egotism which recognised -no law, and placed himself above all codes of ordinary conduct. De -Tocqueville said of him: “He was as great as a man can be without -virtue.” - -The peace overtures came to nought. The King of Prussia entered into an -alliance with Russia, and began to mobilise his army. His soldiers were -for up and doing regardless of the consequences, and effected a foolish -disdain of their antagonists which is well shown by Varnhagen von Ense, -then a student at Halle, in his “Memoirs.” - -“During the whole summer,” he relates, “we had heard of warlike -movements interrupted by hopes of peace; but after Napoleon -had obtained a firm footing in Germany by means of the Rhenish -Confederation, all idea of peace was at an end, and every one in -Prussia called loudly for war. Prussian troops were to be seen in and -near Halle on their way to the south and west, and the desire for war -grew stronger every day. Some hot-headed fellows were furious if peace -was hinted at, or if the superiority of the Prussians over the French -was not at once acknowledged. I distinctly remember meeting an officer -who asserted that the war was as good as ended--that nothing could now -save Bonaparte from certain destruction. When I attempted to talk of -French generals, he interrupted me by saying, ‘Generals! whence should -they spring? We Prussians, if you like it, have generals who understand -the art of war; who have served from their youth up: such men will -drive the tinkers and tailors, who date only from the Revolution, -before them like sheep....’ This put me out of temper, and I answered -bluntly, that a man became a general not by accident of birth, but by -actual service; that a man’s former condition was nothing; a tinker or -a tailor might make as good a general as a drill sergeant.” - -The reference to “accident of birth” is to the fact that before -the battle of Jena (1806) practically every Prussian officer was -an aristocrat, a rule which it will be remembered from a previous -reference in this work obtained in the French army before the -Revolution. - -During a journey to Berlin, undertaken in his holidays, Varnhagen -tells us that he was “reminded all along the road, that we were on -the eve of some great event; in every direction we met soldiers in -larger or smaller detachments, with artillery and baggage waggons. In -Treuenbriezen I saw old Field Marshal von Müllendorf on his way to -join the army; war was no longer doubtful, and it was thought that the -presence of one of Frederick the Great’s heroes would fill the troops -with the enthusiasm of that period, and incite them to fresh victories. -I saw him with a smiling countenance making the most confident promises -of victory out of his carriage window to the surrounding crowd; he then -drove off amid the loud huzzas of the assembled multitude. The soldiers -were singing jovial songs, and rejoicing that at last they were to be -led against the enemy; everywhere were to be seen the stragglers and -others rushing to join the army. The noise died away after leaving -Potsdam--an unusual stillness prevailed, and the fine summer weather -soon banished from my thoughts all save the objects and expectations -which more immediately concerned myself.” - -Music and merriment were not to last for long. All too soon sunshine -turned to rain, pride of race to national disaster. But it taught the -Prussians a lesson they never forgot, even if they were slow to learn, -and the full fruits of it were reaped on the field of Waterloo nine -years later. - -At first Napoleon felt confident that the military preparations in -Prussia were nothing but bluff, and although war was decided upon at -Berlin on the 7th August 1806, and an ultimatum sent to Paris on the -25th September, it was not until the 7th October that Napoleon heard -of it, for he was then with his army. By the following day many of his -troops had crossed the frontier. His fighting force numbered, in all, -some 190,000 men, that of his opponents some 40,000 less, under the -chief command of the Duke of Brunswick, a veteran over seventy years -of age who had seen service in the wars of the Warrior King. With the -French eagles marched many soldiers of the Confederation, evidence of -the value of the policy of Napoleon to surround himself with vassal -states. It was a somewhat one-sided bargain, for it was considerably -more likely that he, in pursuing his aggressive projects, would call -upon his allies more frequently than they upon him. Prussia was aided -by Russia in the later stages of the campaign, for it was not until -after the battle of Jena that the Czar’s slow-moving forces were -available. Saxony completed what might have been a most formidable -triple alliance. - -The Prussian general’s great hope was that he might be able to cut off -Napoleon’s communications with France, but he was far too cumbersome -in his movements to catch so nimble an adversary. The Emperor divined -the plan, gave orders for an immediate concentration of his troops, -and turned the tables by threatening the Prussian communications with -Berlin. To Bernadotte was given the task of clearing the way for the -main army. On the 9th October an affray took place between Saalburg -and Schleiz, where there was an extensive wood, and the Prussians were -forced to give way after a lengthy resistance. The French afterwards -marched to Schleiz and carried the place. Murat, who had put himself -in possession of Saalburg on the previous day, also accomplished much -difficult work. More important was the action fought near Saalfeld -between Lannes and Suchet and Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia, in -which the young prince--he was but thirty-three years of age--lost his -life while fighting against desperate odds. The infantry he commanded -fell into disorder, and soon got altogether out of hand. The Prince -had now but five squadrons of cavalry on which he could rely, and he -determined to die rather than surrender. He gave the order to charge, -was wounded in several places, and at last fell from his horse, the -victim of a fatal sword-thrust from a hussar. He certainly exhibited -the contempt for death which Napoleon recommended to his chasseurs -about this time. “My lads,” said he, “you must not fear death; when -soldiers brave death, they drive him into the enemy’s ranks.” - -The campaign was speedily decided. While the Emperor was closing -upon the allied forces concentrated near Weimar and Jena under the -King and Prince Hohenlohe respectively, a very foolish movement was -decided upon. A large portion of the Prussian forces were detached -for the relief of Naumburg, leaving but 47,000 men to face the French -should they appear. The unexpected happened; for on the same day the -Landgrafenberg, a steep hill whose summit, well-nigh inaccessible but -commanding a magnificent bird’s-eye view of the army Napoleon had -marked for destruction, was unexpectedly occupied by the French. Almost -superhuman exertion was required to haul up the heavy artillery so that -it might be placed in the most advantageous positions for the coming -conflict. Napoleon invariably discarded his trappings of state during -a campaign and assumed the duties of a common soldier when necessity -demanded, as on this occasion. He showed himself ready and willing to -take his share in what the troops called “the dirty work.” He laid -mines for the blasting of rocks which blocked progress up the rugged -heights, tugged at the ropes by which the cannon were hauled to the -wind-swept ridge, and did not retire to his tent until he was perfectly -satisfied in his own mind that nothing had been left undone which might -contribute to the discomfiture of the enemy. - -The story is told by Marbot, who, if he tells the truth, performed -prodigies of valour worthy of D’Artagnan himself. A village priest -pointed out the path which enabled the French troops to ascend the -Landgrafenberg. “Up this path,” the genial Marshal relates, “he led -some officers of the staff and a company of voltigeurs. The Prussians, -believing it to be impracticable, had neglected to guard it. Napoleon -judged otherwise, and, on the report of the officers, went himself to -see it, accompanied by Marshal Lannes and guided by the _curé_. He -found that between the top of the path and the plain occupied by the -enemy, there was a small rocky platform; and on this he determined -to assemble a part of his troops, who should sally forth from it, as -from a citadel, to attack the Prussians. For any one except Napoleon, -commanding Frenchmen, the task would have been impossible; but he, -sending to the engineers and artillery for four thousand pioneer’s -tools, set the infantry to work to widen and level the path, the -battalions taking it in turn, each one for an hour, and as it finished -its task, advancing in silence and forming on the top of the hill.... -The nights were very long at this season of the year, and there was -plenty of time to make the path practicable not only for columns of -infantry, but for artillery and ammunition waggons; so that before -daybreak the troops were massed on the Landgrafenberg. The term -_massed_ was never more correct, for the breasts of the men in each -regiment were almost touching the backs of those in front of them. But -the troops were so well disciplined that, in spite of the darkness -and the packing of more than 40,000 men on the narrow platform, there -was not the least disorder, and although the enemy who were occupying -Cospoda and Closevitz were only half a cannon-shot off, they perceived -nothing.” - -In the plain below the flaming bivouac fires winked and blinked -like watch-dogs at the Prussian soldiers. Some had already taken -an unconscious farewell of the stars as their weary eyelids closed -upon a scene of natural beauty marred by the stacks of arms, parks -of artillery and baggage waggons, which told of imminent strife and -bloodshed. - -At four o’clock in the morning, ere the faintest streak of dawn had -pierced the sky, the French camp was astir, and Napoleon with it. Had -a dragon breathing fire and brimstone presented itself on the field of -Jena Prince Hohenlohe could not have been more surprised than when the -French advance guard suddenly appeared out of a heavy, rolling, autumn -mist. The death-dealing guns began their work, the cavalry and infantry -on either side fought with desperation, and the battle inclined first -to the one side, then to the other. The Prussian troops showed that -notwithstanding long years of inaction there was still some of the -blood and iron of _Unser Fritz_ left in them; but before the reserve -of 20,000 under Rüchel, for whom Hohenlohe had sent, came up, he had -been obliged to write a second despatch urging haste, and confiding -the news that the French cavalry “has driven into one confused mass -the infantry, cavalry, and artillery.” When the reserve appeared on -the field the addition of so large a number of men tended to steady -the Prussians, and it was on seeing them that an impetuous young -French officer, noting the effect, shouted: “Forward! Forward!” to the -Imperial Guard, which had not yet been used. “How now?” asked Napoleon. -“What beardless boy is this who ventures to counsel his Emperor? Let -him wait till he has commanded in thirty pitched battles before he -proffers his advice!” - -The day was definitely decided by a magnificent cavalry charge led by -Murat, which caused a rout that only ended at Weimar, the home of the -immortal Goethe, six leagues away. - -“The Emperor,” says Savary, “at the point where he stood, saw the -flight of the Prussians, and our cavalry taking them by thousands. -Night was approaching; and here, as at Austerlitz, he rode round the -field of battle. He often alighted from his horse to give a little -brandy to the wounded; and several times I observed him putting his -hand into the breast of a soldier to ascertain whether his heart beat, -because, in consequence of having seen some slight colour in his -cheeks, he supposed he might not be dead. In this manner I saw him two -or three times discover men who were still alive. On these occasions, -he gave way to a joy it is impossible to describe.” - -At the same time another battle had been fought and lost by the -Prussians not more than twelve miles distant from the scene of this -terrible carnage. Davout had received instructions to march to Jena -by a route which would enable him to fall on the enemy’s rear while -Napoleon was engaging them. In endeavouring to carry out this manœuvre -the Marshal came directly upon Frederick’s army before Auerstädt. -As regards material strength, the condition of things at Jena was -completely reversed. Here, as we have seen, the Prussians were in the -minority; at Auerstädt the French were very much weaker. Both sides -fought well, and proved themselves worthy of their countrymen who -were engaged in a similar struggle only a few leagues away, but when -the survivors of the two Prussian armies met it was as fugitives with -the common desire to put as great a distance between them and their -pursuers as possible. The King, Prince Henry, Prince William, and -Marshal Möllendorf were wounded, the Duke of Brunswick and General -Schmettau died as a result of injuries they received, and despite the -inability of Davout to continue the pursuit of the stricken enemy, the -corpses of 20,000 Prussians covered the fields of Jena and Auerstädt, -lay in ditches, or almost blocked the roads. Many guns and colours fell -to the spoil of the victors. What would have happened had Bernadotte -and his cavalry come up is too horrible to contemplate. - -It is almost impossible to overstate the dreadful position in which -the people of Prussia now found themselves. Mr (afterwards Sir) George -Jackson, who had been sent by Fox to obtain accurate information as to -what was passing in Germany, confides to his Diary under date Hamburg, -October 23rd: “Everybody is in despair, everything is upset by the late -disaster that has fallen on the country.... The letters from Berlin -speak of a state of ferment that is indescribable.” - -On the 25th October the French entered the capital. In their -despairing condition the good folk of Berlin appear rather to have -welcomed the invaders than otherwise. We will let our friend the Halle -student tell us what happened. “I saw the first French who entered -the town,” he writes. “At about midday an officer, in a blue uniform, -accompanied by three or four chasseurs, rode into the town; they -stopped their horses, hurriedly asked the way towards the municipality, -or the mansion-house, told the idlers to stand off, and galloped away -again. There they were then! Many people still maintained that these -were not French, but Russians. This was evident, said they, from their -green uniforms. But in a quarter of an hour there was no longer room -for doubt; large bodies of cavalry and infantry entered the town, and -on the following day Berlin was filled with Marshal Davout’s troops. -And now began a totally new life among the half-stupefied inhabitants -of Berlin. We breathed again; for, instead of wild unprincipled -plunderers, we found a well-disciplined gay soldiery, who were -disarmed by being addressed in French, and whose officers were, for -the most part, remarkable for courteous manners. This first favourable -impression was not effaced by subsequent rough conduct, although it -was difficult to satisfy the pressing want of so many people. We -still found that we had to thank God, if we were to have enemies -quartered upon us, that they were not worse than these. Nevertheless, -the slovenly, dirty, ragged appearance of these little, mean-looking, -impudent, witty fellows, was a strange sight for eyes which, like ours, -had been used to the neatness and admirable carriage of the Prussians, -and we were the more astonished how such rabble--for they almost -deserved the name--could have beaten such soldiers out of the field.... - -“On the 27th October,” he continues, “I was taking my usual evening -walk by the so-called Lustgarten, or park, when I was struck by a -new sight. The whole space in the middle, which had been always -kept carefully mown, and even the side-walks towards the palace, -were covered with innumerable watch-fires, round which the soldiers -of the Imperial Guard were grouped in all kinds of attitudes. The -huge fires shone upon these handsome men and their glittering arms -and accoutrements, and the eyes were attracted by the incessantly -recurring national colours of red, blue and white. About 10,000 men -were moving about in this glowing bivouac, near the gloomy-looking -palace in which Napoleon had taken up his abode. The whole scene -made a strong impression upon me, and when I examined the small -details--for every one was allowed to go among the troops--my wonder -was increased; each soldier, in appearance, manner, and authority, -was like an officer--each man seemed a commander, a hero. The men -sang, danced, and feasted till late in the night, while every now -and then small detachments, in an admirable state of discipline, -marched to and fro with drums and music. It was such a sight as I had -never beheld. I stayed there for hours, and could scarcely leave the -spot. The Imperial Guard remained there for some days, and all eyes -were riveted by the beautiful but hated spectacle. But no subsequent -impression equalled that of the first night: the fires burned more -dimly; part of the troops had been detached elsewhere; and at length, -small bodies of cavalry, with their horses ready saddled and bridled -for instant service, were the only troops left in this encampment. The -numerous body-guard in the court of the palace was quite sufficient for -Napoleon’s personal safety.” - -But we must return to war and to misery. Strongholds which had hitherto -been thought well-nigh impregnable fell with sickening regularity. -Magdeburg, for instance, surrendered ingloriously to Marshal Ney, and -the garrison of 24,000 able-bodied men marched out and laid down their -weapons, as did 10,000 troops at Erfurt. Custrin, reputed to be one of -the strongest fortresses on the Oder, was handed over to some forty -chasseurs, Stettin surrendered in the same despicable manner. Soult at -Nordhausen, Bernadotte at Halle, and Murat and Lannes at Prenzlow won -important victories which still further weighed down the scales against -Prussia. It seemed as though the army which had started out with so -much noise and bragging would disappear almost to a man. One fragment -still remained, that under Blücher, the rugged old soldier who was to -be in the chase when the fox was at last run to earth at Waterloo. His -total force amounted to about 24,000 men, against whom 60,000 troops -under Soult, Murat, and Bernadotte were pitted. On the 6th November -1806, the latter slaughtered many of the harassed Prussians in the -narrow streets of Lübeck, but Blücher did not capitulate until the -following day, when he was absolutely compelled to do so by the limits -of Prussian territory. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -The Polish Campaign - -(1806-7) - - -Having deprived the Elector of Hesse-Cassel, the Duke of Brunswick, -and the Prince of Orange of their possessions; concluded an alliance -with Saxony, whose Elector was raised to the dignity of King and -joined the Rhenish Confederacy; and compelled the Prussian provincial -authorities to swear allegiance preparatory to leaving General Clarke -as Governor-General, Napoleon turned his unwearied attention to Poland. -There he anticipated meeting the slow-moving Russian army before it -reached Germany. The Commander-in-chief of the Czar’s forces was -Marshal Kamenskoi, a man of eighty years of age, who shortly afterwards -became insane, and was succeeded by Bennigsen, on whom the soldiers -placed considerably more reliance. - -The partition of Poland by Russia, Austria and Prussia in 1795--a wound -by no means healed--afforded an opportunity, had Napoleon decided to -take advantage of it, for an appeal to the national spirit of the Poles -to assert itself to regain their country’s independence, an aspiration -which is alive to-day. The Emperor sought to temporise, and when an -influential deputation waited upon him to ask his assistance for the -Poles, he evaded the point by a skilful answer which neither said yea -nor nay to their request, but was nicely calculated to secure their -enthusiasm on his behalf. The truth is, that while Napoleon did not -disdain Polish recruits for the French army, he perceived that it -would have been dangerous to further exasperate Russia, Prussia, and -Austria. Indeed, Austria was arming already, Prussia was endeavouring -to recuperate, and Russia was preparing a surprise. - -The numerical strength of the various armies was, as far as can be -ascertained, as follows: France, 145,000; Russia, 100,000; Prussia, -15,000. The Emperor’s first headquarters were at Posen, but on Murat -entering Warsaw at the end of November 1806, after some desultory -fighting, he decided to move to that city, where he arrived with his -staff on the 18th December. At Pultusk, Lannes experienced a severe -check at the hands of Bennigsen, whose troops outnumbered the French -by 5000. A violent snow-storm made the work doubly heavy for both -contestants, but the Russians had fewer difficulties to contend with -than the attacking party, which was obliged to wade through slush that -numbed the soldiers to the bone. They quitted themselves well, however, -and forced the enemy to retreat until the cavalry and reserve were -brought into action, when the French were forced to give up the unequal -contest with the loss of 6000 men, one thousand more than that of the -Russians. At Golymin, a somewhat similar disaster occurred to Davout, -Augereau, and Murat, and these two misfortunes largely determined -Napoleon to suspend hostilities for a time. Both armies therefore took -up winter quarters, Napoleon on the forest-clad banks of the Vistula, -the Russians near the Narew. - -Bennigsen, now in chief command, knowing the almost desperate -situation of the King of Prussia, who was shut up in Königsberg, upon -which the divisions of Ney and Bernadotte were slowly closing, saw what -he thought was an excellent opportunity to surprise Napoleon. He would -assume the offensive, relieve the important fortress of Graudentz, -then feebly held by a Prussian garrison, and protect Königsberg. But -the Emperor, whilst enjoying the social life of Warsaw, was not to -be caught quite so easily, and was speedily on the march. Through a -despatch from Bernadotte, which was intercepted by a band of Cossacks, -the Russian general got to know of the enemy’s movements, and perforce -had to give up his former plan or run the risk of a disastrous defeat. -Many a game of military hide-and-seek followed, often accompanied by -severe losses. Matters were brought to a crisis on the 7th February -1807, when both armies bivouaced within sight of each other at Eylau, -the French to the number of 50,000 entering the town after an affray -with the Russians, who probably totalled about 75,000. The corps under -Ney, Bernadotte, and Davout, having been ordered to join the main -force, were expected to afford valuable help. - -Never was there a more keenly-contested field. It was snowing heavily -when the first shells began to plough the opposing ranks. In a single -charge nearly half the men in Augereau’s corps were annihilated, and -their commander wounded. Davout returned the compliment, and was on -the point of succeeding when the Russians received reinforcements and -compelled him to fall back. Ney, who had duly arrived, and Murat, -were more successful, but at the end of eighteen hours’ fighting it -was difficult to tell who had secured the advantage. Napoleon frankly -confessed that it was quite possible he might have retreated, but -when the next morning dawned, leaden and sullen, it was found that -the Russians had disappeared, leaving him in possession of the field. -On the 14th, Napoleon wrote to the Empress: “The country is covered -with the dead and the wounded. This is not the pleasant part of war,” -while to his brother Joseph, he related some of the hardships of the -campaign. “The officers of the staff,” he says, “have not undressed -for two months, many not for four months. I myself have not taken off -my boots for a fortnight. We are in the midst of snow and mud, without -wine, brandy, or bread. We have nothing but potatoes to eat; we make -long marches and counter-marches--no pleasant experience. We have to -fight with the bayonet under a tremendous fire of grape, the wounded -have then to be carried back 150 miles in open sleighs.” - -An incident which occurred at this period exemplifies very clearly how -Napoleon could rebuke an officer and show at the same time that he had -not forfeited his trust in him. It should be added that the Emperor did -not always deal so leniently with a subordinate as he did with this -particular individual. - -One evening a bundle of despatches was delivered to Napoleon. “Surely -these despatches have been a long time on their way!” he remarked to -his attendant. “How is this? Tell the orderly officer who brought them -that I wish to speak to him.” - -The officer entered, mud-bespattered and obviously ill at ease. - -“Sir,” said the Emperor, “at what hour were these despatches placed in -your hands?” - -“At eight o’clock in the evening, sire.” - -“And how many leagues had you to ride?” - -“I do not know precisely, sire.” - -“But you ought to know, sir. An orderly officer ought to know _that_. I -know it. You had twenty-seven miles to ride, and you set off at eight -o’clock. Look at your watch, sir. What o’clock is it, now?” - -“Half-past twelve, sire. The roads were in a terrible state. In some -places the snow obstructed my passage----” - -“Poor excuses, sir--poor excuses. Retire, and await my orders.” - -As the door closed behind the unfortunate messenger, whose unhappy -frame of mind it is not difficult to realise, Napoleon remarked, “This -cool, leisurely gentleman wants stimulating. The reprimand I have given -him will make him spur his horse another time. Let me see--my answer -must be delivered in two hours. I have not a moment to lose.” - -He replied to the communications and recalled the officer who had -brought the despatches. - -“Set off immediately, sir,” said the Emperor; “these despatches must be -delivered with the utmost speed. General Lasalle must receive my orders -by three o’clock. You understand?” - -“Sire, by half-past two the general shall have the orders of which I -have the honour to be the bearer.” - -“Very well, sir, mount your horse--but stop!” he added, as the officer -was about to make his exit. “Tell General Lasalle,” and a magnetic -smile lit up the Emperor’s face for an instant, “that it will be -agreeable to me that you should be the person selected to announce to -me the success of these movements.” - -After the terrible fight at Eylau, which proved that the French arms -were not invincible and added considerably to the prestige of the -Russian army, Napoleon felt compelled to concentrate his forces still -further. Although he was within an easy march of Königsberg, upon -which Bennigsen had retreated, and had promised his soldiers before -the action that “their fatigue will be compensated by a luxurious -and honourable repose” at that city, he determined to try Fortune no -further. He put down the sword of war and took up the pen of peace, -writing a letter to the King of Prussia calculated to woo him from his -allies. After the triumph of Jena Napoleon had asked half of Prussia as -the price of peace, now he was willing to give back all the conquered -territory east of the river Elbe, and at the same time to release -Prussia from any future strife he might have with Russia. - -We have already noted that Frederick William III. possessed little -strength of will, of which fact the Czar as well as Napoleon was -fully aware. Alexander determined to make the alliance between Russia -and Prussia still more binding, feeling confident that Eylau was the -beginning of the end so far as the Corsican upstart was concerned. The -diplomacy of Napoleon received a check, and a treaty between Russia -and Prussia was arranged at Bartenstein in April 1807, which, while it -provided for eventualities which might follow the defeat of Napoleon, -had the more immediate effect of strengthening the wavering purpose of -the Prussian monarch. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -Friedland and Tilsit - -(1807) - - -Napoleon saw every reason for a speedy and more vigorous prosecution -of the war, which threatened to be prolonged indefinitely. The ranks -of his army had been seriously thinned, and although he had obtained -80,000 conscripts but five months before, he found it necessary to -call for a second levy of the same number, a very serious drain on the -resources of France, for in the natural order of things the young men -would not have been called upon until September 1808, eighteen months -later. The urgency of the demand is shown in the Emperor’s despatch to -Cambacérès: “It is very important that this measure should be adopted -with alacrity. A single objection raised in the Council of State or in -the Senate would weaken me in Europe, and will bring Austria upon us. -Then, it will not be two conscriptions, but three, or four, which we -shall be obliged to decree, perhaps to no purpose, and to be vanquished -at last.” To talk of defeat was not usual with Napoleon, and although -he added that he was not going “to wage war with boys,” he most -certainly did so. In June 1807 the total force at his disposal amounted -to 310,000 troops, that of the allies 130,000 men. - -The capture of Königsberg not being practicable at the moment, the -fall of Danzig, an important strategic point, was eagerly anticipated -by Napoleon. The place had already endured several notable sieges, -and notwithstanding Lefebvre’s energetic measures he was not able to -send the good news that he had accomplished his purpose until the end -of May 1807. The slow progress was partly due to the number of young, -inexperienced soldiers with whom Lefebvre had to work, and also to a -certain jealousy he manifested towards the engineers, the grenadiers -being his favourites. “Your glory is in taking Danzig,” Napoleon wrote -to the old spit-fire. As 900 pieces of artillery were captured on -the fall of the great fortress at the mouth of the Vistula, it must -be conceded that the work was done well, if all too slowly for the -patience of the Chief. - -On the 5th June Ney was surprised by a Russian force, the Marshal -losing 2000 men. Five days later the troops under St Cyr and Legrand -met with disaster, and 12,000 of the rank and file were killed, -wounded, or taken prisoners. These reverses were followed by the -frightful field of Friedland, fought on the 14th June, the situation -for France being alone saved by the intrepidity of Victor. The Russians -under Bennigsen, seconded by Prince Bagration, behaved with exceptional -bravery, retreating through water which reached nearly as high as their -arms. Fifteen thousand of the enemy, including many who were drowned in -their last desperate attempt to reach the opposite shore, were slain on -this the anniversary of Marengo, and nearly 8000 Frenchmen fell. - -Jackson, who had remained in the ill-fated city of Königsberg until the -last moment, tells the story of Friedland in his Diary, and as he had -every opportunity of obtaining facts at first hand, we will let him -relate further particulars of the tragedy:-- - -“However great the loss sustained by the allies at Friedland, and it -cannot be put at less than twenty-four thousand in killed, wounded, -prisoners and missing, yet everything that valour and bravery could -effect was achieved by them; and had the activity and ability of their -leader borne any proportion to the courage of his troops, this battle, -as disastrous as that of Austerlitz or Auerstädt, would have been as -glorious for us, and as important in its consequences, as those were -for the French; but these reflections are now as useless as they are -sad. On the night of the 11th, Bennigsen, crossing the Alle, began his -retreat from Heilsberg, which, with little intermission, he continued -until he arrived on the evening of the 13th opposite Friedland. There -he found a few squadrons of the enemy, who were driven across the river -without much difficulty. He himself followed, and took up his quarters -that night in the town, in front of which is a plain flanked by a wood; -detaching a few regiments just before Friedland, to secure the safety -of his quarters. - -[Illustration: The Battle of Friedland - -By Horace Vernet] - -“At between three and four in the morning, the enemy, masked and -covered by the wood, began his attack on the right wing, supported by -troops that came by degrees from the other side of the river; over -which there was but one bridge and two pontoons. Notwithstanding these -disadvantages, the Russians each time successfully repulsed the attacks -of the French, both on their right and centre, with great loss to -the enemy--with the one exception of a battery, carried in the first -instance but immediately retaken--until seven in the evening, when -Bonaparte came up with ten thousand fresh troops against their left. -This decided the fate of the day. The Russians, worn out, as well by -their late hard marchings and want of food, as by the fourteen hours of -incessant fighting they had sustained, could not make a stand against -this new shock, and in less than an hour began a very disorderly -retreat. The general confusion was increased by the difficulty of -recrossing the Alle, and the necessity of again passing through the -town, which was on fire in several parts from the enemy’s shells. -Numbers were drowned in fording the river; being hardly pressed by the -French. - -“The extent of our losses both in men and cannon should be attributed -to these circumstances rather than to any decided superiority of -the French in the field. Their effect, too, on the troops, who had -fought and had borne up so bravely through the day, was discouragement -and dismay, and converted what might still have been, under abler -leadership, a well-conducted retreat into a disorderly rout and -precipitated flight. - -“The Russian officers were unanimous in their reprobation of Bennigsen, -who has betrayed the army, they say, if not by downright treachery, at -least by the grossest ignorance and utter want of energy. ‘If he is not -removed,’ says every military man, even the warmest of the war party, -‘we had better make peace to-morrow; for to attempt to fight a battle -with him as their leader is only to sacrifice the lives of brave men -without any possible chance of success.’... The French entered Tilsit -yesterday afternoon, and commenced firing at the Russians across the -river. The fate of Europe is probably decided.” - -The immediate effects of the battle of Friedland was the capitulation -on the 15th June of Königsberg, which had been admirably defended by -the Prussian general L’Estocq, and an armistice between the French and -Russians, in which Prussia was graciously allowed to share several days -later when Napoleon and Alexander had talked over the matter together. -Their meeting-place was a raft in the river Niemen, where they remained -for nearly an hour alone, the conference being extended two hours -longer on the admittance of the Grand Duke Constantine, Bennigsen, and -Kalkreuth. King Frederick William, who had left Königsberg for Memel a -short time before the fall of the former town, had to content himself -with riding up and down the shore in the rain. A more humiliating -position for a successor to the throne of the hero of the Seven Years’ -War, who never received an insult tamely, is difficult to conceive. -Napoleon despised the weak monarch, and by his subsequent conduct -showed that he had no better liking for the beautiful Queen Louisa. On -the following day the King was admitted to the Council, but when the -fate of Europe was under discussion the two Emperors repaired to their -raft alone. - -Napoleon paid delicate attentions to the Autocrat of all the Russias. -He walked about with him arm in arm, and reviewed his troops before -him, a compliment which Alexander duly returned. - -Méneval, one of Napoleon’s secretaries, who was present at Tilsit, -affords us an interesting little glimpse of the two monarchs as they -fraternised. “So intimate did the two Emperors become,” he says, -“that, when on returning from their excursions the Czar was to dine -with Napoleon, the latter would not allow him to go home to change his -dress. He used to send somebody to the house where Alexander lived -to fetch the things he needed. He used to send him his own cravats -and handkerchief through his valet. He placed his big gold travelling -bag at his disposal, and as Alexander had praised the carvings of the -various fittings, and the way in which the bag was arranged, Napoleon -made him a present of it before they separated. When they returned -before the dinner hour it was for the sake of a free _tête-a-tête_. -On such occasions they used to leave the King of Prussia, and go into -a little gallery which adjoined the Emperor’s work-room. Sometimes -Napoleon would bring the Czar into his study and ask for his maps, -which included one of Turkey in Europe. I have seen them bending over -this map and then continuing their conversation as they walked up and -down. Schemes of partition were occupying them. Constantinople was the -only point on which they were not visibly agreed.” - -It seemed like a case of love at first sight, but the wooer sought -more than peace and good-will; he aimed at a definite alliance with -Russia. This he achieved, and although the Czar is to be blamed for -having broken faith with Great Britain and Austria so speedily, much -must be forgiven him if only because both Powers had done little more -than applaud the performer in the great war drama which had just -ended. Prussia, as might be expected, came off very badly in the -final settlement. Silesia and the provinces on the right bank of the -Elbe were given back to her; those on the left bank, with the Duchy -of Brunswick and the Electorate of Hesse-Cassel were formed into the -Kingdom of Westphalia and handed over to Jerome Bonaparte; nearly the -whole of Prussian Poland was added to the possessions of the King of -Saxony, and became the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. The remaining province, -that of Bialystok, was added to the Czar’s territory. The war which -had been proceeding between Russia and Turkey was to end, Russia -withdrawing from the Sultan’s Danubian Provinces. French troops were no -longer to be quartered in Prussia. - -These are the chief clauses of the famous Peace of Tilsit, signed -between France and Russia on the 7th July 1807, and between France -and Prussia two days later. A secret treaty was also assented to by -Alexander and Napoleon, who not only agreed to join their armies -in mutual support should either of them decide to make war on any -European Power, but mapped out the Eastern Hemisphere as future spoil, -Napoleon’s particular plunder being Egypt and the coasts of the -Adriatic Sea, which would be extremely useful in French designs against -England. The reigning Kings of Spain and Portugal were to be deposed -for the special benefit of the Bonaparte family. The Czar also promised -that if peace were not made with Great Britain, whereby she recognised -the equality of all nations on the ocean highway and handed back the -conquests made by her since the year of Trafalgar, Russia and France -would together renew the war against England. In that event Denmark, -Sweden, Austria and Portugal would also be compelled to join the allies -and close their ports against British ships. If the great Sea Power -consented to the arrangements so thoughtfully made on her behalf, -Hanover was to be given back to George III. England successfully -disposed of, the complete domination of the Eastern Hemisphere might -come within the range of practical politics. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -Napoleon’s Commercial War with Great Britain - -(1807) - - -From the terms of the secret understanding between Napoleon and -Alexander at Tilsit, it is obvious that the former had made up his mind -to stand or fall in a last desperate encounter with Great Britain. -Secure in her island home, that Power alone had been successful in -thwarting Napoleon. Her ships and her money were constant menaces to -the accomplishment of his over-lordship of the Continent. England’s -wooden walls barricaded the principal harbours; by her gold she largely -helped to provide the sinews of war which enabled her allies to resist -the oppressor. To make war on the sea, to drive it home to the coasts -of the enemy, was not possible in the shattered condition of the French -marine. - -How then was her downfall to be brought about? Before his war with -Prussia, Napoleon had taken a preliminary step by compelling Frederick -William III. to forbid British vessels the use of the ports of his -Kingdom and of Hanover. On the 21st November 1806 he augmented his plan -by the stringent regulations of the Berlin Decree, so called because -it was issued from that city. His powerful rival was to be cut off -from all further intercourse with Europe. No letters were to pass, all -commerce was to cease, every British subject in France or any country -allied to her, or occupied by French troops, was liable to be declared -a prisoner of war. - -In theory the United Kingdom was in a state of blockade. By excluding -her goods, the sale of which amounted to an enormous sum every year, -from the countries of his allies and those directly under his control, -Napoleon hoped that she would be forced to give up the unequal contest. -Great Britain had retaliated speedily and effectually upon Prussia by -seizing several hundred of her ships then lying in British harbours, by -blockading her coasts, and by declaring war. She met the Berlin Decree -by turning the tables on France, proclaiming France and her allies to -be in a state of blockade, and providing that any ship which had not -set out from, or touched at, a British harbour should be considered a -lawful prize. Napoleon retorted by his Milan Decree of the 7th December -1807, whereby ships that had issued from or touched at British ports -were put at the mercy of the French privateers which scoured the seas; -“all ships going to or coming from any harbour in Great Britain or her -colonies, or any country occupied by British troops, should be made a -prize.” - -The banning of British goods and the fostering of home manufactures -were the main planks of the great Continental System. Started with the -ostensible purpose of ruining Great Britain, it contributed largely -to Napoleon’s downfall. In order to make Europe self-contained it was -necessary to add conquest to conquest, and an interminable war does -not contribute to happiness or make for prosperity. Eventually the -French themselves lost their zest for strife, and the real meaning of -nationality began to make itself felt in countries whose inhabitants -groaned under the intolerable burden of a foreign task-master. The -System, which Bourrienne calls “an act of tyranny and madness” which -was “worthy only of the dark and barbarous ages,” was applied to -France, Italy, Switzerland, Holland, Austria, Russia, Prussia, the -Rhenish Confederation, Denmark, Spain and Portugal. If you glance at -the map of Europe you will see that there were few States to which the -Napoleonic rule in some way or other did not apply. The people who -benefited chiefly by this cutting off of England were the smugglers, -who plied a magnificent trade both on sea and land. Thousands of -persons were engaged in the business of contraband, conveying goods -into French territories and assisting the sending of Continental -productions to Great Britain. The cost of many articles went up to an -extravagant figure. For instance, in France cotton stockings ranged -from six shillings to seven shillings per pair; sugar varied from five -shillings to six shillings per pound, while the same quantity of coffee -sold at from ten shillings to eleven shillings. When we compare the -last commodity with the price which obtained in England the difference -is astounding. In 1812 coffee could be purchased in Liverpool for -one-fifteenth of the price paid in Paris. - -“Take especial care,” the Emperor wrote to Junot, “that the ladies -of your establishment use Swiss tea. It is as good as that of China. -Coffee made from chicory is not at all inferior to that of Arabia. Let -them make use of these substitutes in their drawing-rooms, instead of -amusing themselves with talking politics like Madame de Staël. Let -them take care, also, that no part of their dress is made of English -merchandise. If the wives of my chief officers do not set the example, -whom can I expect to follow it? It is a contest of life or death -between France and England. I must look for the most cordial support in -all those by whom I am surrounded.” - -Napoleon’s tariff reform, instead of materially benefiting the -manufacturers, tended to decrease the consumption of raw materials, -because they could not be obtained. When uniforms were required for -the French troops in the Eylau campaign they had to be purchased in -England! Gradually the barriers began to break down, and by the sale -of licenses for the bringing in of hitherto forbidden goods with the -proviso that French manufactured goods must be taken in exchange, -Napoleon replenished his war chests preparatory to the next campaign. -It was the Czar’s abandonment of the Continental System which led -to the Emperor’s disastrous Russian campaign. After that mammoth -catastrophe, the whole scheme gradually fell to pieces, but not before -all concerned, including Great Britain, had suffered very considerably. - -On the Emperor’s return to Paris from Tilsit in July 1807, he gave his -attention for a short time to home affairs. He had been away for ten -months, and the keenest enthusiasm for him was shown on all sides. The -Great Nation was indeed worthy of the name which had been given to the -French long before Napoleon and his armies had proved their right to -it, and his subjects shared in the glamour of victory if not in the -spoil. They furnished him with troops, were the props which supported -his throne, and if they gave their sons to be victims of war they did -not show on festive occasions that they regarded this as aught but a -cruel necessity. The French love glory above everything, and to have -a son serving with the eagles was a matter of pride to every true -Frenchman. - -Chancellor Pasquier attended the _Te Deum_ to celebrate Napoleon’s -triumphs which was sung at the cathedral of Notre Dame, and he tells -us in his “Memoirs” that he sat almost opposite the throne; from which -point of vantage he studied the Emperor’s face with quiet persistency. -“He was obviously pleased with the religious sanction,” the judge -relates, “which, in the eyes of the people, consecrated his glory and -omnipotence; he set a price on it, all the greater from the fact that -up to the time of his coming it had been absolutely denied to all the -works of the Revolution, and that it distinguished him from all that -had preceded him. - -“I am of opinion,” adds the same authority, “that at no moment of his -career did he enjoy more completely, or at least with more apparent -security, the favours of fortune. Generally, in the midst of his -greatest successes, he affected an anxious air, as if he wished it to -be understood that his great designs were not yet accomplished, and -that people ought not to think that there remained nothing more to do. -The observation which I here record has been repeatedly made by those -who have come into close contact with him, and who never found him less -approachable than at times when it was reasonable to suppose that some -most fortunate happening would open his soul to the sentiments of a -more expansive good nature. - -“Generally speaking, it was better for one having a favour to ask of -him to approach him in his moments of worry, rather than on the days -of his most brilliant successes. His character did not err on the -generous side. I think I see him still, as he was on that day, dressed -in his State costume, which, though a little theatrical, was noble and -fine. His features, always calm and serious, recalled the cameos which -represent the Roman Emperors. He was small; still his whole person, in -this imposing ceremony, was in harmony with the part he was playing. A -sword glittering with precious stones was at his side, and the famous -diamond called the _Régent_ formed its pommel. Its brilliancy did not -let us forget that this sword was the sharpest and most victorious that -the world had seen since those of Alexander and Cæsar. I remember that -M. Beugnot, who sat by me, gave utterance to this thought. Both of us -were then far from dreaming that less than seven years would suffice to -break it.” - -The following is an instance in support of Pasquier’s statement -regarding favours. When the Emperor was deeply engrossed in the -Austrian campaign of 1809, one of his servants, named Fischer, went -out of his mind. His master refused to fill his post, and paid the -poor fellow, who had to be put in an asylum, his full salary of 12,000 -francs a year until the end of 1812, when Napoleon gave him an annual -pension of 6000 francs. Such kindness on the part of the man who might -well be pardoned for forgetting or overlooking some claim, real or -fancied, on his good-will was not rare but common. - -Napoleon soon settled down to work, forsaking the hubbub of war for the -quietness of the study. He established the University of France, which -included every school both large and small, the primary object being -to train the children in patriotism. In a word, he sought to dominate -the mind. “There will never be fixity in politics,” the Emperor -averred, “if there is not a teaching body with fixed principles. As -long as people do not from their infancy learn whether they ought to -be republicans or monarchists, Catholics or sceptics, the State will -never form a nation: it will rest on unsafe and shifting foundations, -always exposed to changes and disorders.” The first effort of the -Council of the University was to compile the “Imperial Catechism,” one -of the articles of the Napoleonic faith being that “Christians owe to -the princes who govern them, and we in particular owe to Napoleon I., -our Emperor, love, respect, obedience, fidelity, military service, and -the taxes levied for the preservation and defence of the Empire and of -his throne. We also owe him fervent prayers for his safety and for the -spiritual and temporal prosperity of the State.” - -The founder took the greatest possible interest in the work of the -University, delighting to pay surprise visits to the schools. On one -occasion he was somewhat nonplussed by a girl of whom he had asked the -question: “How many needlesful of thread does it take to make a shirt?” -“Sire,” she replied, “I should need but one, if I could have that -sufficiently long.” The Emperor gave the witty scholar a gold chain as -a reward. - -It was not fated, however, that the arts of peace should for long -occupy first place in the attention either of Napoleon or his people, -and soon the country was again engrossed in rumours of war. British -agents had not been asleep on the Continent, indeed, on the 15th July -1807, less than a week after the signature of peace between France and -Prussia, Jackson confided to his “Diary” that he had “been positively -assured that Bonaparte has sent eventual orders to Denmark to shut -the Sound against us.” A secret article of the Tilsit treaty was to -the effect that should Sweden refuse to close her ports to England -and to declare war against her, Denmark should be compelled to fight -the former. This was to take effect if the negotiations for peace -between Great Britain and Russia failed, but recent research shows -that Canning, our Foreign Minister, was not correctly informed on -this matter, and believed that the arrangement was to take effect -immediately. England determined not to be forestalled, and proposed -that Denmark should hand over her fleet until a general peace was -proclaimed. The Prince Royal positively refused to entertain the -proposition. As a land expedition was contemplated by Great Britain -thousands of peasants were enlisted to defend Copenhagen, the garrison -there consisting of some 4000 troops ill-provided with artillery. An -army of 27,000 strong under Lord Cathcart sailed from Yarmouth in a -fleet commanded by Admiral Gambier and disembarked on the morning of -the 16th August some ten miles north of the Danish Capital. Batteries -were erected, but little actual progress was made until Arthur -Wellesley, who had recently returned from India, attacked a corps of -4000 of the militia at Kioge, 900 of whom were killed or wounded, and -1500 taken prisoners. Jackson’s description of them is anything but -picturesque. “The men are on board prison ships,” he writes, “and -miserable wretches they are, fit for nothing but following the plough. -They wear red and green striped woollen jackets, and wooden _sabots_. -Their long lank hair hangs over their shoulders, and gives to their -rugged features a wild expression. The knowing ones say that after -the first fire they threw away their arms, hoping, without them, to -escape the pursuit of our troops. In fact, the _battle_ was not a very -glorious one, but this you will keep for yourself.... The Danes have -not yet been put to any severe trial; but they show symptoms of a -resolute spirit, and seem determined to fight it out with us. They have -already burnt their suburbs and destroyed every house that was likely -to afford shelter to our people.” - -The bombardment of the capital began on the 2nd September, 1807, and -ended on the 5th, when the British took possession of the citadel and -arsenals. The Danish fleet was surrounded and convoyed to England the -following month. Jackson thus describes the contest, beginning with the -preliminary passage from Landscrona to the fleet off Copenhagen, which -occupied two hours and a half. - -“It was nearly dark when we sailed out of the harbour; and in about -half an hour afterwards we saw a great many rockets in the air, -succeeded by shells on either side. The wind was so violent that we -heard nothing until we were actually in the midst of the fleet, though -we saw everything distinctly. Several shells fell in our direction, -and so frightened our boatmen, that they repeatedly urged us to turn -back. This, of course, we would not hear of; and at last we succeeded -in getting alongside the flag-ship, where we found the Admiral and my -brother in the stern gallery looking at the conflagration--for the -city was on fire in three places. I never saw, nor can well conceive, -a more awful, yet magnificent spectacle. It was the beginning of the -bombardment _in forma_. We saw and heard it going on until daylight, -as we lay in our cots; and as the work of destruction proceeded, I -cannot describe to you the appalling effect it had on me. Our cabin was -illuminated with an intensely red glow, then suddenly wrapped in deep -gloom, as the flames rose and fell, while the vessel quivered and every -plank in her was shaken by the loud reverberation of the cannon. Alas! -poor Danes! I could not but feel for them. - -“Lord Cathcart told me the next morning that he had thrown two thousand -shells into the town, besides the fire from our gun-boats and the -famous catamaran rockets. And this sort of work was to begin again at -night.... - -“In the afternoon the firing began again with greater fury than ever, -and for two or three hours there was a tremendous blaze. The wind was -high; the flames spread rapidly, and towards night vividly illumined -the horizon, so that at the distance of five miles from the city we -could see each other on the quarter-deck as if it had been broad -daylight, and into the city in the same manner; the intervening ships -forming very picturesque objects. - -“... Ere I left, the fire had increased to a prodigious height, the -principal church was in flames, looking like a pyramid of fire, and -the last I saw and heard of the ill-fated city was the falling-in of -the steeple with a tremendous crash, and the distant loud hurrahs it -occasioned along our line. - -“I own that my heart ached as I thought of the many scenes of horror -that must inevitably take place in the midst of all this--and soon -there would be but a heap of ruins instead of a city to take.” - -Few people were surprised when Denmark definitely allied herself to -France and declared war against Great Britain, as did Russia, after -some show of negotiations, in November. In the following spring war -was declared upon Sweden by the Czar without any just cause. Finland -was overrun by his troops, but the resistance of the brave inhabitants -led to an Act of Guarantee whereby the Czar promised to uphold the old -laws. Still eager to share in the dismemberment of the Turkish Empire, -Alexander clung to the Danubian provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia -which were to have been restored to the Sultan by the terms of the -Treaty of Tilsit, and Napoleon, on his part, continued to keep Prussia -full of French soldiers. Thus both parties were unfaithful to their -most solemn promises, but this did not preclude a joint expedition to -India to be undertaken by France, Russia, and Austria from being mooted. - -Napoleon now took occasion to visit Italy, with the usual results. -Etruria, whose king was a grandson of Charles IV. of Spain, became a -department of France, the young monarch being promised a province in -Portugal with the title of King of Northern Lusitania, and the Papal -States were filled with French troops and shortly afterwards absorbed -in the kingdom of Italy. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -The Genesis of the Peninsular War - -(1808) - - -Although the crown of Spain was not yet worn by a nominee of Napoleon -its present holder, or rather Manuel Godoy, an adventurer who in five -years had risen from private in the Guards to chief Minister, was -careful not to offend the Emperor. Portugal, on the other hand, was a -friend of England, with whom she did a very large trade. Unfortunately -her means of resistance were so weak and unorganised that when the -Emperor of the French called upon the Prince Regent to close the -harbours to British ships and declare war against England he had no -alternative but to obey. A constant menace in the form of 28,000 -troops had been stationed at Bayonne, and did not admit of argument. -This Army of the Gironde was composed for the most part of young and -inexperienced conscripts, but they were French, and therefore held to -be invincible. The confiscation of British property was also demanded -by Napoleon, but on this point the Prince Regent temporised, thus -giving the majority of the British residents time to leave the country, -to the wrath of the Emperor. Sufficient of the story of Napoleon has -been told to show that he was no believer in half measures; when a -State hesitated to do his will, swift retribution usually followed. -Orders were immediately issued for Junot to proceed to Spain, where he -would be joined by troops of that nationality, and enter Portugal. On -the other side of the French frontiers the march was only accomplished -with much difficulty, the trackless mountains, swollen rivers, and -almost incessant rain making progress extremely slow and hazardous. - -Stricken with panic, the Queen, the Regent, the Royal Family, the Court -and many members of the nobility sailed for Brazil under the protection -of a British fleet commanded by Sir Sidney Smith, the brilliant young -officer who had already crossed Napoleon’s path in Syria. So great was -the fear of the French that no fewer than fourteen cartloads of plate -were left on the quay at Belem. But for the impassable state of the -river Zezere, which prevented Junot from making rapid progress, the -royal fugitives would have been prevented from escaping to Rio Janeiro. - -Lisbon was occupied by Junot’s ragged regiments without much trouble. A -strong resistance could scarcely have been expected, seeing what a poor -example had been given to the people by those who ruled them. For a -time it appeared as if everything connected with the French occupation -would be settled satisfactorily. The proclamation issued by Junot, now -Duke of Abrantès and Governor of Portugal, on the 1st February 1808, -made no secret of Napoleon’s intentions. - -“The House of Braganza,” it runs, “has ceased to reign in Portugal; and -the Emperor Napoleon, having taken under his protection the beautiful -kingdom of Portugal, wishes that it should be administered and -governed over its whole extent in the name of his Majesty, and by the -General-in-Chief of his army.” - -This must have been bitter reading to Godoy. In a secret treaty signed -at Fontainebleau on the 27th October 1807, he had been promised the -southern Portuguese provinces of Alemtejo and Algarve as a Principality -for his connivance and assistance in the downfall of Portugal. Napoleon -was paying him back in his own coin. During the Prussian campaign -Godoy had cherished hostile designs against France, hoping for the -co-operation of either England or Russia. In a proclamation dated the -5th October 1806, he had summoned the Portuguese nation to arms and -but thinly disguised the name of the prospective enemy. The brilliant -field of Jena, however, so radically changed the political aspect that -it was necessary to make other plans, and Godoy put forth every effort -possible to placate Napoleon. The Emperor had not forgotten, however; -he never did, and he returned evil for evil. Having had the assistance -of Spanish troops and the use of Spanish territory for the passage of -his own soldiers, the Emperor found it inconvenient to complete his -part of the bargain, and so the Prince of the Peace, to give Godoy his -official title, went empty away. - -Things were far from well with the Royal house of Spain. Charles IV. -and his son Ferdinand, Prince of the Asturias, had quarrelled, the King -going so far as to have his heir arrested on the charge of plotting -against the throne. The main cause of disagreement was the Prince’s -detestation of Godoy, who at every turn came between him and his -father, and might conceivably rob him of his succession to the throne. -Napoleon, ever eager and willing to make an advantage out of another’s -disadvantage, surmised that the quarrel would enable him to settle the -affairs of the eastern portion of the Peninsula to his liking. Hence -another army of 25,000 men was concentrated at Bayonne which, without -warning, crossed into Spanish territory towards the end of November -1807. Further corps followed until more than 100,000 French soldiers -had traversed the Pyrenees. Citadels and fortresses were seized, often -by bribery or cunning, that of Pampeluna by over-eagerness on the part -of the garrison to secure the French soldiers as contestants in a -snowball-fight. The opportunity was not allowed to slip, and while the -Spaniards were off their guard the new arrivals took possession of the -fort, and remained there till 1813. - -The nation correctly associated Godoy with the indignities it was -suffering. His palace at Aranjuez was sacked, and the Favourite was -fortunate in not being lynched by the mob. Finally the King abdicated -in favour of his son, an act which caused more rejoicing than had been -accorded any other event during his reign. - -Murat and his troops entered Madrid the day previous to the state entry -of the young monarch. Little interest was shown in the arrival of the -French soldiers, but Ferdinand received an astounding ovation, women in -their enthusiasm scattering flowers before him as he rode. Forty-eight -hours after the event Napoleon offered the Crown of Spain to his -brother Louis, King of Holland. - -On one pretext and another Ferdinand, whom Napoleon called “the enemy -of France,” was persuaded to meet the Emperor at Bayonne. During the -interview he was informed that he could have the choice of two evils. -If he would resign his throne the Emperor would give him Etruria as -some kind of compensation, if not he would be deposed. To complicate -the difficulty, Charles IV., at Napoleon’s instigation, withdrew his -abdication, which he declared had been wrung from him by fear, and -did everything in his power to induce his son to accept Napoleon’s -offer. At last the Emperor lost patience, and Ferdinand was given a -few hours to make up his mind whether he would submit or be tried for -high treason. Accordingly, on the 6th May 1808, the King, who had -reigned less than two months, surrendered his throne, as he believed, -to its former occupant, totally unaware that Napoleon had exacted the -resignation of Charles IV. on the previous day. Few more despicable -acts are recorded in history, certainly no better example could be -found of Napoleon’s lack of a sense of honour in political matters. - -Spain was now at the Emperor’s disposal. Louis had refused the kingdom, -and so it was handed over to Joseph, Naples being given to Murat, his -brother-in-law. The Emperor lived to repent the day, as did Joseph, who -had endeared himself to the Neapolitans but could never persuade his -Spanish subjects that he was anything but a vulgar upstart trading on -the reputation of his brilliant brother. - -Baptiste Capefigue, the eminent French historian, has tersely summed -up the cause of Napoleon’s ultimate failure, and the passages quoted -here have special reference to the events we are now studying. -“Napoleon,” he says, “did not fail through the governments opposed to -him, but through the people; it was when he attacked national feelings -that he met with a stubborn resistance; he had strangely abused his -dictatorial power over Europe; he crushed down nations by his treaties, -and he gave up the populations to kings of his own creation; he broke -territories into fractions, separating that which was before united, -and joining together those parts which were separated; he transformed -a republic into a kingdom; of a free town he made a district of one -of his prefectships; he united the high lands to the plain; simple, -primitive populations to old and corrupt ones, without regard to -diversities of language, or manners, or to religious antipathies. In -Germany, above all, his policy appears most tyrannical; he takes away a -province from one monarchy and gives it to another; he plays with the -masses as if they were chessmen; he creates a kingdom of Westphalia -out of more than twenty States or fragments of States; he detaches -Tyrol from Austria, heedless of traditional customs, institutions, and -manners; Holland, a mercantile republic, he changes into a kingdom; -to Naples, at the extremity of Italy, he sends one of his brothers. -His is an unparalleled despotism, without reason or excuse. The people -are for him like a mute herd of cattle; he pens them up, or drives -them before him with his terrible sword. Add to this the French -spirit, the French character, which, in his pride of a founder of a -great empire, he wished to force upon all Europe, together with his -own code of laws. God has imparted to each of the various nations a -character which is its own; for good or for evil, it is unwise to run -counter to it. Germany has its own morals and manners; Spain has its -inveterate habits--perhaps they dispose to indolence--but what is that -to strangers? Uniformity may be a plausible idea in mathematics; but -in the moral organization of the human kind, harmony is the result of -diversities.” - -What is probably a typical summing up of the case from the distinctly -British point of view is afforded us in a letter written by Francis -Horner on the 13th June 1808, in which he says: “I cannot but rejoice -that a people who bear such a name as the Spaniards should make -a struggle at least for their independence; the example cannot be -otherwise than beneficial, even if they should entirely fail, to their -posterity at some future day, and to all the rest of mankind. It is -the most detestable of all the enormities into which Bonaparte’s love -of dominion has plunged him, and more completely devoid than any other -of all the pretence of provocation or security. If I were a Spaniard, -I should consider resistance, however desperate in its chances -of success, and however bloody in its immediate operation, as an -indispensable duty of discretion and expediency; to put the proposition -in its most frigid form of expression.... What a moment for a Spaniard -of political and military genius!” - -Pending the arrival of the new monarch, Murat was assigned the -important post of Lieutenant-General of the kingdom. He was a good -cavalry leader beyond question, but as a statesman he did not shine -during the period in which he was dictator of Spain. He let it be -seen that he regarded the nation as already conquered, and it is -not surprising that his tactless rule should have roused bitter -resentment. On the 2nd May there was a riot in Madrid, short and -furious, but indicating the passionate nature of the citizens. Eight -hundred insurgents fell in the streets, perhaps half that number of -soldiers were laid low, and two hundred Spaniards were afterwards shot -by Murat’s orders for having taken part in the rebellion. Many of -the populace had been armed with sticks and stones only, others with -muskets which they used to good effect, both in the squares and from -the housetops. It was only when additional soldiers, including the -Mamelukes, the chasseurs, and dragoons, were brought up that the crowd -realised the hopelessness of the task they had undertaken. If “the -blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church,” the blood of those -who fell in Madrid on that May day in 1808 was the seed from which -the harvest of disaster for Napoleonic statesmanship was reaped. The -despot did not realise the possibility at first, but at St Helena, when -frankness was not always a despised virtue, he told Las Cases that the -Spanish war “was the first cause of the calamities of France.” The -self-confidence of Murat, who said, “My victory over the insurgents in -the capital assures us the peaceable possession of Spain,” a sentiment -in which the Emperor agreed, was speedily dispelled. “Bah!” exclaimed -Napoleon when he was told by an eye-witness of the revolution at Madrid -and the sullen courage of the people, “they will calm down and will -bless me as soon as they see their country freed from the discredit and -disorder into which it has been thrown by the weakest and most corrupt -administration that ever existed.” - -While the officials in Madrid were bowing to Joseph, the people in the -provinces were showing by open rebellion that they neither desired -him as king nor wished for Napoleon’s assistance in the ruling of -their country. The priests told the people of the Emperor’s ungenerous -treatment of the Pope, how a French force had entered Rome in the -previous February, and that his Holiness had lost almost every vestige -of his civil power. Every little township began to take measures of -offence and defence. Innumerable miniature armies roamed among the -mountains like bandits, awaiting an opportunity to annihilate a French -outpost, to interrupt communications, or to fall on a division as it -marched along to join one of the army corps now being poured into -Spain. General actions were not encouraged, and usually ended in -disaster. Assassinations and massacres became the order of the day on -both sides, forcing the French commanders to realise that they had to -face a novel kind of warfare--a nation in arms. At the end of May 1808, -when the people were actively organising, there were nearly 120,000 -French troops in Spain and Portugal. In the first few engagements the -Spaniards, who possibly numbered 100,000, including the regulars, were -routed. When towns were besieged the French met with less success, -and the defence of Saragossa under young Joseph Palafox, whose daring -soon raised him to the dignity of a national hero, is a most thrilling -episode. A name which must be coupled with his is that of Augustina (or -Manuela) Sanchez. A battery had been abandoned by the Spaniards, and -this brave girl, one of the many inhabitants who helped to defend their -city, found that the hand of a dead gunner still grasped a lighted -match, whereupon she seized it and fired the gun, thereby attracting -the attention of the fugitives, who returned to the fight. The first -siege of Saragossa lasted for nearly eight weeks, but the place -eventually surrendered to Lannes. - -Duhesme and his French soldiers met with even worse fortune, being -forced to take refuge in Barcelona, where the Spaniards kept them -secure for nearly four months. At Medina de Rio Seco the insurgents -under La Cuesta and Blake, an Irishman, were completely routed by -Bessières. This event might have weakened the national cause very -considerably had not Dupont’s army been entrapped among the Sierra -Morena mountains by Castaños. In the fighting that took place 3,000 -French were either killed or wounded, and 18,000 troops were forced -to lay down their arms at the subsequent capitulation of Baylen. -When Napoleon heard of the victory at Medina de Rio Seco, he wrote: -“Bessières has put the crown on Joseph’s head. The Spaniards have now -perhaps 15,000 men left, with some old blockhead at their head; the -resistance of the Peninsula is ended!” His reception of the news of -Dupont’s surrender was very different. “That an army should be beaten -is nothing,” he burst forth after reading the fatal despatch, “it is -the daily fate of war, and is easily repaired, but that an army should -submit to a dishonourable capitulation is a stain on the glory of -our arms which can never be effaced. Wounds inflicted on honour are -incurable. The moral effect of this catastrophe will be terrible.” The -luckless Dupont was promptly imprisoned on his return to France, and -remained so until 1814. - -This trouble did not come singly. It was followed shortly afterwards -by the news that Joseph, feeling that Madrid was no longer secure, had -deemed it advisable to retire in haste to Burgos, behind the Ebro, and -within comparatively easy distance of the frontier. Some three weeks -later Castaños at the head of his troops marched into the capital. The -position of Ferdinand’s successor was speedily becoming untenable. -“I have not a single Spaniard left who is attached to my cause,” he -tells his brother. “As a General, my part would be endurable--nay, -easy; for, with a detachment of your veteran troops, I could conquer -the Spaniards, but as a King my position is insupportable, for I must -kill one portion of my subjects to make the other submit. I decline, -therefore, to reign over a people who will not have me.” He adds that -he does not wish to retire conquered, but pleads for an experienced -army that he may return to Madrid and come to terms with his -rebellious subjects ere seeking the quiet of Naples. - -In Portugal Junot, by dint of extreme severity, had succeeded in -disarming the populace and securing the principal fortresses, his -troops being dispersed about the country. His success made him feel so -self-satisfied that he entertained the hope that Napoleon would confer -the crown of Portugal upon him. As a preliminary step he endeavoured to -win over the nobles and clergy. The Emperor had different views, and -while recognising Junot’s unquestionable ability he was not blind to -his shortcomings. - -At the same time as King Joseph was retreating from Madrid, 9000 -British soldiers under Sir Arthur Wellesley had reached the mouth of -the Mondego River, and, in spite of many difficulties, had effected -a landing. The future Duke of Wellington was not to retain supreme -command, although he had started out with that expectation. After -leaving England he learned that three other officers, namely, Sir Hew -Dalrymple, then Governor of Gibraltar; Sir Harry Burrard, a Guardsman -of some experience; and Sir John Moore, who had previously taken part -in Paoli’s descent on Corsica and seen much honourable service in the -West Indies and Ireland, were to join the expedition. Wellesley was -not pleased at being superseded, but he was too good a soldier to -show resentment. “Whether I am to command the army or not,” he told -the home authorities, “or am to quit it, I shall do my best to secure -its success, and you may depend upon it that I shall not hurry the -operations or commence them one moment sooner than they ought to be -commenced, in order that I may reap the credit of success.” Nothing -that he ever wrote or said reveals more truly the unswerving honour -and loyalty of the Iron Duke. - -Junot was not particularly perturbed by the news of Wellesley’s -arrival. Small British expeditionary forces had landed again and again -in various parts of the continent since 1793, and usually had been only -too glad to return to England. The French commander noted with pleasure -that the Portuguese showed little sympathy with their allies, so much -so that Sir Arthur had the utmost difficulty to persuade them to lend -assistance. Lisbon was still too disturbed to warrant Junot leaving -it, and he accordingly directed Loison and Laborde to concentrate near -Leiria. Wellesley, however, outmarched them, and prevented them from -combining their forces immediately. On the 15th August he had a smart -skirmish with Laborde, and two days later was victorious at Roleia, -where a stiff battle was fought with the same commander. Unfortunately -Wellesley’s forces were not sufficiently strong to make the victory -decisive or to stop the two forces of the enemy from uniting later. - -Junot now found it necessary to assume personal command. Leaving Madrid -with a garrison of 7000 soldiers, he gathered his available forces, -including those of Loison and Laborde, and came up with the British at -Vimiero on the 21st August. Wellesley’s strength was some 18,000 troops -in all, and although Sir Harry Burrard was the senior officer, he did -not exercise his authority until the battle was almost concluded. In -infantry Sir Arthur had the advantage, but Junot, while having but -13,000 men for the task he had undertaken, was considerably better off -in cavalry. One incident in particular relieves the sordid story of -the fight. In a charge made by the 71st and 92nd British regiments a -piper, who was wounded in the thigh, fell to the ground. He continued -to blow his pibroch, declaring that “the lads should nae want music -to their wark.” The day remained with the British, and had Wellesley -been allowed to pursue the French, probably Lisbon would have fallen. -It is said that when Wellesley heard Burrard’s order to abstain from -following the enemy, he remarked to his staff: “There is nothing left -for us, gentlemen, but to hunt red-legged partridges!” - -On the suggestion of Junot an armistice was agreed upon. This ended -in the ill-considered Convention of Cintra, signed on the 30th August -1808, whereby Portugal was relieved of 25,000 French invaders. The -troops were conveyed back to France by British ships. Junot was -disgraced in the eyes of the Emperor and received no further command -until the Russian campaign of 1812. His wife, when reviewing this -campaign, says with justice, “Everything which was not a triumph he -(Napoleon) regarded as a defeat.” As no clause was inserted in the -Convention to the effect that the troops should not serve again, it -is not difficult to understand why a popular outcry was raised in -Great Britain against the three generals. It soon became evident that -Wellesley did not merit the attacks made upon Dalrymple, Burrard, and -himself in the Press and elsewhere. An inquiry into the affair was -instituted by command of George III., and its finding was favourable to -the decision of the signatories of the Convention, but only Wellesley -saw active service again. The command in Portugal was given to Sir John -Moore, and meantime Sir Arthur took his seat in the House of Commons -and resumed his work as Irish Secretary, little thinking that in a few -months he would return to the South as Commander-in-Chief. - -A caricature by Woodward, published in February 1809, very ably sums up -British opinion of the affair. It can be understood by the following -humorous lines, in imitation of “The House that Jack Built”:-- - - These are the French who took the Gold - that lay in the City of Lisbon. - This is Sir Arthur (whose Valour and skill - began so well but ended so ill) who - beat the French who took the Gold that - lay in the City of Lisbon. - This is the _Convention_ that Nobody owns, - that saved old Junot’s Baggage and Bones, - altho’ Sir Arthur (whose Valour and skill - began so well but ended so ill,) had beaten - the French who took the Gold that lay in the - City of Lisbon. - This is John Bull, in great dismay, at the - sight of the Ships which carried away the - gold and silver and all the spoil the French - had plundered with so much toil after the - Convention which nobody owns, which saved - old Junot’s Baggage and Bones, altho’ Sir Arthur - (whose Valour and skill began so well but ended so ill) - had beaten the French who took the Gold - that lay in the City of Lisbon. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -Glory at Erfurt and Humiliation in Spain - -(1808-1809) - - -The cloud of misfortune which overshadowed the French armies in Spain -and Portugal gradually grew in size and density until it covered -practically the whole of Europe. Encouraged by the success of the -insurgents in the Iberian Peninsula and the triumph of British arms in -Portugal, both Austria and Germany took courage and prepared to throw -off the yoke. In Austria a _landwehr_, or local militia, designed -to number 180,000 of the young men of the country, came into being; -in Prussia patriotic clubs sprang up on all hands, while such able -statesmen as Stein, who had been Minister of State for Trade, and -Scharnhorst, a skilful officer and organiser, worked nobly in the -interests of military reforms which were destined to bear much good -fruit in due course. - -Napoleon was more immediately concerned with the intentions of the -former Power. To a certain extent he had clipped the wings of the -Prussian eagle by forcing the King into an undertaking that for the -next ten years his army should not exceed 40,000 troops. This did not -prevent many civilians being quietly drafted into a reserve for future -service, or the formation of a school of thought with the highest -patriotic ideals. The Emperor’s policy was thoroughly sound. By still -holding the fortresses of Glogau, Stettin, and Küstrin, and reducing -the number of national troops to a minimum, the French troops which -had been kept in Prussia since the campaign of her humiliation were -set free for service in the South. Napoleon already knew of Austria’s -warlike disposition, and was even a little uncertain as to Russia. -Suspicion was mutual, and as he was about to set out for Spain to take -command of his troops, he thought it advisable to “sound” the temper of -his ally personally. - -It was arranged that the Emperor and the Czar should meet at the little -town of Erfurt towards the end of September 1808. No fewer than seventy -sovereigns and princes came to the meeting, including the Kings of -Saxony, Bavaria, Würtemberg, and Westphalia, the Grand Duke Constantine -of Russia, Prince William of Prussia, the Dukes of Saxe-Weimar, -Saxe-Gotha, and Holstein-Oldenburg, together with distinguished -marshals and courtiers. There were reviews, plays in the theatre acted -by the most talented artists in France--Talma having been promised -“a parterre full of kings”--and a stag-hunt on the battle-field of -Jena. Costly presents were exchanged, one of the Czar’s gifts being -a magnificent Persian horse, silvery grey in colour, which Napoleon -afterwards used by a strange coincidence in the battles of Vitebsk, -Smolensk, and Borodino during the Russian campaign. The animal also -accompanied him to Elba. - -This great diplomatic performance was magnificently staged. If less -dramatic than Tilsit, it was no less important. The festivities and -conferences between the Emperor and Alexander lasted seventeen days. -They parted on the 14th October, the anniversary of the great fight -which did so much to make Napoleon master of Prussia. The terms of -the Peace of Tilsit had not been kept too scrupulously by either -monarch, and when one is uncertain as to one’s own morality, a strong -suspicion is usually entertained as to that of others. Alexander had -not withdrawn his troops from the Danubian Provinces, which suggested -that he still had in view the partition of the Ottoman Empire, while -Napoleon, until his misfortunes in the Peninsula, had seen fit to -keep a large number of troops in Silesia. Spain and Portugal were -stepping-stones to the East as well as necessary acquisitions for the -enforcement of his Continental System, facts quite well comprehended -by the Czar of all the Russias. Napoleon, who was as well informed -concerning his ally’s weak spot, threw out suggestions for an -expedition to India, and consented to Finland, Moldavia, and Wallachia -being added to the Russian Empire. Alexander returned these courtesies -by approving of Napoleon’s recent moves regarding Naples, Tuscany, and -the Peninsula, and promised to lend his aid should Austria come to -blows with France. “We talked of the affairs of Turkey at Erfurt,” the -Emperor told Las Cases at St Helena. “Alexander was very desirous that -I should consent to his obtaining possession of Constantinople, but I -could never bring my mind to consent to it. It is the finest harbour -in the world, is placed in the finest situation, and is itself worth a -kingdom.” As a concession to Prussia, probably because of the Czar’s -wish, Silesia was to be returned to her former possessor. - -Chancellor Pasquier says of Napoleon at Erfurt that “On no other -occasion, perhaps, did the suppleness and craftiness of his Italian -spirit shine to more brilliant advantage.” Boutourlin avers that -notwithstanding these qualities Alexander felt that when the interests -of Napoleon were adversely affected the friendship would not last, -“that the grand crisis was approaching which was destined either -to consolidate the universal empire which the French Emperor was -endeavouring to establish on the Continent, or to break the chains -which retained so many Continental States under his rule.” - -Mention must be made of the interviews which took place at this time -between Napoleon and Wieland and Goethe, two of the greatest literary -geniuses which Germany has given to the republic of letters. Both poets -were fascinated by the magic personality of Napoleon, and both have -left us some record of their conversation with the man who at this -period was in very truth a ruler of kings. - -“I had been but a few minutes in the room,” Wieland says, “when -Napoleon crossed it to come to us. I was presented by the Duchess of -Weimar. He paid me some compliments in an affable tone, fixing his -eye piercingly upon me. Few men have appeared to me to possess, in -the same degree, the power of penetrating at a glance the thoughts -of others. I have never beheld anyone more calm, more simple, more -mild, or less ostentatious in appearance. Nothing about him indicated -the feeling of power in a great monarch. He spoke to me as an old -acquaintance would speak to an equal. What was more extraordinary on -his part, he conversed with me exclusively for an hour and a half, to -the great surprise of the assembly. He appeared to have no relish for -anything gay. In spite of the prepossessing amenity of his manners, -he seemed to me to be of bronze. Towards midnight I began to feel -that it was improper to detain him so long, and I took the liberty to -request permission to retire: ‘Go, then,’ said he in a friendly tone. -‘Good-night.’” - -The Emperor conferred the Cross of the Legion of Honour on Wieland, -a mark of Imperial favour which he likewise showed to Goethe. The -interview between Napoleon and the latter took place on the 2nd October -1808, in the presence of Talleyrand, Daru, Berthier, and Savary. -“You are a man!” he exclaimed, either in a burst of admiration or of -flattery, and then he asked the poet his age and particulars of his -work, adding that he had read “Werther” seven times and had taken the -volume to Egypt. “After various remarks, all very just,” says Goethe, -“he pointed out a passage, and asked me why I had written so, it was -contrary to nature. This opinion he developed in great clearness. I -listened calmly, and smilingly replied that I did not know whether the -objection had been made before; but that I found it perfectly just.... -The Emperor seemed satisfied and returned to the drama, criticising -it like a man who had studied the tragic stage with the attention of -a criminal judge, and who was keenly alive to the fault of the French -in departing from nature. He disapproved of all pieces in which Fate -played a part. ‘Those pieces belong to a dark epoch. Besides, what do -they mean by Fate? Politics are Fate!’” - -Even more interesting perhaps, because it so essentially reveals -Napoleon’s outlook on life, was a remark he made at a later meeting at -which both Wieland and Goethe were present. He wished the latter to -treat of the “Death of Cæsar.” “That,” he said, “should be the great -task of your life. In that tragedy you should show the world how much -Cæsar would have done for humanity, if only he had been allowed time -to carry out his great plans.” When we reflect on the events which -had immediately preceded this notable utterance, on the grandiose -schemes which were then being actively promulgated by the speaker for -the conquest of Europe and the advancement of his Empire of the West, -we can understand why Napoleon wished to woo this literary giant to -his cause. “Come to Paris,” Napoleon said in his abrupt, commanding -way, “I desire it of you. There you will find a wider circle for your -spirit of observation; there you will find enormous material for poetic -creations.” But it was not to be; Goethe had other wishes and ideals. -Had he acceded to the despot’s request the result would have been no -more felicitous than that which had attended Voltaire’s removal to the -Court of Frederick the Great. Goethe loved Prussia too well to desert -her, and while he admired Napoleon in some ways he did not admire him -in all. - -Peace with Great Britain was suggested by the two Emperors at Erfurt, -but England had far too much to lose to seriously entertain such an -overture. In his reply Canning made it perfectly clear that George -III. was not prepared to break faith with his Portuguese, Sicilian, -and Spanish allies. Both the King and his Minister fully realised the -nature of the undertaking upon which they had embarked, and having put -their hands to the plough there was to be no turning back. Their course -gave rise to many blunders abroad and many heartburnings at home, yet -they loyally followed the precept of the great man whose ashes were now -lying in Westminster Abbey. “England,” said Pitt in his last public -speech, “has saved herself by her exertions, and will, as I trust, save -Europe by her example.” - -We must now glance across the Pyrenees at the strife still going on -in the Peninsula. Had Sir John Moore secured the active and loyal -assistance of the people, as he clearly had a right to expect, all -might have been well with the cause of the allies. The preliminary -successes of the Spaniards, however, had made them over-confident, -and over-confidence is a sure prelude to disaster. Of all their many -mistakes most fatal was their preference for fighting with independent -corps, each under a Captain-General. Instead of joining together in the -common cause there was considerable rivalry and many misunderstandings -between the various forces. As a consequence when Napoleon, feeling -comparatively secure from Austrian menaces because of the Russian -alliance, determined to lead his armies in person, the Spaniards were -but ill organised. Their antagonist, on the contrary, soon had at his -disposal 300,000 trained soldiers divided into eight corps under his -most skilled generals. “In a few days,” the Emperor said before leaving -Paris, “I shall set out to place myself at the head of my army, and, -with the aid of God, crown at Madrid the King of Spain, and plant my -eagles on the towers of Lisbon.” The Spaniards could not muster at the -moment more than 76,000 men, and whereas their cavalry totalled 2000, -that of Napoleon was at least twenty times the number. A reserve of -nearly 60,000 Spaniards was gathering in the rear, but would not be -available for the first desperate onslaught, on the result of which so -much would depend. The British army of some 30,000 was, by a series of -misfortunes, in three divisions and unable to come up with any of the -Spanish armies, which were also separated. - -Napoleon began his movements and got into action while his opponents -were thinking of what was likely to happen. Blake’s ragged patriots -were scattered by Lefebvre early in November after having been defeated -at Tornosa and Reynosa. Soult defeated the army under the Count de -Belvidere at Burgos on the 10th November, the Spaniards suffering a -loss of 2000 men and 800 prisoners, as well as their ammunition and -stores. The town, after having been pillaged, became the Emperor’s -headquarters. On the 22nd of the same month Castaños’ forces, augmented -by the men under Palafox, and amounting in all to 43,000, were routed -by the 35,000 troops opposed to them by Lannes. After such a series of -defeats it was not difficult for the Emperor to push towards Madrid, -the outskirts of which he reached, after forcing the Somosierra Pass, -on the 2nd December. The inhabitants made some show of resistance, -but they were so badly organised as to preclude any possibility of -serious defensive measures. Wishing to spare the city from bombardment, -Napoleon sent a flag of truce, and a capitulation was speedily signed. - -A soldier who was present thus relates the entry of the French into -Madrid: “A heavy silence,” he says, “had succeeded that confusion -and uproar which had reigned within and without the walls of the -capital only the day before. The streets through which we entered -were deserted; and even in the market-place, the numerous shops of -the vendors of necessaries still remained shut. The water-carriers -were the only people of the town who had not interrupted their usual -avocations. They moved about uttering their cries with the nasal, -drawling tone, peculiar to their native mountains of Galicia, ‘_Quien -quiere agua?_’--Who wants water? No purchasers made their appearance; -the waterman muttered to himself sorrowfully, ‘_Dios que la da_,’--It -is God’s gift,--and cried again. - -“As we advanced into the heart of the city, we perceived groups of -Spaniards standing at the corner of a square, where they had formerly -been in the habit of assembling in great numbers. They stood muffled -in their capacious cloaks, regarding us with a sullen, dejected -aspect. Their national pride could scarcely let them credit that any -other than Spanish soldiers could have beaten Spaniards. If they -happened to perceive among our ranks a horse which had once belonged -to their cavalry, they soon distinguished him by his pace, and -awakening from their apathy, would whisper together: ‘_Este caballo es -Español_’--That’s a Spanish horse; as if they had discovered the sole -cause of our success.” - -On the 7th December 1808, Napoleon issued a proclamation which was -largely a fierce tirade against England and the English, whose armies -were to be chased from the Peninsula. In the constitution which he -framed for the nation he abolished the iniquitous Inquisition, and the -old feudal system which had held Spain in its shackles for so long, -reduced the number of monasteries and convents by two-thirds, improved -the customs, and endeavoured to institute reforms which would have -been beneficial. “It depends upon you,” the Emperor told the people, -“whether this moderate constitution which I offer you shall henceforth -be your law. Should all my efforts prove vain, and should you refuse -to justify my confidence, then nothing will remain for me but to treat -you as a conquered province and find a new throne for my brother. -In that case I shall myself assume the crown of Spain and teach the -ill-disposed to respect that crown, for God has given me the power and -the will to overcome all obstacles.” - -The concluding words are noteworthy. Napoleon now regarded himself as -little less than omnipotent. Impelled by the force of his own volition, -into a dangerous situation, he was to find it impossible to draw -back when the nations which he had treated with contempt felt that -self-confidence which alone made Leipzig and Waterloo possible. The -Peninsular War was indeed what Talleyrand prophesied, “the beginning of -the end.” - -After considerable hesitation, due to the varying and oftentimes -contradictory accounts which he received as to what was actually -happening in the field, Sir John Moore, having concentrated his troops, -cautiously began to close upon Soult’s army on the banks of the river -Carrion. When Napoleon heard of this he speedily decided to crush the -friends of Spain and Portugal by sheer force of numbers, God, according -to him, being “on the side of the biggest battalions,” a parallel -remark to Nelson’s “Only numbers can annihilate.” Winter had set in -with severity, but disregarding the inclemency of the weather, the -Emperor marched with his 40,000 men along the Guadarrama Pass through -the blinding sleet, traversing no fewer than twenty miles a day for ten -days. Meanwhile Moore had given up hope of attacking and had decided -to retreat as rapidly as possible. Unfortunately his troops did not -follow the example of their noble commander; they broke away from -every restraint, drinking and pillaging whenever they had opportunity. -It is only just to add, however, that at Lugo, when there seemed an -opportunity to contest Soult, who was following in their track, they -stood to arms with a confidence and precision worthy of the best -disciplined regiment in the British service. Lord Paget’s corps, which -covered the retreat, behaved with conspicuous bravery, and succeeded in -worsting some of the chasseurs, the “Invincibles” of the French army. - -“Before our reserve left Lugo,” writes a soldier of the 75th Regiment -who endured the hardships of this terrible retreat, “general -orders were issued, warning and exhorting us to keep order, and to -march together; but, alas! how could men observe order amidst such -sufferings, or men whose feet were naked and sore, keep up with men -who, being more fortunate, had better shoes and stronger constitutions? -The officers in many points, suffered almost as much as the men. I have -seen officers of the Guards, and others, worth thousands, with pieces -of old blanket wrapped round their feet and legs; the men pointing at -them, with a malicious satisfaction, saying ‘There goes three thousand -a year’; or ‘There goes the prodigal son, on his return to his father, -cured of his wanderings.’” - -On the 11th January 1809, Coruña was reached, and several days -afterwards the welcome sails of the British troop-ships made their -appearance, ready to convey the survivors of the battle to be fought -on the 16th to England and to home. Soult had the advantage of 4000 -more troops and of a better position, but lacked ammunition, while the -British general had been able to obtain a supply of new muskets from -the vessels which rode at anchor in the Bay. - -It was round the little village of Elvina that the fight raged most -fiercely, for a French battery of eleven guns was placed on a ridge not -more than 600 yards off, and from this commanding position shells were -hurled at the British defenders with ruthless fury. Elvina was taken -by the French and re-captured by the gallantry of Charles Napier, who -led the fearless Irishmen of the 50th regiment. He then endeavoured to -secure the French battery, but without success, and during the charge -he was wounded and made prisoner. - -“My brave 42nd,” cried Moore, when the enemy was again advancing on the -village, “if you have fired away all your ammunition, you have still -your bayonets. Recollect Egypt! Remember Scotland! Come on, my brave -countrymen!” - -“Sir John,” according to an eye-witness, “was at the head of every -charge.” Indeed, he had several narrow escapes before he received his -death-wound. He was talking to Napier when, records the latter, “a -round shot struck the ground between his horse’s feet and mine. The -horse leaped round, and I also turned mechanically, but Moore forced -the animal back, and asked me if I was hurt. ‘No, sir.’ Meanwhile a -second shot had torn off the leg of a 42nd man, who screamed horribly -and rolled about so as to excite agitation and alarm in others. The -General said, ‘This is nothing, my lads; keep your ranks. My good -fellow, don’t make such a noise; we must bear these things better.’ He -spoke sharply, but it had a good effect, for this man’s cries had made -an opening in the ranks, and the men shrank from the spot, although -they had not done so when others had been hit who did not cry out. But -again Moore went off, and I saw him no more.” - -Sir John was struck by a cannon-ball which tore his flesh in several -places and precluded all possibility of recovery. “I hope the people of -England will be satisfied: I hope my country will do me justice,” were -the noble words which passed his parched lips as he lay dying on the -field of victory. - - “We buried him darkly at dead of night, - The sods with our bayonets turning; - By the struggling moonbeam’s misty light, - And the lantern dimly burning.” - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -The Austrian Campaign - -(1809) - - -On a certain memorable occasion, Walpole is said to have made the -remark, “They are ringing the bells now; they will be wringing their -hands soon!” with reference to a universal outcry for war on the part -of Great Britain. Had it been uttered by an Austrian statesman at the -beginning of 1809, it would have been equally apposite. Thinking men -recognised that the army was not yet prepared to meet Napoleon, despite -the fact that since the Austerlitz campaign of 1805 the improvement of -her military forces had engrossed the attention of Archduke Charles, -the Commander-in-chief. He was convinced that his troops were not ready -to take the field, and he led the peace party solely on this account. -The war party, however, headed by Count Stadion, the able and energetic -Minister of Foreign Affairs, and aided by the Empress, who had -considerable influence over her august husband, proved more powerful. -Its supporters felt confident that as the war in Spain necessarily -occupied so much of Napoleon’s attention, and had drawn off such a -large proportion of his troops, the time to strike was come. Austrian -diplomatists had vainly endeavoured to woo both Russia and Prussia -without success; the Czar had no wish at that moment to break with his -ally; Frederick William trembled for his throne. - -In January 1809, war was imminent. Napoleon, deceived as to the real -state of affairs in Spain, set out on his return journey to France -on the 16th. He at once began to organise his forces, Berthier being -placed in command until the Emperor’s arrival at the seat of war. -Napoleon’s explicit instructions were as follows:-- - -“By the 1st April the corps of Marshal Davout, which broke up from the -Oder and Lower Elbe on the 17th March, will be established between -Nuremberg, Bamberg, and Baireuth: Masséna will be around Ulm: Oudinot -between Augsburg and Donauwörth. From the 1st to the 15th, three French -corps, 130,000 strong, besides 10,000 allies, the Bavarians in advance -on the Iser, and the Würtembergers in reserve, may be concentrated on -the Danube at Ratisbon or Ingolstadt. Strong _têtes-de-pont_ should be -thrown up at Augsburg, to secure the passage of the Lech at Ingolstadt, -in order to be able to debouch to the left bank of the Danube; and -above all at Passau, which should be able to hold out two or three -months. The Emperor’s object is to concentrate his army as soon as -possible at Ratisbon: the position on the Lech is to be assumed only -if it is attacked before the concentration at the former town is -possible. The second corps will be at Ratisbon by the 10th, and on that -day Bessières will also arrive with the reserve cavalry of the Guard: -Davout will be at Nuremberg: Masséna at Augsburg: Lefebvre at one or -two marches from Ratisbon. Headquarters then may be safely established -in that town, in the midst of 200,000 men, guarding the right bank of -the Danube from Ratisbon to Passau, by means of which stream provisions -and supplies of every sort will be procured in abundance. Should the -Austrians debouch from Bohemia or Ratisbon, Davout and Lefebvre should -fall back on Ingolstadt or Donauwörth.” - -On the 9th April, when hostilities began, the strength of Napoleon’s -forces was as follows:--His newly-named Army of Germany, on the -Danube, numbered 174,000 troops, including some 54,000 of the Rhenish -Confederacy; the Army of Italy consisted of 68,000; in Saxony there -were about 20,000; in Poland 19,000; in Dalmatia 10,500. Consequently -the Emperor had 291,500 troops at his disposal, some 275,000 of whom -were ready to confront Austria by the middle of the month. This is an -enormous number when it is remembered that he was still at war with -Spain, where 300,000 men were engaged, but he had had recourse to his -old plan of forestalling the conscription, whereby he had obtained -80,000 recruits. - -The Austrian forces were divided into three armies: that of Germany, -under Archduke Charles, consisting of 189,684 troops; of Italy, under -Archduke John, totalling 64,768, including those for action in Tyrol -under Chasteler; and of Galicia, under Archduke Ferdinand, with 35,400; -in all 289,852. The Reserves, made up of the _landwehr_ and _levées en -masse_ reached 244,247, but as Mr F. Loraine Petre points out in his -masterly study of this campaign, only some 15,000 of the _landwehr_ -were used with the active army at the beginning of hostilities. -“There was little of the spirit of war in the _landwehr_,” he adds, -“and discipline was very bad. One battalion attacked and wounded its -chief with the bayonet. Two others refused to march. Eleven Bohemian -battalions could only be got to march when regular troops were added -to them. Even then they only averaged about 500 men each, and those -badly equipped and armed.” But while this organisation was of little -practical service at the moment, it was creating a healthy public -opinion which could not fail to be beneficial in the years to come. - -Already Napoleon’s military glory was beginning to decline. In some of -his principles he “became false to himself,” he omitted to make his -orders to his subordinates sufficiently clear, and on one occasion, -in the early stage of the campaign, threw away “chances of a decisive -battle which would then probably have made an end of the war.” He also -exhibited the utmost contempt for a country which “had profited by the -lessons he had taught her,” with the result that “her armies, and her -commander-in-chief, were very different from the troops and leaders of -1796 and 1805,” when he had crossed swords with Austria. - -Yet another failing is pointed out by Mr Petre. “Napoleon’s wonderful -successes in every previous campaign,” he notes, “and the height to -which his power had risen, by the practical subjugation of all Europe -to his dominion, tended to fan the flame of his pride, to make him deem -himself invincible and infallible, to cause him to assume that what he -desired was certain to happen. The wish now began to be father to the -thought. Of this we shall find numerous instances in this campaign, the -most notable, perhaps, being when, notwithstanding Davout’s positive -assertions that the greater part of the Austrian army was in front -of himself, the Emperor persisted in believing that Charles was in -full retreat on Vienna by the right bank of the Danube. His constant -over-estimates of his own forces, not in bulletins but in letters to -his generals and ministers, are other examples of this failing.” - -The campaign opened in Bavaria, where 176,000 Austrians assembled early -in April 1809. Berthier, doubtless acting for the best as he conceived -it, instead of concentrating at Ratisbon, Ingolstadt or Donauwörth -according to orders, had seen fit to scatter his forces, “in the -dangerous view,” as Alison puts it, “of stopping the advance of the -Austrians at all points.” As a result of Berthier’s blunder Davout at -Ratisbon and Masséna at Augsburg were thirty-five leagues from each -other, and Archduke Charles with 100,000 troops were interposed between -them. About Ingolstadt were the Bavarians under Wrede, Lefebvre, and -the reserve under Oudinot, the only forces available to oppose the -Austrians, whose march, fortunately for the French, was extremely slow. - -The Emperor arrived at Donauwörth on the 17th April, and at once saw -the danger. “What you have done appears so strange,” he wrote to -Berthier, “that if I was not aware of your friendship I should think -you were betraying me; Davout is at this moment more completely at the -disposal of the Archduke than of myself.” - -It was Napoleon’s task to bring the two armies in touch with each other -so that a combined movement might become possible. “One word will -explain to you the urgency of affairs,” the Emperor wrote to Masséna -on the 18th. “Archduke Charles, with 80,000 men, debouched yesterday -from Landshut on Ratisbon; the Bavarians contended the whole day with -the advanced guard. Orders have been dispatched to Davout to move -with 60,000 troops in the direction of Neustadt, where he will form -a junction with the Bavarians. To-morrow (19th) all your troops who -can be mustered at Pfaffenhofen, with the Würtembergers, a division of -cuirassiers, and every man you can collect, should be in a condition -to fall on the rear of Archduke Charles. A single glance must show -you that never was more pressing occasion for diligence and activity -than at present. With 60,000 good troops, Davout may indeed make head -against the Archduke; but I consider him ruined without resource, if -Oudinot and your three divisions are on his rear before daybreak on -the 19th, and you inspire the soldiers with all they should feel on so -momentous an occasion. Everything leads us to the belief that between -the 18th, 19th, and 20th, all the affairs of Germany will be decided.” - -On the 19th Davout withdrew from Ratisbon, leaving only the 65th French -infantry to guard the bridge over the Danube, and after a severe but -indecisive action at Haussen, reached Abensberg in the evening, thereby -effecting his junction with Lefebvre. At Pfaffenhofen Masséna defeated -a body of the enemy and remained there. Archduke Charles had foolishly -divided his army, and while he was marching on Ratisbon, Archduke -Louis and Hiller, with 42,000 troops forming the Austrian left wing, -were brought to action at Abensberg by Napoleon on the 20th. The day -remained with the French, who numbered 55,000, their enemies losing -over 2700 killed and wounded, and some 4000 prisoners. According to -Mr Petre, about 25,000 soldiers only on either side came into action. -The defeated Austrians retreated in the direction of Landshut, several -of the energetic Bavarian battalions following them. After a spirited -fight, during which ammunition ran out and many men were killed and -wounded, the solitary regiment which held Ratisbon was forced to -surrender on the same day, half the troops of the 65th being taken -prisoners. - -On the morning of the 21st Napoleon renewed the battle against the -Austrian left. About 9000 men were added to the enemy’s already -extensive losses, and it had the desired effect of preventing them from -joining the main army. Davout and Lefebvre also engaged the Austrian -centre, which retreated, leaving many wounded and dead on the field. - -The Emperor was now ready to give attention to Archduke Charles who, -with 74,000 troops, was bent on destroying Davout. The French Marshal -was in a tight corner, the Austrian main army being opposed to him, -and not to Napoleon, as the Emperor had supposed on the morning of -Abensberg. As we have seen, it was only the left wing which he had -defeated on the 20th. - -When the Archduke heard that Napoleon was on his track he abandoned -the idea of attacking Davout and made his dispositions to meet the -Emperor. Immediately they came up, the bridge, village, and château of -Eckmühl were captured by the French. The heights were stormed in truly -magnificent style, and a brave attempt was made by the Bavarian cavalry -to capture the enemy’s battery on the Bettelberg, which was doing -considerable execution. They were driven back, but an hour later a -French cuirassier regiment captured the greater part of the guns, with -the result that Rosenberg, the commander of the fourth Austrian army -corps, was forced to retreat. The Emperor then ordered the cavalry and -infantry to pursue the unfortunate Imperialists, who broke away almost -in a panic. - -It now became evident that a general retreat was necessary, the -Austrian left wing making in the direction of the river Isar, the main -army, after a further sharp conflict with the enemy, reaching the -Danube, the idea being to retire into the forests of Bohemia. It is -calculated that nearly 10,000 Austrians were killed, wounded, or taken -prisoners on this terrible day. - -At St Helena, where, like the old soldiers in Chelsea Hospital, -Napoleon so often “fought his battles o’er again,” he frequently -referred to the battle of Eckmühl. On one occasion he called it “that -superb manœuvre, the finest that I ever executed,” attributing its -indecisiveness to his lack of sleep on the previous night. - -Under cover of night, and during the early hours of the morning of the -23rd, the cumbersome baggage of the Imperialists was hurried across the -bridge which spans the Danube at Ratisbon. This was followed by the -retreat of part of the army over a pontoon bridge hastily put together, -the Austrian rear-guard protecting the necessarily slow and somewhat -difficult passage. Nine battalions only remained on the right bank of -the river when Napoleon was making his final preparations to take the -walled town of Ratisbon by assault. Fighting had already begun near the -town. Ladders were secured, and the intrepid Lannes was soon within the -old-time fortress, which speedily capitulated. - -In his “Incident of the French Camp” Browning has sung of a lad who -took part in the storming. He depicts Napoleon standing on a little -mound - - “With neck out-thrust, you fancy how, - Legs wide, arms locked behind, - As if to balance the prone brow - Oppressive with its mind.” - -The Emperor soliloquises that if Lannes “waver at yonder wall” his -plans may miscarry, when-- - - “Out ’twixt the battery-smokes there flew - A rider, bound on bound - Full-galloping; nor bridle drew - Until he reached the mound. - - “Then off there flung in smiling joy, - And held himself erect - By just his horse’s mane, a boy: - You hardly could suspect-- - (So tight he kept his lips compressed, - Scarce any blood came through) - You looked twice ere you saw his breast - Was all but shot in two. - - “‘Well,’ cried he, ‘Emperor, by God’s grace - We’ve got you Ratisbon! - The Marshal’s in the market-place, - And you’ll be there anon - To see your flag-bird flap his vans - Where I, to heart’s desire, - Perched him!’” - -Napoleon’s eye flashed with the pride of victory, but presently: - - “Softened itself, as sheathes - A film the mother-eagle’s eye - When her bruised eaglet breathes; - ‘You’re wounded!’ ‘Nay,’ the soldier’s pride - Touched to the quick, he said: - ‘I’m killed, Sire!’ And his chief beside - Smiling the boy fell dead.” - -The Emperor himself was slightly wounded while directing operations. -A spent musket-ball struck his right foot and caused him considerable -pain. “Ah! I am hit,” he remarked quietly, adding with grim humour, -“It must have been a Tyrolese marksman to have struck me at such a -distance. Those fellows fire with wonderful precision.” The matter -soon got noised abroad; the news was passed from rank to rank that the -“little Corporal” was wounded. Anxiety was evident in almost every -face. Men who had seen many a comrade struck down and had not so much -as moved a muscle of their features took on a look of care and of pain -until reassured that the Emperor’s injury was a mere contusion. A -louder cheer was never raised during the whole of his career, than when -Napoleon rode along the lines a little later. Not till then were “his -children” convinced of his safety. - -Thus ended what has been called the Campaign of Ratisbon, during -the five days of which, according to Major-General August Keim, -the Imperialists lost nearly 40,000 troops in killed, wounded, and -prisoners. Truly a prodigious number and eloquent proof of the valour -and energy of their opponents. - -There was now nothing to prevent Napoleon from presenting himself -before Vienna, but while his troops, flushed with success, were -marching towards that picturesque city, their leader heard grave and -disquieting news. The Bavarians under Wrede had been defeated on -the 24th April by the retreating Austrians+ under Hiller, who was -endeavouring to come up with Archduke Charles. Bessières had also been -forced to retire. In addition Prince Eugène and the army of Italy had -met with disaster at the hands of Archduke John at Sacile eight days -before, and had not an immediate concentration of the various Austrian -armies become essential for the defence of Vienna the consequences must -have been serious. - -Marshal Macdonald points out in his “Recollections” that a defeat in -Italy was of secondary importance; the decisive point was Germany. -There is, however, a moral point of view to be taken into consideration -in warfare, to which he also draws attention. “It might have a bad -effect,” he says, “upon the Italian mind, already prejudiced against -us, kept under as they were, but not conquered; and upon that of the -Germans and their armies, although they had been so often beaten, and -their territory so often invaded by us. But they were like the teeth of -Cadmus; no sooner was one army destroyed than another came to take its -place. They seemed to rise out of the ground.” Napoleon was aware that -the Tyrolese had broken out in revolt, and that similar movements were -expected in other places. - -It is unnecessary to follow all the Emperor’s movements on his march -to the Imperial city. Bessières, with comparatively few troops at his -disposal, came in conflict with a much larger force under Hiller, and -was repulsed. The Marshal somewhat retrieved this mishap by crossing -the Inn at Passau, where he took several hundred prisoners. These -“affairs” were but skirmishes to the battle of Ebelsberg (sometimes -spelt Ebersberg) on the 3rd May 1809 between General Hiller and the -French vanguard under the impetuous Masséna, at which Napoleon was -not present. Hiller had taken up his position at Ebelsberg, crossing -the long wooden bridge over the turbulent Traun, a tributary of the -Danube, to which admittance was only gained by an extremely narrow -gateway beneath a tower, while the whole structure was at the mercy -of the guns in and near the castle on the heights above. For purposes -of defence the situation approached the ideal, the only thing needed -being a skilful commander. The day proved that the Austrian general -was lacking in nearly all the qualities possessed by the French -officers who opposed him, and was unworthy the men who fought in the -ranks. A desperate struggle led by the fearless Coehorn took place on -the bridge; men were flung into the surging waters below, while the -Austrian artillerymen, perhaps not knowing that many Austrians were -on the frail structure, fired at the combatants on the bridge with -disastrous results to their own side. To make matters worse several -ammunition waggons blew up. It was a repetition of the scene on the -Bridge of Lodi, only the carnage was more terrible. Once across, the -castle became the next objective of the French, but it was not captured -until many a gallant soldier had lost his life in a hand-to-hand -struggle in the town below. Hitherto only a comparatively small number -of Masséna’s troops had maintained the fight, but the Marshal now -hurried fresh men across the bridge to support those engaged with the -enemy. Gradually the men fought their way to the castle, and Mr Petre -tells us that of one regiment which appeared before it, Colonel Pouget, -who commanded, alone escaped without a wound. - -“The entrance to the castle,” Mr Petre writes, “was by a vaulted -archway open at the outer end, but closed by a strong wooden gate at -the inner end. Above was a window, closely barred with iron and with -loopholes on either side. From all of these there poured a heavy fire, -especially from the grated window. The losses of the besiegers, as they -stood and returned the fire from the exposed space between the archway -and the mouth of the hollow road, were fearful. Men crowded up to take -part in the fight, which was directed by Pouget from the angle of the -archway, whence he could both see his own men and the grated window. -The French infantry fired as quickly as they could; some even used the -dead bodies of their comrades to raise them more on to a level with the -window. Then Pouget sent for a well-known sportsman, Lieutenant Guyot, -who, taking post within five yards of the window, poured in shots as -fast as loaded muskets could be handed to him by the soldiers. Other -picked marksmen joined him, and, at last, the Austrian fire began to -fail. Sappers had now arrived and were at work breaking in the thick -gate. - -“In the enthusiasm of the fight Colonel Baudinot and Sub-Lieutenant -Gérard of the 2nd battalion had managed to get forward, though most -of their battalion was blocked in the narrow road behind. These two -intrepid men, followed by a few others as brave as themselves, managed -to find a way by the cellar ventilators, whence they got into the -castle. Between Gérard and a grenadier of the garrison, who entered -a room on the first floor simultaneously, there was a desperate -encounter, which was not interfered with by the entrance of a third -visitor in the shape of an Austrian round shot. Just at this moment the -gate was broken in, and the garrison, including, presumably, Gérard’s -grenadier, very soon surrendered as prisoners of war.” - -Surely no more thrilling adventure than this is to be found in any -story book? And yet it is but one of many that might be related of this -campaign alone, could this volume be extended beyond the present limits. - -But the storming of the castle of Ebelsberg was not yet over. The -burning town had been cleared of the Imperialists, who were now pouring -a veritable hail of shot on the besiegers from the surrounding -heights, and their situation was perilous in the extreme, cut off as -they were from their friends and surrounded only by their foes. Why the -Austrians should have begun to retreat when such an opportunity was -offered them to annihilate the enemy is beyond comprehension. Such was -the case, and they hastened towards Enns, leaving two thousand killed -and wounded, and over that number of prisoners. The French also lost -very heavily. Late in the afternoon Napoleon came up, and in company -with Savary, entered the town. He was by no means pleased with the -terrible sights which met him on all sides, and bitterly lamented the -heavy losses which his troops had suffered. Savary states that the -Emperor remarked: “It were well if all promoters of wars could behold -such an appalling picture. They would then discover how much evil -humanity has to suffer from their projects.” If he did thus speak, it -shows how blinded he had become by his own egotism; for Napoleon had -certainly forced the war on unhappy Austria, now sorely discomfited by -the turn events had taken. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - -The Austrian Campaign--_continued_ - -(1809) - - -On the 10th May 1809, the French were before Vienna, and preparations -were made for a vigorous attack. Late in the evening of the 11th the -Emperor’s artillerymen began to hurl shells into the city, which was -but ill-defended by Archduke Maximilian, who thought too much of his -own skin to be of any considerable service, and speedily retired with -his troops from the capital. Within forty-eight hours of the first -shot being fired many of the French troops were in Vienna, the Emperor -taking up his quarters in the palace of Schönbrünn near by. - -Here he issued a decree annexing Rome, to which Pius VII. retorted with -a Bull of excommunication. Napoleon, always an admirer of Charlemagne, -referred to that monarch as “our august predecessor.” He had already -hinted that the Pope should be no more than Bishop of Rome, as was the -case under the rule of the founder of the Empire of the West. Several -weeks later the Holy Father was escorted from the Quirinal to Avignon, -and thence to Savona, in which quiet retreat the Emperor hoped he would -come to his senses, in other words, to Napoleon’s way of thinking. This -is exactly what the aged and determined Pontiff did not do, however. He -preferred to remain virtually a prisoner and to pray for the recovery -of his temporal kingdom rather than to submit to the dictatorship of -the Emperor. The latter did not see fit to relent until 1814, the Pope -then being at Fontainebleau. He offered to restore a portion of his -states, but Pius VII. refused to discuss any terms except from Rome, to -which city he returned on the Emperor’s abdication. - -Decisive victory over his Austrian foes had yet to be gained by -Napoleon, and while Hillier was slowly endeavouring to unite with -Archduke Charles on the left bank of the Danube, the Emperor was laying -his well-conceived plans before his generals. - -The following interesting anecdote is related of this campaign. -It shows how a raw recruit may become imbued with a keen sense of -responsibility after spending a few months in the ranks. - -A sentinel, Jean Baptiste Coluche, was stationed by two paths near the -Emperor’s temporary headquarters on a certain night. He had been told -to allow no one to pass, so when his quick ears detected a scrunch on -the gravel some distance away, he carried out his instructions without -question. Jean shouted to the intruder to stop. No notice was taken; -the heavy, measured steps drew nearer. Again he repeated his summons, -and bringing his carbine to his shoulder, prepared to fire. At that -moment the outline of a dark and unmistakable figure approached. It was -the Emperor himself. When the guard, alarmed by the cries, came up to -render assistance, they set to chaffing Coluche, but the only reply of -the peasant conscript was: “I’ve carried out my orders.” - -This was by no means the only occasion on which the Emperor appeared -when least expected, and he was wont to reward the soldier whom he -found on the _qui vive_ under such circumstances. It was not so with -the faithful Coluche. But in 1814 the much-coveted Cross of the Legion -of Honour was pinned on his breast for his heroism at the battle of -Arcis-sur-Aube, when the man whom he had ordered to halt before the -walls of Vienna was forced to beat a retreat. - -Bourrienne relates another interesting anecdote told to him by Rapp, -the Emperor’s aide-de-camp during the Austrian campaign. It concerns -“one of those striking remarks of Napoleon,” to quote Bourrienne, -“which, when his words are compared with the events that follow them, -would almost appear to indicate a foresight of his future destiny. -The Emperor, when within a few day’s march of Vienna, procured a -guide to explain to him the names of every village, or ruin, however -insignificant, that presented itself on his road. The guide pointed to -an eminence, on which were still visible a few remaining vestiges of -an old fortified castle. ‘Those,’ said the guide, ‘are the ruins of -the castle of Diernstein.’ Napoleon suddenly stopped, and remained for -some time silently contemplating the ruins, then turning to Marshal -Lannes, who was with him, he said: ‘See! yonder is the prison of -Richard Cœur de Lion. He, too, like us, went to Syria and Palestine. -But Cœur de Lion, my brave Lannes, was not more brave than you. He was -more fortunate than I at St Jean d’Acre. A duke of Austria sold him to -an emperor of Germany, who shut him up in yonder castle. Those were -the days of barbarism. How different the civilisation of our times! -The world has seen how I treated the Emperor of Austria, whom I might -have imprisoned--and I would treat him so again. I take no credit to -myself for this. In the present age crowned heads must be respected. A -conqueror imprisoned!’” and yet that is exactly what happened to the -speaker but a few years later. - -At last Archduke Charles and Hillier joined forces on the Marchfeld, -intent on regaining the lost capital. Napoleon had made up his mind -to fight in the very camp of the enemy by crossing the Danube. For -this purpose he built a succession of bridges consisting of boats and -pontoons from Ebersdorf to the three islands in the river, and linked -the last and largest of these, that of Lobau, to the opposite bank. - -The first troops to cross occupied the stone-built villages of Aspern -and Essling, which served somewhat as fortified places. The French -found themselves confronted by quite double the number of Imperialists. -Both villages were attacked with feverish energy, the assault on Aspern -being the more severe. It was ably defended by Masséna, while Lannes at -Essling fought as he had never done before. When night fell, the latter -still successfully defied the Austrians, while the white coats, after -making repeated unsuccessful attempts to capture Aspern, had effected -a lodgment in the church and the graveyard. This was partly due to -the energy of Archduke Charles, who led the last attack of the day in -person. - -Good use was made of the succeeding night by Napoleon. He hurried -over as many troops as possible to the bank of the Danube occupied by -the Imperialists, a necessarily slow process owing to the frequent -breaches made in the temporary bridges by obstructions floated down -the rapidly-rising river by the Austrians. These difficulties taxed -the resources of the engineers, but they stuck manfully to their task, -while the troops cared little if the pontoons were under water provided -they could reach the opposite bank. Early on the 22nd May there were -63,000 troops ready to advance against the Imperialists who, not having -been called upon to labour so arduously through the night as the French -had done, were considerably fresher for the day’s work. Fighting at -Aspern and Essling had been resumed long since, if indeed it had left -off, the first charge of the day being against the Austrian centre by -Lannes. The French battalions sustained a raking fire from the enemy’s -artillery, some of whose infantry, however, soon showed such signs -of weakness that Archduke Charles, as on the day before, caught up a -standard and shouted to the grenadiers to follow him. They did so to -such good purpose that further progress of the French infantry was -impossible. Nor did their comrades of the cavalry, sent to their relief -under Bessières, fare better. According to some accounts, when victory -seemed almost in the grasp of Napoleon’s men, the Austrians were -reinforced in the nick of time and Bessières compelled to retire. - -Other disasters of an even more serious nature were in store for the -French. The bridge between the right bank and the island of Lobau was -severed, thus cutting off all connection with the Emperor’s troops and -those fighting against the Austrians. - -Meanwhile the Archduke took advantage of his enemy’s discomfiture by -attacking the two villages which had figured so prominently in the -contest of the previous day with greater energy than ever. Still the -French fought on. Many a brave man fell in the desperate struggle, -which finally resulted in Aspern being held by the Austrians and the -French retaining Essling. The gallant Lannes had both his knees almost -carried away by a shot when the battle was beginning to slacken. He had -defended Essling with all his native genius and the most consummate -bravery, amply retrieving his somewhat inglorious doings in the Spanish -Campaign. The Emperor frequently visited the stricken Marshal, who -shortly before he passed away feebly murmured: “Another hour and your -Majesty will have lost one of your most zealous and faithful friends.” -This was on the last day of May, 1809, and the master whom he had -served so well wrote to Josephine in words which show how keenly he -appreciated the fallen warrior: “The loss of the Duke of Montebello, -who died this morning, deeply affects me. Thus all things end. -Adieu, my love. If you can contribute to the consolation of the poor -Marchioness, do it.” At St Helena the fallen King-maker said, “I found -Lannes a dwarf, but I made him a giant!” - -On the following day (the 23rd), the bridge being now repaired, the -French retired to well-wooded Lobau, soon to be re-named the Ile -Napoléon. The honours of the fight remained with the Austrians; the -great Napoleon had been defeated! True to his creed, the Emperor -announced a victory, “since we remain masters of the field of battle,” -and admitted simply that the fight had been “severe,” in which latter -contention he was indisputably correct. Success or failure, it proved -to his enemies that either Napoleon’s genius for war was failing or -that he had undertaken more than he could carry out. This disaster, -added to those which had occurred in the Peninsula, was regarded as -proof positive in certain quarters that Napoleon’s star was setting. -They took little account of the fact that the French forces had been -greatly outnumbered both in men and munitions of war, remembering only -that they had retreated. Beaten many times before, a defeat or two more -did not affect the prestige of the Imperialists, but for the hitherto -invincible warrior no excuse was found. - -Encouraged by the French reverse, an alliance between Austria and -Prussia was now mooted, but Frederick William showed his usual -indecision, and consequently the negotiations collapsed, to the great -disappointment of the Emperor Francis’s hope of an almost unanimous -rising in Germany. - -Had the King of Prussia possessed some of the pluck displayed by -several officers who had served in his army, and now attempted to raise -the standard of revolt against Napoleon in Westphalia and Saxony, -Frederick William III. would have been a less sorry figure in the -history of his country. For instance, Baron von Dörnberg headed a -campaign against the unpopular King Jerome, while Major Frederick von -Schill, after attempting to capture Wittenberg and Magdeburg, laid down -his life for the national cause in the assault on Stralsund. Neither -of these soldiers of fortune accomplished anything of importance, -mainly because the means at their disposal were abnormally small, but -they displayed a spirit of true patriotism. Duke Frederick William -of Brunswick-Oels succeeded in occupying Dresden and Leipzig and in -forcing Jerome to retreat, but in the end the enthusiastic volunteer -and his Black Band were compelled to seek refuge on British ships and -sail for England. - -For seven weeks after the battle of Aspern the two armies prepared -for the next contest, but in expedition and thoroughness Napoleon far -outstripped his opponents. If occasional fighting sometimes occurred it -was usually no more than an affair of outposts. Both sides were far too -busily engaged in repairing their misfortunes, securing reinforcements -and additional supplies, to waste men and ammunition in conflicts -which could not be other than indecisive. Napoleon took good care to -see that the new bridges were more solidly constructed than those which -had contributed so much to his defeat. Not only were his arrangements -for their protection more complete, but gunboats were stationed -in suitable positions for their defence. Lobau was entrenched and -fortified; nothing was to be left to chance on the next occasion. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI - -The War in Poland and Tyrol - -(1809) - - -At the beginning of July Napoleon’s movements showed that a battle was -imminent. By means of feints he succeeded in making the enemy believe -that his plan was similar to that which had obtained at the battle -of Aspern. Thus while the Austrians were occupying their attention -with the bridge of Aspern, Napoleon’s forces were crossing by movable -bridges lower down the river, near Enzersdorf. This was accomplished -during a tremendous thunderstorm, the rain soaking the poor fellows to -the skin. On the 5th July the greater part of the troops now at his -disposal was ready for action, including those of Prince Eugène. The -Emperor’s step-son, successful against Archduke John at the battle of -Raab on the 14th June--the anniversary of Marengo--had joined forces -with Napoleon; his opponent was hastening to the assistance of Archduke -Charles. Marmont and Macdonald, after desultory fighting, also arrived -at Lobau. The French army now outnumbered its opponents by 30,000 men. - -The battle of Wagram began on the 5th July, but the issue was not -determined until the following day. Macdonald, who played a prominent -part in the fighting, as will be narrated, thus describes it in a -private letter:-- - -“The crossing of the Danube [on the 4th and 5th July] was a masterpiece -of prodigious genius, and it was reserved for the Emperor to conceive, -create, and carry it out. It was performed in presence of an army of -over 180,000 men.[2] The enemy expected the attempt to be made at -the same point as that of May 21st.[3] They had prepared tremendous -entrenchments, and had brought up a formidable body of artillery; but, -to their great surprise, they suddenly saw us attack their left flank -and turn all the lines of their redoubts. We drove them back three -leagues, and when, next day, they tried conclusions with us, they lost -the game. - - [2] In reality about 140,000. - - [3] First day of the battle of Aspern. - -“Never, sir, had two armies a mightier force of artillery, never -was battle fought more obstinately. Picture to yourself 1,000 or -1,200 pieces of artillery vomiting forth death upon nearly 350,000 -combatants, and you will have an idea of what this hotly-disputed field -of battle was like. The enemy, posted upon the heights, entrenched -to the teeth in all the villages, formed a sort of crescent, or -horse-shoe. The Emperor did not hesitate to enter into the midst of -them, and to take up a parallel position. - -“His Majesty did me the honour of giving me the command of a corps, -with orders to break through the enemy’s centre. I, fortunately, -succeeded, notwithstanding the fire of a hundred guns, masses of -infantry, and charges of cavalry, led by the Archduke Charles in -person. His infantry would never cross bayonets with mine, nor would -his cavalry wait till mine came up; the Uhlans alone made a stand, and -they were scattered. - -“I pursued the enemy closely with bayonet and cannon for about four -leagues, and it was only at ten o’clock at night that, worn out and -overwhelmed with fatigue, my men ceased their firing and their pursuit. - -“The same success attended us at all other points. His Majesty, who -directed everything, amazed me by his coolness and by the precision of -his orders. It was the first time I had fought under his eyes, and this -opportunity gave me an even higher opinion than I already had of his -great talents, as I was able to form my own judgment upon them....” - -Napoleon had almost used up his reserves when the Austrian retreat -began. No fewer than 24,000 dead and wounded Imperialists were left -on the field, a loss of probably 6000 more than that sustained by the -French. Not until daybreak on the 7th did the victorious troops lay -down their arms. “I soon fell asleep,” says Macdonald, “but not for -long, as I was awakened by cries of ‘Long live the Emperor!’ which -redoubled when he entered my camp. I asked for my horse, but he had -been taken away. I had no other, as the rest were far behind. As I -could not walk (the General had been kicked by the animal), I remained -on my straw, when I heard someone enquiring for me.... He came by the -Emperor’s order to look for me. On my remarking that I had no horse and -could not walk, he offered me his, which I accepted. I saw the Emperor -surrounded by my troops, whom he was congratulating. He approached me, -and embracing me cordially, said:-- - -“‘Let us be friends henceforward.’ - -“‘Yes,’ I answered, ‘till death.’ And I have kept my word, not only -up to the time of his abdication, but even beyond it. He added: ‘You -have behaved valiantly, and have rendered me the greatest services, as, -indeed, throughout the entire campaign. On the battle-field of your -glory, where I owe you so large a part of yesterday’s success, I make -you a Marshal of France’ (he used this expression instead of ‘of the -Empire’). You have long deserved it.’ - -“‘Sire,’ I answered, ‘since you are satisfied with us, let the rewards -and recompenses be apportioned and distributed among my army corps, -beginning with Generals Lamarque, Broussier, and others, who so ably -seconded me.’ - -“‘Anything you please,’ he replied; ‘I have nothing to refuse you.’” - -In this abrupt but characteristic way Macdonald was created a -Marshal--a well-merited distinction also conferred on Oudinot and -Marmont for their services in this campaign. Napoleon’s opening remark -as to friendship referred to the five years of disgrace which the -general had suffered by being unjustly implicated in the affairs of -Moreau, a disfavour now to fall on Bernadotte, whose corps had behaved -ill at Wagram and was dissolved. Thus almost at the same time as he -gained a friend the Emperor made an enemy. It is interesting to note -that Macdonald’s father was a Scotsman who fought for the Pretender and -his mother a Frenchwoman, and that he was born at Sedan. - -Napoleon, usually the most active in following up a victory, did not -actively pursue the Austrians after the battle of Wagram for the -all-sufficient reason that his troops were worn-out with fatigue. -If you want to know and see and _feel_ what a battle-field is like, -glance through the sombre pages of Carlyle’s “Sartor Resartus” until -you come to his description of that of Wagram. Here is the passage, -and it is one of the most vivid in literature: “The greensward,” says -the philosopher, “is torn-up and trampled-down; man’s fond care of it, -his fruit-trees, hedge-row, and pleasant dwellings, blown-away with -gunpowder; and the kind seedfield lies a desolate, hideous place of -Skulls.” There were two days of hard fighting at Znaym on the 10th and -11th July, in which Masséna and Marmont took part, Napoleon not coming -up until the morning of the second day. On the 12th an armistice was -arranged. - -Brief notice must be taken of the course of the war in other parts of -Europe. The formidable Walcheren Expedition, so called because of its -disembarkation on the island of that name, was undertaken by Great -Britain as a diversion against the French. The idea had been mooted -and shelved three years before, to be revived when Austria pressed -the British Government to send troops to Northern Germany in the hope -of fostering insurrection there. The Duke of Portland’s government, -prompted by Lord Castlereagh, thought that Antwerp would be a more -desirable objective. Instead of the troops pushing on immediately to -that city, Flushing must needs be first besieged and bombarded. This -detour lost much precious time, which was used to good advantage by -Bernadotte and King Louis in placing the city in a state of defence. - -The commanders of the English naval and military forces--Sir Richard -Strachan and Lord Chatham respectively--now engaged in unseemly -wrangling as to further movements, while meantime many of the soldiers -fell victims to malarial fever. Eventually the army sailed for home, -after an immense expenditure of blood and treasure, thousands of men -dying and the cost amounting to many millions of pounds sterling. -The expedition was for long the talk of the British people, the -affair being epitomised in a witty couplet which aptly summed up the -situation:-- - - Lord Chatham, with his sword undrawn, - Stood waiting for Sir Richard Strachan; - Sir Richard, longing to be at ’em, - Stood waiting for the Earl of Chatham. - -In Spain things were going from bad to worse for Great Britain, and -an expedition against Naples, commanded by Sir John Stewart, was -eventually obliged to withdraw after some early successes. England felt -the heavy hand of Napoleon very severely in the dark days of 1809. - -We have noted that Archduke Ferdinand had troops to the number of -35,400 in Poland called the Army of Galicia. He was faced by Prince -Galitzin and Prince Poniatovski, who had nearly 60,000 men, including -Russians, Poles, and Saxons, under their command. Warsaw was secured -by the Austrians after the battle of Raszyn, but following an attack -on Thorn the Archduke was compelled to retreat, hostilities in Poland -being terminated by the armistice of Znaym. - -In Tyrol the peasant war was marked by many exciting events. The -inhabitants of this picturesque land of forests and mountains were -intensely patriotic and hated the Bavarians, under whose domination -they had passed after Austerlitz, with an exceedingly bitter hatred. -They felt that now was the time for revenge, for showing that the -country was at heart still loyal to the Emperor Francis, descendant -of a long line of monarchs who had exercised their feudal rights for -over four centuries. A section of Archduke John’s army, amounting to -some 10,000 men under General Chasteler, was accordingly sent to aid -the ardent nationalists, who appointed their own leaders, the most -celebrated of whom was Andreas Hofer, an innkeeper and cattle-dealer -of considerable substance. A signal was agreed upon; when sawdust -was seen floating on the waters of the Inn the people of the villages -through which the river flowed were to understand that a general -rising was expected of them. There was no fear that the news would -not reach outlying districts. The people did not fail their leaders, -and Innsbruck, the capital of the province, then in the hands of the -Bavarians, was attacked, and did not long resist the gallantry of -the Tyrolese. Other garrisons met a similar fate, and in less than a -week but one fortress still held out in Northern Tyrol, so well had -the rugged fellows performed their self-appointed task. Unhappily -for the intrepid patriots--Napoleon with his usual partiality for -misrepresentation called their leaders “brigands”--disasters succeeded -their early victories, and Innsbruck was held for but six weeks -before Lefebvre put himself in possession. Again fortune smiled on -the Tyrolese. Wrede, who commanded the Bavarians, unduly weakened his -forces by sending various regiments to join Napoleon. Taking advantage -of their knowledge of this fact, 20,000 peasants presented themselves -before the capital and regained it. Two more battles were waged outside -the walls of Innsbruck, and innumerable skirmishes took place with the -large army which the Emperor now poured into Tyrol before the flames -were finally extinguished in December 1809. It is safe to say that the -ashes would have continued to smoulder much longer had not Hofer been -the victim of treachery. He was betrayed to the enemy by an ungrateful -priest, and, after trial, executed on the 21st February 1810. Many -of his colleagues availed themselves of an amnesty granted by Prince -Eugène, but both Hofer and Peter Mayer preferred to fight to the end. -The Emperor of Austria, grateful for the services rendered to him by -the former innkeeper, provided the hero’s widow with a handsome pension -and ennobled his son. - -On the 15th October 1809 peace was restored between France and Austria -by the Treaty of Schönbrünn, sometimes called the Peace of Vienna, by -which the former chiefly benefited. More than once the negotiations -trembled in the balance, but ultimately the Austrian war party was -obliged to give way. Archduke Charles had grown tired of fighting, the -wily Metternich could see nothing but disaster by its continuance. -Just as business people sometimes ask a higher price than they expect -to receive for an article of commerce and are content to be “beaten -down,” so Napoleon made extravagant demands at first and was satisfied -with smaller concessions. The apparent readiness to give way, for which -he did not forget to claim credit, enabled him to pose as a political -philanthropist. Nevertheless, three and a half million people were lost -to Austria by the districts which she ceded to France, Bavaria, Russia, -Saxony, Italy, and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Pursuing the same policy -of army retrenchment he had followed with Prussia, Napoleon insisted -that Austria should support not more than 150,000 troops. A big war -indemnity was also exacted. - -The Emperor afterwards maintained that this “pound of flesh” was -insufficient. “I committed a great fault after the battle of Wagram,” -he remarked, “in not reducing the power of Austria still more. She -remained too strong for our safety, and to her we must attribute -our ruin. The day after the battle, I should have made known, by -proclamation, that I would treat with Austria only on condition of the -preliminary separation of the three crowns of Austria, Hungary, and -Bohemia.” As a matter of fact the abdication of the Emperor Francis -had been one of his extortionate demands in the early stages of the -negotiations. - -If proof were necessary of the truth of the proverb that “truth is -stranger than fiction” the marriage of Napoleon to the Archduchess -Marie Louise of Austria, but a few months after he had threatened to -dispossess her father of his throne, would surely justify it. Poor -childless, light-hearted Josephine was put away for this daughter of -the Cæsars. The Emperor had first asked for a Russian Princess, then -as suddenly turned in the direction of the House of Hapsburg because -his former suit was not immediately accepted. From that time Napoleon’s -friendship with Alexander began to wane perceptibly. The Czar was under -no delusion when he prophetically remarked, on hearing of the Emperor’s -change of front in wooing an Austrian princess, “Then the next thing -will be to drive us back into our forests.” - -Small wonder that in after years Napoleon referred to his second -marriage as “That abyss covered with flowers which was my ruin.” - -To compare Napoleon’s two consorts is extremely difficult, because -their temperaments were essentially different. Josephine was vivacious, -witty, fond of dress and of admiration, and brought up in a very -different school of thought to that of Marie Louise. The former had -witnessed, and to some extent felt, the terrors of the Revolution -at their worst; she had mixed with all sorts and conditions of men -and women, some good, many bad; the latter had been nurtured with -scrupulous care, so shielded and safeguarded that she scarcely knew of -the follies and sins which mar the everyday world. She once wrote to -a friend that she believed Napoleon “is none other than Anti-Christ.” -When she heard that the man she felt to be “our oppressor” was to -become her husband, she lifted her pale blue eyes to the skies and -remarked that the birds were happier because they could choose their -own mates! And yet, although she was so horrified, she had a certain -nobility of character which enabled her to understand that in making -the surrender she would be performing a double duty to her father and -to her country: “This marriage gives pleasure to my father, and though -separation from my family always will make me miserable, I will have -the consolation of having obeyed his wishes. And Providence, it is my -firm belief, directs the lot of us princesses in a special manner; and -in obeying my father I feel I am obeying Providence.” - -But what were the reasons for Napoleon’s dissolution of his first -marriage when his love for Josephine is beyond question? Pasquier thus -sums up the matter for us: - -“For some time past,” he says, “the greater number of those about -him, and especially the members of his family, had been urging him to -repudiate a union which could not give him an heir, and which precluded -the idea of his dreaming of certain most advantageous alliances. -As early as the time of his consecration as Emperor, the greatest -pressure had been put upon him to prevent him from strengthening the -bonds uniting him to Josephine, by having her crowned by his side; but -all these endeavours had been neutralized by the natural and potent -ascendancy of a woman full of charm and grace, who had given herself to -him at a time when nothing gave any indication of his high destinies, -whose conciliatory spirit had often removed from his path difficulties -of a somewhat serious nature, and brought back to him many embittered -or hostile minds, who seemed to have been constantly a kind of good -genius, entrusted with the care of watching over his destiny and of -dispelling the clouds which came to darken its horizon.... - -“I can never forget the evening,” adds Pasquier, “on which the -discarded Empress did the honours of her Court for the last time. -It was the day before the official dissolution. A great throng was -present, and supper was served, according to custom, in the gallery of -Diana, on a number of little tables. Josephine sat at the centre one, -and the men went round her, waiting for that particularly graceful nod -which she was in the habit of bestowing on those with whom she was -acquainted. I stood at a short distance from her for a few minutes, -and I could not help being struck with the perfection of her attitude -in the presence of all these people who still did her homage, while -knowing full well that it was for the last time; that, in an hour, -she would descend from the throne, and leave the palace never to -re-enter it. Only women can rise superior to the difficulties of such a -situation, but I have my doubts as to whether a second one could have -been found to do it with such perfect grace and composure. Napoleon did -not show as bold a front as did his victim.” - -The Archduchess was in her eighteenth year, Napoleon in his -forty-first. She was not without personal charms, although Pasquier, -who keenly sympathised with Josephine, scarcely does her justice. -“Her face,” he says, “was her weakest point; but her figure was fine, -although somewhat stiff. Her personality was attractive, and she had -very pretty feet and hands.” The marriage was celebrated by proxy at -Vienna on the 11th March 1810. - -That Marie Louise grew to love the man of whom she once wrote that “the -very sight of this creature would be the worst of all my sufferings” -is very improbable, and in the end she played him false. She certainly -showed no wish to join him at Elba, and shortly after his death married -the dissolute Adam Albert, Graf von Neipperg, her third husband being -the Comte de Bombelles. The Emperor believed in her faithfulness to -the last. “I desire,” he said to his physician, Antommarchi, “that you -preserve my heart in spirits of wine, and that you carry it to Parma to -my dear Marie Louise. Please tell her that I loved her tenderly, and -that I have not ceased to love her.” - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII - -A Broken Friendship and what it Brought - -(1810-1812) - - -Napoleon now entered with renewed zest upon the work of perfecting his -Continental System, and in so doing he quarrelled with his brother -Louis, King of Holland. The young monarch had followed a liberal -policy, devoting his time and energy to the interests of his people, -and earning their respect if not their love. Napoleon always regarded -the land of dykes and wind-mills as scarcely more than a province of -France; Louis was determined that his country should be independent. -He was no believer in the Emperor’s plan to keep out British goods, -so profitable a source of revenue, and as a consequence an extensive -business was carried on between Holland and England. Napoleon -threatened, Louis temporised, until the former, holding the trump card, -finally settled to annex the Kingdom which so openly defied his wishes -and commands. Louis was aware that this would probably be the end of -the quarrel, for on the 21st September 1809, Napoleon had written a -letter to him setting forth his many grievances. He charged the King -with favouring Dutchmen who were well disposed towards England, with -making speeches containing “nothing but disagreeable allusions to -France,” with allowing “the relations between Holland and England to be -renewed,” with violating “the laws of the blockade which is the only -means of efficaciously injuring this Power,” and so on. - -“To sum up,” he concluded, “the annexation of Holland to France is -what would be most useful to France, to Holland, and to the Continent, -because it is what would be most harmful to England. This annexation -could be carried out by consent or by force. I have sufficient -grievance against Holland to declare war; at the same time I am quite -ready to agree to an arrangement which would yield to me the Rhine as -a frontier, and by which Holland would emerge to fulfil the conditions -stipulated above.” - -The Emperor began by annexing the island of Walcheren. Gradually the -encroachments were extended until the left bank of the Rhine was wholly -French. Troops were drafted to Holland, the Dutch bitterly resenting -the interference of Napoleon in affairs which they held were no concern -of his. There was talk of an insurrection, of arming the country -to resist the arbitrary claims of the despot. Finally the unhappy -Louis abdicated in favour of his son, and retired to the confines of -Bohemia. Little more than a week later Holland was definitely annexed -to the Empire, thereby adding nine departments to France. In the -following month Jerome Bonaparte, King of Westphalia, was offended by -the appearance of French troops at the mouths of the Elbe and Weser. -Indeed, it would appear as if Napoleon was intent upon alienating -the affection of the members of his own Imperial family. Perhaps the -most tried brother was Joseph, who deserved all pity in the far from -enthusiastic reception his new Spanish subjects were according him. -Lucien had long since quarrelled with the Emperor, and although the -latter attempted a reconciliation he was unsuccessful. On obtaining -Napoleon’s permission to retire to America, the ship on which he sailed -was captured by an English frigate, and for several years he lived the -life of a country gentleman in the land he had been brought up to hate. -The hapless Josephine was in retirement at Malmaison; Murat failed -to see eye to eye with his brother-in-law, so much so that later the -Emperor threatened to deprive him of his throne. In 1810 Napoleon also -lost the services and support of Bernadotte by his election as Crown -Prince of Sweden. - -But while his brothers and friends were thus falling away from him -Napoleon felt amply compensated in March 1811 by the birth of a son, -who was given the high-sounding title of King of Rome. It will be -remembered that Charlemagne, founder of the Holy Roman Empire, was -styled “King of the Romans.” “Glory had never caused him to shed a -single tear,” says Constant, the Emperor’s valet, “but the happiness -of being a father had softened that soul which the most brilliant -victories and the most sincere tokens of public admiration scarcely -seemed to touch.” - -Supreme in war, Napoleon was also one of the greatest administrators -of whom we have record. As the story of his life has progressed we -have noted how he set about the reformation of the governments of the -various countries he had conquered or where his word was regarded as -law. “The State--it is I,” said Louis XIV., and Napoleon summed up his -own mode of life on one occasion by quoting the remark, which was no -mere figure of speech. He seldom took recreation; when he was tired of -thinking of battalions he thought of fleets, or colonies, or commerce. -As Emperor he sometimes hunted, but more from a matter of policy than -because he loved sport, just as he went to Mass to set a good example, -and to the first act of a new play to gratify public curiosity. M. -Frédéric Masson, the eminent Napoleonic historian, is authority for -the statement that the Emperor once promised to attend a magnificent -ball, and the most elaborate preparations had been made in his honour. -Unfortunately the Imperial guest remained closeted with the Minister of -Finance from eight o’clock in the evening until he heard a clock strike -and was surprised to find that it was 3 A.M. The so-called pleasures -of the table were miseries to him, and he ate his food with no regard -whatever for convention or the menu. He would begin with an ice and -finish with a viand. - -The “Memoirs” of Napoleon’s three private secretaries, Bourrienne, -Méneval, and Fain, afford us intimate views of the great man at work. -Those of Bourrienne are the least authentic because they are not -entirely his writing. The Emperor had an unfortunate habit from his -secretary’s point of view of dictating his correspondence in full, and -he spoke at such a rate that it was almost impossible to note what he -said in its entirety. To interrupt him was a breach of etiquette. Fain -found it necessary to leave blanks, which he filled up when he was -transcribing with the help of the context. - -M. Masson thus describes the Emperor’s work-room at the Tuileries:-- - -“The room which Napoleon made into his study was of moderate size. -It was lighted by a single window made in a corner and looking into -the garden. The principal piece of furniture, placed in the middle, -was a magnificent bureau, loaded with gilt bronze, and supported by -two griffins. The lid of the table slided into a groove, so that it -could be shut without disarranging the papers. Under the bureau, and -screwed to the floor, was a sliding cupboard, into which every time -the Emperor went out was placed a portfolio of which he alone had the -key. The armchair belonging to the bureau was of antique shape; the -back was covered with tapestry of green kerseymere, the folds of which -were fastened by silk cords, and the arms finished off with griffins’ -heads. The Emperor scarcely ever sat down in his chair except to give -his signature. He kept habitually at the right of the fireplace, on a -small sofa covered with green taffeta, near to which was a stand which -received the correspondence of the day. A screen of several leaves -kept off the heat of the fire. At the further end of the room, at -right angles in the corners, were placed four bookcases, and between -the two which occupied the wall at the end was a great regulator clock -of the same kind as that furnished in 1808 by Bailly for the study at -Compiègne, which cost 4000 francs.... There were books also in the back -study, books in the cabinet of the keeper of the portfolio, along the -side of the bedroom, and books also in the little apartment. - -“Opposite the fireplace, a long closet with glass doors, breast high, -with a marble top, contained boxes for papers, and carried the volumes -to be consulted and the documents in use; no doubt also the equestrian -statuette of Frederick II., which the Emperor constantly had under his -eyes. This statuette was the only work of art which he ever personally -desired to have. - -“In the recess of the window was the table of the private secretary. -The room was furnished with a few chairs. At night, to light his -bureau, Napoleon used a candlestick with two branches, with a great -shade of sheet iron of the ordinary kind.” - -There was also a back study, where the Emperor usually received his -Ministers of State, a topographic study, and two small rooms. From -this suite of apartments Napoleon may be said to have directed Western -Europe. - -Brief mention must be made of the Emperor’s “campaign” library. The -volumes were contained in two mahogany cases fitted with shelves; each -book was noted in a miniature catalogue and had its special place, -changes being made from time to time. Novels, historical memoirs, -poetry, and the classics were invariably represented. No fewer than six -chests of volumes were conveyed to Waterloo. - -Meanwhile the rearrangement of Europe, always to the advantage of -France, continued almost without cessation by the addition of a strip -of territory here, some miles of another man’s possessions there. -Soon every inch of coast line from the Rhine to the Elbe was under -Napoleon’s domination. Oldenburg, a Duchy ruled by one of the Czar’s -relations, was swallowed up, the Hanseatic towns and Valais were -incorporated in the ever-growing Empire. The restoration of Polish -independence by the Emperor of the French seemed not improbable and -annoyed the Czar intensely. The latter had good ground for thinking -that Napoleon contemplated this course in the recent territorial -acquisitions of the Duchy of Warsaw according to the terms of the -Treaty of Schönbrünn. When he boldly asked for an assurance that the -kingdom of Poland should never be re-established, Napoleon politely -declined, contenting himself with the statement that he would not -assist anyone else to do it, thereby leaving a loophole for his own -interference should he deem it necessary or desirable. - -Such a reckless, or rather insane, policy made it evident that Napoleon -no longer intended to share the world with the Emperor of all the -Russias as he had suggested at Tilsit and Erfurt. We have already -noticed that the Czar had entertained suspicions of his friend’s -loyalty, a doubt reciprocated by Napoleon, who was intensely annoyed -that Russia had not kept strictly to the terms of the Continental -System, the relaxation of which was considerably to the benefit both -of Great Britain and of Russia. Alexander, also, had been at war with -Turkey, and Napoleon, instead of aiding his ally, as the Czar had a -certain amount of right to expect, endeavoured to prolong the contest -to serve his own personal ends. This the Porte, suspecting ulterior -motives, refused to do, and on the 28th May 1812 peace was restored, -to be followed in July by peace between Russia and Great Britain. -Sweden, coveting Norway and knowing that no help could be expected -from France in the fulfilment of her hope, while possibly it might be -received from Russia, also came to terms with the two reconciled Powers -after hostile measures had been undertaken against her by Davout in -Pomerania. Preparations for war were now made by France and Russia -in real earnest. Following his usual plan Napoleon made overtures to -England for a cessation of hostilities. His terms were that the present -occupants of the thrones of Spain and Naples should be acknowledged by -Great Britain and her troops withdrawn from their territory. He on his -part undertook to recall his armies. - -On the eve of the Emperor’s departure for Dresden to dazzle and flatter -his allies by a final display of grandeur worthy the Conqueror of -Western Europe, Pasquier, his newly-appointed Prefect of Police, had -an interview with him. The question of a shortage in the food supply -of Paris had come up, and Pasquier had ventured to remark that the -situation would be rendered more dangerous by the monarch’s absence. -“Napoleon appeared struck by these few remarks,” Pasquier tells us. -“When I had ended speaking, he remained silent, and pacing to and fro -between the window and the fireplace, his arms crossed behind his -back, like a man who is pondering deeply. I followed in his steps, -when, facing me suddenly, he uttered the words which follow: ‘Yes, -there is doubtless some truth in what you tell me; it is one more -difficulty added to the many I have to face in _the greatest, the most -difficult_ undertaking I have ever attempted; but I must fain bring to -a termination what I have begun. _Farewell, monsieur le préfet._’” - -On the 9th May 1812, the Emperor and his consort set out on their -journey to the capital of Saxony. It was one long series of festivities -culminating in a Court of Kings which included the Emperor and Empress -of Austria, the Kings of Prussia, Saxony, Naples, Würtemberg, and -Westphalia, and the rulers of Saxe Weimar, Saxe Coburg, and Dessau. -“His levée,” says de Ségur, “presented a remarkable sight. Sovereign -princes waited for an audience from the Conqueror of Europe; they -were mixed up to such an extent with his officers that the latter -were frequently on their guard lest they should accidentally brush -up against these new courtiers and be confounded with them.” His -description may be a little exaggerated, but it showed to what a -supreme height Napoleon had risen, and how marked had been the change -in his ideas since the days when he would have willingly laid down -his life for Republicanism. At St Helena he stated that at Dresden he -“appeared as the King of Kings.” This was not meant in any blasphemous -sense, but was merely the Emperor’s summing-up of the unique and -all-powerful position he then occupied. The inhabitants of Dresden -waited in the streets for hours on the chance of getting a fleeting -glimpse of the “little great man” who had done so much and who was -expected to do considerably more in the forthcoming campaign. “It was -not his crown,” says Count Philip de Ségur, “his rank, the luxury -of his Court, but him--himself--on whom they desired to feast their -eyes; a memento of his features which they were anxious to obtain: -they wished to be able to say to their less fortunate countrymen and -posterity that they had seen Napoleon.” Englishmen who had every reason -to hate him have left behind records which testify to the fascination -exercised over them by the Emperor on various occasions. The Germans -had nothing to thank him for, and yet they flocked in crowds to see -their oppressor. - -Far from giving way to the fears which he had confessed to Pasquier, -the Emperor made light of the many difficulties which he knew to be -insuperable to the task he had undertaken. To the Abbé de Pradt, -Archbishop of Malines, whom he sent as envoy to Warsaw, he remarked, -“I will destroy Russian influence in Europe. Two battles will do the -business; the Emperor Alexander will come on his knees, and Russia -shall be disarmed. Spain costs me very dear: without that I should be -master of the world; but when I become such, my son will have nothing -to do but to retain my place.” - -“Never was the success of an expedition more certain;” he assured his -vassals, “I see on all sides nothing but probabilities in my favour. -Not only do I advance at the head of the immense forces of France, -Italy, Germany, the Confederation of the Rhine, and Poland, but the two -monarchies which have hitherto been the most powerful auxiliaries of -Russia against me, have now ranged themselves on my side: they espouse -my quarrel with the zeal of my oldest friends.” This was not strictly -true, and savoured rather too much of his army bulletins and similar -proclamations. Like the doctor with a nervous patient, he withheld -some of the disagreeable features of the case. “The two monarchies,” -namely Austria and Prussia, had they dared, would have preferred to -remain neutral, or if that were impossible, to come to terms with -Russia, their last resource on the Continent against the aggressor who -had treated them with such scant consideration. Prussia had “espoused” -Napoleon’s quarrel so far as to entertain hopes but a few months before -of an alliance with either Russia or Austria. - -The campaign of 1812 was to dwarf all Napoleon’s previous efforts in -magnitude; a mere summing-up of statistics can at most give but an -inadequate idea of the immense armament which he deemed necessary -if a death-blow was to be struck at the heart of the great Russian -Empire. The flames of the Peninsular war were still flickering, which -necessitated the locking-up of a large number of troops under Soult, -Marmont and Suchet which Napoleon could have used to better purpose had -affairs been more settled in that quarter. France was in very truth “a -nation in arms.” For home defence the able-bodied men from twenty-five -to sixty years of age were divided into three classes, 900,000 of -whom were to garrison the fortresses on the frontiers and watch the -coasts, the remaining 300,000 to drill and make themselves efficient -for immediate service whenever necessary. A rich man considered -himself fortunate if he could secure a substitute for less than 8000 -francs. The price of the Emperor’s friendship was also a costly one -to those Princes whom he deigned to favour with his attentions. The -Confederation of the Rhine was called upon to furnish 147,000 men, -Italy some 80,000, Poland 60,000. France contributed 200,000 strong, -other countries brought the total to the stupendous figure of 680,000 -troops. Prussia found herself called upon to furnish 20,000 troops -for the invasion of the Czar’s territory, and enormous quantities -of oats, rice, wheat, and other provisions, in addition to hospital -accommodation, horses and carriages. Austria was to supply 30,000 -soldiers, but she did so on the distinct understanding that her Polish -provinces should be kept inviolate. Prussia asked nothing and expected -nothing. - -Napoleon’s new army was one of the most cosmopolitan that ever came -into being. There were French, Austrians, Prussians, Bavarians, Poles, -Italians, Illyrians, Dutch, Swiss, even a sprinkling of Spaniards and -Portuguese. These men did not all follow willingly. Indeed in 1811 no -fewer than 80,000 French conscripts deserted or failed to answer the -summons. A string of manacled recruits was not an uncommon sight in -France. Napoleon was now “the common oppressor,” the gold of glory had -turned out to be tinsel. - -While France was deploring, Napoleon was organising his forces. He -brooked no delay, would listen to no arguments, was deaf to the -entreaties of those who failed to see his reason for making war with -Russia. “The Emperor is mad, quite mad,” Admiral Decrès confided to a -friend. “He will ruin us all, many as we are, and everything will end -in a frightful catastrophe.” Mad with ambition he certainly was, mad in -intellect he certainly was not. - -The army was divided into ten great corps. The first under Davout, the -second under Oudinot, the third under Ney; the fourth was an Army of -Observation, under Prince Eugène; the fifth consisted of Poles under -Prince Poniatovski; the sixth, in which the Bavarians were included, -under Saint-Cyr; the seventh, made up of the troops from Saxony, under -Reynier; the eighth, of Westphalians under Vandamme, to be succeeded -by Junot; the ninth was given to Victor, the tenth to Macdonald. An -eleventh Army Corps under Augereau was afterwards created, largely -augmented from the ninth. There were also the Austrians commanded by -Prince Schwarzenberg, the Imperial Guard, and four divisions of Cavalry -under Murat and Latour-Maubourg. - -To oppose such a formidable host the Czar finally mustered some 400,000 -troops. At the opening of the campaign he had considerably fewer men at -his disposal than Napoleon. They were divided into three main armies. -The first Army of the West, under Barclay de Tolly, numbered 136,000; -the second Army of the West, commanded by Prince Bagration, totalled -39,000; the third, or reserve, under General Tormassoff, reached some -40,000. Other troops, drawn from various places, swelled the initial -number to perhaps 250,000. As there is considerable discrepancy in -the figures given by the most reliable authorities probably the exact -military strength of the two nations will never be known. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII - -The Russian Campaign - -(1812) - - -Poland was the point of concentration, and thither the Grand Army -was marching. On the 11th June 1812, the Emperor arrived at Dantzig, -which had been turned into a vast military depôt, and on the following -morning proceeded to Königsberg, where further supplies were stored. -He spent the whole day and night dictating despatches. Having twice -communicated with the Czar to no effect, he was now irrevocably -committed to the campaign. At Vilkowyski Napoleon took the opportunity -to issue a bulletin to his troops couched in the old style which had -proved so effectual in former campaigns. It is as follows: - -“Soldiers! The second Polish war is begun. The first terminated at -Friedland and at Tilsit. At Tilsit, Russia vowed an eternal alliance -with France, and war with England. She now breaks her vows, and refuses -to give any explanation of her strange conduct until the French eagles -have repassed the Rhine and left our allies at her mercy. - -“Fate drags her on--let her destinies be fulfilled. Does she imagine -we are degenerated? Are we no longer the soldiers who fought at -Austerlitz? We are placed between dishonour and war; our choice cannot -be doubtful. Let us then march forward. Let us cross the Niemen, and -carry the war into her own territory. This second Polish war will be -as glorious for the French arms as the first; but the peace we shall -conclude will carry with it its own guarantee, and will terminate the -fatal influence which Russia, for fifty years past, has exercised in -the affairs of Europe.” - -Alexander’s proclamation to his troops, while less forceful than -Napoleon’s, is more dignified and restrained. It was issued from his -headquarters at Vilna, the capital of Lithuania, on the 25th June 1812, -two days later than the one given above. - -[Illustration: The Retreat from Moscow - -By V. Werestchagin - -By permission of the Berlin Photographic Co., London, W] - -“We had long observed,” it runs, “on the part of the Emperor of the -French, the most hostile proceedings towards Russia; but we always -hoped to avert them by conciliatory and pacific measures. At length, -experiencing a continued renewal of direct and evident aggression, -notwithstanding our earnest desire to maintain peace, we were compelled -to complete and to assemble our armies. But even then, we flattered -ourselves that a reconciliation might take place while we remained on -the frontiers of our empire, and, without violating one principle of -peace, were prepared only to act in our own defence.... The Emperor -of the French, by suddenly attacking our army at Kovno, has been the -first to declare war. As nothing, therefore, can inspire him with those -friendly sentiments which possessed our bosoms, we have no choice but -to oppose our forces to those of the enemy, invoking the aid of the -Almighty, the Witness and Defender of the truth. It is unnecessary -for me to remind the generals, officers, and soldiers of their duty, -to excite their valour; the blood of the brave Slavonians flows in -their veins. Warriors! you defend your religion, your country, and -your liberty. I am with you: God is against the aggressor.” Alexander -promised the Governor of St Petersburg that he would not sheath his -sword “so long as a single enemy remains in Russian territory.” - -Practically the whole of the Grand Army--an effective force at the -beginning of the campaign of 400,000 troops--crossed the river Niemen -at different points, the troops with the Emperor near Kovno, those of -Eugène and King Jerome at Pilony and Grodno respectively, the remainder -under Macdonald at Tilsit. Prince Schwarzenberg with the Austrians -crossed by the River Bug. Davout’s corps secured the honour of being -first to enter Russian territory, and without much trouble they secured -possession of the little town of Kovno, the point of concentration, -reference to which is made in the Czar’s proclamation. - -Alison has painted the scene for us in glowing colours. “The tent of -the Emperor,” he writes, “was placed on an eminence three hundred -paces from the bank, and as the sun rose he beheld the resplendent -mass slowly descending to the bridges. The world had never seen so -magnificent an array as lay before him; horse, foot, and cannon in -the finest order, and in the highest state of equipment, incessantly -issued from the forest, and wound down the paths which led to the -river: the glittering of the arms, the splendour of the dress, the -loud shouts of the men as they passed the Imperial station, inspired -universal enthusiasm and seemed to afford a certain presage of success. -The burning impatience of the conscripts; the calm assurance of the -veteran soldiers; the confident ardour of the younger officers; the -dubious presentiments of the older generals, filled every breast with -thrilling emotion. The former were impatient for the campaign as -the commencement of glory and fortune; the latter dreaded it as the -termination of ease and opulence. None entered on it without anxiety -and interest. No sinister presentiments were now visible on the -countenance of the Emperor; the joy which he felt at the recommencement -of war communicated a universal degree of animation. Two hundred -thousand men, including forty thousand horse, of whom twelve thousand -were cuirassiers, cased in glittering steel, passed the river that day -in presence of the Emperor. Could the eye of prophecy have foreseen the -thin and shattered remains of this immense host, which a few months -afterwards were alone destined to regain the shore of the Niemen, -the change would have appeared too dreadful for any human powers of -destruction to have accomplished.” - -The passage of the fourth Army Corps was not made under such happy -auspices, but the men were cheered by the news that on the 28th June -Napoleon had entered Vilna. This enabled them to shake off to some -extent the depressing effects of the wet weather, and the presence -of Eugène, Viceroy of Italy, and the dauntless Junot, both of whom -personally superintended the construction of the bridge, did much -to inspire enthusiasm. There was no enemy to contest them, and the -crossing was effected in good order. - -“Scarcely had we reached the opposite shore,” says Captain Eugène -Labaume, who was with the expedition, “when we seemed to breathe a new -air. However, the roads were dreadfully bad, the forests gloomy, and -the villages completely deserted; but imagination, inflamed by a spirit -of conquest, was enchanted with everything, and cherished illusions -which were but too soon destroyed. - -“In fact, our short stay at Pilony, in the midst of a tempestuous -rain, was marked by such extraordinary disasters, that any man, -without being superstitious, would have regarded them as the presage -of future misfortunes. In this wretched village, the Viceroy himself -had no house to shelter him; and we were heaped upon one another -under wretched sheds, or else exposed to all the inclemencies of the -weather. An extreme scarcity made us anticipate the horrors of famine. -The rain fell in torrents, and overwhelmed both men and horses; the -former escaped, but the badness of the roads completed the destruction -of the latter. They were seen dropping by hundreds in the environs of -Pilony; the road was covered with dead horses, overturned waggons and -scattered baggage. It was in the month of July that we suffered thus -from cold, and rain, and hunger. So many calamities excited within us -sad forebodings of the future, and everyone began to dread the event -of an enterprise, the commencement of which was so disastrous; but the -sun reappeared on the horizon, the clouds dispersed, our fears were -scattered with them, and at that moment we thought that the fine season -would last for ever.” - -The captain’s narrative is replete with similar instances, showing -the almost complete failure of the commissariat on which so much care -and anxiety had been bestowed, the treacherous nature of the weather, -and the impossibility in so barren a country of putting into effect -Napoleon’s maxim that war should support itself. Indeed, the truth was -shown of another of the Emperor’s principles, that “an army marches on -its stomach.” In the paragraph immediately following the one quoted -above, Labaume says that on entering Kroni the soldiers again found -the houses deserted, “which convinced us that the enemy, in order to -ruin the country through which we were to pass, and deprive us of all -the means of subsistence, had carried along with them the inhabitants -and the cattle.” In a march of fifty miles no fewer than 10,000 horses -succumbed. - -But a greater difficulty than those we have enumerated soon presented -itself. The Russian army, like a will-o’-the-wisp, enticed the French -further and further from their base by a series of retreats which -made it impossible for Napoleon to fall on the enemy with the fierce -rapidity characteristic of his method of warfare. Alexander was playing -a waiting game. When the ranks of the enemy were thinned by death, -sickness, and desertion, when want and privation stalked hand in hand -with the French armies as they painfully made their way along the -snow-covered ruts--then would be the time to strike. The Czar could -afford to wait, his antagonist could not; one was on the defensive, the -other on the offensive, and many hundreds of miles from the capital -of his unwieldy Empire. There was little or no opportunity for the -soldiers to pay unwelcome attentions to the inhabitants of the villages -through which they passed. The peasants had forsaken their wretched -wooden shanties, the furniture of the houses of many of the nobles had -been removed, making the places almost as cheerless as the frowning -forests where their former owners had sought refuge. - -At Vilna, which the Russians had evacuated, Napoleon experienced none -of these troubles. The Poles, longing to restore the independence of -their beloved country, regarded him as their potential liberator, -delivering to him the keys of the town, donning their national -costumes, and indulging in merry-making. The ancient capital of -Lithuania awoke from her long sleep. Deputation after deputation waited -on the Emperor, hungering to hear the words which would give them back -their lost freedom. They were never uttered; he dare not break faith -with his allies at this juncture. He made vague promises in order to -stimulate their enthusiasm, set up a provisional government, and began -to reorganise the provinces with his usual insight, but further than -this he would not go. The Poles repaid him well by immediately ordering -some 12,000 men to be placed at the Emperor’s disposal, and from -first to last they furnished no fewer than 85,000 troops. To the Diet -(Parliament) of Warsaw he admitted that he could sanction no movement -which might endanger the peaceable possession of Austria’s Polish -provinces, but he issued a fiery proclamation to those who were serving -with the Russian colours. It runs: - -“Poles! You are under Russian banners. It was permitted you to serve -that Power while you had no longer a country of your own; but all that -is now changed; Poland is created anew. You must fight for her complete -re-establishment, and compel the Russians to acknowledge those rights -of which you have been despoiled by injustice and usurpation. The -General Confederation of Poland and Lithuania recalls every Pole from -the Russian service. Generals of Poland, officers and soldiers, listen -to the voice of your country; abandon the standard of your oppressors; -hasten to range yourselves under the eagles of the Jagellons, the -Casimirs, and the Sobieskis![4] Your country requires it of you; honour -and religion equally command it.” - - [4] Former Kings of Poland. - -Note the subtle phrase, “Poland is created anew.” It is delightfully -vague, meaning little, yet conveying much, and probably understood by -many to promise the longed-for restoration. - -Napoleon did not leave Vilna, where he had stopped much too long, -until the 16th July, but the troops under King Jerome and Davout had -been busy in an endeavour to cut off Prince Bagration from the main -army under Barclay de Tolly. This measure was far from successful. -Jerome was too slow in his movements, two combats ensued in which -the Russians were successful, and Bagration made good his retreat to -Bobruisk, Barclay falling back on Drissa, where a strongly entrenched -camp was in course of construction, and later to Vitebsk. Napoleon was -furious at his brother’s failure, saying, “It is impossible to manœuvre -worse than he has done,” and superseding him by the more energetic -Davout. With the intention of fighting Barclay, Napoleon pushed on to -Glubokoie, only to find that the enemy had proceeded to Vitebsk, which -in turn had been evacuated for Smolensk, where Bagration joined hands -with Barclay on the 2nd August. Some advantages had been gained by -Murat, Macdonald, and Oudinot, but the great opportunity of defeating -the two armies separately had been lost, and the combined forces now -numbered some 120,000 troops. The Emperor had again wasted time from -various causes at Vitebsk, which centre several of his officers wished -to make the winter-quarters of the army. He had already lost 100,000 -men without accomplishing anything of importance, and as he himself -admitted, “Russia is too powerful to yield without fighting: Alexander -will not treat till a great battle has been fought.” The Emperor was -for pushing on, and would brook no interference. “Why should we remain -here eight months,” he asked his generals when the subject was under -discussion, “when twenty days are sufficient to accomplish our purpose? -Let us anticipate Winter and its reflections. We must strike soon and -strongly, or we shall be in danger. We must be in Moscow in a month, -or we shall never be there. Peace awaits us under its walls. Should -Alexander still persist, I will treat with his nobles: Moscow hates St -Petersburg; the effects of that jealousy are incalculable.” - -Spurred on by the defeat of the advanced guard under Murat, the -Emperor now decided to attack Smolensk with practically his entire -army. According to Chambray this was now reduced, excluding various -detachments, to some 194,000 men. On the 16th August Ney, with all his -old fire and vigour, attempted to storm the citadel and was repulsed. -Following their former plan, and fearing to be cut off from Moscow, -part of the Russian army under Bagration began to retreat in the -early hours of the following morning, Barclay remaining to defend the -town with about 30,000 troops. After much heavy fighting the Emperor -was in possession of the suburbs, but the losses on either side had -been severe. Very soon the dense masses of smoke which arose from the -walled city made it evident that to the terrors of shot and shell -had been added that of fire. Flames burst out in all directions, the -wooden roofs of the smaller houses quickly fell in, larger buildings -caught alight and blazed away, fanned by the breeze. Within a few -hours Smolensk was little more than a smouldering charnel-house. The -conclusion of this dreadful incident is best told by an eye-witness, an -officer in the French army. - -“At one o’clock the ruins of the town were abandoned,” he says. “Our -first grenadiers prepared to mount the breach at two o’clock in the -morning, when, approaching without opposition, they discovered that the -place was entirely evacuated. We took possession of it, and found on -the walls many pieces of cannon, which the enemy could not take away. - -“Never,” the narrator adds, “can you form an adequate idea of the -dreadful scene which the interior of Smolensk presented to my view, and -never during the whole course of my life can I forget it. Every street, -every square, was covered with the bodies of the Russians, dead and -dying, while the flames shed over them a horrible glare.” - -Labaume thus continues the dreadful story begun by his friend:-- - -“The next day (August 19th) we entered Smolensk by the suburb built -along the river. In every direction we marched over scattered ruins -and dead bodies. Palaces yet burning offered to our sight only walls -half destroyed by the flames, and, thick among the fragments were -the blackened carcases of the wretched inhabitants whom the fire had -consumed. The few houses that remained were completely filled by the -soldiery, while at the doors stood the miserable proprietors without an -asylum, deploring the death of their children, and the loss of their -property. The churches alone afforded some consolation to the unhappy -victims who had no other shelter. The cathedral, celebrated through -Europe, and held in great veneration by the Russians, became the refuge -of the unfortunate beings who had escaped the flames. In this church -and round its altars, were to be seen whole families extended on the -ground; in one place was an old man just expiring, and casting a look -on the image of the saint whom he had all his life invoked; in another -an infant whose feeble cry the mother, worn down with grief, was -endeavouring to hush.... In the midst of this desolation, the passage -of the army into the interior of the town formed a striking contrast. -On one side was seen the abject submission of the conquered--on the -other, the pride attendant upon victory; the former had lost their -all--the latter, rich with spoil, and ignorant of defeat, marched -proudly to the sound of warlike music, inspiring the unhappy remains of -a vanquished population with mingled fear and admiration.” - -Again the Emperor pondered, apparently undecided as to his next -movement. Should he take up his winter quarters at Smolensk, as he had -originally intended, or push on to Moscow? A great battle had been -fought and yet the situation remained unchanged. He had merely taken a -ruined city! Ney, Grouchy, and Murat, who had followed the retreating -Russians, had but sorry tales to tell on the 19th, and the action near -Valutino on that day was indecisive largely owing to the hesitation of -Junot in coming to the aid of Ney. Defeat and disaster alone seemed to -attend the efforts of the Grand Army. Still Napoleon hesitated. How -could he, the virtual Master of Europe, the Conqueror who never failed, -quietly lay aside his sword and by so doing tacitly admit failure? No, -ten thousand times no; he would push towards Moscow though the heavens -fall! - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX - -The Triumphal Entry into Moscow--and after - -(1812) - - -Grumbling was not confined to the French army in the campaign of 1812. -The Russian troops said hard things of their generals which were not -always justifiable, and the patriotic sentiments of the nobles suffered -somewhat by the continued retreats, which were taken as evidence -of weakness. As a concession to public opinion the much maligned -Barclay was superseded by Kutusov, the Russian Commander-in-chief at -Austerlitz, an old man approaching seventy years of age who had but -recently returned from the war which his country had been waging with -Turkey. He was to have an opportunity of showing his prowess within a -few days of his joining the army, which now comprised nearly 104,000 -men to the 125,000 or so of Napoleon. Severe fighting occurred on the -5th September, a redoubt near the village of Shevardino being taken and -retaken three times by the advance guard before the Russians finally -withdrew. So great was the bloodshed that when the Emperor afterwards -asked where a certain battalion was, he received the reply, “In the -redoubt, sire,” every individual having lost his life in the desperate -assault. Over 1000 men on either side perished in defending or -storming this position. - -The enemy had fallen back on Borodino, a name which will be always -associated with one of the most terrible battles ever fought on -European soil. As the sun rose on the 7th September Napoleon exclaimed, -“It is the sun of Austerlitz!” and shortly afterwards issued the -following proclamation, which aroused some of the old enthusiasm -amongst his troops but failed to invoke the plaudits of all. It is -short and shows that the Emperor attached more importance to the -battles of Vitebsk and Smolensk than the facts warranted: - -“Soldiers! The battle is at hand which you have so long desired. -Henceforth the victory depends on yourselves. It has become necessary, -and will give you abundance; good winter quarters, and a speedy -return to your country! Conduct yourselves as you did at Austerlitz, -Friedland, Vitebsk, and Smolensk. Let the remotest posterity recount -your actions on this day. Let your countrymen say of you all, ‘He was -in that great battle under the walls of Moscow!’” - -Firing began at six o’clock, and continued for twelve anxious hours. -The contestants disputed the ground with such determination, each -carrying and losing positions again and again, that at times it was -difficult to say which army had the advantage. According to Labaume -thirty of the Emperor’s generals were wounded, including Davout and -Rapp, the former by being thrown from his horse as it fell dead, the -latter by a ball which struck him on the hip. General Augustus de -Caulaincourt, brother of the more celebrated Armand de Caulaincourt, -Duke of Vicenza, after performing prodigies of valour in the Russian -entrenchments, where the hardest fighting was done, was killed, as -was General Montbrun but a little time before, while leading a similar -attack. Prince Bagration afterwards died of the injuries he received, -and many other Russian generals were more or less seriously wounded. - -The key of the position, the Russian entrenched battery, with its -terrible heap of dead and dying, was at last captured by the French. -The officer commanding it was about to throw himself on his sword -rather than surrender, but was prevented in the nick of time by the -victors, who took him prisoner. - -As Napoleon and his staff were surveying the field after the battle -his horse stepped on a wounded man, whose groans attracted the rider’s -attention. “It is only a Russian,” one of his attendants said, probably -to allay Napoleon’s feelings rather than from want of sympathy. “After -victory,” the Emperor retorted, “there are no enemies, but only men.” -He was neither callous nor did he love war for its own sake. It was -the result that pleased him, the humbling of the enemy, the addition -of territory to the Empire, the driving of one more nail in England’s -coffin. The maimed were ever his first care after battle. His besetting -sin was an abnormal, and consequently unhealthy, ambition--the vice at -which he had railed so much in his early days. - -Napoleon failed to use his 20,000 Guards at Borodino, why is still a -matter of conjecture. Some writers maintain that it would have been -foolish for him to use up his last reserves, others hold that had he -flung them into the battle he might have annihilated the Russian army -and saved himself the agonies which followed. The reason he gave was, -“At 800 leagues from Paris one must not risk one’s last reserve.” - -Mr Hereford B. George, one of our greatest authorities on the invasion -of Russia in 1812, states that Borodino was a butchery which cost the -contestants not less than 70,000 men in killed and wounded. “No battle -of modern times,” he says in summing up, “no encounter since the days -before gunpowder, when the beaten side could be cut down _ad libitum_ -by the victors and quarter was seldom given, has witnessed such awful -slaughter.... Whether it can be fairly called useless may be doubted, -except to the nominal conqueror. Napoleon certainly deserves that -title: the enemy had been dislodged from their position, and, as it -proved, left the way open to Moscow. So much he might have attained by -manœuvring; more he could not attain unless the courage of his enemies -gave way. Without the brave men who fell at Borodino Napoleon could not -possibly attempt any further offensive movement, when his occupation -of Moscow led to no overtures for peace. Without them, he was -substantially inferior in force when at length the inevitable retreat -began. The Russian Te Deums, chanted for the victory that Kutusoff -falsely claimed, were in truth only premature.” - -Holy Moscow was to be the city of abundance, its entry the herald -of a happier order of things. On the 14th September, as Napoleon -rode forward with his troops, its domes and minarets burst upon his -view. Ségur says that the soldiers shouted “Moscow! Moscow!” with -the eagerness of sailors on sighting land after a long and tedious -voyage. The city looked more like a mirage than the home of a quarter -of a million people, more like the deserted city of an extinct race -than a hive of humanity. General Sebastiani, who led the vanguard, -knew the secret, and so did Murat. The Russians had arranged a hasty -armistice in order to evacuate the place, leaving behind them only the -riff-raff, the wounded, the aged, and the aliens. - -[Illustration: After Moscow: “Advance or Retreat?” - -By V. Werestchagin - -By permission of the Berlin Photographic Co., London, W] - -No clang of bells greeted the Conqueror as he made his triumphal entry, -no crowds of men and women craned their necks to get a glimpse of -the mighty Emperor. Only undesirables welcomed him, the unrepentant -prodigal son and the convict, released from prison by the governor -before the last inhabitants fled in the wake of the retreating Russian -army. There stood the mammoth Kremlin, the Acropolis of the ancient -capital, surrounded by its massive walls; the gorgeous Cathedral of the -Assumption in which the Czars were crowned; the Great Palace begun but -six years before, and churches innumerable. Ikons but no worshippers, -palaces but no courtiers! The Emperor took up his quarters in the -Kremlin, appointing Mortier governor with strict instructions to -prevent the troops from plundering. We shall see how the orders were -obeyed later. Suddenly tongues of flame shot up from different quarters -of the city, to be extinguished by the troops with great difficulty. -Then a large public building was discovered to be alight. The flames -began to spread with alarming and all-devouring rapidity. Soon a -portion of the Kremlin itself was in imminent danger, and as there was -much gunpowder stored in the fortress-palace the Emperor was forced to -retire to a château some distance away, to return two days later when -the work of destruction had somewhat abated. Labaume witnessed many -terrible scenes, which he thus records with his usual vivacity: - -“As I advanced towards the fire, the avenues were more obstructed -by soldiers and beggars carrying off goods of every kind. The less -precious articles were despised, and soon thrown away, and the streets -were covered with merchandise of every description. I penetrated at -length into the interior of the Exchange; but, alas! it was no more -the building so renowned for its magnificence; it was rather a vast -furnace, from every side of which the burning rafters were continually -falling, and threatening us with instant destruction. I could still, -however, proceed with some degree of safety under piazzas lined with -warehouses which the soldiers had broken open; every chest was rifled, -and the spoil exceeded their most sanguine expectations. No cry, no -tumult was heard in this scene of horror; everyone found enough to -satisfy his most ardent thirst for plunder. Nothing was heard but the -crackling of flames, the noise of doors that were broken open, and -occasionally a dreadful crash caused by the falling in of some vault. -Cottons, muslins, and all the most costly productions of Europe and of -Asia, were a prey to the flames. The cellars were filled with sugar, -oil, and vitriol; these burning all at once in the subterraneous -warehouses, sent forth torrents of flame through thick iron grates, -and presented a dreadful spectacle. It was terrible and affecting; -even the most hardened minds acknowledged the conviction that so great -a calamity would, on some future day, call forth the vengeance of the -Almighty upon the authors of such crimes.” - -The fire began on the 14th September, and on the 16th it was raging -worse than ever. “The most heart-rending scene which my imagination -had ever conceived,” adds the narrator, “now presented itself to my -eyes. A great part of the population of Moscow, terrified at our -arrival, had concealed themselves in cellars or secret recesses of -their houses. As the fire spread around, we saw them rushing in despair -from their various asylums. They uttered no imprecation, they breathed -no complaint; fear had rendered them dumb: and hastily snatching -up their precious effects, they fled before the flames. Others, of -greater sensibility, and actuated by the genuine feelings of nature, -saved only their parents, or their infants, who were closely clasped -in their arms. They were followed by their other children, running as -fast as their little strength would permit, and with all the wildness -of childish terror, vociferating the beloved name of mother. The old -people, borne down by grief more than by age, had not sufficient power -to follow their families, but expired near the houses in which they -were born. The streets, the public places, and the churches were filled -with these unhappy people, who, lying on the remains of their property, -suffered even without a murmur. No cry, no complaint was heard. Both -the conqueror and the conquered were equally hardened; the one by -excess of fortune, the other by excess of misery.” - -Many contemporary writers, including Labaume, assert that the -conflagration was the deliberate work of patriotic citizens headed -by Count Rostopchin, governor of Moscow. The latter certainly spoke -of such a project, and according to the twenty-fifth bulletin of the -Grand Army three hundred incendiaries provided with appliances for -setting fire to the wooden houses were arrested and shot. As the -Count afterwards denied the story it is difficult to say whether he -actually carried into practice what he preached; it is quite possible -that some of those who were left behind had actually more to do with -the affair than the supposed prime mover. Professor Eugen Stschepkin, -of the Imperial University of Odessa, says that “Moscow was burnt -neither by Napoleon nor by Count Rostopchin. Probably, the fire was -in part accidental, and due to plunderers, both Russian and French; -in part the deliberate work of patriotically-minded inhabitants.” The -conclusions of Mr Hereford B. George are: “On the face of the undoubted -facts there is no adequate evidence that the burning of Moscow was -deliberate, though there is of course no evidence that it was not.” - -Napoleon now hoped that Alexander would negotiate with him for -peace. The unexpected happened; the Czar showed the most determined -resolution. He realised that the entry into Moscow would have smaller -effects upon the final results of the campaign than the twin evils of -winter and famine which must necessarily follow unless what remained -of the Grand Army beat a speedy retreat. As for his own troops, they -were constantly reinforced, and had the additional advantage of being -hardened to the severe climate and the peculiar nature of the country. -Moreover many of the peasants, following the example of the Tyrolese -and the Spaniards, waged a savage guerrilla warfare whenever they had -an opportunity. - - - - -CHAPTER XXX - -The March of Humiliation - -(1812) - - -For several weeks the Emperor remained in Moscow anxiously awaiting -what he hoped would be a favourable answer to his proposals to -Alexander. “I am blamed,” he said, according to Ségur, “for not -retreating; but those who censure me do not consider that it requires -a month to reorganise the army and evacuate the hospitals; that, if -we abandon the wounded, the Cossacks will daily triumph over the sick -and the isolated men. A retreat will appear a flight; and Europe -will re-echo with the news. What a frightful course of perilous wars -will date from my first retrograde step! I knew well that Moscow, as -a military position, is worth nothing; but as a political point its -preservation is of inestimable value. The world regards me only as a -general, forgetting that I am an Emperor. In politics, you must never -retrace your steps: if you have committed a fault, you must never show -that you are conscious of it; error, steadily adhered to, becomes a -virtue in the eyes of posterity.” - -The Czar refusing to treat with the enemy at Moscow, Napoleon offered -in his desperation to withdraw his opposition to Russian plans -regarding Constantinople, hitherto the cause of so much bitterness--all -to no purpose. Alexander remained as adamant, and having previously -told Sir Robert Wilson, the British commissioner, that he would sooner -dig potatoes in Siberia than negotiate while a French soldier remained -in Russian territory, neither went back on his word nor regretted -it. European affairs were far too unsettled for Napoleon to take up -winter quarters. There was no alternative but to order a retreat, to -“pocket his pride,” as schoolboys say. So the march which he knew must -humiliate him in the sight of both his allies and his enemies was begun -with what speed was possible in the circumstances. - - Gallant and gay they marched along, - Fair Russia to subdue. - Sneaking and sad they back return, - While brave Cossacks pursue. - - Cossacks in clouds, and crows and kites, - Surround them as they go, - And when they fall and sink in death, - Their winding sheet is snow. - -Thus run two stanzas of a poem written in the manner of the famous -“John Gilpin” and published in London. If it is not particularly -good poetry it is true history. At first Napoleon hoped by marching -southward to find territory less devastated and poverty-stricken than -that through which he had passed. In this he was frustrated by a -conflict which took place between Eugène’s corps and the army under -Kutusoff. The Viceroy of Italy captured Malojaroslavetz only to find -that he had won a barren victory at extreme cost, leaving the Russians -posted securely on the hills at the back of the ruined town. The -Emperor had wished to push on; the enemy’s position prevented it. Had -he known that Kutusoff had previously arranged to retreat if he were -attacked, Napoleon would not have hesitated. He weighed the matter in -his own mind and discussed it with his Marshals, finally coming to the -conclusion that his army must of necessity retire by the road along -which it had advanced, or in the expressive terms of Labaume, via “the -desert which we ourselves had made.” - -Werestchagin’s picture of the retreat conveys some idea of the tragedy. -There is the stern and unbending Emperor wearing the crown of fir cones -which he wore at this time, and followed by his dejected staff and the -empty carriage. We can almost hear the crunch of the snow as it powders -under foot, catch the low murmurings of the disillusioned men as they -trudge along the uneven roadway, and feel the icy grip and stinging -smart of the cruel wind. And yet the artist’s conception, vivid beyond -question, cannot bring home to us a tithe of the terrors and misery of -that awful march. Horses stumbled and perished, men fell by the wayside -and died of hunger and cold, some flung away their arms in sheer -despair, others tramped on like machines, cognisant only of the bitter -blast which froze their moustaches and whistled through their tattered -garments. - -According to Labaume, the first snow fell on the 6th November, when the -army was tramping towards Smolensk comforted by the thought that in -three days they would reach their destination and secure some kind of -rude shelter, “when suddenly the atmosphere, which had hitherto been -brilliant, was clouded by cold and dense vapours. The sun, enveloped by -the thickest mists, disappeared from our sight, and the snow falling in -large flakes, in an instant obscured the day, and confounded the earth -with the sky. The wind, furiously blowing, howled dreadfully through -the forests, and overwhelmed the firs already bent down with the ice; -while the country around, as far as the eye could reach, presented -unbroken one white and savage appearance. - -“The soldiers, vainly struggling with the snow and the wind, that -rushed upon them with tempestuous violence, could no longer distinguish -the road; and falling into the ditches which bordered it, there found -a grave. Others pressed on their journey, though scarcely able to drag -themselves along. They were badly mounted, badly clothed, with nothing -to eat, nothing to drink, shivering with cold, and groaning with pain. -Becoming selfish through despair, they afforded neither succour nor -even one glance of pity to those who, exhausted by fatigue and disease, -expired around them. On that dreadful day, how many unfortunate beings, -perishing by cold and famine, struggled hard with the agonies of death! -We heard some of them faintly bidding adieu to their friends and -comrades. Others, as they drew their last breath, pronounced the name -of their mothers, their wives, their native country, which they were -never more to see; the rigour of the frost seized on their benumbed -limbs, and penetrated through their whole frame. Stretched on the road, -we could distinguish only the heaps of snow that covered them, and -which, at almost every step, formed little undulations, like so many -graves. At the same time vast flights of ravens, abandoning the plain -to take refuge in the neighbouring forests, croaked ominously as they -passed over our heads; and troops of dogs, which had followed us from -Moscow, and lived solely on our mangled remains, howled around us, as -if they would hasten the period when we were to become their prey. - -“From that day the army lost its courage and its military attitude. -The soldier no longer obeyed his officer; the officer separated -himself from his general; the disbanded regiments marched in disorder; -searching for food, they spread themselves over the plain, pillaging -whatever fell in their way. No sooner had the soldiers separated from -the ranks, than they were assailed by a population eager to avenge -the horrors of which it had been the victim. The Cossacks came to the -succour of the peasants, and drove back to the great road, already -filled with the dying and the dead, those of the followers who escaped -from the carnage made among them.” - -[Illustration: Marshal Ney defending the Rearguard - -By Adolphe Yvon - -By permission of Braun, Clément & Co., Dornach (Alsace)] - -At the little town of Dorogobuï, previously burnt by the Emperor’s -orders, practically no comfort could be obtained. “The few houses that -remained,” says Labaume, “were occupied exclusively by a small number -of generals and staff-officers. The soldiers who yet dared to face the -enemy, had little shelter from the rigours of the season, while the -others, who had wandered from their proper corps, were repulsed on -every side, and found no asylum in any part of the camp. How deplorable -was then the situation of these poor wretches! Tormented by hunger, we -saw them run after every horse the moment it fell. They devoured it -raw, like dogs, and fought among themselves for the mangled limbs. Worn -out by want of sleep and long marches, they saw nothing around them but -snow; not one spot appeared on which they could sit or lie. Penetrated -with the cold, they wandered on every side to find wood, but the snow -had caused it entirely to disappear; if perchance they found a little, -they knew not where to light it. Did they discover a spot less exposed -than others, it afforded them but a momentary shelter, for scarcely -had their fire kindled, when the violence of the wind extinguished -it, and deprived them of the only consolation which remained in their -extreme distress. We saw crowds of them huddled together like beasts at -the root of a beech or pine, or under a waggon. Others were employed in -tearing huge branches from the trees, or pulling down by main force, -and burning the houses at which the officers lodged. Although they were -exhausted by fatigue, they stood erect; they wandered like spectres -through the livelong night, or stood immovable around some enormous -fire.” - -Smolensk was reached on the 9th November. During the few days that were -spent there the soldiers lost all idea of discipline and pillaged the -rations, with the result that while some had plenty others starved. -After having made his way to Krasnoi, largely owing to the slow advance -of the enemy, Napoleon was joined by Eugène and Davout, and on the -19th the ice-bound Dnieper was crossed. Ney and the rear-guard, unable -to come up with the Emperor in time, sustained a heavy loss. But they -fought on, and when they rejoined the main army the corps had dwindled -to such an extent that it numbered but 900 men. - -Marching towards the Beresina river, Napoleon gave orders for bridges -to be hastily constructed. Although there were frequent delays owing to -breakdowns, many of the troops and some of the artillery passed over in -safety. Consequently, when the Russians appeared they found the French -on both banks. Victor, Oudinot, and Ney, recognising the extremely -serious predicament in which they were placed, fought so determinedly -that the remaining troops, excepting only Victor’s rear-guard and -some thousands of undesirable camp-followers, were enabled to cross -the river. The undertaking was attended by a frightful loss of life, -variously estimated at from 20,000 to 25,000 men. At Smorgoni the -Emperor, filled with anxiety for the future of his throne and of -France, took leave of his Marshals after telling them that he would -raise another powerful army, entered his travelling-carriage and was -whirled away to Paris as fast as the horses could draw the lumbering -vehicle. Twice he narrowly escaped assassination, and the knowledge of -a conspiracy engineered by Malet to shatter the Napoleonic dynasty, as -well as of continued disasters in the Peninsula, did not tend to sooth -his overwrought nerves. The mighty edifice he had erected seemed to be -crumbling away at the very moment when he had hoped to complete it. - -The remnants of the Grand Army dragged their flagging footsteps -to Vilna, commanded, if that word may properly be used, by Murat. -Disaster still dogged them, their strength grew feebler and feebler. -Only 100,000 troops, chiefly consisting of those under Schwarzenberg -and Macdonald, returned to their native land. Doubtless the survivors -thought sadly of the fate of half a million comrades, some of whom -still lived as prisoners or wanderers, while the majority lay stiff -and gaunt on the plains and in the forests of victorious Russia, their -winding-sheet the snow. At least 150,000 of the enemy kept them company -in death. No priest gave them holy sepulture, but the crows cawed a -funeral requiem. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXI - -The Beginning of the End--The Leipzig Campaign - -(1813) - - -“The Colossus,” said the Abbé Juda to Wellesley, “has feet of clay. -Attack it with vigour and resolution, and it will fall to pieces more -readily than you expect.” - -In the early days of 1813 the Iron Duke’s opportunity for following -the advice of the far-seeing Abbé was not yet come. Prussia, little -down-trodden and despised Prussia, with a population of scarcely more -than four and a half millions, was to pave the way for the liberation -of Europe. When Napoleon had humbled the kingdom by the creation of -the Confederation of the Rhine and fixed the Prussian army at the -absurdly low number of 40,000 men--a mere handful compared with his own -immense armament--he expected no further trouble from King Frederick -William III. The Emperor understood the character of the monarch well -enough, and he knew sufficient of Stein’s patriotic ideals to insist -on his dismissal from office. But such a spirit as Stein’s was not to -be easily curbed. Napoleon, instead of pouring water on the former -Minister’s zeal had simply added fuel to the flames. Stein, free from -the exacting cares of State, proved to be more dangerous than before. -He and Sir Robert Wilson had fortified the failing courage of Alexander -when Napoleon awaited the Czar’s peace overtures in the Kremlin; he -and others now came to the aid of their own king, and like Aaron and -Hur who held up the feeble arms of Moses at the battle of Rephidim, -gave strength to the wavering faith of Frederick William III. There is -much truth in Treitschke’s statement that “Every step which has been -taken in this (the 19th) century towards German unity, has been the -realisation of some thought of Stein’s.” - -The conditions of life in Prussia had improved immensely since Jena. -Before that decisive defeat it was a land of castes, just as India is -to-day, and the agricultural classes serfs, as were the peasants of -France before the Revolution. Civilised slavery was now abolished; -there was a revival of learning; most important of all, for practical -purposes at the moment, there was a revival of patriotism. - -Public opinion in Prussia was against Napoleon, but moral force alone -could not prove his undoing. Fortunately the country possessed a -military genius in Scharnhorst, who had caused thousands of men to pass -through the army while it still retained the normal strength allowed by -the Emperor of the French. Recruits took the place of the efficient, -and after necessary training, made way for others. This is the secret -of the 150,000 trained men whom the King of Prussia had at his call. - -An incident which did much to bring on the crisis which was felt to -be imminent on all sides was the desertion to the Russians of the -Prussian corps under General York. In the retreat from Russia, York -was in command of Macdonald’s rear-guard. The Marshal, leading the -centre, duly arrived at Tilsit, opened communications with Königsberg, -and waited for York. At first Macdonald thought that the Prussian -General had met with misfortune on the road, then rumour whispered of -treachery, and finally an officer who had been testing the ice on the -river informed him that he had seen the Prussians rapidly re-cross the -Niemen. “Good Heavens!” Macdonald exclaimed as the full force of the -blow became apparent to him, “we are betrayed--perhaps given up; but -we will sell our lives dearly.” His feeble forces, however, made their -way through the dense forest of Bömwald, and after a sharp skirmish -at Labiau, reached Königsberg. From thence they marched to Elbing, -crossed the frozen Vistula, and were soon within sight of the fortress -of Danzig. Here Macdonald handed over his command to General Rapp, the -Governor, and shortly afterwards was recalled to Paris to assist in the -organisation of new army corps. During an interview the Emperor frankly -admitted that he had been misled as to Prussia’s policy, and that the -campaign they were about to undertake would be “the last.” “He added,” -says Macdonald, “that he put implicit trust in his father-in-law, the -Emperor of Austria. ‘Beware!’ I answered. ‘Do not trust the clever -policy of that Cabinet.’” There was considerable justification for this -remark; the Austrian contingents had played but a half-hearted part in -the Russian campaign. - -What York had done was to take matters into his own hands and come to -terms with the Russians because he feared for the safety of his troops. -Diebitsch, the commander who suggested a conference, really played a -very good game of bluff. He had told York that he was intercepted, -whereas the Prussian forces were over seven times as strong as his -own! However, they arranged that the district around Memel and Tilsit -should be neutral territory until the Prussian monarch’s decision -should be received. “Strictly considered,” says Dr J. Holland Rose, -“this Convention was a grave breach of international law and an act of -treachery towards Napoleon. The King at first viewed it in that light; -but to all his subjects it seemed a noble and patriotic action. To -continue the war with Russia for the benefit of Napoleon would have -been an act of political suicide.” - -By a treaty ably engineered by the sleepless Stein and signed on the -27th February 1813, Prussia finally decided to throw down the gauntlet -and join Russia against Napoleon. In the following June Prussia -promised to raise 80,000 men for a subsidy of £700,000 from Great -Britain, Russia supplying double the number of troops for £1,400,000. -Even Sweden deserted the Emperor in March by agreeing to bring 30,000 -men into the field in return for a subsidy of £1,000,000 per annum from -England and the cession of Guadaloupe. Austria, while still pretending -to be friendly to the French cause, came to a secret understanding with -Russia in January 1813 for the cessation of hostilities. Afterwards -overtures for peace were made to Napoleon by a Congress held at Prague -in July.[5] “Napoleon,” says Mignet, “would not consent to diminished -grandeur; Europe would not consent to remain subject to him.” - - [5] See also p. 299. - -When Napoleon heard of the defection of Prussia he muttered, “It is -better to have a declared enemy than a doubtful ally”; as he left -St Cloud at dawn on the 15th April for the headquarters of the army -after having appointed the Empress regent during his absence, he said, -according to Caulaincourt, “I envy the lot of the meanest peasant of -my Empire. At my age he has discharged his debt to his country, and -he may remain at home, enjoying the society of his wife and children; -while I--I must fly to the camp and engage in the strife of war. Such -is the mandate of my inexplicable Destiny.” - -While the French were growing tired of the ceaseless struggle, they -had nobly supported the Emperor in his appeal for soldiers to fill the -gaps in the ranks caused by the campaign of 1812. No fewer than 350,000 -conscripts were voted, cities gave liberally and equipped volunteer -regiments, the people still seemed to be fascinated by his genius -and afraid of incurring his displeasure. But the army for the first -Saxon campaign was unlike the old army. There were too many youths -in it, fellows brave enough no doubt but unused to the rough life of -field and camp. Fortunately for the Emperor the best of his officers -had survived, and although Murat called his brother-in-law a madman, -they still believed in his sanity and ability. Had the King of Naples -termed Napoleon imprudent there would have been more justification in -his remark, for his constant warfare tended to become an obsession. -“I grew up in the field,” he told Metternich, “and a man like me -troubles himself little about the lives of a million of men.” This -was not the Napoleon of the Italian campaign, but a gambler, a man -who put his trust in material forces rather than in carefully-chosen -strategic positions, and swift, decisive strokes. De Fezensac had -noted Napoleon’s lack of care in the Polish campaign. “The order,” he -says, “must be executed without waiting for the means.... This habit -of attempting everything with the most feeble instruments, this wish -to overlook impossibilities, this unbounded assurance of success, -which at first helped to win us advantages, in the end became our -destruction.” - -At the opening of the campaign Russia and Prussia bore all the fighting -for the allies, their forces numbering 133,000. Kutusoff, until his -death in the early stages of the war, took command of the combined -forces; the right wing being under Wittgenstein, who succeeded him; -the left wing under Blücher. In point of numbers Napoleon was far -ahead, having some 200,000 troops at his disposal, divided into the -Army of the Elbe of 60,000, the Army of the Main of about 105,000, and -40,000 Italians and Bavarians. The Emperor’s first step was to occupy -Leipzig, not a difficult movement seeing that he had 145,000 men, -while the Allies had only 80,000 to bring to bear on any one point. -The headquarters of the latter were at Dresden. On the 3rd May 1813, -two days after an action at Weissenfels in which Marshal Bessières was -killed by a cannon-ball, the battle of Gross-Görschen (sometimes called -Lützen) was fought, the Russian and Prussian soldiers selling their -lives dearly for the cause they had so much at heart, indeed they lost -considerably less in killed and wounded than the enemy. There was a -disposition on the part of some of the French conscripts to run away at -the first taste of real warfare, but when Napoleon approached and said, -“Young men, I reckoned on you to save the Empire, and you fly!” they -took heart and fought as valiantly as the veterans. Both the Emperor of -Russia and the King of Prussia watched from an adjacent hill the great -sea of men contest the cluster of villages around which the battle -centred. It was not until Napoleon brought up reinforcements that the -fate of the day was decided in his favour, no fewer than four of the -five villages having fallen into the hands of the Allies, who now -retreated towards Dresden. Even then the fiery old Blücher--he was over -seventy--could not resist a cavalry charge within an hour of midnight. - -Sir Charles Stewart, the British Minister at the headquarters of -Frederick William III., thus records this desperately contested battle, -the prelude to what is usually called the first Saxon Campaign: - -“A very brisk cannonade commenced the action on both sides. The -villages of Gross and Klein Görschen were soon set on fire, and taken -by the Allied troops, but not without loss. Heavy bodies of cavalry -were sent to the left to prevent the enemy from turning that flank; and -the Allied troops were frequently drawn within the enemy’s fire without -producing the effect their exertions merited. The villages alluded to, -when taken, afforded no solid advantages, as the enemy were equally -strongly posted, barricaded, and entrenched in adjoining ones. - -“The cavalry of the Allies[6] (more especially the Prussians) advanced -often so rapidly upon the French infantry that they could not get -back to the strong villages from whence they had debouched, and they -consequently received the charges of the enemy in squares. Great -slaughter ensued, and the Prussian cavalry inspired their allies the -Russians with the greatest confidence and admiration. The action -continued in a struggle for the different villages of Lützen, the -Görschens, and Geras, which were taken and retaken several times, -the Görschens remaining, however, always in the hands of the Allies. -Towards the close of the day, however, a very strong column arrived -from Leipzig, belonging to Beauharnais’ corps, which threatened the -right of the Allies, and prevented their making further progress. They -remained on the ground they had so gallantly fought over, masters of -the field of battle. The Emperor of Russia, the King of Prussia, the -Princes of Prussia were present, animating the troops by the greatest -display of personal exertions and bravery. - - [6] Napoleon’s cavalry was very weak in this campaign owing - to the dearth of horses due to losses in the Russian - campaign. - -“The result of the battle was the capture of sixteen pieces of cannon, -some standards, and some hundreds of prisoners. The battle lasted from -ten o’clock in the morning till dark. It is very difficult to obtain -any correct information as to the loss of the enemy. That of the Allies -may be estimated at about 12,000 Prussians and 3,000 Russians _hors de -combat_. The main efforts in the action fell upon General Blücher’s -corps, who was himself wounded, as well as the chief of the Prussian -_État Major_, General Scharnhorst,[7] the latter severely. Many most -distinguished officers were killed and wounded, among the former the -Prince of Hesse-Homburg.” - - [7] He died shortly afterwards, on the 28th June. - -As a sequel to this battle Dresden was restored to the King of Saxony, -now only too glad to come to terms with his former friend after having -abandoned him. Napoleon soon followed up the advantage he had gained -by winning a second battle at Bautzen on the 20th and 21st May. The -enemy was forced to retire into Silesia, but they did so in good order -notwithstanding the severe fighting which continued, during which Duroc -was mortally wounded. “Farewell, my friend,” the Emperor said to the -dying general, “we shall see each other again, it may be ere long!” He -was so affected by the distressing scene that he refused to transact -any further military business that day. “Everything to-morrow,” was -the only answer he would vouchsafe to his astonished aides-de-camp. - -An armistice was now arranged, Austria making further overtures for -peace which it would have been wise for the Emperor to have accepted, -especially as they were by no means so preposterous as he made them -out to be. Briefly stated, the principal conditions were that the -boundaries of the Empire should be fixed at the Rhine, that Germany -should be evacuated and the title of Protector of the Confederation of -the Rhine given up, the handing over of Hamburg, Lübeck, and Bremen, -and the partition of unfortunate Poland once again between Austria, -Prussia, and Russia. Napoleon was scarcely civil to Metternich, the -Austrian Minister who was charged with the delicate mission. “But I -know what you desire in secret,” he said in his abrupt manner. “You -Austrians desire to get Italy entirely to yourselves; your friends the -Russians desire Poland; the Prussians are set on Saxony; the English -on Belgium and Holland. And if I yield to-day, you will to-morrow -demand of me those the objects of your most ardent desires. But before -you get them, prepare to raise millions of men, to shed the blood of -many generations, and to come to treat at the foot of Montmartre. Oh, -Metternich, how much has England given you to propose such terms to me?” - -“You persist then,” the Emperor concluded after a fierce war of words, -“in bidding me defiance; you will give the law to me? Be it so! Let it -be war, and the field of combat Vienna.” - -As a result of the armistice Austria threw in her lot with Russia, -Prussia, and Sweden, whose combined forces consequently outnumbered -those marching with the French colours. Now began a long series of -engagements in quick succession, the most important being the battle -of Dresden between the troops under Napoleon and Schwarzenberg on the -27th August, which ended in the retreat of the Allies, and the defeat -of the French at Kulm, where 10,000 prisoners were taken. After Dresden -the Emperor ordered the pursuit of the dejected Russo-Prussian columns, -but it was not carried out with sufficient energy to achieve decisive -results. - -Napoleon suddenly decided to return to Dresden, for what reason is -unknown; some authorities aver that he was taken ill. It seemed as -though the French had lost their prowess; Macdonald met with disaster, -Ney failed at Dennewitz when victory seemed in his grasp, Reynier was -forced to retreat, Bertrand to abandon Wartenburg. Everything was -going from bad to worse, but it was not Napoleon himself who met these -rebuffs it must be remembered. The Allies were still afraid of him. - -The Emperor now concentrated some 190,000 troops on Leipzig, the enemy -having at their command a possible 300,000, all of whom, however, -were not available at the beginning of the now famous “Battle of the -Nations.” This lasted from the 16th October till the 19th, and ended -in the defeat of Napoleon. During the four days no fewer than 120,000 -men were killed or wounded, eloquent proof of the awful nature of -the desperate conflict. Deserted by the Saxons, Würtembergers and -Bavarians, Napoleon fought his way to the Rhine, crossed the river, and -leaving his army, now reduced to about 70,000 men, arrived in Paris on -the 9th November. “The close of the campaign,” said Mignet, “was as -disastrous as that of the preceding one. France was threatened in its -own limits, as it had been in 1799; but the enthusiasm of independence -no longer existed, and the man who deprived it of its rights found it, -at this great crisis, incapable of sustaining him or defending itself. -The servitude of nations is, sooner or later, ever avenged.” The -concluding sentence sums up the whole philosophy of history. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXII - -The Conquest of the Conqueror - -(1814-1821) - - -The Allies now had the upper hand beyond the shadow of a doubt. -Napoleon the Conqueror--for he has surely as much right to that title -as William of Normandy--who had used the greater part of Europe as a -parade ground for his matchless legions, who had overturned thrones and -founded a dynasty in the modern nineteenth century, had been defeated -in two great campaigns. It is difficult to realise that he was now -only forty-four years of age, in the prime of life, but “One grows -old quickly on battlefields,” as he once remarked. His astounding -energy, physically if not mentally, was wearing out. Superactivity is a -consuming fire. - -[Illustration: 1814 - -By J. L. E. Meissonier - -By permission of Messrs. Goupil & Co.] - -Although the Allies had brought the Emperor to his knees, or almost -so, there was considerable difference of opinion among them as to -their next step. He had lost much; the Confederacy of the Rhine was -shattered, the greater part of Germany was unshackled, disasters had -occurred in Italy, the British were masters of the Peninsula, yet his -enemies wanted more. The Czar and England were the most determined; -Prussia, Sweden and Austria were lukewarm. They eventually agreed to -give the Emperor another chance, to offer terms humiliating without -doubt, but affording him an opportunity of restoring peace to -Europe, a blessing long desired but now absolutely necessary. The -boundaries of France were to be the Rhine, the Pyrenees, and the Alps. -He could accept them or choose the only alternative--war. The proud -nature of the man, the memory of former conquests, more especially of -the time when Alexander and Frederick William III. had been as so much -clay in his hands, made a negative answer practically certain, and -accordingly the terms of the Allies were refused. - -France was all but exhausted; Napoleon could raise not more than -200,000 troops against the 620,000 men who were with the Allies. -Still, he argued, it was worth the risk. The brilliant, dashing days -when he could take the offensive were gone, and in its turn Paris was -the objective of the enemy. On the 29th January 1814, four days after -he had left the capital, Napoleon attacked and defeated Blücher at -Brienne; at La Rothière on the 1st February, Blücher having received -reinforcements, the reverse was the case, the Emperor losing several -thousand men. There was again an offer of peace, more humiliating -than before, which met with no more favourable response. On the -10th February the Emperor was victorious at Braye, on the 11th at -Montmirail, on the 12th at Château-Thierry, on the 13th at Vauchamp. -It was but the final glory of the sun as it sinks below the horizon. -In the middle of the following month Wellington, having compelled -the French to retire from the Peninsula, after an extremely arduous -campaign, crossed the Pyrenees and occupied Bordeaux, while Napoleon -fought desperately at Craonne and Laon without decisive result, -Marmont’s corps sustaining heavy losses. The Emperor now turned his -attention to the main army under Schwarzenberg, but was obliged to -fall back upon St Dizier. Meanwhile Marmont and Mortier were taking -measures for the defence of Paris, upon which the Allies were marching. -The Marshals did their best but were overwhelmed, and eventually, -acting on the advice of Napoleon’s brothers, Joseph and Jerome, -arranged an armistice. Paris, the scene of so much splendour and glory -under the Imperial _régime_, capitulated. The Emperor, marching to the -relief of the capital when it was too late, heard the awful news from -some straggling soldiers at a post-house while his carriage-horses were -being changed. “These men are mad!” cried the Emperor, “the thing is -impossible.” When he found that the announcement was only too true, -large beads of perspiration stood out on his forehead. “He turned to -Caulaincourt,” writes Macdonald, “and said, ‘Do you hear that?’ with a -fixed gaze that made him shudder.” - -Napoleon retired to Fontainebleau and discussed the terrible situation -with Oudinot, Maret, Caulaincourt, Ney, Macdonald, Berthier, Lefebvre -and others. He asked Macdonald what opinions were held by his soldiers -as to the surrender of Paris, and whether they would be willing to make -an attempt to regain the city. - -“They share our grief,” the Marshal replied, “and I come now to declare -to you that they will not expose Paris to the fate of Moscow. We -think we have done enough, have given sufficient proof of our earnest -desire to save France from the calamities that are now crowding upon -her, without risking an attempt which would be more than unequal, -and which can only end in losing everything. The troops are dying of -hunger in the midst of their own country, reduced in number though -they are by the disastrous events of the campaign, by privation, -sickness, and, I must add, by discouragement. Since the occupation -of the capital a large number of soldiers have retired to their own -homes, and the remainder cannot find enough to live upon in the forest -of Fontainebleau. If they advance they will find themselves in an open -plain; our cavalry is weakened and exhausted; our horses can go no -farther; we have not enough ammunition for one skirmish, and no means -of procuring more. If we fail, moreover, as we most probably shall, -what remains of us will be destroyed, and the whole of France will be -at the mercy of the enemy. We can still impose upon them; let us retain -our attitude. Our mind is made up; whatever decision is arrived at, -we are determined to have no more to do with it. For my own part, I -declare to you that my sword shall never be drawn against Frenchmen, -nor dyed with French blood. Whatever may be decided upon, we have had -enough of this unlucky war without kindling civil war.” - -The Emperor was quite calm; he met his defeat with less apparent -concern than in the old days when a minor error had instantly provoked -a violent outburst of temper. Taking up a pen he wrote an offer of -abdication on behalf of his son. Again and again he endeavoured to win -his old comrades-in-arms to his side ere he realised that the game was -up. On the 11th April 1814, he signed his own dismissal, making no -conditions, surrendering everything. - -“The Allied Powers,” he wrote, “having declared that the Emperor was -the sole obstacle to the re-establishment of peace in Europe, the -Emperor, faithful to his oaths, declares that he renounces, for himself -and his heirs, the thrones of France and Italy, and that there is no -sacrifice, not even that of life, which he is not ready to make for the -interest of France.” - -With mock generosity the Allies gave the former Emperor of the West the -tiny island of Elba as his future kingdom, an army of 400 men, and an -income of 2,000,000 francs a year--which was never paid. The Empress -and her son were granted the duchies of Parma, Placentia and Guastalla -and an ample subsidy, and the remaining members of the Bonaparte family -had no reason to complain of their treatment. - -Napoleon’s activity in his miniature possession, which is 17½ miles -wide and 12 miles from North to South, has been likened to a bluebottle -under a glass tumbler. He certainly imported considerable energy into -his administration, erected fortifications, built roads, created a -make-believe navy, and annexed the adjacent island of Palmaiola. It was -all useful dust to throw into the eyes of those who watched. On the -29th April 1814, Napoleon had set sail for Elba in the _Undaunted_, a -British vessel commanded by Captain Ussher; less than a year later, -on the 26th February 1815, he stepped on board the French brig -_Inconstant_ for his last desperate adventure. With 1050 troops he had -decided to invade France, to “reach Paris without firing a shot.” - -He had chosen a favourable time for putting into action the scheme -on which he had been secretly brooding. The Allies still quarrelled -amongst themselves, the Czar in particular showing a disposition -towards the others more warlike than pacific; some 300,000 troops had -been released from German fortresses, Spanish prisons, and British -hulks, and might rally around him; the Bourbons, who had been replaced -in power, were anything but popular, and people were beginning to -talk about “the good old times” when the insatiable French appetite -for glory had been appeased. On the first day of March the Commander -and his little army landed near Cannes and pushed on to Grenoble as -quickly as possible. The garrison did not seem particularly anxious -to listen to his overtures. Unbuttoning his coat he declaimed to the -soldiers, “Here is your Emperor; if any one would kill him, let him -fire!” This dramatic appeal was irresistible. The detachment instantly -joined him, followed by many others as he marched in the direction of -Paris. Peasants who would have heard with unfeigned delight of his -assassination ten months before, now saluted and cheered him as he -rode at the head of his rapidly increasing army, which included Ney -and the 6000 soldiers who had been sent to capture him. The new king -deemed it advisable to leave Paris; on the following day Napoleon -entered it and was again in the Tuileries. Without losing a moment he -began to reconstruct the Government. Great Britain, Russia, Austria, -and Prussia, declared him an outlaw, a step less serious than their -agreement to keep 600,000 troops under arms “till Bonaparte should have -been rendered absolutely incapable of stirring up further troubles.” At -the commencement of hostilities the Emperor had 125,000 men, the Allies -210,000. - -Of Napoleon’s campaign in Belgium little need be said. It was short -and it was decisive. On the 16th June 1815, he won his last victory -at Ligny, where he defeated the Prussians under Blücher, Wellington -gaining the battle of Quatre Bras against Ney. Two days later -Wellington and Blücher routed the French on the field of Waterloo. The -Iron Duke afterwards told Thomas Creevey that it was “the nearest run -thing you ever saw in your life.” - -[Illustration: The Flight from Waterloo - -By A. C. Gow, R.A. - -By permission of the Berlin Photographic Co., London, W.] - -“On the morning of the 18th,” relates Sir Hussey Vivian, who led a -British brigade, “about eleven o’clock, our advanced posts were driven -in, and we saw the enemy’s column advancing to attack us. - -“The firing soon began, and about one o’clock one of the most desperate -attacks I ever witnessed was made on the centre and left centre of our -line; this was defeated, and repeated twice, the armies constantly -mixed actually with each other, and the French always covering each -attack by the most tremendous cannonade you can possibly imagine. With -respect to the particular situation in which my brigade was placed, -it did not suffer much until towards the last attack; the ground on -the left did not admit of the cavalry advancing, and I, being on the -left of all, consequently suffered only from the cannonade. About six -o’clock, however, I learnt that the cavalry in the centre had suffered -dreadfully, and the Prussians about that time having formed to my left, -I took upon myself to move off from our left, and halted directly to -the centre of our line, where I arrived most opportunely at the instant -that Bonaparte was making his last and most desperate effort. And never -did I witness anything so terrific: the ground actually covered with -dead and dying, cannon shot and shells flying thicker than I ever heard -musquetry. - -“In this state of affairs I wheeled my brigade into line close (within -ten yards) in the rear of our infantry, and prepared to charge the -instant they had retreated through my intervals (the three squadron -officers were wounded at this instant). This, however, gave them -confidence, and the brigades that were literally running away halted -on our cheering them and again began fighting. The enemy on their part -began to waver. The Duke observed it, and ordered the infantry to -advance. I immediately wheeled the brigade by half-squadrons to the -right and in column over the dead and dying, trotted round the right of -our infantry, passed the French infantry, and formed lines of regiments -on the first half-squadrons. With the 10th I charged a body of French -Cuirassiers and Lancers infinitely superior to them, and completely -routed them. I then went to the 18th, and charged a second body that -was supporting a square of Imperial Guards, and the 18th not only -defeated them, but took fourteen pieces of cannon that had been firing -grape at us during our movement. I then, with the 10th, having reformed -them, charged a square of infantry, Imperial Guards, the men of which -we cut down in the ranks, and here the last shot was fired--from this -moment all was deroute.... I never saw such a day, nor any one else.” - -In confirmation of the last statement Sir Harry Smith, who also fought -under Wellington in this campaign, says “I had never seen anything to -be compared with what I saw,” excepting only “one spot at New Orleans, -and the breach of Badajos.” He adds a description of the field as he -observed it on the following day: - -“At Waterloo,” he writes, “the whole field from right to left was a -mass of dead bodies. In one spot, to the right of La Haye Sainte, the -French Cuirassiers were literally piled on each other; many soldiers -not wounded lying under their horses; others, fearfully wounded, -occasionally with their horses struggling upon their wounded bodies. -The sight was sickening, and I had no means or power to assist them. -Imperative duty compelled me to the field of my comrades, where I had -plenty to do to assist many who had been left out all night; some had -been believed to be dead, but the spark of life had returned. All over -the field you saw officers, and as many soldiers as were permitted to -leave the ranks, leaning and weeping over some dead or dying brother -or comrade. The battle was fought on a Sunday, the 18th June, and I -repeated to myself a verse from the Psalms of that day--91st Psalm, -7th verse: ‘A thousand shall fall at thy side, and ten thousand at thy -right hand, but it shall not come nigh thee.’ I blessed Almighty God -our Duke was spared, and galloped to my General, whom I found with some -breakfast awaiting my arrival.” In Sir Harry’s opinion “Napoleon fought -the battle badly, his attacks were not simultaneous, but partial and -isolated, and enabled the Duke to repel each by a concentration.” - -A fleeting glimpse of the fallen Colossus as he rushes towards Paris -is afforded us by Alexandre Dumas, then staying with his mother at the -posting-house of Villers-Cotterets, about fifty-five miles from the -capital. The novelist had seen the Emperor pass through the little town -before the crushing conflict. He had then been accompanied by General -Letort and Jerome Bonaparte. Says Dumas: - -“At seven o’clock a courier arrived; he was covered with mud, his horse -shook from head to foot, and was ready to drop with fatigue. He ordered -four horses to be ready for a carriage which was following him, then he -leapt on his horse and set off on his journey again. - -“It was in vain we questioned him; he either knew nothing or would not -say anything. - -“The four horses were taken out of the stables and harnessed in -readiness for the carriage: a rapidly approaching heavy rumble -announced it was coming, soon we saw it appear round the corner of the -street and draw up at the door. - -“The master of the post came forward and stood stupefied. I took hold -of his coat tails and asked: ‘It is he? the Emperor?’ - -“‘Yes.’ - -“It was indeed the Emperor, just in the same place and carriage, with -one aide-de-camp near him and one opposite him, as I had seen him -before. But his companions were neither Jerome nor Letort. Letort was -killed, and Jerome was commissioned to rally the army by Laon. - -“It was just the same man, it was just the same pale, sickly, impassive -face, but his head was bent a little more forward on his chest. - -“Was it merely from fatigue, or from grief at having staked the world -and lost it? - -“As on the first occasion, he raised his head when he felt the carriage -pull up, and threw exactly vague look around him which became so -penetrating when he fixed it upon a person or scanned the horizon, -those two unknown elements behind which danger might always lurk. - -“‘Where are we?’ he asked. - -“‘At Villers-Cotterets, sire.’ - -“‘Good! eighteen leagues from Paris?’ - -“‘Yes, sire.’ - -“‘Go on.’” - -In his second abdication, signed on the 22nd June, the Emperor declared -that his public life was finished, and proclaimed his son as Napoleon -II., Emperor of the French. But the child for whom his father had -anticipated so glorious a career in 1811, who had been born with the -mighty title of King of Rome, was never destined to wear the crown of -France. That insignia of royal rank was donned once more by Louis XVIII. - -The mighty conqueror had run his course. He threw himself on the mercy -of the nation to which he had shown no mercy, and which he had hated -with exceeding hatred. Great Britain consigned him to the island rock -of St Helena, far away on the broad bosom of the Atlantic, and in the -well-known picture by the late Sir W. Q. Orchardson, “Napoleon on the -‘Bellerophon,’” we see Napoleon taking his final farewell of France. -He stands alone, bearing, in place of the weight of Empire, the almost -insupportable burden of shattered hopes. Gone dynasty and throne and -kindred, everything that was worth while in his complex life, but the -Imperial Dignity will never be discarded. He remains Napoleon the -Great. The rigidity of the mouth and the stern and unbending demeanour -tell you that the will is still unconquered. - -[Illustration: Napoleon on Board the “Bellerophon” - -By Sir W. Q. Orchardson, R.A. - -By permission of the Berlin Photographic Co., London, W.] - -His “star” had led him far from insignificant Ajaccio and was now -leading him still further. Unknown lad, cadet, lieutenant, general, -emperor, statesman, constructor, destructor, he had been all, and more. -Destiny had now set him a far more difficult task, namely, to reign -over himself. In this he was perhaps less successful than myriads who -have gone down to the grave in silence, and whose names find no place -in the printed page or the scrolls of history. In lonely St Helena, -isolated from other human habitation, spied on by soldiers of the army -which had done so much to bring about his downfall, but surrounded -by a little band of men who refused to desert him in his last days -of trial and despair, he spent the remainder of a life which had -been lived to the full. Sometimes his old enthusiasm would revive as -he reviewed the history of a campaign, at others he would show the -capriciousness of a spoilt child at the over-conscientious sense of -duty displayed by Sir Hudson Lowe, the Governor of the island. It is -perhaps a more dramatic ending to so marvellous a story than if he had -fallen in battle. Many men have met their death in that way, but there -has been but one Imperial prisoner at St Helena, the exiled monarch -whose soul took its flight on the stormy night of the 5th May 1821. - - “The glories of our blood and state - Are shadows, not substantial things; - There is no armour against fate; - Death lays his icy hand on kings; - Sceptre and crown - Must tumble down, - And in the dust be equal made - With the poor crooked scythe and spade.” - -“I desire that my ashes may repose on the banks of the Seine, in the -midst of the French people I have loved so well,” wrote Napoleon in his -will, and the nation responded with emotion to the wish of its great -Son. They forgot that he had lavished French treasure and resources as -a spendthrift, that his insane ambitions had brought them financial and -political ruin; they forgave him that he had led the youth of France -to the shambles and had bereaved their homes of fathers, of husbands, -of brothers, of sons. They remembered only that he had glorified -France, and in the midst of beautiful Paris they raised the most noble -Tomb that the genius of modern times has conceived. It is a sacred -place of pilgrimage to every son and daughter of France, and men and -women of other nations pass, a continual stream, before the massive -sarcophagus which--oh, irony of fate!--was hewn out of a Russian -quarry, the memorial tribute of Czar Nicholas I. to his brother’s -mighty antagonist. None who enters that quiet place fails to bow the -head before those ashes, and we, too, perhaps from afar, may reflect -one moment upon the vanity of human glory and ponder the eternal truth: - - “Only the actions of the just - Smell sweet, and blossom in their dust.” - -[Illustration: The less deeply shaded portion shows the extent of the -French Empire at the height of Napoleon’s power. The darker part shows -its diminished size after 1815.] - - - - -Index - - - Abensberg, 224 - - Acre, 101-2 - - Ajaccio, 15, 34, 39, 41, 44, 52, 55, 92, 105 - - Alexander I., 123, 178, 298, 306 - - Alexandria, 94, 95 - - Amiens (Treaty), 124, 131 - - Arcola, 85 - - Aspern, 236, 237 - - Augsburg, 148, 220 - - Austerlitz, 150, 153 - - Auxonne, 34, 39, 41, 42 - - Avignon, 59, 233 - - - Bagration, Prince, 175, 272, 273, 278 - - Barras, 71, 72, 107 - - Bartenstein, Treaty of, 173 - - Bastia, 38, 39, 54, 55 - - Bautzen, Battle of, 298 - - Beauharnais, Josephine de, 72, 139, 249, 250, 251 - - Beauharnais, Eugene, 119, 140, 241, 268 - - Bennigsen, General, 168, 169, 173, 176, 177 - - Beresina River, 289 - - Berlin, Decree of, 181, 182 - - Bernadotte, General, 138, 147, 149, 159, 167, 170 - - Berthier (War Minister), 75, 80, 104, 107, 111, 115, 154, 210, 223, - 304 - - Bessières, Marshal, 119, 138, 200, 296 - - Bey, Murad, 96, 99, 100, 103 - - Blücher, General, 167, 296, 297, 298, 303, 307 - - Bocognano, 54 - - Bonaparte, Charles, 17, 20 - - ” Letizia, 16, 33, 59 - - Bonaparte, Louis, 41, 49, 69, 85, 154, 195, 253, 254 - - ” Jerome, 272, 304 - - ” Joseph, 16, 19, 44, 48, 54, 59, 68, 154, 171, 196, 304 - - ” Lucien, 18, 28, 33, 53, 59, 107, 109, 255 - - ” ” (Archdeacon), 18, 33, 44 - - ” Élise, 51 - - Borodino, Battle of, 277, 278 - - Boulogne, 133, 139, 143, 153 - - Bourrienne, 25, 27, 47, 69, 89, 101, 123, 183, 235 - - Brienne, 22, 27, 28, 303 - - Brueys, Admiral, 93, 97, 98 - - Brunswick, Duke of, 164 - - Burgos, Battle of, 213 - - - Cagliari, 52 - - Cairo, 95 - - Campo Formio, Treaty of, 88 - - Carteaux, 60, 65 - - Casa-Bianca, Commodore, 98 - - Charles, Archduke, 88, 147, 150, 221 - - Charles IV. (Spain), 194, 195, 196 - - Cintra, Convention of, 204 - - Clary, Mlle. Désirée, 68 - - Copenhagen, 123, 188, 189 - - Corsica, 15, 33, 34, 38, 39, 44, 66, 69, 202 - - Coruña, Battle of, 216 - - - Danzig, 175 - - D’Enghien, Duc, 135 - - Desaix, General, 93, 99, 117, 119 - - Dnieper River, 289 - - Doppet, 60, 62, 65 - - Dresden, 259, 260, 261, 297, 298, 300 - - Dugommier, General, 61, 63 - - Dumouriez, General, 57, 58 - - Duroc, General, 75, 104, 298 - - - Ebelsberg (Ebersberg), 229 - - Eckmühl, Battle of, 226 - - El Arish, 100 - - Elba, Isle of, 141, 167, 259, 306 - - Erfurt, 207, 208, 211 - - Essling, 237 - - Etruria, 191, 195 - - Eylau, 170, 173 - - - Ferdinand, Archduke, 148 - - ” Prince Louis, 160 - - ” VII., King (Spain), 194, 195, 196 - - Flushing, 245 - - Fox, Charles James, 132, 156 - - Frederick, William III. (Prussia), 178, 239, 291, 292, 297 - - Fréjus, 105 - - Friedland, 175, 176 - - - Geneva, 115, 116 - - Genoa, 66, 92, 113 - - Godoy, Manuel, 192, 194, 195 - - Gross-Görschen (Lützen), Battle of, 296 - - - Hanover, 153, 156 - - Hohenlinden, Battle of, 121 - - Hood, Lord, 60, 63 - - - Jaffa, 100 - - Jemappes, Battle of, 57 - - Jena, Battle of, 158, 159, 160, 162, 173, 194, 207 - - John, Archduke, 150 - - Joubert, General, 88 - - Junot, General, 61, 75, 87, 183, 193, 202, 203, 204, 268 - - Junot, Madame, 31 - - - Kellerman, General, 119, 138 - - Kléber, General, 65, 93, 95, 101, 120 - - Königsberg, 170, 173, 174, 175, 177, 178, 265, 293 - - Kray, General, 114 - - Kulm, Battle of, 300 - - - Landgrafenberg, 162 - - Lannes, Marshal, 80, 104, 107, 108, 116, 117, 119, 138, 161, 226, 227, - 235, 236, 237 - - Leipzig, Campaign of, 291-301 - - Leoben, 88 - - Ligny, Battle of, 307 - - Lobau (Ile Napoléon), 238, 240, 241 - - Lodi, 80, 81, 85 - - Lonato, 84 - - Louis XVI., 37, 48, 49, 50, 57, 58 - - Lugo, 215-6 - - Lunéville, Treaty of, 122, 128, 131 - - Lützen, Battle of, 296 - - Lyons, 36, 43 - - - Macdonald, Marshal, 113, 229, 241, 243, 244, 290, 293, 300, 304 - - Madrid, 199, 213 - - Malta, 93, 96, 125 - - Mantua, 84, 87 - - Marbœuf, 20, 21 - - Marengo, 117, 120 - - Marie Antoinette, 47, 49 - - Marmont, Marshal, 104, 107, 147, 148, 241, 245, 304 - - Marseilles, 38, 60, 68 - - Masséna, Marshal, 65, 76, 80, 83, 84, 106, 138, 150, 220, 223, 245 - - Médola, 84 - - Milan, 76, 79, 82, 83, 116, 140, 182 - - Millesimo, 77, 79 - - Montebello, 117 - - Montenotte Pass, 76 - - Moore, Sir John, 202, 204, 212, 215, 217 - - Moreau, General, 113, 114, 121, 122, 135 - - Mortier, Marshal, 134, 138, 304 - - Moscow, 275, 279 - - Munich, 115 - - Murat, King of Naples, 83, 93, 104, 107, 138, 160, 167, 195, 198, 295 - - - Naples, 113, 196 - - Nelson, Admiral, 94, 97, 123, 133, 142, 143, 149, 215 - - Ney, Marshal, 128, 138, 150, 170, 175, 264, 273, 289, 307 - - Nice, 64, 74, 77 - - - Oudinot, General, 264, 289, 304 - - - Paoli, Pascal, 16, 36, 39, 52, 53 - - Paris, Occupation of, 304 - - Parsdorf (Armistice), 115 - - Pichegru, M., 23, 135, 136 - - Piedmont, 76, 78, 127 - - Pitt, William, 125, 132, 140, 155, 211 - - Pius VI., Pope, 88 - - ” VII., Pope, 233 - - Prague, 294 - - Pressburg, Peace of, 153 - - Pyramids, Battle of the, 96 - - - Quatre Bras, Battle of, 307 - - - Rapp, General, 150, 235 - - Ratisbon, 220, 221, 223, 224, 228 - - Rémusat, Madame de, 39 - - Rivoli, 86 - - Robespierre, Augustan, 66, 72 - - ” Maximilien, 66 - - - Salicetti, 54, 64, 67 - - San Domingo, 129, 130 - - San Stefano, 52 - - Sardinia, 52, 93 - - Savary, General, 232 - - Savoy, 57, 77 - - Scharnhorst, General, 292, 298 - - Schönbrünn, Treaty of, 248, 258 - - Schwarzenberg, General, 264, 290, 304 - - Smith, Sir Sidney, 101, 102, 103, 193 - - Smolensk, 207, 274, 275, 286, 289 - - Soult, Marshal, 138, 147, 167, 213, 215 - - Staël, Madame de, 89, 183 - - St Cloud, 108 - - Stein, H. F. C. (Prussia), 206, 291, 294 - - St Helena, 50, 312 - - Strachan, Sir Richard, 245 - - - Tabor, Mt., 102 - - Talleyrand, 90, 107, 113, 154, 156, 210, 215 - - Tilsit, Peace of, 180, 191 - - Trafalgar, Battle of, 144 - - Treviso (Armistice), 122 - - Trinidad, 125 - - Toulon, 53, 56, 59, 60, 63, 92, 93, 141, 142 - - Turin, 77, 78, 79 - - Tyrol, 150, 153, 197, 246 - - - Ulm, 115, 148, 153 - - University of France, 186 - - - Valence, 30, 42 - - Victor, Marshal, 87, 289 - - Vienna, 122, 150, 233 - - Villeneuve, Admiral, 142, 143, 144 - - Vilna, 266, 268, 270, 290 - - Vimiero, 203 - - Vistula River, 169, 175, 293 - - Vitebsk, 207, 272, 277 - - - Wagram, 241, 244 - - Walcheren, Island of, 245, 254 - - Warsaw, 169, 246 - - Waterloo, 307, 310 - - Wellesley, Sir Arthur (Duke of Wellington), 188, 202, 203, 204, 303, - 307 - - - York, General, 292, 293 - - - Znaym, 245, 246 - - Zurich, 106 - -[Illustration] - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - -Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a -predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not -changed. - -Simple typographical errors were corrected; ambiguous hyphens at the -ends of lines were retained. - -Text contains several words that sometimes are hyphenated and sometimes -not, such as “battle-field” and “battlefield”; both forms have been -retained here. - -Index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Story of Napoleon, by Harold F. 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