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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: The Anatomy of Suicide - - -Author: Forbes Winslow - - - -Release Date: January 12, 2016 [eBook #50907] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ANATOMY OF SUICIDE*** - - -E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Turgut Dincer, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made -available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustration. - See 50907-h.htm or 50907-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/50907/50907-h/50907-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/50907/50907-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/anatomyofsuicide00wins - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - The original text contains some unpaired quotation marks - which could not be corrected with cofidence. - - - - - -[Illustration: Vide p. 331.] - - -THE ANATOMY OF SUICIDE: - -by - -FORBES WINSLOW, - -Member of the Royal College of Surgeons, London; -Author of “Physic and Physicians.” - - - “But is there yet no other way, besides - These painful passages; how we may come - To death, and mix with our connatural dust? - - * * * * * - - Nor love thy life, nor hate: but what thou liv’st - Live well; HOW LONG OR SHORT PERMIT TO HEAVEN.” - - MILTON. - - - - - - - -London: -Henry Renshaw, 356, Strand. -Sold By Carfrae & Son, Edinburgh; -And Fannin & Co., Dublin. -1840. - - - TO - - JAMES JOHNSON, ESQ., M.D. - - PHYSICIAN EXTRAORDINARY TO THE LATE KING, - ETC. ETC. - - This Work is dedicated, - - AS A TESTIMONY OF RESPECT FOR HIS HIGH PROFESSIONAL ATTAINMENTS, - - AND AS AN ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF THE - - ADVANTAGES DERIVED FROM A PERUSAL OF THE MANY ABLE WORKS - - WITH WHICH HE HAS ENRICHED - - THE MEDICAL LITERATURE OF HIS COUNTRY. - - - _London,—May, 1840._ - - - - -PREFACE. - - -This treatise had its origin in the following circumstance:—A -few months ago, the author had the honour of reading before the -_Westminster Medical Society_, a paper on “Suicide Medically -considered,” which giving rise to an animated discussion, and evolving -an expression of the opinions of several eminent professional men, -excited at the time much interest. - -It was the author’s object in his paper to establish a fact, he -believes, of primary importance,—that the disposition to commit -self-destruction is, to a great extent, amenable to those principles -which regulate our treatment of ordinary disease; and that, to a degree -more than is generally supposed, it originates in derangement of the -brain and abdominal viscera. - -Notwithstanding, however, these points were not considered with the -minuteness commensurate with their value, the discussion which followed -the author’s communication afforded him great satisfaction. It tended -to strengthen in his mind an opinion previously formed, that the -members of the medical profession were inferior to no other class in a -knowledge of those higher branches of philosophy that give dignity and -elevation to human character. - -To explain more fully the author’s views on the subject of Suicide is -the object of the present work, which is, strange to say, the first -in England that has been exclusively devoted to this important and -interesting branch of inquiry. - -Hitherto suicide has been the theme of the novel and the drama, and has -never, with the exception of an incidental notice in works on medical -jurisprudence, been considered in this country in reference to its -pathological and physiological character. - -That an intimate acquaintance with this branch of knowledge is highly -important to the medical philosopher, few will deny; that it is a -subject of general and painful interest, all must admit. The apparent -coolness with which suicide is often committed has induced many to -suppose that the unfortunate perpetrator was at the time in possession -of a sound mind; and it is this idea which has induced the profession -to conceive the subject as one foreign to their pursuits, and belonging -rather to the province of the moral philosopher. How far the author has -succeeded in disproving this opinion, it is for others to decide. - -He takes this opportunity of acknowledging the assistance he has -received from the writings of Pinel, Esquirol, Falret, Fodére, Arnold, -Crichton, Willis, Black, Haslam, Burrows, Conolly, Pritchard, Mayo, -Ellis, Paris, Smith, Beck, Taylor, and Ray. To the pages of Dr. -Johnson’s Medico-chirurgical Review, the Medical Gazette, the Lancet, -and British and Foreign Medical Review, he is also largely indebted. - -In conclusion, the author, conscious of its imperfections, claims for -his work no other praise than that it is the first attempt in this -country to reflect light on a branch of medical and moral philosophy, -the importance of which is only equalled by the difficulties impeding -its investigation. He will feel himself amply repaid, should his -introductory essay (for such only can it be considered) stimulate -others more competent than himself to prosecute the inquiry which he -has commenced. Their success will afford him much satisfaction and -pleasure; for in the attainment of their endeavours will his hopes be -fulfilled, and his ambition gratified. - - - LONDON,—MAY, 1840. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - SUICIDES OF THE ANCIENTS.—ANCIENT LAWS AND OPINIONS - ON THE SUBJECT OF SUICIDE. - - Examples of antiquity no defence of suicide—Causes of ancient - suicides—The suicides of Asdrubal, Nicocles, Isocrates, - Demosthenes, Hannibal, Mithridates, the inhabitants of - the city of Xanthus, Cato, Charondas, Lycurgus, Codrus, - Themistocles, Emperor Otho, Brutus and Cassius, Mark Antony - and Cleopatra, Petronius, Lucan, Lucius Vetus, Sardanapalus, - M. Curtius, Empedocles, Theoxena—Noble resistance of - Josephus—Scripture suicides: Samson, Saul, Ahitophel, Judas - Iscariot, Eleazar, Razis—Doctrines of the stoics, Seneca, - Epictetus, Zeno—Opinions of Cicero, Pliny, on suicide—Ancient - laws on suicide p. 1-29 - - - CHAPTER II. - - WRITERS IN DEFENCE OF SUICIDE. - - Opinions of Hume—Effect of his writings—Case of suicide caused - by—The doctrines of Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Montaigne - examined—Origin of Dr. Donne’s celebrated work—Madame de - Staël’s recantation—Robert of Normandy, Gibbon, Sir T. More, - and Robeck’s opinions considered p. 30-35 - - - CHAPTER III. - - SUICIDE A CRIME AGAINST GOD AND MAN.—IT IS NOT AN - ACT OF COURAGE. - - The sin of suicide—The notions of Paley on the - subject—Voltaire’s opinion—Is suicide self-murder?—Is it - forbidden in Scripture?—Shakspeare’s views on the subject—The - alliance between suicide and murder—Has a man a right to - sacrifice his own life?—Everything held upon trust—Suicide - a sin against ourselves and neighbour—It is not an act of - courage—Opinion of Q. Curtius on the subject—Buonaparte’s - denunciation of suicide—Dryden’s description of the suicide in - another world p. 36-44 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - ON THE INFLUENCE OF CERTAIN MENTAL STATES IN INDUCING - THE DISPOSITION TO SUICIDE. - - Moral causes of disease—Neglect of psychological - medicine—Mental philosophy a branch of medical study—Moral - causes of suicide—Tables of Falret, &c.—Influence of - remorse—Simon Brown, Charles IX. of France—Massacre of - St. Bartholomew—Terrible death of Cardinal Beaufort, from - remorse—The Chevalier de S——. Influence of disappointed - love—Suicide from love—Two singular cases—Effects of - jealousy—Othello—Suicide from this passion—The French opera - dancer—Suicide from wounded vanity—False pride—The remarkable - case of Villeneuve, as related by Buonaparte—Buonaparte’s - attempt at suicide—Ambition—Despair, cases of suicide from—The - Abbé de Rancé—Suicide from blind impulse—Cases—Mathews, - the comedian—Opinion of Esquirol on the subject—Ennui, - birth of—Common cause of suicide in France—Effect of - speculating in stocks—Defective education—Diffusion of - knowledge—“Socialism” a cause of self-destruction—Suicide - common in Germany—Werter—Goëthe’s attempt at suicide—Influence - of his writings on Hackman—Suicide from reading Tom Paine’s - “Age of Reason”—Suicide to avoid punishment—Most remarkable - illustrations—Political excitement—Nervous irritation—Love - of notoriety—Hereditary disposition—Is death painful? fully - considered, with cases—Influence of irreligion p. 45-107 - - - CHAPTER V. - - IMITATIVE, OR EPIDEMIC SUICIDE. - - Persons who act from impulse liable to be influenced—Principle - of imitation, a natural instinct—Cases related by Cabanis and - Tissot—The suicidal barbers—Epidemic suicide at the Hôtel - des Invalids—Sydenham’s epidemic—The ladies of Miletus—Dr. - Parrish’s case—Are insanity and suicide contagious? p. 108-114 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - SUICIDE FROM FASCINATION. - - Singular motives for committing suicide—A man who delighted - in torturing himself—A dangerous experiment—Pleasures of - carnage—Disposition to leap from precipices—Lord Byron’s - allusion to the influence of fascination—Miss Moyes and - the Monument—A man who could not trust himself with a - razor—Esquirol’s opinion of such cases—Danger of ascending - elevated places p. 115-120 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - OF THE ENTHUSIASM AND MENTAL IRRITABILITY WHICH, IF - ENCOURAGED, WOULD LEAD TO SUICIDE. - - Connexion between genius and insanity—Authors of fiction - often feel what they write—Metastasio in tears—The enthusiasm - of Pope, Alfieri, Dryden—Effects of the first reading of - Telemachus and Tasso on Madame Roland’s mind—Raffaelle and - his celebrated picture of the Transfiguration—The convulsions - of Malbranche—Beattie’s Essay on Truth—Influence of intense - study on Boerrhave’s mind—The demon of Spinello and - Luther—Bourdaloue and his violin—Byron’s sensitiveness—Men do - not always practise what they preach—Cases of Smollett, La - Fontaine, Sir Thomas More, Zimmerman—Tasso’s spectre—Johnson’s - superstition—Concluding remarks p. 121-129 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - PHYSICAL CAUSES OF SUICIDE. - - Influence of climate—The foggy climate of England does not - increase the number of suicides—Average number of suicides in - each month, from 1817 to 1826—Influence of seasons—Suicides - at Rouen—The English not a suicidal people—Philip Mordaunt’s - singular reasons for self-destruction—Causes of French - suicides—Influence of physical pain—Unnatural vices—Suicide - the effect of intoxication—Influence of hepatic disease - on the mind—Melancholy and hypochondriasis, Burton’s - account of—Cowper’s case of suicide—Particulars of his - extreme depression of spirits—Byron and Burns’s melancholy - from stomach and liver derangement—Influence of bodily - disease on the mind—Importance of paying attention to it—A - case of insanity from gastric irritation—Dr. Johnson’s - hypochondria—Hereditary suicide, illustrated by cases—Suicide - from blows on the head, and from moral shocks communicated to - the brain—Dr. G. Mantell’s valuable observations and cases - demonstrative of the point—Concluding remarks p. 130-161 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - MORAL TREATMENT OF SUICIDAL MANIA. - - Diseases of the brain not dissimilar to affections of other - organs—Early symptoms of insanity—The good effects of - having plenty to do—Occupation—Dr. Johnson’s opinion on the - subject—The pleasure derived from cultivating a taste for - the beauties of nature—Effect of volition on diseases of - the mind—Silent grief injurious to mental health—Treatment - of _ennui_—The time of danger, not the time of disease—The - Walcheren expedition—The retreat of the ten thousand Greeks - under Xenophon—Influence of music on the mind in the cure of - disease—Cure of epidemic suicide—Buonaparte’s remedy—How the - women of Miletus were cured of the disposition to suicide, and - other illustrations—Cases shewing how easily the disposition - to suicide may be diverted—On the cure of insanity by - stratagems—On the importance of removing the suicidal patient - from his own home—On the regulation of the passions p. 162-194 - - - CHAPTER X. - - PHYSICAL TREATMENT OF THE SUICIDAL DISPOSITION. - - On the dependence of irritability of temper on physical - disease—Voltaire and an Englishman agree to commit - suicide—The reasons that induced Voltaire to change his - mind—The ferocity of Robespierre accounted for—The state - of his body after death—The petulance of Pope dependent - on physical causes—Suicide from cerebral congestion, - treatment of—Advantages of bloodletting, with cases—Damien - insane—Cold applied to the head, of benefit—Good effects of - purgation—Suicide caused by a tape-worm—Early indications of - the disposition to suicide—The suicidal eye—Of the importance - of carefully watching persons disposed to suicide—Cunning - of such patients—Numerous illustrations—The fondness for a - particular mode of death—Dr. Burrows’ extraordinary case—Dr. - Conolly on the treatment of suicide—Cases shewing the - advantage of confinement p. 195-220 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - IS THE ACT OF SUICIDE THE RESULT OF INSANITY? - - The instinct of self-preservation—The love of life—Dr. - Wolcott’s death-bed—Anecdote of the Duke de Montebello—Louis - XI. of France—Singular death of a celebrated lawyer—Dr. - Johnson’s horror of dying—The organ of destruction - universal—Illustrations of its influence—Sir W. Scott, on - the motives that influence men in battle—Have we any test of - insanity?—Mental derangement not a specific disease—Importance - of keeping this in view—Insanity not always easily detected—Is - lowness of spirits an evidence of derangement?—The cunning - of lunatics—Esquirol’s opinion that insanity is always - present—Moral insanity—The remarkable case of Frederick of - Prussia—Suicide often the first symptom of insanity—Cases - in which persons have been restored to reason from loss - of blood, after attempting suicide—The cases of Cato, Sir - Samuel Romilly, Lord Castlereagh, Colton, and Chatterton, - examined—Concluding remarks p. 221-245 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - SUICIDE IN CONNEXION WITH MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE. - - The importance of medical evidence—The questions which medical - men have to consider in these cases—Signs of death from - strangulation—Singular positions in which the bodies of those - who have committed suicide have been found—The particulars of - the Prince de Condé’s case—On the possibility of voluntary - strangulation—General Pichegru’s singular case—The melancholy - history of Marc Antonie Calas—How to discover whether a person - was dead before thrown into water—Singular cases—Admiral - Caracciolo—Drowning in a bath—The points to keep in view in - cases of suspicious death—Was Sellis murdered?—Death from - wounds—The case of the Earl of Essex p. 246-264 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - STATISTICS OF SUICIDE. - - Number of suicides in the chief capitals of Europe from 1813 - to 1831—Statistics of death from violence in London from 1828 - to 1832—Number of suicides in London for a century and a - half—Suicides in Westminster from 1812 to 1836—Suicide more - frequent among men than women—Mode of committing—Influence of - age—Effect of the married state—Infantile suicides—M. Guerry - on suicides in France—Cases—Suicide and murder—Suicide in - Geneva p. 265-279 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - APPEARANCES PRESENTED AFTER DEATH IN THOSE WHO - HAVE COMMITTED SUICIDE. - - Thickness of cranium—State of membranes and vessels of - brain—Osseous excrescences—Appearances discovered in one - thousand three hundred and thirty-eight cases—Lesions of the - lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines—Effect of long-continued - indigestion p. 280-282 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - SINGULAR CASES OF SUICIDE. - - Introduction—Contempt of death—Eustace Budgel—M. de Boissy - and his wife—Mutual suicides from disappointed love—Suicide - from mortification—Mutual suicide from poverty—A French lady - while out shooting—A fisherman after praying—Determination to - commit if not cured—Extraordinary case after seduction—Madame - C. from remorse—M. de Pontalba after trying to murder his - daughter-in-law—Young lady in a pet—Sir George Dunbar—James - Sutherland while George III. was passing—Lancet given by a - wife to her husband to kill himself—Servant girl—Curious - verses by a suicide—Robber on being recognised—A man who - ordered a candle to be made of his fat—After gaming—Writing - whilst dying—From misfortune just at a moment of - relief—Curious papers written by a suicide—By heating a - barrel in the fire—By tearing out the brains—Sisters by the - injunction of their eldest sister—Mutual from poverty—Girl - from a dream—Three servants in one pond—Indifference as to - mode—By starvation—A man forty-five days without eating—Mutual - of two boys after dining at a restaurateur’s—By putting head - under the ice—By a pair of spectacles—By jumping amongst - the bears—Young lady from gambling—Verses by a suicide—To - obtain salvation—A lover after accidentally shooting his - mistress—Mutual attempt—M. Kleist and Madame Vogle—Richard - Smith and wife—Love and suicide—Bishop of Grenoble—Suicide - in a pail of water—Mutual suicide of two soldiers—Lord - Scarborough—A man who advertised to kill himself for benefit - of family—The case of Creech, and the romantic history of - Madame de Monier—Suicide of M. ——, after threatening to kill - his brother—Two young men—Two lovers—Homicide and suicide from - jealousy—Cure of penchant for suicide—Attempt at prevented—Man - in a belfry—Attempt at—The extraordinary case of Lovat by - crucifixion p. 283-334 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - CAN SUICIDE BE PREVENTED BY LEGISLATIVE ENACTMENTS?—INFLUENCE - OF MORAL INSTRUCTION.—CONCLUSION. - - The legitimate object of punishment—The argument of - Beccaria—A legal solecism—A suicide not amenable to human - tribunals—Evidence at coroners’ courts _ex-parte_—The old law - of no advantage—No penal-law will restrain a man from the - commission of suicide.—Verdict of _felo-de-se_ punishes the - innocent, and therefore unjust—All suicides insane, and - therefore not responsible agents—The man who reasons himself - into suicide not of sound mind—Rational mode of preventing - suicide by promoting religious education p. 335-340 - - - - -ERRATA. - - Page 46, for “mens conscia” &c. read _mens sana in corpore - sano_, and for “Horace” read JUVENAL. - - - - -ANATOMY OF SUICIDE. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -SUICIDES OF THE ANCIENTS.—ANCIENT LAWS AND OPINIONS ON THE SUBJECT OF -SUICIDE. - - - Examples of antiquity no defence of suicide—Causes of ancient - suicides—The suicides of Asdrubal, Nicocles, Isocrates, - Demosthenes, Hannibal, Mithridates, the inhabitants of - the city of Xanthus, Cato, Charondas, Lycurgus, Codrus, - Themistocles, Emperor Otho, Brutus and Cassius, Mark Antony - and Cleopatra, Petronius, Lucan, Lucius Vetus, Sardanapalus, - M. Curtius, Empedocles, Theoxena—Noble resistance of - Josephus—Scripture suicides: Samson, Saul, Ahitophel, Judas - Iscariot, Eleazar, Razis—Doctrines of the stoics, Seneca, - Epictetus, Zeno—Opinions of Cicero, Pliny, on suicide—Ancient - laws on suicide. - -Human actions are more under the influence of example than precept; -consequently, suicide has often been justified by an appeal to the -laws and customs of past ages. An undue reverence for the authority of -antiquity induces us to rely more upon what has been said or done in -former times, than upon the dictates of our own feelings and judgement. -Many have formed the most extravagant notions of honour, liberty, and -courage, and, under the impression that they were imitating the noble -example of some ancient hero, have sacrificed their lives. They urge -in their defence that suicide has been enjoined by positive laws, and -allowed by ancient custom; that the greatest and bravest nation in -the world practised it; and that the most wise and virtuous sect of -philosophers taught that it was an evidence of courage, magnanimity, -and virtue. There is no mode of reasoning so fallacious as that which -is constantly appealing to examples. A man who has made up his mind -to the adoption of a particular course can easily discover reasons -to justify himself in carrying out his preconceived opinions. If a -contemplated action, abstractedly considered, be good, cases may -be of service in illustrating it. There must be some test by which -to form a correct estimate of the justness or lawfulness of human -actions; and until we are agreed as to what ought to constitute that -standard, examples are perfectly useless. No inferences deduced from -the consideration of the suicides of antiquity can be logically applied -to modern instances. We live under a Christian dispensation. Our -notions of death, of honour, and of courage, are, in many respects, -so dissimilar from those which the ancients entertained, that the -subject of suicide is placed entirely on a different basis. In the -early periods of history, self-destruction was considered as an -evidence of courage; death was preferred to dishonour. These principles -were inculcated by celebrated philosophers, who exercised a great -influence over the minds of the people; and, in many instances, the -act of self-immolation constituted a part of their religion. Is it, -then, to be wondered at, that so many men, eminent for their genius, -and renowned for their valour, should, under such circumstances, have -sacrificed themselves? - -The famous suicides of antiquity generally resulted from one of three -causes:—First, it was practised by those who wished to avoid pain and -personal suffering of body and mind; secondly, when a person considered -the act as a necessary vindication of his honour; and thirdly, when -life was sacrificed as an example to others. - -The first class is the most excusable of the three. Pain, physical -or mental, puts a man’s courage severely to the test. He may have to -choose between the alternative of years of unmitigated anguish, or an -immediate release from torture. Need we feel surprise at many resorting -to the latter alternative, when they have been taught to believe death -either to be an eternal sleep, or a sure entrance into regions of -happiness! - -How many instances have we on record of persons who have dispatched -themselves to avoid falling into the hands of an enemy! The case of -the wife of Asdrubal, the Carthaginian general, is a famous instance -of the kind. Asdrubal had deserted his post, and had fled to Scipio; -and during his absence his wife took shelter with her troops in -the temple, which she set on fire. She then attired herself in her -richest robes, and holding her two children in her hands, addressed -Scipio—who had surrounded the building with his troops—in the following -language:—“You, O Roman, are only acting according to the laws of open -war; but may the gods of Carthage, and those in concert with them, -punish that false wretch who, by such a base desertion, has betrayed -his country, his gods, his wife, his children! Let him adorn thy gay -triumph; let him suffer in the sight of all Rome those indignities and -tortures he so justly merits!” - -The case of Nicocles, King of Paphos, in Cyprus, who committed suicide -in conjunction with his wife and daughter, on the approach of King -Ptolemy, is another in point. Isocrates, the celebrated Athenian -orator, starved himself to death, sooner than submit to the dominion of -Philip of Macedon. Demosthenes also poisoned himself, when Antipater, -Alexander’s ambassador, required the Athenians to deliver up their -orators, fearful of being subjected to slavery and disgrace. - -The persecution to which the Romans subjected Hannibal, after he was -oppressed with years and sunk in obscurity, impelled him to have -recourse to the poison which he always kept about him in a ring, -against sudden emergencies. Mithridates took poison, and administered -the same to his wives and daughters, in order to escape being taken -prisoner by Pompey, before whose victorious arms he had been compelled -to fly. - -The case of the inhabitants of the city of Xanthus is another -remarkable instance of the determination exhibited by thousands of -persons, resolved sooner to die by their own hands than submit to -the dominion of a conqueror. Notwithstanding the proffered clemency -of Brutus, who not only wept at the dreadful scene he witnessed, but -commanded his soldiers to extinguish the fire, and even offered a -reward for every inhabitant whose life was saved, the people were so -eager for death that they rushed into the flames with exclamations of -delight, and forceably drove back the soldiers who were sent by Brutus -for the purpose of saving their lives. - -The example of Cato is applauded by some writers as a proof of -magnanimity; the action was the reverse; it was the effect of pride -and timidity. If ever Rome required his experience and patriotic -counsels it was at that very period. To desert the duty which Rome had -a right to demand by a voluntary death was the meanest conduct in his -character. It stamped an indelible stain on his reputation, which only -a supposition that his intellect was impaired could rationally excuse. -It was not the virtuous Cato who had stemmed the torrent of tyranny, -who had crushed the Cataline conspiracy, who had given the most noble -examples of virtuous resolution and rectitude in moral conduct, but -the enfeebled Cato, sinking under the accumulation of evils, whose -soul was depressed with suspense and distracting passions, waiting an -opportunity for revenge, or preparing to finish his life on the first -disappointment. - -If such examples were admitted magnanimous, in any serious quarrel -or war, where success could not be commanded, it might be considered -laudable to commit suicide. The consequences of such reasoning would -be obvious. On such occasions, countries would lose their bravest -generals, private families their noblest and most experienced -supporters. - -“If I cannot acquire what I wish,” says Cato, “I will kill myself; -I will not live to grace Cæsar’s triumph, though I know Cæsar to be -the most generous and clement of conquerors; I cannot consent to -receive Cæsar’s favours. My pride is wounded; my fears destroy all -tranquillity; my body is sinking under adversity; I will not dedicate -my services to my distressed country under the auspices of successful -Cæsar. I will plunge a sword into my bosom, and commit an injustice to -myself, which through a long life I never committed to others. From -the uniformity of my former patriotic character, writers, without -deep reasoning, will paint this concluding action in glowing colours; -they will give additional lustre to an immortal reputation.” Such, -we conceive, were the secret springs of action in Cato’s mind; such -were the contending passions which excited the delirium. It was not -the placid, judicious Cato of former years, but the depressed Cato, -_impos mentis_, committing a rash action, contrary to all his former -great reasoning, and virtuous persevering conduct. It was, in fact, -Cato’s act of insanity; it was not dying to serve his country, but to -effectually rob Cæsar of his eminent services; it therefore appears -more the effect of private pique and despondency than a demonstration -of public virtue or courage. Had all others concerned in that civil -war followed this extraordinary example, the country would have -been robbed of many of its brightest ornaments. Cato could not say -with Horace, “Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori,” for it was not -for his countrymen that he died, but to gratify a selfish caprice, -a personal resentment and hatred to Cæsar and his power. Had Cæsar -attacked the city while Cato enjoyed a vigour of mind and body, and -when the citizens were better disciplined and less corrupt, he would -have despised such inglorious conduct; he would rather have hoped for -some future opportunity to dispel the dark clouds overwhelming the -distracted country. - -Physicians have frequent opportunities of observing the diminution of -human courage and wisdom from long continued misfortunes, or bodily -infirmities. The most lively, spirited, and enterprising, have become -depressed from reiterated disappointment; cowardice and despair have -succeeded to the most unquestionable bravery and ambition. The man -is then changed; his blood is changed; and with these his former -sentiments. The timidity is no longer Cato’s, but belongs to the -miserable _debilitated body_ of Cato, which had lost that _vigorous -soul_ that so eminently distinguished on other important occasions this -excellent and divine patriot. - -La Motte observes, with reference to Cato’s death— - - “Stern Cato, with more equal soul, - Had bowed to Cæsar’s wide control, - With Rome, had to her conqueror bowed, - But that his spirit, rough and proud, - Had not the courage to await - A pardoned foe’s too humbling fate.” - -Voltaire, in alluding to the lines quoted above, says, “It was, I -believe, because Cato’s soul was always equal, and retained to the last -its love for his country and her laws, that he chose rather to perish -with her than to crouch to the tyrant. He died as he had lived. - -“Incapable of surrendering, and to whom? to the enemy of Rome—to the -man who had forcibly robbed the public treasury in order to make war -upon his fellow citizens, and enslave them by means of their own -money. A pardoned foe! It seems as if La Motte Houdart was speaking of -some revolted subject who might have obtained his Majesty’s pardon by -letters in chancery. It seems (continues Voltaire) rather absurd to say -that Cato slew himself through weakness. None but a strong mind can -thus surmount the most powerful instinct of nature. This strength is -sometimes that of frenzy; but a frantic man is not weak.” - -In forming an estimate of the condition of Cato’s mind, we must not -look at him as delineated by the dramatist and poet, but as exhibited -by the historian and philosopher. Our notions of Cato are too often -based on Addison’s, and not Plutarch’s description of his character. -That Cato was one of the most complete and perfect examples in -antiquity of private manners and of public spirit cannot be questioned; -and therefore, in this respect, worthy to be held up as an example. -Sallust thus eulogizes Cato:—“His glory can neither be increased by -flattery nor lessened by detraction. He was one who chose to be, rather -than to appear good. He was the very image of virtue, and in all points -of disposition more like the gods than men. He never did right that he -might seem to do right, but because he could not do otherwise. That -only seemed to be reasonable which was just. Free from all human vices, -he was superior to the vicissitudes of fortune.” It was the dignity of -Cato’s life that stamped a celebrity on the mode of his death. - -In forming a judgment of the motives which led this distinguished -man to sacrifice his life, we must look at him in connexion with his -great enemy, Cæsar. He was not only opposed to him on public, but on -private grounds. Cæsar’s intimacy with Servilia, Cato’s sister, was -the ground of much conversation at Rome. During one of the debates -concerning the Cataline conspiracy, Cæsar received a letter whilst he -was in the senate house. Cato, who had intimated that Cæsar had been -privy to Cataline’s proceedings, and believing that the letter might -refer to the subject, from the manner in which Cæsar endeavoured to -conceal it, demanded that it should be handed over to him. The letter -was accordingly handed to Cato, when, perceiving that it was a letter -from Servilia to Cæsar, full of protestations of love to his deadliest -enemy, he threw it at Cæsar in a great rage, and called him a drunkard. -This, added to the circumstance of Cæsar’s complete triumph over him, -induced Cato to put an end to his own life. He did not commit suicide -to defeat usurpation, or to preserve the liberties and laws of Rome, -but it was done when he despaired of his country. It arose from his -horror of tyranny, and the feeling of intolerable shame at the prospect -of a long life under an arbitrary master. The superstructure of years -was in a moment levelled to the dust. He had to choose between death -or slavery. After the defeat at Thapsus, and hearing that Cæsar was -marching against him, Lucius Cæsar offered to intercede for Cato. His -answer was as follows:—“If I would save my life, I ought to go myself; -but I will not be beholden to the tyrant for any act of his injustice; -and ’tis unjust for him to pretend to pardon those as a lord over -whom he has no lawful power.” Although it was evident he was bent -upon suicide, he persuaded his son to go to Cæsar, and cautioned his -friend Statilius, whom Plutarch calls “a known Cæsar-hater,” not to -kill himself, but to submit to the conqueror. He then entered into a -discussion concerning liberty, which he carried on so violently that -his friends were apprehensive that he would lay hands on himself. -In consequence of this, his son removed his sword. Cato is then -represented as reading Plato’s Phædo, and then calling for his sword, -which they refused to bring him. He called a second and third time, and -in a fit of rage he struck the servant, and wounded him, and by doing -so, injured his own hand, which prevented him from effectually killing -himself with his weapon. After he had stabbed himself, his wound was -dressed; but so determined was he to sacrifice his life, that he tore -open the wound forcibly, and pulled his bowels out, and thus effected -his purpose.[1] - -It has been said that Addison approved of Cato’s self-murder. This -does not appear to be the fact, if we are to judge from the words which -he has put in the mouth of the dying hero— - - “I am sick to death; oh, when shall I get loose - From this vain world, the abode of guilt and sorrow! - And yet methinks a beam of light breaks in - On my departing soul. Alas, I fear - I have been too hasty! O ye powers that search - The heart of man, and weigh his inmost thoughts, - If I have done amiss, impute it not: - The best may err, but you are good, and—(_dies._)” - -Two celebrated instances amongst the Grecians of men who voluntarily -sacrificed their lives in order to maintain the dignity and importance -of their own institutions, are exhibited in the cases of Charondas and -Lycurgus. The former, in order to encourage a proper freedom of debate, -had made it death to come armed into the assembly of the states. One -day, coming himself in haste to a convention without having first laid -aside his sword, he was rebuked by some one present, as a transgressor -of his own laws. Stung with the justice of the imputation, he instantly -plunged the sword into his own heart, both as a sacrifice to the -violated majesty of the law, and a tremendous example of disinterested -justice; trusting, moreover, thus to seal with his own blood a strict -observance in others of his wholesome institutions. - -When Lycurgus had accomplished his great work of legislation in Sparta, -he took the following method of rendering his system unchangeable and -immortal. He stated that it was necessary that he should consult the -Delphian oracle relative to his new laws. He then made all the Spartan -magistrates and people take a solemn oath that they would observe -and keep his laws inviolate “till his return.” He accordingly went -to consult the oracle, and having sent back the answer in writing to -Sparta, “That the laws were excellent, and would render the people -great and happy who should observe them,” he resolved never to return -himself, in order that the people might never be absolved from their -oath. He accordingly starved himself to death. Plutarch considers -that Lycurgus reasoned himself into the act, under the belief that a -good statesman and patriot should seek to make his death itself in -some way useful to his country. The same authority considers that -he intended the mode of his death to be a practical illustration of -the great principle which pervaded the whole code of his laws, which -was—_temperance_. - -Alike honourable, in a worldly point of view, was the death of Codrus, -King of Athens. The oracle was consulted with reference to the -condition of the country. That nation was predicted to be prosperous -whose king should be first slain by the enemy. Codrus disguised himself -as a private soldier, and entered the enemy’s camp, where he contrived -to pick a quarrel with the first man he met, whom he permitted to slay -him; thus, for the good of his country, courting his own death. - -Themistocles is said to have poisoned himself rather than lead on the -Persian army against his own countrymen, although fame, wealth, and -honour were within his grasp. - -The Emperor Otho, to avoid the further sacrifice of life in the -imperial contest, resolved to die by his own hands, notwithstanding -his troops implored and beseeched him to lead them on to a second -engagement in which victory was almost certain. King Otho’s answer to -the demand of his soldiers is considered to embody the spirit of true -Roman heroism—“Deny me not the glory of laying down my own life to -preserve yours. The more hope there is left, the more honourable is my -early retirement; since it is by my death alone that I can prevent the -further effusion of Roman blood, and restore peace and tranquillity -to a distracted empire, by being ready to die for its peace and -security.”[2] - -Two of the most distinguished men of antiquity who sacrificed their -own lives were Brutus and Cassius. Before their battle with Cæsar -on the plains of Philippi, these two warriors had a conversation on -suicide. Cassius asked Brutus what his opinions were on the subject of -self-destruction, provided fortune did not favour them in the contest -in which they were about to be engaged. Brutus replied, that formerly -he had embraced such sentiments as induced him to condemn Cato for -killing himself; he deemed it an act of irreverence towards the gods, -and that it was no evidence of courage. But he continues, “Now, in -the midst of dangers, I am quite of another mind.” He then proceeds -to tell Cassius of his determination to surrender up his life “on the -Ides of March.” He states no particular reasons for having changed -his opinions on the subject of suicide. The issue of the battle is -well known. Many things conspired to damp the courage of Cassius and -Brutus. In imitation of Cæsar, Brutus made a public lustration for his -army in the field, and during the ceremony an unlucky omen is said to -have happened to Cassius. The garland he was to wear at the sacrifice -was given to him the wrong side outwards; the person, also, who bore -the golden image before Cassius stumbled, and the image fell to the -ground. Several birds of prey hovered about his camp, and swarms of -bees were seen within the trenches. Cassius, believing in the Epicurean -philosophy, considered all these circumstances as disheartening omens -of his fate. After the defeat of Cassius, he ordered his freedman to -kill him, which he did by severing his head from his body. - -Plutarch makes Brutus die most stoically. After having taken an -affectionate leave of his friends, and having assured them that he -was only angry with fortune for his country’s sake, since he esteemed -himself in his death more happy than his conquerors, he advised them to -provide for their own safety. He then retired, and, with the assistance -of Strato, he ran his sword through his body. Dion Cassius (Lib. xlvii.) -represents Brutus as far from acting the stoic at his last moments. He -is said just before his death to have quoted the following passage from -Euripides—“O wretched virtue! thou art a bare name! I mistook thee for -a substance; but thou thyself art the slave of fortune.” - -In considering the motives that induced Brutus to destroy himself, -we must not forget to take into calculation the effect which the -apparition he saw previous to the battle of Philippi must have had -on his mind. Brutus was naturally watchful, sparing in his diet, and -allowed himself but little time for sleep. He never retired to rest, -day or night, until he had arranged all his business. At this time, -involved as he was in the operations of war, and solicitous for the -event, he only slumbered a little after supper, and spent the remainder -of the night in attending to his most urgent affairs. When these were -dispatched, he occupied himself in reading till the third watch, when -the tribunes and centurions came to him for orders. Thus, a little -before he left Asia, he was sitting alone in his tent, by a dim light, -at a late hour. The whole army lay in sleep and silence, while Brutus, -wrapped in meditation, thought he perceived something enter his tent; -turning towards the door, he saw a monstrous and horrible spectre -standing by the side of his bed. “What art thou?” said he, boldly. -The spectre answered, “I am thy evil genius, Brutus! Thou wilt see -me at Philippi.” To which he calmly replied, “I’ll meet thee there.” -In the morning he communicated to Cassius what he had seen. Cassius, -who was an Epicurean, had often disputed with Brutus on the subject -of apparitions. He said, when he had heard the statement of Brutus, -that the spectre was not a spirit, but a real being; and argued at -considerable length on the subject, and induced the general to think -that his fate was decided. There can be no doubt but that this singular -presentiment co-operated with other circumstances in inducing Brutus to -fall by his own hands.[3] - -Amongst the ancient suicides, those of Mark Antony and Cleopatra -deserve especial consideration. It is not our purpose to enter into an -elaborate history of these celebrated characters, but merely to refer -to those circumstances that had an immediate connexion with their last -moments. - -Three circumstances acted powerfully on Antony’s mind in inducing him -to seek a voluntary death. The first was his having been defeated by -Cæsar; the second, the idea that Cleopatra had betrayed him; and the -third was the belief in Cleopatra’s death. - -As soon as Antony was defeated, the unhappy queen fled to her monument, -ordered all the doors to be barred, and commanded that Antony should -be informed that she was dead. He was overwhelmed with grief, and -retiring to his chamber, opened his coat of mail, and ordered his -faithful servant Eros (who had been engaged to kill him whenever he -should think it necessary) to dispatch him. Eros drew his sword, -and, instead of killing his master, ran it through his own body, and -fell dead at Antony’s feet. Antony then plunged his sword into his -bowels, and threw himself on the couch. The wound was not, however, -immediately fatal. In a short period after, Diomedes, Cleopatra’s -servant, came to Antony with a request that he would instantly repair -to her chamber. His delight was unbounded when he heard that Cleopatra -was alive, and he directly ordered his servant to carry him to her. -As she would not allow the doors to be opened, Antony was drawn up to -her window by a cord. He was suspended for a considerable time in the -air stretching out his hands to Cleopatra. Notwithstanding she exerted -all her strength, strained every nerve, and distorted her features -in endeavouring to draw him up, it was with the greatest difficulty -it was effected. Cleopatra laid him on the bed, and, standing over -him, so extreme was her anguish, that she rent her clothes, and beat -and wounded her breast. After Antony’s death, when Cleopatra heard -that Cæsar had dispatched Gallus to take her prisoner, and that he -had effected an entrance into the monument, _she attempted to stab -herself with a dagger which she always carried about with her for that -purpose_. When she heard that it was Cæsar’s intention to send her -into Syria, she asked permission to visit Antony’s tomb, over which -she poured forth most bitter lamentations. “Hide me, hide me,” she -exclaimed, “with thee in the grave; for life, since _thou_ hast left -it, has been misery to _me_.” After crowning the tomb with flowers, -she kissed it, and ordered a bath to be prepared. She then sat down to -a magnificent supper; after which, a peasant came to the gate with a -small basket of figs covered with leaves, which was admitted into the -monument. Amongst the figs and under the leaves was concealed the asp, -which Cleopatra applied to her bosom. She was found dead, attired in -one of her most gorgeous dresses, decorated with brilliants, and lying -on her golden bed. - -Few of the illustrious men of antiquity have exhibited such philosophic -coolness as Petronius, after he had determined to sacrifice his life. -The levity which distinguished his voluntary death was in accordance -with the gaiety and frivolity of his life. The capricious friendship -of a Nero had been withdrawn from him, and in consequence he had -determined on his own death. This _arbiter elegantiarum_ during life, -determined to indulge in a luxurious refinement of that death he was -preparing to encounter. Being well aware he could not long escape -from the murderous edict, after a fall from the summit of imperial -favour, he opened and closed his veins at pleasure. He slept during the -intervals, or sauntered about and enjoyed the delights of conversation -with his friends; but his discourse was not of so elevated a character -as that attributed to Seneca or Socrates. - -The poet Lucan exhibited great apparent serenity at the approach of -death. After the veins of his arm had been voluntarily opened, and he -had lost a large quantity of blood, he felt his hands and his legs -losing their vitality. As the hour of death approached, he commenced -repeating several lines out of his own Pharsalia, descriptive of a -person similarly situated to himself. These lines he repeated until he -died. - -Cocceius Nerva starved himself to death in the reign of Tiberius. It -was said that he was displeased with the state of public affairs, and -had made up his mind to die whilst his own integrity remained unsullied. - -During the bloody reign of Nero, many singular suicides took place. The -particulars attending the deaths of Lucius Vetus, his mother-in-law -Sextia, and Pollutia his daughter, are worth recording. After Lucius -had distributed all his wealth among his domestics, requesting them -to remove everything from his house excepting three couches, he, with -his mother-in-law and daughter, retired into the same chamber, opened -a vein with the same lancet, and after, reclining each on a separate -couch, waited calmly the approach of death. His eyes, and those of his -mother-in-law, were both fixed on the daughter, while the daughter’s -wandered from one to the other. It was the earnest prayer of each of -them to die first, and to leave the others in the act of expiring.[4] - -When the throne of Sardanapalus was endangered, he conceived a -magnificent and truly luxurious mode of committing suicide, quite in -character with the extravagance and dissoluteness of his former life. -He erected a funeral pile of great height in his palace, and adorned -it with the most sumptuous and costly ornaments. In the middle of this -building was a chamber of one hundred feet in length, built of wood, -in which a number of golden couches and tables were spread. On one of -these he reclined with his wife, his numerous concubines occupying -the rest. The building was encompassed round at some distance with -large beams and thick wood, to prevent all egress from the place. -Much combustible matter, and an immense pile of wood were also placed -within, together with an infinite quantity of gold and silver, royal -vestments, costly apparel, rich furniture, curious ornaments, and -all the apparatus of luxury and magnificence. All being arranged, this -splendid funeral pile was set on fire, and continued burning until the -fifteenth day; during which time Sardanapalus revelled in all kinds -of sensualities. The multitude without were in astonishment at the -tremendous scene, and at the immense clouds of incense and smoke which -issued with the flames. It was stated that the king was engaged in -offering some extraordinary sacrifices; while the attendants within -alone knew that this dissolute prince was putting such a splendid end -to his effeminate life.[5] - -There has been some dispute as to the death of Marcus Curtius. Plutarch -attributes his death to accident, but Procillius considers that it -was voluntary. He says, the earth having opened at a particular time, -the Aruspices declared it necessary, for the safety of the republic, -that the bravest man in the city should throw himself into the gulf; -whereupon Curtius, mounting his horse, leaped armed into it, and the -gulf immediately closed. But Livy and Dionysius relate the circumstance -in a different manner. They say that Curtius was a Sabine, who, having -at first repulsed the Romans, but being in his turn overpowered by -Romulus, and endeavouring to make good his retreat, fell into the lake, -which from that time bore his name. The lake was situated almost in the -centre of the Roman forum. Some writers consider the name was derived -from Curtius the Consul, because he caused it to be walled in after it -had been struck with lightning.[6] - -The death of the celebrated philosopher and poet, Empedocles, of -Sicily, was remarkable. Wishing to be believed a god, and that his -death might be unknown, he threw himself into the crater of Mount Ætna, -and perished in the flames. The mode of his death was not discovered -until some time afterwards, when one of his sandals was thrown up from -the volcano. - -Ancient history affords us many noble examples of individuals who -preferred voluntary death to dishonour and loss of character. If ever -self-murder could be considered as in the slightest degree justifiable, -it would be under such circumstances. Who cannot but honour the conduct -of the noble virgins of Macedon, who threw themselves into the wells, -and courted death, sooner than submit to the dishonourable proposals -of the Roman governor! When Theoxena was pursued by the emissaries of -Philip, king of Macedon, who had been guilty of murdering her first -husband, she produced a dagger and a box of poison, and placing them -before the crew of the ship in which she was endeavouring to make her -escape, she said, “Death is now our only remedy and means of vengeance; -let each take the method that best pleases himself of avoiding the -tyrant’s pride, cruelty, and lust. Come on, my brave companions -and family, seize the sword or drink of the cup, as you prefer an -instantaneous or gradual death.” Some fell on the sword, others drank -the poison until death was effected. After Theoxena had accomplished -her designs, she threw herself into the arms of her husband, and they -both plunged into the sea. - -The resistance which Josephus made to the importunities of his soldiers -to fall by his own hand sooner than surrender to the enemy, is perhaps -the most noble instance of the kind on record. After the success of -the Romans in Judæa, Josephus, who commanded the Jewish army, wished -to deliver himself up to his conquerors; he was encouraged to this by -certain dreams and visions. When Josephus’s intention was known, the -soldiers flocked round him, and expressed their indignation at his -intention. They urged him to fall by his own sword, and to let them -follow his example, sooner than abandon the field. To this appeal -Josephus replies, “Oh, my friends, why are you so earnest to kill -yourselves? why do you set your soul and body, which are such dear -companions, at such variance? It is a brave thing to die in war, but -it should be by the hands of the enemy. It is a foolish thing to do -that for ourselves, which we quarrel with them for doing to us. It is a -brave thing to die for liberty; but still it should be in battle, and -by those who would take that liberty from us. He is equally a coward -who will not die when he is obliged to die. What are we afraid of, when -we will not go up and meet the Romans? Is it death? Why then inflict it -on ourselves? You say, We must be slaves. Are we then in a clear state -of liberty at present? Self-murder is a crime most remote from the -common nature of all animals, and an instance of impiety against God -our Creator.” - -Josephus, in the spirit of a true philosopher, urged his soldiers to -abandon the notion of suicide; but instead of being calmed by his -discourse, they became enraged, and rushed on him. Fearing that the -case was hopeless, Josephus prevailed upon them to listen to the -following proposal. He persuaded them to draw lots; the man on whom -the first lot fell was to be killed by him who had the second, and the -second by the third, and so on. In this way no soldier would perish -by his own hand, except the last man. Lots were accordingly drawn; -Josephus drew his with the rest. He who had the first lot willingly -submitted his neck to him who had the second. It happened that Josephus -and a soldier were left to draw lots; and as the general was desirous -neither to imbrue his own hand in the blood of his countryman, nor to -be condemned by lot himself, he persuaded the soldier to trust his -fidelity, and to live as well as himself. Thus ended this tragical -scene, and Josephus immediately surrendered himself up to Vespasian. - -The first instance of suicide recorded in Scripture is that of Samson. -After suffering many indignities from the hands of the Philistines, his -anger was roused to the highest pitch, and, resting against the pillars -that supported the building in which the lords of the Philistines -and an infinite number of others were assembled, he offered up the -following prayer: “O Lord God, remember me, I pray thee, and strengthen -me, I pray thee, only this once, O God, that I may at once be avenged -of the Philistines for my two eyes;” and taking hold of the pillars, he -said, “Let me die with the Philistines: and he bowed himself with all -his might, and the house fell upon the lords and all that were therein; -so that the dead which he slew at his death were more than they which -he slew in his life.” - -In Samson’s case, there is nothing said in Scripture either to condemn -or justify the act; but it appears evident from the whole history of -the last events of his life, that he was but an instrument in the -hands of God for the accomplishment of his wise purposes. The glory of -God had been violated in the person of Samson; he had been subjected -by the Philistines to great indignities; and it was to demonstrate -the power of God in the destruction of his enemies that Samson’s life -was sacrificed. Samson is, then, to be considered as a martyr to his -religion and his God. - -The case of Saul has also been cited. It is thus referred to in -Scripture:—“And the battle went sore against Saul, and the archers hit -him, and he was sore wounded of the archers. Then said Saul unto his -armourbearer, Draw thy sword, and thrust me through therewith, lest -these uncircumcised come and thrust me through, and abuse me. But his -armourbearer would not, for he was sore afraid; therefore Saul took a -sword and fell upon it. And when his armourbearer saw that Saul was -dead, he fell likewise upon his sword and died with him.”[7] - -It must be recollected that the Jews considered that a man was -justified in committing suicide to prevent his falling into the -enemy’s hand, and on this account Saul was commended for killing -himself. But there was nothing glorious in Saul’s death. His army was -defeated by the Philistines, and Saul sounded a retreat; and as he was -making his ignominious flight, an arrow from the ranks of the enemy hit -him, and it was then that he implored his armourbearer to dispatch him. - -Much has been made of the self murder* of Ahitophel. Donne has referred -to it at some length. He says that in this case there can be “no room -for excuse.” Ahitophel was considered one of the wisest counsellors of -his age. He joined Absalom in his rebellion against his lawful prince, -David; and when he saw that it was God’s determination to defeat his -counsel, and that his advice for the first time was neglected, he -became full of secret indignation and disappointment; and in order -to avoid the consequences of his own utter despair and ruin, for his -perfidy, he hanged himself. Nothing can be urged in justification -of this act. The facts are presented to us in biblical history; and -we are left to form our own judgment upon the course which this -“Machiavellian counsellor,” as he has been termed, thought proper to -adopt. - -Donne has also cited the case of Judas Iscariot.[8] He must have -been sadly in want of sound illustrations to have brought forward the -instance of this traitor as a justification of the act of suicide. -Judas has been considered by some writers as a martyr. Petilian said -“that Judas, and all who killed themselves through remorse of sin, -ought to be accounted martyrs, because they punish in themselves what -they grieve to have committed.” To whom Augustine replies, “Thou hast -said, that the traitor perished by the rope, and has left a rope behind -him for such as himself. But we have nothing to do with him. We do not -venerate those as martyrs who hang themselves.” - -The case, mentioned by the same authority, of Eleazar, the brother of -Judas Maccabeus, taken from the book of the Maccabees, is said to be -one of voluntary suicide, and where self-destruction was laudable. -Eleazar sacrificed his own life for the purpose of destroying King -Antiochus, and therefore his suicide is to be considered as a voluntary -sacrifice for the good of his country. - -The self-destruction of Razis is full of horror, and can only be quoted -as an evidence of the act of a madman. When the tower in which Razis -was fighting against the enemy of Nicanor was set on fire, he fell -on his own sword, “Choosing rather,” says the text, “to die manfully -than fall into the hands of the wicked, to be abused otherwise than -beseemed his noble birth; but missing his stroke through haste, the -multitude also rushing within doors, he ran boldly up to the wall, and -cast himself down manfully among the thickest of them; but they quickly -giving back, and a space being made, he fell down in the midst of a -void place. Nevertheless, while there was yet breath within him, being -inflamed with anger, he rose up; and though his blood gushed out like -spouts of water, and his wounds were grievous, yet he ran through in -the midst of the throng, and standing on a steep rock, when, as his -blood was not quite gone, he plucked out his bowels, and taking them in -both his hands, he cast them upon the throng, and calling upon the Lord -of life and spirit to restore him them again, he thus died.”[9] - -Having considered the remarkable suicides of antiquity, we will now -briefly allude to those doctrines and opinions of the celebrated -philosophers of ancient times, which must of necessity have tended to -create this recklessness of human life. - -The doctrines inculcated by the stoical philosophers, or the disciples -of Zeno, must have increased the crime of suicide. “A stoical wise man -is ever ready to die for his country or his friends. A wise man will -never look upon death as an evil; that he will despise it, and be ready -to undergo it at any time.” “A wise man,” says Diog. Laertius, in his -life of Zeno, when expounding the stoical philosophy, “will quit life, -when oppressed with severe pain, or when deprived of any of his senses, -or when labouring under desperate diseases.” It is astonishing that a -sect of philosophers who inculcated that pain was no evil, should so -often have practised suicide. Much as we would condemn such principles, -still we must admit that most of the admired characters of antiquity -belonged to this celebrated sect—men distinguished for their wisdom, -learning, and the strictness of their morals. Cato was a stoic, and he -put into practice the principles of the sect to which he belonged.[10] - -Among the philosophers of antiquity, Seneca stands preeminently* -forward as the defender of suicide. He says, “Does life please you? -live on. Does it not? go from whence you came. No vast wound is -necessary; a mere puncture will secure your liberty. It is a bad -thing (you say) to be under the necessity of living; but there is no -necessity in the case. Thanks be to the gods, nobody can be compelled -to live.”[11] These were the principles of the “wise Seneca,” and yet -he wanted the courage to commit suicide when put to the test. He says, -“Being emaciated by a severe illness, I often thought of suicide, -but was recalled by the old age of a most indulgent father; for I -considered not how resolutely ‘I’ could encounter death, but how ‘he’ -could bear up under my loss.” This is not, however, the only instance -in which Seneca yielded his stoical principles to the dictates of -natural affection and rational judgment. - -Among other distinguished philosophers who advocated suicide was -Epictetus. Although a stoic, he did not blindly follow the doctrines -of Zeno. Epictetus considered that it was the duty of man to suffer to -almost any extent before he sacrificed his own life. “If you like not -life, you may leave it; the door is open; get you gone! But a little -smoke ought not to frighten you away; it should be endured, and will -thereby be often surmounted.” - -Epictetus followed strictly his own principles: in this respect he -was superior to Seneca. Seneca was born in the lap of good fortune; -Epictetus was a slave, and had to pass through the rugged paths of -adversity, bodily pain, and penury. Seneca was banished from Rome for -an intrigue; Epictetus was sent into exile for being a man of learning -and a philosopher. - -When Epictetus was beaten unmercifully by his master, he said, with -great composure, “You will certainly break my leg.” He did so; and the -philosopher calmly rejoined, “Did I not tell you you would do it?” -This was in the true spirit of stoical philosophy. - -Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was, perhaps, one of the brightest ornaments -of the sect of stoics. He carried into the minutest concern of life the -doctrine of Zeno. “He was,” says Gibbon, “severe to himself, indulgent -to the imperfections of others, just and beneficent to all mankind.” - -Zeno, the founder of the sect of stoical philosophers, acted up to -the principles which he inculcated to his disciples. His suicide is -recorded to be as follows:—As he was going out of his school one day, -at the age of ninety-eight, he fell down, put a finger out of joint, -went home, and hanged himself. - -Cleanthes, also, the successor of Zeno, followed the example of his -master in philosophy, by shortening the period of his life in the -following manner:—After having used abstinence for two days, by the -advice of his physician, for the cure of a trifling indisposition under -which he was labouring, he had permission to return to his former diet; -but he refused all sustenance, saying, “_that as he had advanced so far -on his journey towards death, he would not retreat_.” He accordingly -starved himself to death. - -Among the most distinguished orators of antiquity who spoke in favour -of suicide stands Cicero. During his banishment he would have actually -destroyed himself, if it had not been for his natural timidity and -want of resolution. He writes to his brother Quintus, “The tears of my -friends have prevented me from flying to death as my refuge.” - -Pliny was an advocate of suicide. In a chapter entitled “On God,” he -writes thus—“The chief comfort of man in his imperfect state is this, -that even the Deity cannot do all things. For instance, he cannot put -himself to death when he pleases, which is the greatest indulgence he -has given to man amid the severe evils of life.” Pliny belonged to the -Epicureans, and his notions are in accordance with the doctrines of -that sect. - -Pliny the younger appears to have had different notions on the -subject. When lamenting the death of a dear friend, Corellius Rufus, -who had killed himself, he says, “He is dead—dead by his own hand, -which agonizes my grief; for that is the most lamentable kind of death -which neither proceeds from nature nor from fate.” The whole epistle -from which the above extract is made indicates a noble and feeling -heart. - -It appears that the Roman laws respecting suicide were of a fiscal -nature. They viewed the act not as a crime abstractedly, but considered -how far the circumstance affected the state or treasury. In some -portion of the Roman empire the magistrate had the power of granting -or refusing permission to commit suicide. If the decision was given -against the applicant, and he persisted in sacrificing his life, -disgrace and ignominy were heaped upon his body, and it was buried in -the most humiliating manner. The tenour of the law relating to suicide -laid down in “Justinian’s Digests” is to the following effect:—“Those -who, being actually accused, or who being caught in any crime, and -dreading a prosecution, made way with themselves, were to have their -effects confiscated. But this confiscation was no punishment of -suicide, _as a crime in itself_, being then only to take place when the -crime committed incurred the confiscation of property, and when the -person accused of it would have been found guilty. For which reason -the heirs-at-law were permitted (if they thought proper) to try the -cause as though the accused person, who had put a period to his life, -had been still living; and if his innocence could be proved, they were -still entitled to his effects. But if any one killed himself, either -through weariness of life, or an impatience under pain or ill health, -for a load of private debt, or for any other reason not affecting the -state or public treasury, the property of the deceased flowed in its -natural channel. In the case of an attempted but incomplete suicide, -where a man was under no accusation, a distinction was made as to the -causes impelling to it, before the question as to its punishment was -to be determined. If it proceeded not from weariness of life, or an -impatience under the pressure of some calamity, the attempter was to -suffer the same punishment as if he had effected his purpose; and for -this reason, because he who without reason spared not his own life, -would not be likely to spare another man’s.”[12] - -If a prisoner committed suicide, the jailor authorized to protect him -was punished very severely. The Roman law made a distinction between -soldiers and civilians. If a soldier attempted to take away his life, -and it could not be proved that he was suffering at the time from great -grief, misfortune, madness, &c., it was deemed a capital offence, and -death was the punishment. And even in cases where it was established -that the act was the result of mental perturbation, he was dismissed -from the service with ignominy and disgrace. - -During the pure ages of the Roman Republic, when religion was -reverenced, when the gods were looked up to with respect as the -disposers of all events, suicide was but little known. But when the -philosophy of Greece was introduced into the Roman Empire, and the -manners of the people became corrupted and degenerated, the crime -increased to an alarming extent. This indifference to life was also -augmented by the spread of stoical and epicurean principles. The stoic -was taught to believe his life his own; that he was the sole arbiter of -his existence; and that he could live or die as he pleased. The same -principles were inculcated by the epicurean philosophy. Is it, then, to -be wondered at, that suicide should be of common occurrence, when such -degrading principles had taken possession of the minds of the people? - -By the law of Thebes, the person who committed suicide was deprived of -his funeral rites, and his name and memory were branded with infamy. -The Athenian law was equally severe: the hand of the self-murderer -was cut off, and buried apart from his body, as having been an enemy -and traitor to it. The Greeks considered suicide as a most heinous -crime. The bodies of suicides, according to the Grecian custom, were -not burned to ashes, but were immediately buried. They considered it -a pollution of the holy element of fire to consume in it the carcases -of those who had been guilty of self-murder. Suicides were classed -“with the public or private enemy; with the traitor, and conspirator -against his country; with the tyrant, the sacrilegious wretch, and -such grievous offenders whose punishment was impalement alive on a -cross.”[13] - -These laws, however, fell into disuse, as appears evident from the -circumstance of there being so many cases of suicide which escaped this -treatment. - -In the island of Ceos the magistrates had the power of deciding whether -a person had sufficient reasons for killing himself. A poison was kept -for that purpose, which was given to the applicant who made out his -case before the magistracy. - -The same custom was followed among the Massilians, the ancient -inhabitants of Marseilles. A preparation of hemlock was kept in -readiness, and the senate, on hearing the merits of the case, had the -power to decide whether the applicant had good and substantial reasons -for committing suicide. There was, no doubt, much good effected by this -regulation, as it clearly acknowledged the principle that the power -of a man over his own life rested not in himself, but in the voice of -the magistrate, who alone was to determine how his life or death might -affect the state. - -Libanius, of Antioch, who flourished towards the end of the fourth -century, has very happily ridiculed the practice to which we have -alluded. In some imaginary pleadings before the senate, he advocates -the cause of a man who wishes to swallow the hemlock draught, that -he may be freed from the garrulity of a loquacious wife. “Truly,” -says he, “if our legislator had not been addicted too much to law -making, I should have been under no necessity of proving before you -the expediency of my departure, but a rope and the first tree would -have given me peace and quiet. But since he, determining we should be -slaves, has deprived us even of the liberty of dying when we please, -and has enchained us with decrees on this business, I imprecate the -author and obey his mandates, in thus laying my complaints and my -request before you.” He then, with considerable eloquence and humour, -advocates the cause of the “envious man,” who wishes to taste the -“suicidal draught” because his neighbour’s wealth had increased beyond -his own. “Let the wretch,” he says, “recite his calamities, let the -senate bestow the antidote, and let grief be dissolved in death.” - -Libanius then pleads in behalf of Timon, the man hater, who begs -permission to dispatch himself because he was bound by profession to -hate all mankind, but he could not help loving Alcibiades. - -It is a singular circumstance connected with the subject of suicide, -that authors who have written in its defence should quote the cases -referred to in this chapter in justification of their views. They -have not taken into consideration the peculiar customs, habits, and -religion of the people, which of course must have greatly influenced -their actions. How absurd would it be for us to take the authority of -antiquity as an infallible rule of conduct. The Massagetes considered -those unhappy who died a natural death, and therefore eat their dearest -friends when they grew old. The Libarenians broke their necks down a -precipice. The Bactrians were thrown alive to the dogs. The Scythians -buried the dearest friends of the deceased with them alive, or killed -them on the funeral pile. The Roman people, when sunk in vice and -licentiousness, considered it a mark of courage and honour to fall by -their own hands, and suicide was a common occurrence with them. - -“In the beginning of the spring,” says Malt. Brun, “a shocking ceremony -takes place at Cola Bhairava, in the mountains between the rivers Taptæ -and Nerbuddah. It is the practice of some persons of the lowest tribes -in Berar to make vows of suicide, in return for answers which their -prayers are believed to have received from their idols. This is the -place where such vows are performed in the beginning of spring, when -eight or ten victims generally throw themselves from a precipice. The -ceremony gives rise to an annual fair, and some trade.”[14] - -No just distinction can be drawn between these customs. The Indian -widow, in obedience to the religion of her country, ascends the -funeral pile of her husband, and is burnt to death. Thousands annually -sacrifice their lives by throwing themselves under the wheels of their -idol Juggernaut. Strong feelings of religion impel them to this; they -become excluded from society, they lose caste, and are subjected to -all kinds of persecution if they do not bow to the customs of the -country. What legitimate argument can be deduced from these facts in -favour of suicide? And yet these cases are considered to constitute -a justification of the stoical dogma, that we have a right when we -please to put an end to our own existence. Desperate indeed must be the -circumstances of those who are compelled to found their reasoning on so -flimsy a basis. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -WRITERS IN DEFENCE OF SUICIDE. - - - Opinions of Hume—Effect of his writings—Case of suicide caused - by—The doctrines of Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Montaigne - examined—Origin of Dr. Donne’s celebrated work—Madame de - Staël’s recantation—Robert of Normandy, Gibbon, Sir T. More, - and Robeck’s opinions considered. - -It will be foreign to my purpose to enter elaborately into an -examination of the opinions of those who have thought proper to justify -the commission of suicide. The arguments which have been advanced by -Hume, Donne, Rousseau, Madame de Staël, Montesquieu, Montaigne, Gibbon, -Voltaire, and Robeck, are founded on such gross and apparent fallacies, -that they carry with them their own refutation. - -Hume, whose pen was always ready to support opinions at variance with -the precepts of the Christian religion, wrote an essay on the subject -of suicide. He has endeavoured to shew that self-murder is consistent -with our duty to God, our neighbour, and ourselves. Referring to the -first of these three heads, he says—“As, on the one hand, the elements -and other inanimate parts of creation carry on their action without -regard to the particular interests and situation of men, so men are -entrusted to their own judgment and discretion in the various shades -of matter, and may employ every faculty with which they are endowed in -order to provide for their ease, happiness, or preservation.” - -If an action be clearly shewn to be an infringement of the laws of -God, it certainly cannot be one which he has left us to exercise -at discretion. All the laws of religion and morality are so many -abridgments of man’s liberty, in the exercise of his judgment and -discretion for his own happiness. Hume then proceeds to examine -whether suicide be a breach of duty to our neighbour and society. He -observes—“A man who retires from life does no harm to society,—he -only ceases to do good; which, if it be an injury, is of the lowest -kind.” The man who sacrifices his own life does a _great injury_ to -society. There are very few men in the world who have no relations -or connexions, and he entails upon these the opprobrium that society -attaches to the crime of suicide. Independently of this, his example -acts injuriously on the minds of others, who may not have such good -reasons for suicide as he has. “I believe,” continues Hume, “that no -man ever threw away life while it was worth keeping. For such is our -natural horror of death, that small motives will never be able to -reconcile us to it.” He might as well have stated that such is our -horror of poverty that no man ever threw away _riches_ which were worth -keeping. The fallacy consists in drawing a conclusion from a mind -supposed in its right state, in which every faculty, propensity, and -aversion has its due proportion of strength; and in which the natural -horror of death will secure a man from throwing away a life which is -worth keeping: and this conclusion is applied to a _depraved_ state of -mind, in which it can by no means hold. - -The same author asserts, “That it would be no crime in me to divert -the Nile or Danube from its course, if I could; where, then, is the -crime of turning a few ounces of blood out of its natural channel?” The -argument is too puerile to merit refutation. He must first establish -that no injury would accrue from diverting the course of the Nile and -Danube, before any argument can be deduced from it which is worth one -moment’s consideration. - -It has been asserted, and remains uncontradicted, that Mr. Hume lent -his “Essay on Suicide” to a friend, who on returning it told him it was -a most excellent performance, and pleased him better than anything he -had read for a long time. In order to give Hume a practical exhibition -of the effects of his defence of suicide, his friend shot himself the -day after returning him his Essay. - -If, in any one instance, suicide might admit of something like an -apology, it would have been in this—if the detestable author of this -abominable treatise had, on receiving the melancholy intelligence, -committed it to the flames, and terminated his own pernicious existence -by a cord. But the cold-blooded infidel was too cowardly to execute -summary justice on himself. With a truly diabolical spirit, his delight -was to scatter firebrands among the people, and say, “Am I not in -sport?” - -Mr. Hume is the hero of modern infidels, because he is the only one -among them whose life was not disgraced by the grossest of vices; -for this, his selfish and avaricious spirit affords, perhaps, the -true reason. It is well known that Hume, in more than one instance, -sacrificed his principles (if he had any) to views of emolument at the -suggestion of the booksellers. It has been said that he was scarcely -guilty of a good or benevolent action. His treatment of Rousseau was -unfeeling in the extreme; and an intimate friend of the essayist -affirms, that “his heart was as hard and cold as marble.” - -Montesquieu’s arguments in favour of suicide appear to border very -closely on those advanced by Hume. They will be found in a letter -written in the character of a Persian resident in Europe. - -Rousseau[15] in his “Nouvelle Heloïse” observes, “The more I reflect -upon it (suicide), the more I find that the question reduces itself -to this fundamental proposition:—To seek one’s own good, and avoid -one’s own harm in that which hurts not another, is the law of nature.” -Rousseau must first clearly establish that what he terms “seeking -one’s own good” will not be productive of injury to others. According -to the notion of what the majority of men conceive to be their good, -much evil would result from allowing mankind to act under the influence -of their own feelings and judgment. What one man considers “good,” -another considers evil; and what often appears to be very beneficial to -ourselves, if examined fairly, will be found to be the very reverse. - -Montaigne’s arguments are borrowed from ancient writers in defence of -suicide. He assumes at the commencement that suicide is not an evil. -He says, that pain, and the fear of suffering a worse death, is an -excusable incitement to suicide. The whole that he has advanced is but -a string of sophistries. - -Dr. Donne has entered more fully into the defence of suicide than any -other writer. The whole of his work appears to be written for the -purpose of demonstrating that it is praiseworthy to shew a contempt of -life in the discharge of our duty, and in the execution of noble and -beneficent enterprises. - -Dr. Donne was probably drawn to the contemplation of this subject by -his own sufferings. While he was secretary to Lord Chancellor Egerton, -he married a young lady of rank superior to his own, which gave offence -to his patron, and he was consequently dismissed from office. He -suffered extreme poverty with his wife and children; and in a letter, -in which he adverts to the illness of a daughter whom he tenderly -loved, he says that he dares not expect relief, even from death, as he -cannot afford the expense of a funeral. He afterwards took orders, and -was promoted to the deanery of St. Paul’s. In the early part of his -life, and probably during the period of his sufferings, he wrote his -book, entitled, “Βιαθανατος, _A Declaration of that paradox -or thesis, that self-homicide is not so naturally sin that it may never -be otherwise_.” He did not publish it. He desired _it to be remembered, -that it was written by Jack Donne, not by Dr. Donne_; and it was -published many years after his death, by his son, a dissipated young -man, tempted by his necessities to forget his father’s prohibition. - -_Madame de Staël_ attempted to justify suicide in her work on the -passions, but she, greatly to her honour, published her celebrated -“Reflections on Suicide,” which was written as a recantation of some -opinions on the subject incidentally expressed in the work alluded -to. She expresses the change in her sentiments on this subject in the -following curious manner:—“J’ai l’acte du suicide, dans mon ouvrage sur -l’influence des passions, et je me suis repentie depuis de cétte parole -inconsiderée. J’etois alors dans tout l’orgueil et la vivacité de la -première jeunesse; mais à quoi servirait-il de vivre, si ce n’était -dans l’espoir de s’ameliorer.” - -Madame de Staël has treated the subject with considerable ingenuity -and ability, and with a great deal of eloquence, but she has hardly -enforced sufficiently the arguments against this crime which may be -deduced from the use of that portion of existence we pass upon earth. -We are wise and good just in proportion as we consider and treat life -and all its incidents as moral means to a great end. Upon every moment -of time an eternity is dependent; and whenever we sacrifice a moment, -we throw away an instrument by which we might have created an eternity -of happiness. - -All mankind are not placed upon an equality. Some experience pleasure, -others pain, privation or suffering; the tools with which we are to -work may be inconvenient or burthensome, or light and pleasant; but -they must be the most useful and efficacious, or they would not be -put into our hands; at any rate, they are all we have. We cannot fix -too deeply on our minds the truth that life is not an absolute, but a -relative existence, as in its relation to the eternity with which it is -connected, consists all its value and importance. - -_Robert of Normandy_, surnamed the Devil, sacrificed his own life, -and before doing so he wrote a work in defence of suicide, in which -he argued that there was no law that forbids a person to deprive -himself of life; that the love of life is to be subservient to that -of happiness; that our body is a mean and contemptible machine, the -preservation of which we ought not so highly to value; if the human -soul be mortal, it receives but a slight injury, but if immortal, -the greatest advantage; a benefit ceases to be one when it becomes -troublesome, and then surely a man ought to be allowed to resign it; -a voluntary death is often the only method of avoiding the greatest -crime; and finally, that suicide is justified by the example of most -nations in the world. Such is the substance of the arguments in favour -of suicide urged by Robert of Normandy, and worthy of his celebrated -namesake. - -Gibbon and Sir Thomas More are cited as champions in favour of suicide; -but there is nothing which these authors have advanced that merits a -separate consideration. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -SUICIDE A CRIME AGAINST GOD AND MAN.—IT IS NOT AN ACT OF COURAGE. - - - The sin of suicide—The notions of Paley on the - subject—Voltaire’s opinion—Is suicide self-murder?—Is it - forbidden in Scripture?—Shakspeare’s views on the subject—The - alliance between suicide and murder—Has a man a right to - sacrifice his own life?—Everything held upon trust—Suicide - a sin against ourselves and neighbour—It is not an act of - courage—Opinion of Q. Curtius on the subject—Buonaparte’s - denunciation of suicide—Dryden’s description of the suicide in - another world. - -Among the black catalogue of human offences, there is not, indeed, -any that more powerfully affects the mind, that more outrages all -the feelings of the heart, than the crime of suicide. Our laws have -branded it with infamy, and the industry which is exerted by surviving -relatives to conceal its perpetration evinces that the shame which is -attached to it is of that foul and contagious character, that even the -innocent consider themselves infected by its malignity. - -Much discussion has taken place as to whether self-murder is expressly -forbidden in the Old or New Testament.[16] Paley, who is a high -authority on all questions connected with moral philosophy, denies that -it is. He considers that the article in the decalogue so often brought -forward, “Thou shalt do no murder,” is inconclusive. “I acknowledge (he -observes) that there is to be found neither any express determination -of the question, nor sufficient evidence to prove that the case of -suicide was in the contemplation of the law which prohibits murder. Any -inference, therefore, which we deduce from Scripture, can be sustained -only by _construction and implication_.” - -To maintain that God has not forbidden us to destroy the work of his -hands, because self-murder is not particularly specified, is to leave -us at liberty to commit many other offences which are not named among -the prohibitions, but which are included under general heads. When -God said to Noah, “Whoso sheddeth man’s blood, by man shall his blood -be shed, for in the image of God made he man,” it is evident that, -whatever meaning we may attach to the last words, in whatever sense man -is said to be made in the image of God, the reason of the prohibition -holds as strong against self-murder as against any other kind of -murder. If I am commanded not to shed the blood of another man because -he is made in the _image of God_, I am not justified in shedding my own -blood, as I stand in the same relation to the Deity as my fellow-men. -But there is a particular reason why suicide is not any where expressly -forbidden by _name_; that is, that whatever sins and offences God, -as a lawgiver, prohibits, he does so with a penalty; he affixes such -a punishment to such a crime, and he who transgresses is to undergo -the determined punishment in this world or in the next. Neither God -nor the magistrate can prohibit self-murder with any penalty that can -affect the criminal himself; because of his very crime, he escapes -all temporal punishment in person—he has anticipated the operation of -the law. In fact, he has, in his own person, acted the part of the -criminal, judge, jury, and executioner; he is dead before the law -can take any cognizance of his offence. No law can be enacted to any -purpose without a penalty; where, therefore, there can be no penalty, -there can be no law. Self-murder prevents all penalty, and therefore -wants no particular prohibition; it must therefore be included under -general commands, and forbidden as a _sin_, which it is only in the -power of God to take cognizance of, in another world. - -Again, doubtlessly the inspired writer considered suicide of such an -atrocious nature that the warnings of conscience were sufficient to -prevent its frequency, and because the voice of nature instinctively -cries out against it. - -That the act of suicide must be most offensive in the sight of God is -evident, since it is that which most directly violates those laws by -which his providence has formed, and still directs, the universe. If -any one principle in man is instinctive and implanted in him by the -hand of nature, it is that of self preservation. Different religions -and different codes have marked out particular duties, and proscribed -particular crimes; in this, every religion unites, every society -concurs, and every individual acknowledges within his own bosom the -sacred command. If, therefore, to disobey the ordinances of God must be -sinful in his sight, if ever the ordinances of men are to be respected, -what must be the guilt of that person who violates the first law of -nature, who disregards the principle that holds human society together, -that fits us for every duty, and prompts us in the performance of them! - -But it is not merely against the ordinance of his Creator that the -self-murderer offends,[17] he is guilty of a breach of duty to his -neighbour. He plants a dagger not merely in his own breast, but in that -of his dearest, his tenderest connexions. He wantonly sports with the -pangs of sensibility, and covers with the blush of shame the cheek of -innocence. With a degree of ingratitude which excites our abhorrence, -he clouds with sorrow the future existence of those by whom he was most -tenderly beloved, and affixes a mark of ignominy on his unfortunate -descendants. He disobeys the first of social laws, that order by which -God appropriated his labours to the welfare of society, and, because he -fancies he can no longer exist with comfort to himself, disregards all -the duties which he owes to others. - -The alliance between suicide and the murder of others is a closer one -than is generally supposed. How many instances are recorded in which -suicide and homicide have been conjoined! He who will not scruple to -take away his own life, will not require much reasoning to impel him -to sacrifice another’s. We refer to the cases of Mithridates, king of -Pontus, and Nicocles, as illustrative of this position. Many modern -instances are recorded of the same character. - -It was maintained by Marcus Aurelius, that there was no more of evil in -parting from life than in going out of a smoky chamber; and Rousseau -asks, “Why should we be permitted to cut off a leg, if we may not -equally take away life? has not the will of God given us both?” Madame -de Staël very properly observes that the following passage in Scripture -replies to this sophism—“If thy hand offend thee, cut it off; if thine -eye offend thee, pluck it out and cast it from thee.” Temptation is -evidently referred to in the above passage, but it may consistently be -used in refutation of Rousseau’s illogical argument. Although a man may -use any means placed in his power for the removal of physical evils, he -is distinctly prohibited from destroying his existence. - -The interrogatory argument, if it can be so denominated, which is so -often used in justification of suicide—“Cannot a man do what he likes -with his own?”—is based upon an absurd and gross fallacy. Man, during -his residence on this earth, is but a trustee; his wealth, his talents, -his time, and his very life, are but trust property. He can call -nothing truly his own; he is held accountable for the most apparently -trivial action he performs. Life is given to him for noble purposes; -it is an emanation from the Deity himself; and no circumstances would -justify us in asserting that our very existence is placed at our own -disposal. How truly has the noble poet observed, when alluding to the -tenure upon which we hold everything during this life— - - “Can despots compass aught that hails their sway, - Or call one solid span of earth their own, - Save that wherein at last they crumble bone by bone?” - -This life is one of privation. We are born to misery; we are led to -expect disappointment at every step we take; blighted expectations, -ruined hopes, pain, mental and bodily, constitute a part and parcel of -our very existence. No man was more overwhelmed with any species of -misfortune than Job; he was emphatically styled “_the man of grief_;” -and when, prostrated to the earth by the most poignant misery, his wife -exhorted him to quit life,—to “curse God, and die,”—he replied, “What, -shall I receive good from the hand of God, and not evil?” - -No suffering, however acute, could for one moment justify the -commission of self-murder. “The concluding scene in the life of Jesus -Christ,” says Madame de Staël, with a fervid eloquence which does her -immortal honour, “seems peculiarly intended to confute those who -contend for the right of destroying life to escape misfortune. The -dread of suffering seized him who had willingly devoted himself to -death for the good of mankind. He prayed a long time to his Father in -the Mount of Olives, and his countenance was shaded by the anguish -of death. ‘My Father,’ he cried, ‘if it be possible, let this cup -pass from me.’ Thrice with tears was this prayer repeated. All the -sorrows of our nature had passed through his divine mind; like us, he -feared the violence of men; like us, perhaps, regretted those whom -he cherished and loved, his mother and his disciples; like us, he -loved this earth, and the celestial pleasures resulting from active -benevolence, for which he incessantly thanked his Father. But, not able -to avert the destined chalice, he cried, ‘Oh, my Father, let thy will -be done,’ and resigned himself into the hands of his enemies. What -more can be sought for in the gospel respecting resignation to grief, -and the duty of supporting it with fortitude and patience.” Poets -and orators have entered into a chivalrous rivalry to celebrate the -character of the “bold man struggling with the storms of fate.” That -adversity refines and ennobles our nature there cannot be a doubt. The -most beautiful features of the human mind are developed in suffering; -the ordeal through which we pass, however repugnant and abhorrent it -may be to our feelings, produces a moral regeneration in the character. -We come out of the “fiery furnace,” like gold and silver, deprived of -much of our dross; and life, youthful and innocent life, again dawns -upon us and gladdens our hearts. - -Suicide is an injury to our neighbour and to society. As long as life -lasts,—no matter what amount of misery a person may suffer,—he has it -in his power to contribute to the happiness of others. By mitigating -the distresses of others, his own will be subdued. Let a man writhing -under the torture of the gout be brought into contact with a person -suffering from the intense agony of tic doloureux, and he will have a -practical illustration of the fact, that there are others in the world -worse off than himself. - -Suicide has been defended as an act of courage. Courage, forsooth! If -ever there is an act of cowardice, it is that exhibited by the person -who, to escape from the disappointments and vexations of the world, -wantonly puts an end to his existence. The man of courage will defy the -opinions and scorns of the world, when he knows himself to be in the -right; will be above sinking under the petty misfortunes that assail -him; will make circumstances bow to him; will court difficulties and -dangers, in order to shew that he is able to master them. - -It was a noble sentiment which Q. Curtius put into the mouth of Darius, -after every ray of hope had abandoned him:—“I will wait,” cried the -king, addressing his attendants, “the issue of my fate. You wonder, -perhaps, that I do not terminate my own life; but I choose rather to -die by another’s crime than by my own.” The sentiments of Cleomenes, -king of Sparta, expressed when his fortunes appeared most desperate, -are equally noble and magnanimous. Being much urged by a friend to -dispatch himself, he replied—“By seeking this easy and ready kind of -death, you think to appear brave and courageous; but better men than -you and I have been oppressed by fortune, and borne down by multitudes. -He that sinks under toil, or yields to affliction, or is overcome by -the opinions and reproaches of men, gives way, in fact, to his own -effeminacy and cowardice. A voluntary death is never to be chosen as a -relief from action, but as exemplary in itself, it being base to live -or die only for ourselves. The death to which you now invite us is only -proposed as a release from present misery, but conveys with it no signs -of bravery or prospects of advantage.” - -Euripides put the following words in the mouth of Hercules: “I have -considered, and, though oppressed with misfortunes, I have determined -thus: Let no one depart out of life through fear of what may happen to -him; for he who is not able to resist evils will fly, like a coward, -from the darts of the enemy.” - -When Buonaparte was told of the prevalent opinion, that he ought not -to have survived his political downfall, he calmly replied—“No, no; I -have not enough of the Roman in me to destroy myself.” After reasoning, -with considerable ingenuity, on the subject of suicide, he concluded -by giving expression to this decided opinion:—“Suicide is a crime the -most revolting to my feelings; nor does any reason present itself to my -understanding by which it can be justified. It certainly originates in -that species of fear which we denominate cowardice, (_poltronnerie_.) -For what claim can that man have to courage who trembles at the frowns -of fortune? True heroism consists in becoming superior to the ills -of life, in whatever shape they may challenge him to the combat.” He -might have added—“Tu ne cede malis, sed contrà audentior ito.” On -another occasion, when talking on the subject of suicide, Buonaparte -observed, “If Marius had slain himself in the marshes of Minturnæ, he -never would have stood the seventh time for consul.” After having been -some time at St. Helena, he one day spoke further on the subject of -suicide. He observed:—“With respect to the English language, I have -been very diligent. I now read your newspapers with ease; and must own -that they afford me no inconsiderable amusement. They are occasionally -inconsistent, and sometimes abusive. In one paper I am called a -_Lear_; in another, a _tyrant_; in a third, a _monster_; and in one of -them—which I really did not expect—I am described as a _coward_. But it -turned out, after all, that the writer did not accuse me of avoiding -danger in the field of battle, or flying from an enemy, or fearing to -look at the menaces of fate and fortune. It did not charge me with -wanting presence of mind in the hurry of battle, and in the suspense of -conflicting armies; no such thing. I wanted courage, it seems, because -I did not coolly take a dose of poison, or throw myself into the sea, -or blow out my brains. The editor most certainly misunderstands me; I -have, at least, too much courage for that.”[18] - -We think it has decidedly been established in the preceding -observations that suicide is a crime clearly prohibited in the Bible; -that it is, in every sense of the term, self-murder; and that our duty -to our Creator, to ourselves, and to society, loudly calls upon us to -denounce it, and hold it up to the scorn and reprobation of mankind. -How terrifically has Dryden, in his Fables, portrayed the condition of -the unfortunate suicide in another world:— - - “The slayer of himself, too, saw I there: - The gore, congealed, was clotted in his hair. - With eyes half closed, and mouth wide ope, he lay, - And grim as when he breathed his sullen soul away.” - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -ON THE INFLUENCE OF CERTAIN MENTAL STATES IN INDUCING THE DISPOSITION -TO SUICIDE. - - - Moral causes of disease—Neglect of psychological - medicine—Mental philosophy a branch of medical study—Moral - causes of suicide—Tables of Falret, &c.—Influence of - remorse—Simon Brown, Charles IX. of France—Massacre of - St. Bartholomew—Terrible death of Cardinal Beaufort, from - remorse—The Chevalier de S——. Influence of disappointed - love—Suicide from love—Two singular cases—Effects of - jealousy—Othello—Suicide from this passion—The French opera - dancer—Suicide from wounded vanity—False pride—The remarkable - case of Villeneuve, as related by Buonaparte—Buonaparte’s - attempt at suicide—Ambition—Despair, cases of suicide from—The - Abbé de Rancé—Suicide from blind impulse—Cases—Mathews, - the comedian—Opinion of Esquirol on the subject—Ennui, - birth of—Common cause of suicide in France—Effect of - speculating in stocks—Defective education—Diffusion of - knowledge—“Socialism” a cause of self-destruction—Suicide - common in Germany—Werter—Goëthe’s attempt at suicide—Influence - of his writings on Hackman—Suicide from reading Tom Paine’s - “Age of Reason”—Suicide to avoid punishment—Most remarkable - illustrations—Political excitement—Nervous irritation—Love - of notoriety—Hereditary disposition—Is death painful? fully - considered, with cases—Influence of irreligion. - -In our voyage through life, the passions are said to be the gales that -swell the canvass of the mental bark; they obstruct or accelerate -its course, and render the passage favourable or full of danger, in -proportion as they blow steadily from a proper point, or are adverse or -tempestuous. Like the wind itself, the passions are engines of mighty -power and of high importance. Without them we cannot proceed, and with -them we may be shipwrecked and lost. Curbed in and regulated, they -constitute the source of our most elevated happiness; but when not -subdued, they drive the vessel on the rocks and quicksands of life, and -ruin us. - - “How few beneath auspicious planets born - With swelling sails make good the promis’d port, - With all their wishes freighted.” - - YOUNG. - -“In this country,” Dr. J. Johnson justly observes, “where man’s -relations with the world around him are multiplied beyond all example -in any other country, in consequence of the intensity of interest -attached to politics, religion, amusement, literature, and the arts; -where the temporal concerns of an immense proportion of the population -are in a perpetual state of vacillation; where spiritual affairs excite -in the minds of many great anxiety; and where speculative risks are -daily involving in difficulties all classes of society,—the operation -of physical causes in the production of disease dwindles into complete -insignificance when compared with that of anxiety and perturbation of -mind.” - -“Mens conscia recti in corpore sano,” is Horace’s well-known -description of the happy man. Lucretius appears to have formed a -correct estimate of the most important bodily and mental conditions on -which our happiness depends:— - - “O wretched mortals! race perverse and blind! - Through what dread, dark, what perilous pursuits - Pass ye this round of being! Know ye not, - Of all ye toil for, Nature nothing asks, - But for the _body_ freedom from disease, - And sweet unanxious quiet for the mind?” - -Like human beings, the sciences are closely connected with, and are -mutually dependent upon, one another. The link in the chain may not be -apparent, but it has a real and palpable existence. Medical and moral -science are more nearly allied than we should, _à priori_, conclude. -We speak of the science of medicine, not the practice of it; for, -like judgment and wit, or, as the author of the School for Scandal -ironically observes, like _man and wife_, how seldom are they seen in -happy union. Garth feelingly alludes to this unnatural divorce:— - - “The healing art now, sick’ning, hangs its head, - And, once a _science_, has become a _trade_.” - -Psychological medicine has been sadly neglected. We recoil from the -study of mental philosophy as if we were encroaching on holy ground. So -great is the prejudice against this branch of science, that it has been -observed, that to recommend a man to study metaphysics was a delicate -mode of suggesting the propriety of confining him in a lunatic asylum! - -In order to become a useful physician, it is necessary to become a good -metaphysician; so says a competent authority. It was not, however, -Dr. Cullen’s intention to recommend that species of philosophy which -confounds the mind without enlightening it, and which, like an _ignis -fatuus_, dazzles only to lead us from the truth. To the medical man we -can conceive no preliminary study more productive of advantage than -that which tends to call into exercise the latent principle of thought, -and to accustom the mind to close, rigid, and accurate observation. -The science of mind, when properly investigated, teaches us the laws -of our mental frame, and shews us the origin of our various modes and -habits of thought and feeling—how they operate upon one another, and -how they are cultivated and repressed; it disciplines us in the art of -induction, and guards us against the many sources of fallacy in the -practice of making inferences; it gives precision and accuracy to our -investigations, by instructing us in the nicer discriminations of truth -and falsehood. - -The value of mental philosophy as a branch of education will be -properly appreciated when we consider that this ennobling principle was -given to us for the purpose of directing and controlling our powers and -animal propensities, and bringing them into that subjection whereby -they become beneficial to the individual and to the world at large, -enabling him to exchange with others those results which the power -of his own and the gigantic efforts of other minds have developed; -maintaining and perpetuating the most dignified and exalted state of -happiness, the attribute of social life; unfolding not only treasures -which the concentrated powers of individuals are enabled to discover, -but developing those more quiet and unobtrusive characteristics of -virtuous life, those social affections, which are alone calculated to -make our present state of being happy. - -Independently of the utility of the study, what a world of delight is -open to the mind of that man who has devoted some portion of his time -to the investigation of his mental organization! In him we may truly -behold— - - “Nature, gentle, kind, - By culture tamed, by liberty refreshed, - And all the radiant fruits of truth matured.” - -When we take into consideration the tremendous influence which the -different mental emotions have over the bodily functions, when we -perceive that violent excitement of mind will not only give rise to -serious functional disorder, but actual organic disease, leading to the -commission of suicide, how necessary does it appear that he to whose -care is entrusted the lives of his fellow-creatures, should have made -this department of philosophy a matter of serious consideration! It -is no logical argument against the study of mental science, to urge -that we are in total ignorance of the nature or constitution of the -human understanding. We know nothing of the nature of objects which are -cognizable to sense, and which can be submitted to actual experiment, -and yet we are not deterred from the investigation of their properties -and mutual influences. The passions are to be considered, in a medical -point of view, as a part of our constitution. They stimulate or depress -the mind, as food and drink do the body. Employed occasionally, and in -moderation, both may be of use to us, and are given to us by nature for -this purpose; but when urged to excess, the system is thrown off its -balance, and disease is the result. - -To the medical philosopher, nothing can be more deeply interesting than -to trace the reciprocity of action existing between different mental -conditions, and affections of particular organs. Thus the passion of -fear, when excited, has a sensible influence on the action of the -heart; and when the disease of this organ takes place independently of -any mental agitation, the passion of fear is powerfully roused. Anger -affects the liver and confines the bowels, and frequently gives rise -to an attack of jaundice; and in hepatic and intestinal disease, how -irritable the temper is! - -Hope, or the anticipation of pleasure, affects the respiration; and -how often do we see patients, in the last stage of pulmonary disease, -entertaining sanguine expectations of recovery to the very last! - -As the passions exercise so despotic a tyranny over the physical -economy, it is natural to expect that the crime of suicide should -often be traced to the influence of mental causes. In many cases, -it is difficult to discover whether the brain, the seat of the -passions, be primarily or secondarily affected. Often the cause of -irritation is situated at some distance from the cerebral organ; but -when the fountain-head of the nervous system becomes deranged, it -will react on the bodily functions, and produce serious disease long -after the original cause of excitement is removed. It is not our -intention to attempt to explain the _modus operandi_ of mental causes -in the production of the suicidal disposition. That such effects -result from an undue excitement of the mind cannot for one moment -be questioned. Independently of mental perturbation giving rise to -maniacal suicide, there are certain conditions of mind, dependent -upon acquired or hereditary disposition, or arising from a defective -expansion of the intellectual faculties, which originate the desire for -self-destruction. These states will all be alluded to in the course of -the present inquiry. - -Some idea of the influence of certain mental states on the body will -be obtained by an examination of the various tables which have been -published, in this and other countries, respecting the causes of -suicide, as far as they could be ascertained. - -The following suicides were committed in London, between the years 1770 -and 1830:[19]— - - _Indication of Causes._ _Men._ _Women._ - - Poverty 905 511 - Domestic grief 728 524 - Reverse of fortune 322 283 - Drunkenness and misconduct 287 208 - Gambling 155 141 - Dishonour and calumny 125 95 - Disappointed ambition 122 410 - Grief from love 97 157 - Envy and jealousy 94 53 - Wounded self-love 53 53 - Remorse 49 37 - Fanaticism 16 1 - Misanthropy 3 3 - Causes unknown 1381 377 - ———— ———— - Total 4337[20] 2853 - -According to a table formed by Falret of the suicides which took place -between 1794 and 1823, the following results appear:—Of 6782 cases, 254 -were from disappointed love, and of this number 157 were women; 92 were -from jealousy; 125 from being calumniated; 49 from a desire, without -the means, of vindicating their characters; 122 from disappointed -ambition; 322 from reverses of fortune; 16 from wounded vanity; 155 -from gambling; 288 from crime and remorse; 723 from domestic distress; -905 from poverty; 16 from fanaticism. - -In preparing the present work, we have endeavoured to obtain access to -documents which would throw some light on the probable origin of the -many cases of self-destruction which have taken place within the last -four or five years. In many cases we could obtain no insight into the -motives of the individuals; but in nine-tenths of those whose histories -we succeeded in making ourselves somewhat conversant with, we found -that mental causes played a very conspicuous part in the drama. Our -experience on this point accords with that of many distinguished French -physicians who have devoted their time and talents to the consideration -of the subject. - -In considering the influence of mental causes, we shall in the first -instance point out the effects of certain passions and dispositions -of the individual on the body; then investigate the operation of -education, irreligion, and certain unhealthy conditions of the mind -which predispose the individual to derangement and suicide. - -There is no passion of the mind which so readily drives a person to -suicide as remorse. In these cases, there is generally a shipwreck of -all hope. To live is horror; the infuriated sufferer feels himself an -outcast from God and man; and though his judgment may still be correct -upon other subjects, it is completely overpowered upon that of his -actual distress, and all he thinks of and aims at is to withdraw with -as much speed as possible from the present state of torture, totally -regardless of the future. - - - “I would not if I could be blest, - I want no other paradise but rest.” - - -The most painfully interesting and melancholy cases of insanity are -those in which remorse has taken possession of the mind. Simon Brown, -the dissenting clergyman, fancied that he had been deprived by the -Almighty of his immortal soul, in consequence of having accidentally -taken away the life of a highwayman, although it was done in the act -of resistance to his threatened violence, and in protection of his -own person. Whilst kneeling upon the wretch whom he had succeeded in -throwing upon the ground, he suddenly discovered that his prostrate -enemy was deprived of life. This unexpected circumstance produced so -violent an impression upon his nervous system, that he was overpowered -by the idea of an involuntary homicide, and for this imaginary crime -fancied himself ever afterwards condemned to one of the most dreadful -punishments that could be inflicted upon a human being. - -A young lady was one morning requested by her mother to stay at home; -notwithstanding which, she was tempted to go out. Upon her return to -her domestic roof, she found that the parent whom she had so recently -disobliged had expired in her absence. The awful spectacle of a -mother’s corpse, connected with the filial disobedience which had -almost immediately preceded, shook her reason from its seat, and she -has ever since continued in a state of mental derangement. - -It is said that the solitary hours of Charles the Ninth of France were -rendered horrible by the repetition of the shrieks and cries which had -assailed his ears during the massacre of St. Bartholomew.[21] - -The death of Cardinal Beaufort is represented as truly terrible. The -consciousness of having murdered the Duke of Gloucester is said to -have rendered Beaufort’s death one of the most terrific scenes ever -witnessed. Despair, in its worst form, appeared to take possession of -his mind at the last moment. His concluding words, as recorded by -Harpsfield,[22] were—“And must I then die? Will not all my riches save -me? I could purchase the kingdom, if that would save my life. What! is -there no bribing of death? When my nephew, the Duke of Bedford, died, -I thought my happiness and my authority greatly increased; but the -Duke of Gloucester’s death raised me in fancy to a level with kings, -and I thought of nothing but accumulating still greater wealth, to -purchase at last the triple crown. Alas! how are my hopes disappointed! -Wherefore, O my friends, let me earnestly beseech you to pray for me, -and recommend my departing soul to God!” A few minutes before his -death, his mind appeared to be undergoing the tortures of the damned. -He held up his two hands, and cried—“Away! away!—why thus do ye look at -me?” It was evident he saw some horrible spectre by his bed-side. This -last scene in the Cardinal’s life has been most ably delineated by the -immortal Shakspeare:— - - - SCENE—_The Cardinal’s Bed-chamber_. - - _Enter_ KING HENRY, SALISBURY, and WARWICK. - - _King Hen._ How fares my Lord? Speak, Beaufort, to thy sovereign. - - _Cardinal._ If thou be’st Death, I’ll give thee England’s treasure, - Enough to purchase such another island, - So thou wilt let me live, and feel no pain. - - _King Hen._ Ah! what a sign it is of evil life - When death’s approach is seen so terrible. - - _Warwick._ Beaufort, it is thy sovereign speaks to thee. - - _Cardinal._ Bring me unto my trial when you will. - Died he[23] not in his bed? Where should he die? - Can I make men live whe’er they will or no? - O, torture me no more, I will confess— - Alive again? then shew me where he is: - I’ll give a thousand pound to look upon him— - He hath no eyes, the dust hath blinded them.— - Comb down his hair; look! look! it stands upright, - Like lime-twigs set to catch my winged soul.— - Give me some drink, and bid the apothecary - Bring the strong poison that I bought of him. - - _King Hen._ O thou eternal Mover of the Heav’ns, - Look with a gentle eye upon this wretch. - O, beat away the busy meddling fiend, - That lays strong siege unto this wretch’s soul, - And from his bosom purge this black despair. - - _Warwick._ See how the pangs of death do make him grin! - - _Salisbury._ Disturb him not; let him pass peaceably. - - _King Hen._ Peace to his soul, if God’s good pleasure be! - Lord Cardinal, if thou think’st on heaven’s bliss, - Lift up thy hand, make signal of thy hope.— - He dies, and makes no sign—O God, forgive him! - - _Warwick._ So bad a death argues a monstrous life. - - _King Hen._ Forbear to judge, for we are sinners all.— - Close up his eyes, and draw the curtain close, - And let us all to meditation.[24] - -M. Guillon relates the following remarkable case:—“The Chevalier de S—— -had been engaged in seventeen ‘affairs of honour,’ in each of which his -adversary fell. But the images of his murdered rivals began to haunt -him night and day; and at length he fancied he heard nothing but the -wailings and upbraidings of seventeen families—one demanding a father, -another a son, another a brother, another a husband, &c. Harassed by -these imaginary followers, he incarcerated himself in the monastery of -La Trappe; but the French revolution threw open this asylum, and turned -the chevalier once more into the world. He was now no longer able to -bear the remorse of his own conscience, or, as he imagined, the sight -of seventeen murdered men, and therefore put himself to death. It is -evident that insanity was the consequence of the remorse, and the cause -of the suicide. - -“No disease of the imagination is so difficult to cure as that which -is complicated with the idea of guilt: fancy and conscience then act -interchangeably upon us, and so often shift their places, that the -illusions of one are not distinguished from the dictates of the other. -If fancy presents images not moral or religious, the mind drives them -away when they give pain; but when melancholy notions take the form of -duty, they lay hold on the faculties without opposition, because we are -afraid to exclude or banish them.”[25] - -How accurately has the poet depicted the tortures, the sleeplessness, -of a guilty conscience:— - - “Though thy slumber may be deep, - Yet thy spirit shall not sleep; - There are shades which will not vanish, - There are thoughts thou canst not banish; - By a power to thee unknown, - Thou canst never be alone; - Thou art wrapt as with a shroud, - Thou art gathered in a cloud; - And for ever shalt thou dwell - In the spirit of this spell.” - -A woman with her husband had been employed in a French hospital as -servants for a considerable time. Having left their situations, the -wife, _thirty years_ afterwards, declared she heard a voice within, -commanding her to repair instantly to the chief commissioner of police, -and confess the thefts she had committed during the time she was at -the hospital. The fact was, that she had been guilty of appropriating -occasionally to her own use a portion of the food supplied for the -patients attached to the Institution. The commissioner listened to the -woman’s story, and her demand that she should be punished, but refused -to take any cognizance of the offence. She returned home, and for some -time was extremely dejected. She became so miserable that existence was -no longer desirable; and as the legal tribunals refused to punish her, -she determined on suicide, which she committed at the age of fifty-one. - -It is admitted, by almost universal consent, that there is no affection -of the mind that exerts so tremendous an influence over the human race -as that of love. - - “To love, and feel ourselves beloved,” - -is said to constitute the height of human happiness. This sacred -sentiment, which some have debased by the term passion, when unrequited -and irregulated, produces the most baneful influence upon the system. - -“A youthful passion, which is conceived and cherished without any -certain object, may be compared to a shell thrown from a mortar by -night: it rises calmly in a brilliant track, and seems to mix, and -even to dwell for a moment with the stars of heaven; but at length it -falls—it bursts—consuming and destroying all around, even as itself -expires.”[26] - -From the constitution of woman, from the peculiar position which she -of necessity holds in society, we should, _à priori_, have concluded -that in her we should see manifested this sentiment in all its purity -and strength. Such is the fact. A woman’s life is said to be but the -history of her affections. It is the soul within her soul; the pulse -within her heart; the life blood along her veins, “blending with every -atom of her frame.” Separated from the bustle of active life—isolated -like a sweet and rare exotic flower from the world, it is natural to -expect that the mind should dwell with earnestness upon that which is -to constitute almost its very being, and apart from which it has no -existence. - - “Alas! the love of woman, it is known - To be a lovely and a fearful thing; - For all of theirs upon that die is thrown; - And if ’tis lost, life hath no more to bring - To them, but mockeries of the past alone.” - - BYRON. - -The term “broken heart” is not a mere poetical image. Cases are -recorded in which that organ has been ruptured in consequence of -disappointed hope. Let those who are sceptical as to the fact that -physical disease so often results from blighted affection, visit the -wards of our public and private asylums. In those dreary regions of -misery they will have an opportunity of witnessing the wreck of many -a form that was once beauteous and happy. Ask their history, and you -will be told of holy and sincere affection nipped in the bud—of wild -and passionate love strangled at its birth—of the death of all human -hopes, of a severance from those about whom every fibre of the soul had -entwined itself. Silent and sullen grief, black despair, - - “And laughter loud, amidst severest woe,” - -are the painful images that meet the eye at every step we take through -these “hells upon earth.”[27] - -In this country, the great majority of the cases of insanity among -women, in our establishments devoted to the reception of the insane, -can clearly be traced to unrequited and disappointed affection. This -is not to be wondered at, if we consider the present artificial state -of society. We make “merchandize of love;” both men and women are -estimated, not by their mental endowments, not by their moral worth, -not by their capacity of making the domestic fire-side happy, but -by the length of their respective purses. Instead of seeking for a -heart, we look for a dowry. Money is preferred to intellect; pure and -unadulterated affection dwindles into nothingness when placed in the -same scale with titles and worldly honours, - - “And Mammon wins his way - Where seraphs might despair.” - -How little do those who ought to be influenced by more elevated motives -calculate the seeds of wretchedness and misery which they are sowing -for those who, by nature, have a right to demand that they should be -actuated by other principles! - - “Shall I be won - Because I’m valued as a _money-bag_? - For that I bring to him who winneth me,”[28] - -says Catherine, in the spirit of honest indignation. It should be -remembered that “wedlock joins nothing, if it joins not hearts.” - -How many melancholy cases of suicide can clearly be traced to this -cause! Death is considered preferable to a long life of unmitigated -sorrow. When the heart is seared, when there exists no “green spot -in memory’s dreary waste,”—when all hope is banished from the mind, -and wretched loneliness and desolation take up their residence in the -heart, need it excite surprise that the quiet and rest of the grave is -eagerly longed for! If a mind thus worked upon be not influenced by -religious principles, self-destruction is the idea constantly present -to the imagination. - -Of all the sufferings, however, to which we are exposed during our -sojourn below, nothing is so truly overwhelming and irreparable as -the death of one with whom all our early associations are inseparably -linked—one endeared to us by the most pleasing recollections. Death -leaves a blank in our existence; a cold shuddering shoots through the -frame, a mist flits before our eyes, darkening the face of nature, -when the heart that mingled all its feelings with ours lies, cold and -insensible, in the silent grave. - -As long as life lasts, there is hope; but death snatches every ray -of consolation from the mind. The only prop that supported us is -removed, and the mansion crumbles to the dust; the mind becomes -utterly and hopelessly wrecked. To say that this is but the effect on -understandings constitutionally weak, is to say what facts will not -establish. The most elevated and best cultivated minds are often the -most sensitively alive to such impressions. - -The following case made considerable noise at Lyons, in 1770. A young -gentleman of rank, of handsome exterior, possessing considerable mental -endowments, and most respectably connected, fell in love with a young -lady, who, like himself, possessed a handsome person, in union with -accomplishments of a high order. They met; the passion was reciprocal, -and the gentleman accordingly made an application to her parents to -be allowed to consummate their bliss by marriage. The parents, as -parents sometimes do under these circumstances, refused compliance. -The gentleman took it greatly to heart; it preyed much upon his mind, -and in the midst of his grief he burst a blood-vessel. His case was -given over by the medical men. The young lady, on being made acquainted -with his condition, paid him a clandestine visit, and they then agreed -to destroy themselves. Accordingly the lady brought with her, on her -next visit, two pistols and two daggers, in order that, if the pistols -missed, the daggers might the next moment pierce their hearts. They -embraced each other for the last time. Rose-coloured ribbons were tied -to the triggers of the pistols; the lover holding the ribbon of his -mistress’ pistol, while she held the ribbon of his; both fired at a -given signal, and both fell at the same instant dead on the floor! - -The case now about to be recorded presents some peculiarly interesting -features. An English lady, moving in the first circles of society, -went, in company with her friends, to the opera at Paris. In the next -box sat a gentleman, who appeared, from the notice he took of the -lady, to be enamoured of her. The lady expressed herself annoyed at -the observation which she had attracted, and moved to another part of -the box. The gentleman followed the carriage home, and insisted upon -addressing the lady, declaring that he had had the pleasure of meeting -her elsewhere, and that one minute’s conversation would convince her -of the fact, and do away with the unfavourable impression which his -apparent rudeness might have made upon her mind. As his request did -not appear at the moment unreasonable, she consented to see him for -a minute by herself. In that short space of time he made a fervent -declaration of his affection; acknowledged that desperation had -compelled him to have recourse to a _ruse_ to obtain an interview, -and that, unless she looked favourably on his pretensions, he would -kill her and then himself. The lady expressed her indignation at the -deceit he had practised, and said, with considerable firmness, that -he must quit the house. He did so, retired to his home, and with a -lancet opened a vein in his arm. He collected a portion of blood in a -cup, and with it wrote a note to the lady, telling her that his blood -was flowing fast from his body, and it should continue to flow until -she consented to listen to his proposals. The lady, on the receipt of -the note, sent her servant to see the gentleman, and found him, as -he represented, actually bleeding to death. On the entreaty of the -lady, the arm was bound up and his life saved. On writing to the lady, -under the impression that she would now accept his addresses, he was -amazed on receiving a cool refusal, and a request that he would not -trouble her with any more letters. Again driven to desperation, he -resolved effectually to kill himself. He accordingly loaded a pistol -and directed his steps towards the residence of his fair amorosa, -when, knocking at the door, he gained admission, and immediately -blew out his brains. The intelligence was communicated to the lady, -she became dreadfully excited, and a severe attack of nervous fever -followed. When the acute symptoms subsided, her mind was completely -deranged. Her insanity took a peculiar turn. She fancied she heard a -voice commanding her to commit suicide, and yet she appeared to be -possessed of sufficient reason to know that she was desirous of doing -what she ought to be restrained from accomplishing. Every now and then -she would exclaim, “Take away the pistol! I won’t hang myself! I won’t -take poison!” Under the impression that she would kill herself, she -was carefully watched; but notwithstanding the vigilance which was -exercised she had sufficient cunning to conceal a knife, with which, -during the temporary absence of the attendant, she stabbed herself in -the abdomen, and died in a few hours. It appears that the idea that she -had caused the death of another, and that she had it in her power to -save his life by complying with his wishes, produced the derangement -of mind under which she was labouring at the time of her death; and -yet she did not manifest, and it was evident to everybody that she -had not, the slightest affection for the gentleman who professed so -much to admire her. Possessing naturally a sensitive mind, it was -easily excited. The peculiar circumstances connected with her mental -derangement were sufficient to account for the delusions under which -she laboured. Altogether the case is full of interest. - -Few passions tend more to distract and unsettle the mind than that -of jealousy. Insanity and suicide often owe their origin to this -feeling. One of the most terrific pictures of the dire effects of this -“green-eyed monster” on the mind is delineated in the character of -Othello. In the Moor of Venice we witness a fearful struggle between -fond and passionate love and this corroding mental emotion. Worked -upon by the villainous artifices of Iago, Othello is led to doubt the -constancy of Desdemona’s affection; the very doubt urges him almost to -the brink of madness; but when he feels assured of her guilt, and sees -the gulf into which he has been hurled, and the utter hopelessness of -his condition, he abandons himself to despair. Nothing which the master -spirit of Shakspeare ever penned can equal the exquisitely touching -and melting pathos of the speech of the Moor when he becomes perfectly -conscious of the wreck of one around whom every tendril of his heart -had indissolubly interwoven itself. To be forcibly severed from one -dearer to us than our own existence is a misfortune that requires much -philosophy to bear up against; to be torn from a beloved object by -death, to feel that the earth encloses in its cold embrace the idol -of our affections, freezes the heart; but to be separated from one who -has forfeited all claim to our affection and friendship, and who still -lives, but lives in dishonour, must be a refinement of human misery. -Need we then wonder that, when influenced by such feelings, Othello -should thus give expression to the overflowings of his soul:— - - “Oh now, for ever, - Farewell the tranquil mind! farewell content! - Farewell the plumed troop, and the big wars, - That make ambition virtue! Oh, farewell! - Farewell the neighing steed, and the shrill trump, - The spirit-stirring drum, th’ ear-piercing fife, - The royal banner, and all quality, - Pride, pomp, and circumstance of glorious war! - And, oh, you mortal engines, whose rude throats - Th’ immortal Jove’s dread clamours counterfeit, - Farewell! Othello’s occupation’s gone!” - -It is under the infliction of such a concentration of misery that many -a mind is shattered, and that death is courted as the only relief -within its grasp. Othello, having discovered when it was too late that -he had wrongly suspected Desdemona, and had sacrificed the life of the -sweetest creature on earth, a combination of passions drives him to -distraction, and under their influence he plunges the dagger into his -heart. Jealousy was not, as some have supposed, the exclusive cause of -Othello’s suicide. - -The following singular case attracted considerable notice fifteen -years ago. A woman was subjected to much maltreatment by her husband. -She was jealous of his attentions to one of the servants, and she had -frequently declared, that if he persisted in insulting her under her -own roof she would either cause his or her own death. On one occasion -she was more than usually violent, and expressed her determination to -ruin him. Fearful that she would carry her threat into execution, he -had her placed in a room where there was no furniture, and nothing -that she could use for the purpose of self-destruction. Her rage was -greatly increased by this barbarous treatment, and her screams were -sufficiently loud to alarm the whole neighbourhood. As her husband -refused to release her from confinement, she determined no longer to -submit to his brutal control, and resolved to commit suicide. Having no -instrument that she could use, she felt some difficulty in effecting -her purpose. She held her breath for some time, but that did not -succeed. She then tried to strangle herself with her hands, but that -mode was equally unsuccessful. Her determination was so resolutely -fixed, that in desperation she tore her hair out by the roots. Still -death did not come to her relief. In vain she searched in every corner -of the room for something with which she might effectually take away -her life. Just as she was beginning to give up the idea as hopeless, -her eye caught a sight of the glass in the window; she instantly broke -a pane, and with a piece of it endeavoured to cut her throat; and yet -she could not succeed in effecting her horrid purpose. At last, as a -dernier resort, she resolved to swallow a piece of the broken glass, -hoping by this means to choke herself. She did so, and the glass stuck -in her throat, and produced the most excruciating agony. Her groans -became audible; the husband became alarmed, and opened the door, when -he found his wife apparently in the last struggles of death. Medical -relief was immediately obtained, and although everything that surgical -ingenuity could suggest was had recourse to, she died, a melancholy -spectacle of the effects of unsubdued passion. - -The two following cases shew how trifling a cause often incites to -self-destruction:— - -Madame N——, a once famous dancer at the French opera-house, was taken -to task by her husband for not acquitting herself so well in the ballet -as she usually did. She exhibited indications of passion at the, as -she thought, unmerited reproof. When she arrived home, she resolved to -die, but was much puzzled to effect her purpose. The next morning, she -purchased a potent poison, but when she returned to her home she found -that her husband looked suspiciously at her, and appeared to watch her -movements. She then made up her mind to take the fatal draught in the -evening, as she was going in the carriage to the opera. She accordingly -did so; the poison did not have an immediate effect. The ballet -commenced, and Madame N—— was led on the stage; and it was not until -she had commenced dancing that she began to feel the draught producing -the desired effect. She complained of illness, and was removed to her -dressing-room, where she expired in the arms of her husband, confessing -that she had, in a fit of chagrin at his rebuke, swallowed poison! - -A young gentleman, of considerable promise, of high natural and -acquired attainments, had been solicited to make a speech at a public -meeting, which was to take place in the town in which he resided. As -he had never attempted to address extemporaneously a public body, -he expressed himself extremely nervous as to the result, and asked -permission to withdraw his name from the published list of speakers. -This wish was not, however, complied with, as it was thought that when -the critical moment arrived he would not be found wanting even in the -art of public speaking. He had prepared himself with considerable care -for the attempt. His name was announced from the chair; when he rose -for the purpose of delivering his sentiments. The exordium was spoken -without any hesitation; and his friends felt assured that he would -acquit himself with great credit. He had not, however, advanced much -beyond his prefatory observations, when he hesitated, and found himself -incapable of proceeding. He then sat down, evidently excessively -mortified. In this state he retired to a room where the members of the -committee had previously met, and cut his throat with his penknife. He -wounded the carotid artery, and died in a few minutes. - -A case of suicide from mortified pride, somewhat similar to the last, -occurred some years ago in London. A gentleman, whose imagination was -much more active than his judgment, conceived that he was possessed of -histrionic powers equal to those which were exhibited by the immortal -Garrick. A manager of a London theatre, to whom he was introduced, -allowed him to make his débût at his theatre. As is often the case, -the public formed a different estimate of his abilities to that which -the vanity of the young aspirant had induced him to form; and the -consequence was, that he was well hissed and hooted for his presumption -in attempting a character for which his talents so little adapted him. -Being naturally sensitive, his failure preyed on his mind; and under -the influence of the mortification, he hung himself, leaving in his -room the following laconic epistle, addressed to his mother:— - -“MY DEAR MOTHER,—All my hopes have been ruined. I fancied myself a man -of genius; the reality has proved me to be a fool. I die, because life -is no longer to be supported. Look charitably on this last action of my -life. Adieu!” - -A common cause of suicide is the feeling of false pride. The only -reason assigned for the desperate act of Elizabeth Moyes, who -threw herself from the Monument, was, that, owing to the reduced -circumstances of her father, (a baker,) it was determined that she -should procure a situation at a confectioner’s, and support herself. -This she allowed to prey upon her mind, although she expressed a -concurrence in the propriety of the course suggested. How true it is— - - “Abstract what others feel, what others think, - All pleasures sicken, and all glories sink.” - - POPE. - -Owing to the fictitious notions abroad in society, the ridiculously -false views which are taken of worldly honours, the ideas which -a sickly sentimentality infuses into the mind, this feeling is -engendered, to an alarming extent, through the different ranks of -society. This constitutes one great element which is undermining and -disorganizing our social condition. A fictitious value is affixed to -wealth and position in the world; it is estimated for itself alone, all -other considerations being placed out of view. - - “None think the great unhappy but the great.” - -Vatel committed suicide because he was not able to prepare as sumptuous -an entertainment as he wished for his guests. - -We cannot conceive how this evil is to be obviated, unless it be -possible to revolutionize the ideas which are generally attached to -fame and worldly grandeur. It is difficult to persuade such persons -that the end of fame is merely - - “To have, when the original is dust, - A name, a wretched picture, and worse bust.” - -There is a nameless, undefinable something, that the world is taught -to sigh after—is always in search of; a moral _ignis fatuus_, which -is dazzling to lead it from the road which points to true and -unsophisticated happiness. - -Persons naturally proud are less able than others to bear up against -the distresses of life; they are more severely galled by the yoke of -adversity; and hence this passion often produces mental derangement. -Such characters exhibit a morbid desire for praise; it acts like moral -nourishment to their souls; it is a stimulus that is almost necessary -to their very being, forgetting that - - “Praise too dearly loved, or warmly sought, - Enfeebles all eternal weight of thought; - ’Till the fond soul, within itself unblest, - _Leans for all pleasure on another’s breast_.” - -Dr. Reid justly observes, that “he who enters most deeply into the -misfortunes of others, will be best able to bear his own. A practical -benevolence, by habitually urging us to disinterested exertion, tends -to alienate the attention from any single train of ideas, which, if -favoured by indolence and self contemplation, might be in danger -of monopolizing the mind, and occasions us to lose a sense of our -personal concerns in an enlarged and liberal sympathy with the general -good.” - -Villeneuve, the celebrated French admiral, when he was taken prisoner -and brought to England, was so much grieved at his defeat that he -studied anatomy in order to destroy himself. For this purpose he bought -some anatomical plates of the heart, and compared them with his own -body, in order to ascertain the exact situation of that organ. On -his arrival in France, Buonaparte ordered that he should remain at -Rennes, and not proceed to Paris. Villeneuve, afraid of being tried by -a court-martial for disobedience of orders, and consequently losing -his fleet, (for Napoleon had ordered him not to sail or to engage the -English,) determined to destroy himself; and accordingly took his -plates and compared them with the position of his heart. Exactly in the -centre he made a mark with a large pin; then fixed it, as near as he -could judge, in the same spot in his own breast, and shoved it on to -its head; it penetrated his heart, and he expired. When the room was -opened, he was found dead, the pin through his breast, and a mark in -the plate corresponding with the wound.[29] - -It has been said that after the death of Josephine, and when Buonaparte -was overwhelmed with misfortunes, he attempted suicide. Those who -consider Napoleon immaculate deny the accuracy of the charge. But in -order to give the reader an opportunity of judging for himself, we lay -before him Sir Walter Scott’s account of the transaction referred to. -“Buonaparte,” he observes, “belonged to the Roman school of philosophy; -and it is confidently reported by Baron Fane, his secretary—though not -universally believed—that he designed to escape from life by an act of -suicide. The Emperor, according to this account, had carried with him, -ever since his retreat from Moscow, a packet containing a preparation -of opium, made up in the same manner with that used by Condorcet, -for self-destruction. His valet-de-chambre, in the night of the 12th -or 13th of April, heard him arise, and pour something into a glass -of water, drink, and return to bed. In a short time afterwards the -man’s attention was called by sobs and stifled groans; an alarm took -place in the chateau; some of the principal persons were roused, and -repaired to Napoleon’s chamber. Yvan, the surgeon who had procured him -the poison, was also summoned; but hearing the Emperor complain that -the operation of the potion was not quick enough, he was seized with a -panic of terror, and fled from the palace at full gallop. Napoleon took -the remedies recommended, and a long fit of stupor ensued, with profuse -perspiration. He awakened much exhausted, and surprised at finding -himself still alive. He said aloud, after a few moments’ reflection, -‘Fate will not have it so;’ and afterwards appeared reconciled to -undergo his destiny without similar attempts at personal violence.” -Napoleon’s illness was, at the time, imputed to indigestion. A general -of the highest distinction transacted business with Napoleon on the -morning of the 13th of April. He seemed pale and dejected, as from -recent and exhausting illness. His only dress was a night-gown and -slippers; and he drank, from time to time, a quantity of ptisan, or -some such liquid, which was placed beside him, saying he had suffered -severely during the night, but that his complaint had left him.[30] - -We cannot conceive a more piteous condition than that of a man of -great ambition without the powers of mind which are indispensable for -its gratification. In him a constant contest is going on between an -intellect constitutionally weak, and a desire to distinguish himself -in some particular department of life. How often a man so unhappily -organized ends his career in a mad-house, or terminates his miserable -existence by suicide! Let men be taught to make correct estimates of -their own capabilities, to curb in the imagination, to cease “building -castles in the air,” if we wish to advance their mental and bodily -health. “_Ne sutor ultra crepidam_,” said Apelles to the cobbler. A -young man who “penned a stanza when he ought to engross,” blew out his -brains because he had failed in inducing a London publisher to purchase -an epic poem which he had written, and which he had the vanity to -conceive was equal to Paradise Lost, forgetting that, in order to be a -poet,— - - “Nature’s kindling breath - Must fire the chosen genius; nature’s hand - Must string his nerves and imp his eagle wings.” - -That this state of mind predisposes and often leads to the commission -of suicide, numerous cases testify. - -Despair often drives men to suicide. The dread of poverty and want; -the hopes in which we often injudiciously place too much of our -happiness entirely blasted; either honest or false pride humbled by -public or private contempt; ambitious views suddenly and unexpectedly -disappointed; pains of the body, the loss of those dear and near to -us,—tend to originate this feeling, and induce the unhappy person to -seek relief in self-murder. - -How terrible is the situation of the man exposed to the influence of -this passion, and deprived of the cheering and elevating influence -of hope! We had an opportunity, some years back, of witnessing the -case of a maniac, whose derangement of mind consisted in his having -abandoned himself completely to despair. He laboured under no distinct -or prominent delusion, but his mental alienation consisted in the total -absence of all prospect of relief. The iron had entered his very soul; -he appeared as if the hand of a relentless destiny had written on the -threshold of his door, as on the gate of the Inferno of Dante, the -heart-rending sentence, “Abandon all hope!” - -A woman is seduced by some heartless and profligate wretch; she is in -a short time forsaken and left to her fate. Her mind recurs to the -past; she recalls to recollection her once happy state of innocence and -peace. Scorned by the world, shunned by her relations and friends, she -is driven to a state of agonizing distraction. Despair, in its worst -features, takes possession of her mind, and under this feeling she puts -an end to her existence. A man under the operation of this passion -wrote as follows:— - -“It has pleased the Almighty to weaken my understanding, to undermine -my reason, and to render me unfit for the discharge of my duty. My -blood rolls in billows and torrents of despair. It must have vent. -How? I possess a place to which I am a dishonour, inasmuch as I am -incapable of discharging it properly; I prevent some better man from -doing it more justice. This piece of bread which I lament is all that I -have to support myself and family; even this I do not merit; I eat it -in sin, and yet I live. Killing thought! which a conscience hitherto -uncorrupted inspires. I have a wife, also, and my child reproaches me -with its existence. But you do not know, my dear friends, that if my -unhappy life is not speedily ended, my weak head will require all your -care, and I shall become a burthen rather than an assistance to you. -It is better that I yield myself a timely sacrifice to misfortune, -than, by permitting the delusion to continue longer, I consume the -last farthing of my wife’s inheritance. It is a duty of every person -to do that which his situation requires; reason commands it, religion -approves. My life, such as it is, is a mere animal life, devoid of -reason; in my mind, a life which stands in opposition to duty is moral -death, and worse than that which is natural. In favour of the few whose -life I cannot render happy, it is at least my duty not to become an -oppression. I ought to relieve them from a weight which sooner or later -cannot fail to crush them.” - -This unfortunate man, after penning the above account of his morbid -feelings, sent his wife to church on Sunday, May 13th, 1783; and -after writing an addition to his journal, took a pair of scissors and -attempted, although unsuccessfully, to terminate his life by cutting -his throat. He then opened the arteries at the wrists, and again failed -in destroying himself; he staggered to the window, and saw his wife -returning home, upon which he seized a knife used for killing deer, and -stabbed himself in the heart. He was lying weltering in his blood when -his wife came in, but was not quite dead. M. le Clarc, who relates the -case, observes, that he was a man of understanding, and of a lively -wit. He possessed a great deal of theoretical learning; his heart was -incorruptibly honest. Like every calm and determined self-murderer, he -was proud; but his pride was not the pride of rank, of riches, or of -learning, but that divine pride which arises from a consciousness of -incorruptible honesty, and of being possessed of good powers of mind. -The office he held was that of an assistant judge in a small college of -justice at Insterberg. His mother had been once deranged in her mind. - -Few persons have given a more striking example of this passion than the -Abbé de Rancé, when first touched with remorse for the enormity of his -past life, and before the disturbed state of his mind had settled into -that turn for religious seclusion and mortification which produced the -appalling austerities of La Trappe. “To a state of frantic despair,” -says Don Lancelot, in his letter to La Mère Angelique of Port Royal, -“succeeded a black melancholy. He sent away all his friends, and shut -himself up in his mansion at Veret, where he would not see a creature. -His whole soul, nay, even his bodily wants, seemed wholly absorbed in -a deep and settled gloom. Shut up in a single room, he even forgot to -eat and drink; and when the servant reminded him that it was bed-time, -he started as from a deep reverie, and seemed unconscious that it -was not still morning. When he was better, he would often wander in -the woods for the entire day, wholly regardless of the weather. A -faithful servant, who sometimes followed him by stealth, often watched -him standing for hours together in one place, the snow and the rain -beating on his head, whilst he, unconscious of his position, was wholly -absorbed in painful recollections. Then, at the fall of a leaf, or the -noise of the deer, he would awake as from a slumber, and, wringing -his hands, hasten to bury himself in a thicker part of the wood, or -else throw himself prostrate, with his face in the snow, and groan -bitterly.”[31] - -How many commit suicide from what is termed a _blind impulse_! They -fancy that an internal voice tells them to kill themselves; and -considering it impossible to resist what they term a destiny, they do -so. A gentleman, a merchant of the city of London, had been exposed to -great mental perturbation; his nervous system had received a severe -shock. He suffered extremely from a dread of going mad. As he was -walking home one afternoon, he heard a voice say, “Kill thyself!” -“Commit suicide!” and from that moment he could not banish the idea -from his mind. Two or three times he was on the eve of obeying the -mandate of this internal voice; but he fortunately possessed sufficient -resolution to resist the temptation. In this state of mind he consulted -a physician, who ordered him to be cupped in the neighbourhood of the -head. His bowels were attended to, and he was recommended to visit -some friends in the north of Scotland, and to banish from his mind all -ideas connected with business. He followed the advice of his judicious -physician, and in a short time he completely recovered. - -In the midst of health apparently perfect and uniform, a man was -attacked with a sudden disposition to destroy. He seized a stick, -raised it, struck indiscriminately and broke everything that presented -itself to him. After some seconds, the stick fell from his hands, -and he appeared restored to himself. The man knew nothing of what he -had just done. He was reproached, he was shewn the remnants of the -things that he had broken; he thought they were ridiculing him, and -he was greatly irritated. He was again seized with frenzy, and killed -a person. He was taken before a court of justice, acquitted on the -ground of insanity, and placed in an hospital. This disposition to -destroy returned at distant intervals; it then came on more frequently; -and finally, changed into fits of epilepsy. A person seized with -this morbid desire is not always unconscious of the approach of the -disposition; he has sometimes a presentiment of it, perceives its -danger, seeks to combat it, and frequently succeeds in effecting his -purpose. - -A labourer, at the end of his day’s work, felt himself seized with an -irresistible desire of running; he rushed upon the quay, which goes -from the Louvre to the Grève: every obstacle was overcome. An attempt -was made to stop him, but it was not successful. At last he dexterously -engaged one of his arms in the wheel of a carriage, which happened to -be within his reach. Thus withheld, he recovered his breath, became -calm, and appeared to have no idea of what had occurred. This feeling -was again manifested, and he was properly sent by his friends to an -hospital, when it was discovered that he had a disease of the spinal -marrow. - -A man arrived upon the Pont Neuf; he rushed violently to the parapet, -and precipitated himself into the Seine. He was seen by some of the -bystanders, who drew him out of the water and saved his life. After -some days of complete restoration, his friends asked him the reason of -his strange conduct. He replied, “I cannot give any account. I am in -the happiest situation in the world. I have only to play with fortune -and with men. I have never been ill. I do not know what troubles may -come upon me. I can only recollect my arrival on the Pont Neuf, and my -recall to life.” - -The particulars of the following fact are recorded in Mrs. Mathews’ -life of her husband. Mathews the comedian had lived for some days a -vapid and inactive life. His spirit had been pressed down, “cabin’d, -cribb’d, confin’d.” In this state of mind, a party of gentlemen called -upon him, and proposed a day’s excursion. Accordingly, they all mounted -their horses. Mrs. Mathews says—“My husband’s depressed spirits were -exhilarated by the beauty of the weather, and the prospect of a day’s -pleasure (free from the restraint of a room, listening to truisms) in -the open air, where he would have uncontrolled power to gaze upon his -idol, Nature, in her most beautiful form. He had not ridden out of -the city for some weeks, and was in a state of childish delight and -excitement. At this moment his eyes turned upon one of the party, a -very little man, who was perched on a very tall horse, and who seemed -unusually grave and important. Mr. Mathews looked at him for a moment; -and the next, knocked him off with a smart blow, felling him to the -ground. The whole party were struck with horror; but no one felt more -shocked than he who had committed the outrage. He dismounted, picked up -the little victim to his unaccountable freak, declared himself unable -to give any motive for the action, but that it was an impulse he could -not resist; and afterwards, in relating this extraordinary incident, he -declared his conviction that it was done in a moment of frenzy, induced -by the too sudden reaction from previous stagnation of all freedom and -amusement.” - -A young woman, about twenty years of age, who had been insane but a -short time, and appeared to be recovering, after having assisted to -whitewash and clean a ward in an asylum in which she was confined, was -sitting, in the evening, taking tea with the nurse and several other -inmates. She took advantage of the opportunity when the nurse went to -the cupboard for some sugar to seize a knife with which some bread had -just been cut; and in the presence of the whole party, in an instant, -before her hand could be arrested, cut her throat in so dreadful a -manner that she died almost immediately. - -A patient in the Asylum at Wakefield, the wife of a labourer, a -kind-hearted and clever woman, was afflicted with such a propensity -to destroy that she was almost constantly obliged to be kept in -confinement; and when at liberty, she could not resist the pleasure -of breaking anything she met with. In one instance, she saw some -tea-cups on a table, and for some time walked backwards and forwards, -and checked the inclination; but eventually the temptation proved too -strong, and she swept them at once on to the floor. She afterwards -regretted the circumstance; but the impulse was too powerful to be -resisted. - -A monomaniac (says Esquirol) heard a voice within him repeat these -words—“_Kill thyself! kill thyself!_” He therefore committed suicide, -in obedience to this superior power, whose order he dare not withstand. - -A man, under a religious hallucination, believed himself to be in -communication with the Deity. He fancied he heard a celestial voice -saying—“_My son, come and seat thyself by my side._” He opened the -window to obey the invitation, fell down, and fractured his leg. When -he was carried to his bed, he expressed the greatest astonishment on -finding that he had precipitated himself from the window. - -A young lady of considerable beauty was accosted in the street by a -strange gentleman. She took no notice at first of the unwarrantable -liberty; but on finding that he persisted in following her, she -attempted, by quickening her pace, to escape. Being extremely timid, -and having naturally a very nervous temperament, she was much excited. -The person in the garb of a gentleman followed her for nearly a mile, -and when he saw that she was home, he suddenly turned down a street, -and disappeared. The young lady expressed herself extremely ill soon -after she entered the house. A physician was sent for, who declared his -astonishment at her severe illness from a cause so trifling. During -the following night she manifested indications of mental derangement, -with a disposition to commit suicide. A strait-waistcoat was procured, -and all apprehensions of her succeeding in gratifying the propensity of -self-destruction was removed. Some weeks elapsed before she recovered. -To all appearance she was perfectly well. She had no recollection of -what had transpired, and expressed herself amazed when she was told -that she had wished to kill herself. Two months after she left her bed -she was missed. Search was made in every direction, but in vain. After -the lapse of two days, she was discovered floating in a pond of water -several miles from her home. In her pocket was discovered a piece of -paper, on which were written the following lines:—“Oh, the misery and -wretchedness I have experienced for the last month no one but myself -can tell. A demon haunts me—life is insupportable. A voice tells me -that I am destined to fall by my own hands. I leave this world for -another, where I hope to enjoy more happiness. Adieu.” - -We have no doubt that in this case, although the acute symptoms of -insanity had subsided, she had not recovered completely her sane -state of mind. None but those conversant with the subject of mental -derangement would believe that so trifling a circumstance as that of -being spoken to in the street would have produced so violent an attack -of maniacal delirium as was witnessed in the case of this poor girl. - -M. Esquirol states that he has never seen an unequivocal instance -of any individual drawn to the commission of suicide by a kind of -irresistible impulse, independently of any secret grievance, real or -imaginary. Could the secret feelings of these suicides be accurately -ascertained, there would generally, if not always, be found some -lurking source of discontent, real or fanciful, in the breast, which -serve as motives to their suicidal propensity. Many instances are on -record, it is true, where men have put a period to their existence -without any apparent visible cause or motive; but as Rousseau has -justly observed, “_Le bonheur n’a point d’enseigne exterieur: pour en -juger, il faudrait lire dans le cœur de l’homme heureux_.” - -“Individuals,” says Esquirol, “who appear outwardly the residence of -happiness, are often inwardly the focus of chagrin, and tortured with -distracting passions. That man can destroy his own life, being at the -same time happy in his mind, is a phenomenon which human reason cannot -comprehend.” - -A diseased temperament, a serious lesion of one or more of the viscera, -a gradual exhaustion of the energies of the system, may so aggravate -the miseries of life as to hasten the period of voluntary death. But -how are we to account for the irresistible propensity to suicide which -sometimes exists, independent of any apparent mental or physical -ailments? A melancholic, whose case was published in Fourcroy’s Medical -Journal of 1792, once said, “I am in prosperous circumstances; I have a -wife and a child who constitute my happiness; I cannot complain of bad -health, and still I feel a horrible propensity to throw myself into the -Seine.” His declaration was too fatally verified in the event. Crichton -was once consulted upon the case of a young man, twenty-four years -of age, in full vigour and health, who was tormented by periodical -accessions of these gloomy feelings and propensities. At those times -he meditated his own destruction. But on a nearer view of the fatal -act, he shrunk back into himself, and recoiled with horror from its -execution. Without relinquishing his project, he never had the courage -to accomplish it. “It is in cases like these,” says Crichton, “that -energetic measures of coercion, and the effectual excitement of terror, -should lend their aid to the powers of medicine and regimen.” - -In many cases of suicide, the act is preceded by a long train of -perverted reasoning. These individuals become taciturn, morose, -pusillanimous, and distrustful. The future presents itself to their -view under the most unfavourable aspect, and despair becomes painted -on their countenances. Their eyes become hollow; they complain of -sleeplessness, and are disturbed by frightful dreams. The bowels are -in an inactive state; the functions of the liver become to a certain -extent suspended. It is in this state that they contemplate the idea -of suicide; and the diaries which some have kept of their sensations -and thoughts disclose the various kinds of death which they have -contemplated and rejected, one after another, often for reasons the -most preposterous and ridiculous. It is singular that in these journals -they generally endeavour to hide their despondency and their mental -aberration, while their moral and intellectual weakness is sure to be -betrayed. They often accuse themselves of insanity, and bewail their -unhappy lot; others argue most ingeniously in favour of their meditated -suicide. Others again, subdued as it were by the force of the moral and -religious principles which they have imbibed, represent to themselves -that the act they contemplate is contrary to the moral end for which -man was created—fatal to the welfare and happiness of their families. -Then ensues a conflict in their breasts. If reason and religion -prevail, the project is abandoned,—sometimes abandoned altogether. If -otherwise, the suicide is committed. Falret knew the case of a woman -who exhibited a tendency to suicide, but who was delivered for a period -from the commission of the crime by the principles of religion in which -her mind had been educated. A long period elapsed before she could -reconcile herself to the act of suicide, and then she argued herself -into it by the following piece of sophistry:—“There are no general -rules without exceptions; and I am the precise exception in this -case: therefore I may commit suicide without violating my religious -principles.” - -Having once conceived the idea of suicide, the mind is often rendered -so miserable in consequence of it, that the person rushes into the arms -of death in order to escape from the terrible state of anticipation. -Others meditate on the bloody deed for years. Rousseau, after drawing -a piteous portrait of his proscribed and solitary condition, and of -the state of his health, adds, “_Puisque mon corps n’est plus pour moi -qu’un embarras, un obstacle à mon repos, cherchons donc à m’en degager -le plus tôt que je pourrai_.” - -_Tedium vitæ_, or _ennui_, is said to be a frequent cause of suicide. -We have heard of an Englishman who hanged himself in order to avoid the -trouble of pulling off and on his clothes. Goëthe knew a gardener, and -the overseer of some extensive pleasure-grounds, who once splenetically -exclaimed, “Shall I see these clouds for ever passing, then, from -east to west?” So singularly developed was this weariness of life, -this feeling of satiety, in one of our distinguished men, that it is -said of him that he viewed with dissatisfaction the return of spring, -and wished, by way of change, that everything would, for once, be red -instead of green.[32] - - “—— Within that ample nich, - With every quaint device of splendour rich, - Yon phantom, who, from vulgar eyes withdrawn, - Appears to stretch in one eternal yawn: - Of empire here he holds the tottering helm, - Prime-minister in Spleen’s discordant realm, - The pillar of her spreading state, and more, - Her darling offspring, whom on earth she bore. - For, as on earth his wayward mother strayed, - Grandeur, with eyes of fire, her form surveyed, - And with strong passion starting from his throne, - Unloos’d the sullen queen’s reluctant zone. - From his embrace, conceived in moody joy, - Rose the round image of a bloated boy: - His nurse was, Indolence; his tutor, Pomp, - Who kept the child from every childish romp. - They rear’d their nursling to the bulk you see, - And his proud parents called their imp—_Ennui_.” - - _Hayley’s Triumphs of Temper._ - -It is rare for an Englishman to commit suicide from ennui. The English -are different in this respect from the French people. The causes which -lead to suicide in this country, are those connected with sudden -reverse of fortune, or grievous disappointments, which are allowed to -prey upon the mind until the individual seeks relief in the arms of -death. In great commercial communities, where men may be reduced, in a -few minutes, from affluence to beggary; where the hopes and aspirations -of years are levelled in a moment to the dust, and the individual finds -himself exposed to the insulting pity of friends, and the searching -curiosity of the public, we need not feel surprise, when all these -circumstances rush upon a man’s mind in the sudden convulsion and -turbulence of its elements, that he should welcome the only escape from -the abyss into which he has been hurled. - -It has been stated, by a competent authority, that the week following -the drawing of the last lottery in England, no less than fifty suicides -were committed! - -_M. Gase_, in a memoir read before the _Academie Royale de Médecine_, -traces the increase of suicide in Paris to the spirit of gambling -which the Parisians so passionately indulge in. The extended system of -speculation in this country approximates in its pernicious effects on -the constitution to those which have been considered to result from -gambling. The following case, which was communicated to a popular -journal, by Dr. J. Johnson, forcibly illustrates how the constitution -may be undermined by rash, inconsiderate conduct, during the excitement -arising from temporary circumstances:— - -One day, on the Stock Exchange, when the rumours of failings at home -and commotions abroad were producing such alarming vacillations in the -public funds that the whole property of a gentleman of high probity, -temperance, and respectability, was in momentary jeopardy, he found -himself in so terrible a state of nervous agitation that he was obliged -to leave the scene of confusion, and apply to wine, though quite -unaccustomed to more than a glass or two after dinner. To his utmost -surprise, the wine had no apparent effect, though he drank glass after -glass, in rapid succession, until he had finished a whole bottle. -Not the slightest inebriating influence was induced by this unusual -quantity taken before dinner. His nervous agitation was, however, -calmed, and he went back to the Exchange, and transacted business with -steadiness, composure, and equanimity. None of the ordinary effects -of wine were produced at the time, but a few days afterwards he was -seized with a severe attack of indigestion, a malady by which he had -never been previously affected. This case shews that although mental -agitation masks, or even prevents, the usual effects of wine, and -other stimulants, at the time, and thus enables, and indeed induces, -men to take more than under ordinary circumstances, yet the ulterior -effects are greatly worse on the constitution than if the stimulants -had produced the usual excitement at the moment of their reception into -the stomach. It is thus, we have no doubt, that the nervous system -of thousands in this country is ruined, and, in numerous cases, the -seeds of suicidal derangement sown, and that without the victims being -conscious of the channel through which they have been poisoned. - -Defective education is a frequent cause of suicide. At the present -day, the ornamental has taken the place of the substantial; the showy -and specious, the situation of the solid and virtuous. The endowments -of the mind and cultivation of the heart are forced to yield to the -external accomplishments and graces of the body, and polished manners -are too generally preferred to sound morals. The importance of fashion -is inculcated in opposition to reason; religion is made to bow down -before the shrine of honour; and the fear of the world is taught to -supersede the fear of God. But what superstructure can be raised -on so sandy a foundation? It can support no incumbent weight; and, -in consequence, it cannot be deemed surprising that an inundation -of folly and vice, like a sweeping torrent, should bear down all -before it. The dignity of personal worth and character is a point -too little considered. Brilliant parts supersede sound judgment; -and disinterested virtue, integrity, and public spirit, are out of -character in a nation immersed in voluptuousness. Education of a -light and frivolous character leads to a vacuity of serious thoughts -and solid principles of conduct. Luxury and profligacy, in all ages, -have operated injuriously on the human mind. Cato the elder observes -that there could be no friendship in a man whose palate had quicker -sensations than his brain and heart. The man who has no internal -sources of enjoyment to fly to when others fail,—he whose happiness -consists in an indulgence in the pleasures of the senses, when these -ephemeral sources of gratification are removed, will, to avoid the -vacuum which is made in his existence, readily terminate his own life. - -There cannot be a doubt but that the general diffusion of knowledge, -and the desire to place within the command of the humblest person -the advantages of education, have not a little tended to promote the -crime of suicide. It may be opposed to all our _à priori_ reasoning -to suppose that, in proportion as the intellect becomes expanded, -knowledge and civilization diffused, the desire to commit self-murder -would be engendered. It is an indisputable fact, that insanity, in -all its variations, is in a ratio to the refinement and civilization -of a country. “It is clearly proved,” says Brown, “that in Finéstre, -where the people are in a deplorable state of ignorance, and education -is entirely neglected, only twelve in a hundred of the inhabitants -being able to write or read, few suicides occur, at least only in -the proportion of one in 25,000. In Paris, that focus of all that is -brilliant and imposing in science and literature, the crime is of -common occurrence. In Coréze, where only twelve in the hundred can -read or write, one suicide in 47,000 occurs; and in the High Loire one -in 163,000. On the other hand, in Oise and Lower Seine, both places -in possession of the highest degree of general instruction, and of -the means of advancing in improvement, suicides occur in every 5000 -or 9000 inhabitants. In the north of France, Catholicism has been -nearly extirpated, and there suicide and crime predominate; south -of the Loire, on the contrary, it still retains a strong hold of the -affections of the people, and there suicide, and its sinister crimes -or maladies are comparatively rare. This affords a noble proof that -the effects of Christianity, in whatever form and under whatever -circumstances, are peace and joy.”[33] - -It is our firm belief that the increase of suicide in this country is -to a certain extent to be traced to the atrocious doctrines promulgated -with such zeal by the sect of modern infidels, who falsely denominate -themselves _Socialists_; a class whose opinions are subversive of all -morality and Christianity, and which sap the foundation of society -itself. It is natural to expect when such principles of infidelity are -inculcated, when men are taught to believe in the non-existence of a -God, and to consider they are not accountable agents, and are under the -operation of an organization over which they have no control, that they -should look with philosophic indifference on suicide, and consider it -as a justifiable mode of putting an end to the misery and wretchedness -engendered by their own opinions. Such doctrines must of necessity -be productive of great evil to society; and it becomes the duty of -every Christian and well-wisher to his fellow-men to hold them up to -reprobation. The opinions of Owen strike at the root of all order, -and of all virtue, social and public, and break down every barrier of -law and restraint, making the passions the only standard of right and -wrong—the animal appetites the only test of virtue and vice. - -In the Bishop of Exeter’s able speech in the House of Lords, on -the subject of Socialism, he stated that cases of suicide under -circumstances of the most dreadful suffering had occurred, which had -been brought about by Mr. Owen’s pernicious doctrines. The learned -prelate related the particulars of the following case:—Mr. Parke, -a most respectable inhabitant of Wolverhampton, had an apprentice, -who had been in the habit of attending Socialists’ meetings, and -hearing their lectures. He purchased all their publications, and his -master’s shop not being of that kind to furnish them, he was obliged -to go elsewhere to obtain them. He dined and drank tea as usual with -Mr. Parke on the Sunday, and left after tea to attend St. George’s -Church. Not coming home at the usual hour, his master sat up for him -until 12 o’clock, when, as he had not returned, he concluded that his -relations had detained him. He was, however, found dead, in a sort of -lumber room, the next morning. Two bottles of poison were lying by his -side; the one which occasioned his death contained prussic acid; the -other, nux vomica: near him were lying four letters, one addressed to -his father, another to Mr. Parke, a third to the jury, and a fourth -containing his creed; in all of which he expressed his disbelief in the -Bible, considering it “the most dangerous book that ever was written,” -and if ever such a person as Jesus Christ lived, he was the weakest man -he ever heard of. In one of the letters he also stated that he had been -nurtured in superstition, (meaning, that he had been brought up as a -member of the church of England,) and that when he read Owen’s works -he “shuddered at their common sense.” He denied all belief in a future -state of retribution; and as he considered apprenticeship slavery, he -thought it more prudent to suffer pain for a moment than to endure six -years’ servitude. He earnestly entreated the jury not to bring in a -verdict of insanity. - -It appears from a letter to the Bishop of Exeter, written by the -unfortunate youth’s uncle, that he had been from infancy an exceedingly -lively boy; between him and his parents the most glowing affection, as -well as the most boundless confidence, existed; but the fatal poison -of Socialism changed a confiding heart into a cold concentration of -selfishness. After the verdict of the jury, the uncle declared aloud, -before a crowded room, in a most vehement manner, that, were he in the -presence of the Queen, he would proclaim Owen as the murderer of his -nephew. - -The indifference with which self-murder is looked at in Germany is -to be ascribed in a great measure to the popular productions of that -country. We are reluctant to denounce as undoubted causes of suicide -the works of men of splendid talents; but in such a case it would be -wrong, it would be criminal, to mince the matter, and plead any excuse -for so detestable a work as Werter, which has unhinged the minds of -thousands, before they were aware of its impoisoned and insidious -tendency. That it is the work of a man of genius only makes its -blackening influence the stronger; as the fascination of the style, -and the intense interest of the narrative, operate like an infernal -spell to smooth the road to self-destruction. Its leading theme is, -that human passions, and particularly love, are immediately inspired by -Heaven; and that it would be wrong—nay, that it is impossible—to resist -them; and consequently, if a lover meets with disappointment, his only -virtuous course is suicide, which is triumphantly catalogued among the -virtues, as it was by the heathen morality of the ancients. - -This work, together with Foscolo’s imitation of it, the “_Ultime -Lettere di Jacopo Ortis_,” and all publications of a similar character, -ought to be repudiated by every sound thinking man. Resistance to -the dictates of passion, when it prompts to crime and suicide, is -a most deadly sin against Werterism; whilst, obeying the passions -to the letter, even if they incite to criminal love or self-murder, -gives to its disciple the stamp of one of the virtuous who have -courageously braved the laws of good order, fearlessly dared to trample -under foot all the commands of God and man, and stood forth as the -redoubted champions of human supremacy and the glorious right of -self-destruction. Such are the principles of the miscreants who wish to -prove that suicide is a virtue; and, with the sentiments found in the -pages of Werter, they rush headlong and unthinkingly into a deep and -awful futurity. - -It is not generally known that Goëthe, the author of the work alluded -to, attempted suicide. He considered the death of the Emperor Otho as -worthy of imitation. In contemplating the feelings which influenced -that monarch, he says he convinced himself that if he could not proceed -as Otho had done, he was not entitled to resolve on renouncing life. He -adds, “By this conviction, I saved myself from the purpose, or indeed, -more properly speaking, from the whim, of suicide. Among a considerable -collection of arms, I possessed a costly well-ground dagger. This I -laid down nightly by my side; and, before extinguishing the light, -I tried whether I could succeed (_à la Otho_) in sending the sharp -point an inch or two deep into my heart. But as I truly never could -succeed, I at last took to laughing at myself, threw away all these -hypochondriacal crotchets, and determined to live.” - -In the melancholy case of Hackman and Miss Ray, the following is the -substance of a correspondence which passed between them on the subject -of Werter. Hackman was refused the sight of this book by Miss R., -who had a copy of the French translation, because, as she expresses -herself, she saw too great a similarity between her lover and Werter, -not only in point of situation, but in the impetuosity of their -tempers. “The book you mention,” says Miss R., “is just the only book -you should never read. On my knees, I beg you never to read it! Perhaps -you have read it; perhaps—I am distracted! Heaven only knows to whom -I may be writing this letter.” To this, Hackman, who was in Ireland, -replies: “Nonsense! to say it will make me unhappy, or that I shall -not be able to read it. Must I pistol myself because a thick-blooded -German has been fool enough to set the example, or because a German -novelist has feigned such a story.” Werter was read, and the effect was -most injurious on his mind. Whilst confined in Newgate, he wrote the -following letter:—“Among my papers you will see, my friend, some lines -I wrote on reading Goëthe’s Werter, translated from German into French, -which, whilst I was in Ireland, Miss R. refused to lend me. When I -returned to England, I made her let me read it. But I never shewed her -these lines, for fear they should make her uneasy. Unhappy Werter! -still less pretence hadst thou for suicide than I. After finally -seeing thy Charlotte married to another—marrying her thyself—hadst -thou a right over thy existence, because she was not thy wife? Yet -wast thou less barbarous than I; for thou didst not seek to die in her -presence,—but neither didst thou doubt her love. We can neither of us -hope for pardon!” - -The lines were these, supposed to be found, after Werter’s death, upon -the ground by the pistol— - - “If chance some kindred spirit should relate - To future times unhappy Werter’s fate; - Should in some pitying, almost pardoning age, - Consign my sorrows to some weeping page; - And should the affecting page be haply read - By some new Charlotte—mine will then be dead. - (Yes; she shall die—sole solace of my love! - And we shall meet—for so she said—above.) - O Charlotte! (Martha—by whatever name, - Thy faithful Werter hands thee down to fame,) - O be thou sure thy Werter never knows - The fatal story of my kindred woes! - O do not, fair one,—by my shocking end - I charge thee!—do not let thy feeling friend - Shed his sad sorrows o’er my tearful tale: - Example, spite of precept, may prevail.” - -It may be mentioned, as a fact corroborating the opinion, that -productions of an infidel character have a tendency to originate a -disposition to suicide by weakening the moral principles; that when -the celebrated and notorious Tom Paine’s “Age of Reason” was first -published, the papers of the day recorded many cases of self-murder -committed by persons who avowed that the idea never entered their heads -until they had become familiar with the works of the above-mentioned -writer. An individual, zealous in the diffusion of Paine’s principles, -purchased several hundred copies of his work, which he most -industriously circulated, gratuitously, in quarters where he knew the -doctrines of Christianity had already obtained a footing. A copy of the -“Age of Reason,” elegantly bound, was received by a young lady who was -acting in the capacity of a governess in the family of a gentleman of -great respectability. The lady had no conception from whom the present -came, and having heard of the book, she felt a curiosity to become -acquainted with the doctrines which it inculcated. The circumstance of -her having received the book was not mentioned to any member of the -family with whom she resided; and in the evening, when she retired to -her own room, she read it with great attention. The family noticed, -in a few weeks, a perceptible alteration in the appearance of the -young lady. She became extremely thoughtful and contemplative. Her -health also appeared sensibly affected. The mother of the children -whom she was instructing took advantage of the first opportunity of -speaking to her on the subject. She expressed herself very unhappy in -her mind, but refused to disclose the cause of her mental uneasiness. -It was thought she had formed an attachment, and was suffering from -the effects of disappointed affection. She was questioned on these -points, but persisted in concealing the circumstances which had -been operating so injuriously on her mind. The mental dejection -increased, and the result was, an alarming attack of nervous fever, of -which she was cured by an able physician with much difficulty. When -convalescent, she was noticed one day busily employed in writing, and -when interrupted, shewed great anxiety to secrete the piece of paper -on which she had been transcribing her thoughts. In the course of the -evening of the same day, a deep groan was heard to issue from her -room. The servant immediately entered, when, to her great horror, she -saw the governess on the floor with a terrible gash in her throat. -Assistance was directly obtained, but, alas! not in time to save the -life of the poor unfortunate girl. On searching her desk, a sheet of -paper was discovered, on which she had disclosed her reasons for the -rash act. She said, that from the moment she read the “Age of Reason,” -her mind became unsettled. Her previous religious impressions were -undermined; in proportion as she was induced to imbibe the doctrines -of Tom Paine, so she became miserable and wretched. From one error -she fell into another, until she actually believed that death was -annihilation; and although she appeared firmly rooted in this belief, -she expressed herself horrified beyond all expression at the bare idea -of dissolution. For some time prior to her illness, she had felt an -impulse to sacrifice her life, but had not the courage to perform the -act. After her recovery, she felt the impulse renewed with increased -strength, until, with a hope of escaping from an accumulation of misery -which was weighing her to the earth, she determined to commit suicide. -She also, in the document referred to, asked her friends to forgive -her, and to take warning from her fate. - -That many rush into suicide in order to escape the just and legal -punishment of their crimes cannot be a matter of doubt. Many under such -circumstances are influenced by a fear of public exposure, and prefer -death to the idea of being compelled to undergo the ordeal of a trial -in a court of justice. The following case is but the type of many that -could be related:— - -A young man of family, the Hon. Mr. ——, staying at an inn in Portsmouth, -previously to sailing for India, where he was going out as an -aide-de-camp to General——, with a party of friends, also officers, -joined company at supper one evening with Mr. Bradbury, the clown of -Covent Garden Theatre, a person of very gentlemanlike exterior and -manners, and ambitious of the society of gentlemen. He was in the habit -of using a very magnificent and curious snuff-box, and on this occasion -it was much admired by the party, and handed round for inspection from -one to the other. Mr. Bradbury soon after left the inn, and retired -to his lodging, when he missed his box, and immediately returned to -inquire for it. The gentlemen with whom he had spent the evening had -all retired to bed; but he left word with the porter to mention to the -officers early the next day that he had left the box, and to request -them to restore it to him when found. - -The next morning, Mr. Bradbury again hastened to the inn, anxious -to recover his property, and met on his way the Hon. Mr. ——, and -communicated his loss to him; when he was informed by that gentleman -that a similar circumstance had occurred to himself, his bed-room -having been robbed the night before of his gold watch, chain, and -seals, &c., and that he was on his way to a Jew in the town to apprize -him of the robbery, in order that if such articles should be offered -for sale, he might stop them and detain the person who presented them. -This was very extraordinary! Mr. Bradbury then met the other gentlemen -of the party, and was told by them that their rooms had also been -robbed, one of bank notes to a great amount, another of a gold watch, -&c. - -The Hon. Mr. —— was violently infuriated by his loss; and as he was -bound to sail from Portsmouth when the ship was ready, he naturally -dreaded being compelled to depart without his property. He hinted, -too, that he had certain suspicions of certain people. An officer -was sent for from London. This man came down promptly, to the great -satisfaction of the Hon. Mr. ——; and after searching the house and -their trunks, Rivett (the officer) addressed the gentlemen, observing, -that there was yet a duty unperformed, and which was a painful one to -him—he must search the _persons_ of all present, and as the Hon. -Mr. ——’s trunks had been the first to be inspected, perhaps he would -allow him to examine him at once. To this he agreed; but the next moment0 -he was observed to look very ill. Rivett was proceeding to search -him, as a matter of course, when he requested that everybody would -leave the room, except the officer and Mr. Bradbury, which request -was immediately complied with. He then fell upon his knees, entreated -for mercy, and placed Mr. Bradbury’s box in his hand, begging him to -forgive him and spare his life. Rivett upon this proceeded to search -him, but he resisted; the object was effected by force, and the -greater part of the property found that had been stolen in the house. -The officer, conceiving that he had not got the whole of the bank -notes, inquired of Mr. —— where the remainder was; when he pointed to -a pocket-book which was under the foot of the bed; and while Rivett -relaxed his hold of him, and was in the act of stooping to pick up -the book, Mr. —— caught up a razor and cut his throat. Rivett and Mr. -Bradbury seized an arm each, and forced the razor from him; but he -was so determined on self-destruction, that he twisted his head about -violently in different ways, in order to make the wound larger and -more fatal. To prevent him from continuing this, he was braced up with -linen round his neck so tightly that he could not move it. A surgeon -of the town, with two assistants, came, and after seeing the wound, -gave it as their opinion that it was possible for him to recover, and -by the assistance of some powerful soldiers holding him, they dressed -the wound. His clothes were then cut off, and he was carried down -stairs into another room. During this operation he coughed violently; -but whether naturally or by design, to make his wound worse, was not -ascertained. It had, however, the effect of setting his wound bleeding -again, and the dressing was obliged to be repeated. - -The sequel of this distressing case was of an equally melancholy -character. - -Poor Mr. Bradbury was standing close to the unfortunate young man when -he committed the sudden attempt upon his own life. The horror of the -act, and the shocking appearance of his lacerated throat, the blood -from which flowed out upon Mr. Bradbury, in short, this heart-rending -result of the previous agitation and discovery, acted upon the -sensibility of Mr. Bradbury to such an extent as to deprive him of -reason. This fact was noticeable two days after the above scene, by -his entering a church, and after the service was ended, going into the -vestry, and requesting the clergyman to pray for him, as he intended -to cut his throat! This distemper of mind was not too great at first -to admit of partial control; but it daily increased, and ultimately -caused him to be placed under restraint.[34] - -A woman, about thirty-six years of age, who had been well educated, -but whose conduct had not been exempt from some irregularities, in -consequence of intemperance and manifold disappointments, became -affected with madness. She was by turns furious and melancholic, and -conceived she had murdered one of her children, for which she ought to -suffer death. She detailed the manner in which she had destroyed the -child, and the motives which actuated her, so circumstantially, and -with so much plausibility and feeling, that if it had not been known -that her child was living, the physician under whose care she was -placed might have been deceived. By her own hands she had repeatedly -endeavoured to terminate her existence, but was prevented by constant -vigilance and due restraint. Her disposition to suicide was afterwards -relinquished; but she still persisted that for the murder of the child -she ought to suffer death, and requested to be sent to Newgate, in -order to be tried, and undergo the sentence of the law; indeed, she -appeared to derive consolation from the hope of becoming a public -example, and expiating her supposed crime on the scaffold. While in -this state, and with a hope of convincing her of its safety, the child -was brought to visit her. When she beheld it, there was a temporary -burst of maternal affection; she kissed it, and for a few moments -appeared to be delighted: but a look of suspicion quickly succeeded, -and this was shortly followed by a frown of indignation, which rendered -the removal of the child a measure of wholesome necessity. Perhaps -in no instance was the buoyancy of madness more conspicuous over -reason, recollection, and feeling. She insisted they had attempted to -impose on her a strange child, which bore a faint resemblance to her -own; however, by such subterfuges she was not to be deceived; she -had strangled the child until life had totally departed, and it was -not in the order of nature that it should exist again. The effect of -this interview was an exasperation of her disorder: she became more -cunning and malignant, and her desire for an ignominious death was -augmented. To render this more certain, and accelerate her projected -happiness, she enticed into her apartment a young female patient to -whom she appeared to be attached, and having previously platted some -threads of her bed-quilt into a cord, she fixed it round the neck of -the young woman, and proceeded to strangle her. Fortunately, some -person entered the room and unloosed the cord in time to save her. -When this unhappy maniac was questioned concerning the motive which -induced her to attempt the destruction of a person for whom she had -manifested kindness, she very calmly replied, that as the murder of her -own child was disbelieved, she wished to exhibit a convincing proof -of the ferocity of her nature, that she might instantly be conveyed -to Newgate and hanged, which she desired as the greatest blessing. -With considerable satisfaction, we may add, that in a few months, -notwithstanding her derangement had been of three years’ duration, this -woman perfectly recovered, and for a considerable time performed the -duties of an important and respectable office.[35] - -The great increase of the crime of suicide has been referred by many -able physicians of the present day to the political excitement to which -the minds of the people have been exposed of late years. In despotic -countries, suicide and insanity are seldom heard of: the passions -are checked by the nature of the government; the imagination is not -elevated to an unhealthy standard; every man is compelled to follow the -calling in life to which he is born, and for which he has capacity; -and on this account the evil and corrupt dispositions of the mind are, -to a certain extent, kept in abeyance. In republican governments, the -greatest latitude is allowed to the turbulent passions; all mankind -are theoretically placed on an equality; the man whose “talk is of -bullocks” considers himself as fit to carry on the complicated business -of government as he whose education, associations, and experience tend -to qualify him for the duties of a legislator. - -In proportion as men are exposed to the influence of causes which -excite the passions, so will they become predisposed to mental -derangement in all its forms. The French and American revolutions -increased considerably the crime of suicide. It has been said that -during the “reign of terror” statistical evidence does not shew that -self-murder was more common than at any other period. Perhaps the -alleged unfrequency of suicide may be attributed to the circumstance -of the French people having been so busy in killing others that they -had no time to think of killing themselves. More than the average -number of suicides may not have really occurred during the crisis of -the Revolution, but it is an undisputed fact that, both before and -after that political convulsion, self-destruction prevailed to an -alarming extent. Disappointed hopes, wounded pride and vanity, blighted -ambition, loss of property, death of friends, disgust of life, all -came into active operation after the turbulence and bloodshed of the -Revolution had somewhat subsided: these passions, working upon minds -easily excited, and not under the benign influence of religion, it was -almost natural to expect that great recklessness of life should be -exhibited. Such facts demonstrate to us the folly of uselessly exciting -the passions of the people, and raising in their minds exaggerated -expectations from political changes. - -The tendency of refined sensibility to become wound up in a paroxysm, -terminating in suicidal attempts, is strikingly illustrated in a case -reported by Dr. Burrows:— - -“A gentleman of a family of rank, and distinguished for talent, married -early in life the object of his most ardent affections. He possessed -extreme sensibility, with a most highly cultivated and refined mind. -It may be remarked, as a constitutional peculiarity, that his natural -pulse did not exceed forty beats in a minute. When anything suddenly -occurred to agitate him, it produced an attack of fever, and his pulse -was accelerated in an astonishing degree. Though in ordinary affairs -he was a man of firm resolution and great spirit, yet when this fit -happened, he was seized with such a panic, or impulse, that he knew -not what he did, and he was unnerved for days. His lady being well -acquainted with the infirmities of his constitution, rendered him, -by her good sense and soothing, a happier man than he had previously -been. Most unfortunately, she died in the first year of her marriage. -His grief at her loss was excessive; and even when time had abated -its poignancy, he continued very miserable. His thoughts were always -reverting to the virtues of her whom he had lost, and the comparative -happiness he had enjoyed in her society. He tried everything to divert -his melancholy; but these impulses would follow reflection; and then -his ideas adverted to self-destruction. He reasoned with himself -upon the subject till, he confessed, he had become an infidel in -religion, and could no longer view the act as wicked. I had,” said -Dr. Burrows, “an opportunity of knowing the exact state of his mind -during this struggle, from perusing some notes which he had written, -describing it. He expressed himself with the utmost tenderness and -affection with respect to his departed wife, and of his intention of -soon joining her by a voluntary death; not, however, in heaven, but -in Elysium. One night, after having been occupied in reading to some -dear relations, and apparently much enjoying the subject, he retired -to his chamber. He undressed, and dismissed his valet. His gloomy -reflections recurred. One of these strange impulses came over him. -He seized a pistol, and discharged it: it failed of effect. He fired -another: he wounded himself severely, but not mortally; neither was -the effusion of blood great. He then called for assistance. Little -constitutional disturbance followed, and the wound readily healed. It -was during the time he was confined from the effects of this wound -that Dr. Burrows was consulted. He could not detect the slightest -aberration of the mind, nor was there a trait in his countenance of -a propensity to commit suicide. He freely conversed on his past and -present situation and opinions; was perfectly ready to submit to any -supervision Dr. Burrows might advise, or plan that might be suggested, -to bring him into a better and happier state of mind. By degrees, he -acquired more composure. He afterwards travelled for a year and a -half on the Continent. Upon his return, he seemed much improved in -general appearance. Nothing, however, conquered his constitutional -susceptibility.” - -That the LOVE OF NOTORIETY often impels to suicide there cannot be -a doubt. The man who was killed by attaching himself to a rocket, -and he who threw himself into the crater of Mount Vesuvius, were, no -doubt, stimulated by a desire for posthumous fame. Shortly after the -suicide at the Monument, a boy made an unsuccessful endeavour to poison -himself; and on being questioned as to his motives, he said, “I wished -to be talked of, like the woman who killed herself at the Monument!” -How strange and anomalous are the motives which influence human actions! - -Many are induced to think of suicide from the circumstance of their -being conscious that they labour under an hereditary disposition to -insanity. We know the case of a lady whose mind has been dwelling upon -the subject of suicide for some time, and she has told her friends -repeatedly that she feels assured she shall commit some rash act. “The -disposition to suicide and insanity is in the family, and how can I -fight against my physical organization?” Such is the mode of reasoning -she adopts whenever urgently persuaded to banish from her mind the -horrid sensations which are embittering her life. - -A gentleman, in full possession of his reasoning faculties, and a -man of considerable powers of intellect, said to us one day, in a -conversation we had with him on the subject of suicide, “You may -probably smile when I tell you that, happy and contented as I appear -to be in my mind at this moment, I feel assured I shall fall by my -own hands.” Upon our asking him why he thought so, he replied, that a -relation of his had killed himself some years previously, and that he -laboured under an hereditary predisposition which nothing would subdue. - -A woman, thirty-five years of age, placed herself, in 1821, under the -care of M. Falret, for symptoms of phthisis. When nineteen years old, -the death of an uncle, by his own hands, made a deep impression on her -mind. She heard that insanity was hereditary, and the idea pursued -her that she should one day fall into this melancholy condition. She -confessed her apprehensions only to the priests, who endeavoured to -dissipate the mournful impression. In this state she continued for two -years, when the death of her reputed father, also by suicide, riveted -the conviction on her mind that her own doom was sealed. She was -convinced that _her blood was corrupted_; and this idea appeared to be -confirmed by other circumstances. Tortured by this notion, she resolved -to drown herself. After leaving a letter in her chamber, apprising her -friends of the manner of her meditated death, she plunged into the -river; but being immediately taken out, she was restored to life. The -night following this attempt, she was harassed with a pain in her head, -and after a short sleep, awoke, incapable of recognising any of the -friends about her. She was evidently delirious, but made no allusion -to her former melancholy impressions. Although previously religious -and well-behaved, she uttered nothing but obscenities. This delirious -excitement continued three days, and was succeeded by melancholy and a -disposition to suicide. Headache again came on, with nausea and bilious -vomitings, which, however, soon subsided. She became considerably -emaciated after this, and looked the picture of despair; in fact, she -could not look into the glass at herself without terror. Once more she -wished the aid of religion, which afforded her some consolation, but -was insufficient to dissipate entirely her sufferings. Meanwhile, her -mother revealed to her the secret that her real father was still alive; -and, after considerable scepticism on the point, she consented to an -interview with him. The physical resemblance was so striking, that -all doubt was instantly removed from her mind. From that moment all -idea of suicide vanished; her spirits and health became progressively -re-established. Fourteen years, says Falret, have now elapsed since the -attempt at self-destruction. She is the mother of three children, and, -during her married state, has been reduced to the greatest penury and -distress; but has never, since the period alluded to, entertained the -remotest idea of suicide; on the contrary, she has proved an exemplary -wife and affectionate parent, having the full possession of her -intellectual faculties.[36] - -Everything that tends to throw the mind off its healthy balance will, -of course, predispose to suicide. Excessive devotion of the attention -to any particular branch of study, or to business, often originates -cerebral disease and suicidal mania. In alluding to the injurious -effects of excessive study, Marcilius Ficinus, as quoted by Burton, -justly observes—“Other men look to their tools: a painter will wash -his pencils; a smith will look to his hammer, anvil, and forge; a -husbandman will mend his plough-irons and grind his hatchet, if it -be dull; a falconer or huntsman will have an especial care of his -hawks, hounds, horses, and dogs; a musician will string and unstring -his lute,—only scholars neglect that instrument (their _brain_ and -_spirit_, I mean) which they daily use, and by which they range over -all the world, and which by much study is consumed.” - -The melancholy case of William Eyton Tooke, Esq., who committed -suicide some years ago, will illustrate the operation of the cause -referred to. - -“This gentleman,” says a relative, in a letter to the _Times_ -newspaper, explanatory of the causes of Mr. T.’s death, “from a very -early period of life, devoted himself to the most abstruse inquiries -into moral and political philosophy, and has thus fallen a victim -to the absorbing and exclusive nature of the pursuit.” One of the -witnesses who was examined at the inquest stated, that the deceased -was of an exceedingly studious turn, and had for many months past been -directing his attention particularly to commercial subjects. This -subject was his constant study, and the theme of his conversation. It -seemed to engross the whole of his attention, and his health, both -bodily and mentally, was evidently impaired by it. A short period -before his death, he was heard frequently to say, placing his hand upon -his head, “This subject is too much for me; my head is distracted!” It -was under the influence of this over-excited state of brain that he -committed suicide. - -It has been observed, in another part of this work, that many commit -suicide from the notion that death from natural causes is attended -with considerable agony.[37] This is the generally received notion, -but it is an erroneous one. Those who have often witnessed the act of -dying allow that it is not a painful process. In some delicate and -irritable persons, a kind of struggle is indeed sometimes excited when -respiration becomes difficult; but more frequently the dying obviously -suffer nothing, and express no uneasiness. Dr. Ferriar says, “In those -who die of chronic diseases, the gradation is slow and distinct. -Consumptive patients are sometimes in a dying state for several -days; they appear at such times to suffer little, but to languish for -complete dissolution; nay, I have known them express great uneasiness -when they have been recalled from the commencement of insensibility, -by the cries of their friends, or the efforts of the attendants to -alleviate pain. In observing persons in this situation, I have always -been impressed with an idea that the approach of natural death produces -a sensation similar to that of falling asleep. The disturbance of -respiration is the only apparent source of uneasiness to the dying; and -sensibility seems to be impaired just in proportion to the decrease of -that function. Besides, both the impressions of present objects and -those recalled by memory are influenced by the extreme debility of the -patient, whose wish is for absolute rest. I could never see the close -of life under these circumstances without recollecting those beautiful -lines of Spencer— - - “Sleep after toil, port after stormy seas, - Ease after war, death after life, doth greatly please.” - -Professor Hufeland, on the subject of death, observes, “that many fear -death less than the operation of dying.” People, he continues, “form -the most singular conceptions of the last struggle—the separation -of the soul from the body, and the like; but this is all void of -foundation. No man certainly ever felt what death is; and insensibly -as we enter life, equally insensibly do we leave it. The beginning -and the end are here united. My proofs are as follows:—First, man can -have no sensation of dying; for to die means nothing more than to lose -the vital powers; and it is the vital power which is the medium of -communication between the soul and the body. In proportion as the vital -power decreases, we lose the power of sensation and consciousness; and -we cannot lose life without, at the same time, or rather before, losing -our vital sensation, which requires the assistance of the tenderest -organs. We are taught also by experience that all those who ever -passed through the first stage of death, and were again brought to -life, unanimously asserted that they felt nothing of dying, but sunk at -once into a state of insensibility.[38] - -“Let us not be led into a mistake by the convulsive throbs, the -rattling in the throat, and the apparent pangs of death, which are -exhibited by many persons when in a dying state. These symptoms are -painful only to the spectators, and not to the dying, who are not -sensible of them. The case here is the same as if one, from the -dreadful contortions of a person in an epileptic fit, should form a -conclusion respecting his internal feelings: from what affects us so -much, he suffers nothing. - -“Let one always consider life, as it really is, a mean state, which -is not an object itself, but a medium for obtaining an object, as the -multifarious imperfections of it sufficiently prove: as a period of -trial and preparation, a fragment of existence, through which we are to -be fitted for, and transmitted to, other periods. Can the idea, then, -of really making this transition—of ascending to another from this mean -state, this doubtful, problematical existence, which never affords -complete satisfaction—ever excite terror? With courage and confidence -we may, therefore, resign ourselves to the will of that Supreme Being -who, without our consent, placed us in this sublunary theatre, and give -up to his management the future direction of our fate. - -“Remembrance of the past, of that circle of friends who were nearest, -and always will be dearest to our hearts, and who, as it were, now -smile upon us with a friendly look of invitation from that distant -country beyond the grave, will also tend very much to allay the fear of -death.” - -We recollect attending the case of a young lady labouring under a -disease which produced extreme mental and physical suffering, who -exhibited, a short period before her death, some singular phenomena. -This lady had not been seen to smile, or to shew any indication of -freedom from pain, for some weeks prior to dissolution. Two hours -before she died, the symptoms became suddenly altered in character. -Every sign of pain vanished; her limbs, from being subject to violent -spasmodic contractions, became natural in their appearance; her face, -which had been distorted, was calm and tranquil. All her friends -supposed that the crisis of the disease had arrived, and that it had -taken a favourable turn, and delight and joy were manifested by all -who were allowed access to her chamber, and who were made acquainted -with the change which had taken place. She conversed most freely, -and smiled as if in a happy condition. We must confess that the case -puzzled us, and that we were for a short time induced to entertain -sanguine hopes of her ultimate recovery. But, alas! how fragile are -all our best hopes! For two hours we sat by the bed, watching the -patient’s countenance with great anxiety. Every unfavourable indication -had vanished; her face was illuminated by the sweetest smile that ever -played on the human countenance. During the conversation we had with -her, she gave a slight start, and said, in a tone of great earnestness, -“Did you see that?” Her face became suddenly altered; an expression -of deep anguish fixed itself upon her features, and her eyes became -more than ordinarily brilliant. We replied, “What?” She answered, “Oh! -you must have seen it. How terrible it looked as it glided over the -bed. Again I see it,” she vociferated, with an unearthly scream, “I am -ready!” and, without a groan, her spirit took its flight! - -Dr. Symonds recollects to have heard a young man, who had been but -little conversant with any but civic scenes, discourse most eloquently, -a short period before his death, of sylvan glen and bosky dells, -purling streams and happy valleys, as if his spirit had been already -luxuriating itself in the gardens of Elysium. Nothing more frequently -prognosticates the approach of death than the appearance of a spectre -at the bed-side of the patient. In some cases, the mind, when in a happy -frame, dwells with delight on the contemplation of the last struggle, -and has a foretaste of that heavenly joy which is the reward of a -well-spent life. The spirits of good men and of angels are said to -hover round the departing soul of the Christian, as if waiting to bear -it to the mansions of bliss:— - - “Saw you not even now a blessed troop - Invite me to a banquet, whose bright faces - Cast thousand beams upon me, like the sun? - They promised me eternal happiness; - And brought me garlands, Griffith, which I feel - I am not worthy yet to wear.” - - KING HENRY VIII. - -Many have, under the notion that the fear of death is beneficial to the -mind, done their best to keep the idea constantly before them. - - “If I must die, I’ll snatch at anything - That may but mind me of my latest breath; - Death’s-heads, graves, knells, blacks, tombs, all these shall bring - Into my soul such useful thoughts of death, - That this sable king of fears - Shall not catch me unawares.” - -Young raised about him an artificial idea of death; he darkened his -sepulchral study, placing a skull on his table by lamp-light. At the -end of an avenue in his garden was placed on a seat an admirable -chiaro-oscuro, which when approached presented only a painted surface, -with an inscription, alluding to the deception of the things of this -world. - -Dr. J. Donne, the celebrated English divine and poet, is said to have -longed for the hour of dissolution. Previous to his death, he gave -instructions for a monument, which his friends had declared their -intention to erect to his memory. A carver made him in wood the figure -of an urn, and having secured the services of a painter, the Doctor -ordered the urn to be brought into his chamber. Having taken off his -clothes, he procured a white sheet, which was put on him, and tied with -knots at his hands and feet. In this state he stood upon the urn, with -his eyes closed, and a portion of the sheet turned aside in order to -shew his lean, pale, and death-like face. In this posture, the painter -sketched him; and when the monument was finished, it was placed by his -bed-side, and was hourly the source of contemplation until his death. - -The “lightening up before death,” so often perceptible, is but the -result of venous blood being sent to the brain. When respiration -becomes imperfect, the blood does not undergo the proper chemical -change in the lungs (arterialization), and its effect on the sentient -organ is such as is occasionally witnessed prior to dissolution. -Abernethy considers the sensations of the dying similar to those -experienced by persons labouring under delirium. He relates the case -of a man who appeared, during his delirious state, to meet with old -acquaintances. The companions of his youthful days flocked once more -around him—old associations were revived. “How are you, my dear -fellow?” he exclaimed. “It is long since we met. Give us your fist, my -hearty. Now, that is a good joke; I never heard a better. Ah! ah! ah!” - -We had once the painful duty of watching the expiring struggles of -a man whose life had been one long career of vice and debauchery. -His death was truly appalling. It was evident, from the expressions -which escaped him when dying, that his mind had a vivid conception -of the scenes in which he had played so conspicuous a part. “Now for -the dice!” he exclaimed, with the fury of a maniac. “That’s mine! No! -all, all is gone! More wine, d—— you; more wine! Oh! how they rattle! -Fiends, fiends, assail me! I say, you cheat! the cards are marked! Now -the chains rattle! O death! O death!” and with a terrific groan he -breathed his last. - -Among the causes which operate in producing the disposition to commit -suicide, we must not omit to mention those connected with erroneous -religious notions. M. Falret justly remarks, that the religious system -of the Druids, Odin, and Mahomet, by inspiring a contempt for death, -have made many suicides. The man who believes that death is an eternal -sleep, scorns to hold up against calamity, and prefers annihilation. -The sceptic also often frees himself by self-destruction from the agony -of doubting. The maxim of the Stoics, that man should live only so long -as he ought, not so long as he is able, is, we may observe, the very -parent of suicide. The Brahmin, looking on death as the very entrance -into life, and thinking a natural death dishonourable, is eager at all -times to get rid of life. The Epicureans and Peripatetics ridiculed -suicide, as being death caused by fear of death. M. Falret, however, -goes perhaps too far when he asserts that the noble manner in which the -gladiators died in public, not only familiarized the Romans with death, -but rendered the thoughts of it rather agreeable than otherwise. - -Misinterpretations of passages of scripture will sometimes lead those -who are piously inclined to commit suicide. M. Gillet hung himself -at the age of seventy-five, having left in his own handwriting the -following apology:—“Jesus Christ has said, that when a tree is old and -can no longer bear fruit, it is good that it should be destroyed.” -(He had more than once attempted his life before the fatal act.) Dr. -Burrows attended a nobleman who, for fear of being poisoned, though -he pretended it was in imitation of our Saviour’s fast, took nothing -but strawberries and water for three weeks, and these in very moderate -quantities. He never voluntarily abandoned his resolution. He was at -length compelled to take some nutriment, but not until inanition had -gone too far; and he died completely attenuated. When sound religious -principles produce a struggle in the mind which is beginning to -aberrate, the contest generally ends in suicide. - -Some murder themselves to get rid of the horrid thoughts of suicide; -whilst others brood over them like Rousseau, for months and for years, -and at length perpetrate the very action which they dread. A countryman -of Rousseau’s, who advocated suicide as a duty, and who spent the -greater part of a long life in writing a large folio volume to prove -the soundness of his doctrine, thought it his duty, after he had -completed his work, to give a practical illustration of his principles, -and, accordingly, at the age of seventy, threw himself into the Lake of -Geneva, and was drowned. - -It may appear strange that religion, the greatest blessing bestowed -by Heaven on man, should ever prove a cause of one of his severest -calamities. But perhaps it would be more accurate to impute such -unhappy effects to fanaticism, or to the total want of religion. - -Instances very frequently occur in practice in which patients have -appeared, some suddenly, and others gradually, to be seized with -a species of religious horror, despairing of salvation, asserting -that they had committed sins which never could be forgiven, who had -never previously appeared to be under religious impressions. Some of -these have been visited by divines of various denominations, and been -induced to hear sermons and read books well calculated to dispel gloomy -apprehensions, and excite religious hope and confidence. With some -this has succeeded, especially when conjoined with medical aid; but -it has been observed, that in the cases of those who have recovered, -the patients have _emerged_ precisely as they _immerged_; for as they -before were unconcerned about religious matters, so they remained -after their recovery; thus the indisposition has been very erroneously -imputed to religion when it has no kind of affinity to, or concern -with it. Such cases almost invariably exhibit the same symptoms, which -generally turn on these points—despair of temporal support, or despair -of final salvation. But the medical practitioner, and not the divine, -is the proper person to be consulted in such cases; and, however the -mind may be affected in them, the patient is to be relieved by means -of medicine. It may be added, that the agonies of mind under which -some persons labour who are called fanatically mad arise from a sense -of moral turpitude, independent of any peculiar religious tenets or -opinions. - -The true doctrines of Christianity, when properly inculcated, never -excite a gloomy state of mind. “To be religious,” says South, “it is -not necessary to be dull.” Cowper (perhaps, however, the most miserable -and melancholy of men) beautifully says— - - “True piety is cheerful as the day, - Will weep indeed, and heave a pitying groan, - For others’ woes, but smile upon her own.” - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -IMITATIVE, OR EPIDEMIC SUICIDE. - - - Persons who act from impulse liable to be influenced—Principle - of imitation, a natural instinct—Cases related by Cabanis and - Tissot—The suicidal barbers—Epidemic suicide at the Hôtel - des Invalides—Sydenham’s epidemic—The ladies of Miletus—Dr. - Parrish’s case—Are insanity and suicide contagious? - -The most singular feature connected with the subject of suicide is, -that the disposition to sacrifice life has, at different periods, -been known to prevail epidemically, from a perversion, as it has been -supposed, of the natural instinct of imitation. This is not only the -case with reference to suicide, but is witnessed also in cases of -murder. The atrocities of the French Revolution are, to a certain -extent, to be traced to the influence of this imitative principle. -Persons whose feelings are not thoroughly under their command, who act -from impulse and not from reflection, are very prone to be operated -upon by the cause referred to. Man has been defined an imitative -animal; and in many instances we witness this propensity controlling -almost irresistibly the actions of the individual. Tissot relates the -case of a young woman in whom this faculty was so strongly developed -that she could not avoid doing everything she saw others do. Cabanis -gives the account of a man in whom the tendency to imitate was so -strongly marked, and active, from disease, that “he experienced -insupportable suffering” when he was prevented from yielding to its -impulses. A woman, in the ward of an hospital, will be seized with an -epileptic fit; in the course of a short period, other cases will occur -in the same ward. A child was brought into one of our metropolitan -hospitals, labouring under a violent attack of convulsions. She had not -been in the house five minutes before three children who were present -were seized with spasmodic convulsions of a similar character. The -commission of a great and extraordinary crime produces not unfrequently -the mania of imitation in the district in which it happened. A criminal -was executed at Paris, not many years ago, for murder. A few weeks -afterwards, another murder was perpetrated; and when the young man was -asked to assign a reason for taking away the life of a fellow-creature, -he replied, that he was not instigated by any feeling of malice, but, -after having witnessed the execution, he felt a desire, over which he -had no control, to commit a similar crime, and had no rest until he had -gratified his feelings. It is only on the same principle that we can -account for the following singular case of suicide. It is related by -Sir Charles Bell, in his “Institutes of Surgery.” The surgeon of the -Middlesex Hospital who preceded Sir Charles Bell went into a barber’s -shop, in the neighbourhood of the institution, to be shaved. As the -barber was operating upon his chin, the conversation turned upon the -case of a man who had been admitted the previous day into the hospital, -and who had attempted, unsuccessfully, to kill himself, by cutting his -throat. “He could easily have managed it,” said the surgeon, in rather -a jocular strain, “had he been acquainted with the situation of the -carotid artery. He did not cut in the proper place.” “Where should -he have cut?” asked the barber, quietly. The surgeon, not suspecting -what was passing through the barber’s mind, gave a popular lecture on -the anatomy of the neck—pointed out the exact position of the large -vessels, and shewed where they could easily be wounded. After the -conversation, the barber made some excuse for leaving the room; and, -not returning as soon as was expected, the surgeon went to look for -him, when he was discovered in the yard, behind the house, with his -head nearly severed from his body! - -The following case is, perhaps, more strange and inexplicable than -the one just related. The brother of a hairdresser and barber had -killed himself by blowing out his brains. The circumstance appeared to -affect seriously the mind of his relative. He left his business for a -few days; and then returned, apparently more tranquil in his mind. In -the morning, several persons came in to be shaved; and, all at once, -he felt a strong, and almost overwhelming, inclination to cut some -one’s throat. He fought manfully, however, against this horrid desire. -During the whole of the earlier part of the day, he had been able to -resist the gratification of the feeling. Every time he placed the razor -in contact with the throat, he fancied he heard a voice within him -exclaim, “Kill him! kill him!” In the afternoon, an elderly gentleman -came into the shop to be shaved; and when the barber had nearly -concluded the operation, he was again seized with the desire; and, -before he could summon courage enough to suppress it, he gave the man’s -throat a tremendous gash; fortunately, however, the wound was not fatal. - -Gall informs us of a man who, on reading in the newspapers the -particulars of a case of murder, perpetrated under circumstances of -peculiar atrocity, was instantly seized with a desire to murder his -servant, and would have done so, had he not given his intended victim -timely warning to escape. - -Some years ago, a man hung himself on the threshold of one of the doors -of the corridor at the _Hôtel des Invalides_. No suicide had occurred -in the establishment for two years previously; but in the succeeding -fortnight, five invalids hung themselves on the same cross bar, and the -governor was obliged to shut up the passage. - -Sydenham informs us that, at Mansfield, in a particular year, in the -month of June, suicide prevailed to an alarming degree, from a cause -wholly unaccountable. The same thing happened at Rouen, in 1806; -at Stuttgard, in the summer of 1811; and at a village of St. Pierre -Montjean, in the Valais, in the year 1813. One of the most remarkable -epidemics of the kind was that which prevailed at Versailles in the -year 1793. The number of suicides within the year was 1300—a number out -of all proportion to the population of the town. - -In the olden time, the ladies of Miletus, in a fit of melancholy for -the absence of their husbands and lovers, resolved to hang themselves, -and vied with each other in the alacrity with which they did the -deed. In the time of the Ptolemies, a stoic philosopher pleaded so -eloquently, one day, to an Alexandrian audience on the advantages of -suicide, that he inspired his hearers with his principles, and a great -number voluntarily sacrificed their lives. - -A clergyman, master of a very large and popular school, the locality -of which, for obvious reasons, it would not do to specify, recently -informed one of his friends that he had discovered a new pupil in the -act of practising a disgraceful vice. “Send him home to his parents, -and say nothing about it,” was the friend’s judicious recommendation. -The schoolmaster, however, placed great confidence in his own eloquence -and the corrective powers of the birch. He assembled his boys, made an -excellent harangue on the guilt of the delinquent, and gave him a sound -flogging. The example of crime proved more influential than the example -of punishment, and the vice spread so rapidly that the whole school was -broken up in consequence.[39] - -The particulars of the following case are recorded in the “American -Journal of the Medical Sciences,” by Dr. Parrish. He says, “I was -called to visit a child in the family of J. S., a respectable gentleman -residing in my neighbourhood. On my arrival, at 3 P.M., I found, -on going into the chamber of my patient, that death had occurred. -The patient was a girl in her fifteenth year, who had been carefully -brought up by a family with whom she had lived between seven and eight -years. She had generally enjoyed good health, with the exception of -occasional attacks of sickness of the stomach, and headache. She had -just passed the age of puberty, and possessed a docile disposition. Her -situation in life, as far as could be ascertained, was in every respect -agreeable, and congenial to her wishes. - -“On the morning of the day of her death, she was engaged as usual in -the domestic concerns of the family until eight o’clock, when she was -observed in the yard vomiting. Upon inquiring into the history of the -case, I found that early in the morning on which the patient died, she -had held a conversation with a little girl residing in the next house, -in which she mentioned having lately read in a newspaper of a man who -had been unfortunate in his business, and had taken arsenic to destroy -himself; she also spoke of an apothecary’s shop near by, and said she -frequently went there. - -“The narration of this conversation afforded strong suspicion to my -mind that she had committed suicide; a suspicion which was strengthened -by the fact, that a few months previous I had been called upon to visit -a person residing in the same house, who had suffered for some years -under mental derangement, and had recently been discharged from the -insane hospital near Frankford; he had taken laudanum, with the intent -of destroying himself. - -“This circumstance would naturally produce a strong impression upon the -mind of the child, which was increased, no doubt, by the reading of -the case detailed in the newspaper. In this way the desire to commit a -similar act was kindled up in the mind of the deluded girl, and thus, -by that inexplicable connexion which, in some instances at least, -appears to exist between the knowledge of such a horrible act and the -desire to perform it, she was almost irresistibly impelled to the deed. - -“This case is stated as affording strong testimony in favour of a -principle which is now beginning to attract the attention of medical -men—viz., that the publicity which is given to cases of suicide, -in the newspapers and by other means, forms one of the strongest -incentives to the commission of the act, in those who have a secret -disposition to destroy themselves. - -“If this be the fact, a high responsibility rests upon physicians, so -to influence public opinion, and more especially editors, as to prevent -the narration of the circumstances connected with the death of this -unfortunate class. No good can certainly arise (to the public) from -the exposure of facts which ought to remain concealed in the bosom -of distressed families; while there is reason to believe the list of -victims to suicide is annually very much swelled from the course which -is now so generally pursued.”[40] - -It has been noticed that certain atmospherical phenomena have attended -or preceded the suicidal epidemics that have prevailed at various -periods. Whether these electrical conditions of the air are in any -way connected with this peculiar form of contagious malady is a point -not easily to be decided. A certain degree of atmospherical moisture -appears to favour the spread of the suicidal disposition; but this may -result from the well known influence of moist air on the disposition -of the mind, and may operate by causing a degree of mental despondency -and lassitude, very favourable to the development of the suicidal -mania, particularly after the occurrence of any very remarkable case -of self-destruction. It is notorious that nothing is so likely to -unsettle the mind, especially if an hereditary disposition be present, -than constantly associating with lunatics, and allowing the mind to -dwell for any length of time on the subject of insanity. If actual -mental derangement does not result from an exposure to the causes -referred to, a certain degree of eccentricity bordering on the confines -of aberration is generally perceptible. With our present amount of -knowledge of the subtle principle of contagion, it is difficult to -say whether an effluvium may not be generated in such cases which, -under certain conditions of the system, may communicate disease. We -cannot possibly say that this is not the case. If we are justified, -which we by no means are willing to admit, in the opinion that the -disposition to suicide and insanity may be propagated by contagion, -using this term in its usual acceptation, it is a great consolation to -the mind to think that only occasionally does the disease exhibit the -slightest approach to virulence, and that, unlike many of the admitted -contagious maladies, we may approach the patient without much fear or -apprehension. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -SUICIDE FROM FASCINATION. - - - Singular motives for committing suicide—A man who delighted - in torturing himself—A dangerous experiment—Pleasures of - carnage—Disposition to leap from precipices—Lord Byron’s - allusion to the influence of fascination—Miss Moyes and - the Monument—A man who could not trust himself with a - razor—Esquirol’s opinion of such cases—Danger of ascending - elevated places. - -How strange, extraordinary, and inexplicable are the motives which -often lead to the commission of suicide! Many have been induced to rush -into the arms of death in order to avoid the pain which they fancy -accompanies dissolution. “_Hic, rogo, non furor est, ne moriare mori?_” -Others have been apparently led to the perpetration of the crime by a -desire to ascertain what sensations attended the act of dying; whilst -some have been influenced by a feeling of fascination, and have stated -that they experienced ecstatic delight at the idea of self-immolation. - -The case of a man is recorded who felt the most exquisite delight in -torturing himself. He had often expressed a wish to be hanged, from -the notion that this Newgate mode of terminating life must give rise -to sensations of great pleasure. The idea occurred to him one day of -trying the experiment. He procured a piece of cord, attached it to -the ceiling, and suspended himself from it; fortunately for the poor -infatuated man, the servant entered the room a few minutes afterwards, -and cut him down. Life was not extinct. The man expressed that he felt, -during the few moments that he was hanging, a thrilling delight, which -no language that he could use could convey anything like an adequate -expression of. There was no doubt that this man laboured under an -abnormal condition of the mind, which, if not amounting to insanity, -certainly approached very nearly the confines of that disease.[41] - -A woman was admitted some years back into one of our metropolitan -hospitals who had a propensity to cut her person with every sharp -instrument that she could procure. It was not her intention to kill -herself; and when reasoned with on the folly of her actions, she -observed that she was impelled by no other motive than the fascinating -pleasure she experienced whenever she succeeded in drawing blood. - -A lady, a passenger on board of a ship bound for the East Indies, -was frequently heard to express a wish to know what feeling a person -experienced in the act of being drowned. She fancied the sensations -must be of a pleasurable character. Her fellow-passengers laughed -at her whenever she alluded to the matter. Having introduced the -subject again during dinner, she observed, “Well, I intend to try the -experiment to-morrow morning.” The threat only excited the merriment -of those who heard it. In the morning, whilst the passengers were on -deck, the lady plunged into the sea, to the astonishment of everybody. -Luckily for her, the ship was becalmed, and her life was saved. - -An extraordinary young man, who lived at Paris, and who was -passionately fond of mechanics, shut himself up one evening in his -apartment, and bound not only his chest and stomach, but also his -arms, legs, and thighs, with ropes full of knots, the ends of which he -fastened to hooks in the wall. After having passed a considerable part -of the night in this situation, he wished to disengage himself, but -attempted it in vain. Some neighbouring females, who were up, heard -his cries, and, calling for assistance, they forced open the door of -his room, when they found him swinging in the air, with only one arm -extricated. He was immediately carried to the lieutenant-general of the -police for examination, when he declared that he had often put similar -trials into execution, as he experienced _indescribable pleasure in -them_. He confessed that at first he felt pain, but that after the -cords became tight to a certain degree, he was soon rewarded by the -most exquisite sensations of pleasure.[42] - -“As the chill dews of evening were surrounding our bivouac,” says the -author of the “Recollections of the Peninsula,” “a staff officer, with -a courier, came galloping into it, and alighted at the quarters of our -general. It was soon known amongst us that a severe and sanguinary -action had been fought by our brother soldiers at Talavera. Disjointed -rumours spoke of a dear-bought field, a heavy loss, and a subsequent -retreat. I well remember how we all gathered round our fires to listen, -to conjecture, and to talk about this glorious, but bloody event. We -regretted that we had borne no share in the honours of such a day; and -_we talked with an undefined pleasure about the carnage_. Yes! strange -as it may appear, soldiers, and not they alone, talk of the danger of -battle fields with a sensation which partakes of pleasure.” - -A watchmaker of Aberdeen, who had been looking over the precipices of -Loch-na-Gair, suddenly felt a desire to precipitate himself from the -height, and having first taken a step or two back for the purpose, he -flung himself off. - -A gentleman travelling through Switzerland, with his wife, came to an -eminence commanding an extensive and beautiful view of the surrounding -country. He went, accompanied by his wife, to the edge of a mountainous -cliff, and, turning round to his lady, he observed—“I have lived long -enough!” and in a moment threw himself down the precipice. - -It was a notion of this kind which induced Lord Byron to observe that -he believed no man ever took a razor into his hand who did not at the -same time think how easily he might sever the silver cord of life. The -noble poet evidently alludes, in the following stanzas, to the strange -and unaccountable influence of fascination in exciting the mind to -commit suicide:— - - “A sleep without dreams, after a rough day - Of toil, is what we covet most, and yet - How clay shrinks back from more quiescent clay! - The very suicide that pays his debts - At once, without instalments, (an old way - Of paying debts, which creditors regret,) - Lets out impatiently his rushing breath, - Less from disgust of life than dread of death. - - ’Tis round him, near him, there, everywhere; - And there’s a courage which grows out of fear, - Perhaps of all most desperate, which will dare - The _worst_ to know it:—when the mountains rear - Their peaks beneath your human foot, and there - You look down o’er the precipice, and drear - The gulf of rock yawns,—you can’t gaze a minute - Without an awful wish to plunge within it! - - ’Tis true, you don’t—but, pale and struck with terror, - Retire: but look into your past impression! - And you will find, though shuddering at the mirror - Of your own thoughts, in all their self-confession, - The lurking bias, be it truth or error, - To the _unknown_; a secret prepossession, - To plunge with all your fears—but where? You know not, - And that’s the reason why you do—or do not.” - -A gentleman with whom we are acquainted, informed us that, a few -days after Miss Moyes had thrown herself from the Monument, a friend -of his had the curiosity to visit the spot, and on looking down the -awful height from which this poor unfortunate girl had precipitated -herself, he felt suddenly an attack of giddiness, which was succeeded -in a moment by one of the most pleasurable sensations he had ever -experienced, accompanied with a desire to jump off. He was not -influenced, apparently, by any other motive than that of a wish to -gratify a feeling of ecstasy which for a minute suspended all the -operations of the mind. A gentleman who was by him asked him a question -with reference to the height of the Monument, and this circumstance -recalling him to the exercise of his reasoning faculties, he -immediately left the spot, shuddering at the recollection of the idea -which had momentarily flashed across his mind. - -The case is related of a man who had this feeling so strongly -manifested that he never dared trust himself with a razor. He was -not devoid of religious feeling, and was most happy in his domestic -relations. On occasions which required the exercise of moral -resolution, he was never found wanting. He declared his life would -not be safe for a day if he were permitted to shave himself. Such -instances are by no means uncommon, and require much ingenuity to -account satisfactorily for them, unless they be referred to the effect -of fascination. - -Andral observes, “that there are many men perfectly rational, and -completely undisturbed by care or pain, who, singular to state, -have been suddenly seized by a headlong, groundless inclination to -destroy themselves. There are hundreds who cannot approach the brink -of a cliff, or ascend a lofty tower, without experiencing an almost -invincible desire to precipitate themselves to the bottom, from which -fate they only save themselves by an instantaneous effort to retire -from the temptation. I knew a gentleman who, while shaving himself -one day, alone, was three times so vehemently urged to plunge the -razor into his throat, that he was at length compelled to throw the -instrument from him, in absolute horror and dismay. In rational men, -however, these trying and dangerous moments are but of very short -duration.” - -A sailor informed us that he had often, when at the top of the -mast, felt disposed to precipitate himself from the giddy eminence, -influenced by no other motive than that of pleasure. - -In such cases, what course is the medical man to pursue? It is -difficult to give any instructions for the treatment of such cases -of mental idiosyncrasy. Persons who are subject to feelings of this -character should be advised to avoid ascending elevated places. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -OF THE ENTHUSIASM AND MENTAL IRRITABILITY WHICH, IF ENCOURAGED, WOULD -LEAD TO SUICIDE. - - - Connexion between genius and insanity—Authors of fiction - often feel what they write—Metastasio in tears—The enthusiasm - of Pope, Alfieri, Dryden—Effects of the first reading of - Telemachus and Tasso on Madame Roland’s mind—Raffaelle and - his celebrated picture of the Transfiguration—The convulsions - of Malbranche—Beattie’s Essay on Truth—Influence of intense - study on Boerrhave’s mind—The demon of Spinello and - Luther—Bourdaloue and his violin—Byron’s sensitiveness—Men do - not always practise what they preach—Cases of Smollett, La - Fontaine, Sir Thomas More, Zimmerman—Tasso’s spectre—Johnson’s - superstition—Concluding remarks. - -It has been observed that the act of suicide may often originate in a -feeling analogous to the enthusiasm exhibited by men of great genius -and sensibility. This mental idiosyncrasy, which borders so closely on -the confines of insanity, has been compared to the narrow bridge of -Al Sirat, which leads the followers of Mahomet from earth to heaven, -but by so narrow a path that the passenger is in momentary danger of -falling into the dismal gulf which yawns beneath him. This abnormal -condition of the nervous system is, to a certain extent, dependent on -natural organic structure, aided materially by an unhealthy exercise -of the imaginative faculty. Fielding spoke but the history of his own -sensations when he declared that he “had no doubt but the most pathetic -scenes had been writ with tears.” Metastasio was found weeping over -his Olympiad. He says: “When I apply with attention, the nerves of my -sensorium are put into a violent tumult; I grow as red as a drunkard, -and am obliged to quit my work.” Pope could not proceed with certain -passages of his translation of Homer without shedding tears. Alfieri -declares that he frequently penned the most tender passages in his -plays “under a paroxysm of enthusiasm, and whilst shedding tears.” -Dryden was seized with violent tremors during the composition of his -celebrated ode. Rousseau, in conceiving the first idea of his Essay on -the Arts, became almost delirious with enthusiasm. - -Madame Roland has thus powerfully described the ideal presence in -her first readings of Telemachus and Tasso:—“My respiration rose, -I felt a rapid fire colouring my face, and my voice changing had -betrayed my agitation. I was Eucharis for Telemachus, and Emenia for -Tancred. Having my reason during this perfect transformation, I did -not yet think that I myself was anything for any one: the whole had -no connexion with myself. I sought for nothing around me; I was they; -I saw only the objects which existed for them; it was a dream without -being awakened.” - -Raffaelle says, alluding to his celebrated picture, the -Transfiguration—“When I have stood looking at that picture, from figure -to figure, the eagerness, the spirit, the close unaffected attention of -each figure to the principal action, my thoughts have carried me away, -that I have forgot myself, and for that time might be looked upon as -an enthusiastic madman; for I could really fancy the whole action was -passing before my eyes.” - -Malbranche was seized with violent palpitations of the heart when -reading Descartes’s Treatise on Man:— - - “With curious art, the brain too finely wrought - Preys on itself, and is destroyed by thought; - Constant attention wears the active mind, - Blots out her powers, and leaves a blank behind.” - -Intense occupation of mind to any particular branch of study, often -brings the mind on the verge of madness. “Since the ‘Essay on Truth’ -was printed in quarto,” says Dr. Beattie, “I have never _dared_ to read -it over. I durst not even read the sheets to see whether there were any -errors in the print, and was obliged to get a friend to do that office -for me. These studies came, in time, to have dreadful effects upon -my nervous system; and I cannot read what I then wrote without some -degree of horror, because it recalls to my mind the horrors that I have -sometimes felt after passing a long evening in these severe studies.” - -Boerrhave has related of himself that, having imprudently indulged in -intense thought on a particular subject, he did not close his eyes for -six weeks afterwards. - -Spinello, having painted the fall of the rebellious angels, had so -strongly imagined the illusion, and more particularly the terrible -features of Lucifer, that he was himself struck with such horror as -to have been long afflicted with the presence of the demon to which -his genius had given birth. Swedenburg saw a terrestrial heaven in the -glittering streets of his New Jerusalem. - -Malbranche declared he heard the voice of God distinctly within him. -Pascal often was seen to rush suddenly from his chair at the appearance -of a fiery gulf by his side. Luther maintained that during his -confinement the devil used to visit him. - -Hudibras says— - - “Did not the devil appear to Martin - Luther, in Germany, for certain?” - -He declares that he had many a contest with his satanic majesty, and -that he had always the best of the argument. At one time, the devil so -enraged Luther that he threw the ink-stand at him, an action which the -German commentators greatly applaud, from a conviction that there is -nothing which the devil abhors more than ink. - -Descartes, after long confinement, was followed by an invisible person, -calling upon him to pursue the search of truth. - -Mozart’s sensibility to music was connected with so susceptible a -nervous system that, in his childhood, the sound of a trumpet would -turn him pale, and almost induce convulsions. Dr. Conolly relates an -amusing anecdote of the celebrated Bourdaloue. It is said that the -composition of his eloquent sermons so excited his mind that he was -unable to deliver them until he discovered some mode of allaying his -excitement. “His attendants one day were both scandalized and alarmed, -on proceeding to his apartment, for the purpose of accompanying him to -the cathedral, by hearing the sound of a fiddle, on which was played -a very lively tune. After their first consternation, they ventured to -look through the keyhole, and were still more shocked to behold the -great divine dancing about, without his gown and canonicals, to his own -inspiring music. Of course, they concluded him to be mad. But, when -they knocked, the music ceased; and after a short and anxious interval, -he met them with a composed dress and manner; and, observing some signs -of astonishment in the party, explained to them that without his music -and his exercise he should have been unable to undertake the duties of -the day.” - -In the character of Lord Byron we have an apt illustration of the kind -of mental irritability and morbid sensitiveness of feeling that so -often incites to acts of desperation. It has been said that the noble -poet was the child of passion, born in bitterness and “nurtured in -convulsion.” The true state of his mind can best be divined from the -delineation of his own sensations as given in Childe Harold:— - - “I have thought - Too long and darkly, till my brain became - In its own eddy boiling, and orwrought - A whirling gulf of phantasy and flame: - And thus untaught in youth my heart to tame, - My springs of life were poisoned.” - -Byron was subject to attacks of epilepsy; and perhaps this fact may -account for much of the spleen and irritability which he manifested -through life, and which made him so many enemies. It also teaches us -an important lesson. We are too apt to form our estimate of character -without taking into consideration all those circumstances which are -known materially to influence human thought and actions. The state -of the organization and the health ought to be maturely weighed -before we pronounce authoritatively as to the motives of individuals, -or denounce them for not acting or thinking according to what our -preconceived opinions have taught us to consider as orthodox. Byron’s -mind was morbidly alive to impressions. The most trifling circumstance -would cause him to swoon. At Bologna, in 1819, he describes one of -his convulsive attacks:—“Last night I went to the representation of -Alfieri’s Myrrha, the last two acts of which threw me into convulsions; -I don’t mean by that word lady’s hysterics, but an agony of reluctant -tears, and the choking shudder which I do not often undergo for -fiction.” He was seized in a similar manner at seeing Kean in Sir Giles -Overreach; he was carried out of the theatre in convulsions. From early -life, Byron exhibited this abnormal excitability. There can be no doubt -that it was but the natural effect of a peculiar condition of nervous -function; but, instead of endeavouring to subdue the feeling, he did -his best to encourage it, and to fan the fire into a flame. He appears -to have been tortured by horrid dreams. He says in his Journal—“I awoke -from a dream: well, have not others dreamed? Such a dream! But she did -not overtake me! I wish the dead would rest for ever. Ugh! how my blood -is chilled! I do not like this dream; I hate its foregone conclusion.” - -The “Bride of Abydos” was written to distract the poet’s mind from his -dreams. He was in such a nervous state at this period, that he says if -he had not done something, he must have gone mad, or have eat his own -heart. - -Stendhal, alluding to Byron’s apparent remorse, asks, “Is it not -possible that Byron might have had some guilty stain on his conscience, -similar to that which wrecked Othello’s fame? Can it be, have we -sometimes exclaimed, that, in a frenzy of pride or jealousy, he -had shortened the days of some fair Grecian slave, faithless to her -vows?”[43] - -It is not just to form our opinions of the character of men by their -writings or actions. In the mass, we are ready to admit that we have no -other criteria by which to be guided; but we may charitably consider -that Byron was not himself the “dark original he drew.” - - “O memory! torture me no more: - The present’s all o’ercast— - My hopes of future bliss are o’er; - In mercy, veil the past.” - -Such were his feelings at the age of seventeen. - -La Fontaine penned tales fertile in intrigues, and yet he was never -known, says D’Israeli, to have been engaged in a single amour. Smollett -was anything but what his writings would lead us to expect. Cowley -boasted of his mistresses, and wanted the courage to address one. -Burton declaimed against melancholy, and yet he was the most miserable -of men. Sir Thomas More preached in favour of toleration, yet in -practice was a fierce persecutor. Zimmerman, whilst he was inculcating -beautiful lessons of benevolence, was by his tyranny driving his son -into madness, and leaving his daughter an outcast from home. Goëthe -says, “Zimmerman’s harshness towards his children was the effect of -hypochondria, a sort of madness or moral assassination, to which he -himself fell a victim after sacrificing his offspring.” - -Byron occasionally fancied he was visited by a spectre, which he -confesses was but the effect of an overstimulated brain. - -Tasso, whose fine imagination the passions of hopeless love, and -of grief occasioned by ill treatment, disordered, was in daily -communication with a spirit. This circumstance is alluded to in the -following anecdote of him, prefixed to Hoole’s translation of his “_La -Gierusalemme Liberata_.” - -“In this place (at Bisaccio, near Naples) Manso had an opportunity -of examining the singular effects of Tasso’s melancholy, and often -disputed with him concerning a familiar spirit, with which he pretended -to converse. Manso endeavoured in vain to persuade his friend that -the whole was the illusion of a disturbed imagination; but the latter -was strenuous in maintaining the reality of what he asserted; and to -convince Manso, desired him to be present at one of these mysterious -conversations. Manso had the complaisance to meet him next day; and -while they were engaged in discourse, on a sudden he observed that -Tasso kept his eyes fixed upon a window, and remained in a manner -immovable. He called him by his name several times, but received no -answer. At last Tasso cried out, ‘There is the friendly spirit, who -is come to converse with me. Look, and you will be convinced of the -truth of all that I have said.’ Manso heard him with surprise; he -looked, but saw nothing except the sunbeams darting through the window: -he cast his eyes all over the room, but could perceive nothing, and -was just going to ask where the pretended spirit was, when he heard -Tasso speak with great earnestness, sometimes putting questions to the -spirit, and sometimes giving answers, delivering the whole in such a -pleasing manner, and with such elevated expressions, that he listened -with admiration, and had not the least inclination to interrupt him. -At last the uncommon conversation ended with the departure of the -spirit, as appeared by Tasso’s words, who, turning to Manso, asked him -if his doubts were removed? Manso was more amazed than ever; he scarce -knew what to think of his friend’s situation, and waved any further -conversation on the subject.” - -Boswell says, Dr. Johnson mentioned a thing as not unfrequent, of -which he (Boswell) had never heard before,—being called, that is, -hearing one’s name pronounced, by the voice of a known person at a -great distance, far beyond the possibility of being reached by any -sound, uttered by human organs. An acquaintance, on whose veracity -Boswell says he could place every dependence, told him that, walking -home one evening to Kilmarnock, he heard himself called from a wood, -by the voice of a brother who had gone to America, and the next packet -brought the account of that brother’s death. Macbean asserted that this -inexplicable _calling_ was a thing very well known. Dr. Johnson said, -that one day at Oxford, as he was turning the key of his chambers, he -heard distinctly his mother call _Sam!_ She was then at Lichfield; but -nothing ensued. - -Sir Joshua Reynolds gives an amusing instance of Dr. Johnson’s -eccentricity. He says, “When he and I took a journey into the west, we -visited the late Mr. Banks, of Dorsetshire. The conversation turning -upon pictures, which Johnson could not well see, he retired to a corner -of the room, stretching out his right leg as far as he could reach -before him, then bringing up his left leg, and stretching his right -still further on. The old gentleman observing him, went up to him, and -in a very courteous manner assured him that, though it was not a new -house, the flooring was perfectly safe. The Doctor started from his -reverie, like a person waked out of a sleep, but spoke not a word.” - -Dr. Johnson had one peculiarity, says Boswell, of which none of his -friends dared to ask an explanation. This was an anxious care to go out -or in at a door or passage by a certain number of steps from a certain -point, so that either his right or left foot should constantly make -the first actual movement. Thus, upon innumerable occasions, Boswell -has seen him suddenly stop, and then seem to count his steps with -deep earnestness; and when he had neglected, or gone wrong in this -sort of magical movement, he has been noticed to go back again, put -himself in a proper posture to recommence the ceremony, and having gone -through it, break from his abstraction, briskly walk on, and join his -companions. - -An inordinate cultivation of any one faculty of the mind, but more -particularly the imagination, will tend to produce the peculiarities -which have been illustrated in this chapter. A person who accustoms -himself to live in a world created by his own fancy—who surrounds -himself with flimsy idealities—will, in the course of time, cease -to sympathize with the gross realities of life. The imaginary -intelligences which his own morbid mind has called into existence will -exercise a terrific influence over him. A German poet commenced writing -a poem on the Deity. He allowed his mind to dwell so intensely on the -subject, that he fancied he was commanded to “flee from a world of -sin and iniquity;” to effect which, he cut his throat, and was found -dead in bed, with the razor in one hand and a portion of his poem in -the other. The apparitions which the monomaniac fancies to haunt him -are as real and sensible existences to him, as objects are to persons -who have a healthy use of the media through which ideas obtain access -to the mind. Mr. Calcraft, the late member of parliament, committed -suicide. He imagined that a strange unearthly-looking being sat night -and day perched at the top of his bed, watching with earnestness his -every movement. This, which to all around him was an hallucination, to -him _was_ a reality. It is possible for a person of vivid imagination -to conjure into apparent existence the most grotesque images of the -fancy, by allowing the mind to dwell with intenseness on a particular -train of thought, and by perfectly abstracting the attention from all -materiality. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -PHYSICAL CAUSES OF SUICIDE. - - - Influence of climate—The foggy climate of England does not - increase the number of suicides—Average number of suicides in - each month, from 1817 to 1826—Influence of seasons—Suicides - at Rouen—The English not a suicidal people—Philip Mordaunt’s - singular reasons for self-destruction—Causes of French - suicides—Influence of physical pain—Unnatural vices—Suicide - the effect of intoxication—Influence of hepatic disease - on the mind—Melancholy and hypochondriasis, Burton’s - account of—Cowper’s case of suicide—Particulars of his - extreme depression of spirits—Byron and Burns’s melancholy - from stomach and liver derangement—Influence of bodily - disease on the mind—Importance of paying attention to it—A - case of insanity from gastric irritation—Dr. Johnson’s - hypochondria—Hereditary suicide, illustrated by cases—Suicide - from blows on the head, and from moral shocks communicated to - the brain—Dr. G. Mantell’s valuable observations and cases - demonstrative of the point—Concluding remarks. - -The following are the physical causes which are commonly found to -operate in producing the suicidal disposition—viz., climate, seasons, -hereditary predisposition, cerebral injuries, physical suffering, -disease of the stomach and liver complicated with melancholia and -hypochondriasis, insanity, suppressed secretions, intoxication, -unnatural vices, and derangement of the _primæ viæ_. These causes can -only act by influencing sympathetically the brain and nervous system, -and in that way interfering with the healthy operations of the mind. -Much will, of course, depend upon the physical conformation of the -individual exposed to such agents. Should he labour under an hereditary -predisposition to insanity, or to suicidal delirium, a very trifling -corporeal derangement may call into existence the self-destructive -propensity, and _vice versa_. It will be our object to consider -_seriatim_ all the physical agents just enumerated. - -Among the causes of suicide, the foggy climate of England has been -brought prominently forward. The specious and inaccurate conclusions -of Montesquieu on this point have misled the public mind. The climate -of Holland is much more gloomy than that of England, and yet in that -country suicide is by no means common. The reader will perceive from -the following tabular statement that the popular notion of the month of -November being the “suicide’s month” is founded on erroneous _data_. - -The average number of suicides in each month, from 1817 to 1826, was as -follows:— - - January 213 - February 218 - March 275 - April 374 - May 328 - June 336 - July 301 - August 296 - September 246 - October 198 - November 131 - December 217 - ———— - 3133 - - -It has been clearly established that in all the European capitals, -when anything approaching to correct statistical evidence can be -procured, the _maximum_ of suicide is in the months of June and July; -the _minimum_ in October and November. Temperature appears to exercise -a much more decided influence than the circumstances of moisture and -dryness, storms or serenity. M. Villeneuve has observed a warm, humid, -and cloudy atmosphere to produce a marked bad effect at Paris; and -that so long as the barometer indicated stormy weather, this effect -continued.[44] Contrary, however, to the opinion of Villeneuve, it -appears that by far the fewer number of suicides occur in the autumn -and winter at Paris, than in the spring and summer. - -_Number of suicides for seven years._ - - In Spring 997 - In Summer 933 - In Autumn 627 - In Winter 648 - -When the thermometer of Fahrenheit ranges from 80° to 90° suicide is -most prevalent. - -The English have been accused by foreigners of being the _beau-ideal_ -of a suicidal people. The charge is almost too ridiculous to merit -serious refutation. It has clearly been established that where there is -one suicide in London, there are five in Paris. In the year 1810, the -number of suicides committed in London amounted to 188; the population -of Paris being near 400,000 less than that of London. From the year -1827 to 1830, no less than 6900 suicides occurred; that is, an average -of nearly 1800 per annum. Out of 120,000 persons who ensured their -lives in the London Equitable Insurance Company, the number of suicides -in twenty years was only fifteen; so much for the English being _par -excellence_ disposed to suicide. - -The causes which frequently lead to self-destruction in France are, -defective religious education, _ennui_, and loss at dice or cards. -In considering the circumstances which produce this disparity in the -number of voluntary deaths in the two countries, we must bear in mind -the moral and religious habits of the people. When Christianity is not -acknowledged as a matter of vital importance in the affairs of man; -when morality is considered only as a conventional term, conveying -no definite idea to the mind, it is natural that there should exist, -co-relative with this tone of feeling, a marked recklessness of human -life. Some notion may be formed of the state of religious feeling in -Paris, when our readers are informed of the existence in the French -metropolis of a “society for the mutual encouragement of suicide,” all -the members of which, on joining it, swear to terminate their existence -by their own hands, when life becomes insupportable. - -Dr. Schlegel dwells at much length on the abandoned state of Paris, and -after giving us some important statistical evidence, he alludes to the -gross immorality of the people, and denounces the French capital as “a -suffocating boiling cauldron, in which, as in the stew of Macbeth’s -witches, there simmer, with a modicum of virtue, all kinds of passions, -vices, and crimes.” - -Alluding to the peculiarities of the French people, particularly their -indifference to human life, an eminent writer observes, speaking of -their notions of suicide, that a Frenchman asks you to see him “go -off,” as if death were a place in the _malle poste_. “Will you dine -with me to-day?” said a Frenchman to a friend. “With the greatest -pleasure;—yet, now I think of it, I am particularly engaged to shoot -myself; one cannot get off _such_ an engagement.” This is not the -suicide _à la mode_ with us. We ape at no such extra civilization -and refinement. We can be romantic without blowing out our brains. -English lovers do not, when “the course of true love” does not run -smooth, retire to some sequestered spot, and rush into the next world -by a brace of pistols tied with cherry-coloured ribbons. When we do -shoot ourselves, it is done with true English gravity. It is no joke -with us. We have no inherent predilection for the act; no “hereditary -imperfection of the nervous juices,” as Montesquieu, with all the -impudence and gravity of a philosopher, asserts, forcing us to commit -suicide. “Life,” said a man who had exhausted all his external sources -of enjoyment, and had no internal ones to fly to, “has given me a -headache; and I want a good sleep in the churchyard to set me to -rights,” to procure which, he deliberately shot himself.[45] - -A late French writer thus attempts to account for the prevalence -of suicide in France:—“The external circumstances which tend to -suggest the idea of suicide are very numerous, at the present day, in -France; but more particularly so in the capital. The high development -of civilization and refinement which prevails here—the clash of -interests—the repeated political changes—all contribute to keep the -moral feelings in a perpetual state of tension. Life does not roll -on among us in a peaceful and steady current; it rushes forward with -the force and precipitation of a torrent. In the terrible _mêlée_, -it often happens that the little minority, which has obtained a -footing high above the multitude for a time, falls down as suddenly as -they have risen. The struggles of life are full of miscalculations, -disappointments, despair, and disgust. Hence the general source of -our frequent suicides. But there are other causes in operation; and -not the least, the strange turn that plays and spectacles have lately -taken. The public taste has undergone a complete revolution in this -respect. Nothing is more patronized now at the theatre than the display -of crime unpunished, human misery unconsoled, and a low literature, -impregnated by a spurious philosophy, declaiming against society, -against domestic life, against virtue itself; applauding the vengeance -of the assassin, and recognising genius only as it is seen in company -with spleen, poison, and pistols. We appeal to all who read the novels -of the present day, and who visit the theatres, whether what we say is -not the fact.” - -It has been questioned whether physical suffering often originates -the desire for suicide. Too many lamentable cases are on record to -prevent us from coming to an opposite conclusion. Esquirol has justly -observed, that “He who has no intervals of ease from corporeal pain; -who sees no prospects of relief from his cruel malady, fails at length -in resignation, and destroys his life in order to put a period to his -sufferings. He calculates that the pain of dying is but momentary, and -commits the act in a cool and meditated despair. It is the same in -respect to _moral_ condition, that drives the hypochondriac to suicide, -who is firmly persuaded that his sufferings are beyond imagining; that -they are irremediable, either from some fatal peculiarity in his own -constitution, or the ignorance of his physicians. It is a remarkable -feature in hypochondriasis, and in no other disease, that there is -such a fear of death and a desire to die combined. Both fears proceed -from the same pusillanimity. Finally, it may be remarked that the -hypochondriac talks most of death; often wishes his attendants to -perform the friendly office; even makes attempts on his own life, -but rarely accomplishes the act. The most trifling motive, the most -frivolous pretext, is a sufficient excuse for procrastinating, from day -to day, the threatened catastrophe.” - -The following case occurred in a provincial mad-house, in France. An -apothecary who was confined there was haunted with _ennui_, and was -always begging his companions to put him to death. At length, an insane -patient was admitted, who instantly complied with the apothecary’s -request. They both watched an opportunity, got out of a window in the -back yard, and from thence into the kitchen. They pitched upon the -cook’s chopper, and the apothecary laying his head on a block, his -companion deliberately and effectually severed it from his body. He was -seized, and examined before a tribunal, where he candidly confessed -the whole transaction, and observed that he would again perform the -same friendly office for any unhappy wretch who was tired of his -existence![46] - -Lucinius Cæcinius, the prætor, subdued by the pain and _ennui_ of a -tedious disease, swallowed opium. Dr. Haslam relates the case of a -gentleman who destroyed himself to avoid the tortures of the gout. -It is recorded that the pain of the same disease drove Servius the -grammarian to take poison. Pliny informs us that one of his friends, -Corellius Rufus, having in vain sought relief from the pangs of a -disease under which he was labouring, starved himself to death at -the age of sixty-seven. It is related of Pomponius Atticus and the -philosopher Cleanthes, that they both starved themselves to death in -order to get rid of physical pain. In the course of these attempts, -the corporeal sufferings were removed—probably in consequence of the -great exhaustion and attenuation; but both individuals persevered till -death took place, observing that as this final ordeal must one day -be undergone, they would not now retrace their steps or give up the -undertaking. - -Few, perhaps, are aware how frequently suicide results from the habit -of indulging, in early youth, in a certain secret vice which, we are -afraid, is practised to an enormous extent in our public schools. A -feeling of false delicacy has operated with medical men in inducing -them to refrain from dwelling upon the destructive consequences of -this habit, both to the moral and physical constitution, as openly and -honestly as the importance of the subject imperatively demands. - -Medical men are, in the most enlarged acceptation of the term, -guardians of the public health; and no fastidious desire to avoid -saying what might possibly offend the taste of some, ought to keep -them from discharging what may be termed a sacred duty. The physical -disease, particularly that connected with the nervous system, -engendered by the pernicious practice alluded to, frequently leads -to the act of self-destruction. We have before us the cases of many -suicides in whom the disposition may clearly be traced to this cause. -This habit most seriously affects the brain and nervous system; and -insanity, hypochondriasis, and melancholia, in their worst forms, are -frequently the baneful consequences. - -If disease, structural or functional, of the abdominal viscera gives -rise to the disposition to commit suicide, it will not require much -ingenuity to establish the fact that the habitual indulgence in -intoxicating liquors may originate a similar feeling. - -It has been already established by statistical evidence, that, in -a very large proportion of the cases of insanity admitted into the -asylums and hospitals devoted to the reception of this unhappy class -of patients, the mental impairment can clearly be traced to habits of -intemperance. - -The brain and nervous system become materially affected in those who -indulge frequently in “potations pottle deep.” Delirium tremens, -softening of the cerebral substance, palsy, epilepsy, extreme -hypochondriasis, are daily witnessed as the melancholy effects of -intoxication. - -M. Falret knew the case of a man who always felt disposed to cut his -throat when under the influence of spirits. No reasoning could induce -him to abstain from his favourite draught. The inevitable consequences -were pointed out to him; he was reasoned with, and threatened with -confinement in a mad-house; but nothing had the desired effect. One -Sunday evening, after having drunk several glasses of spirits, although -not sufficient to produce complete inebriation, he stabbed himself to -the heart, and died in a few minutes. - -Incurable indigestion and organic disease of the liver are very -commonly met with in habitual drunkards. In such persons, the -constitution of the mind appears to undergo a complete change. At first -it may not be perceptible, and the patient may not be conscious of it -himself, but the mental disease will, sooner or later, unequivocally -evince itself. - -In such cases, the medical man has fearful odds to contend against. - -A young man, who had become insane in consequence of long continued -intoxication, made violent efforts to maim himself, and especially to -pull out his right eye, which appeared to give him great offence. Rest, -temperance, seclusion, the application of half a dozen leeches to the -temple, and a few doses of opening medicine, restored him, in about a -fortnight, to the full possession of his faculties. - -Many cases of suicide, in those who have a natural predisposition to -it, arise from the brain sympathizing with the liver; nor can this -be a matter of surprise to any one who has felt the depression of -spirits incident to disease of that organ. So many cases have occurred -from this cause, that some writers, from not finding, on subsequent -dissection, any organic lesion of the brain, have referred it to -diseased viscera only. But as we find that the insanity ceases when the -liver is restored to health, there is no reason for supposing that the -mental alienation is, in these instances, any other than the effect of -disease of the brain. - -J. C., about fifty years of age, was insane for two years. He was -formerly in respectable circumstances, and employed in the situation of -writer in an office. He made several attempts on his life. He had been -in the habit of drinking spirits very freely, and had a disease of the -liver which appeared of some standing. At the time of his admission -into Hanwell asylum, under the care of Sir W. Ellis, he was in a most -emaciated state; his legs scarcely able to support him. His face and -body also were covered with an eruption; tongue furred; his stools -very dark: he was much depressed, and always moaning most piteously; -complained of heat and numbness in his head, and pain in all his limbs. -Leeches and cold lotions were applied to his head, his bowels opened -by calomel and colocynth, and he went into the warm bath every other -day. He was much relieved by these means. He still continued, however, -to moan as before. His tongue remained furred, and stools unhealthy. -He took five grains of blue pill every alternate night for some time. -These were then left off awhile; no improvement taking place, he began -the pills again, and continued them for two months, with evident -advantage. His tongue was clean; he was less depressed; became strong, -and gained flesh; the biliary secretions were much improved. He is now -occupied in the office; and every day, as the action of the liver seems -to improve, his mind makes a corresponding advance. - -There is no more frequent cause of suicide than visceral derangement, -leading to melancholia and hypochondriasis. It has been a matter of -dispute with medical men whether hypochondriacal affections have their -origin in the mental or physical portion of the economy. Many maintain -that the mind is the seat of the disease; others, that the liver and -stomach are primarily affected, and the brain only secondarily. In -this disputed point, as in most others, truth will generally be found -to lie between the two extremities. That cases of hypochondria and -melancholia can clearly be traced to purely mental irritation cannot -for one moment be disputed; and that there are many instances in -which the derangement appears to have commenced in one of the gastric -organs, is as equally self-evident. Whatever may be the origin of these -affections, there can be no doubt of their producing most disastrous -consequences. Burton’s account of the horrors of hypochondria is truly -graphic. “As the rain,” says Austin, “penetrates the stone, so does -this passion of melancholy penetrate the mind. It commonly accompanies -men to their graves. Physicians may ease, but they cannot cure it; it -may lie hid for a time, but it will return again, as violent as ever, -on slight occasions, as well as on casual excesses. Its humour is like -Mercury’s weather-beaten statue, which had once been gilt; the surface -was clean and uniform, but in the chinks there was still a remnant of -gold: and in the purest bodies, if once tainted by hypochondria, there -will be some relics of melancholy still left, not so easily to be -rooted out. Seldom does this disease produce death, except (which is -the most grievous calamity of all) when these patients make away with -themselves—a thing familiar enough amongst them, when they are driven -to do violence to themselves to escape from present insufferable pain. -They can take no rest in the night, or, if they slumber, fearful dreams -astonish them. Their soul abhorreth all meat, and they are brought to -death’s door, being bound in misery and in iron. Like Job, they curse -their stars, for Job was melancholy to despair, and almost to madness. -They are weary of the sun, and yet afraid to die, _vivere nolunt et -mori nesciunt_. And then, like Æsop’s fishes, they leap from the frying -pan into the fire, when they hope to be cured by means of physic—a -miserable end to the disease; when ultimately left to their fate by a -jury of physicians, are furiously disposed; and there remains no more -to such persons, if that heavenly physician, by his grace and mercy, -(whose aid alone avails,) do not heal and help them. One day of such -grief as theirs is as a hundred years: it is a plague of the sense, a -convulsion of the soul, an epitome of hell; and if there be a hell upon -earth, it is to be found in a melancholy man’s heart. No bodily torture -is like unto it; all other griefs are swallowed up in this great -Euripus. I say the melancholy man then is the cream and quintessence -of human adversity. All other diseases are trifles to hypochondria; -it is the pith and marrow of them all! A melancholy man is the true -Prometheus, bound to Caucasus; the true Tityrus, whose bowels are still -devoured by a vulture.” - - “Dull melancholy—— - She’ll make you start at ev’ry noise you hear, - And visions strange shall to your eyes appear. - Her voice is low, and gives a hollow sound; - She hates the light, and is in darkness found; - Or sits by blinking lamps, or taper small, - Which various shadows make against the wall. - She loves nought else but noise which discord makes, - As croaking frogs whose dwelling is in lakes; - The raven hoarse, the mandrake’s hollow groan, - And shrieking owls, that fly i’th’ night alone; - The tolling bell, which for the dead rings out, - A mill, where rushing waters run about. - She loves to walk in the still moonshine light, - And in a thick dark grove she takes delight; - In hollow caves, thatch’d houses, and low cells, - She loves to live, and there alone she dwells.” - -“There are individuals who, from various physical or moral causes,” -says Esquirol, “fall into a state of corporeal torpor and mental -depression. They complain of want of appetite, dull pain in the head, -sense of heat in the stomach and viscera, borborygmi, and constipation -of the bowels; while they exhibit little or no indication of disease. -In the female sex, the natural secretions become suspended. As the -complaint advances, the features alter, and the countenance exhibits -anxiety; the complexion becomes pale or sallow; there is a sense of -tightness, or even pain, in the epigastrium; a kind of compression -in the head, which prevents them from fixing their attention, or -arranging their thoughts; a general torpor or lassitude, which keeps -them inactive. They dislike to move out, and love to loll about on a -sofa; they are irritated if you advise them to take exercise; they -abandon their ordinary avocations, neglect their domestic concerns, -become indifferent to their nearest connexions; in short, they will -neither converse, nor study, nor read, nor write, shunning society, and -being impatient of the inquiries and importunities of friends. In this -state they become filled with gloomy ideas (_idées noires_), despair -of ever being better, desire or even invoke death, and sometimes -destroy themselves, from a conviction that they are no longer capable -of fulfilling their duties in society. These people are perfectly -sane on all subjects of conversation; their impulse to suicide being -strong in proportion to the activity of their former avocations, and -the importance of their former duties. I have seen their disease (for -it is a disease) continue for months, and even years. I have seen it -alternate with mania and with perfect health. I have seen patients who -would be six months of the year maniacal or in sound health, and the -other six months tormented with these gloomy ideas and impulses to -suicide.” - -In confirmation of this view of Esquirol’s, the following cases are -related:[47]—A gentleman of apparently sound constitution, aged 32, was -married to a woman whom he affectionately loved. His affairs became -deranged a few years after his marriage, which greatly discouraged -him, and rendered him inactive, but without apparently affecting his -health. He now embarked in a speculation which promised much advantage, -and at first applied himself to business with unremitting assiduity. -In the course of a month he encountered some difficulties, which -depressed him beyond measure. He considered himself ruined, refused to -quit his bed, and would not superintend his workmen, from a conviction -that he was no longer capable of directing their operations. He -complained of headache, heat in his stomach, &c. His affection for -his wife and children, his pecuniary interests, all failed to rouse -him from this moral and physical prostration. He reasoned sanely on -the critical state of his affairs, and yet made no effort to rescue -himself from his difficulties. Eight days passed in this way, when -all at once he sprung from his bed in perfect integrity of mind and -body. He resumed instantaneously all his activity for business, all -his affection for his family. The same state, however, recurred ten -or twelve times since, at irregular intervals, caused in general by -trifling contrarieties of business, which, under other circumstances, -would be considered as nothing. During several of these paroxysms he -had impulses to suicide; but this dreaded catastrophe has not yet taken -place. - -A female was admitted into the Salpetriere on the 23d of September, -1819, in the 34th year of her age, and fourteen years after marriage. -At the age of 21 she had a child, after which she was affected with -an ulcer in the foot, which was healed in six months. From this time -she was troubled with cardialgia, at first slight, but afterwards -with intense pain and vomiting of her food. At the age of 33 she -became irresolute in her ideas and actions. She expressed an aversion -for those things which she had been previously pleased with, and was -occasionally incoherent. After suffering from other derangements -of her general health, she abandoned her household affairs, became -quite despondent, and tried more than once to commit suicide. In this -state she was admitted into the hospital, and was put upon diluents, -low diet, &c. As she shewed indications of having recovered, she was -allowed to return to her family; but in a short period she was harassed -with gloomy ideas, despaired of recovery, and expressed a desire to -quit life, the duties of which she said she was no longer able to -fulfil. - -In the case of Cowper, we have a melancholy instance of hypochondriasis -leading to suicidal mental derangement. That the poet’s mind was -unsound when he attempted to kill himself, must be evident to those who -are conversant with the history of his life. He never appears to have -been free from hypochondriacal disorder. In a letter to Lady Hesketh, -he says, “Could I be translated to paradise, unless I could leave my -body behind me, my melancholy would cleave to me there.” A friend -procured him the situation of reading clerk to the House of Lords, -forgetting that the nervous shyness which made a public exhibition of -himself “mortal poison,” would render it impossible for him ever to -discharge the duties of his office. This difficulty presented itself -to the mind of the poet, and gloom instantly enveloped his faculties. -At his request, his situation was changed to that of clerk of the -journals; but even before he could be installed into office he was -threatened with a public examination before the House. This made him -completely wretched; he had not resolution to decline what he had not -strength to do: the interest of his friend, and his own reputation -and want of support, pressed him forward to an attempt which he knew -from the first could never succeed. In this miserable state, like -Goldsmith’s traveller, - - “To stop too fearful, and too faint to go,” - -he attended every day for six months at the office where he was to -examine the journals in preparation for his trust. His feelings were -like those of a man at the place of execution, every time he entered -the office door; and he only gazed mechanically at the books, without -drawing from them the least portion of information he wanted. As the -time of his examination approached, his agony became more and more -intense; he hoped and believed that madness would come to relieve him; -he attempted also to make up his mind to suicide, though his conscience -bore stern testimony against it; he could not by any argument persuade -himself that it was right; but his desperation prevailed, and he -procured from an apothecary the means of self-destruction. On the day -before his public appearance was to be made, he happened to notice a -letter in the newspaper, which to his disordered mind seemed like a -malignant libel on himself. He immediately threw down the paper, and -rushed into the fields, determined to die in a ditch; but the thought -struck him that he might escape from the country. With the same -violence he proceeded to make hasty preparations for his flight; but -while he was engaged in packing his portmanteau his mind changed, and -he threw himself into a coach, ordering the man to drive to the Tower -wharf, intending to throw himself into the river, and not reflecting -that it would be impossible to accomplish his purpose, in that public -spot, unobserved. On approaching the water, he found a porter seated -upon some goods; he then returned to the coach, and drove home to -his lodgings in the Temple. On the way, he attempted to drink the -laudanum, but as often as he raised it, a convulsive agitation of his -frame prevented its reaching his lips; and thus, regretting the loss -of the opportunity, but unable to avail himself of it, he arrived half -dead with anguish at his apartments. He then closed the door and threw -himself on the bed, with the laudanum near him, trying to lash himself -up to the deed; but a voice within seemed constantly to forbid it; -and as often as he extended his hand to the poison, his fingers were -contracted, and held back by spasms. At this time some of the inmates -of the place came in, but he concealed his agitation; and as soon as -he was left alone, a change came over him, and so detestable did the -deed appear, that he threw away the laudanum, and dashed the phial to -pieces. The rest of the day was spent in heavy insensibility, and at -night he slept as usual; but on waking at three in the morning, _he -took his penknife and laid with his weight upon it, the point being -directed towards his heart_. It was broken, and would not penetrate. At -day-break he rose, and passing a strong garter round his neck, fastened -it to the frame of his bed. This gave way with his weight; but on -securing it to the door, he was more successful, and remained suspended -until he had lost all consciousness of existence. After a time, the -garter broke, and he fell to the floor, so that his life was saved; but -the conflict had been greater than his reason could endure. He felt -a contempt for himself not to be expressed or imagined. Whenever he -went into the street, it seemed as if every eye flashed upon him with -indignation and scorn. He felt as if he had offended God so deeply that -his guilt could never be forgiven, and his whole heart was filled with -pangs of tumultuous despair.[48] - -When Cowper had once admitted the thought of self-destruction, he could -not go into the street without meeting with something to tempt or drive -him to the act. It seemed to him as if the whole world had conspired -to make death by his own hand inevitable. When he ventured into the -streets, after the failure of all his efforts, a ghastly shame and -alarmed suspicion were his torments; and perhaps nothing in Cowper’s -autobiography goes deeper into the heart than the following description -of his sufferings. - -“I never went into the street but I thought the people stood and -laughed at me, and held me in contempt; and could hardly persuade -myself but that the voice of conscience was loud enough for any one -to hear it. They who knew me, appeared to avoid me, and if they spoke -to me, seemed to do it in scorn. I bought a ballad of one who was -singing it in the street, because I thought it was written on me. I -dined alone, either at a tavern, where I went in the dark, or at the -chop-house, where I always took care to hide myself in the darkest -corner of the room. I slept generally an hour in the evening, but it -was only to be terrified in dreams; and when I awoke, it was some time -before I could steadily walk through the passage into the dining-room. -I reeled and staggered like a drunken man. The eyes of man I did not -fear; but when I thought that the eyes of God were upon me, (which I -felt assured of,) it gave me the most intolerable anguish. If, for a -moment, a book or a companion stole away my attention from myself, a -flash from hell seemed to be thrown into my mind immediately; and I -said within myself, ‘What are these things to me, who am damned?’” - -Cowper is not the only instance, however, of a man of exquisite taste -and genius whose life has been rendered miserable by hypochondria. -We have alluded elsewhere to Byron’s morbid sensitiveness, and the -reader’s attention is now called to the influence of hypochondriasis -on the poet’s mind. He says in his journal, “What can be the reason -I awake every morning in actual despair and despondency?” He had a -great apprehension of insanity. In order to overcome his melancholy, -considering that his diet had much to do with it, he put himself under -a strict regimen, avoiding most scrupulously all animal food. He states -that his diet for a week consisted of tea and six dry biscuits per -diem. After having indulged in an ordinary dinner, he writes, “I wish -to God I had not dined now; it kills me with heaviness; and yet it -was but a pint of bucellas, and fish. Oh, my head! how it aches!—the -horrors of indigestion!” Again he says, “This head was given me to ache -with.” After a severe fit of indigestion, he writes, “I’ve no more -charity than a vinegar cruet. Would that I were an ostrich, and dieted -on fire-irons! O fool! I shall go mad!” - -Burns suffered much from indigestion, producing hypochondria. Writing -to his friend, Mr. Cunningham, he says, “Canst thou not minister to -a mind diseased? Canst thou speak peace and rest to a soul tost on a -sea of troubles, without one friendly star to guide her course, and -dreading that the next surge may overwhelm her? Canst thou give to -a frame tremblingly alive to the tortures of suspense the stability -and hardihood of a rock that braves the blast? If thou canst not do -the least of these, why wouldst thou disturb me in my miseries with -thy inquiries after me?” From early life, the poet was subject to a -disordered stomach, a disposition to headache, and irregular action of -the heart. - -He describes, in one of his letters, the horrors of his complaint:—“I -have been for some time pining under secret wretchedness. The pang -of disappointment, the sting of pride, and some wandering stabs of -remorse, settle on my life like vultures, when my attention is not -called away by the claims of society, or the vagaries of the muse. Even -in the hour of social mirth my gaiety is the madness of an intoxicated -criminal under the hands of an executioner. My constitution was -blasted _ab origine_ with a deep incurable taint of melancholy that -poisoned my existence.” - -Nothing can be more interesting to a physician who is endowed with -only a moderate share of the spirit of observation than to watch the -progress of hypochondriasis in a number of patients, especially in -regard to its effect on the mind. They always struggle, more or less in -the beginning, with the lowness and dejection which affect them; and -it is not until many a severe contest has taken place between their -natural good sense and the involuntary suggestions which arise from -the obscure and painful feelings of the diseased nerves, that a firm -belief in the reality of such thoughts gains a full conquest over their -judgment. A firm belief in any one perception never takes place until -it has acquired a certain degree of force; and as all impressions which -arise from the viscera of the abdomen are naturally obscure, we see -the reason why these must continue for a great length of time, or be -often repeated, before they can withdraw a person’s attention from the -ordinary impression of external objects, which are clear and distinct, -and before they acquire such a degree of vividness as to destroy the -operations of reason. - -We meet every day with hypochondriacs in whom the disease is -just beginning to be formed, and who, being possessed of a good -understanding, seem unwilling to tell, even to their medical friends, -the singular, and often melancholy, thoughts with which they are -tormented. They acknowledge them to be unreasonable, and yet insist -that they cannot help believing in them. A very curious display of this -kind of struggle between the habitudes of reason and the approach of -delirium is to be found in the diary of an hypochondriac, from which we -make the following extract:— - -“On the 14th of November, the idea that some person intended to kill -me sprung up suddenly and involuntarily in my mind, and yet, I must -confess, there was no reason why I should have harboured this thought, -for I am convinced that no one ever formed such a cruel design against -me. People who had a stick in their hands I looked on as murderers. -As I was walking out of town, a countryman happened to follow me, and -I was instantly filled with the greatest apprehension, and stood still -to let him pass. I asked the fellow in a threatening voice, and with -a view of intimidating him from his purpose, what was the name of the -town before us. The man answered my question and walked on, and I found -great relief, because he was no longer behind me. - -“In the evening, I observed some water in the glass out of which I -commonly drink, and I instantly believed it was poisoned. I therefore -washed it carefully out, and yet I knew, at the same time, that I -myself had left the water in it. - -“18th November.—At particular periods I believe all mankind have -conspired to murder me. I think I am deprived of my office; that I am -doomed to die of hunger; and, to add to all this, I am tormented with -horrid doubts concerning futurity, and these thoughts persecute me like -furies. Those whom I used to love most, I now hate. I avoid my best -friends, and my dear wife appears to me a much worse kind of woman than -she really is. - -“I cannot describe the exertion it requires to conquer in society the -aversion I feel to my fellow-creatures, and to prevent my ill-humour -from breaking out against the most innocent people. When it really does -so, I spare no one. I am sorry for it afterwards, but then I am too -proud to acknowledge my error. - -“I find myself so enraged on seeing a stupid, vacant countenance, that -I have almost an irresistible inclination to box the person’s ears to -whom it belongs: the refraining from it is a severe effort. - -“20th November.—A boy with a face like a satyr met me, and occasioned -me the greatest uneasiness. Although he did nothing to displease me, I -was forced to go to him, and tell him that I was sure he would die on -the gallows. - -“23rd November.—My sensibility is often extreme, and then my best -friends become insupportable to me. To their expressions of regard -I am either purposely cold or else I answer by rude and offensive -speeches. I can seldom explain to myself the reason of this too great -sensibility. If two people whisper to each other in my presence, I grow -uneasy, and lose all command of mind, because I think they are speaking -ill of me; and I often assume a satirical manner in company, in order -to frighten them. Anxiety, dreadful anxiety, seizes me, if a person -overlooks my hand at cards, or if a person sits down beside me when I -am playing the harpsichord.” - -“From numerous facts which have come within my own observation,” says a -distinguished living medical authority,[49] “I am convinced that many -strange antipathies, disgusts, caprices of temper, and eccentricities -which are considered solely as obliquities of intellect, have their -source in corporeal disorder. - -“The great majority of these complaints, which are considered as purely -mental, such as irascibility, melancholy, timidity, and irresolution, -might be greatly remedied, if not entirely removed, by a proper system -of temperance, and with very little medicine. There is no accounting -for the magic-like spell which annihilates for a time the whole energy -of the mind, and renders the victim of dyspepsia afraid of his own -shadow, or of things, if possible, more unsubstantial than shadows. - -“It is not likely that the great men of the earth should be exempt -from these visitations any more than the little; and if so, we may -reasonably conclude, that there are other things beside ‘conscience’ -which ‘make cowards of us all,’ and that, by a temporary gastric -irritation, many an ‘enterprise of vast pith and moment’ has had ‘its -current turned away,’ and ‘lost the name of action.’ - -“The philosopher and the metaphysician, who know but little of these -reciprocities of mind and matter, have drawn many a false conclusion -from, and erected many a baseless hypothesis on, the actions of men. -Many a happy thought has sprung from an empty stomach; many a terrible -and merciless edict has gone forth in consequence of an irritated -gastric nerve. Thus health may make the same man a hero in the field -whom dyspepsia may render imbecile in the cabinet.” - -The following case will shew how powerfully indigestion may affect the -mind’s operations:— - -A young lady, after eating some heavy paste, was attacked by a -sensation of burning heat at the pit of the stomach, which increased -till the whole of the upper part of the body, both externally and -internally, appeared to her to be all in flames. She rose up suddenly, -left the dinner table, and ran into the street, from which she was -immediately brought back. She soon came to herself, and thus described -her horrible ideas. She declared that she had been very wicked, and had -been dragged into the flames of hell. She continued in a precarious -situation for some time. Whenever she experienced the burning sensation -of which she first complained, the same dreadful thoughts occurred to -her mind. She seized hold of whatever was nearest to prevent her from -being forced away; and such was her alarm that she dreaded to be alone. -This lady had long been distressed by family concerns, and harassed by -restless and sleepless nights, which greatly affected her health. - -Dr. Johnson used to declare that he inherited “a vile melancholy” from -his father, which made him “mad all his life, or, at least, not sober.” -Insanity was his constant terror. Boswell says that, at the period when -this great philosopher was giving to the world proofs of no ordinary -vigour of understanding, he actually fancied himself insane, or in a -state as nearly as possible approaching to it. - -Murphy says, “For many years before Johnson’s death, so terrible was -the prospect of final dissolution that when he was not disposed to -enter into the conversation which was going forward, he sat in his -chair, repeating the well-known lines of Shakspeare— - - “To die, and go we know not where.” - -Like Metastasio, he would not, if he could help it, permit the word -death to be pronounced in his presence. Boswell once introduced -the topic in the course of conversation, which made Johnson highly -indignant. He observed, that he never had a moment in which it was not -terrible to him. - -Three or four days before he died, he declared that he would give one -of his legs for a year more of life. The ruling passion was exhibited -strong in death. At Dr. Johnson’s own suggestion, the surgeon was -making slight punctures in the legs, with the hope of relieving his -dropsical affection, when he cried out, “Deeper! deeper! _I want length -of life_, and you are afraid of giving me pain, which I do not value.” -If we had not a thorough conviction that this fear of death was but the -result of physical disease, which no moral and religious principles -could subdue, Dr. Johnson’s conduct towards the end of his life would -excite a feeling in our mind towards him very opposite to that of -respect. - -With reference to suicide, there is no fact that has been more clearly -established than that of its hereditary character. Of all diseases to -which the various organs are subject, there are none more generally -transmitted from one generation to another than affections of the -brain. It is not necessary that the disposition to suicide should -manifest itself in every generation; it often passes over one, and -appears in the next, like insanity unattended with this propensity. But -if the members of the family so predisposed are carefully examined, it -will be found that the various shades and gradations of the malady will -be easily perceptible. Some are distinguished for their flightiness of -manner, others for their strange eccentricity, likings and dislikings, -irregularity of their passions, capricious and excitable temperament, -hypochondriasis and melancholia. These are often but the minute shades -and variations of an hereditary disposition to suicidal madness. A -gentleman suddenly, and without any apparent reason, cut his throat. -The father had always been a man of strong passions, easily roused, and -when so, was extremely violent. The brother was a man of impulse; he -always acted by fits and starts, and therefore never could be depended -upon. The sister had a strange, unnatural, and superstitious horror -of particular colours and odours. A yellow dress caused a feeling -approaching to syncope, and the smell of hay produced great nervous -excitement. The grandfather had been convicted of homicide, and had -been confined for two years in a mad-house. - -Andral relates the case of a father who died from the effects of -disease of the brain; the mother died sane. They had six children, -three boys and three girls. Of the boys, the eldest was a man of -original mind; the second was very extravagant in his habits, and was -ultimately confined in a mad-house; the third was extremely violent in -his temper. Of the girls, one had fits of apoplexy, and became insane; -the other died at her accouchement, with symptoms of derangement; the -third died of cholera, not, however, until she exhibited indications of -mental aberration. - -A case more singular than the last is recorded. All the members of a -particular family, being hereditarily disposed, exhibited, when they -arrived at a certain age, a desire to commit self-destruction. It -required no exciting cause to develope the fatal disposition. No wish -was expressed, or attempt made, to overpower the suicidal inclination, -and the greatest industry and ingenuity were exercised by the parties -in order to effect their purpose. In two cases, the propensity was -subdued by proper medical and moral treatment; but, just in proportion -to its being suppressed, did the idea of suicide appear to fix itself -resolutely in the mind. The desire came upon the individuals like the -attacks of intermittent fever. - -A. K., a man aged 57, was twice married. He was a shoe-maker by trade; -but not having received any education, his wife was compelled to attend -to all his accounts. He had experienced, when young, a blow on the -head, which occasionally gave him pain. He became very intemperate in -his habits, and at particular intervals he exhibited an uncontrollable -temper, quarrelled with everybody, neglected his business, abused his -wife, and became extravagant and melancholy. During the paroxysm he -would exclaim—“_Oh, my unlucky head! I am again a lost man!_” When the -attack subsided, he returned to his business, was affectionate to his -wife and family, most humbly begged her pardon for having ill-treated -her, and expressed the greatest contrition for his conduct. These -attacks came on at regular intervals. He procured a piece of rope for -the purpose of hanging himself, and for some months carried it about -with him in his pocket for that purpose. During one of his fits he -effected his object. His grandfather had strangled himself, and his -brother and sister had attempted suicide. - -Dr. Gall knew several families in which the suicidal propensity -prevailed through several generations. Among the cases he mentions -is the following very remarkable one:—“The Sieur Ganthier, the owner -of various houses built without the barriers of Paris, to be used as -_entrepôts_ of goods, left seven children, and a fortune of about two -millions of francs to be divided among them. All remained at Paris, -or in the neighbourhood, and preserved their patrimony; some even -increased it by commercial speculations. None of them met with any real -misfortunes, but all enjoyed good health, a competency, and general -esteem. All, however, were possessed with a rage for suicide, and all -seven succumbed to it within the space of thirty or forty years. Some -hanged, some drowned themselves, and others blew out their brains. -One of the first two had invited sixteen persons to dine with him one -Sunday. The company collected, the dinner was served, and the guests -were at the table. The master of the house was called, but did not -answer; he was found hanging in the garret. Scarcely an hour before, -he was quietly giving orders to the servants, and chattering with -his friends. The last, the owner of a house in the Rue de Richelieu, -having raised his house two stories, became frightened at the expense, -imagined himself ruined, and was anxious to kill himself. Thrice they -prevented him; but soon after, he was found dead, having shot himself. -The estate, after all the debts were paid, amounted to three hundred -thousand francs, and he might have been forty-five years old at the -time of his death.” - -Falret, whose researches have thrown much light on this affection, -believes that it is more disposed to be hereditary than any other kind -of insanity. He saw a mother and her daughter attacked with suicidal -melancholy, and the grandmother of the latter was at Charenton for -the same cause. An individual, he says, committed suicide in Paris. -His brother, who came to attend the funeral, cried out on seeing the -body—“What fatality! My father and uncle both destroyed themselves; my -brother has imitated their example; and twenty times during my journey -hither I thought of throwing myself into the Seine!” - -Gall also relates the case of a dyer, of a very taciturn humour, who -had five sons and a daughter. The eldest son, after being settled in -a prosperous business with a family around him, succeeded, after many -attempts, in killing himself by jumping from the third story of his -house. The second son, who was rather taciturn, had some domestic -troubles, lost part of his fortune at play, and strangled himself at -the age of thirty-five. The third threw himself from the window into -his garden, but did not hurt himself; he pretended he was trying to -fly. The fourth tried one day to fire a pistol down his throat, but was -prevented. The fifth was of a bilious, melancholic temperament, quiet, -and devoted to business; he and his sister shewed no signs of being -affected with their brothers’ malady. One of their cousins committed -suicide. - -Among the physical causes of self-destruction, insidious affections -of the brain must stand prominently forward. It is not often that the -physician is permitted to examine after death the state of this organ; -but there can be no doubt that, in the great majority of instances, the -brain will be found to have undergone a serious structural alteration. -“During the last twenty-five years,” says Dr. G. Mantell, “many cases -of suicide have come under my notice in which the mental hallucination -which led to self-destruction has depended on lesions of the brain, -occasioned by slight or neglected injuries of the head, to which -neither the patient nor his friends attached any importance. In several -instances of self-destruction, without any assignable moral cause, and -in which no previous signs of fatuity or insanity were manifested, -I have found, upon a post mortem examination, either circumscribed -induration or softening of the brain, or thickening and adhesions of -some portions of its membranes. The conviction was forced upon my -mind that very many of the _so called_ nervous or hypochondriacal -affections, which are generally considered as imaginary and dependent -on mental emotions, are ascribable to physical causes, and frequently -originate from slight lesions of the brain.” - -The learned doctor relates the following cases in illustration of his -views:— - -“A respectable tradesman, between fifty and sixty years of age, of -temperate habits, was knocked down during an electioneering contest, -and struck his head on the ground. He was stunned for a few minutes by -the shock, and slightly bruised above the right temple, but experienced -no further inconvenience, and the circumstance was considered of no -consequence. - -“About six months after the event, he was seized, one evening, with -rigors and a pain over the right brow; a smart reaction took place, -which terminated in perspiration, and the following morning, the -symptoms disappeared. A similar paroxysm came on daily for five or six -days; the attack was considered intermittent, and, I believe, bark was -freely administered. At the end of a week, the patient was well. After -this period, he was subject to occasional pain over the right brow, -accompanied with great mental despondency, the prevailing apprehension -being that of eternal damnation. This state would continue for an -uncertain time, the duration varying from a few days to three weeks; -and by slow degrees he would lose all trace of disease, regain his -accustomed cheerfulness, and be able to transact the affairs of an -extensive business. - -“About two years from the occurrence of the accident, I saw him, at the -request of his friends, while he was labouring under great despondency, -which his relations assured me arose from some religious opinions -he had imbibed; and I found that the medical treatment had been in -accordance with such a notion. My inquiries led to the detection of the -injury he had received two years previously, but neither the patient -nor his friends would allow that there was any connexion between the -blow and the symptoms under which he now suffered. Both general and -local bleeding appeared to me necessary; a strict regimen was adopted, -and he regained his usual flow of spirits, and expressed himself much -better than he had been for years. The occasional use of leeches, and -a rigid abstinence from fermented liquors, spirits, and stimuli of all -kinds, maintained this favourable condition for a considerable time; -but his occupation led him to occasional excess in diet, and a moderate -quantity of wine or beer invariably brought on despondency and its -accompanying hallucination; in other words, when the system was kept in -a tranquil state, the cerebral functions were not impaired; but when -excited, the morbid manifestations of the mind were produced. - -“During one of these attacks he cut his throat, and expired in the -course of a few hours. A short time previous to his death, when greatly -exhausted by the loss of blood from his wound, his intellect was -unclouded, and he expressed to me his astonishment at what he had done, -and assured me he had no reason for acting thus; but it was an impulse -which he could not resist. - -“The only abnormal appearance upon inspecting the body after death was, -a circumscribed adhesion of the dura mater to the pia mater, to the -extent of about two inches in diameter, over the upper and anterior -portion of the right hemisphere of the brain, opposite to the spot -where the blow of the head had been inflicted some years previously. - -“I will not presume to offer any comment on a case which I am well -aware presents nothing unusual, my only object being that of calling -particular attention to those slight injuries of the head which, -although unmarked by any striking symptoms at the moment of their -occurrence, may give rise to the most distressing results years after -their infliction, and when the original cause of disordered action -is forgotten, and can no longer be detected; and of pointing out the -possibility that many cases of suicide, apparently referrible to moral -causes only, may be found to result solely from physical derangement -of the organ through which the manifestations of the mind must be -displayed. It is under circumstances of this kind that the medical -philosopher, in his painful duty of exploring the relics of mortality, -may have the high gratification of protecting the memory of an -unfortunate individual from the censure of a world but too apt to judge -harshly, and thus afford a lasting consolation to those by whom that -memory will be cherished and revered.” - -No complaints can be more insidious than those connected with the -brain. An apparently slight blow on the head in early life has been -known, if not to give rise at the time to actual disease of the -sentient organ, to predispose the person to attacks of cerebral -derangement when exposed to the influence of causes so trivial as to be -incapable, under any other circumstances, of producing any effect. The -following case will demonstrate that moral irritation may derange the -structure of the brain as effectually as any physical injury:— - -A gentleman in early life was exposed for a few weeks to an amount -of mental excitement almost sufficient to bring on a severe maniacal -attack. He complained for some time of a sensation in his head as if -some person was hammering on his brain. In the course of a few years he -apparently recovered. During a tour through Italy, he had a renewal -of his old sensation, and became liable to head-aches, giddiness, -and severe attacks of indigestion. He placed himself under the care -of an Italian physician of eminence, who did his best to restore him -to health. Instead of improving, the symptoms of his disease became -more apparent; and one morning he was found dead on the floor of -his dressing-room, having with a penknife effectually divided the -carotid artery. On examining the brain, extensive _ramollissement_ was -discovered. In this case the structural disease originated in a _moral -shock_, the effects of which remained suspended for some years, and -then gave rise to the train of symptoms that drove the unfortunate man -to terminate his life. It is one of the most important facts connected -with this subject, that mental excitement may produce as extensive and -serious organic disease as that which so commonly follows the receipt -of physical injury. With a knowledge of this fact, how cautious we -ought to be in pronouncing an opinion as to the absence of disease of -the brain in cases of suicide resulting from an apparently trifling -departure from mental quietude, without being intimate with the -previous history of the individual. - -“The English,” says Montesquieu, “frequently destroy themselves -without any apparent cause to determine them to such an act, and even -in the midst of prosperity. Among the Romans, suicide was the effect -of education; it depended upon their customs and manner of thinking: -with the English, it is the effect of disease, and depending upon -the physical condition of the system.” A young man, twenty-two years -of age, was intended by his parents for the church. He disliked the -profession exceedingly, and absolutely refused to take orders. For -this act, at once of integrity and disobedience, he was forced to -quit his father’s house, and to exert his inexperienced energies for -a precarious subsistence. He turned his thoughts to several different -employments; and, at length, he went to reside with a family, where -he was treated with great kindness, and where he appeared to enjoy -a degree of tranquillity. His enjoyment, however, was not of long -continuance, for his imagination was assailed by gloomy and distressing -reflections. His life became more and more burdensome to him, and -he considered by what method he should put an end to it. He one day -formed the resolution of precipitating himself from the top of the -house, but his courage failed him, and the execution of the project was -postponed. Some days after, he took up a pistol with the same design -of self-destruction. His perplexities and terrors returned. A friend -of this unhappy youth called upon Pinel one day to inform him of the -projected tragedy. Every means of prevention were adopted that prudence -could suggest, but the most pressing solicitations and friendly -remonstrances were in vain. The propensity to suicide unceasingly -haunted him, and he precipitately quitted the family from whom he had -experienced so many proofs of friendship and attachment. Financial -considerations prohibited the suggestion of a distant voyage or a -change of climate. He was therefore advised, as the best substitute, -some constant and laborious employment. The young melancholic, -sensibly alive to the horror of his situation, entered fully into -Pinel’s views, and procured an engagement at Bled Harbour, where he -mingled with the other labourers with a full determination to deserve -his stipulated wages. But, completely fatigued and exhausted by the -exertion of the first two days of his engagement, he was obliged to -have recourse to some other expedient. He entered into the employment -of a master-mason, in the neighbourhood of Paris, to whom his services -were peculiarly acceptable, as he devoted his leisure hours to the -instruction of an only son. No situation, apparently, could have been -more suitable to his case than one of this kind, admitting of alternate -mental and bodily exercise. Wholesome food, comfortable lodgings, and -every attention due to misfortune, seemed rather to aggravate than to -divert his gloomy propensities. After the expiration of a fortnight, -he returned to his friend, and, with tears in his eyes, acquainted -him with the internal struggles which he felt, and the insuperable -disgust of life, which bore him irresistibly to self-destruction. The -reproaches of his friend affected him exceedingly, and, in a state -of the utmost anxiety and despair, he silently withdrew, probably to -terminate a hated existence by throwing himself into the Seine. - -When laying down rules for the physical treatment of suicide, we have -developed our view as to the influence of derangement of the _primæ -viæ_, suppressed secretions, &c., on the healthy state of the mind; -and we have only to refer the reader to that portion of the work for -information on these points. In discussing the important question -whether suicide invariably results from mental derangement, numerous -instances have been brought forward that may be undoubtedly traced to -that cause, therefore it will not be necessary to recapitulate in this -chapter what has been there advanced. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -MORAL TREATMENT OF SUICIDAL MANIA. - - - Diseases of the brain not dissimilar to affections of other - organs—Early symptoms of insanity—The good effects of - having plenty to do—Occupation—Dr. Johnson’s opinion on the - subject—The pleasure derived from cultivating a taste for - the beauties of nature—Effect of volition on diseases of - the mind—Silent grief injurious to mental health—Treatment - of _ennui_—The time of danger, not the time of disease—The - Walcheren expedition—The retreat of the ten thousand Greeks - under Xenophon—Influence of music on the mind in the cure of - disease—Cure of epidemic suicide—Buonaparte’s remedy—How the - women of Myletus were cured of the disposition to suicide, and - other illustrations—Cases shewing how easily the disposition - to suicide may be diverted—On the cure of insanity by - stratagems—On the importance of removing the suicidal patient - from his own home—On the regulation of the passions. - -In treating this most important class of affections, we must dismiss -from our minds all those pre-conceived notions which we have been -led to form of what constitutes mental derangement. We must view the -subject as medical philosophers in the most liberal acceptation of the -term, and not as _nisi prius_ barristers; we must consider ourselves -at the bed-side of a suffering patient, demanding from our skill that -relief which he is led to believe we have in our power to afford, and -not as in a court of justice, undergoing an examination at the hands -of a lawyer anxious to establish his case; and, above all, we must -apply to the disease of the brain and its disordered manifestations -those pathological principles which guide us in the elucidation of -the affections of other organs. If we consider insanity not as a -specific disease invariably exhibiting the same phenomena, but as -it really is, the effect of a disordered condition of the sentient -organ, having an incipient, as well as an advanced stage, we may, by -a judicious application of the principles of therapeutics, succeed -in many cases in crushing the disposition to suicide before it has -taken a formidable hold of the constitution. In the great majority of -cases the premonitory indications are well marked and unequivocal. The -experienced physician and accurate observer will be able to detect, -before the mental alienation becomes apparent to others, the early -dawnings of derangement. He knows that it is frequently manifested -by some change in the person’s usual healthy habits of thinking and -acting,—by the exhibition of odd fancies and whims. Although surrounded -by everything calculated to contribute to his happiness, he is the most -miserable of human beings. Trifles annoy and irritate him; he sees in -his dearest friends his deadliest enemies; talks of conspiracies, of -plots, and stratagems; becomes suspicious of everything and everybody; -his former objects of pleasure afford him no delight; he avoids -society, and is occasionally heard muttering strange things to himself. -In the majority of cases these are the early dawnings of cerebral -disease leading to unequivocal insanity, and yet so tied down are we to -definitions, arbitrary standards and poetical tests, that we will not -admit derangement of mind to be present until the symptoms are so self* -evident and glaring that the condition of the mind becomes apparent to -the most superficial observer. When this view of insanity is recognised -as orthodox, and moral treatment adopted in the early stages of the -disease, much good may be expected to result. - -How often do we see in society, and during the intercourse of private -friendship, individuals complaining of the severest mental sufferings, -the effect of morbid alterations of feeling almost in every respect -similar to insanity, dependent upon the same causes, manifesting the -same symptoms, and removed by the same remedial agents. How are these -mental ailments treated? The poor sufferer is perhaps smiled at; he -is considered to be fanciful, and no regard is paid to the cerebral -affection. The disease is allowed to advance until other faculties of -the mind are implicated, and then the mental alienation exhibits itself -so unequivocally that no one doubts its existence. - -The success of the mental treatment of suicide will be mainly -dependent on our paying strict attention to those apparently trifling -alterations of temper and disposition, those deviations from the usual -mode of thinking and acting, which so often predicate the presence -of the incipient stage of insanity. An invincible love of solitude -exhibited in a patient considered as labouring under an hypochondriacal -affection, and who, when induced to converse, complains of being -constantly pestered with one or two trains of ideas from which he -cannot for a moment escape, although his efforts are great and -unremitting, let his friends beware. These changes are, however, but -rarely noticed, until some alarming event causes every friend to lament -the want of timely attention. - -Occupation is an infallible specific for many of the imaginary and real -ills of life. In cases where the mind is sinking under the influence -of its own weight, and the fancy is allowed to dwell uninterruptedly -on the ideas of its own creation, until the individual believes -himself to stand apart from all the world, the very personification -of human misery and wretchedness, the physician can recommend no -better remedy than constant and steady occupation for the mind and -body. Burton concludes his able work on Melancholy with this valuable -piece of advice:—“Be not solitary; be not idle.” Dr. Reid recommended -a patient, labouring under great mental depression, to engage in the -composition of a novel, which, during the time he was occupied in the -task, effected much good. By interesting himself in the distresses of -fictitious beings, he diverted his attention from sufferings which were -no less the offspring of the imagination. - -It has been suggested with great truth that the habit of gaming, -prevalent as it is among persons in the upper ranks of life, is not -to be attributed exclusively to a feeling of avarice. The man who -is surrounded by everything to make his condition in life happy, as -far as wealth is concerned, does not fly to dice for the purpose of -aggrandisement, but he does so to seek refuge from the miseries of -indolence and vacuity; from the gnawings of his own mind; from an eager -desire to expose himself to that mental agitation which nature tells -him is so necessary to make life supportable. “A woman is happier than -a man,” says Dr. Johnson, “because she can hem a pocket-handkerchief.” - -Our faculties, like the vulture of Prometheus, devour our souls, -if they have no action beyond ourselves. “Real lassitude is always -mingled with grief,” says an eminent female genius; and Madame de Staël -considers the observation a profound one. - -“The man in the Spectator who hanged himself to avoid the intolerable -annoyance of having to tie his garters every day of his life, is but a -satire on the misery of many who, having no useful occupation, find the -flight of time marked only by the swift repetition of petty troubles. - -“The restlessness of Rousseau, his discontented and morbidly irritable -disposition, was closely allied to insanity; and the painful struggles -of Lord Byron, when ‘came the fit again,’ are detailed in words which -shew too plainly how they disturbed and threatened the integrity of -his judgment. In such natures, every strong emotion, or the occurrence -of disease, may destroy the delicate balance, and make a ruin of a -mind which even in ruins continues to excite a mournful admiration. -The diversion of social intercourse, which to other men is necessary -to prevent mental torpor, becomes to them a source of irritation by -impeding the workings of their imagination: they find that, when alone, -all the nobler aspirations of the soul are free, and images of beauty, -and virtue, and wisdom, occupy the mind. Society transforms them into -a being they despise, deprives them of all their high and valued -thoughts, and it enables them to feel what slight circumstances, acting -on the man without, may affect the man within. But the pleasures of -solitude are transient; their train is followed by baseless fancies, -by fears undefined, by griefs unexpressed, and black despondency, -from which society can alone relieve. We learn, from observing such -effects, arising from such causes, the advantage of mixed and varied -occupations, suited to a being not made solely for contemplation or -for action; and we may gather rules from these observations, the -application of which to minds in a morbid state is very direct.”[50] - -With no less beauty than truth has the author of Rasselas depicted the -insanity of the astronomer as gradually declining under the sanative -influence of society and mental gratification. The sage confesses, that -since he has mixed in the gay scenes of life, and divided his hours -by a succession of amusements, he found the notion of his influence -over the skies gradually fade away, and began to trust less to an -opinion which he could never prove to others, and which he now found -subject to variations from causes in which reason had no part. “If,” -says he, “I am accidentally left alone for a few hours, my inveterate -persuasion rushes upon my soul, and my thoughts are chained down by -an uncontrollable violence; but they are soon disentangled by the -prince’s conversation, and are instantaneously released by the entrance -of Pekuah. I am like a man habitually afraid of spectres, who is set -at ease by a lamp, and wonders at the dread which harassed him in the -dark.” - -It is difficult to lay down general rules for the treatment of -particular cases of melancholia with a tendency to suicide. Travelling, -agreeable society, works of light literature, should be had recourse -to, in order to dispel all gloomy apprehensions from the mind. - -In persons predisposed to insanity, or who manifest some slight -indication of disease, how important it is to endeavour to call into -exercise the higher faculties of the mind,—the judgment and reasoning -powers,—and thus preserve the intellectual faculties in a healthy state -of equilibrium. There is much wisdom in Lord Bacon’s advice, that -“if a man’s wits be wandering, he should study the mathematics.” The -patient should be taught to derive a pleasure from the contemplation -of those objects that afford variety, and that are always within -his reach. A beneficent Creator has wisely placed around us endless -sources of the purest and most elevating enjoyments. In a ratio to our -intellectual attainments, so are we enabled to derive pleasure from -circumstances that appear trifling and foolish to others. Mungo Park -could, in the solitude of an African desert, when exposed to the most -distressing circumstances, derive a most exquisite pleasure from the -sight of a small flower. How fully can we enter into the feelings of -the man who, after being prostrated to the earth by an accumulation of -worldly disappointments, yet spoke in a tone of noble triumph at his -having retained, amidst the wreck of all his hopes, a perception of the -beauties of nature! - - “I care not, Fortune, what you me deny;— - You cannot rob me of free Nature’s grace; - You cannot shut the windows of the sky, - Through which Aurora shews her bright’ning face; - You cannot bar my constant feet to trace - The woods and lawns by living stream at eve: - Let health my nerves and finer fibres brace, - And I these toys to the great children leave: - Of fancy, reason, virtue, nought can me bereave.” - -A devotion to the common pleasures of sense is better than a state of -absolute indifference; for even if these give no kind of pleasure, -whilst all higher pursuits are neglected, there is danger lest a man -become of the same opinion as Dr. Darwin’s patient, “that all which -life affords is a ride out in the morning, and a warm parlour and -a pack of cards in the afternoon;” and, like him, finding these -pleasures not inexhaustible, should shoot himself because he has -nothing better to do! - -The miserable man should endeavour to make himself practically -acquainted with the distresses of others. However desperate the -circumstances of a person may be, he may still have it in his power -to whisper a word of consolation to one whose situation may be more -humiliating than his own. - -Human nature is accused of much more selfishness than it has any just -claim to; a thousand kindly emotions break in upon and redeem our daily -and interested life. - - “The poorest poor - Long for a moment in a weary life - When they can know and feel that they have been - Themselves the fathers and the dealers out - Of some small blessings; have been kind to such - As needed kindness; for this single cause, - That we have all one human heart.”[51] - -How few have anything like a proper conception of the power which the -will can be made to exercise over the physical and mental ailments.[52] -The stimuli which we all more or less have at command, if properly -directed, will often subdue the early dawnings of disease, which, if -permitted to take its own course, would have assumed a most formidable -character. It is our duty to combat with the first menace of disordered -feeling. Once the enemy is allowed to take up a favourable position, it -will be fruitless to enter single-handed into the contest. “I will be -good,” says the child, when he sees the rod ready to direct the will -into the way of goodness; and “I will be cheerful,” ought the dull -and dyspeptic to say, who observes a cloud of hypochondriacal fancies -ready to burst upon his head. It may be said it is useless to struggle -against the natural tendencies of the mind and body, or to declare war -with habits which have become firmly rooted in the constitution. In -reply to this we would say, let not the patient yield to the influence -of those causes which have formed the habit; let him not hug to his -bosom the viper which is preying upon his mind; let him not exclaim to -gloom, “Henceforth be thou my god.” - -The hypochondriac may say, when advised to rouse himself from his state -of mental despondency, and to exhibit the attributes of a free agent— - - “Go, you may call it madness, folly; - You shall not chase my gloom away: - There’s such a charm in melancholy, - I would not, if I could, be gay.” - -But it is exercising a _conscientious duty_ to resist the encroachments -of those ideal pleasures which sap the foundation of our moral -constitution. - -I am inclined to concur in the opinion expressed by the late Dr. Uwins, -that when melancholy is stripped of all its ornamental and poetical -accompaniments, it will be found to be based in a great measure -upon pride, selfishness, and indolence. This benevolent physician -observes—“I cannot conceive a more delightful spectacle than that of an -individual, whose constitutional cast is melancholy, warring against -his temperament, and determining to enter with hilarity into the scenes -and circumstances of social life.” - -Dr. Haindorft, in his German translation of Dr. Reid’s “Essay on -Hypochondriasis,” in alluding to the possibility of the patient -labouring under hypochondria being able, by an exercise of the power -of volition, to control his morbid sensations, justly observes—“We -should have fewer disorders of the mind if we could acquire more power -of volition, and endeavour, by our own energy, to disperse the clouds -which occasionally arise within our own horizon; if we _resolutely tore -the first threads of the net_ which gloom and ill-humour may cast -around us, and made an effort to drive away the melancholy images of -a morbid imagination by incessant occupation. How beneficial would -it be to mankind if this truth were universally acknowledged and -acted upon—viz., that our state of health, mental as well as bodily, -principally depends upon ourselves!” - - “By _seeming gay_, we grow to what we seem.” - -It was the remark of a man of great observation and knowledge of the -world—“Only wear a mask for a fortnight, and you will not know it from -your real face.” - -“I am determined to believe myself a happy man,” said a poor fellow, -sunk in the lowest stage of melancholy, to Esquirol; and he did -endeavour to triumph over his gloomy apprehensions, and for a short -period he enjoyed the sunny aspect of life; but not having sufficient -resolution to continue this effort of volition, he again gave way to -despair. - -A thousand years before the Christian era, there were, at the two -extremities of Egypt, temples devoted to Saturn, to which those -labouring under hypochondriasis resorted in quest of relief. Some -cunning priests, profiting by the credulity of these patients, -associated with the pretended miracles of their powerless divinities -and barren mysteries, natural means by which they always solaced -their patients, and succeeded often in effecting cures by amusing -the mind, and withdrawing the attention from the contemplation of -physical suffering. The patients were religiously subjected to a -variety of diversions and recreative exercises. Voluptuous paintings -and seducing images were exposed to their view; agreeable songs and -melodious sounds perpetually charmed their ears; gardens of flowers and -ornamental groves furnished delightful walks and delicious perfumes. -Every moment was consecrated to some diverting scene and amusement, -which had a most beneficial result on the diseased mind, interrupted -the train of melancholy thought, dissipated sorrow, and wrought the -most salutary changes on the body through the agency of the mind. -The Egyptian physicians recommended their patients to repair to these -famous temples, as the faculty of the present day suggest a trip to a -fashionable spa. - -That many suicides result from an indulgence in long-continued and -corroding grief must be apparent to all who have given this subject -any consideration. The medical man will find it difficult to manage -such patients. Everything should be done to rouse the person from his -state of mental abstraction. The immortal poet had a just conception of -the baneful influence of silent grief on the mind and body; he makes -Malcolm say, imploringly, to Macbeth, - - “Give sorrow words; the grief that does not speak - Whispers the o’er-wrought heart, and bids it break.” - -An eminent London physician communicated to me the particulars of the -following case:—A young lady, connected with a family of rank, and -possessing great accomplishments, had formed, unknown to her parents, a -secret attachment to a gentleman who often visited the house. When it -was discovered, he was requested to abandon all notions of the lady, -as it was the determination of her relations to refuse their consent -to an alliance with him. Both parties took it much to heart. The lady -suffered from a severe attack of nervous disorder, which terminated -in suicidal mania. She endeavoured several times to jump out of the -window, and would have done so had she not been most carefully watched. -Her symptoms were most distressing. The mind appeared to be weighed -down to the earth by an accumulation of misery and wretchedness, which -she was unable to shake off. “Oh! could I but be happy!” she would -exclaim. “Will no one come to my relief? What can I do?” She would -walk about the room, occasionally giving utterance to expressions -similar to those just quoted. More than once she observed, that, could -she cry, she felt assured her mind would be relieved; but not a tear -could she shed. After a fearful struggle for some time, one evening, -as she was retiring to rest, she burst into a flood of tears. The -effect was most beneficial; from that moment she began to recover. The -copious lachrymal secretion had the effect of relieving the cerebral -congestion, and in this way the brain was restored to the performance -of its healthy functions. - -It is difficult to lay down any particular instructions for the -treatment of _ennui_. How is it possible to restore enjoyment to a man -who has quite exhausted it? In such cases the advice which Fénélon -gives to Dionysius the tyrant, by the mouth of Diogenes, will naturally -apply,—“To restore his appetite, he must be made to feel hunger; and to -make his splendid palace tolerable to him, he must be put into my tub, -which is at present empty.” - -A lady became insane in consequence of a sudden and unexpected -acquisition of wealth. In a few months she was reduced, by the failure -of the house in which all her property was embarked, to complete -indigence. Being compelled to work for her daily bread, her reason was -soon restored. The great preservative from _tedium vitæ_ is, in keeping -the mind and body in a state of healthy activity. How true it is— - - “That many ills o’er which man grieves, - And still more woman, spring from not employing - Some hours to make the remnant worth enjoying.” - - BYRON. - -In the army, it is proverbial that the time of fatigue and danger is -not the time of disease; it is during the inactive and listless months -of a campaign that crowds of patients pass to the hospitals. In both -these cases it is the active exercise of the mind giving strength to -the brain, and through it, healthy vigour to the body, which produces -the effect. Shakspeare has not been unobservant of the consequences of -excitement of mind on the bodily functions. In King Henry IV., when -Northumberland is told of the fatal tidings from Shrewsbury, and is -informed of the death of his son Percy, he breaks out,— - - “For this I shall have time enough to mourn. - In poison there is physic; and these news - That would, had I been well, have made me sick, - _Being sick, have in some measure made me well_: - And as a wretch whose fever-weakened joints, - Like strengthless hinges, buckle under life, - Impatient of his fit, breaks like a fire - Out of his keeper’s arms; _even so my limbs_, - Weakened with grief, being now enraged with grief, - Are thrice themselves.” - -In illustration of the same principle, we have only to refer our -readers to the ever-memorable Walcheren expedition. It has been stated -that while our troops and seamen were actively engaged in the siege -and bombardment of Flushing, exposed to intense heat, heavy rains, -and poisonous exhalations from the malarious soil, inundated by the -turbid waters of the Scheldt, scarcely a man was on the sick list; the -excitement of warfare, the prospects of victory, and the expectation of -booty, completely fortifying the body against all the potent causes of -disease that environed the camp and the fleet. - -In the celebrated retreat of the “Ten thousand Greeks” under Xenophon, -the troops were subjected to great mental despondency. They had to -cross rapid rivers, penetrate gloomy forests, drag their weary way over -vast and burning deserts, scale the summits of rugged mountains, and -wade through deep snows and pestilent morasses, in continual fear of -death or capture. It was a sense of the despondency which misfortune -was producing among the troops that induced Xenophon, in his address -to his companions on the fearful night which preceded the murder of -Clearchus, to say, “The soldiers have at present nothing before their -eyes but misfortune. If any one can persuade them to turn _their -thoughts into action_ it would greatly encourage them.” It was to -effect this purpose that the consummate general ordered everything in -the camp, except the sword, to be abandoned. He inspired the hopes of -his soldiers, roused their minds into activity, and thus prevented the -development of serious disease among the troops. - -Lord Anson says, in speaking of the ravages which the scurvy made under -his command, that “whatever discouraged the seamen, or damped their -hopes, never failed to add new vigour to the distemper; for it usually -killed those who were in the last stages of it, and confined those to -their hammocks who before were capable of some kind of duty.” - -In certain diseases of the nervous system, particularly when associated -with morbid conditions of the mind leading to suicide, the influence -of music may be had recourse to with great advantage to the patient. -The ancients, who paid more attention to the moral treatment of disease -than the moderns have done, had a just appreciation of the beneficial -effect of music on the nervous system. The learned Dr. Bianchini has -collected all the passages found in ancient authors relative to the -medical application of music; and from these it appears that it was -used as a remedy by the Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans, not -only in chronic, but in acute cases of disease. - -M. Burette, in his able and scientific work on music, allows it to be -possible, and even probable, that music, by the impressions it makes -upon the nerves, may be of use in the cure of certain maladies; yet he -by no means supposes the music of the ancients possessed this power -in a greater degree than that of the moderns. Homer attributes the -cessation of the plague among the Greeks, at the siege of Troy, to -music:— - - “With hymns divine the joyous banquet ends, - The pæans lengthened till the sun descends: - The Greeks, restored, the grateful rites prolong; - Apollo listens and approves the song.” - - POPE. - -In the Memoirs of the French Academy of Sciences, for 1707 and 1708, -there are many accounts of cases of disease which, after having long -resisted and baffled the most efficacious remedies, had yielded under -the influence of the soft impressions of harmony; and M. de Mairan, in -the same records, published in 1735, has entered very fully into the -consideration of the _modus operandi_ of music on the body in health -and disease. - -The effect of music on the system is explained in two different ways. -The monotony of the sound is supposed to have a soothing influence over -the mind, similar to what is known to result from the gurgle of a mimic -cataract of some mountain rill, or to a distant waterfall. How often -has the music caused by the waves gently dashing upon the beach excited -sleep, when all our narcotics have failed in producing a similar -effect. This soporific effect of the repetition or monotony of sound is -beautifully alluded to by Mackenzie, in his Man of Feeling. When his -hero, Mr. Harley, arrives in London, he finds that the noise and varied -excitement of the metropolis increase his nervous state of habit, and -prevent him from sleeping. Ordinary narcotics produce no effect upon -him, and he must have continued to suffer from watchfulness if he had -not happily touched his shoe-buckle, which lay upon the table, when the -vibration produced a monotonous sound so closely resembling the voice -of his good aunt, who nightly read him asleep in the country, that from -that time he regularly applied to the same narcotic, and always slept -soundly. Music acts, secondly, by causing an association of agreeable -ideas. A lady who was confined in an asylum in the vicinity of London, -and who had been separated for some months from her home, and from all -she held dear, was pronounced partially convalescent. She was, however, -still melancholy; and it was suggested by her father that a piece, of -which she was passionately fond, and which was associated with the -happiest period of her life, should be played within her hearing. This -wish was complied with; the effect produced was highly gratifying. For -the first few minutes, no notice was taken of the music; in a short -period, however, a smile was seen to play upon a countenance where -all had been dark and gloomy for months. As the music proceeded, the -effect became more sensible and powerful; ideas of a most pleasurable -kind appeared to rush upon a mind which had previously been a blank; a -chord had been touched which thrilled through her, until she appeared -absorbed in the pleasing associations which the favourite air had -conjured to her recollection. The past was no longer forgotten, and she -for the first time gave evidence of being conscious of the situation in -which she was in. A fatal blow had been given to the disease, and in a -short period she was considered sufficiently recovered to be allowed to -return home to the bosom of her family. - -The disease of Saul was alleviated by David’s harp. Aristotle maintains -that actual madness in horses may be cured by the melody of lutes. -“Experience has proved,” says Gibbon, “that the mechanical operation of -sounds, by quickening the circulation of the blood and spirits, will -act on the human machine more forcibly than the eloquence of reason -and honour.” In illustration of the above observation the following -fact may be adduced:—At the battle of Quebec, in April, 1760, while the -troops were retreating in great confusion, the general complained to a -field-officer of Fraser’s regiment of the bad behaviour of his corps. -“Sir,” he answered, in great warmth, “you did very wrong in forbidding -the bagpipes to play this morning; nothing encourages Highlanders so -much in the day of action,—nay, even now the pipes would be of use.” -“Let them blow, then, like the devil,” replied the General, “if it will -bring back the men.” The bagpipes were ordered to play a favourite -martial air. The Highlanders, the moment they heard the music, returned -and formed with alacrity, and fought like infuriated lions. - -The influence of music over animals is known to be very great. Burney -says that an officer, being shut up in the Bastille, had his lute -allowed him; upon which, after a trial or two, the mice came issuing -from their holes, and the spiders, suspending themselves from their -threads, assembled round him to enjoy the melody.[53] - -Falret alludes particularly to the benefit which often accrues from -music in peculiar disorders of the nervous system attended with a -disposition to suicide. So exalted an idea had M. Appert of its effects -on the mind, that he has observed, alluding to criminals, “_that the -man sensible to the influence of harmony is not irretrievably lost_.” -A young lady passionately fond of music manifested an inclination to -kill herself; she was sent by her family to an hospital, where she was -carefully watched. The idea of suicide was not, however, removed until -she was allowed the use of her favourite instrument, the harp. The -good effect was soon perceptible; her melancholy gradually subsided, -and with it the suicidal disposition. She expressed to her friends how -grateful she felt that she was allowed to indulge in her favourite -amusement, and was conscious of the benefits which she had derived from -it. - -The progress of epidemic suicide has been stayed by having recourse to -measures which have powerfully affected the imagination. - -The young women of Marseilles, at one period, were seized with a -propensity to commit suicide. In order to prevent the contagion from -spreading, a law was passed to the effect that the body of every -female who was guilty of self-murder should be publicly exposed after -death. The beneficial result of this law became immediately apparent; -the epidemic was stopped; the sense of shame prevailed over the -recklessness of human life. - -In the French army, during the reign of Napoleon Buonaparte, a -grenadier killed himself. This suicide was followed by another case, -and it was feared that the disposition would assume an epidemic -character. Buonaparte saw the necessity of prompt and decisive -measures, and with a view of striking terror in the minds of the -soldiers, and putting a stop at once to the spread of what appeared to -be a contagious malady, he issued the following “order of the day,” -dated _St. Cloud, 22 Floreal, an_ X.:— - -“The grenadier Groblin has committed suicide, from a disappointment -in love. He was, in other respects, a worthy man. This is the second -event of the kind that has happened in this corps within a month. The -First Consul directs that it shall be notified in the order of the day -of the guard, that a soldier ought to know how to overcome the grief -and melancholy of his passions; that there is as much true courage in -bearing mental affliction manfully as in remaining unmoved under the -fire of a battery. To abandon oneself to grief without resisting, and -to kill oneself in order to escape from it, is like abandoning the -field of battle before being conquered. - - “Signed, NAPOLEON, - “BESSIERES.” - -The effect of this masterly appeal to the courage of the French -soldiery was truly magical. The disposition was completely quelled, -and no case of suicide occurred for a considerable time afterwards. -The course which Napoleon adopted shewed his great knowledge of human -nature, as well as the thorough insight he had obtained into the -character of the people over whose minds he exercised so tremendous an -influence. - -An account of the punishment inflicted on the women of Miletus, a city -of Ionia, who were seized with an epidemic suicide, is transmitted to -us in the writings of Plutarch. He says, “The Milesian virgins were at -one time possessed with an uncommon rage for suicide. All desire of -life seemed suddenly to leave them, and they rushed on death (by the -help of the halter) with an impetuous fury. The tears and entreaties -of parents and friends were of no avail; and if they were prevented -by force for awhile, they evaded all the attention and vigilance of -their observers, and found means to perpetrate the horrid deed. -Some ascribed this extraordinary species of desperation and frenzy -to certain occult and maddening qualities of the air at that season, -somehow or other peculiarly injurious to the female frame and texture, -both of body and mind, (since the men were not visibly affected by it;) -while the superstitious considered it as a calamity sent from the gods, -and therefore beyond the power of human remedy. But whatever was the -cause, the effect was visible and important, and could not be suffered -to rage long without manifest injury to the state. While speculative -men, therefore, were attempting to account for the phenomena, the -active magistrate was endeavouring to arrest the progress of the -contagion, for which purpose the following decree was issued;—“That -the body of every young woman who hanged herself should be dragged -naked through the streets by the same rope with which she committed -the deed.” This wise edict had in a short time the desired effect. -Plutarch adds—“The fear of shame and ignominy is an argument of a good -and virtuous mind; and they who regarded not pain and death, which are -usually esteemed the most dreadful of evils, could not, however, endure -the thoughts of having their dead bodies exposed to indignity and -shame.” - -In the Magdalen Asylum, at Edinburgh, a girl was seized with typhus -fever, at the time that it was raging in the city, and though she -was instantly removed, as well as all her bed-clothes &c., two more -were seized next day, and an alarm or panic was soon spread over the -whole house. Next day, no fewer than sixteen were in the sick-room, -and in the course of four days, out of a community of less than fifty -individuals, twenty-two were apparently labouring under decided fever. -It now struck Dr. Hamilton that there was mad delusion in all this, -and that the disease arose as much from panic and irritation as from -any other causes. Acting on this belief, he went to the sick-room, and -told the girls that such a rapid spread of the disease was entirely -unprecedented; that they were under the delusion of yielding to -their fears, and of imitating others who were now undergoing all -the tortures of bleeding, blistering, and purging, in Queensbury -Hospital. He assured them that the fumigation and other precautions -must have destroyed the contagion, and that if they would only keep -a good heart and dismiss their fears, he would pledge himself the -fever would soon disappear. The effect of the Doctor’s speech was -magical. All apprehension was instantly banished from the mind, the -cheering influence of hope was inspired, moral courage was developed, -and the progress of the pestilence stopped. Not one case of fever -occurred afterwards, and those who had the fever at the time perfectly -recovered.[54] - -It is only on the same principle that we can account for the success -which Dr. A. T. Thompson met with in the treatment of the following -case of whooping-cough, which had been kept up by habit. The patient, -a young boy, was threatened with the application of a large blister; -although it was not applied, but merely placed within his view, yet the -dread of it completely removed the cough. Boerrhave cured epilepsy in a -whole school, by marching into it at the moment of the expected attack -with a red-hot poker, which he threatened to thrust down the throats of -those who should have a fit. - -A remarkable instance of epidemic suicide occurred as far back as the -reign of Tarquinius Priscus, which as it required, so it received, -an effectual check by the spirited introduction of an extraordinary -mode of punishment. After this king had employed the Roman people in -successful wars abroad, he filled up their leisure at home in works -of less apparent honour, though of greater utility. These were to cut -drains and common sewers of immense size and durability. When the -soldiers disdained these servile offices, and saw no end to their -labours, many of them committed suicide by throwing themselves off the -Capitoline Hill. Others followed their example, until the contagion -spread through the whole of the men. The king, in order to strike -terror into the minds of those who might contemplate self-destruction, -issued an order commanding the bodies of those who should commit -suicide to be nailed on crosses, and then exposed as spectacles to the -rest of the citizens, and left a prey to the fowls of the air. The -feeling of shame and horror had the effect of checking the disposition -to sacrifice life, and thus the king’s purpose was effected. - -Whether any measures of a similar character could be adopted in cases -where the disposition to suicide has a tendency to assume an epidemic -form is a matter of considerable doubt. - -Experience has established the effect of some simple remedies in -preventing the return of paroxysms of melancholia with a propensity -to suicide. But it has likewise, and not unfrequently, evinced their -insufficiency, and at the same time the influence of a strong and -deeply impressed emotion in producing a solid and durable change. A -man who worked at a sedentary trade consulted Pinel, about the end -of October, 1783, for dyspepsia and great depression of spirits. -He knew of no cause to which he could ascribe his indisposition. -His unhappiness at length increased to such a pitch that he felt an -invincible propensity to throw himself into the Seine. Unequivocal -symptoms of a disordered stomach induced Pinel to prescribe some -opening medicines, and for some days occasional draughts of whey. His -bowels were effectually opened, and he suffered but little from his -propensity to self-destruction during the remainder of the winter. Fine -weather appeared to restore him completely, and his cure was considered -as perfect. Towards the decline of autumn, however, his melancholia -returned. Nature assumed to him a dark and dismal aspect, and his -propensity to throw himself into the Seine returned with redoubled -force. The only circumstance that in any degree restrained the horrid -impulse was, the idea of leaving unprotected a wife and child, whom -he tenderly loved. This struggle between the feelings of nature and -his delirious frenzy was not permitted to continue long; for the most -unequivocal proofs soon after appeared of his having executed his fatal -project. - -A literary gentleman, devoted to the pleasures of the table, and who -had lately recovered from a fever, experienced in the autumnal season -all the horrors of the propensity to suicide. He weighed with shocking -calmness the choice of various methods to accomplish the deed of death. -A visit which he paid to London appears to have developed, with a new -degree of energy, his profound melancholy, and his immovable resolution -to abridge his term of life. He chose an advanced hour of the night, -and went towards one of the bridges of that capital for the purpose of -precipitating himself into the Thames; but at the moment of his arrival -at the destined spot, he was attacked by some robbers. Though he had -little or no money about him, he felt extremely indignant at this -treatment, and used every effort to make his escape, which, however, he -did not accomplish before he had been exceedingly terrified. Left by -his assailants, he returned to his lodgings, having forgot the original -object of his sally. This rencontre seems to have caused a thorough -revolution in the state of his mind. His cure was complete. - -A watchmaker was for a long time harassed by the propensity to suicide. -He once so far gave way to the horrid impulse, that he withdrew to his -house in the country, where he expected to meet no obstacle to the -execution of his project. Here he took a pistol, and retired to an -adjoining wood, with the full intent of perpetrating the fatal deed; -but missing his aim, the contents of the piece entered his cheek. -Violent hæmorrhage ensued. He was discovered, and conveyed to his own -house. During the healing of the wound, which was long protracted, -an important change took place in the state of his mind. Whether -from the agitation produced by the above tragic attempt, from the -enormous loss of blood which it occasioned, or from any other cause, -he never afterwards shewed the least inclination to put an end to his -existence. This case, though by no means an example for imitation, -is well calculated to shew that sudden terror, or any other lively or -deep impression, may divert, and even destroy, the fatal propensity to -suicide. - -A few years ago, an officer went into Hyde Park with an intention of -shooting himself. He applied a pistol to his forehead; the priming -flashed, but no discharge followed. A man of poor appearance, whom the -officer had not observed, or perhaps thought unworthy of his notice, -instantly ran up, and wrested the pistol from his hands. The other drew -his sword, and was about to stab his deliverer, who, with much spirit, -replied, “Stab me, Sir, if you think proper; I fear death as little as -you, but I have more courage. More than twenty years I have lived in -affliction and penury, and I yet trust in God for comfort and support.” -The officer was struck with these spirited words, continued speechless -and motionless for a short time, and then, bursting into tears, gave -his purse to the honest man. He then inquired into his story, and -became his private friend and benefactor; but he made the poor man -swear that he would never make inquiries concerning himself, or seem to -know him, if chance should ever bring them in sight of each other. - -A female patient, who had often threatened to destroy herself, one -day assured M. Esquirol that she was about to do it. “Very well,” he -answered; “it is nothing to me; and your husband will be delivered of a -great torment.” She instantly ceased the preparations she was making to -accomplish the act, and never spoke of committing it again. - -How easily lunatics may be diverted from their purpose by presence -of mind, an intimacy with their character, and the tact to employ -the destructive feeling by which they are actuated as the means of -protection, is well exemplified in an anecdote related by Dr. Fox. He -had accompanied a suicidal and furious maniac, who was at the time -calm, to the upper story of his asylum to enjoy the prospect beyond -the walls. In returning, the spiral staircase struck the eye of the -patient; the opportunity roused the half-slumbering propensity, and a -fit of frenzy ensued. His eyes glared, his teeth ground against each -other; he panted like a bloodhound for his prey, and seizing the Doctor -by the collar, howled into his ears, “You jump down, and I will jump -after you.” The Doctor for the moment was petrified with horror; he -was alone with a powerful man, frenzied by insanity; to escape was out -of the question; to attempt to overcome him by force was still more -futile: in a moment he hit upon a stratagem. Turning to the infuriated -madman, he exclaimed, with a look of coolness and collectedness, “Bah! -my child could jump from this place; it requires no nouse to do that; -the thing is to jump up—that is the difficulty.” The madman listened -with attention to what the Doctor said, and then observed, “But you -cannot do so, can you?” The Doctor replied, he could, and they both -hurried down to put the boast to the proof, and the sanguinary threat -was forgotten before they reached the lobby. - -Physicians not practically acquainted with the treatment of insanity -are too much inclined to believe that it is fruitless to attempt to -reason a madman out of his morbid delusion, and that to have recourse -to a trick in order to dispel the mental illusion is a species of -practice unbecoming the dignity of a professional gentleman. Numerous -cases are recorded in which patients have been cured of monomania by a -well-contrived artifice; and in many cases of suicidal insanity, when -other treatment fails, the medical man may have recourse to this mode -of cure without any danger of sinking himself in public or professional -estimation. The following cases are illustrations of the foregoing -remark:— - -A celebrated watchmaker, at Paris, was infatuated with the chimera of -perpetual motion, and to effect this discovery he set to work with -indefatigable ardour. From unremitting attention to the object of his -enthusiasm coinciding with the influence of revolutionary disturbances, -his imagination was greatly heated, his sleep was interrupted, and, at -length, a complete derangement of the understanding took place. His -case was marked by a most whimsical illusion of the imagination. He -fancied that he had lost his head on the scaffold; that it had been -thrown promiscuously among the heads of many other victims; that the -judges, having repented of their cruel sentence, had ordered them -to be restored to their owners, and placed upon their respective -shoulders; but that, in consequence of an unfortunate mistake, the -gentleman who had the management of the business had placed upon his -shoulders the head of one of his unhappy companions. The idea of this -whimsical exchange occupied his thoughts night and day, on account -of which his relations sent him to the Hôtel Dieu; and from thence -he was transferred to the Asylum de Bicêtre. Nothing could equal the -extravagant overflowings of his heated brain. He sung, cried, or danced -incessantly; and as there appeared no propensity in him to commit acts -of violence or disturbance, he was allowed to go about the hospital -without control, in order to expend, by evaporation, the effervescent -excess of his spirits. “Look at these teeth,” he constantly cried; -“mine were exceedingly handsome; these are rotten and decayed. My mouth -was sound and healthy; this is foul and diseased. What a difference -between this hair and that of my own head!” To this state of delirious -gaiety, however, succeeded that of furious madness. He broke to pieces, -or otherwise destroyed, whatever was within the reach or power of his -mischievous propensity. Close confinement became indispensable. Towards -the approach of winter, his violence abated; and, although he continued -to be extravagant in his ideas, he was never afterwards dangerous. He -was therefore permitted, whenever he felt disposed, to go to the inner -court. The idea of perpetual motion frequently recurred to him in the -midst of his wanderings; and he chalked on all the walls and doors as -he passed the various designs by which his wondrous piece of mechanism -was to be constructed. The method best calculated to cure so whimsical -an illusion appeared to be that of encouraging his prosecution of it to -satiety. His friends were accordingly requested to send him his tools, -with materials to work upon, and other requisites, such as plates of -copper and steel, watch-wheels, &c. The governor permitted him to fix -up a work-bench in his apartment. His zeal was now redoubled; his whole -attention was rivetted upon his favourite pursuit. He forgot his meals. -After about a month’s labour, which he sustained with a constancy -that deserved better success, our artist began to think that he had -followed a false route. He broke into a thousand fragments the piece of -machinery which he had fabricated at so much expense of time, thought, -and labour; entered on the construction of another upon a new plan, -and laboured with equal pertinacity for an additional fortnight. The -various parts being completed, he brought them together, and fancied -that he saw a perfect harmony amongst them. The whole was now finally -adjusted; his anxiety was indescribable; motion succeeded; it continued -for some time, and he supposed it capable of continuing for ever. He -was elevated to the highest pitch of enjoyment and triumph, and ran -as quick as lightning into the interior of the hospital, crying out, -like another Archimedes, “At length I have solved this famous problem, -which has puzzled so many men celebrated for their wisdom and talents.” -But, grievous to say, he was disconcerted in the midst of his triumph. -The wheels stopped; the perpetual motion ceased! His intoxication -of joy was succeeded by disappointment and confusion. But to avoid -a humiliating and mortifying confession, he declared that he could -easily remove the impediment; but tired of that kind of employment, he -was determined for the future to devote his whole time and attention -to his business. There still remained another maniacal impression to -be counteracted,—that of the imaginary exchange of his head, which -unceasingly recurred to him. A keen and an unanswerable stroke of -pleasantry seemed best adapted to correct this fantastic whim. Another -convalescent, of a gay and facetious humour, instructed in the part he -should play in this comedy, adroitly turned the conversation to the -subject of the famous miracle of Saint Denis. Our mechanician strongly -maintained the possibility of the fact, and sought to confirm it by -an application of it to his own case. The other set up a loud laugh, -and replied, with a tone of the keenest ridicule, “Madman as thou -art, how could Saint Denis kiss his own head? Was it with his heels?” -This equally unexpected and unanswerable retort forcibly struck the -maniac. He retired confused, amidst the peals of laughter which were -provoked at his expense, and never afterwards mentioned the exchange -of his head. Close attention to his trade for some months completed -the restoration of his intellect. He was sent to his family in perfect -health, and has now for more than five years pursued his business -without a return of his complaint. - -Mr. Cox recollects a singular instance of a deranged idea in a maniac -being corrected by a very simple stratagem. The patient asserted that -he was the Holy Ghost; a gentleman present immediately exclaimed, “You -the Holy Ghost! What proof have you to produce?” “I know that I am,” -was his answer. The gentleman said, “How is this possible? There is but -one Holy Ghost, is there? How then can you be the Holy Ghost, and I be -so too?” He appeared surprised and puzzled, and, after a short pause, -said, “But are _you_ the Holy Ghost?” When the other observed, “Did you -not know that I was?” his answer was, “I did not know it before. Why, -then, I cannot be the Holy Ghost.” - -A Portuguese nobleman became melancholy, and fancied that God would -never forgive his sins. Various means were tried to subdue this morbid -impression, but in vain, until the following artifice was adopted, -which proved successful in restoring the lunatic to reason. During -midnight, a person dressed as an angel was made to enter his bed-room, -having a drawn sword in its right hand, and a lighted torch in the -other. The imaginary angelic being addressed the monomaniac by name, -who, rising from his bed, spoke to the supposed angel, beseeching it -to tell him whether his sins would ever be forgiven; upon which the -angel replied, “Be comforted, your sins are forgiven.” The poor man’s -delight knew no bounds. He rose from his bed, summoned every one in -the house to his presence, and explained to them all that had passed. -From that moment the man rapidly recovered in bodily health, and his -delusion has completely vanished. - -A man fancied he was dead, refused to eat, and importuned his parents -to bury him. By the advice of his physician, he was wrapped in a -winding-sheet, laid upon a bier, and in this way he was carried on the -shoulders of four men to the churchyard. On their way, two or three -pleasant fellows (appointed for that purpose) meeting the hearse, -demanded in a commanding tone of voice to know whose body they had -in the coffin. They replied it was a young man’s, and mentioned his -name. “Surely,” said one of them, “the world is well rid of him; for -he was a man who led a bad and vicious life, and his friends have -good reasons to rejoice that he has thus ended his days, otherwise -he would have died an ignominious death on the scaffold.” The young -man overheard this observation, at which he felt extremely indignant; -but feeling that it was not consistent with propriety or the laws -of nature for a dead man on his way to his last home to exhibit any -indications of passion, he satisfied himself by coolly replying, “That -they were wicked men to do him that wrong, and that if he had been -alive he would teach them to speak better of the dead.” “It is well,” -said one of the men in reply, “that you are no more; both for yourself -and family. You were a mean, pitiful scoundrel, guilty of every -abomination, and the world is rejoiced that you no longer live.” This -was too much for the patience of the dead man to endure, and feeling -that he could no longer suffer such unjust aspersions to be cast on -his character, he leaped from the coffin, procured the first stick he -could lay hands on, and commenced belabouring his vile accusers. As it -may be supposed, they gave him plenty to do, and by the time he had -gratified his indignation, and well chastised his calumniators, he had -become completely exhausted. In this state he was taken home, and in -a few days he was completely cured of the morbid idea which had taken -possession of his imagination. - -Menecrates, as we learn from Ælian,[55] become so mad, as seriously to -believe himself the son of Jupiter, and to request of Philip of Macedon -that he might be treated as a god. But it is not always that the man -thus deranged falls into such good hands as those of the Macedonian -monarch; for Philip humorously determining to make the madman’s disease -work its own cure, gave orders immediately that his request should be -complied with, and invited him to a grand entertainment, at which was -a separate table for the new divinity, served with the most costly -perfumes and incense, but with nothing else. Menecrates was at first -highly delighted, and received the worship that was paid to him with -the greatest complacency; but growing hungry by degrees over the empty -viands that were offered him, while every other guest was indulged with -substantial dainties, he at length keenly felt himself to be a man, and -stole away from the court in his right senses. - -Many cases of suicidal insanity have been cured by removing the persons -so unhappily afflicted from their own homes, friends, and relations. -In these cases the physician has no little difficulty in persuading -the friends of the invalid that a separation from old associations is -absolutely indispensable; that without it, a return to sanity cannot be -reasonably expected. When Dr. Willis undertook the cure of George III., -he insisted, in the first instance, in dismissing all the old servants, -changing the furniture, and removing everything from the king’s sight -that might tend to awaken in his mind ideas of the past. The success -that attended his treatment is said mainly to have depended on this -circumstance. - -Mr. ——, forty-seven years old, of a neuro-sanguineous temperament, -was happy in his domestic circle, and his business had prospered -until the year, 1830, from which period he was much harassed in the -management of his affairs. In December, 1831, after a very trifling -loss, he grew sorrowful and melancholy; his face was flushed, his eyes -became blood-shot, his breathing was difficult, and he shed tears, -incessantly repeating that he was lost. On the next and following days, -he made several attempts to commit suicide, so that they were obliged -to cover his apartment with wadding. He wished to strangle himself, -tried to swallow his tongue, filled his mouth with his fist in hopes -of suffocating himself, and then refused all nourishment. At the -expiration of six days, the patient was brought to Paris, and entrusted -to Esquirol’s care. From the moment of his arrival all desire to commit -suicide vanished, and the patient appeared restored to reason. “The -impression that I received,” said he, “on finding myself transported to -a strange house cured me.” In fact, sleep, appetite, and a return of -connected, and sometimes lively conversation, induced the belief that -a cure was effected. Three weeks seemed enough for convalescence, when -his wife and son came to fetch him. They passed two days at Paris to -finish some business there, and then returned to the country. Scarcely -had he arrived at his home when he felt himself impelled by the same -desires, in consequence of which, he returned to Paris, transacted some -business whilst he remained there, and appeared perfectly well. On -returning to his home again, he made fresh attempts to commit suicide, -struck his son, and those who waited upon him, and endangered the life -of his wife. Neither the grief of his family, the watch placed over -him, nor the pretended authority of those about him, could overcome -these feelings. The patient passed several days without food; he tore -up his linen to make a cord to hang himself, tied it round his neck, -and got upon his bed in order to throw himself upon the floor; and at -last, deceiving the watchfulness of his relations, escaped to throw -himself into the river. He was immediately put into a carriage, and -accompanied by his wife; but, notwithstanding the strait-waistcoat, he -left no means untried to kill himself. On arriving at Paris, and being -again confined, he became perfectly reasonable, and made no attempt -to destroy himself during the six weeks that his second confinement -lasted. There was reason to believe his cure complete. If he was asked -why he did not overcome his terrible impressions at his own house as -he did at Paris, he answered in an evasive manner, affirming that this -time the trial had been long enough, that he was cured, and that he -insisted upon returning home. “Deprived of my wife and son,” said he, -“I am the most unhappy of men, and I cannot live.” “But if you are -so unhappy here,” said Esquirol to him one day, “why do you not try -to destroy yourself, as it is very easy to do so?” “I know not,” he -replied; “but I am cured, and I wish to live.” This patient enjoyed -the greatest liberty, and although no apparent precaution was taken -to prevent his destroying himself, he never made the least attempt. -He afterwards ceased to talk unreasonably; but Esquirol was never -able to obtain an avowal of the motives which induced him to commit -suicide at his own house, whilst he thought no more of it as soon as he -came amongst strangers. On returning to his home for the fourth time, -although he was able to transact important business, the same phenomena -returned with equal violence. - -M.——, twenty-seven years old, after experiencing some reverses of -fortune, became maniacal, with a tendency to commit suicide. The -elevated situation of the room which he inhabited, the position of -the staircase, the reiterated visits of his friends, “who came to -contemplate his misfortunes,” and the despair of his wife, were so -many circumstances which induced him to terminate his existence; and -although he avowed that he had no motive for so doing, and that he was -ashamed, and considered himself criminal for having attempted it, he -left no means untried for more than a month to effect that end. When he -was taken away from his home, and lodged in a ground-floor which led -into a garden, the idea no longer harassed him. “It would be of no -use,” he said; “I could never kill myself here; every precaution is -taken to prevent me.” - -A baker’s wife, of a lymphatic temperament, experienced a violent -fit of jealousy, which caused her much distress, and induced her to -watch her husband’s steps, who vented his discontent in threats and -reproaches. At last, this unhappy woman, being unable to bear the -feeling any longer, threw herself out of the window. Her husband ran -to pick her up, and bestowed marks of the most attentive kindness -upon her. “It is useless,” she said; “you have a wife no longer.” She -refused every kind of nourishment, and neither the solicitations, -tears, prayers of her relations, and those of her husband, who never -quitted her room, were able to overcome her resolution. After seven -days of total abstinence, Esquirol was called in. They hid from him -the cause of the disease, but he observed that every time her husband -approached the bed, her face became convulsed. The patient was told -that she was about to be sent into the country, but that it was -necessary for her to take a little nourishment in order to support -the journey. A little broth which was offered her was accepted; but -notwithstanding her attempts, she could only swallow a few drops. She -tried again the following morning, but she expired in the course of -the day. “Had this woman,” says Esquirol, “been removed from her home -immediately after the accident, there is little doubt but she would -have been restored. How could she desire to live, her distress being -continually aggravated by the presence of her husband?” - -The chief means of controlling the passions, and of keeping them within -just bounds, is to form a proper estimate of the things of this life, -of the relation of our present to a future state of existence, and -of the influence which our actions in this world will have upon our -happiness hereafter. Such a right estimate every rational man will -labour to attain. He will endeavour, by correcting error, and acquiring -such habits as are consistent with just sentiments, to withdraw the -nourishment from the very root of passion, rather than be for ever -fruitlessly occupied in merely pruning the luxuriance of some of its -branches. - -It may be useful to impress strongly upon the minds of those who have -not sufficient command over their feelings, the persuasion that the -indulgence of any passion to excess, and especially of the selfish and -malevolent ones, is likely to be injurious to health, will certainly -be destructive of serenity and comfort; and of course, by diminishing -happiness, will frustrate its own aim and intention, and may, by -repetition, acquire accumulated force and facility of excitement, -become at length unconquerable and habitual, and according to its -nature, violence, and frequency, will, in a greater or less degree, -be subversive of happiness, and leave them more or less open to the -attacks of insanity. - -Such persons will therefore see it highly expedient, while under the -influence of these impressions, to do all in their power to avoid them; -to compare their urgent and apparent importance when they occur, with -the probable diminution of the comfort and health of body and mind -which they might induce; and to lay it down as a rule never to indulge -any passion whatever, till, independently of moral considerations, and -the notions of duty and obligation, they have deliberately reflected, -whether the importance of the cause will be a sufficient counterbalance -to the certain pain inflicted and the injury which may be thence -derived to their health of body and ease and soundness of mind. A habit -of such deliberation once acquired,—and it may be acquired by diligence -and resolution,—will entirely put an end to exorbitant excitement, -since by checking the very beginnings of emotion, its growth and -progress will be altogether prevented. - -And as every one has some weak point on which he is more open to -a successful attack, some constitutional or habitual feeling, the -approaches of which he cannot easily withstand, all persons who are -convinced of the expediency and necessity of subduing their passions, -if they would consult their own ease, will be aware of the importance -of keeping a diligent watch, and placing a strong guard, upon the one -that most easily and successfully besets them. - -And whoever would secure a reasonable portion of present happiness will -be sensible of the necessity of learning the art of contentment, which, -difficult as it may seem to those who have not used themselves to check -the wanderings of imagination, and to keep their desires within prudent -bounds, not only appears indispensable, but easy, to the man who feels -a lively and practical conviction of its wonderful tendency to multiply -the sum of actual enjoyment. - -With the same view of promoting and securing their own present -felicity, such persons will see the propriety of acquiring habits -of good nature, and of cultivating the emotions of benevolence. And -as virtue seldom fails to bring her own dowry, contentedness and -benevolence will infallibly introduce habits of cheerfulness, which, -while they improve our happiness, act as powerful preservatives against -disease, and as determined enemies of insanity. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -PHYSICAL TREATMENT OF THE SUICIDAL DISPOSITION. - - - On the dependence of irritability of temper on physical - disease—Voltaire and an Englishman agree to commit - suicide—The reasons that induced Voltaire to change his - mind—The ferocity of Robespierre accounted for—The state - of his body after death—The petulance of Pope dependent - on physical causes—Suicide from cerebral congestion, - treatment of—Advantages of bloodletting, with cases—Damien - insane—Cold applied to the head, of benefit—Good effects of - purgation—Suicide caused by a tape-worm—Early indications of - the disposition to suicide—The suicidal eye—Of the importance - of carefully watching persons disposed to suicide—Cunning - of such patients—Numerous illustrations—The fondness for a - particular mode of death—Dr. Burrows’ extraordinary case—Dr. - Conolly on the treatment of suicide—Cases shewing the - advantage of confinement. - -Medical men have not considered with that degree of attention -commensurate with its importance the relationship between physical -derangement and those apparently trifling mental ailments which so -often, if not subdued, lead to the commission of suicide. The origin -of self-destruction is more frequently dependent upon derangement of -the _primæ viæ_ than is generally imagined. Every one must, in his own -person, be aware of the influence of indigestion, and what is termed -bilious disorder, upon the spirits. An inactive condition of the bowels -is a common cause of mental disquietude. Voltaire, who was a man of -great observation, appears to have paid considerable attention to this -connexion. He advises a person who intends to ask a favour of a prime -minister, or a minister’s secretary, or a secretary’s mistress, to be -careful to approach them after they have had a comfortable evacuation -from the bowels. Dryden invariably dosed himself before sitting down -to compose. He says—“If you wish to have fairy flights of fancy, -you must purge the belly.” Carneades, the celebrated disputant of -antiquity, was in the habit of taking white helebore, (a purgative,) -preparatory to his refuting the dogmas of the Stoics. Lord Byron says, -in one of his letters, “I am suffering from what my physician terms -‘gastric irritation,’ and my spirits are sadly depressed. I have taken -a brisk cathartic, and to-morrow ‘Richard will be himself again.’” The -following anecdote is recorded of Voltaire:—“An English gentleman of -fortune had been sitting many hours with this great wit and censurer of -human character. Their discourse related chiefly to the depravity of -human nature, tyranny and oppression of kings, poverty, wretchedness, -and misfortune, the pain of disease, particularly the gravel, gout, -and stone. They worked themselves up to such a pitch of imaginary -evils that they proposed next morning to commit suicide together. -The Englishman, firm to his resolution, rose, and expected Voltaire -to perform his promise, to whom the genius replied, “_Ah! monsieur, -pardonnez moi, j’ai bien dormi, mon lavement a bien operé, et le soleil -est tout-à-fait clair aujourd’hui_.” - -We knew a gentleman whose temper was not controllable if he allowed -himself to pass a day without his accustomed evacuation from the -bowels. Pinel records the particulars of the case of a man who had -fits of mental derangement whenever the action of the bowels became -irregular. - -The blood-thirsty miscreant Robespierre is said to have been of a -“_costive habit, and to have been much subjected to derangement of -the liver_.” After death, it is said that “his bowels were found one -adherent mass.” It is indeed interesting to consider, both morally and -medically, how far these morbid ailments influenced this monster in the -bloody career in which he was engaged. - -There can be no question but that the morbid irritability which -many of our men of genius have manifested was but the effect of -a derangement of the physical frame acting upon a mind naturally -sensitive to such impressions. - -Much of the petulance, personality, and malignity of Pope was dependent -upon causes over which he had no control—viz., disease of the stomach -and liver, producing hypochondriasis. It has been well observed by -Madden, “Who knows under what paroxysms of mental irritation caused -by that disease (indigestion), which more than any other domineers -over the feelings of the sufferer, he might have written those bitter -sarcasms which he levelled against his literary opponents? Who knows -in what moment of bodily pain his irascibility might have taken the -form of unjustifiable satire, or his morbid sensibility assumed the -sickly shape of petulance and peevishness? Who knows how the strength -of the strong mind might have been cast down by his sufferings, when -‘he descended to the artifice’ of imposing on a bookseller, and of -‘writing those letters for effect which he published by subterfuge?’ -Who that has observed how the vacillating conduct of the dyspeptic -invalid imitates the vagaries of this proteiform malady can wonder at -his capriciousness, or be surprised at the anomaly of bitterness on the -tongue, and benevolence in the heart, of the same individual?”[56] - -That Pope was a severe sufferer from bodily disease will appear -evident from the following account given by Dr. Johnson of the poet. -He says, “Pope’s constitution, which was originally feeble, became so -debilitated that he stood in perpetual need of female attendance; and -so great was his sensibility of cold that he wore a fur doublet under -a shirt of very coarse warm linen. When he rose, he invested himself -in a bodice made of stiff canvass, being scarcely able to hold himself -erect till it was laced; and he then put on a flannel waistcoat. His -legs were so slender that he enlarged their bulk with three pairs of -stockings, which were drawn off and on by the maid, for he was not -able to dress or undress himself, and he neither went to bed nor rose -without help.” - -His frequent attacks of indigestion made him at times a perfect picture -of misery and wretchedness. It clothed everything with a gloomy aspect, -made him quarrel with his friends and domestics, and he has been known -to say that he sighed for death as a reprieve from mental and bodily -agony. Sir Samuel Garth was frequently consulted when he had these -attacks; and it was only by exacting a strict attention to diet and -exhibiting medicine that he was enabled to restore the mind of the poet -to a healthy tone. - -This physical ailment, as it often does when long continued, ultimately -affected the cerebral functions. At times he had symptoms of pressure -on the brain, or at least of an unequal and imperfect distribution of -blood to that organ. Spence says, he frequently complained of seeing -everything in the room as through a curtain, and on other occasions, -of seeing false colours on certain objects. At another period, on a -sick-bed, he asked Dodsley what arm it was that had the appearance of -coming out from the wall. - -When the disposition to suicide is present, the physician should -carefully ascertain whether the patient is not labouring under cerebral -congestion, or a determination of blood to the head. The loss of -a small quantity of blood has frequently been known to remove the -propensity to self-destruction. A case is referred to by Schlegel of -a woman who was liable to periodical fits of suicidal mania whenever -she allowed a redundancy of blood to accumulate in the system. On two -occasions she attempted suicide. On the first indications of a return -of her delirium, she was generally bled, and relief was instantaneously -afforded. - -A gentleman who had received, during the peninsular campaign, a sabre -cut in the head, felt for some years, whenever he was exposed to great -mental excitement, or allowed himself to over-indulge in the use of -spirits, a kind of suicidal delirium. Twice he was detected in the act -of attempting to commit suicide, and was fortunately prevented from -doing so. The local abstraction of blood from the neighbourhood of the -head was the only remedy which appeared to subdue the disposition. - -The cases which are related in another chapter of individuals who were -insane at the moment when the act of self-destruction was attempted, -but who recovered the use of their reasoning after having inflicted -a wound attended with loss of blood, fully testify the importance -of general and local depletion in certain cases of cerebral disease -attended by this unfortunate propensity. - -A blow on the head has been known to develope this feeling. The -affection of the sentient organ may remain latent for many years, and -then suddenly manifest itself. A man had received, when young, a kick -from a horse, which produced at the time no very urgent symptoms. -Six years after the accident, he, without giving any indications of -previous derangement of mind, cut his throat. Upon examining the brain, -it was found extensively diseased. - -A man, feeling the suicidal disposition, bled himself from the arm, and -recovered. - -It will not be proper in all cases to abstract blood; for the -destructive propensity has been known to exist where there has been -a deficiency of blood in the brain. The practitioner should examine -the condition of the patient thoroughly before he recommends active -depletion. Sixty per cent. of the cases of suicide will, however, be -found with cerebral disease either of a primary or secondary nature; -and to that organ the medical man’s attention should be particularly -directed. - -The following case happily illustrates the benefits which are sometimes -derived from the local abstraction of blood in certain cases of -temporary insanity, accompanied with a disposition to commit suicide. -“A gentleman,” says Dr. Burrows, “of a very irascible and impetuous -disposition, with whom I was intimate, experienced in a public -meeting a rebuke which exceedingly mortified him, and made so deep -an impression upon his mind, that he was quite miserable. At night, -instead of going to bed, he roamed abroad; and at length, early in -the morning, without knowing whither he went, he found himself near a -sheet of water. The view of it at once determined him to drown himself, -and he accordingly plunged in. The action was perceived, and he was -rescued from the water, insensible, and immediately conveyed to a place -where means of resuscitation were adopted. As his address was found in -his pocket, a communication was directly made to his family, and Dr. -Burrows was called in to see the patient. He found him in a state of -insensibility. As soon as consciousness returned, he was dressed, put -into a coach, and Dr. B. accompanied him to his residence. As yet, he -had not spoken, neither did he appear to observe anything. The motion -of the carriage on the stones seemed to rouse him, and he looked about. -He took no notice of those who were in the carriage with him. He soon -became violent; his eyes were wild, and rolled in their sockets; his -face became flushed; the vessels of the forehead were excessively -distended, and all the symptoms of genuine delirium came on.[57] Dr. -Burrows ascribed the symptoms to a violent reaction in the vascular -system from the state of collapse it had sustained, and ordered the -oppressed vessels of the head to be relieved by the application of -cupping glasses, and the abstraction of sixteen ounces of blood; -the head to be kept cool, and enemata to be administered until the -bowels were well cleansed out. After these operations, he soon became -passive and disposed to sleep. He slept six hours, and awoke tolerably -composed, but not quite coherent. He took light nourishment, and at -night awoke perfectly collected, but exceedingly low. The next day he -was well, but languid. An explanation was given him, which removed the -impression that the offensive part of the speech had given him, and he -by degrees recovered his usual state of mind.” - -We are inclined to believe, with D’Israeli, “that there are crimes for -which men are hanged, but of which they might easily have been cured -by physical means.” Damien, who attempted the assassination of Louis -XV., and who in consequence was subjected to the most refined tortures, -persisted to the last in declaring that if he had been bled, as he -wished and implored to be, the morning previously, he never would have -endeavoured to take the life of the king. - -Gaubius relates the case of a lady of a too inflammable constitution, -whom her husband had reduced to a model of decorum by phlebotomy. - -In the month of April, M. Delormel was called to Madame Chatelain, -at the Chateau de Armanvillers, who, according to the statement of -the physician in attendance, was “melancholic, hypochondriacal, and -insane.” She had made several attempts to commit suicide, and was -carefully guarded. She had been bled, purged, and well dosed with -anti-spasmodics, but to no purpose. M. Delormel examined the patient -very carefully, and came to a conclusion respecting her case very -different from that which had been formed by the other physicians -who had seen her. The lady was thirty-seven years of age, of a very -neuro-sanguineous temperament, active in body, and most amiable in -disposition. For more than two years she had complained of burning heat -in her stomach and bowels; digestion was painful, and constipation -habitual. The catameniæ were irregular; she was much emaciated, and the -symptoms of melancholia and hypochondriasis were well marked. - -Madame C. could not bear to see her husband and children, to whom she -had, when in good health, been affectionately attached. Her chief -desire was solitude, and the predominant idea was the conviction of -approaching death. From an attentive examination of the case, it -was pronounced one of chronic gastro-enteritis. Eighty leeches were -applied to the abdomen, proper medicines were administered, her diet -regulated, and in less than a month she was completely restored to -health of body and mind. - -When it is evident that the patient is suffering from cerebral -congestion, and yet general bleeding is inadmissible, the application -of cold to the head by means of a shower bath has often been productive -of much good. A young lady who laboured under the disposition to -suicide consulted an eminent living physician, communicating to him -the particulars of her malady, bitterly lamenting the unfortunate -feeling that was undermining her health. After trying various remedies -without effecting much relief, a cold shower bath was recommended -every morning. In the course of ten days, the desire to commit -self-destruction was entirely removed, and never afterwards returned. - -A timely-administered purge has been known to dispel the desire of -self-destruction. Esquirol knew a man who was decidedly insane whenever -he allowed his bowels to be in an inactive condition. - -A patient of Falret had well-marked suicidal delirium. So urgent were -the symptoms, that he was placed under restraint and carefully watched. -Active cathartics were administered, and Falret states that the -largest tape-worm he ever saw was evacuated. The idea of suicide soon -vanished, and the man was restored in perfect health to his friends and -family.[58] - -Foderé examined the bodies of three persons in one family who fell -by their own hands, and in the three cases considerable disease was -discovered in the intestinal canal, which had been irritating the brain -and disturbing its manifestations. - -In the instances just referred to, the indication of physical disease -of the _primæ viæ_ were but trifling during life. - -Disease of the stomach and liver frequently incite to suicide; hepatic -affections notoriously disturb the equilibrium of the mind. Many a case -exhibiting an inclination to suicide has been cured by a few doses of -blue pill. The physician should direct his attention to the condition -of the uterine function and the state of the skin. During the puerperal -state, a tendency to suicide is often manifested. - -A lady, shortly after her accouchement, expressed, with great -determination, her intention to kill herself. Her bowels had not been -properly attended to, and a brisk cathartic was given. This entirely -removed the suicidal disposition. - -Any irregularity in the action of the uterine organ may give rise to -the same inclination. Under such circumstances, emmenagogues will do -much good. - -German writers dwell much upon the connexion between suicide and -derangement of the cutaneous secretion. That this function should also -be attended to there cannot be a doubt, although we cannot call to -mind any cases of suicide which could be directly traced to suppressed -perspiration. - -In some cases, a blister applied and kept open in the neighbourhood of -the head has effected much good. In other instances, issues have been -beneficial, particularly in persons subject to cerebral congestion. -There is, however, a condition of brain accompanying the suicidal -disposition which may be denominated a state of _cerebral irritation_, -in which bleeding or depletion would be injurious. In such cases, -friction on the spine, and the administration of anti-spasmodics, -gentle aperients, and alteratives, will be serviceable. - -Sufficient attention is not paid to those precursory symptoms which -indicate the existence of a disposition to suicide. In two-thirds of -the cases that occur, the act is preceded by premonitory signs, which, -if attended to, will prevent the developement of the propensity. - -With very few exceptions, the mental symptoms are those which are -principally manifested in these cases. Lowness of spirits, a love of -solitude, an indisposition to follow any occupation which requires -exercise of the mind, are generally exhibited. The person’s suspicions -become roused; he fancies his dearest friends are regardless of his -interests, or are plotting against his life. He takes no pleasure in -the family circle. He may be suffering from some evident physical -malady, acting through sympathy on the brain, and deranging its -functions; and then he will often refer to his disease, and express -his utter hopelessness of ever being cured. There is an expression -of countenance generally present in a person who meditates suicide, -which, if once seen, cannot easily be forgotten. Suicidal mania is -easily recognised by the experienced physician. The surgeon of a large -establishment in the environs of the metropolis informed me, that in -six cases out of ten he could detect, by the appearance of the eye, the -existence of the desire to commit self-destruction. A young gentleman, -a few days previously, had been admitted into the house as a patient. -The surgeon, after examining and prescribing for the lunatic, said to -one of the keepers, “You must watch Mr. —— carefully, for I feel assured -he will attempt his life.” Everything with which he might injure -himself, were he so disposed, was taken from him; but it appears that -he had resolved to make away with himself, and had carefully concealed -a penknife in his boot. On the evening of the day on which he was -admitted he made a dreadful gash in his throat, but failed in injuring -any large vessel. He confessed that he had determined to sacrifice -his life; he said, “It has been pre-ordained that I should fall by my -own hands, and I am only fulfilling my destiny by cutting my throat!” -Shortly after this he was removed; and as we have been subsequently -informed, sufficient care not being taken of him, he eventually -succeeded in killing himself. - -How difficult it is for the medical man to persuade the friends of -a person who has evinced a disposition to suicide, of the absolute -necessity of his being confined and carefully watched! A physician, -dining with a friend, met by accident a young lady who had exhibited, -for a few days previously, a shrewdness of manner that attracted the -notice of those with whom she associated. He also observed a wildness -and incoherence about her ideas; but what particularly struck his -attention was, the peculiar expression of countenance which so often -denotes the presence of suicidal mania.[59] He felt convinced in his -own mind that the lady meditated self-destruction; and so firmly -persuaded was he of the fact, that he seriously spoke to the gentleman -at whose table he was dining on the subject, and urged him, as he was -intimately acquainted with the young lady’s family, to suggest the -propriety of having medical advice, and of carefully watching the -movements of the lady. This suggestion was treated with ridicule, -and of course the subject was not broached again. Two days after the -conversation took place, intelligence was brought that the lady had -taken a large dose of laudanum, and had died from its effects! A little -prudent caution might have saved the life of this poor unfortunate -being. - -In cases in which the disposition to suicide has been evinced, the -patient ought to be carefully watched, and, under some circumstances, -placed under restraint. Men who talk loudly of the effects of moral -coercion, and who repudiate the idea of strait-waistcoats* &c., have -had but little practical experience of the treatment of the insane. -Moral discipline has done much good. Deeply should we regret to see -the system which has been in force within our own recollection again -introduced into our lunatic asylums. In endeavouring to avoid Scylla -we have fallen into Charybdis. How many lives are lost in consequence -of the patients not being properly secured when they have exhibited a -desire to commit self-destruction. - -A lady who had attempted to destroy herself was very properly sent to -an asylum. Having expressed a determination to avail herself of the -first opportunity for carrying her intentions into execution, she was -most carefully guarded. She was never allowed to be out of sight; a -trustworthy nurse always kept by her side; and in the course of time -she was pronounced recovered. But as it was not considered prudent to -send her home at once, she was separated from the other inmates of -the house, and allowed to reside with the surgeon and matron of the -establishment. Even under these circumstances it was thought better -not to allow her to be wholly by herself, fearful that the disposition -might again suddenly develope itself. She resided with the surgeon -for some weeks, and appeared completely well. She expressed much -astonishment when told that she had attempted her own life; she was -apparently horrified at the idea. She was sitting with the matron -one morning after breakfast; the surgeon was going round the asylum, -when a child was heard to cry up stairs, as if it had received some -injury. The matron immediately left the room; she was not absent -three minutes, and when she returned she was astonished to find the -young lady had vanished. Immediate search was made for her, but she -was not to be found, when, looking behind the curtain in the parlour, -the lady was discovered hanging to the cornice! In that short space -of time she had succeeded in suspending herself, and was quite dead. -Of course we cannot determine whether she had recovered, and this -was but a sudden recurrence of the suicidal mania, or whether she -had cunningly concealed her ailment for the purpose of throwing her -attendant off her guard, and thus being enabled to effect her dreadful -purpose. We should be more disposed to accede to the latter solution -of the question, knowing the extreme cunning of such lunatics, and the -ingenious stratagems they often have recourse to in order to accomplish -any mischievous object they have in view. - -A person who manifested indications of mental aberration was found -in the act of hanging himself. Upon being detected, he promised most -solemnly to abandon his rash resolution. He attempted a second time to -kill himself by cutting his throat, but the wound was not fatal. He was -now placed under the care of a gentleman who had devoted much attention -to the treatment of insanity; and, knowing his propensity, the -keeper received strict injunctions to watch his movements carefully. -Everything by which he could injure himself was removed from his room, -he was shaved every day by a barber, and no instrument of any kind was -allowed to be in his possession. He was confined for nine months; and -it appeared, from what afterwards occurred, that he had, during the -whole of this period, been absorbed in the one idea of how he should -contrive to commit suicide. He was discovered one morning hanging by -the neck from the bedstead, quite dead. How he got possession of the -cord which suspended him, puzzled everybody acquainted with the history -of the case. At last the enigma was solved. It appears that parcels of -books and newspapers had occasionally been sent to him by his family, -tied with twine; and he had carefully, and unknown to the keeper, -concealed each piece, until he had collected a quantity to constitute -a cord sufficiently strong with which to hang himself. For nine -months this idea had exclusive possession of his mind; and although -he exhibited no apparent symptoms of insanity, he had evidently been -contemplating suicide for the period already specified. - -A female had made repeated attempts, during her residence in the -asylum at Wakefield, to hang herself, but had been so watched that she -had not succeeded. One evening, the servant, on going to remove all her -clothes out of her bed-room, thought she saw something bright on the top -of one of her under garments; upon examination, this was found to be -a pin. She had contrived just before bed-time to take off her garter; -and, knowing that her pockets as well as her clothes would all be -removed, she contrived to pin it within her dress, so high up that it -would not easily be perceived. Very providentially, the brightness of -the metal discovered it, and she was again prevented from accomplishing -her purpose. By degrees the propensity wore off; and after a residence -of eighteen years in the Hanwell Asylum, Sir W. Ellis found her a -few years ago, living, though upwards of eighty years of age, in a -comparatively tranquil state, waiting her removal in the ordinary -course of nature. - -When persons determined on suicide find that they are unceasingly -watched, and so carefully secured that they have no opportunity of -executing their design, they will assume a most cheerful manner for -days and weeks together, in order to lull suspicion; and when a -favourable opportunity offers, it is never neglected. - -A man who had long been in a state of despondency, and had made many -attempts to hang himself, but had always been prevented, very suddenly -appeared much better. He became apparently cheerful, and being desirous -of employment, was sent out with a large party into the hay-field. -He continued in this and other out-door occupations for some time, -gradually improving. One evening, on returning from the field, when -the rest of the party went in to tea, (which they were allowed when -hay-making,) he told the farming man that he did not feel thirsty, and -as it was very warm he would rather remain at the door. He was left -there. A short time afterwards his keeper came down to inquire for him, -and being told where he had been left, immediately exclaimed, “Then he -has hung himself!” It was also singularly impressed upon his mind, -that it was in one particular out-house that he had done it. There he -went, and found him suspended and dead, as he expected. - -“A noble lord,” (says Dr. Rowley,) “whose family I had the honour to -attend, had received, it is said, some little reproof from a great -personage, concerning a military omission. It seized his lordship’s -mind so seriously, that on examination it was evident to me that -suicide was intended. All weapons and dangerous means whatever were -removed. It being a circumstance of delicacy, I sent for his lordship’s -son, then about eighteen, from Westminster school, communicated my -apprehensions, and requested his constant attendance on his noble -parent. This the young man executed for several days, and prevented -the commission of the crime apprehended. In my absence a few hours in -the country, a very eminent, learned, and indeed remarkably sagacious -physician, but my mortal and vindictive enemy, was called in. I had, -contrary to medical _etiquette_, enforced the necessity of promptly -bleeding a most noble lady in an apoplexy, which saved life, but -brought down invectives, hatred, and vengeance on me. Whether out of -opposition to my vigilance, or from malicious motives, it would be -difficult to determine, but the noble lord was liberated from all -restraint, and my apprehensions treated by injurious insinuations and -with contempt. Thirty-six hours had scarcely elapsed before the noble -lord put a period to his existence, by a sword he had concealed, which -had been a present from Prince Ferdinand: he wounded his breast in -two places, but the third thrust pierced his heart. Thus perished a -nobleman, whose liberality, feelings, and many virtues, did honour to -human nature, and who might, in all probability, have been now living, -had not medical arrogance and illiberality, merely from personal -ambition, dictated error, at the risk of human destruction! _Horridum! -valde horridum!_” - -The physician should constantly bear in mind this important fact -connected with the suicidal disposition—viz., that those determined -upon self-destruction often resolve to kill themselves in a particular -manner, and however anxious they may be to quit life, they have been -known to wait for months and years, until they have had an opportunity -of effecting their purpose according to their own preconceived notions. -A man who has attempted to drown himself will not readily be induced -to cut his throat, and _vice versa_. A morbid idea is frequently -associated in the maniac’s mind with a particular kind of death, and -if he be removed from all objects likely to awaken this notion, the -inclination to suicide may be removed. - -An old man, upwards of seventy years of age, who had a market garden, -near the asylum at Wakefield, consulted the late Sir W. Ellis as to -the best mode of destroying himself, as he had made up his mind not -to live any longer. He said he had thought of hanging himself, if Sir -William could not recommend an easier death. The physician talked to -him some time upon the heinousness of the crime he contemplated, and -endeavoured to shew him that hanging was a most horrible death, from -the suffocation that must be felt. His conversation was attended with -little success. Finding that the chylopoietic viscera were a good deal -disordered, he prescribed for him, and sent to inform his wife that he -ought never to be left alone. The medicine had the effect of restoring -the secretions to a healthy action, and he got better. Sir William -heard no more of him for some time, when he was at length informed that -he was discovered dead in a little shed in his garden, where he used -to keep his tools. But so fixed was the mode in his mind, by which he -was determined to accomplish his death, that, though the place was so -low he could not stand upright in it, and he had not a rope or a string -with which he could suspend himself, he contrived to effect his purpose -by getting a willow twig, and making it into a noose, which he fastened -to one of the rafters. He stooped to put his head through it, and then -pushing his feet from under him, suspended himself until he died. Now, -if he had not made up his mind to destroy himself in this particular -way, he might have accomplished it with much greater ease by drowning -himself in the pond in his garden, or by cutting his throat with his -garden knife, which he always had about him; but neither of these was -the mode he previously intended. - -It may be practically useful to all who have the immediate care of -suicidal patients to bear this in mind; and if the medical man can find -out that any particular plan is contemplated, he ought to be especially -careful to remove the means of accomplishing it out of the patient’s -reach, and to prevent him having an opportunity of carrying it into -execution.[60] - -“A medical friend,” says Dr. Burrows, “who had much enjoyed life, -and never met with any circumstances to occasion him particular -disquietude, when at the age of forty-five became very dyspeptic, -low-spirited, and restless. He gradually shunned society; but still, -though with great reluctance, pursued his professional avocations. This -depression increased so much that he often told his wife that he should -consult me. (He knew very well that both his father and grandfather had -destroyed themselves.) - -“One morning he kept in bed much longer than usual, and a relation -calling, went up, without being announced, to see him. He seemed -composed, at length complained of being very faint, and upon -raising him up, blood was perceived on his hands. Upon examination -it was discovered, at the moment his friend entered the chamber, -he was employed in opening the femoral artery; that there had been -considerable hemorrhage from the small vessels he had divided. I saw -him within an hour afterwards. He had recovered from the syncope, and -expressed great sorrow for what he had done; described with minuteness -his case; lamented he had not seen me sooner, but that he could not -muster sufficient resolution; consented to place himself under my -superintendence; and, in fact, to follow all my directions. - -“I placed him in charge of a careful keeper. It was agreed that he -should be removed into lodgings in the environs of town; and he -therefore submitted to the necessary medical treatment. - -“He remained two days at home, till lodgings could be procured, during -which he was calm and rational; but there existed the suicidal eye, -which sufficiently denoted that he was not to be trusted. - -“On the third morning, his keeper, having a violent attack of -rheumatism in his right arm, could not shave him, and another person -was obliged to be trusted. This person, unfortunately, laid the razor -on the dressing-table; and, while his face was turned away, and the -keeper was heating some water a few feet from the table, the patient -suddenly jumped up, seized the razor, and in a moment applied it to his -throat, and effectually divided the carotid artery.” - -A case somewhat similar we find recorded by the same authority. Major—— -had been wounded at the battle of Waterloo. He had since recovered -his health, but a great depression of spirits followed. The maniacal -diathesis was hereditary. By degrees he became more desponding, his -ideas wandered, and at length a suicidal propensity was evident. On -visiting him, Dr. Burrows strongly urged the necessity of placing -him under the supervision of an experienced keeper; but here, as in -too many cases, his family opposed this advice, and would not permit -proper restraint, but put him under the care of a nurse only. In the -evening, he retired early to bed. The nurse went to tea in his chamber, -supposing her charge to be asleep. The patient watched the opportunity, -jumped out of bed, seized a knife on the table, wounded, and would have -effectually cut his throat, had not the nurse interposed. - -“A clergyman in Warwickshire told me,” says Dr. Conolly, “that he was -requested, some years ago, to interfere respecting certain measures -proper for securing a neighbour who had exhibited unquestionable -symptoms of insanity. His neighbour, however, was not to be met with -on the day when it was intended to remove him, and when he reappeared, -which was either the next day or in a day or two afterwards, he was -quite in a sound state, in which condition he has lived with great -comfort up to the present time. On the other hand, an instance came -under my own observation in which a gentleman had shewn many proofs -of disordered mind for the space of three or four months, and his -actions becoming dangerous, it was resolved to remove him. About -two hours before I was to call for him, he was so quiet and orderly -in a conversation with the old family-apothecary, that the latter -gentleman rode off to the relations of the patient, relenting all -the way concerning the proposed restraint, and purposing to solicit -its postponement; in which attempt he was only prevented by being -overtaken by a messenger before he had ridden half a mile, who came -to inform him that his apparently tranquil patient had nearly blown -up his house and his whole family with gunpowder, having for that -purpose thrown a pound and a half of it into the fire, sitting by to -see it explode. In another case, a gentleman had made repeated attempts -at self-destruction, but seemed to have got well, and was no longer -much looked after; yet after living comfortably at home for a little -while, and having passed a cheerful evening in reading to his wife, he -concluded it, when she had retired, by hanging himself in the parlour. - -“These lamentable accidents are, of course, always productive of -disagreeable feelings in the mind of a practitioner; but never more -so than when he has been too confident of the absence of danger. It -is questionable, perhaps, whether there are not, in all these cases, -certain means of which prudence might avail itself, for the purpose -of ascertaining the exact state of the supposed convalescent’s mind, -as well as the existence of such intentions in a lunatic as are -inconsistent with the safety of other persons, or with the preservation -of his own existence. The lunatic may maintain a very guarded silence -on these matters so long as they remain quite unsuspected, but is -not very well able, in general, to prevent his intentions becoming -visible to those who have begun to suspect him. These intentions, -too, are generally associated with certain recollections, or certain -topics, or certain antipathies or prepossessions, which may be found -out and brought into the conversation; in which case, the lunatic can -seldom conceal his agitation, his superstitious belief, his anger, or -his inly-cherished hope of full revenge. Indeed, he is often in no -degree solicitous to conceal his feelings. There cannot be anywhere -a more harmless person than Jonathan Martin; his manners are mild, -his occupations are of the most peaceful description, his language -is strikingly simple and unassuming; but take up the Bible, and you -have touched the chord of his insanity; you find that, to destroy the -noblest monuments of ancient piety and munificence seems to him a work -to which God has especially called him. The effect of possessing a key -to the excited feelings of a lunatic is, indeed, always surprising to -those unaccustomed to their peculiarities. You walk with a man who -seems to delight in the simplest pleasures of a state of innocence; -he admires the flowers of the field and the beauty of the sky, or he -dwells with satisfaction on the contemplation of whatever is generous -and good; nothing can exceed the mildness of his manner: but a -single word calculated to rouse a morbid train of ideas, a name, the -reminiscence of a place, or any trifling inadvertency, will convert -this placid being into a demon; the tones of his voice, his gestures, -his countenance, his language, assume, in a moment, the expression of -a fiend; and you discover that opportunity alone is wanting to effect -some dreadful crime. The discovery of such a design is certainly not -always so easy, but wherever suspicion exists, strict superintendence -is warranted, or various degrees of restraint must be determined upon, -and steadily adhered to.”[61] - -The following cases will shew the necessity of guarding a person -by the strictest surveillance from the moment that he evinces the -slightest symptom of mental alienation, when it manifests itself by -incongruous expressions or attempts at self-destruction. This precept -should be engraven on the mind of every medical man, and no feeling -of false delicacy should prevent his communicating his suspicions and -wishes the moment he considers measures of precaution necessary. In -these cases, the loss of an hour may make all the difference between -life and death. - -M. Piorry was called to the Hôtel de Bibliothèque, where he found a -man of athletic form and military appearance in a state of complete -insensibility. He manifested all the indications of apoplexy or -epilepsy. Some time elapsed before the physician could ascertain -what was the matter; he could not obtain any satisfactory answers to -his repeated questions. At last the patient made Piorry understand -that he had swallowed a key. Professor Roux was sent for, who, after -considerable difficulty, succeeded in extracting the foreign body -from the œsophagus, along with an oblong piece of copper attached -by a chain to the handle of the instrument. On the succeeding night -he made fresh attempts to destroy himself; first by hanging with the -bed-clothes, and, on that mode not proving successful, he endeavoured -to strangle himself by squeezing two chairs against his neck. Thwarted -in effecting his design, he again swallowed the key, and he was nearly -dead when he was discovered, and the key extracted from his throat. He -was now confined in a strait-waistcoat, and was subjected to proper -medical treatment. In the course of a short period, all disposition to -suicide was removed, and his mind was restored to perfect integrity.[62] - -A soldier, who was greatly beloved in his regiment for his exemplary -conduct and amiable qualities, became affected with suicidal -melancholy, and fired a pistol into his mouth. The havoc made was -dreadful; but by great exertions on the part of M. Petit, who attended -the case, his life was preserved. During his confinement, he manifested -great anxiety for his recovery, and expressed himself horrified that -he should ever have attempted to commit self-destruction. The surgeon -and his friends entertained every hope that all suicidal tendency -was dissipated. The result, however, proved that the whole was a -manœuvre on the part of the patient to lull suspicion to rest, and -when he had succeeded by this dissimulation in throwing his friends off -their guard, he put an effectual period to his existence whilst in the -wards of the hospital. - -The following case exhibits some practical points exceedingly worthy -of record, and displays besides, in a remarkable degree, the control a -lunatic disposed to suicide acquires over himself, his conversation, -and conduct, when he wishes to lull suspicion to sleep. In this -instance, says Dr. Burrows, who relates the particulars of the case, -a most judicious physician, and those in whom he had confidence, all -experienced in the phases of this wonderful malady, insanity, and its -no less wonderful concomitant, suicide, were completely deceived. - -A medical friend of the Doctor’s, travelling over Shooter’s Hill, -observed a gentleman walking up it, his carriage following him. When -opposite to each other, the stranger suddenly fell on his knees in -the dirt, and lifted up his hands, as if in earnest prayer. The -friend stopped his post-chaise at so extraordinary a sight, and soon -found by his looks and manners that the poor gentleman was insane. He -immediately accompanied him back to London, and placed him under Dr. -B.’s care till his relations were informed of his state. - -The history of the case was this:—The patient was a cavalry officer -of rank, aged thirty-five, and had particularly distinguished himself -at the recent battle of Waterloo. On that occasion he had two horses -killed under him, and was himself wounded in four places. He was first -struck on the crown of his helmet by the splinter of a shell, which -wounded the scalp and stunned him; he was next shot through the fleshy -part of the thigh by a grape shot, which at the same time killed his -first horse; from these two wounds he lost much blood. Whilst lying -under his second horse, he was pierced in the groin by a lance; and -in this helpless condition he received from a French drummer, who was -rifling the dead and dying, a violent blow on the temple from the -butt-end of a musket, from the effects of which, he remained some time -insensible. He was afterwards conveyed in a most deplorable state as a -prisoner within the French lines, and though released the same evening -by the victorious allies, a long while elapsed before his wounds and -exhausted condition received any attention. - -He inherited a predisposition to insanity, and was naturally reserved, -diffident, and taciturn, but affectionate and generous. - -When he recovered from his wounds, he often complained of pains in -his head; and it was observed that his temper became fretful and -suspicious; that he slept ill, was depressed in spirits, and courted -solitude. These symptoms increased latterly. At length he imagined -himself the sport of his brother officers, and many other delusions -arose. - -There was a moral cause likewise operating which, on a constitution -that had recently received so severe a shock, no doubt greatly -influenced his disorder. He had applied for promotion in consequence -of his sufferings in the service. This was withheld, as he thought, -ungraciously, and too long; and when he was raised a step, his mind was -already too much disturbed duly to appreciate it. The anniversary of -the glorious battle of Waterloo was just passed, and the recollection -of it was painful to him. In this state he came to town. - -He was exceedingly sober and temperate by habit; but during the day -before, with a brother officer, he was persuaded to commit an unusual -excess in wine, with the hope of raising his spirits. - -This proved a match to the mine. It exploded, and his intellects became -completely deranged. - -Dr. Burrows found him with his countenance very wild, the eyes injected -and pupils contracted, pulse quick and weak, tongue white, and great -thirst. He had had no sleep for five nights. Sometimes exalted, -violent, and loquacious; sometimes depressed and taciturn. He was -rather languid, which was imputed to his having lost full twenty ounces -of blood from the rupture of an hæmorrhoidal vessel. - -It is not necessary to detail the medical treatment adopted, but we -will proceed to those points in the case which are relevant. - -He was placed in lodgings with a careful attendant. In about three -weeks he was nearly well, when unluckily a whitlow formed on his -finger, and as one of his delusions was that he was rotten in every -part, it was the cause, besides pain, of considerable irritation, and -it broke his rest; other delusions returned, but subsided with the pain -of the whitlow, and he again greatly improved. - -In six weeks he was so well that the Doctor took his leave, advising -him to travel during the remainder of the autumn. The next day some -domestic occurrence occasioned violent irritation, and he again -relapsed into despondency, unattended by paroxysms of violence; but he -shortly recovered. - -However, instead of going into the country and varying the scene, his -lady brought him into town and permitted unrestricted intercourse -with his relations, &c. He grew quarrelsome, suspicious, and very -low-spirited, and began to abuse his wife. It was then earnestly -recommended that he should be completely separated from all intercourse -with her and his connexions, but the advice was disregarded. - -A boil now formed on his body. This irritated him more than the -whitlow, and his delusions about his rottenness were more prominent -than ever; but when the boil suppurated and discharged, his mind again -improved. - -No persuasion could induce his friends to give him exercise or -diversion, or change the scene. He therefore sat all day brooding over -his fantasies, and reading religious books; for now there was added to -his delusions an impression that he was very wicked, and had neglected -his religious duties. His face, too, assumed the suicidal expression. - -A month afterwards, a consultation with two eminent physicians -confirmed Dr. Burrows’ opinion of the treatment to be pursued. But, -notwithstanding this consultation, all remedial aid was neglected, -and he was allowed to follow his own inclinations, both in religious -matters and in totally secluding himself. In about three weeks all the -symptoms were so much increased that he was sent to a private asylum. -A few days afterwards, while walking out, he tried to drown himself, -but was rescued by his keeper. He continued in this desponding state -some months, when, rather suddenly, he appeared much better; and -continuing to improve, his physician thought him well, and he returned -home. Two days only had passed, when he called on the same physician, -acknowledged that he was as bad as ever, and entreated earnestly that -he might again be received into his house. He was so on that day. The -next day he poisoned himself and died. - -It proved, that he had never abandoned the desire of committing -suicide; but he so well concealed it, and otherwise conducted himself, -as to lead to the conclusion that he had recovered. It was, in fact, -a scheme, the sole object of which was to get out and buy laudanum. -Having procured a sufficient quantity, but anxious to save his wife the -agony of witnessing the act he meditated, he preferred returning to the -asylum to execute it. - -A few general principles have been laid down in this chapter to direct -the practitioner in the management of certain cases of suicidal -insanity. The success of the treatment will in a great measure be -dependent on the physician making himself acquainted with the minute -history of each case submitted to his professional care. No particular -rules can be adduced that will be applicable to all cases of this -description; much must be left to the judgment of the medical man. The -physician should, however, never forget that whatever apparently may -be the physical disturbance going on in the system, the brain, and the -brain alone, is the seat of the disease in all cases of suicide, and to -the condition of that organ most particular attention ought to be paid. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -IS THE ACT OF SUICIDE THE RESULT OF INSANITY? - - - The instinct of self-preservation—The love of life—Dr. - Wolcott’s death-bed—Anecdote of the Duke de Montebello—Louis - XI. of France—Singular death of a celebrated lawyer—Dr. - Johnson’s horror of dying—The organ of destruction - universal—Illustrations of its influence—Sir W. Scott, on - the motives that influence men in battle—Have we any test of - insanity?—Mental derangement not a specific disease—Importance - of keeping this in view—Insanity not always easily detected—Is - lowness of spirits an evidence of derangement?—The cunning - of lunatics—Esquirol’s opinion that insanity is always - present—Moral insanity—The remarkable case of Frederick of - Prussia—Suicide often the first symptom of insanity—Cases - in which persons have been restored to reason from loss - of blood, after attempting suicide—The cases of Cato, Sir - Samuel Romilly, Lord Castlereagh, Colton, and Chatterton - examined—Concluding remarks. - -Nature has ordained no law more universal in its influence than the -desire which all animated beings display, and which is indeed the -governing principle in the greater part of their actions, to preserve -their existence, and to secure themselves from the influence of -circumstances that bring it into danger. That “no man ever yet hated -his own flesh, but nourisheth it and cherisheth it,” is an axiom laid -down in scripture, and one founded on reason and observation.[63] - -One of our poets, in alluding to this subject, after declaring life to -be the dream of a shadow, “a weak-built isthmus between two eternities, -so frail that it can neither sustain wind nor wave,” yet avers his -preference of a few days’, nay, a few hours’ longer residence upon -earth to all the fame that wealth and honour could bestow— - - “Fain would I see that prodigal - Who his to-morrow would bestow - For all old Homer’s life, e’er since he died till now.” - -“Is there anything on earth I can do for you?” said Taylor to Wolcott, -as he lay on his death-bed. The _passion for life_ dictated the answer, -“Give me back my youth?” These were the last words of the celebrated -Peter Pindar. - -Dr. Johnson had a superstitious fear of death. Boswell asked him -whether we might not fortify the mind for the approach of death. -Johnson answered in a passion, “No, Sir, let it alone! It matters -not how a man dies, but how he lives. The act of dying is not of -importance; it lasts so short a time.” But when Boswell persisted in -the conversation, Johnson was thrown into such a state of agitation -that he thundered out, “Give us no more of this;” and turning to -Boswell, he said, with great earnestness, “Don’t let us meet to-morrow!” - - “O thou strong heart! - There’s such a covenant ’twixt the world and thee, - They’re loath to break!” - -There is an anecdote recorded of one of the favourite marshals of -Napoleon, the Duke de Montebello, which finely illustrates the strength -of this instinctive principle. During a battle in the south of -Germany, the duke was struck by a cannon-ball, and so severely wounded -that there was no hope of his surviving. Summoning the surgeon to his -side, he ordered the wounds to be dressed; and when help was declared -to be unavailing, the dying officer, excited into frenzy by the love -of life, burned with vindictive anger against the medical attendant, -threatening the heaviest penalties if his art should bring no relief. -The dying marshal demanded that Napoleon should be sent for, as one who -had power to save, whose words could stop the effusion of blood from -the wounds, and awe nature itself into submission. Napoleon arrived in -time to witness the last fearful struggle of expiring nature, and to -hear his favourite marshal exclaim, as the lamp of life was just being -extinguished, “Save me, Napoleon!” - -The following case, which occurred in humble life, illustrates the same -principle:—A man on the point of death vowed he would not die, cursing -his physician, who announced the near termination of his life, and -insisted that he would live in defiance of the laws of nature. - -It is recorded of Louis XI. of France, that so desperately did he cling -to life when everything warned him to prepare for death, that he, in -accordance with the barbarous physiology of that age, had the veins of -children opened, and greedily drank their blood, hoping in that way to -fan the dying embers of life into a flame! - -A once celebrated member of the English bar, whose strong original -powers of mind had been obscured and enfeebled by the gross sensuality -of his habits, in the extremity of his last illness, when the shadows -of death were fast coming over him, with a blasphemous audacity, swore -by his Creator that he _would not die_. In this state of morbid and -impious rage he struggled out of his bed, tottered down the stairs, and -fell lifeless in the passage. From the exclamation of this unfortunate -man, it would seem as if he fancied that he held the reins of life in -his hands, and could arrest at will the rapidity of its descending -career. - -Spence says, that “Salvini was an odd sort of man, subject to gross -absences, and a very great sloven. His behaviour in his last hour was -as odd as any of his behaviour in all his lifetime before could have -been. Just as he was departing, he cried out in great passion, “_Je ne -veux pas mourir, absolument!_” - - “The weariest and most loathed worldly life - That age, ache, penury, and imprisonment, can lay on man, - Is paradise to what we fear of death.” - -It is not our intention to consider this subject phrenologically. That -we have all certain good and evil propensities inherent in our nature, -developed in various degrees in different individuals, is admitted by -the anti-phrenologist, as well as by the most zealous advocate of that -science. We need no phrenology to tell us, that “the heart of man is -deceitful above all things, and desperately wicked:” scripture makes -us acquainted with this fact. It is useful to look at the dark as -well as the bright side of human nature. Without, then, using _terms_ -which might be considered objectionable, there can be no doubt of the -existence in the human mind of a propensity to destroy, varying in -degree from the simple pleasure of viewing the destruction of human -life, to the most impassioned desire to kill others or oneself. This is -a natural propensity, and, when not subdued by the higher faculties of -the mind, it exhibits itself in the form of unequivocal insanity. This -feeling to destroy may exist in conjunction with a consciousness on -the part of the individual that he is about to commit a crime opposed -to the laws of God and man. Dr. Gall relates many particulars of cases -in which this natural propensity became morbidly developed. A student -shocked his fellow-pupils by the extreme pleasure he took in tormenting -insects, birds, and brutes. It was to gratify this inclination, he -confessed, that he studied surgery. A man had so strong an inclination -to kill that he became an executioner; and a Dutchman paid his butcher, -who furnished ships with extensive supplies of meat, for being allowed -to slaughter the oxen. In these cases we see this natural feeling -inordinately developed. Subject such persons to the operation of causes -likely to excite this extra-developed propensity, and they will murder -others or themselves. - -Gall mentions the case of a person at Vienna who, after witnessing an -execution, was seized with a propensity to kill; at the same time, he -had a clear consciousness of his situation. He wept bitterly, struck -his head, wrung his hands, and cried to his friends to take care and -get out of his way. Pinel mentions the case of a man, exhibiting -no apparent unsoundness of intellect, who confessed that he had a -propensity to kill. He nearly murdered his wife, and then attempted -several times to destroy himself. - -In 1805, a man was tried at Norwich for wounding his wife and cutting -his child’s throat. He had been known to tie himself with ropes for -a week to prevent his doing mischief to others and to himself. A man -exposed to a sudden reverse of fortune was heard to exclaim, “Do, for -God’s sake, get me confined; for if I am at liberty I shall destroy -myself and wife! I shall do it, unless all means of destruction are -removed; and therefore do have me put under restraint. Something above -tells me I shall do it; and I shall!” - -Whenever the mind is exposed to the influence of excited feeling, and -the operation of the reasoning powers are suspended, we see the faculty -alluded to developed according to the constitution of the individual. -On the field of battle, striking examples occur of the various energies -of this inclination. One soldier at the appearance of blood experiences -the intoxication of carnage; another will swoon at the same sight. Sir -Walter Scott, in the poem in which he has referred to the battle of -Bannockburn, alludes to the various feelings that influence the mind -in the heat of an engagement; and it will be perceived that he directs -particular attention to those who are influenced by no other motive -than the pleasure they derive from sacrificing human life:— - - “But, oh! amid that waste of life, - What various motives fired the strife! - The aspiring noble _bled for fame_, - The patriot for his country’s claim; - This knight his youthful strength to prove, - And that to earn his lady’s love; - _Some fought for ruffian thirst of blood_; - From habit some, or hardihood; - But ruffian stern, and soldier good, - The noble and the slave, - From various cause the same wild road - On the same bloody morning trode - To that dark inn, the grave.” - -What conclusion are we justified in drawing from the facts just -related? Certainly, that there is in us all a disposition to destroy, -which is in some wisely and providentially restrained. If this view -of the matter be correct, we do not think that we should be wrong in -concluding that by far the great majority of cases of suicide result -from a morbid development of this natural feeling, consequent upon a -primary or secondary affection of the brain. This subject is of great -interest in a medico-legal point of view, and is well deserving of -serious consideration. - -Is the act of suicide an evidence of mental derangement? Before this -question can be satisfactorily answered, it would be necessary for -us to consider that _vexata questio_—what is insanity? Have we an -unfailing standard to which to appeal; an infallible _test_ by which -we can ascertain, with anything like a proximity to truth, the sanity -of any mind? Perhaps, if we were to assert that we considered it -impossible to point out the line of demarcation which separates the -confines of a sane and insane condition of the mind, we might lay -ourselves open to an attack. Again, were we bold enough to proclaim -our non-adherence to what is considered as the orthodox faith in this -matter, and assert that we viewed every departure from a healthy tone -of mind, whether in its intellectual or moral manifestations, as an -evidence of insanity, we might still more expose ourselves to the -merciless lash of the critic; yet these are the opinions to which we -should feel most disposed to give our assent. We must make a marked -distinction between insanity considered as a _legal_ and as a _medical_ -question; and it is greatly owing to our not keeping this essential -difference in mind that so much useless reasoning and vituperation -has arisen. The man who is daily exposed to the kind and cheering -influence of friendship, and who fancies himself alone in the world, -without one human being to sympathize with him in his afflictions, is -as essentially mad as he is who imagines himself to be made of glass, -and is fearful of sitting down lest he should injure his brittle glutei -muscles. A poet of antiquity wrote a book describing the miseries of -the world, and destroyed himself at the conclusion of the task. - -“No man who is oppressed with grief,” Crichton justly observes, “and -who is constantly preyed on by mental and bodily pain, can be supposed -capable of exercising his judgment at all times correctly; a fresh -misfortune, imaginary or real, excites an irresistible desire of -relief. Tired out, hopeless, dismayed by the threatening aspect of many -a bursting cloud; discerning nothing, whichever way he looks, but a -dreary and comfortless life, how can he be supposed capable of taking -a clear, calm, and comprehensive view of the obligations he owes to -his Creator or society, or of reflecting on the sudden vicissitudes -which daily occur in human life, and on which every man may safely form -some hope, even in the most distressed situation? The wretchedness of -life is the only picture present to the mind of one in whom grief has -terminated in such a state of deep melancholy; the only objects of -comparison are the misery of existence on the one hand, and the relief -he can obtain by withdrawing himself from it on the other.” - -Insanity results from a disease of the brain. Although after death, -in many cases, no appreciable structural lesion can be detected in -the cerebral mass, it would be illogical for us to conclude that the -sentient organ has not been physically affected. Derangement of mind -is but the effect of physical disease, and, like all other diseases, -it has an early as well as an advanced stage. Medical men have not -paid sufficient attention to the premonitory indications of mental -alienation. Having erected an arbitrary standard of derangement in -their own minds, they have been disposed to consider no deviation from -mental soundness as insanity, unless it exhibited the symptoms which -their preconceived ideas had led them to suppose necessary, in order -to constitute that disease. They have argued as if insanity were a -specific disease invariably manifesting the same phenomena, and in -this way definitions have been framed, by which the soundness of the -intellect has been tested. It is hardly necessary to say how fallacious -all such tests must be. The brain, like every other organ, is liable -to a variety of diseases, in all of which the mental faculties are -more or less affected. The danger of attempting to erect an arbitrary -standard of insanity is this: it induces us to overlook the incipient -symptoms of mental derangement, and to consider no deviation from -soundness of intellect as insanity which does not come within the -scope of our definition. The early symptoms of mental aberration are -as much an evidence of the presence of insanity, as when the disease -is more advanced, and the indications become so apparent that no one -hesitates in pronouncing the individual mad. Medical men who have -maintained that the act of suicide is not invariably the result of -insanity have argued as if the mental ailment was always self-evident -and easily detected; whereas, those who have had any experience in the -matter know full well, that occasionally there are no diseases more -difficult of detection than those which relate to a morbid condition of -the mind. If an act of suicide has been committed, and the individual -at the moment of perpetrating it did not manifest evident symptoms of -insanity, the conclusion drawn is, that he was perfectly sane at the -time. That the facts of the case do not warrant this inference must -be apparent to those who consider the subject in an enlarged point of -view. If we examine attentively the majority of cases of suicide, we -shall find that the unfortunate persons have laboured, either for some -time previously or at the very moment, under depression of spirits, -anxiety of mind, and other symptoms of cerebral derangement. Very few -cases of suicide take place in which you cannot trace the existence -of previous mental depression, produced either by physical or moral -agents. It may be said that lowness of spirits is not insanity; -certainly not, according to the _legal_ definition of the term; but -we may always be assured, that if mental anxiety or perturbation be -more than commensurate with the exciting cause, it may be presumed -that the individual is labouring under the incipient indications of -insanity.[64] This view of the case is strengthened if an hereditary -predisposition to the disease should also be present. - -“It will be said,” says Esquirol, “that there are individuals who, -in the midst of affluence, grandeur, and pleasures, and in the full -enjoyment of reason, have suddenly put an end to their existence, -immediately after parting with their friends in good spirits, or after -having written letters on business with perfect correctness. Can these -be said to be insane when they commit suicide? Yes; most undoubtedly. -Do not monomaniacs appear perfectly sane on all other subjects, -till the particular idea is started which forms the burden of their -hallucination? Are they not capable of curbing the expression of their -delirium, and dissembling their aberration of intellect? It is the -same with sane individuals, over whom the suicidal idea tyrannizes. -A physical pain, an unexpected impression, a moral affection, a -recollection, an indiscreet proposition, the perusal of a passage in -writing, will occasionally revive the thought and provoke the act -of suicide, although the individual the instant before should be in -perfect integrity of mind and body.” - -In general, most persons actually insane wish not only to be esteemed -free from the malady, but to be considered as possessing considerable -intellectual endowments; hence, _real_ lunatics seldom allow the -existence of their lunacy; but are always endeavouring to conceal from -observation those lapses of thought, memory, and expression, which are -tending every moment to betray them, and of the presence of which they -are much oftener conscious than is generally apprehended or believed. -Alexander Cruden, when suffering under his second and last attack of -mental aberration, upon being asked whether he ever was mad, replied: -“I am as mad now as I was formerly, and as mad then as I am now, that -is to say, _not mad at any time_.” - -Again, medical men who have reasoned against this opinion have -forgotten entirely one peculiar, and a very remarkable feature of -insanity—viz., the singular cunning of lunatics; how extremely -difficult it is in many cases where _we know_ the individual to -be unquestionably mad, to make his delusion apparent. The case of -the lunatic who indicted Dr. Monro for confining him in his asylum -has often been cited. He brought an action against the Doctor at -Westminster; and, although the man was subjected to a most severe -examination and cross-examination, his insanity could not be detected. -The trial was on the eve of being concluded, when Dr. Sims entered the -court, and knowing the man’s peculiar delusion, he was requested to ask -him a question. He did so, and his insanity instantly became apparent. -He brought another action against Dr. Monro in the city of London, and, -knowing that he had failed before by acknowledging his love for an -imaginary princess, so remarkable a degree of cunning did he exhibit -that one of the severest examinations to which a man was ever subjected -in a court of justice could not induce the lunatic to disclose the -delusion under which he was known to labour. This curious feature of -insanity must be taken into consideration in forming an estimate of the -presence of derangement in cases of suicide, and we must not hastily -conclude, because insanity is not _self-evident_, that it does not -exist. - -A merchant, fifty-five years of age, of a strong constitution, -although of a lymphatic temperament, mild and gentle in his -disposition, the father of a numerous family, and who had acquired a -considerable fortune in business, experienced some domestic troubles, -not sufficiently serious, however, to affect any one of a resolute -character. About a year ago, he formed a large establishment for one -of his sons, and shortly afterwards became very active, and expressed, -contrary to his usual habits, the delight which he felt at his -increasing prosperity. He was also more frequently absent from his -warehouse and business than usual. But notwithstanding these trifling -changes, neither his family, nor any of his friends or neighbours, -suspected any disorder of his reason. One day, whilst he was from home, -a travelling merchant brought to his house two pictures, and asked -fifty louis for them, which he said was the price agreed on by a very -respectable gentleman who had given his name and address. His son sent -away both the pictures and the seller. On his return, the father did -not mention his purchase; but the children began the conversation, -alluding to the roguery of the merchant, and their refusal to pay him. -The father became very angry, asserting that the pictures were very -beautiful, that they were not dear, and that he was determined to -purchase them. In the evening, the dispute became warmer, the patient -flew into a passion, uttered threats, and at last became delirious. -On the next day, he was confided to Esquirol’s care. His children, -frightened at their father’s illness, and alarmed at the purchase -which he had made, looked through their accounts; and great was their -astonishment at seeing the bad state of their books, the numerous -blanks which they presented, and the immense deficiency of cash. This -irregularity had existed for more than six months. Had this discussion -not taken place, one of the most honourable mercantile houses would -have been compromised in a few days; for a bill of exchange of a -considerable amount had become due, and no means had been taken to -provide for it. - -A patient has been known to weep, and affect the deepest contrition -for attempting suicide, when it has been proved that all the time he -was meditating on the means of accomplishing his design. A workman was -admitted into a French hospital, having a third time attempted his -life. He appeared deeply mortified and broken-hearted that he should -have suffered a relapse, and was much affected by the remonstrances of -his physician. He promised faithfully, in tears, to abandon his rash -resolve. Ten minutes afterwards, whilst on his road home, he perceived -a piece of cord; he seized it, made a noose, put his head into it, and -suspended himself from the branch of a tree, where he was found dead! -Cases illustrative of the same fact are mentioned in another part of -this work. - -Again, we must bear in mind that insanity is often as much a disease of -the _moral_ as of the intellectual faculties, and that it is possible -for the intellect to be perfectly sound, and yet for insanity to be -present. Moral derangement has not met with that consideration from -the profession which its importance demands. Insanity often consists -in a vitiated condition of the moral principle, independently of -any delusion of the intellect; and in many cases of suicide, if we -investigate their history, we shall find that the alienation has been -of this character. A man, whose disposition naturally disposed him -to vice, fancied that he had been guilty of committing a nameless -offence, and, whilst labouring under this idea, blew out his brains. -In this case, the intellect was unaffected; the derangement consisted -in a perversion of the moral powers. Senile insanity, which has been -recognised in our courts of law, is a derangement of the moral -constitution. In cases of this description, it is possible for the -person to be conscious of his infirmity, and to confess, with great -apparent regret, his inability to control his feelings. “I am impotent, -and not fit to live,” said a man, and accordingly cut his throat. -If we admit the existence of an insanity which consists solely in a -perversion of the moral powers, then we should hesitate in pronouncing -_ex cathedrâ_ that insanity is not present because no derangement of -the intellectual faculties can be perceived. - -Dr. T. Mayo observes, that “no intellectual delusion need be present -when self-destruction is coveted. But there must be an extinction -of that moral sense which revolts from it on grounds independent of -fear. Owing, however, to the systematic neglect of moral symptoms, the -suicide is seldom recognised as possessing this destructive tendency -until he has made an attempt upon his life; often, therefore, until all -measures must be too late.” - -A very common feature of moral mania is a deep perversion of the -social affections, whereby the feelings of kindness and attachment -that flow from the relations of father, husband, and child, are -replaced by a perpetual inclination to tease, worry, and embitter the -existence of others. The ordinary scene of its manifestations is the -patient’s own domestic circle, the peace and happiness of which are -effectually destroyed by the outbreakings of his ungovernable temper, -and even by acts of brutal ferocity. Frederic William of Prussia, -father of Frederic the Great, undoubtedly laboured under this form -of moral mania; and it furnishes a satisfactory explanation of his -brutal treatment of his son, and his utter disregard of the feelings -or comfort of any other member of his family. About a dozen years -before his death, his health gave way under his constant debauches -in drunkenness; he became hypochondriacal, and redoubled his usual -religious austerities. He forbade his family to talk of any subject -but religion, read them daily sermons, and compelled them to sing, -punishing with the utmost severity any inattention to these exercises. -The prince and his elder sister soon began to attract a proportionate -share of his hostility. He obliged them to eat and drink unwholesome or -nauseous articles, and would even spit in their dishes, addressing them -only in the language of invective, and at times endeavouring to strike -them with his crutch. About this time he attempted to strangle himself, -and would have accomplished his design had not the queen come to his -rescue. His brutality towards the prince arrived to such a pitch that -he one morning seized him by the collar as he entered his bed-chamber, -and began to beat him with a cane in the most cruel manner, till -obliged to desist from pure exhaustion. On another occasion, shortly -after, he seized his son by the hair, and threw him on the ground, -beating him till he was tired, when he dragged him to a window, -apparently for the purpose of throwing him out. A servant hearing the -cries of the prince, came to his assistance, and delivered him from -his hands. Not satisfied with treating him in this barbarous manner, -he connived at the prince’s attempts to escape from his tyranny, in -order that he might procure from a court-martial a sentence of death; -and this even he was anxious to anticipate by endeavouring to run him -through the body with his sword. Not succeeding in procuring his death -by judicial proceedings, he kept him in confinement, and turned all -his thoughts towards converting him to Christianity. At this time, we -first find mention of any delusion connected with his son, though it -probably existed before. In his correspondence with the chaplain to -whom he had entrusted the charge of converting the prince, he speaks -of him as one who had committed many and heinous sins against God and -the king, as having a hardened heart, and being in the fangs of Satan. -Even after he became satisfied with the repentance of the prince, he -shewed no disposition to relax the severities of his confinement. He -was kept in a miserable room, deprived of all the comforts and many of -the necessaries of life, denied the use of pens, ink, and paper, and -allowed scarcely food enough to prevent starvation. His treatment of -the princess was no less barbarous. She was also confined, and every -effort used to make her situation thoroughly wretched, and though, -after a few years, he relaxed his persecution of his children, the -general tenour of his conduct towards his family and others evinced -little improvement in his disorder, till the day of his death.[65] - -In considering this point it is important to remember that _the -attempt at self-destruction is_ OFTEN _the_ FIRST _distinct overt act -of insanity_. A young lady of delicate constitution, but previously -in apparent health, started up one day from the tea-table, rushed to -the window, and endeavoured to throw herself out. It required several -persons to restrain her until a strait-waistcoat could be procured. She -remained insane from that time until the day of her death, with very -partial glimmerings of reason. “Fortunately,” says Mr. Chevalier, who -relates the case, “her life was not long protracted.” - -It has been inferred, that when an unsuccessful act of suicide has been -committed, and the person expresses his regret for what he has been -guilty of, that we are justified in concluding that the mind was sane -when the suicide was attempted. The effort which Sir Samuel Romilly is -said to have made to stop the hemorrhage after having cut his throat, -has been cited by a celebrated living authority as an evidence of his -previous sanity.[66] We must bear in mind that many cases of suicide -result from derangement of mind dependent on cerebral congestion. - -In such cases, we can imagine a person insane when the act of -self-destruction is attempted, and sane immediately afterwards. The -loss of blood which a person would sustain from an extensive wound of -the throat, particularly when, as is often the case, some large vessel -is wounded, would instantly relieve the brain of the superabundant -blood which had been oppressing it, and deranging its manifestations, -and thus producing a return of sanity. That this was the fact in Sir -Samuel Romilly’s case is evident from its history. There cannot be a -shadow of doubt that he was insane when he cut his throat; and his -apparent desire to live after the act was committed, may be attributed -to the relief which he had derived from the loss of blood. - -Mr. T. Miller, of Spalding, in a fit of delirium, cut his throat so -dreadfully that after languishing three days, he died. He manifested -during this interval the utmost contrition for his offence, declaring -he knew not what he had done until he found the blood streaming from -his wound. He dictated his will, and talked rationally with his friends -till his dissolution.[67] - -A merchant in the city, not many months back, met with some losses -in business. His mind became affected to a certain extent; he felt -a strong desire to kill himself; but being a man of education and -enlarged capacity, he fought most resolutely against this inclination. -He had been exposed during one day to the influence of circumstances -which caused great mental depression. He said to his head-clerk, -previously to his leaving his counting-house, that his head felt heavy -and oppressed, and he had a _presentiment_ that something would happen -before the morning. The clerk suggested the propriety of his having -medical advice, but he did not think proper to do so. In this state he -went to bed. In the middle of the night he awoke in a state of extreme -agitation; no language could convey an adequate idea of his feelings, -and suicide was the only act which held out the hope of relief. In this -state he rose from his bed, called up the servants, and commanded them -to run for the surgeon. A professional gentleman who lived close by -was soon in attendance, and the moment he entered the room the patient -exclaimed, “Bleed me, or I shall cut my throat!” The operation was -instantly performed, and as the blood flowed from the vein the patient -exclaimed, “Thank God! I have been saved from committing self-murder.” -Every disposition to suicide was immediately removed. - -The following is an extract of a letter found in the pocket of Captain -Aitkins, of the Pembroke Fusileers, who committed suicide:—“As some -inquiry may be instituted as to the cause of my death, I think it -necessary to state that it was inflicted by my own hand, partly from -pecuniary embarrassment, and partly from the effect of _strong nervous -malady_, which has fixed itself on my spirits so as to render life -insupportable.” In this case we have no hesitation in asserting, that -if the brain could have been relieved of the unnatural weight which -oppressed it, this poor man would not have stained his hand with his -own blood. - -In many cases the delusion of the intellect is so self-evident that no -one questions the existence of insanity. A respectable Scotch merchant, -near Pimlico, committed suicide by cutting his throat. He fancied the -devil was in him; he asserted he could feel him in his throat. On -examining his room after his death, two wills were discovered, in one -of which he desires his executors to employ a surgeon to open his body, -that the devil might be found, secured, and destroyed; and in this way, -he says, he will be prevented from injuring any one else. - -Many other cases could be cited in which the act of suicide was clearly -traceable to mental derangement, were it considered necessary further -to illustrate this point. Much evil has resulted from the opinions -which the profession have entertained relative to the absence of -insanity in cases of those who have exhibited a disposition to destroy -themselves. In this matter, the principle which the great Edmund Burke -applied to politics is equally applicable to medicine—“We had better be -blamed for too anxious apprehension, than be ruined by too confident a -security.” - -It is a safe doctrine always to presume the presence of insanity -in those who have exhibited a desire to commit suicide. A person -who has once attempted to take away his life cannot be trusted, -notwithstanding he manifest the usual evidences of a sane intellect. It -is astonishing to consider the ingenious tricks and stratagems to which -a person whose mind is bent on self-destruction will have recourse in -order to effect his purpose. We find recorded the case of a woman who -was tried for her life, and who, in order that she might escape from -the hands of the executioner, applied a hundred leeches to her body, -hoping to bleed to death. Another female exposed herself to a swarm -of bees; and we read of an apothecary who endeavoured to beat out his -brains with his own pestle. - -A builder, who had been found fault with by his employer, became -melancholy, and finally determined upon self-destruction. He hurried -to a steep part of the high road, where vehicles of all descriptions -were compelled to put on the drag in the descent. Here he waited -until a heavily loaded wagon reached the spot, when he seized hold of -one of the wheels that was not locked, and applying his body to the -circumference, was instantly crushed. - -A woman cut her throat severely, but not fatally. Her friends could -not be prevailed on to believe that she was insane. She recovered, -but shewed such evidences of that unhappy condition, through the -whole progress of her cure, as were sufficiently unambiguous to every -competent judge. She had speculated unsuccessfully in the lottery, -and it was insisted that the rash act was solely to be ascribed to -her disappointment in this venture. Soon after her recovery, and -when her affairs had assumed a more comfortable train, she went up -one day into her bed-room, and being thought to stay longer than was -necessary, a person went to see after her, and found her sitting before -a dressing-glass, with a basin under her chin, and a knife in her hand, -cutting her throat again, as deliberately as a surgeon would have -performed an operation. She recovered this time also, and afterwards -made a third and successful attempt. - -A maniac who was extremely turbulent, and had evinced a strong -propensity to destroy himself, was confined, and everything taken from -him which could be imagined in any way capable of being instrumental -for such a purpose. He was remarked on one occasion to be unusually -quiet, and on his keeper looking through an aperture in his apartment, -he discovered him scooping out his eyes with a bit of broken china -found by him in the mattress, which he had torn to pieces; and with his -face full in the glare of the sun, he had completely accomplished this -horrid act before the door could be opened to secure him. - -A gentleman of some political consequence in France had an attack -of apoplexy, from which he recovered by copious bloodletting. Some -years afterwards, he had a fall from his horse, and was wounded -severely in his head, the injury occasioning fever and delirium of -some weeks’ duration. After this accident, he evinced some marks of -mental aberration. He threw up his post under government, and retired -to his chateau in the country, for the purpose of concocting, as he -said, a scheme for _uniting the people of all nations_. To prepare a -suitable edifice for this philanthropic union, he began to pull down -his chateau; but being interrupted by his friends, he came to Paris, -and one day jumped off the Pont-Neuf into the middle of the Seine. He -swam manfully, and reached the shore in safety. He was so proud of this -exploit that he considered himself invulnerable, and began next day to -run in the way of carriages or fiacres he met in the street, calling to -the drivers that they need not mind him, as he could not be injured! -He was seized and carried home, but in a day or two jumped out of the -chamber window into the street. He was then placed in M. Esquirol’s -establishment, and considered as an incurable maniac. - -During the French revolution, a case of mania without delirium gave -rise to an extraordinary scene at the Asylum de Bicêtre. The mob, after -the massacre of the prisons, broke like madmen into the above hospital, -under pretence of emancipating certain victims of the old tyranny, -whom it had endeavoured to confound with the maniacal residents of -that house. They proceeded in arms from cell to cell, interrogating -the prisoners, and passing such of them as were manifestly insane. A -maniac, bound in chains, arrested their attention by the most bitter -complaints which he preferred, with apparent justice and rationality. -“Is it not shameful,” said he, “that I should be bound in chains, and -confounded with madmen.” He defied them to accuse him of any act of -impropriety or extravagance. “It is an instance of the most flagrant -injustice!” He conjured the strangers to put an end to such oppression, -and to become his liberators. His complaints excited amongst the armed -mob loud murmurs and imprecations against the governor of the hospital. -They immediately sent for that gentleman, and, with their sabres at -his breast, demanded an explanation of his conduct. When he attempted -to justify himself, they imposed silence upon him. To no purpose did -he adduce, from his own experience, similar instances of maniacs who -were free from delirium, but at the same time extremely dangerous from -their outrageous passions. They answered him only with abuse; and had -it not been for the courage of his wife, who protected him with her own -person, he would have been sacrificed to their fury. They commanded him -to release the maniac, whom they led in triumph with reiterated shouts -of “Vive la République!” The sight of so many armed men, their loud and -confused shouts, and their faces flushed with wine, roused the madman’s -fury. He seized with a vigorous grasp the sabre of his next neighbour, -brandished it about with great violence, and wounded several of his -liberators. Had he not been promptly mastered, he would soon have made -them repent their ill-timed humanity. The savage mob then thought -proper to lead him back to his cell, and, with shame and reluctance, -yielded to the voice of justice and experience. - -Many modern and ancient cases of suicide have been referred to in -support of the opinion that insanity is not necessarily present under -such circumstances. The conclusions drawn from the history of ancient -cases, such as Cato, Cleopatra, Cassius, &c., cannot fairly be made use -of in the present inquiry; and yet if we examine these instances, which -have been so triumphantly brought forward as incontrovertible proofs -that it is possible for a person with a mind perfectly unclouded and -free from even the semblance of aberration to commit suicide, we shall -discover that they are not such good illustrations in support of the -doctrines which they who cite them are anxious to uphold. - -The suicide of Cato has often been referred to, and is considered a -most apt and conclusive instance in point. We admit this case is one -of great importance, inasmuch as it has been held up as an example to -others of a man who sacrificed his own life to promote the interests -of his country. How many have been induced to plunge recklessly into -another world in imitation of the conduct of the Roman hero! - -Was Cato perfectly sane when he sacrificed his life? We are disposed -to think not. His whole conduct immediately preceding the last fatal -act of his life evinces the extreme mental agitation under which he -laboured; despair had taken possession of his faculties; the ambition -and the hopes of years were prostrated in a moment to the dust, and to -escape from a long life of tyranny, he perished on his own sword. - -Many modern cases have been cited as evidence of the coolness and -collectedness which many have exhibited in the act of suicide. The -Rev. Mr. Colton, the accomplished author of “Lacon,” is said to have -been sane when he committed self-destruction. He shot himself with a -pistol after having written the following apophthegm: “When life is -unbearable, death is desirable, and suicide justifiable.” The last few -weeks of Colton’s life were embittered by acute mental and physical -suffering. He was involved in great pecuniary difficulties, and was -dependent for the necessaries of life on the charity of his friends. -Independently of this, he laboured under a very painful disease, and -it was when exposed to this combination of misery that he committed -suicide. His biographer states that there was no doubt of Colton’s -insanity at the time of his death; it was evident to all who were -about him. The evidence in Sir Samuel Romilly’s case is as strongly -corroborative of his derangement as in that of poor Colton’s. At the -time, he was suffering from the loss of a wife to whom he was most -dotingly attached, and the cerebral derangement was so apparent that -his physician ordered him to be cupped in the nape of the neck a short -period previously to his killing himself. Lord Castlereagh’s insanity -was also clearly manifested. His whole conduct on the day he cut his -throat led irresistibly to the conclusion that he was not in his right -senses. His strange manner was noticed some time previously in the -House of Commons. The Duke of Wellington saw the necessity of medical -advice, and had a physician sent to him; in fact, the evidence was as -strong as evidence could be, and no one at the time questioned the -correctness of the verdict. There were many peculiar circumstances -connected with his lordship’s early history which ought to be borne in -mind before we conclude that he was of sane mind at the moment of his -suicide. - -It is now more than thirty-five years ago that the following singular -circumstance occurred to the Marquis of Londonderry: He was on a visit -to a gentleman in the north of Ireland. The mansion was such a one -as spectres are fabled to inhabit. The apartment, also, which was -appropriated to his lordship was calculated to foster such a tone of -feeling from its antique character; from the dark and richly carved -panels of its wainscot; from its yawning chimney, looking like the -entrance to a tomb; from the portraits of grim men and women arrayed in -orderly procession along the walls, and scowling a contemptuous enmity -against the degenerate invader of their gloomy bowers and venerable -halls; and from the vast, dusky, ponderous, and complicated draperies -that concealed the windows, and hung with the gloomy grandeur of -funeral trappings about the hearse-like piece of furniture that was -destined for his bed. Lord Londonderry examined his chamber; he made -himself acquainted with the forms and faces of the ancient possessors -of the mansion as they sat upright in their ebony frames to receive -his salutation; and then, after dismissing his valet, he retired to -bed. His candle had not long been extinguished when he perceived a -light gleaming on the draperies of the lofty canopy over his head. -Conscious that there was no fire in his grate; that the curtains -were closed; that the chamber had been in perfect darkness but a few -minutes previously, he supposed that some intruder must have entered -into his apartment; and, turning round hastily to the side from whence -the light proceeded, he, to his infinite astonishment, saw not the -form of any human visitor, but the figure of a fair boy surrounded -by a halo of glory. The spirit stood at some distance from his bed. -Certain that his own faculties were not deceiving him, but suspecting -he might be imposed on by the ingenuity of some of the numerous guests -who were then inmates of the castle, Lord Londonderry advanced towards -the figure; it retreated before him; as he advanced, the apparition -retired, until it entered the gloomy arch of the capacious chimney, -and then sunk into the earth. Lord Londonderry returned to his bed, -but not to rest; his mind was harassed by the consideration of the -extraordinary event which had occurred to him. Was it real, or the -effect of an excited imagination? The mystery was not so easily solved. - -He resolved in the morning to make no allusion to what had occurred -the previous night, until he had watched carefully the faces of all -the family, to discover whether any deception had been practised. When -the guests assembled at breakfast, his lordship searched in vain for -those latent smiles, those conscious looks, that silent communication -between parties, by which the authors and abettors of such domestic -conspiracies are generally betrayed. Everything apparently proceeded in -its ordinary course; the conversation was animated and uninterrupted, -and no indication was given that any one present had been engaged in -the trick. At last, the hero of the tale found himself compelled to -narrate the singular event of the preceding night. He related every -particular connected with the appearance of the spectre. It excited -much interest among the auditors, and various were the explanations -offered. At last, the gentleman who owned the castle interrupted the -various surmises by observing that “the circumstance which had just -been recounted must naturally appear very extraordinary to those who -have not been inmates long at the castle, and are not conversant with -the legends of his family;” then, turning to Lord Londonderry, he -said, “You have seen the Radiant Boy. Be content; it is an omen of -prosperous fortunes. I would rather that this subject should not again -be mentioned.”[68] - -The case of Chatterton— - - “The marvellous boy, - The sleepless soul that perish’d in his pride”— - -has been adduced; but no one acquainted with the history of this -unfortunate youth would doubt for one moment that he was insane. -Chatterton possessed naturally acute sensibilities; he was -unquestionably a man of genius. When the forgery of Rowley’s poems was -detected, his mind received a severe shock; friend after friend forsook -him. All his bright and cheering hopes were levelled to the earth; his -character for integrity was gone; the world, which had been so eager to -court his society and friendship, turned its back upon him; misfortunes -followed in rapid succession, until he was frenzied by mental agony -and physical suffering. At the time of his death he was in want of the -common necessaries of life, realizing the affecting picture of the poet— - - “Homeless, near a thousand homes he stood, - And near a thousand tables pined and wanted food.” - -Under such circumstances, it is not surprising that poor Chatterton’s -mind should have been overthrown, and that he should have been led to -commit suicide. A few days before his death, he wrote to his mother -in these terms:—“I am about to quit for ever my ungrateful country. -I shall exchange it for the deserts of Africa, where tigers are a -thousand times more merciful than man.” A very important fact connected -with Chatterton’s case ought to be borne in mind—viz., that insanity -was in his family. - -We have entered at some length into the consideration of this -question, because we felt it to be one of great importance. In forming -an estimate of the condition of a person’s mind who has committed -suicide, the coroner and jury should make particular inquiries into -the following points:—First, as to state of mind for some time prior -to the act. In many, and in fact, in all cases, if proper evidence -can be obtained, it will be discovered that the person has laboured -under depression of spirits, either resulting from physical or mental -causes. Inquiry should be instituted as to the presence of any -disease of the stomach or liver which may have operated injuriously -on the mind. In many cases it will be found that the suicide has -received at some period of his life a blow on his head, giving rise -to cerebral injury, which may remain latent for a great length of -time, and suddenly manifest itself. Is insanity, particularly suicidal -insanity, in the family? What was the person’s natural character? Was -he liable to sudden bursts of passion? Had his mind been dwelling on -the subject of suicide? Was he monomaniacal, or remarkable for any -peculiar eccentricity? All these various but important questions should -be carefully sifted, should the coroner entertain any doubts as to -the presence of mental derangement in such cases. In another chapter -we have considered the unjustifiableness of a jury ever returning a -verdict of _felo-de-se_. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -SUICIDE IN CONNEXION WITH MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE. - - - The importance of medical evidence—The questions which medical - men have to consider in these cases—Signs of death from - strangulation—Singular positions in which the bodies of those - who have committed suicide have been found—The particulars of - the Prince de Condé’s case—On the possibility of voluntary - strangulation—General Pichegru’s singular case—The melancholy - history of Marc Antonie Calas—How to discover whether a person - was dead before thrown into water—Singular cases—Admiral - Caracciolo—Drowning in a bath—The points to keep in view in - cases of suspicious death—Was Sellis murdered?—Death from - wounds—The case of the Earl of Essex. - -Medical men are frequently called upon in our courts of law to give -evidence in cases where it is doubtful whether persons found dead -were murdered or committed suicide. The questions involved in these -judicial inquiries are of great public importance, and it is the sacred -duty of medical men, for the sake of their own characters, and for a -much higher consideration—for the ends of justice, to make themselves -thoroughly conversant with all the evidence which can be brought to -bear in the elucidation of such important questions. Our criminal -annals are replete with illustrations in which individuals accused -of the atrocious crime of murder have been saved from a dreadful and -ignominious death by medical evidence. Cases also are recorded in which -death has been ascribed to suicide, but which after investigation have -been proved to have been effected by other hands. In doubtful cases -of this description, the evidence of the medical man is of the highest -importance; without it, in the great majority of cases, justice would -be defeated. - -In the cases of persons found hanging, two questions naturally suggest -themselves to the mind:—1. Whether the individual was suspended before -or after death. 2. Whether it was an act of suicide or murder. It is -possible, and such cases have occurred, that a person may have been -hanged up after having been murdered, or may have endeavoured to -destroy himself by firearms, or by cutting his throat, and suspend -himself afterwards, not being able to effect his purpose in any other -way. In the first case we might mistake murder for suicide; and in -the second, suicide for assassination. The following are the signs -of death from strangulation:—The countenance is livid and distorted; -the eyes protrude, and are often suffused with blood; the tongue -projects and is wounded by the teeth. If the rope be placed below the -cricoid cartilage, the tongue will protrude; but if it presses above -the thyroid cartilage, the tongue will not be seen in the position -described. It was formerly the generally received opinion that persons -who were hanged died of apoplexy; but the experiments of Sir B. -Brodie and other physiologists clearly prove that death is owing to -suffocation. The livid or depressed circle which the rope is said to -make round the neck is pronounced by M. Klein to be an uncertain sign; -he saw fifteen cases of suicide in which it was not discovered. Remer, -of Breslaw, who has recently directed his mind to the consideration -of this important point, found, out of one hundred cases of persons -who died from strangulation, eighty-nine with sugillation on the neck -in an evident manner. In addition to the signs mentioned, others have -been enumerated. The fingers are said to be found bent, the nails blue, -hands nearly closed, with swelling of the chest, shoulders, arms, and -hands. - -If the body be not suspended, but touches, more or less, the ground -or floor, while the cord is not tight enough for the purpose of -strangulation, and there be no manifestations of any other means of -death, there can hardly be room to doubt as to self-murder. It is -true that the mere resting of the toes takes away but little of the -character of suspension, but we may meet with stronger cases. A few -years ago, a man, aged seventy-five, destroyed himself at Castle Cary, -in the morning, by fixing a cord round his neck while sitting on the -bed-side, and leaning forward till his purpose was accomplished. His -wife, who had for years been bedridden, and was therefore not likely to -have been very fast asleep, was in the room during the transaction, and -knew nothing of what was going on. A prisoner hung himself in a gaol by -fastening the cord to one of the window-bars, and pushing himself away -from it with his arm. - -Persons have both wounded and hung themselves. This may be effected by -placing the cord in a wrong position, which would protract the person’s -sufferings, and compel him to struggle and make violent efforts to kill -himself. Ballard relates, that a young priest, having first cut his -throat to a certain extent, hung himself with his robe.[69] In cases -like these there can be little difficulty in ascertaining the real -cause of death. - -In a memoir published in a French journal,[70] there are related -several instances of self-destruction by hanging, where the bodies -were found in the most extraordinary positions and attitudes. A man -was discovered in a granary hanging by a cotton handkerchief, made -fast to a rope which stretched across; the knees were bent, so that -the legs formed a right angle backwards; the feet were suspended on a -heap of grain, over which the knees hung at a distance of a few inches. -A prisoner was found suspended in a vertical position, with his heels -resting on a window-stool. An Englishman, a prisoner in Paris, hung -himself in his cell, which was an apartment with an arched roof, and at -the lower part of it was a grated window, the highest part of which -was not near the height of a man. Nevertheless, he hung himself to this -grating, and was found almost sitting down, with his legs stretched out -before, and his hips within a foot and a half of the ground. Another -case is related of a man whose attitude was similar to the case first -described. He had suspended himself to a large iron pin driven into the -wall to support the bed-curtains, and his feet, bent at a right angle, -rested on the bed, while his knees approached it within a few inches. -A female suspended herself so low that, in order to accomplish her -purpose, she was obliged to stretch out her legs, one before resting -on the heel, the other behind resting on the toes. A female was found -stretched at the foot of her bed, the legs, thighs, and left hip lying -on the floor; the upper part of the body was raised, and suspended by a -cord fixed to the neck, and fastened to the hospital bed. - -A patient in La Charité was found one morning hanging by the rope which -was attached to the head of his bed. He had fastened this by a loop -round his neck, but his body was so retained, that when discovered he -was on his knees by the side of his bed. - -In 1832, at the west end of the town, a man was found hanging in his -room, with his knees bent forwards and his feet resting upon the floor. -He had evidently been dead for some time, since cadaverous rigidity had -already commenced. The manner in which this man had committed suicide -was as follows:—He had made a slip knot with one end of his apron, (he -was a working mechanic,) and having placed his neck in this, he threw -the other end of the apron over the top of the door, and shutting the -door behind him, he had succeeded in wedging it in firmly. At the same -moment he had probably raised himself on tip-toe, and then allowed -himself to fall; in this way he died. The weight of his body had -apparently sufficed to drag down a part of the apron, for it seemed as -if it had been very much stretched. - -In October, 1833, a gentleman who was employed as an assistant in a -respectable school in the neighbourhood of London, was discovered by -some of his pupils, one morning, in a sitting posture, on a dark part -of a staircase of the house. Upon examining further, it was ascertained -that he was completely dead, and that he was suspended to the banisters -by a cravat firmly tied round his neck. The deceased had evidently -made two similar attempts at self-destruction before he succeeded, as -part of a silk pocket-handkerchief and his braces were found suspended -to other parts of the banisters. It seemed scarcely possible to those -who discovered him that the deceased could really have accomplished -suicide by hanging in such a situation, for his body was resting -entirely on the stairs, and, making every allowance for the slipping of -the ligature by which he was suspended, still his feet must have been -throughout in contact with the stair. - -There have been few medico-legal investigations of late years which -have excited greater interest than the case of the Duke de Bourbon, in -France. - -On the 27th August, 1830, the duke was found suspended in his bed-room, -in the chateau* of St. Leu. An inquest was held the same morning on -the body, and from the evidence of the witnesses, as well as from the -reports of the physicians and surgeons who examined it, a verdict was -returned to the effect that the duke had committed suicide in a fit of -temporary insanity. This event did not excite much notice until the -contents of his will were made public. - -The deceased, it appears, had made his will in favour of the Baroness -de Feuchéres, a female who had lived with him for some years, -bequeathing to her the whole of his immense estates, and leaving the -Duke d’Aumale, the youngest son of the king of the French, residuary -legatee. The Princes de Rohan, heirs by collateral descent to the -deceased, thus finding themselves deprived of an expected inheritance, -attempted to set aside the will, alleging that undue influence had -been exercised over him. The cause came on for hearing before the -First Chamber of the Civil Tribunal of Paris, in December, 1831, and -excited considerable attention, not so much in consequence of the -dispute concerning the validity of the will, as of the question which -was raised during the trial,—whether the duke had committed suicide, -or whether he had been murdered, and afterwards suspended, in order to -defeat the ends of justice. - -The facts of the case, collected from the _procés verbaux_, are as -follows:—The deceased had naturally partaken of the alarm which had -diffused itself throughout France in consequence of the events of the -revolution of 1830. Some of his most intimate friends declared that, -for some time previously to his death, his mind had been filled with -the most gloomy forebodings as to what this new order of things would -bring about. On the morning of the 27th, his servant went, as usual, -to his bed-room door about eight o’clock; but receiving no answer on -knocking, he became alarmed. Madame de Feuchéres then accompanied the -valet to the door of the room, which was fastened on the inside; and -receiving no reply after calling to the duke in a loud voice, she -ordered it to be broken open. On entering the apartment, the body of -the deceased was found suspended from the fastening at the top of the -window-sash by means of a linen handkerchief, attached to another which -completely encircled the neck. The head was inclined a little to the -chest; the tongue protruded from the mouth; the face was discoloured; -a mucous discharge issued from the mouth and nostrils; the arms hung -down; the fists were clenched. The extremities of both feet touched -the carpet of the room, the point of suspension being about six feet -and a half from the floor; the heels were elevated, and the knees half -bent. The deceased was partly undressed; the legs were uncovered, and -had some marks of injury on them. Among other points of circumstantial -evidence, it was remarked that a chair stood near the window to which -the deceased was suspended, and the bed looked as if it had been lain -on. - -The medical witnesses, who examined the body soon after its discovery, -stated that they found it cold, and the extremities rigid, from which -they inferred that the deceased had been dead eight or ten hours. This -would have fixed the time of his death at midnight of August 26th. The -body underwent a second examination, a report of which was furnished -to the legal authorities, on the following day. Five medical men were -present at the inspection; and they gave it as their opinion, from the -_post mortem_ appearances—1st, that the deceased had died by hanging; -and, 2ndly, from the absence of all marks of violence or resistance -about the person or clothes of the deceased, and other facts, that he -had destroyed himself. They considered that the contusion on one arm, -and the excoriations observed on both legs, must have arisen from the -rubbing of these parts against the projecting rail of the chair near -the window. The mark on the neck of the deceased they described to be -large, oblique, and extending upwards to the mastoid process. - -General evidence was given to shew that the duke had meditated -self-destruction, and had conversed about it with some of the -witnesses. On the morning of the 28th, some fragments of paper, which -had been written on, were taken from the grate of his chamber; these -were carefully put together by one of the legal inspectors; and among a -few disjointed sentences, indicating despair and a dread of impending -danger, were the following:—“It is only left for me to die in wishing -prosperity to the French people and my country. Adieu for ever!” Here -followed his signature, and a request to be interred at Vincennes, near -the body of his son, the Duke d’Enghien. It is necessary to observe, -that no noise or disturbance was heard in the bed-room on the night of -the deceased’s death. - -On the other side it was contended that the duke was not unusually -melancholy before his death; that the supposition of suicide was -inadmissible in a moral point of view, and indeed was physically -impossible, from the circumstances. One person argued that he could not -have made the knots seen in the handkerchiefs; another, that he could -not have reached so high above his head to have suspended himself, -and that the chair could not have been used in any manner to assist -him; while a third affirmed, that a person might be suspended in the -position in which the body was discovered, without death ensuing. The -circumstance of the door being fastened on the inside, was accounted -for by supposing that the bolt had been pushed to from the outside. -The duke had been heard to condemn suicide; he had made an appointment -for the following day; and had attended to many little circumstances, -such as winding up his watch the night previously, and noting his -losses at play;—facts which were forcibly urged as being opposed to the -supposition of his having destroyed himself. - -To combat the medical evidence, it was assumed that the deceased was -strangled or suffocated, and was afterwards hanged, by assassins. -Several schemes were devised by the medical witnesses on this side of -the question, to account for the manner in which the supposed murder -was committed. According to some, a handkerchief might have been -tightened round the deceased’s neck by one assassin, while another -forcibly held his legs under the bed-clothes, by which the lesions -already described would have been produced; or instead of being -strangled by a handkerchief, he might have been suffocated by a pillow -placed over his mouth. - -The body might then have been dragged across the room to be suspended; -and if during this time the hand of one of the assassins had been -rudely thrust between the cravat and the neck, the excoriation and mark -seen on the skin might be easily accounted for. - -The counsel for the appellants remarked, that the want of a line in -writing, to withdraw from all suspicion his attendants, and even Madame -de Feuchéres, was remarkable, as this _latter precaution_ had suggested -itself _to almost every suicide_. He condemned those engaged in the -anatomical examination of the body, as having been guilty of culpable -mismanagement. He ridiculed the idea that the duke, as reported by -the two physicians consulted, had probably come to his death through -asphyxia by strangulation. He contended that all the appearances on the -skin of the neck, where no ecchymosis, _as is usual in persons hung -alive_, was visible, _shewed that death had preceded the hanging of the -body_.[71] - -Conflicting as the evidence was in this case, we think no impartial -mind, after maturely considering all the physical facts and moral -circumstances connected with the Prince de Condé’s death, can entertain -any other opinion than that he sacrificed his own life. The case is one -of great interest; and the minute particulars detailed in the French -journal are worthy of the perusal of every medical man. - -It has been doubted whether voluntary strangulation was possible, -but we have too many cases on record to allow us to question the -probability of such an occurrence. An individual was found strangled -in a hay-loft by a handkerchief which had been tightened by a stick. -A Malay, who, on board of a man-of-war in the East Indies, had made -repeated attempts to commit suicide, at last effected his purpose in -the following manner:—He tied a handkerchief round his neck, and with -a small stick twisted it several times, and then secured it behind his -ear, to prevent its untwisting. Jealousy was the cause assigned for the -suicide. - -General Pichegru was found strangled in prison during the consulate -of Buonaparte. The case gave rise to various suspicions. The body was -found lying in bed on the left side, in an easy attitude, with the -knees bent, and the arms lying down by the side, with a black silk -handkerchief twisted tightly round the neck, by means of a stick passed -under it. The cheek was torn by the ends of the stick in its rotations. -It was established that he had been guilty of suicide. - -A very important lesson is to be learned from the history of the -following case, which Dr. Beck has published in his “Medical -Jurisprudence.” This is but one of many cases in which the innocent -have been accused, and have suffered for crimes of which it has been -subsequently proved they were innocent. - -Marc Antoine Calas was the son of John Calas, a merchant of Toulouse, -aged seventy years, of great probity, and a Protestant. He was -twenty-eight years of age, of a robust habit, but melancholy turn -of mind. He was a student of law, and becoming irritated at the -difficulties he experienced (in consequence of not being a Catholic) -concerning his licence, he resolved to hang himself. This he executed -by fastening the cord to a billet of wood placed on the folding doors -which led from his father’s shop to his storeroom. Two hours after, he -was found lifeless. The parents unfortunately removed the cord from -the body, and never exhibited it to shew in what manner his death -was accomplished. No examination was made. The people, stimulated by -religious prejudice, carried the body to the town-house, where it was -the next day examined by two medical men, who, without viewing the -cord, or the place where the death had been consummated, declared -that he had been strangled. On the strength of this, the father was -condemned by the parliament of Toulouse, in 1761, to be broken on the -wheel. He expired with protestations to Heaven of his innocence. - -Reflection, however, returned when it was too late. It was recollected -that the son had been of a melancholy turn of mind; that no noise had -been heard in the house while the deed was doing; that his clothes -were not in the least ruffled; that a single mark only was found from -the cord, and which indicated suspension by suicide; and in addition -to these, that the dress proper for the dead was found lying on the -counter. Voltaire espoused the cause of the injured family, and -attracted the eyes of all Europe to this judicial murder. The cause -was carried up to the council of state, who, on the 19th May, 1765, -reversed the decree of parliament, and vindicated the memory of John -Calas.[72] - -Many cases occur in which it is impossible to decide whether the -person was dead before being thrown into the water. The attention of -the jurist ought to be directed to the condition of the ground in -the neighbourhood of the pond, to ascertain whether any signs exist -of a struggle having taken place. In the case of Mr. Taylor, who was -murdered at Hornsey, in December, 1818, marks of footsteps, deep in the -ground, were discovered near the New River; and on taking out the body, -_the hands were found clenched, and contained grass, which he had torn -from the bank_. The appearance of wounds on the body will often lead -to, or assist in, the formation of a correct opinion, as to the cause -of death. These facts are, however, very often fallacious. Instances -have occurred in which persons determined upon suicide have endeavoured -to kill themselves with sharp instruments, and not effecting their -purpose, have subsequently thrown themselves into the water. Again, -persons may, in the act of drowning themselves, receive severe -injuries, by being propelled against rocks and stakes by the force of -the current. - -A few years ago, a man, who had leaped from each of the three bridges -with impunity, undertook to repeat the exploit for a wager. Having -jumped from London Bridge, he sunk and was drowned. When the body -was discovered, it appeared that both his arms were dislocated, in -consequence of having descended with them in an horizontal instead of -a perpendicular position. Persons have been discovered drowned with -ligatures on their hands and feet, and the circumstance has naturally -excited a suspicion as to whether they had committed suicide or had -been murdered. Numerous cases prove that suicides do, occasionally, -adopt such precautions, in order to ensure death. In June, 1816, the -body of a gauging-instrument maker, who had been missing for some days -from his home, was discovered floating down the Thames. On being taken -out of the water, _the wrists were found tied together and made fast -to his knees_, which were in like manner secured to each other. He had -been deranged for two years. The cord was recognised as one which had -been attached to his bed. He could swim well, and it was presumed that -he had so tied himself, in order to prevent his using his legs and arms -should his courage fail him after having plunged into the water. - -A man, with his wife and child, was reduced to great distress. On a -certain day, he took an affectionate leave of his family, declaring -he would not return until he had procured some employment by which he -should be able to buy bread for them. On the following day, he was -found drowned in the New River, with his hands and legs tied. A card -with his address was found in his pocket. - -A gentleman was found in the Seine, at Paris, having his feet, wrists, -and neck, tied with a cord. His neck, limbs, and hands, were bound by -means of a rope with slip-knots, in order to put it out of his power -to aid himself when in the water, and thereby to render certain the -execution of his suicide. - -In the year 1832, the body of Elizabeth Martin was found dead in the -water. A man of the name of Bayley was accused of the murder. They had -been quarrelling, and were seen struggling with each other at the banks -of the pond. He declared that she had fallen in accidentally. Her face -was found turned downwards towards the bottom of the pond, _and one of -her hands was found to be in her pocket_. The judge properly observed, -that if the woman had fallen into the water as the prisoner stated, -that she would have, undoubtedly, taken her hand from her pocket for -the purpose of extricating herself. The man was convicted of the -murder, and executed. - -There has been much discussion as to whether bodies sink or swim -when thrown into the water after having been killed. Considerable -discrepancy of opinion exists on this point. It has been maintained -that strangled persons will float more readily than others, as many -facts prove. Caracciolo, Admiral of the Neapolitan navy, was hanged by -sentence of a court-martial. The body was committed to the deep in the -usual manner; and thirteen days afterwards, while the king was walking -on the deck of Lord Nelson’s ship, he suddenly exclaimed, with a yell -of horror—“_Viene! viene!_” The admiral’s corpse, breast-high, was -seen floating towards the ship. The shot which had been attached to -the feet for the purpose of sinking not being sufficiently heavy. This -phenomenon may have arisen from the evolution of gaseous matter, after -the process of putrefaction had commenced, which notoriously renders -the body specifically lighter than water. - -The apparitions that appeared at Portnedown Bridge, after the Irish -massacre, and which excited such commotion at the time, were accounted -for in a similar manner. It appears that, about twilight in the -evening, a number of spirits became visible; one assumed the shape of -a naked woman, waist-high, upright in the water, with elevated and -closed hands, and looking as awful a spectre as the most superstitious -person would wish to behold. Various sounds were also heard proceeding -from the river, which caused no little alarm. The sounds were mere -delusions, but that bodies were seen floating upright in the water -there cannot be a doubt. - -“One day,” says Clarke, “leaning out of the cabin-window, by the side -of an officer, who was employed in fishing, the corpse of a man, newly -sewed up in a hammock, started half out of the water, and continued -its course with the current towards the shore. Nothing could be more -horrible; its head and shoulders were visible, turning first to -one side, then to the other, with a solemn and awful movement, as -if impressed with some dreadful secret of the deep, which from its -watery grave it came upwards to reveal. Such sights became afterwards -frequent, hardly a day passing without ushering the dead to the -contemplation of the living, until at length they passed without -exciting much observation.[73] - -In October, 1829, a female, who was an in-patient of St. Luke’s -Hospital, was found dead in the bath of the institution. It appears -that, for some time previously, she had been permitted the privileges -allowed to patients exhibiting indications of convalescence, and had -obtained access to the nurse’s room, in which the key of the bath -was deposited. One afternoon, she secretly possessed herself of this -key, and then immediately proceeded to make arrangements for the -accomplishment of her purpose. In order to deceive the vigilance of the -nurse, who was accustomed to lock the patients up at bed-time, she took -off her clothes and disposed them about the room, in the usual manner, -as if she had undressed. She then made up a bundle to resemble the -human figure, and placed it inside the bed, filling her nightcap with -handkerchiefs. So accurate was the deception that the other patients, -who slept in the room with the deceased, readily answered that they -were all present. The lunatic, after these preparations, must have -stolen cautiously down to the bath. She was found, the next morning, -dead, lying stretched out with her face downwards. The water of the -bath was not deep, and, indeed, it is presumed, she must have forcibly -maintained the position in which her body was found, in order to have -effected her purpose. The door of the bath-room was locked inside, and -the key was found in the deceased’s pocket. - -In a small village of Warwickshire, in the year 1800, a young -gentleman suddenly disappeared on the evening previous to his intended -marriage. After a lapse of some days, his body was found floating in -a mill-stream, and it was generally concluded that he had committed -suicide, though the cause for such a rash act could not be conjectured. -Upon stripping the body, some marks of a suspicious nature were -discovered upon the throat. A surgeon was sent for to decide whether -death had taken place from any other cause than drowning, who, after -a minute examination, gave it as his opinion that he had died by -strangulation. Suspicion now fell upon a man of bad character, who -had been seen the night the gentleman was first missed, running in -great haste from the direction in which the body was afterwards found. -He was apprehended, but, no evidence of guilt being elicited by the -examination, was discharged, and the fate of the unfortunate young man -remained buried in mystery. Ten years afterwards, the person suspected -was convicted of sheep-stealing, and sentenced to transportation. -While on board the hulks, he made a voluntary confession of having -destroyed him, and declared that such was his remorse, and the horror -of his conscience, that he earnestly desired to expiate his crime on -the scaffold. He was tried for the alleged offence entirely on his own -evidence, which was as follows:— - -Upon the evening of the fatal event, he was stealing potatoes from a -field-garden belonging to the deceased, whom he unexpectedly saw coming -over the gate to secure him, upon which he jumped over the hedge on -the opposite side, and ran across the field to make his escape. The -gentleman pursued him, and being an active young man, nearly overtook -him; upon which he (the prisoner) attempted to leap the mill-stream, -but the bank on the other side giving way, he fell back into the -water. The young gentleman, instantly plunging into the water after -him, strove to secure him. A desperate struggle now ensued, and the -deceased had at one time got the prisoner down under him in the water, -by which he was half drowned. At length he succeeded in overturning -his antagonist, and, seizing him by the throat, held him fast in this -manner under water, till he seemed to have no more power. He then left -him, sprang out, and made his escape. - -The judge gave it as his opinion that the case amounted only to -excusable homicide, and the man was acquitted. - -In forming an opinion as to the cause of death in doubtful cases of -suicide, the following important points ought to be carefully kept in -view:— - -1st. If the person had for some time laboured under melancholia; had met -with losses, disappointments, or had suffered any acute chagrin.[74] -2nd. If any of his family, associates, or connexions, had any interest -in his death. 3rd. The season of the year should be taken into -consideration; for we have observed, without being able to assign the -reason, that suicide is more frequent during the solstices and the -equinoxes. 4th. If the patient, instead of complaining, remains quiet, -seeks for solitude, and refuses medical aid. And 5th. If there be any -writing (as those who destroy themselves ordinarily express their last -opinions or will) it will be one of the most satisfactory proofs that -they have made away with themselves. Remains of poison found in their -pockets, or in the apartment, are but an equivocal proof, and one which -may attend upon homicide as well as on suicide.[75] - -In the course of judicial investigations, medical men are frequently -called upon to decide in cases of suspicious death whether wounds -discovered on the bodies of the deceased were self-inflicted. Before -deciding questions of this character, the medical witness ought to take -into consideration the following points:—1st, The situation of the -wound; 2nd, its nature and extent; 3rd, the direction of the wound; and -4th, the moral circumstances connected with the case. - -Generally speaking, those who commit suicide do not wound themselves on -the posterior parts of the body; therefore injuries detected in such -situations naturally excite suspicions as to the mode of death. The -throat and chest are commonly selected when cutting instruments are -used. When death has resulted from the discharge of a weapon introduced -into the mouth, Dr. Smith says it may be taken for granted that the -case is one of suicide. It is, however, possible, even under such -circumstances, for a person to be assassinated in this way. When death -has been caused by firearms, the fingers and hands of the deceased -should be carefully examined, in order to detect the presence of -discoloration. In several instances, a murder has been discovered by a -careful examination of the wadding. In two cases on record, the wadding -being examined, it was discovered to have been torn from paper found in -the possession of the parties on whom suspicion had rested. - -Some time back, the body of a man was found lying on the high-road. The -throat was severely cut, and he had evidently died from hemorrhage. A -bloody knife was discovered at some distance from the body; and this, -together with the circumstance of the pockets of the deceased having -been rifled, led to a suspicion of murder. This idea was confirmed -when the wound was examined. It was cut, not as is usual in suicide, -by carrying the instrument from before backwards, but as the throats -of sheep are cut. The knife had passed in deeply under and below the -ear, and had been brought out by a semi-circular sweep in front, all -the great vessels of the neck, with the œsophagus and trachea, -having been divided from behind forwards. The nature of the wound -rendered it at once improbable that it could have been self-inflicted; -and it further served to detect the murderer, who was soon afterwards -discovered, and executed. - -With reference to the _extent_ of the wound, the celebrated Earl of -Essex’s case has often been quoted. He was found dead in the Tower, -in 1683, and it was the generally received opinion that he had been -murdered by persons hired by the Duke of York, afterwards King James -II. Upon examining the wound, it was found that the jugular vessels, -trachea, and œsophagus, were cut through to the very neck-bone. -The verdict was suicide. In 1688, the matter was revived, and before a -committee of the House of Lords,[76] it was proved that the razor with -which the wound was inflicted was found on the left side of the body, -while it was known that the Earl was left-handed. The edge of the razor -was found notched; and it was also proved that the cravat worn by the -deceased was cut through, and his right hand was wounded in five places. - -As there was much political feeling mixed up with this case, it was -difficult to arrive at the truth. That many persons who have cut their -throats have divided the neck to the vertebræ is a well-known fact. -In the case of Mr. Calcraft, all the large vessels in the neck were -divided, and the throat was cut through to the vertebral column. - -In the case of Sellis, much stress was laid by Sir E. Home on the -wound being _regular_; he observes, “_any struggle would have made it -irregular_.” Although there were points connected with this remarkable -case which naturally tended to excite suspicion, we cannot but declare -that the Duke of Cumberland most clearly vindicated himself from the -foul charge which party feeling and private malevolence had endeavoured -to establish against him. - -Many doubtful cases may be decided by taking into consideration the -moral circumstances connected with them. A girl was discovered dead. -Suspicion rested upon her mother, who had severely beaten the child. It -was, however, clearly proved that the girl had been repeatedly heard -to declare her intention to commit suicide. Persons should be examined -as to the state of mind of the party found dead; whether he or she -laboured under an hereditary predisposition to suicidal insanity, or -had been exposed to the influence of causes likely to cause melancholy -or a depressed state of feeling. If all these points be carefully -considered, a fair conclusion may be arrived at in the majority -of cases that occur, and which are made the subject of judicial -investigation. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -STATISTICS OF SUICIDE. - - - Number of suicides in the chief capitals of Europe from 1813 - to 1831—Statistics of death from violence in London from 1828 - to 1832—Number of suicides in London for a century and a - half—Suicides in Westminster from 1812 to 1836—Suicide more - frequent among men than women—Mode of committing—Influence of - age—Effect of the married state—Infantile suicides—M. Guerry - on suicides in France—Cases—Suicide and murder—Suicide in - Geneva. - -In Great Britain, owing to the neglect of statistical science, much -difficulty has been experienced in obtaining anything like correct data -respecting the number of suicides committed annually. For the details -given in this chapter we are indebted to various authorities. Every -work has been consulted which it was supposed would throw some light on -the subject. - - -_Number of Suicides in the chief Capitals of Europe._ - - - Places. Periods. Suicides. Proportion - to Population. - - Berlin 1813-1822 360 1 in 750 - Copenhagen 1804-1806 100 1 — 1,000 - Naples 1828 330 1 — 1,100 - Hamburg 1822 59 1 — 1,800 - Berlin 1799-1808 60 1 — 2,300 - Paris 1836 341 1 — 2,700 - Milan 1827 37 1 — 3,200 - Berlin 1788-1797 35 1 — 4,500 - Vienna 1829 45 1 — 6,400 - Prague 1820 6 1 — 16,000 - Petersburg 1831 22 1 — 21,000 - London 1834 42 1 — 27,000 - Naples 1826 13 1 — 173,000 - Palermo 1831 2 1 — 180,000 - -_Statistics of Suicide & Deaths from Violence in general, in London._ - - 1828. 1829. 1830. 1831. 1832. - ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- - - Suicide 41 35 25 48 52 - Executed 1 26 7 6 10 - Murdered 6 4 2 5 2 - Poisoned 7 7 4 7 4 - Found dead 15 6 13 5 5 - Drowned 150 36 97 131 149 - Burnt 47 53 61 35 36 - From famine 1 0 0 1 1 - From intoxication 7 3 4 0 1 - From suffocation 10 10 5 5 5 - -_Number of Suicides in London during a Century and a half._ - - - From 1690 to 1699 236 - — 1700 — 1709 278 - — 1710 — 1719 301 - — 1720 — 1729 478 - — 1730 — 1739 501 - — 1740 — 1749 422 - — 1750 — 1759 363 - — 1760 — 1769 351 - — 1770 — 1779 339 - — 1780 — 1789 224 - — 1790 — 1799 274 - — 1800 — 1809 347 - — 1810 — 1819 363 - — 1820 — 1829 381 - -_Suicides in Westminster, from 1812 to 1836._ - - (Extract from Report of Medical Committee of the Statistical - Society of London. April, 1837.) - -“The first statement to which the Committee will draw the attention -of the Council is an account of the number of persons, male and -female, who have committed suicide, and upon whom inquests have been -held, within the city and liberty of Westminster, in each month, from -January, 1812, to December, 1836, procured from Mr. Higg, the deputy -coroner of Westminster; with other statements which the Committee had -prepared from it. - -“The Committee deems it right to premise that caution must be used -in drawing too general inferences from these statements, on account -of the comparatively small number of cases to which they refer. The -average annual number of suicides upon which inquests have been held in -Westminster does not probably exceed one per cent. of the total number -annually committed in Great Britain; hence the number committed in -Westminster during twenty-five years, amounting to 656, is only about -twenty-five per cent. of the whole number annually committed in Great -Britain. - -“For some conclusions, however, they afford sufficient data, and these -the Committee will proceed to notice. - -“It appears from the following abstract, No. 1, that suicides in -Westminster are most prevalent in the three months of June, July, and -March; but that the excess is on the part of the males, as the greatest -number of female suicides was in January, September, and November. -September, August, and October exhibit the smallest number of male and -of total suicides; but February, March, and April, the smallest number -among females. - -No. 1. - - _A Statement of the total number of Suicides of each Sex - committed in Westminster in each month during the twenty-five - years, from 1812 to 1836; also the per centage proportion of - the whole number committed in each month; and the proportion - which the number of each sex bears to the other._ - - +----------------------------+------------------------+--------------------+ - │ Total Number of Suicides | Per Centage Proportion |Per Cent. Proportion| - | from 1812 to 1816. |committed in each Month.| of Male to Female. | - +----------------------------+------------------------+--------------------+ - | Male. Female. Total.| Male. Female. Total. | Male and Female. | - |January 35 20 55 | 7.3 11.2 8.4 | 64 36 | - |February 39 12 51 | 8.2 6.8 7.8 | 77 23 | - |March 52 11 63 | 10.9 6.2 9.6 | 83 17 | - |April 40 11 51 | 8.4 6.2 7.8 | 79 21 | - |May 41 15 56 | 8.5 8.4 8.5 | 73 27 | - |June 60 15 75 | 12.6 8.4 11.4 | 80 20 | - |July 50 16 66 | 10.5 9.0 10.1 | 76 24 | - |August 30 15 45 | 6.3 8.4 6.9 | 67 38 | - |September 30 18 48 | 6.3 10.1 7.4 | 62 38 | - |October 28 15 43 | 5.9 8.4 6.5 | 65 35 | - |November 32 17 49 | 6.7 9.6 7.4 | 65 35 | - |December 41 13 54 | 8.5 7.3 8.2 | 76 24 | - | ---- --- --- | ---- --- --- | -- -- | - | Total 478 178 656 | 100. 100. 100. | 73 27 | - +----------------------------+------------------------+--------------------+ - -“The last two columns in the above account shew more precisely the -proportion of female to male suicides in each month. - -“The following statement shews the number of times, during the -twenty-five years, that no suicide was committed during each month:— - - - February .. Not once. - - January } - March } Once. - June } - - July Twice. - - May } Three - August } times. - December } - - April } Four times. - October } - - September } Five times. - November } - -“From No. 2 it appears that the average annual number of suicides in -Westminster has been increasing in each quinquennial period; but No. -3 shews that it has actually decreased with reference to the increase -which has taken place in the population. - - -No. 2. - -_A Statement of the Average Annual Number of Suicides, Male and Female, -in each Quinquennial Period; also, the proportion per cent. which the -two Sexes bore to each other in each period._ - - - +------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ - | Periods of Years.| Average Annual Number.|Proportion of each Sex.| - +------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ - | | Male. Female. Total. | Male. Female. | - | | | | - | 1812 to 1816 | 18.2 7.6 25.8 | 70 30 | - | 1817 —— 1821 | 15.0 5.2 20.2 | 74 26 | - | 1822 —— 1826 | 16.4 7.4 23.8 | 69 31 | - | 1827 —— 1831 | 22.0 7.8 29.8 | 78 22 | - | 1832 —— 1836 | 24.0 7.9 31.9 | 76 24 | - | +-----------------------+-----------------------+ - | Average of Total | 19.1 7.1 26.3 | 73 27 | - +------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ - -No. 3. - -_A Statement of the Population of the City and Liberty of Westminster, -according to each census, and the proportion which the number of -Suicides in the Quinquennial Period immediately following each census -bore to the population._ - - +--------+-----------+-------------------------------+------------------+ - | | | | Proportion | - |Dates of|Population.| Suicides. | of Suicides | - |Census. | | |to the Population.| - | | | | One in | - +--------+--------------------------+----------------+------------------+ - | | | Quinquennial | Average | | - | | | Periods. | Annual Number. | | - | | | | | | - | 1811 | 160,801 | 1812 to 1816 | 25.8 | 6,232 | - | 1821 | 181,444 | 1822 -- 1826 | 23.8 | 7,623 | - | 1831 | 201,604 | 1832 -- 1836 | 31.6 | 6,379 | - | +-----------+--------------+----------------+------------------+ - |Average | 181,283 | .. | 27.06 | 6,744 | - +--------+-----------+--------------+----------------+------------------+ - -“It must, however, be taken into consideration that suicides committed -in Westminster may not belong to the population of the district, -for that the proximity of the river, and other causes existing in -Westminster, may attract persons residing in other parts of the town. -Hence an increase or decrease of facilities for committing suicide in -the surrounding districts, such as the formation of a canal, &c., will -naturally affect the number of such deaths in Westminster.”[77] - -It has been clearly established that suicide is less frequent among -women than men. In early life, death by hanging is preferred; in -middle life, firearms are had recourse to; and in more advanced years, -strangulation again becomes the fashionable mode of terminating life. - - - Years of Age. Pistol. Hanging. - Between 10 and 20[78] 61 68 - 28 -- 30 283 51 - 49 -- 50 182 94 - 60 -- 70 150 188 - 80 -- 90 161 256 - -In an analysis of 525 cases of suicide in Prussia, the following was -the result:— - - Hanging 234 - Shooting 163 - Drowning 60 - Cutting throat 17 - Stabbing 20 - Jumping out of window 19 - Poison 10 - Opening artery 2 - --- - 525 - -Marriage is to a certain extent a preventive of suicide; it has been -satisfactorily established that among the men two-thirds who destroy -themselves are bachelors. - -In M. A. Guerry’s able “Essai sur la Statisque Morale de la France,” -published in 1833, we find some valuable statistical facts relating to -suicide in France. - -It appears on evidence of the most authentic description, that, from -the year 1827 to that of 1830, there were committed throughout France -no less than 6900 suicides! that is to say, an average of nearly 1800 -per annum! It should, however, be remembered, that this calculation -is founded only upon judicial documents, in which are included merely -those cases of suicide in which death has followed, or in which legal -proceedings were taken; so that it is not improbable that many more -attempts were made to perpetrate this crime of which the public is -quite ignorant. - -Taking up this fact, let us consider that the number of crimes against -the person amounts yearly in France to 1900. Now, it appears that more -than 600 of these crimes consist of attempts on the lives of others; so -that the conclusion cannot be resisted, that every time an individual -in France meets with a violent death, in any other way but by accident -or mere homicide, there are three chances to one that he has committed -suicide. - -M. Guerry makes a transition to the geographical position of this -crime throughout the several arbitrary divisions, and he finds the -state of the case to be as follows:— - -Out of every hundred suicides which take place on the average every -year, there are committed in the - - Suicides. - Northern division 51 - Southern — 11 - Eastern — 16 - Western — 13 - Central — 9 - - -Another view of the proportion of suicides in France is, that which -takes place in the number of them, as compared with the amount of the -population. It is as follows:— - - _Suicides in proportion to Population._ - - Northern division 1 in 9,853 - Eastern — 1 in 21,734 - Central — 1 in 27,393 - Western — 1 in 30,499 - Southern — 1 in 30,876 - -It is proper to bear in mind, that in the single department of the -Seine, there are perpetrated every year nearly the sixth part of -the whole number of suicides which take place in all the eighty-six -departments of France. It is said, however, that the greater portion -of those persons who commit suicide in this department are altogether -strangers to the capital. We come, then, to this conclusion, that of -the thousand individuals who are guilty of the crime of suicide, no -less than five hundred and five take place in the department of the -north; one hundred and sixty-eight occur in the southern division; -sixty-five in the western; and fifty-two in the central; a distribution -which shews that there is, if not the same proportion, certainly the -same order, as the distribution of suicides in the five divisions in -respect of the amount of population. - -In the explanation which is appended to the table just alluded to, the -author shews, that of the suicides committed in the department of the -Seine, where they are most numerous, there appears to be one suicide -for every 3,600 the inhabitants; whilst in the department of the Haute -Soire, where the crime is less frequent, this proportion does not -amount to more than one in 163,000 inhabitants. - -A singularly curious inference is to be drawn from the consideration -of the facts presented in another of M. Guerry’s graphic -illustrations—viz., that which arises from the circumstance, that from -whatever confine of France an inquirer proceeds to the capital, he will -find, as he approaches it, that the number of suicides increases by -a regular gradation; so that in those departments which are near the -Seine and Maine, the traveller will discover that more suicides have -been committed than in those more remote from the metropolis, such -as the departments of the Lower Seine, of Aube and Soiret. The same -observation applies as forcibly to Marseilles, which is in some measure -to be considered the capital of certain departments in the south of -France. The more these districts are in the vicinity of Marseilles, the -greater the amount is there of suicides as compared with the number of -the population. - -A curious fact has been elicited in the examination of the French -registers of crime, from which it appears that those divisions of the -kingdom of France in which the most frequent attempts have been made to -commit murder are those divisions exactly where the crime of suicide is -most rare; and it has been further proved that precisely the reverse of -this law takes place in other departments; namely, that where suicides -are numerous in proportion to the population, there the number of -murders committed by individuals on others is considerably diminished. -One peculiarity is mentioned by M. Guerry as being connected with -cases of suicide, which is, that we are much oftener enlightened as -to the cause of it than we are upon the motives of most other crimes, -and that it is rarely the case that any person sets about the crime -of self-destruction without leaving in writing, or in some other way, -the expression of his last wishes, together with an explanation of the -causes of the rash act, which he most generally seeks to justify. - -Holcroft, in speaking of the number of suicides in Paris, observes, “I -am not well informed on the subject, but I doubt if as many suicides be -committed through all Great Britain _in a year, as in Paris alone in a -month_. It is the practice of the French police to stifle inquiry and -conceal facts, whenever they are of a disagreeable nature; for they tax -its omnipotence, to something little short of which it pretends: all -things are under its protection; its eye is everywhere; the assaulted -cannot sink; the culprit cannot escape; its guardian arm is stretched -out so effectually to save that none are in danger. Such are its high -claims and the daily assertion it repeats; they are the necessary -results of despotism, which, ever on the alarm, will in everything -interfere. - -“The Parisians are in general themselves so ignorant that the things -which they see produce only a momentary impression; none but men of -superior minds collect facts and deduce consequences; the rest discern -with great quickness, but they forget with greater; and it is chiefly -from this forgetfulness that their gaiety of heart is derived. - -“In England, misfortunes, so far from being concealed, are sought after -with eagerness by people who are paid for the bad news they bring, -and by whom it is sometimes greatly exaggerated. If the tale do not -astonish, it is scarcely worthy to be reported in our newspapers, and -the tales in these newspapers circulate through Europe. This is a -benefit when truth is not falsified. - -“Of the suicides which are daily happening in France, I, who read the -daily journals, saw only two noticed; and these I was surprised to see. -One was an officer in the army who pistolled himself at the public -office of the war minister; and the other a poor wretch who, at the -moment before he threw himself from the upper story of one of the high -houses in Paris, called out in mercy to the passengers, _Garde l’eau!_ -the phrase used by the Parisians when they throw water out of a window. -I was told of another suicide of the same kind, and with the same -humane caution, while I was at Paris. - -“I likewise saw the body of a man borne through the streets, who, -after having breakfasted at a hut in _les Champs Elysées_, put an end -to his existence. Before doing so, he told the people that he had been -a subaltern officer of a regiment then reduced; and that all means of -procuring a livelihood was lost. - -“Nine conscripts who had for a time concealed themselves, but who were -at last discovered, being determined not to serve, encouraged each -other rather to die, and voluntarily ended life by drowning themselves -together. - -“I was passing _le Pont des Tuileries_ after dark, and saw a man -surrounded by other men. They had deterred him on the bridge from -jumping over; but they could not prevail on him to tell his name, or to -go home. He appeared to be determined in his purpose; the only resource -they had was, at last, to commit him to the guard; but unless his state -of mind could be altered, safety like this was but merely temporary. - -“Another evening, on the same bridge, and about the same hour, a woman, -standing near the centre parapet, attracted my attention by her look, -and manner in which she seemed to be examining the river. I stopped; -she desisted, but did not remove. I was uncertain what her intentions -might be, and she appeared to shun notice. Two other passengers, -guessing my doubts, halted; but either their fears were not so strong -as mine, or their patience was less; they stood a few minutes and -left. I felt as if I did not dare to go, yet could not decide how to -act, from the fear of doing wrong. At length the woman moved towards -the end of the bridge, and I was obliged to leave her to her fate. -I was not certain her intentions were ill; to have charged her with -such might deeply have insulted her. I walked home, however, in a most -dissatisfied state of mind; at one minute, proving to myself I could -not act otherwise, and at another, making self-accusations for having -deserted the duties of humanity. - -“The number of suicides that really happen in Paris must exceed, -no man can say how much, those that are actually known. The bodies -exposed at _La Morgue_ are most of them brought from _St. Cloud_; the -distance to which by water must be above three, perhaps four miles. -At the bridge of _St. Cloud_ the fishermen nightly spread their nets; -and in the morning, with the fish, these bodies are drawn up; but as -an old inhabitant of _St. Cloud_, whom I strictly questioned on the -subject, assured me the nets were only suffered to be down a stated -number of hours, according to the season, certainly not upon an average -half a day; and in proof of what he said, he observed to me that this -regulation must take place, or the navigation of the river would be -impeded. Hence, by the most moderate calculation, the number of bodies -that escape the nets must at least equal the number of those that are -caught. - -“I was told that the government had lately refused the accustomed fee -to the fishermen for each corpse they brought, and that they would not -continue to drag up the dead bodies, affirming that the money they -had before received was insufficient to pay the damage their nets had -sustained.” - -The following statistical facts with reference to suicide in Geneva may -be relied upon:— - -By the laws of the canton, each case of violent death is investigated -by a police magistrate, and the documents are sent to the -“Procureur-Generale,” and carefully preserved. M. Prevost has examined -these documents, collected between 1825 and 1834 inclusively, with a -view to investigating the causes of suicide, and of diminishing them if -possible. The following are the most important results:— - - -1.—_Age._ - - Ages. No. of Cases in 10 years. Men. Women. - From 50 to 60 34 25 9 - 20 to 30 30 22 8 - 60 to 70 19 10 9 - 30 to 40 18 15 3 - 40 to 50 15 13 2 - 70 to 80 9 6 3 - 10 to 20 5 3 2 - 80 to 90 3 1 2 - - -From this table it appears that suicides are most frequent between 50 -and 60 years of age. The age when the passions are the strongest (from -20 to 30) is, as might be expected, high in the scale; that of youth -and old age low, from the young being strangers to the cares of life, -and the old few in number when compared with the population. - - -2.—_Sex, and State of Marriage or Celibacy._ - -There are more suicides among men than women, in the proportion of -95 to 38, or about three to one; and more unmarried than married, -or in the state of widowhood, in the proportion of 70 to 63, or -about seven to six. Notwithstanding this, the female suicides are -more numerous among the married and widows than among the unmarried, -in the proportion of 21 to 17. But among men the proportions are -reversed,—that is, 42 to 53; so that, on the whole, suicides are more -frequent among the unmarried than amongst those who are or have been -married. This will not surprise those who know the energy, courage, -and patience of women under misfortune; men more readily give way -to despair, and to vices consequent upon it. Men also have means of -destruction, as firearms, &c., more readily at hand. - - -3.—_Occupations._ - -The number of suicides are in proportion to the number of the -individuals engaged in various trades, except among the agricultural -population, where the proportion is very small. Thus the agricultural -population of the canton is 18,000, among whom, during ten years, -there have been but ten suicides; whereas, if they had been in the -same proportion to the whole number as was found in other occupations, -they would have amounted to thirty-nine. Constant occupation and hard -yet healthy work render them less sensible to the cares of life. There -is also a somewhat larger proportion of suicides among the educated -classes, who are engaged in literary pursuits or the higher branches of -commerce. - -4.—_Religion._ - -The relative proportion of Protestants to Catholics in the canton of -Geneva is, according to the census of 1834, as 77 to 56. Thus— - - - Of 133 inhabitants there are, - Protestants 77 - Catholics 56 - --- - 133 - - Of 133 cases of suicide there are, - Protestants 107 - Catholics 26 - --- - 133 - -This result should attract the attention of those who are interested in -the moral and religious education of Protestants. - - -5.—_Means of Destruction._ - - Drowning 55 - Firearms 31 - Strangulation 18 - Voluntary falls 15 - Cutting instruments 7 - Poison 7 - --- - 133 - -In a small province, with a lake and two rapid rivers, it is not -surprising that drowning should be the most frequent mode of suicide; -next to this is death by firearms, which is accounted for by all the -men having firearms, as they are in the militia. Whilst the men have -used firearms and cutting instruments, the women have almost alone had -recourse to poisons and voluntary falls. - - -6.—_Seasons._ - -The seasons sensibly influence the number of suicides. There are more -almost constantly in April. Of 133 suicides there were in— - - April 19 - June 17 - August 17 - July 15 - October 14 - May 13 - March 10 - November 9 - September 6 - January 5 - February 5 - December 3 - -The spring appears to have an unfavourable effect; and during the great -heats, there are more suicides than during the cold weather. It is -curious that many suicides happened on the same day or week. Thus, on -April 9th, 1830, there were two suicides, and several others on the -previous and subsequent days; on the 20th of May, 1830, there were two -suicides; on the 28th and 29th of March, 1831, two; and the same on the -3rd and 4th of July of the same year. On the 20th of April, 1833, there -were two; and on the 5th of July, 1833, two others. Some atmospheric -changes may account for this, though meteorological tables did not -satisfactorily explain them. - - -7.—_Presumed Motives._ - - Physical disease 34 - Insanity 24 - Losses of property 19 - Domestic grief 15 - Melancholy without known cause 13 - Bad conduct. Drunkenness 10 - Fear of punishment. Remorse 6 - Disappointment in love 6 - Gambling 4 - Mysterious 2 - - -8.—_Relation of Suicides to Population and to Deaths._ - -The number of suicides is to the whole number of deaths as 1 to 90-1/8; -and to the whole population as 1 to 3·985; the mean population of the -canton during the last ten years being 53,000— - - In 1825 6 Suicides. - 1826 6 ” - 1827 9 ” - 1828 13 ” - 1829 13 ” - 1830 16 ” - 1831 18 ” - 1832 12 ” - 1833 24 ” - 1834 16 ” - —- - 133 - -From this table it appears that the number of suicides has gradually -increased from six as high as twenty-four in eight years. The last -year, it decreased to sixteen; and it is fervently hoped that this -deduction may be maintained, and that the increase may not be so -frightfully rapid as it appears to have been. It must, however, be -taken into account, that the population was, in 1822, 51,113, and in -1834, 56,655. The police also are more active, and inquests are held -more regularly. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -APPEARANCES PRESENTED AFTER DEATH IN THOSE WHO HAVE COMMITTED SUICIDE. - - - Thickness of cranium—State of membranes and vessels of - brain—Osseous excrescences—Appearances discovered in one - thousand three hundred and thirty-three cases—Lesions of the - lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines—Effect of long-continued - indigestion. - -As in cases of insanity, the morbid appearances discovered in the -bodies of suicides are varied and contradictory. Nothing has yet been -detected which can lead the pathologist to a correct conclusion as to -the nature of the organic change which precedes and accompanies the -suicidal mania. - -The cranium has in many cases been found preternaturally thick, and in -others the reverse. Greeding and Gall give their testimony in favour of -the skull’s thickness. Out of 216 examined, a preternatural thickness -of cranium was found in 167. Out of 100 who died of furious mania, 78 -had the skull thick, and 20 very thin. Out of 30 fatuous patients, 21 -had thick crania, and six thin. The thickness of the cranial bones in -melancholy and maniacal patients, and in old people, was supposed by -Dr. Gall to be connected with diminished size of the brain, to which -the inner table of the cranial bone accommodated itself; and together -with this thickness, he considered there was also thickness of the -membranes, and ossification of the blood-vessels. - -Malformations of the cranium are often detected. Osiander relates -the case of an old man who had suffered for a considerable time from -dreadful headache, and who, weary of life, hanged himself. On examining -the head, small osseous excrescences were found near the carotid -foramen. Lancisi refers to a case of hypochondriasis and suicide, in -which, after death, a sharp long excrescence was found near the apex of -the lambdoid suture. - -From an examination of the particulars of 1333 cases of persons who -have committed suicide, and who have been examined after death, the -following analysis is made. The particulars of the cases referred -to are recorded in the works of Pinel, Esquirol, Falret, Foderé, -Arntzenius, Schlegel, Burrows, Haslam, &c. - - Thickness of cranium 150 - No apparent structural change 100 - Bony excrescences 50 - Tumours in brain 10 - Simple congestion 300 - Disease of membranes 170 - Disease of lungs 100 - Softening of brain 100 - Appearances of inflammation in brain 90 - Disease of stomach 100 - Disease of intestines 50 - Disease of liver 80 - Suppressed natural secretions 15 - Disease of heart 10 - Syphilitic disease 8 - ---- - 1333 - -Accretions of the membranes of the brain are often found in suicides. -The dura mater is often ossified, and the pia mater inflamed, and the -arachnoid thickened. Osiander considers congestion of the vessels of -the brain a frequent cause of suicide. - -Auenbrugger refers to the case of a man who had suffered for a long -duration severe headache, and who committed suicide. After death, a -fissure was found in the middle of the pons varolii. - -Lesions of the lungs are among the common morbid appearances in the -bodies of lunatics. Esquirol states that one fourth of the melancholic -die of consumption. - -The heart is sometimes found seriously disorganized. The stomach, -liver, and intestines, are the most frequent seats of morbid phenomena -in these cases. It is difficult, however, to say whether they ought -to be considered as the effect or cause of the suicidal disposition. -In many cases of gastric disease, the brain is also found organically -affected. How is it possible for us to say which organ was primarily -affected? The stomach, intestines, and liver, may be originally the -seat of the irritation, and the brain may be sympathetically deranged. -This is often the case. Again, the patient may have laboured under a -severe mental ailment, which may give rise to disease of the splanchnic -viscera. Severe and long-continued indigestion, from whatever cause -it may originate, will, in certain dispositions, produce the suicidal -mania. Very few cases are examined in which we are not able to detect -some disease of the gastric organ or its appendages. - -It is not our wish to throw discredit on, or to underrate the value of, -morbid anatomy; but, with reference to the peculiar branch of inquiry -now under investigation, we must confess that very little practical -importance can be attached to the structural lesions which the industry -and scalpel of the anatomists have enabled them to discover in the -bodies of those who have committed suicide. The morbid appearances are -so varied and capricious that they cannot lead to a sound conclusion -as to the exact seat of the disease. In many cases, the brain is -apparently free from structural derangement; and yet, reasoning -physiologically, we must believe that in every case the sentient organ -must be affected, either primarily or secondarily. There are many -instances in which there cannot be a doubt but that the cerebral organ -is the seat of the disease, but in which, after death, no vestige of -the malady can be discovered! - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -SINGULAR CASES OF SUICIDE. - - - Introduction—Contempt of death—Eustace Budgel—M. de Boissy - and his wife—Mutual suicides from disappointed love—Suicide - from mortification—Mutual suicide from poverty—A French lady - while out shooting—A fisherman after praying—Determination - to commit if not cured—Extraordinary case of suicide after - seduction—Madame C. from remorse—M. de Pontalba after trying - to murder his daughter-in-law—Young lady in a pet—Sir George - Dunbar—James Sutherland while George III. was passing—Lancet - given by a wife to her husband to kill himself—Servant - girl—Curious verses by a suicide—Robber on being recognised—A - man who ordered a candle to be made of his fat—After - gaming—Writing whilst dying—From misfortune just at a moment - of relief—Curious papers written by a suicide—By heating a - barrel in the fire—By tearing out the brains—Sisters by the - injunction of their eldest sister—Mutual from poverty—Girl - from a dream—Three servants in one pond—Indifference as to - mode—By starvation—A man forty-five days without eating—Mutual - of two boys after dining at a restaurateur’s—By putting head - under the ice—By a pair of spectacles—By jumping amongst - the bears—Young lady from gambling—Verses by a suicide—To - obtain salvation—A lover after accidentally shooting his - mistress—Mutual attempt at suicide—M. Kleist and Madame - Vogle—Richard Smith and wife—Love and suicide—Bishop - of Grenoble—Suicide in a pail of water—Mutual of two - soldiers—Lord Scarborough—A man who advertised to kill himself - for benefit of family—The case of Creech, and the romantic - history of Madame de Monier—Suicide of M. ——, after threatening to - kill his brother—Two young men—Two lovers—Homicide and suicide - from jealousy—Cure of penchant for—Attempt to, prevented—Man - in a belfry—Attempt at—The extraordinary case of Lovat by - crucifixion. - -In the preceding chapters we have detailed the history of many -remarkable cases of self-destruction. It is melancholy to consider -that the principle of life with which God has endowed us for high and -noble purposes should have been sacrificed with that apparent coolness -and self-possession which was manifested in many of the instances -recorded in this work. - - “How we abuse that article our life! Some people pluck it - Out with a knife; some blow it up with powder; others duck it;— - One thing is sure, and Horace - Has already said it for us,— - Sooner or later, all must kick the inevitable bucket.” - -A gladiatorial contempt of death is becoming one of the most alarming -features of the time; in this respect we appear ambitious to imitate -the conduct of the French sophists, and seek, in acts of desperation, -a notoriety that nothing else can give us. In investigating, as we -have endeavoured to do, the motives that have led to this heinous -offence, we have in many cases been unsuccessful in tracing the act -to any definite principle. Either no reasons have been assigned or -the accounts of the cases transmitted to us have been imperfect. -These individuals stand apart from the rest of the world, and exhibit -an anomaly in the last act of life totally irreconcilable to all -acknowledged principles of reason and human action. Eccentric in their -lives, they have been desirous of manifesting the ruling passion strong -in death. This mental idiosyncracy may be, and no doubt often is, the -result of original constitution, aided in its development by the moral -atmosphere in which the person is placed, as well as by education and -other circumstances which are known to influence the formation of the -mind and character. - -The singular facts adduced in this chapter are only brought forward -as evidence of that anomalous condition of the mind referred to which -leads to suicide; at the same time the instances will afford to the -metaphysician valuable materials to assist him in his investigations -into the philosophy of the human understanding. Some of the cases -related, of course, admit of elucidation, but the majority will be -found to puzzle the ingenuity even of those who pride themselves on -their capacity of understanding what is beyond the ken of ordinary -mortals. - -Eustace Budgel was a man of much literary fame at the beginning of the -last century, the relation and friend of Addison, and a distinguished -writer in the periodical publications of that day. He was born to -a good fortune, and held a considerable place under government -whilst Addison lived, who kept him in some order as to his political -character. But having lost all court favour after Addison’s decease, -and being a man of great expense and vanity, having also sunk a large -sum of money in the South Sea scheme, and having involved himself in -a number of fruitless litigations, he became highly distressed in his -circumstances. This, added to the chagrin of disappointed ambition and -to other matters, determined him to make away with himself. He had -always thought but lightly of revelation, and after Addison’s death -became an avowed free-thinker, which laxity of principle strongly -concurred in disposing him to adopt this fatal resolution. Accordingly, -after having been visibly agitated and almost distracted for several -days, he took a boat, and ordered the waterman to go through London -bridge. While the boat was under the bridge, Budgel threw himself -overboard, having had the previous caution to fill his pockets with -stones. This happened in the year 1737. It was said to have been -Budgel’s opinion, “that when life becomes uneasy to support, and is -overwhelmed with clouds and sorrows, man has a natural right to deprive -himself of it, as it is better not to live than to live in pain.” A -man of unsettled principles easily persuades himself into the notion -of suicide when he is actually suffering from some violence of his -passions, even though he had not imbibed it before. For whenever the -passions attempt to reason, it is only on the delusive suggestions -of their own perturbed feelings. The morning before Budgel carried -his deadly intentions into execution, he endeavoured to persuade his -daughter to accompany him in his death. His only argument to her was, -that her life was not worth holding; but she thought otherwise, and -refused to concur in the sacrifice. A slip of paper was left on his -writing-table, containing these few words, as an apology for his rash -act:— - - “What Cato did and Addison approved - Cannot be wrong.” - -Monsieur de Boissy, a French dramatic writer and satirist, being -reduced to great indigence, resolved to commit suicide. As he -considered this action in no other light than as a friendly relief from -further misery, he not only persuaded his wife to bear him company, -but prevailed on her not to leave their child of five years old behind -them, to the mercy of that world in which they had experienced so -little sympathy and happiness. Nothing now remained but to fix on -the mode of their death. They at length agreed to starve themselves. -This not only seemed to them the most natural consequence of their -condition, but also saved them from committing a violence either on -their child, themselves, or each other, of which perhaps neither Boissy -nor his wife found themselves capable. They determined therefore to -wait with unshaken constancy the arrival of death under the meagre form -of famine; and accordingly they shut themselves up in the solitude of -their apartment, where, on account of their distresses, they had little -reason to dread the interruption of company. They began, and resolutely -persisted in their plan of starving themselves to death with their -child. If any one called by chance at their apartment, they found it -locked, and receiving no answer, it was concluded that nobody was at -home. A friend, however, from that kind of instinct perhaps with which -the spirit of friendship abounds, began to apprehend that something -must be much amiss with Boissy, as he could neither find him at home, -nor get intelligence concerning him. Under much anxiety he returned -once more to his apartment; and, whether from hearing any groans from -within, or suspecting something was wrong, he ventured to break open -the door. Boissy and his wife had been so much in earnest, that it was -now three days since they had taken any sustenance, and they were so -far on their way to their intended home, that they were in sight, as it -were, of the gates of death. The friend, entering into the room where -this scene of death was going forward, found the miserable pair in such -a situation as to be insensible of his intrusion. Boissy and his wife -had no eyes but for each other, and were not sitting in, but rather -supported from falling on the ground by two chairs set opposite to each -other. Their hands were locked together, and in their ghastly looks -was painted a kind of rueful compassion for their child, which hung at -the mother’s knee, and seemed as if looking up to her for nourishment, -in its natural tenaciousness of life. This group of wretchedness did -not less shock than afflict his friend. But soon collecting from -circumstances what it must mean, his first care was not to expostulate -with Boissy or his wife, but to engage them to receive his succours, in -which he found no small difficulty. Their resolution had been taken in -earnest. They had got over the worst, and were in sight of their port. -Their friend, however, took the right way of reconciling them to live -by making the child join in the intercession. The child, who could have -none of the prejudices or reasons they might have for not retracting, -held up his little hands, and in concert with him entreated his parents -to consent to live. Nature did not plead in vain. They were gradually -restored to life, and provided with everything that could make them in -good humour with its return. - -Euphrosine Lemoine was the daughter of a bourgeoise of the Faubourg -St. Antoine. She loved, and had admitted to secret interviews, a -young cabinetmaker of the neighbourhood. Her parents, however, had -long intended her to marry Mr. B——, a man of some property. She -reluctantly consented—pronounced the “_fatal yes_;” and the young man -prudently left Paris for some years. In 1836 he yielded to the desire -of once more seeing her he had loved. They met, and the husband was -dishonoured. This was followed by an elopement; but the husband, who -still loved his wife in spite of her crimes, discovered their retreat, -and by the intervention of friends and of the police a reconciliation -was effected—in vain. They again eloped, but only to perish together; -and they were found dead, eight days after, locked in each other’s -arms, in a miserable apartment they had hired for the purpose. Before -the suicide, one of them had sketched with coal on the wall of their -retreat two flaming hearts, and beneath, this inscription—“We have -sworn eternal love, and death, terrible death, shall find us united.” - -A boatman discovered in the Seine a mass which the stream seemed to -roll along with difficulty; he found it was two bodies, a young woman -about twenty, tastefully dressed, and a young man in the uniform of the -eighth hussars. The left hand and foot of one victim were laid to the -right hand and foot of the other. A bit of paper, carefully wrapped -up in parchment to preserve it from the water, told their names and -motives:— - -“O you, whoever you may be, compassionate souls, who shall find these -two bodies united, know that we loved each other with the most ardent -affection, and that we have perished together, that we may be eternally -united. Know, compassionate souls, that our last desire is, that you -should place us, united as we are, in the same grave. Man should not -separate those whom death has joined. - - (Signed), “FLORINE. GOYON.” - - -Some years ago, a light was observed in the church of Rueil. This -singular appearance occasioned a search; on the approach of the -authorities the light was extinguished, but a woman’s stays were found -on the pavement. The beadle of the church was met, apparently much -agitated. On a further search, the proprietress of the stays was found -concealed in a press under the _draps mortuaires_, (the parish pall.) -The unhappy man, on the detection of this profanation, drowned himself. - -M. Malglaive, a half-pay officer, lately employed in a public office, -had suffered some unexpected pecuniary losses. One of his friends -received a note from him by the twopenny post, requesting him to call -at his lodgings, where he would find a packet addressed to him. On -proceeding there, and opening the packet, he found a letter in these -words:— - -“When you shall have received this letter, my poor Eleanore and I will -be no more. Be so good as to have our door opened; you will find our -eyes closed for ever. We are weary of misfortunes, and don’t see how we -can do better than end them. Satisfied of the courage and attachment -of my excellent wife, I was certain that she would adopt my views, and -take her share in my design.” - -These young people (for the husband was but thirty-four and the wife -twenty-eight) had taken the most minute precautions to render the -effect of the fumes of charcoal certain; but a brace of loaded pistols -was placed on the night table, to be used if the charcoal had failed. - -Madame de F—— killed herself in the park of her chateau, with _her own_ -fowling-piece, which she took out on pretence of going shooting, as she -was in the habit of doing. She loaded it with six balls, and placing -the muzzle to her breast, discharged it. The only cause assigned is the -vexation she and M. de F—— felt at her having no children to inherit -their large fortune. - -A fisherman with a large family, residing at Vellon d’Auffes, near -Marseilles, had been driven by domestic trouble to form a design of -suicide, which he had long announced. One Sunday he climbed a high -rock in the neighbourhood, where, in the sight of his friends below, -with a crucifix in his hands, he was evidently saying his last prayer, -preparatory to suicide. One of the neighbours, guessing his intentions, -reached the spot suddenly, and seized him; a struggle ensued on the -edge of the precipice; the unhappy man prevailed, and, escaping from -the arms of his friendly antagonist, flung himself over. - -Voltaire relates the particulars of the following singular case:—An -Englishman of the name of Bacon Morris, a half-pay officer, and a man -of much intellect, called on Voltaire at Paris. The man was afflicted -with a cruel malady, for which he was led to suppose there was no cure. -After a certain number of visits, he one day called on the philosopher, -with a purse and a couple of papers in his hand. “One of these -papers,” he said, addressing Voltaire, “contains my will, the other my -epitaph; and this bag of money is intended to defray the expenses of -my funeral. I am resolved to try for fifteen days what can be effected -by regimen and the remedies prescribed, in order to render life less -insupportable; and if I succeed not, I am determined to kill myself. -You will bury me in what manner you please; my epitaph is short.” He -then read it; it consisted of the following two words from Petronius, -“Valete, curæ”—“Farewell, care.” “Fortunately,” says Voltaire, “for him -and myself, who loved him, he was cured, and did not kill himself.” - -Two young people—Auguste, aged twenty-six, and Henriette, aged -eighteen—had long loved each other, but the parents of the girl would -not consent to the match. In this difficulty the young man wrote to -Henriette:— - -“Men are inexorable. Well, let us set them at defiance. God is -all-powerful; our marriage shall be celebrated in his presence; and -to-morrow, if you love me, we will write, in our blood, at the foot of -the cross, our marriage vow.” - -This proposition turned the weak girl’s head, and she consented. They -proceeded one night to a field near St. Denis, where there was a cross. -On their way they made incisions in both their arms, to procure the -blood in which the following _acte de mariage_ was written:— - -“O great God, who governs the destinies of mankind, take us under thy -holy protection! As man will not unite us, we come on our knees to -implore thy sanction to our indissoluble union. O God, take pity on two -of thy poor children! Assemble all thy heavenly choir, that on so happy -a day they may partake our transports, and be witnesses of the holy joy -that shines in our hearts. O God! O ye angels of heaven and saints of -Paradise! look down upon a happiness which even the blessed may envy. - -“And you, shades of our parents, come to this affecting ceremony, come -and give us your approbation and your blessing. It is in the presence -of you all that we, Pierre Auguste and Marie Henriette, swear to belong -to each other, and to each other only, and to be faithful to each other -to the hour of dissolution. Yes, we swear it—we swear it with one -voice. You are our witnesses, and we are united for life and for death. - - (Signed in letters of blood), “PIERRE AUGUSTE. - “MARIE HENRIETTE.” - -The very day after this visionary marriage it was dissolved by the -suicide of the unfortunate Henriette. The moment her fault had become -irreparable, her betrayer abandoned her, and the poor creature threw -herself into the Seine. On the body was found the foregoing singular -_acte de mariage_, to which she had subjoined, with a feeble hand, the -following note:— - -“He has dishonoured me—the monster! He deceived me by pretences which -went to my heart; but it is he who is to be pitied—wretch that he is!” - -A young woman, of a highly honourable commercial family, put an end to -herself, overwhelmed with the idea of having forfeited the esteem of -her husband. _Rosalie_ had from her youth been destined to be the wife -of M. C——, a gentleman of her own station in life. Their union, though -not distinguished by any transports of love, was soberly and rationally -happy, and they had two children. - -Unfortunately, Madame C—— was obliged by affairs of business to go into -the country while her husband remained in Paris. During this absence, -she appears to have formed a guilty passion, (the circumstances of -which have not been revealed;) but on her return home, the remorse -of her conscience so preyed upon her spirits as to be at last -unsupportable, and, after a long and painful struggle, she resolved -upon suicide. Just before the fatal act, she wrote a long letter to her -sister, of which we can only spare room for the most striking passages:— - -“I have resolved to terminate my existence to-day; but I have not had, -during the whole morning, resolution to leave my poor little children, -who are unconscious of their mother’s agony.... Forgive, my dear -sister, the grief that my death is about to cause you. If my excellent -husband has offended you, forgive him.... If I had appreciated his -worth, I should not be the wretch I am: my negligence towards him -began my misfortune, but I had nothing to reproach myself with till my -fatal journey to Sarcelles—that journey was my ruin!... If I had your -virtues, I should have been the happiest of women; but I allowed myself -to be bewildered by a sentiment which I had not before known, and in my -culpable frenzy I was guilty before I intended it. O, my God! may my -repentance be accepted, and may thy goodness inspire my husband with -a peculiar, an exalted degree of parental affection for those unhappy -and innocent children. Protect them, O, my God, and grant that they may -not curse the memory of their unhappy mother, who was guilty without -intending it. - -“And you, O my dearest Louis, forgive your wretched wife, who offers -you this her last farewell.” - -One may judge the consternation which this affecting letter spread in -the family. The sister, on receiving this letter, hastened with Dr. -Bouillet to Mr. C—— ’s house: it was too late—they found the poor woman -in the last agonies of death, whilst her little children were playing -about the adjoining room, indulging in the sports of their age. - -M. de Pontalba was one of the great proprietors of France. His son had -been a page of Napoleon’s, and afterwards a distinguished officer, -aide-de-camp to Marshal Ney, and a protégé of the Duke of Elchingen. -He married the daughter of Madame d’Almonaster, and for some time they -lived happily; but on the death of her mother, Madame de Pontalba began -to indulge in such extravagances that even the enormous fortune of the -Pontalbas was unequal to it. This led to some remonstrance on the part -of her husband, on the morning after which she disappeared from the -hotel, and neither he nor his children had any clue to her retreat. At -last, after an interval of some months, a letter arrived from her to -her husband, dated New Orleans, in which she announced that she meant -to apply for a divorce; but for eighteen months nothing more was heard -of her, except by her _drafts_ for money. At last she returned, but -only to afflict her family. Her son was at the Military Academy of St. -Cyr. She induced him to elope, and the boy was plunged in every species -of debauchery and expense. This afflicted, in the deepest manner, his -grandfather, who revoked a bequest he had made him of about £4,000 a -year, and seemed to apprehend from him nothing but future ruin and -disgrace. The old man, eighty-two years of age, resided in his Chateau -of Mont Levéque, whither, in October, 1834, Madame de Pontalba went to -attempt a reconciliation with the wealthy senior. The day after her -arrival she found she could make no impression on her father-in-law, -and was about to return to Paris, when old M. de Pontalba, observing -a moment when she was alone in her apartment, entered it with a brace -of double-barrelled pistols, locked the door, and, approaching his -astonished daughter-in-law, desired her to recommend herself to God, -for that she had but few minutes to live; but he did not even allow -her one minute—he fired immediately, and two balls entered her left -breast. She started up and fled to a closet, her blood streaming about, -and exclaiming that she would submit to any terms, if he would spare -her. “_No, no! You must die!_” and he fired his second pistol. She had -instinctively covered her heart with her hand; the hand was miserably -fractured by the balls, but it saved her heart. She then escaped to -another closet, where a third shot was fired at her without effect; and -at last she rushed in despair to the door, and while M. de Pontalba was -discharging his last barrel at her, she succeeded in opening it. The -family, alarmed by the firing, arrived, and she was saved. The old man, -on seeing that she was beyond his reach, returned to his apartment, -and blew out his brains. It seemed clear that he had resolved to make -a sacrifice of the short remnant of his own life, in order to release -his son and his grandson from their unfortunate connexion with Madame -de Pontalba. But he failed—none of _her_ wounds were mortal; and within -a month after, Madame de Pontalba, perfectly recovered, in high health -and spirits, radiant, and crowned with flowers, was to be seen at all -the fêtes and concerts of the capital. - -A wealthy inhabitant of St. Denis arrived from a long journey, in -which he had occasion to carry a brace of pistols; these he deposited, -loaded, on a table in his bed-chamber, and sat down to dinner with his -family and some friends, invited to celebrate his return. Hardly had -dinner begun when a discussion arose between the father and his eldest -daughter, about twenty years of age. This young woman had always shewn -great jealousy of her younger sister, of whom she pretended her father -was fonder than of her. On this occasion the same feeling broke out, -and after some strong exhibition of ill-temper on her part, her father -said, “Nay, if you are sulky, you had better go to bed.” The girl got -up immediately, went to her father’s bed-room, took one of the pistols, -shot herself, and expired in a few hours in great agony. - -Sir George Dunbar, Baronet, Major in the 14th Light Dragoons, quartered -at Norwich, unhappily got involved in a dispute with his fellow -officers. He was a man of quick sensibility, which may have betrayed -him into error on the occasion; but whichever party was to blame, -the quarrel was of a most violent nature, and he returned home much -bruised from blows received in the scuffle. The next day, repairing -to the mess-room, he declared to the other officers, “That, if he had -offended any of them, he was ready to make an apology; or, if that -was not thought sufficient, to give them honourable satisfaction.” -This proposal was refused, and the officers insisted “That he must -sell out, for that, as he had abused the whole regiment, nothing else -would or could satisfy them.” To this, Sir George replied, “That he -would live and die in the regiment, of which he had been an officer -for twenty years, and that a pistol should end the dispute.” Here -ended all communication, but the business made a most deep impression -on his mind. For two successive days he neither took food nor slept; -and his melancholy appearance filled his family with the most lively -apprehensions. Lady Dunbar locked up his razors, pistols, &c., and -watched him with unceasing vigilance. Her distress at seeing him so -wretched was very great, and in the night she moaned very much, and was -quite restless. Sir George said, “Maria, you disturb me; I will get -up;” which he immediately did, put on his watch-coat, and laid down -on the floor. Lady Dunbar then endeavoured to conceal the anguish of -her mind, in hopes to pacify him, and, being overcome with watching, -fell asleep. Sir George, as soon as he perceived it, left the room, -and at about five or six in the morning walked out. Her ladyship, -when she awoke, being much alarmed at his absence, eagerly inquired -for him, and was told he had taken a morning walk, having a violent -headache, and thinking the air would do him good. This, however, proved -only a pretence; for he had gone to purchase a case of pistols, and -stood by while the bullets were casting, which, with the pistols, he -brought home, concealed under his watch-coat. On his return, he went -to Lady Dunbar, who took hold of his hand, observing at the same time, -“How cold you are!” To which he answered, “Yes; I shall be better -presently.” She then proposed to make breakfast, but he declined it, -saying he had a letter to write first, and that he would ring to let -her know when he had finished it. He then parted from her, after -pressing her hand very hard; went to his study, wrote his will, and -instantly after blew out his brains. Lady Dunbar, who heard the report -of the pistol, ran down into the room, and fell insensible on his -body, which lay extended on the floor, and from which she was taken up -covered with his blood, and immediately removed to a friend’s house. -They were a very happy couple, and she had accompanied him in all his -campaigns. - -As George III. was passing in his carriage through the park to St. -James’s, a gentleman dressed in black, standing in the green park, -close to the rails, just as the carriage came opposite to where he -stood, was observed to pull a paper hastily from his pocket, which -he stuck on the rails, addressed to the king, threw off his hat, -discharged a pistol in his own bosom, and instantly fell. Though -surrounded with people collected to see the king pass, the rash act -was so suddenly perpetrated, that no one suspected his fatal purpose -till he had accomplished it. He expired immediately. In his left hand -was a letter addressed “To the coroner who shall take an inquest on -James Sutherland.” This unfortunate gentleman was judge-advocate at -Minorca during the governorship of General Murray, with whom he had a -law suit which terminated in his favour. The general, however, got him -suspended and recalled. This, and the failure of some applications -to government, had greatly deranged his mind. He was very genteelly -dressed, but had only two-pence and some letters in his pocket; the -letters were carried to the Secretary of State’s Office. He left a -singular paper behind him, expressive of being in a sound mind, and -that the act was deliberate. - -The following case is mentioned by Dr. A. T. Thomson, as illustrative -of the extraordinary determination often exhibited by those resolved -on self-destruction. A gentleman, who had long enjoyed an unblemished -reputation, was appointed the treasurer of a society; but having -unfortunately fallen into pecuniary difficulties, he not only applied -the funds of the society to his own purposes, but forged some bills. -As the punishment of the latter crime was penal at that period, on -being arrested, he made an attempt upon his life, but did not succeed. -His prior good character, and the respect in which he had been held, -prevented him from being immediately sent to jail; and he was permitted -to remain in the custody of the officer of justice who arrested him. -The attempt which he had made upon his life rendered it requisite -that every implement which could be employed by the suicide should -be withheld from him; but in other respects, as much indulgence was -extended to him as possible, under the circumstances of the case. His -wife also was permitted to visit him, but she was searched before -entering his apartment. He was locked up every night, and he was awoke -in the morning by an officer, at a certain hour. On the third morning -after his arrest, the officer, as usual, entered his room, and called -to him, but received no answer; he then approached the bed, and found -that his prisoner was dead. A medical man was immediately sent for. It -appeared that this gentleman had studied anatomy, and knew how to use a -lancet; and as he had a thorough conviction that he should be hanged, -he had persuaded his wife to bring a lancet to him in her mouth. After -being locked up for the night, he undressed himself, and opened the -femoral artery, the blood from which he allowed to flow into the pan of -the night chair, until, as was supposed, he became faint. He then bound -a handkerchief round the upper part of the thigh, and placed himself in -bed, in the position in which he was discovered. Notwithstanding his -great loss of blood, he contrived so effectually to stem the further -flow, that none was seen on the floor of the room, and only a few spots -on the sheets of the bed.” - -A servant girl of Mursley, Bucks., committed suicide while her master -and his men were weeding in the field, by taking a cord and tying it -tight round the upper part of her left thigh, and with a fleam and -stick used in bleeding cattle, making a deep incision through the -artery. She bled to death before any assistance could be procured. - -John Upson, of Woodbridge, in Suffolk, a glover, who was committed to -the castle for felony a few days before, hanged himself in his own room -with a garter. The following verses were written in a prayer-book lying -by him:— - - “Farewell, vain world, I’ve had enough of thee, - And now am careless what thou say’st of me; - Thy smiles I court not, nor thy frowns I fear, - My cares are past, my heart lies easy here. - What faults they find in me take care to shun, - And look at home: enough is to be done. - - “June 26, 1774. POOR JOHN THE GLOVER.” - -Mr. Brower, a print-cutter, near Aldersgate-street, was attacked on -the road to Enfield by a single highwayman, whom he recollected to -be a tradesman in the city, and called him by his name. The robber -immediately shot himself through the head. - -The case of a man is recorded in a French paper who burnt with one of -the strongest passions of which we ever heard an account. His mistress -having proved unfaithful to him, he called up his servant, informed him -that it was his intention to kill himself, and requested that, after -his death, he would make a candle of his fat, and carry it lighted to -his mistress. He then wrote a letter, in which he told her that as he -had long burnt for her, she might now see that his flames were real; -for the candle by which she would read the note was composed of part of -his miserable body. After this he committed suicide. - -Lieutenant Colonel Mautren, of the Prussian Hussars, having been -stripped, at the gaming table, of all his property, even to his watch -and the rings he wore, returned home. Next day he disposed of his -commission; and having offered marriage to a respectable female whom -he had seduced, a clergyman was sent for, and the ceremony performed. -He then retired to a private room, and while some friends were -felicitating the bride on her good fortune, the report of a pistol -announced the catastrophe that had taken place. The company hastened -to the room; but the Colonel was no more. On the table was a letter to -his wife, mentioning the cause of his death and inclosing the amount of -the sale of his commission. - -The particulars of the following case were read by M. Gerard de Gray, -at the _Société de Médecine_. A young man, having spent in the capital -all his finances, returned home to recruit his purse; but failing in -his object, he resolved to put an end to himself. He made no secret of -his determination. On the 16th of August he carried it into execution. -His bed-room was about nine feet square, and a little more than six in -height. On every aperture in it by which the air might possibly have -admittance, he pasted paper, and about five in the afternoon lighted -a brazier of coals, which he set on the floor close by his bed. He -then left the apartment, carefully closing the door after him. At six, -he said to an old lady, “My brazier is now ready—I go to die.” On -the following morning, the family having become alarmed, the door of -the chamber was forced open. An insupportable vapour issued from the -place, and the body of the unfortunate youth was found stretched across -the bed. On the floor, the brazier still occupied the place already -mentioned; it was of considerable capacity, and seemed to have been -lighted with paper. Near the body were placed two volumes of an old -Encyclopædia; one of them at the foot of the bed, open at the article -Ecstasy; the other near the right hand displayed the article Death. On -the latter volume was a pencil and a bit of paper, with the words, _Je -meurs avec calme et bonheur_, clearly written, with the date annexed; -but beneath that there appeared, in characters very difficult to be -read, the following words: _Au moment de l’agonie j’aurais voulu m’être -procuré une sensation agréable_. It would appear that the deceased -immediately on writing the scrawl, had fallen into the position in -which he was found. The attitude did not betoken any struggle at the -last moment; yet it seems probable, from the signs of sickness of the -stomach, and the mention of agony in the last phrase, that life did -not become extinct without some painful sensations. - -Madame Augine having been personally attached to the late Queen of -France, expected to suffer under the execrable tyranny of Robespierre. -She often declared to her sister, Madame Campan, that she never would -wait the execution of the order of arrest, and that she was determined -to die rather than fall into the hands of the executioner. Madame -Campan endeavoured, by the principles of morality and philosophy, to -persuade her sister to abandon this desperate resolution; and in her -last visit, as if she had foreseen the fate of this unfortunate woman, -she added, “Wait the future with resignation; some fortunate occurrence -may turn aside the fate you fear, even at the moment you may believe -the danger to be greatest.” Soon afterwards the guards appeared before -the house where Madame Augine resided, to take her to prison. Firm in -her resolution to avoid the ignominy of execution, she ran to the top -of the house, threw herself from the balcony, and was taken up dead. As -they were carrying her corpse to the grave, the attendants were obliged -to turn aside to let pass the cart which conveyed Robespierre to the -scaffold! - -In the year 1600, on the 10th of April, a person of the name of William -Dorrington threw himself from the top of St. Sepulchre’s church, in -London, having previously left on the leads or roof a paper of which -the following is a copy:— - -“Let no other man be troubled for that which is my own fault; John -Bunkley and his fellows, by perjury and other bad means, have brought -me to this end. God forgive it them, and I do. And, O Lord, forgive -me this cruel deed upon my own body, which I utterly detest, and most -humbly pray him to cast it behind him; and that of his most exceeding -and infinite mercy he will forgive it me, with all my other sins. But -surely, after they had slandered me, every day that I lived was to me a -hundred deaths, which caused me rather to die with infamy than to live -in infamy and torment. - -“Oh, summa Deitas, quæ cœlis et superis presides, meis medere -miseris, ut spretis inferis, letis superis, reis dona veniam.[79] - -“Trusting in his only passion and merits of Jesus Christ, and -confessing my exceeding great sins, I say—‘Master, have mercy upon me!’” - -This paper was folded up in form of a letter, and indorsed, “Oh, let me -live, and I will call upon thy name!” - -Thomas Davers, who built at a vast expense a little fort on the River -Thames, near Blackwall, known by the name of Davers’s Folly, after -passing through a series of misfortunes, chiefly owing to an unhappy -turn of mind, put an end to his miserable life. Some few hours before -his death, he was seen to write the following card:—“Descended from -an ancient and honourable family, I have, for fifteen years past, -suffered more indigence than ever gentleman submitted to; neglected by -my acquaintance, traduced by my enemies, and insulted by the vulgar, I -am so reduced, worn down and tired, that I have nothing left but that -lasting repose, the joint and dernier inheritance of all. - - “Of laudanum an ample dose - Must all my present ills compose; - But the best laudanum of all - I want (not resolution) but a ball. - - “N. B. Advertise this. T. D.” - -A farmer near Allandale, in Northumberland, procured a gun-barrel, -which he loaded with powder and shot, and having placed the stock -end in the fire, he leaned with his belly against the other. In this -position he awaited the dreadful moment. When the barrel became hot, an -explosion took place, by which he was shot through the body. He had, -some time before, been in the habit of excessive drinking, which had -impaired his intellects, and probably produced a derangement which led -to the commission of the deed. - -Mr. Henry Grymes, of Virginia, U. S., whilst labouring under the -influence of delirium, broke his skull with a stone. After having -shattered it, he took out a piece about three inches long, and two -broad. Concluding that this would not put a period to his existence, he -thrust his fingers into his head, and tore out a considerable quantity -of his brains. Instead of immediate death, _he instantly returned to -the full exercise of reason!_ walked home, and lived to the second -evening following. He appeared very penitent and rational to the last -moment of his life; and in the meantime gave to his friends the above -statement of the horrid transaction. The cause of this derangement is -believed to have been a disappointment in marriage. Through the whole -of his life he supported an unsullied character. - -“A blacksmith charged an old gun-barrel with a brace of bullets, and, -putting one end into the fire of his forge, tied a string to the handle -of his bellows, by pulling which he could make them play whilst he was -at a convenient distance, kneeling down; he then placed his head near -the mouth of the barrel, and moving the bellows by means of the string, -they blew up the fire, he keeping his head, with astonishing firmness -and horrible deliberation, in that position till the further end of the -barrel was so heated as to kindle the powder, whose explosion instantly -drove the bullets through his brain. Though I know this happened -literally as I relate it, yet there is something so extraordinary, -and almost incredible, in the circumstance, that perhaps I should not -have mentioned it, had it not been well attested, and known to the -inhabitants of Geneva, and to all the English there.”[80] - -A Hanoverian, eighty years of age, resided at a country house near -Berne, with his five daughters, the eldest of whom was aged thirty, -and the youngest sixteen. The family were of very retired habits, -but were governed chiefly by the eldest sister, who was noted for her -imperious disposition, and opposition to religion. A young Englishman, -who had been for some time an occasional visitor to the house, became -smitten with one of the daughters; and one fine evening, as the five -sisters were taking the air in a carriage in the avenues of the Eugi, -they met him in his cabriolet, accompanied by a friend. After parading -up and down for some time, an exchange of vehicles was proposed to and -accepted by the young ladies, one of whom accompanied the Englishman, -and his friend entered the carriage with the ladies. A similar change -was again effected, until the Englishman found himself with the object -of his affections, with whom he immediately decamped. The others, -thinking he had returned to the house by another road, gave themselves -no uneasiness, but continued their road homewards. On arriving, -however, they found he had not returned. The eldest sister, becoming -alarmed, sent and informed the police that her sister had been run away -with; and the next day, news having been received that the runaways -were at Fribourg, she immediately set out for that place, accompanied -by one of her sisters. Before her departure, she told the two who -remained, that if she did not return by a certain hour, it would be a -proof that their family was dishonoured; in which case, it became the -duty of them all to renounce life. She required, and even extorted, -from them a solemn oath, that they would drown themselves if they (the -two elder sisters) did not return at the hour mentioned. On arriving -at Fribourg, and finding their sister, whom they could not persuade -to return home, they two resolved upon putting their resolution into -effect; for which purpose they repaired to the banks of the Sarine; but -the younger, on arriving, finding her courage fail, exclaimed, “Kill -me, sister; I can never throw myself into the river.” The eldest drew -out a dagger, and was about to perpetrate the deed, when a peasant -coming up, interrupted the design. She immediately despatched the -peasant to prevent her other two sisters from putting their oath -into effect; but the precaution was too late. After having prepared -every necessary for their aged father during the day, they dressed -themselves in their best apparel, and, on arriving at the banks of -the Aar, fastened themselves with a shawl, and, embracing each other, -precipitated themselves into the river, in which position their bodies -were found some time afterwards. - -The particulars of the following extraordinary case we find recorded -in the Annual Register for 1823. It appears that a man of the name -of Spring and his paramour, Mary Gooch, had agreed to commit mutual -suicide. For that purpose a large dose of laudanum was purchased; but -the dose which Spring took was not sufficient for his purpose, and -he recovered. The poor woman was successful in killing herself. The -following is the evidence given by Spring at the coroner’s inquest:— - -“John Spring said, that he was present with the deceased in bed when -she died, about seven o’clock on Friday morning; that she did not -die in agony; that on the Wednesday evening the deceased and witness -came to an agreement to buy some laudanum to take together, that -they might both be found dead together in the same bed; that on the -Thursday morning, he (the witness) went to the chemist’s and bought -some laudanum; he thinks four ounces; that when he came in, Mary Gooch -said, ‘Your heart has failed you; you have not bought it for me;’ that -she got up and felt witness’s pocket. The deceased said, ‘You have got -something here.’ Witness replied, ‘Oh, that will soon do our business, -if we take it.’ She said, ‘Have you any money left of what I gave -you to buy it with?’ Witness said, ‘Yes, there are some halfpence.’ -The deceased said she would purchase some oranges with them, to take -after it, and would send for them; that she sent a boy of Webb’s, who -returned with two oranges; that the deceased peeled them; that she -took two wine glasses off the shelf, and placed hers on the box, and -said, ‘Now let us take it.’ She poured half into one glass, and half -into another. One glass she kept to herself, and the other she gave to -witness. The deceased said, ‘Let us take hold of each other’s hands.’ -Witness said, ‘No, my dear; if we do, we shall not take it; let us -turn back to back, and take it.’ Deceased and witness turned their -backs to one another, and drank the contents of the glasses. After -they had drunk the laudanum, the deceased said, ‘What shall we do with -the bottle?’ Witness said, he would go and throw it away. She said, -she would in the mean time wipe the glasses. He threw away the bottle, -and the deceased had wiped the glasses by the time he came back. The -deceased said, ‘Let us go to bed.’ They both went to bed together. -The deceased afterwards got out of bed, placed a chair against the -door, to fasten it, and drew the window blinds. The deceased then -said, ‘Now we shall die happily together.’ This was between two and -three o’clock. He asked the deceased how she came by the money she had -given him; the deceased said, ‘That is of no consequence, and does not -signify;’ the deceased and witness conversed together about various -things, till eight o’clock. She said, she had sent her gown to her -aunt’s, and that the money came from her. The laudanum did not take -any effect till about two; she then began to sleep. The witness was -sick about four, and the deceased was awake at that time. The deceased -was not sick at all, and fell into a sound sleep at six. The witness -awoke her between six and seven; the deceased then said, ‘How large -your eyes look!’ Witness said to her, ‘Mary, I am afraid my laudanum -will take no effect.’ The deceased said, ‘Oh dear! if I should die -without you, and you are taken before a court of justice, I shall not -die easy.’ Witness told her she might be quite happy, for, if it did -not take effect, he would get up and buy some that would, as he would -die with her. The deceased said, ‘My dear, pray give me that blue -muslin handkerchief, that I may have it in my hand when I die. Pray, -don’t you take anything; but let me die, and you will get over.’ She -then laid her head on the shoulder of the witness, and died almost -immediately. The body began to grow cold by the time he came in from -the town, about half-past eight. The deceased had been in a bad state -of mind ever since he had known her. She always appeared to wish to -die, and had attempted to destroy herself before, when the witness was -at a fair. About a month previous, the deceased having come home in -an unhappy state of mind, got up about twelve at night, took a linen -line, pinned her cap over her head, and went out of the house, taking -a small chair with her. She had one end of a rope about her neck, and -was about to throw it over the arm of an apple-tree, when he overtook -her, brought her in, and took the rope from her. The deceased, all -Wednesday evening, was very anxious to die, and wished witness to die -with her. On Thursday, she expressed a desire that they should both die -together. The witness had known the deceased ever since Michaelmas Bury -fair. She had been very anxious about the payment of the half-year’s -rent; the witness said, he could go to his friends and get it; deceased -said, ‘If you go away, I shall be afraid that you will not come back -again.’ It was not from want that they committed the act; it had been -in contemplation some time.” - -A young lady, at a boarding school near Birmingham, had been set a -task, and felt indignant at being obliged to learn it out of an old -book, while some of the other scholars were indulged with new ones. -She went next day to an old woman in the neighbourhood, and told her -“that she had had a singular dream,—that she was dead, and had been -carried to her grave by such and such young ladies,” naming some of -her companions and young friends; and asked the old woman what she -thought of it; who replied, “that she put no faith in dreams.” A few -days after, when going a walk with the other scholars, she loitered -behind, and making her escape from the party, drowned herself in a -pool near the school. She left her hat (or bonnet) on the edge of the -pool, wherein was pinned a letter for her parents, entreating their -forgiveness of such a rash act. She therein requested to have for her -bearers those whom she had said she dreamed had carried her to her -grave; and enclosed some locks of her hair as mementos of friendship. -She was only about eleven years of age, and the daughter of very -respectable parents in the neighbourhood. - -Sophia Edwards and Mary West, two female-servants, in the family of -the Rev. John Gibbons, of Brasted, in Kent, were left in care of the -house for some weeks, in consequence of the absence of their master -and mistress. During this time they had the misfortune to break some -articles of furniture, and to spoil four dozen of knives and forks, -by incautiously lighting a fire in an oven where they had been placed -to keep them from rust. The unfortunate girls, however, bought other -knives and forks. Upon the return of Mr. and Mrs. Gibbons, the servants -were severely reprimanded for what had happened, and one of them -received notice to leave her place. They both appeared to be very -uncomfortable for two days afterwards; and, on the second day, the -footman heard them in conversation respecting Martha Viner, a late -servant in the same family, who had drowned herself in a pond in the -garden, and observing one to the other, that she had done so through -trouble. The elder then said to the younger—“We will have a swim -to-night, Mary!” The other replied—“So we will, girl.” The footman -thought they were jesting, and said—“Ay, and I will swim with you!” -Sophia Edwards replied—“No, you shan’t; but I will have a swim, and -afterwards I will haunt you.” After this conversation, they continued -about their work as usual, and at six o’clock asked the footman to get -tea for them. While he was in the pantry for that purpose, he heard -the kitchen door shut; and on his return into the kitchen, they were -both gone. The footman afterwards thought he heard them upstairs, and -therefore took no notice of their absence, until eight o’clock, when -he told his master and mistress. Search was made for them about the -house, garden, and neighbourhood, during the whole night; and early -next morning, the same pond was dragged which had so recently been the -watery grave of Martha Viner, when both their bodies were found in it, -lying close to each other. - -The following whimsical instance of indifference as to the mode of -suicide is related in Sir John Hawkins’s History of the Science and -Practice of Music, vol. v. 7:—“One Jeremiah Clarke, organist of St. -Paul’s, an. dom. 1700, was at the house of a friend in the country, -from whence he took an abrupt resolution of returning to London. His -friend having observed marks of great dejection in his behaviour, and -knowing him to be a man disappointed in love, furnished him not only -with a horse, but a servant to take care of him. A fit of melancholy -seizing him on the road, he alighted and went into a field, in the -corner whereof was a pond, and also trees; where he began to debate -with himself, whether he should then end his days by hanging or -drowning. Not being able to resolve on either, he thought of making -what he looked on as chance, the umpire. He tossed a piece of money -into the air, which came down on its edge and stuck in the clay. Though -the determination answered not his wishes, it was far from ambiguous, -as it seemed to forbid both methods of destruction; and would have -given unspeakable comfort to a mind less disordered than his. Being -thus interrupted in his purpose, he returned, and mounting his horse, -rode on to London, where, in a short time after, he shot himself. - -Falret relates the case of an apothecary who, on receiving a reproof -from his sweetheart, went home and blew out his brains, having first -written the following sentence on his door—“When a man knows not how to -please his mistress, he ought to know how to die.” - -A German merchant, aged thirty-two, depressed by severe reverses -of fortune, came to the resolution of starving himself to death. -With this view he repaired, on the 15th of September, 1818, to an -unfrequented wood, where he constructed a hut of boughs, and remained, -without food, till the 3rd of October following. At this period, he -was found, by the landlord of a public-house, still alive, but very -feeble, speechless, and insensible. Broth, with the yolk of an egg, -was administered to him; he swallowed some with difficulty, and died -immediately. - -In the pocket of the unfortunate man was found a journal, written in -pencil, singular of its kind, and remarkable as a narrative of his -feelings and sentiments. It commences in these words:—“The generous -philanthropist, who shall one day find me here after my death, is -requested to inter me; and in consideration of this service, to keep my -clothes, purse, knife, and letter-case. Moreover observe, that _I am no -suicide_, but have died of hunger, because through wicked men I have -lost the whole of my very considerable property, and am unwilling to -become a burden to my friends.” The ensuing remark is dated September -17th, the second day of abstinence:—“I yet live; but how I have been -soaked during the night, and how cold it has been. O God! when will my -sufferings terminate! No human being has for three days been seen here; -only some birds.” The journal continues, “And again, three days, and I -have been so soaked during the night, that my clothes to-day are not -quite dry. How hard this is no one knows, and my last hour must soon -arrive. Doubtlessly, during the heavy rain, a little water has got into -my throat; but the thirst is not to be slaked with water; moreover, I -have had none even of this for six days, since I am no longer able to -move from the place. Yesterday, for the first time during the eternity -which, alas! I have already passed here, a man approached me within -eight or ten paces. He was certainly a shepherd. I saluted him in -silence, and he returned it in the same manner; probably, he will find -me after my death!” - -“Finally, I here protest before the all-wise God, that, notwithstanding -all the misfortunes which I have suffered from my youth, I yet die -very unwillingly, although necessity has imperiously driven me to it. -Nevertheless, I pray for it. Father, forgive him; for he knows not what -he does! More I cannot write for faintness and spasms; and this will be -the last. Dated near the forest, by the side of the Goat public-house. - - “Sept. 29, 1818. J. F. N.” - - -It is evident, from the above account, that consciousness and the -power of writing remained till the _fourteenth_ day of abstinence. -The operation of famine was aggravated by mental distress, and still -more by exposure to the weather. This, indeed, seems to have produced -his most urgent sufferings. Subsequent to the common cravings and -debility of hunger, his first physical distress appears to have been -the sensation of cold; then cold and thirst; lastly, faintness and -spasm. In this case we find no symptoms of inflammation. A want of -nervous energy, arising from the reduction in the quantity or quality -of the blood, appears to have been the principal disease. The effort -of swallowing, and the oppression of food on the exhausted stomach, -completed the catastrophe.[81] - -There is an extraordinary instance of suicidal design recorded, and -which is worth noticing, were it only to shew the extent to which the -human powers can sustain life unaided by proper nourishment, even -though the intelligent principle be subverted. - -An officer, having experienced many mortifications, fell into a state -of deep melancholy. He resolved to die of famine; and he followed up -his resolution so faithfully that he passed forty-five days without -eating anything, except on the fifth day, when he asked for some -distilled water, in which was mixed a quarter of a pint of spirits of -aniseed. This lasted him three days. Upon being told that this quantity -of spirit was too much, he then took in each glass of water no more -than three drops of it, and the same quantity of fluid lasted him -thirty-nine days. He then ceased drinking, and took nothing at all -daring the last six days. On the thirty-sixth day, he was obliged to -recline on a couch. Every request to induce him to break his resolution -was useless, and he was regarded as already lost, when chance recalled -within him a desire to live. Having seen a child with a slice of bread -and butter, the sight excited in him so violent an appetite that he -instantly asked for some soup. They gave him every two hours some -spoonsful of rice bouillie, and by degrees more nourishing diet, and -his health, though slowly, was established.[82] - -Two young men, mere youths, entered a _restaurant_, bespoke a dinner of -unusual luxury and expense, and afterwards arrived punctually at the -appointed hour to eat it. They did so, apparently with all the zest -of youthful appetite and glee. They called for champagne, and quaffed -it hand-in-hand. No symptom of sadness, thought, or reflection of any -kind, was observed to mix with their mirth, which was loud, long, and -unremitting. At last came the _café noir_, the cognac, and the bill; -one of them was seen to point out the amount to the other, and then -burst out afresh into violent laughter. Having swallowed each a cup of -coffee to the dregs, the _garçon_ was ordered to request the company of -the _restaurateur_ for a few minutes. He came immediately, expecting, -perhaps, to receive the payment of his bill, minus some extra charge -which the jocund but economical youths might deem exorbitant. - -Instead of this, however, the elder of the two informed him that the -dinner had been excellent, which was the more fortunate, as it was -decidedly the last that either of them should ever eat; that for his -bill, he must of necessity excuse the payment of it, as, in fact, that -neither of them possessed a single sous; that upon no other occasion -would they have thus violated the customary _etiquette_ between guest -and landlord; but that finding this world, with its toils and its -troubles, unworthy of them, they had determined once more to enjoy a -repast of which their poverty must for ever prevent the repetition, -and then take leave of existence for ever! For the first part of this -resolution, he declared that it had, thanks to the cook and his cellar, -been achieved nobly; and for the last, it would soon follow, for the -_café noir_, besides the little glass of his admirable cognac, had been -medicated with that which would speedily settle all their accounts for -them. - -The _restaurateur_ was enraged. He believed no part of the rhodomontade -but that which declared their inability to discharge their bill, and he -talked loudly in his turn of putting them into the hands of the police. -At length, however, upon their offering to give up their address, he -was induced to allow them to depart. - -On the following day, either the hope of obtaining his money or some -vague fear that they might have been in earnest in the wild tale that -they had told him, induced this man to go to the address they had left -with him; and he there heard that the two unhappy boys had been that -morning found lying together, hand-in-hand, on a bed hired a few weeks -before by one of them. When they were discovered, they were already -dead and cold. - -On a small table in the room lay many written papers, all expressing -aspirations after greatness that should cost neither labour nor care, -a profound contempt for those who were satisfied to live by the sweat -of their brow, sundry quotations from Victor Hugo, and a request that -their names and the manner of their death might be transmitted to the -newspapers. - -Many are the cases of young men, calling themselves friends, who have -thus encouraged each other to make their final exit from life, if not -with applause, at least with effect. And more numerous still are the -tales recounted of young men and women found dead, and locked in each -other’s arms, fulfilling literally, and with most sad seriousness, the -destiny sketched so merrily in an old song— - - “Gai, gai, marions-nous— - Mettons-nous dans la misère; - Gai, gai, marions-nous— - Mettons-nous la corde au cou.”[83] - -A woman drowned herself by breaking a hole in the ice of a pond -sufficiently large to admit her head, which she put into the water, so -that her body remained quite dry. - -A Greenwich pensioner, who had his allowance stopped from some -misconduct, committed suicide by stabbing himself with his spectacles, -which he sharpened to a point for that purpose. - -A man, with a determination to sacrifice his life, threw himself among -the bears in the _Jardin du Roi_, in Paris. A bear sprung immediately -upon him, and before he could be rescued from Bruin’s grasp, he was so -mutilated that he died a few hours afterwards. Prior to his death he -expressed much pleasure at having effected his purpose. - -A young lady, at the age of nineteen, was extremely beautiful, -in possession of a large fortune, and by no means deficient in -understanding or wit; but was immoderately fond of play. She soon -gambled away her whole fortune. Reflections on the past became -bitter; anticipation of the future alarming; melancholy increased, -and weariness of life succeeded. Being at Bath, in the year 1731, she -was seen to retire to her chamber with her usual composure, and was -found in the morning hanging by a gold and silver girdle to a closet -door. Her youth, beauty, and distress, rendered her an object of -pity to every one but a near relation, who, on hearing of her death, -was inhuman enough to exclaim, in a punning style—“Then she has tied -herself up from play.” - -On the morning of her death she left these lines in the window:— - - “O death, thou pleasing end of human woe! - Thou cure for life! thou greatest good below! - Still mayst thou fly the coward and the slave, - And thy soft slumbers only bless the brave.” - -On reading which a gentleman wrote thus:— - - “O dice, ye vain diverters of our woe! - Ye waste of life! ye greatest curse below! - May ne’er good sense again become your slave, - Nor your false charms allure and cheat the brave.” - -A man whose name and connexions were unknown, was found dead in his -chamber at an inn, in Kent, with the following paper lying beside him:— - - Lost to the world, and by the world forsaken, - A wretched creature, - Who groaned under a weary life - Upwards of thirty years, without knowing - One happy hour. - And all - In consequence of one single error, - Committed in early days, - Though highly venial - As being the mere effects of juvenile folly, - And soon repented of. - But, alas! - The poor prodigal - Had no kind father that would take him home, - And welcome back his sad repentant virtue - With fond forgiveness and the fatted calf. - Here - He sinks beneath his mighty load of ills, - And with - His miserable being lays them down, - Heart-broken, - At the age of fifty. - Tender reader, give him a little earth - For charity. - -A middle aged Frenchman, decently dressed, hanged himself in a -public-house in Old Street Road. A letter written in French was found -in his pocket, setting forth that some years ago, he dreamt he was -to die that day, if not, he was to be damned; and therefore, for the -salvation of his soul, he had thought it necessary to put an end to his -life. - -A young gentleman, living in London, had paid his addresses to an -agreeable young lady, won her heart, and obtained the consent of her -father, to whom she was an only child. The old gentleman had a fancy to -have them married at the same parish church where he himself had been, -at a village in Westmoreland; and they accordingly set out alone, the -father being at the time indisposed with the gout, in London. - -The bridegroom took only his man, and the bride her maid; and when they -arrived at the place appointed, the bridegroom wrote the following -letter to his wife’s father:— - -“SIR,—After a very pleasant journey hither, we are preparing for the -happy hour in which I am to be your son. I assure you the bride carries -it, in the eyes of the vicar who married you, much beyond her mother; -though he says, your open sleeves, pantaloons, and shoulder-knot, -made a much better shew than the finical dress I am in. However, I am -contented to be the second fine man this village ever saw, and shall -make it very merry before night, because I shall write from thence, -Your most dutiful son, - - “T. D.” - -“P. S. The bride gives her duty, and is as handsome as an angel. I am -the happiest man breathing.” - - -The bridegroom’s servant knew his master would leave the place very -soon after the wedding was over, and seeing him draw his pistols the -night before, took an opportunity of going into his chamber and charged -them. - -Upon their return from the garden they went into that room, and, -after a little fond raillery on the subject of their courtship, the -bridegroom took up one of the pistols, which he knew he had unloaded -the night before, presented it to her, and said, with the most -graceful air, whilst she looked pleased at his agreeable flattery, -“Now, madam, repent of all those cruelties you have been guilty of -towards me; consider, before you die, how often you have let a poor -wretch freeze under your casement. You shall die, you tyrant! you shall -die with all those instruments of death about you,—with that enchanting -smile, those killing ringlets of your hair!” - -“Give fire,” said she, laughing. He did so, and shot her dead. Who can -speak his condition? But he bore it so patiently as to call up his -man. The poor wretch entered, and his master locked the door upon him. -“Will,” said he, “did you charge these pistols?” He answered, “Yes;” -upon which his master shot him dead with the undischarged instrument of -death. After this, amidst a thousand broken sobs, piercing groans, and -distracted motions, he wrote the following letter to the father of his -dead mistress:— - -“SIR,—Two hours ago, I told you truly I was the happiest man alive. -Your daughter lies dead at my feet, killed by my own hand through a -mistake of my man’s charging my pistols unknown to me! I have murdered -him for it. Such is my wedding-day. I will follow my wife to her grave; -but before I throw myself upon my sword, I command my distraction -so far as to explain my story to you. I fear my heart will not keep -together till I have stabbed it. Poor, good old man, remember that he -who killed your daughter died for it! In death I give you thanks, and -pray for you though I dare not pray for myself. If it be possible, do -not curse me. Farewell for ever! - - “T. D.” - - -This being finished, he put an end to his life. The body of the servant -was interred in the village where he was killed; and the young couple, -attended by their maid, were brought to London, and privately interred -in one grave, in the parish in which the unhappy father resided. - -The following case occurred in England not many years ago. A young -couple, the wife aged sixteen and the husband nineteen, discovered, -a few months after marriage, that money was much more easily spent -than procured; and being unable to live in the style they wished, they -determined, after having held a long consultation on the subject, that -their best and only remedy was at once to put an end to their imaginary -miseries by committing suicide. After dinner, the husband attended his -usual business, and brought home with him at tea-time a quarter of a -pound of sugar of lead, for the purpose of executing their design. The -whole of this poison was dissolved in a pot of coffee, and carefully -strained and sweetened, to render it more palatable. The young man -then deliberately wrote a letter, explaining the circumstances to his -father, to whom he had previously sent a message, requesting him to -call in the evening. At the time appointed the husband and wife drank -off the poison, and then, embracing each other, laid down to die. -When they were discovered, all that they could be induced to say was -the word “poison.” Medical assistance was immediately procured, but -no persuasions could induce them to take an antidote, both of them -heroically resolving to die. The young woman, however, reconsidered -the point, and began to think that death was not so agreeable a thing -as she first supposed; but, retaining her feelings of obedience strong -in death, imploringly said to her husband, when she was pressed to -take the medicine offered, “Shall I take it, dear?” To this he gave -a direct negative, enforcing it with an oath; but her love of life -triumphed over her sense of obedience to the commands of her lord, and -she consented to swallow the antidote. The husband, however, was not -so willing to venture upon the cares and vexations of the world, and -obstinately persisted in dying; but as this was not thought prudent, he -was made by physical force to swallow the medicine, and was restored to -life, and is still in the land of the living. - -Instances of mutual suicide are by no means uncommon on the Continent, -and were not unknown in ancient times. The inhabitants of England have -not become as yet romantic enough for these exhibitions. The case -of M. Kleist, the celebrated Prussian poet, and Madame Vogle, may -be fresh in the minds of our readers. Madame Vogle, it is said, had -suffered long under an incurable disorder; her physicians had declared -her death inevitable; she herself came to a resolution to put an end -to her existence. M. Kleist, the poet, and a friend of her family, -had also determined to kill himself. These two unhappy beings, having -confidentially communicated to each other their horrible resolution, -resolved to carry it into effect at the same time. They repaired to the -inn at Wilhemstadt, between Berlin and Potsdam, on the borders of the -Sacred Lake. For one night and one day they were preparing themselves -for death, by putting up prayers, singing, drinking wine and rum, and -concluded by drinking sixteen cups of coffee. They wrote a letter to -M. Vogle, to announce to him the resolution they had taken, and to -beg him to come as speedily as possible, for the purpose of seeing -their remains devoutly interred. After having despatched the letter to -Berlin, they repaired to the bank of the Sacred Lake, where they sat -down opposite to each other. M. Kleist then took a loaded pistol and -shot Madame Vogle through the heart,—she instantly fell back dead; he -then reloaded the pistol, and applying the muzzle to his own head, blew -out his brains. - -A horrid scene of mixed murder and suicide, accompanied with great -calmness in its execution, was exhibited in the year 1732, in the -family of one Richard Smith, a bookbinder. This man being a prisoner -for debt within the walls of the King’s Bench, was found hanging in his -chamber, together with his wife; and their infant of two years old lay -murdered in a cradle beside them. Smith left three letters behind him, -one of which was addressed to his landlord, in which he says:—“He hopes -effects enough will be found to discharge his lodgings, and recommends -to his protection his ancient dog and cat.” A second was addressed to -his cousin Brindley, and contained severe censure on the person through -whose means he had been brought into difficulties, with a desire also -that Brindley would make the third letter public, which was as follows:— - -“These actions, considered in all their circumstances, being somewhat -uncommon, it may not be improper to give some account of the cause; -and that it was an inveterate hatred we conceived against poverty and -rags, evils that through a train of unlucky accidents were become -inevitable. For we appeal to all that ever knew us, whether we were -idle or extravagant, whether or no we have not taken as much pains -to get our living as our neighbours, although not attended with the -same success. We apprehend the taking our child’s life away to be a -circumstance for which we shall be generally condemned; but for our -own parts we are perfectly easy on that head. We are satisfied it is -less cruelty to take the child with us, even supposing a state of -annihilation as some dream of, than to leave her friendless in the -world, exposed to ignorance and misery. Now in order to obviate some -censures which may proceed either from ignorance or malice, we think it -proper to inform the world, that we firmly believe the existence of an -Almighty God; that this belief of ours is not an implicit faith, but -deduced from the nature and reason of things. We believe the existence -of an Almighty Being from the consideration of his wonderful works, -from those innumerable celestial and glorious bodies, and from their -wonderful order and harmony. We have also spent some time in viewing -those wonders which are to be seen in the minute part of the world, and -that with great pleasure and satisfaction. From all which particulars -we are satisfied that such amazing things could not possibly be without -a first mover,—without the existence of an Almighty Being. And as we -know the wonderful God to be Almighty, so we cannot help believing that -he is also good—not implacable, not like such wretches as men are, -not taking delight in the misery of his creatures; for which reason -we resign up our breath to him without any terrible apprehensions, -submitting ourselves to those ways which in his goodness he shall -please to appoint after death. We also believe in the existence of -unbodied natures, and think we have reason for that belief, although -we do not pretend to know their way of subsisting. We are not ignorant -of those laws made _in terrorem_, but leave the disposal of our bodies -to the wisdom of the coroner and his jury, the thing being indifferent -to us where our bodies are laid. From hence it will appear how little -anxious we are about a ‘_hic jacet_.’ We for our part neither expect -nor desire such honours; but shall content ourselves with a borrowed -epitaph, which we shall insert in this paper: - - ‘Without a name, for ever silent, dumb; - Dust, ashes, nought else is within this tomb; - Where we were born or bred it matters not; - Who were our parents, or have us begot. - We ‘were, but are not.’ Think no more of us, - For as we are, so you’ll be turn’d to dust.’ - -“It is the opinion of naturalists, that our bodies are at certain -stages of life composed of new matter; so that a great many poor men -have new bodies oftener than new clothes. Now, as divines are not -able to inform us which of those several bodies shall rise at the -resurrection, it is very probable that the deceased body may be for -ever silent as well as any other. - - (Signed,) “RICHARD SMITH, - “BRIGET SMITH.” - - -A lady and gentleman visited an hotel in the neighbourhood of Paris, -and ordered dinner to be prepared in a private room. The lady, who -appeared only nineteen years of age, was most magnificently attired. -The gentleman was observed to pay her marked attention, and addressed -her with the most endearing epithets. The dinner consisted of every -luxury of the season. After drinking a large quantity of wine, the -gentleman requested that they should not be disturbed, and he was heard -to lock the door. Half an hour afterwards, a report of a pistol was -heard in the room. The master of the hotel was alarmed. The assistance -of the police was obtained, and the door of the room in which the -lady and gentleman had dined forced open. The lady was found on the -floor dead, and the gentleman a short distance from her, in the last -struggle of death. Two pistols were found near the bodies. It appeared -that they had agreed to commit mutual suicide, and each being provided -with a loaded pistol, fired at and killed each other. On the table -was found a piece of paper, on which were written with a pencil the -following words:—“We, H***d and Maria **, were enamoured of each other. -Circumstances beyond the control of man prevent our alliance. We have -no alternative but separation or death; and believing death to be one -eternal dream of bliss, we, after much meditation, have determined to -kill each other. We affix our signatures to this document. - - “H***D, - “MARIA **.” - - -Two devoted lovers, disappointed in obtaining the consent of their -parents to their union, resolved upon dying. They experienced some -difficulty in deciding how to effect their purpose. The lady expressed -an abhorrence of pistols, and the gentleman was equally repugnant to -the rope. After much hesitation, they agreed to throw themselves into -the river, and stated their intention to a friend, who, thinking they -were merely joking, observed—“Well, I think you will find the water -very cold; I should advise you to put on warm clothing before you jump -in.” In the evening they were missing, and on searching the river, they -were discovered, tied to each other, quite dead. - -The suicide of Sir R. Croft has often been alluded to. He attended -the late Princess Charlotte in her confinement, and her much lamented -death, although not owing to any want of skill on his part, preyed -much on his mind, and drove him to the rash act. He fancied he saw the -spirit of the princess glide through his room. The sight of an open -razor on the table first suggested the idea of self-destruction to -him. He was a physician of great skill, and was much beloved by all who -knew him. - -A bishop of Grenoble affords an instance of suicidal ingenuity. He -took a rod on which his bed-curtains hung, and suspended it across by -a stick, which communicated with the trigger of his fowling-piece. He -then sat quietly down, with his feet hanging over the rod, and placing -the muzzle of the gun in his mouth, held it fast. He had nothing more -now to do than to drop his leg upon the rod, when the gun went off, and -three bullets entered his brain. - -The fortitude which suicides display is amazing. A servant girl of the -Dean of——, who had always borne a most excellent character, was accused -by the family of theft. She immediately repaired to the wash-house, -immersed her head in a pail of water, and was found dead in that -position. What must have been the courage of this poor creature, who, -when writhing under the lash of a false accusation, kept her head under -water, despite the horrible sense of suffocation that must have come on! - -A French soldier of the name of Bordeaux, being determined to put an -end to his life, persuaded a comrade, called Humain, to follow his -example. They both repaired to an inn at St. Denis, and bespoke a good -dinner. One of them went out to buy some powder and balls. They spent -the day (Christmas) together with great cheerfulness, called for more -wine; and, about four o’clock in the evening, blew out their brains, -leaving some empty bottles, their will, a letter, and half-a-crown, in -addition to the amount of their bill. - -The following letter was addressed by Bordeaux to the lieutenant of his -troop, and was as follows:— - -“SIR,—During my residence at Guise, you honoured me with your -friendship. It is time to thank you. You have often told me that -I appeared displeased with my situation. I was sincere, but not -absolutely true. I have since examined myself more seriously, and -acknowledge that I am disgusted with every state of man, the whole -world, and myself. From these discoveries a consequence should be -drawn,—if disgusted with the whole, renounce the whole. The calculation -is not long,—I have made it without the aid of geometry. In short, I -am about putting an end to the existence that I have possessed for -near twenty years, fifteen of which have been a burden to me; and from -the moment that I have ended this letter, a few grains of powder will -destroy this moving mass of flesh, which we vain mortals call the king -of beings. I owe no one an excuse. I deserted. That was a crime; but -I am going to punish it, and the law will be satisfied. I asked leave -of absence from my superior officers, to have the pleasure of dying at -my ease. They never condescended to give me an answer. This served to -hasten my end. I wrote to Bord to send you some detached pieces I left -at Guise, which I beg you will accept. You will find that they contain -some well chosen literature. These pieces will solicit for me a place -in your remembrance. Adieu, my dear lieutenant! Continue your esteem -for St. Lambert and Dorat. As for the rest, skip from flower to flower, -and acquire the sweets of all knowledge, and enjoy every pleasure. - - ‘Pour moi, j’arrive au trou, - Qui n’echappe ni sage ni fou, - Pour aller je ne sais où.’ - -“If we exist after this life, and it is forbidden to quit it without -permission, I will endeavour to procure one moment to inform you of it; -if not, I shall advise all those who are unhappy, which is by far the -greater part of mankind, to follow my example. When you receive this -letter, I shall have been dead at least twenty-four hours. - - With esteem, &c. - “BORDEAUX.” - - -Lord Scarborough exhibited the same nonchalance in the act of killing -himself as he did when he resigned his situation as master of the -horse. He was reproached in the House of Peers with taking the king’s -part because he had a good place at court. “My Lords,” said he, “to -prove to you that my opinion is independent of my place, I resign it -this moment.” He afterwards found himself in a perplexing dilemma -between a mistress whom he loved, but to whom he had promised nothing, -and a woman whom he esteemed, and to whom he had promised marriage. -Not having sufficient resolution to decide which to choose, he killed -himself to escape the embarrassment. - -Perhaps the coolest attempt at self-destruction on record, the _chef -d’œuvre_ of a suicide, is one related by Foderé. An Englishman -advertised extensively that he would on a certain day put himself to -death in Covent Garden, for the benefit of his wife and family. Tickets -of admission a guinea each. - -Voltaire states that Creech, the translator of Lucretius, wrote on -the margin of the manuscript, “Remember to hang myself after my -translation is finished,” and he accordingly did so.[84] Zimmerman -asserts that he committed suicide in order to escape from the contempt -of his countrymen, in consequence of the ill-success that attended the -translation of Horace, which followed Lucretius. Mr. Jacob, however, -observes, in reply to the statement of Zimmerman, that Creech did not -hang himself until seventeen years after the appearance of his Horace. -His death was attributed at the time to some love affair, or to his -morose and splenetic temper. - -The history of the unfortunate _Madame de Monnier_ is full of interest. -It has been asserted that her death was the result of an ardent passion -for Mirabeau; but we think it has clearly been established that, at -the time of her suicide, she had abandoned all claim to his affection, -and had formed a strong attachment to a person who, although highly -respectable in point of rank, was very inferior to herself. It is well -known that Mirabeau had a _liaison_ with Madame de Monnier, the wife of -the Marquis de Monnier, whom she abandoned. After residing seven years -with her seducer, mutual jealousies and suspicions arose, and all -intercourse between them ceased. After the death of her husband, the -Marquis de Monnier, she became enamoured of M. Edme. Benoit de Poterat, -a retired captain of cavalry, a widower, thirty-five years of age. -The lovers were mutually captivated, and they agreed to marry. Before -this happy event, however, could be arranged, the ill health of M. de -Poterat forced him to quit the country, and Madame de Monnier resolved -to terminate her own existence. She often conversed with her intimate -friend Dr. Ysabeau on the effects of suffocation from charcoal wood. -She asked whether death necessarily ensued? The doctor replied, that -when suffocation was gradual and incomplete, instances had been known -of persons saved by the instinctive effort of introducing air into the -room. On the death of M. de Poterat, which took place on the 8th of -September, 1789, Madame de Monnier was overcome with grief. Dr. Ysabeau -and his wife did all they could to console her, but without effect. -Being alone one day, she collected her papers, tied them in bundles, -sealed them, wrote a letter containing her last directions, and entered -a closet, the smallness and closeness of which she considered well -suited to the design she had long resolved to carry into execution. -She then closed and carefully calked the door and the window. Two -chafing dishes full of charcoal, which she had just lighted, were then -placed by her, one on each side of the arm chair upon which she seated -herself. In order to prevent her purpose from being counteracted by -any instinctive effort of nature, she bound her legs, first under and -then above her clothes. She then tied one of her arms to the chair, and -fixed the other, and in this position calmly awaited death. When it was -discovered that she had attempted suicide, M. Bousseau, Procureur du -Roi of the Bailliage, proceeded to the house, attended by a surgeon, -who, without adopting the most simple means of resuscitation, commenced -opening the body, on the supposition that she was _enceinte_. In the -meanwhile, a messenger was dispatched for Dr. Ysabeau, who rode full -gallop towards Madame de Monnier’s house; but he arrived too late; the -operation had been performed, and life was extinct. From the symptoms -which were present before the ignorant and barbarous surgeon commenced -the operation, Dr. Ysabeau expressed a firm belief that he could have -restored her to animation.[85] - -M.——, aged twenty-seven, a native of Burgundy, who was equally favoured -by nature and by fortune, fell passionately in love with a young lady. -For a long time he solicited in vain the consent of his parents to the -match, but at length love triumphed. Scarcely a month had elapsed after -his marriage, when he was seized with a lowness of spirits, a disgust -of life, and a frightful desire to commit suicide. Everything which -the tenderness of a young and loving wife, and the solicitude of the -whole family, by whom he was loved, could suggest, was done to disperse -these gloomy ideas, and reconcile him to life; but the unfortunate -fellow was too deeply sunk in his melancholy. He at length quitted -Burgundy, and went to Paris with his brother to consult a physician. -The day after he had arrived, he went to M. Esquirol, made known his -sad state to him, assuring him that his weariness of life was not the -result of any physical disease, of any disappointment, or of any moral -pain; affirming, on the contrary, that he was surrounded with nothing -but subjects of contentment. His brother confirmed this declaration. -He left M. Esquirol, and promised to return the next day and commit -himself to his care in his establishment. The next day arrived, the -young man went out at six o’clock in the morning, purchased a pair of -pistols, and returned at seven. He then proposed to his brother to set -out together for Rouen; but he reminded him of the promise he had given -to M. Esquirol, adding, to prevent his changing his mind, that he had -months suitable to go. At that instant M.—— took out his two pistols, -and placing the mouth of one of them at his brother’s forehead, said, -“If you do not consent to go with me immediately, I will instantly blow -out your brains with this pistol, and afterwards kill myself with the -other.” The brother, on hearing this, fell at his feet in a swoon, and -when he recovered, he no longer saw his unfortunate relative who had -threatened him, and he trembled lest he should have gone to some secret -place to terminate his life. He at once gave notice to the police, and -demanded that the most active of their body should be sent in search of -him. On his part, he neglected nothing which could give him any clue to -his discovery; he inquired of his friends and his acquaintances, but -heard nothing of him until the next day, when he received intelligence -from the police that the body of a man shot through the head, had been -found in the forest of Seuart. It was that of his unfortunate brother. - -M. Escousse, author of a drama called Faruck le Maure, about twenty, -and M. Lebras, about fifteen, both united by the closest ties of -friendship, and each of a melancholy turn of mind, committed suicide -at Paris. They had often complained of the miseries of this world, and -talked of the necessity of quitting it. M. Escousse wrote the following -note to his friends:—“I shall expect you at half-past eleven o’clock; -the curtain will be raised; come, and we will at length arrive at the -_dénouement_.” The young Lebras arrived at the appointed time, the -charcoal was ignited, and the two friends expired together. - -A young woman of Marseilles, remarkable for her beauty, formed a -connexion with a cabinetmaker, whose parents objected to their union. -They were found quite dead, clasped in each other’s arms, having been -suffocated by a quantity of burning charcoal. They were both dressed in -the most elegant manner, and must have spent many hours at their toilet -preparing for their last adieu. - -The following case related by Gall cannot easily be paralleled. The -first lieutenant of a company in which a man named Prochaska served -became enamoured of the wife of the latter; but she resisted all his -entreaties. The officer, irritated by this obstinacy, was guilty of -some injustice to the husband. Prochaska appeared dejected and morose, -but the following day he appeared at the dinner table and seemed -quite tranquil. A few days afterwards he and his wife attended the -confessional and took the sacrament. He dined in good spirits, and -took a few glasses of wine. In the evening, he and his wife went out -to walk, and he expressed himself in terms of great affection for her. -He asked her, however, if she had made a candid and full confession to -the priest; and on being answered in the affirmative, he coolly plunged -a poniard in her breast; seeing that she was not instantly dispatched, -he cut her throat across, in order to release her from her sufferings. -He now repaired to his house, and seizing his two children, who were -in bed asleep, he actually hacked them in pieces with a hatchet. -Having committed these three murders, he repaired to the main guard, -and with the most perfect coolness and deliberation detailed the whole -particulars of the bloody deed. He concluded in these words:—“_Let the -lieutenant now make love to my wife if he pleases!_” Shortly after -this, he stabbed himself to the heart. - -A young lady threatened, without ceasing, to kill herself, and made -many attempts at it. An old uncle with whom she lived, tired by her -repeated menaces, proposed a walk in the country; and taking her to -the brink of a piece of water, he commenced undressing himself. “Now, -niece,” said he, “throw yourself into the water, and I will follow -after you.” He continued pressing her, and pushed her towards it; but -after some struggling, she cried out that she was unwilling to die, and -would never more talk of killing herself. - -A young woman, married to a churlish husband, and who, although the -mother of many children, was unhappy in domestic life, determined to -fall by her own hands. She threw herself into a part of the river -sufficiently deep for the execution of her project, but a man, -passing by, drew her out, and compelled her to go home. The necessary -attentions were paid her, and she recovered; but it was observed that -she stood in much dread of water, and felt a pain even in going into a -bath. She, besides, had a fit of melancholy at the time in which she -endeavoured to drown herself. This fit lasted two or three months; it -was followed by a month of great excitement, and then she remained calm -during the remainder of the year. - -The bell of the church at Fressonville, in Picardy, was heard to sound -at an unusual hour, and in a very extraordinary manner. The people -hastened to make inquiry, and found a man suspended from the clapper. -He was immediately cut down, and after some time restored to life. No -motives are assigned for the act. - -A person of melancholy temperament, and who detested his parents on -account of their injustice towards him, had recourse to the chase as -a diversion from his domestic sorrows. One day, being weary, he lay -down in the shade by the side of his weapon and his dog, the faithful -companion of his misfortunes, and fell into a profound sleep. He awoke -in an agitated state of mind, and the idea occurred to him of making an -eternal sleep follow the temporary one he had so much enjoyed. Pleased -with this, he got up, increased the charge of his fowling-piece, and -was about to blow out his brains, when he sensibly reflected in this -manner—“What! am I about to shorten my days because my unjust and -unnatural parents deprive me of their property? This is to give them -their utmost desire, and to abandon to them that which they cannot take -from me.” - -Matthew Lovat was born at Casale, a hamlet belonging to the parish -of Soldo, in the territory of Belluno. His father’s name was Mark, -and being in poor circumstances, the son was employed in the coarsest -labours of husbandry. His education and habits must have been in -accordance with his station; but it appears that, being attracted by -the comfortable and easy circumstances of the rector and curate, -the only persons in the parish who lived without manual labour, he -placed himself under the latter with the desire of entering the -priesthood. From him he learned to read and write a little, but he -was too poor to gratify this inclination, and betook himself to the -trade of a shoemaker. Whether this disappointment had any effect on -Lovat we cannot tell, but he never became expert at his trade, and was -distinguished for his gloominess and silence. When he grew older, he -became subject to attacks of giddiness in the head in the spring, and -to eruptions of a leprous character. Except this gloominess and his -great attention to religious exercises, nothing remarkable was noticed -about Lovat until July, 1802. At this period he performed an operation -upon himself, which subjected him so much to the ridicule of his -neighbours that he was compelled to remain within doors, and to refrain -even from going to mass. He left the village in November, and went to -Venice, where he had a younger brother, who recommended him to a widow, -with whom he lodged until the 21st of September in the following year, -working regularly as a shoemaker, and without exhibiting any signs of -insanity. On that day he made his first attempt to crucify himself. -Having constructed a cross out of the wood of his bed, he proceeded -to nail himself to it in the middle of the street, called the Cross -of Biri, and was only prevented by some persons who seized him as he -was about to drive the nail through his left foot. He was interrogated -as to his motives, but would give no answer, except on one occasion, -when he said that the day was the festival of St. Matthew, and that -he could not explain further. A few days after this had happened, he -left Venice, and went to his native village, but returned soon after, -and continued working at his trade for nearly three years without -exhibiting further signs of his malady. Having taken a room in a third -story in the street Delle Monache, his old delusion again seized him, -and he commenced making at his leisure hours the machine on which he -intended to accomplish his purpose, and providing the nails, ropes, -bands, crown of thorns, &c. He perceived that it would be difficult -to nail himself firmly to the cross, and therefore made a net, which -he fastened over it, securing it at the bottom of the upright beam a -little below the bracket he had placed for his feet, and at the ends of -the two arms. The whole apparatus was securely tied by two ropes, one -from the net, and the other from the place where the beams intersected -each other. These ropes were fastened to the bar above the window, and -were just sufficiently long to allow the cross to lie horizontally upon -the floor of his apartment. Having finished these preparations, he next -put on his crown of thorns, some of which entered his forehead; and -then, having stripped himself naked, he girded his loins with a white -handkerchief. He then introduced himself into the net, and seating -himself on the cross, drove a nail through the palm of his right hand -by striking its head against the floor until the point appeared on the -other side. He now placed his feet on the bracket he had prepared for -them, and with a mallet drove a nail completely through them both, -entering a hole he had previously made to receive it, and fastening -them to the wood. He next tied himself to the cross by a piece of -cord round his waist, and wounded himself in the side with a knife -which he used in his trade. The wound was inflicted two inches below -the left hypochondre, towards the internal angle of the abdominal -cavity, but did not injure any of the parts which the cavity contains. -Several scratches were observed on his breast, which appeared to have -been done by the knife in probing for a place which should present no -obstruction. The knife, according to Lovat, represented _the spear of -passion_. - -All this he accomplished in the interior of his apartment, but it was -now necessary to shew himself in public. To accomplish this, he had -placed the foot of the cross upon the window sill, which was very -low, and by pressing his fingers against the floor, he gradually drew -himself forward, until the foot of the cross overbalancing the head, -the whole machine tilted out of the window, and hung by the two ropes -which were fastened to the beam. He then, by way of finishing, nailed -his right hand to the arm of the cross, but could not succeed in fixing -his left, although the nail by which it was to have been fixed was -driven through it, and half of it came out of the other side. - -This took place at eight o’clock in the morning. Some persons by whom -he was perceived ran up stairs, disengaged him from the cross, and put -him to bed. A surgeon in the neighbourhood who was called in ordered -his feet to be put in water, introduced some tow into the wound in the -hypochondre, which he said did not reach the cavity, and prescribed -some cordial. - -Luckily, Dr. Bergierri, to whom we are indebted for the particulars -of this case, was passing near, and came immediately to the house. -When he arrived, his feet, from which but a small quantity of blood -had flowed, were still in water; his eyes were shut; he gave no answer -to the questions of those around him; his pulse was convulsive; his -respiration difficult; he was, in fact, in a state which required the -most prompt means of assistance. Having obtained permission of the -director of police, who had come to the spot to ascertain what had -happened, he had him removed by water to the Imperial Clinical School -at the Hospital of St. Luke and St. John, of which he then had the -superintendence. The only observation Lovat made while being conveyed -was to his brother Angelo, who was lamenting his extravagance; he -replied, “_Alas! I am very unfortunate_.” His wounds were examined -afresh on his arrival at the hospital, and it was quite evident that -the nails had entered at the palm of the hand, and passing between the -bones of the metacarpus without doing them much injury, had gone out of -the back. The nail which fastened the feet first entered the right foot -between the second and third bones of the metatarsus, and then passed -between the first and second of the left foot, laying them open and -grazing them. The wound in the hypochondre was found to extend to the -point of the cavity. - -The patient all this time was quite docile, and did everything that was -required of him. The wounds in the extremities were treated with fresh -oil of sweet almonds and bread and milk poultices, renewed several -times a day. Some ounces of the mixture cardiaca opiata and a little -very weak lemonade were taken at intervals during the first six days. -On the fifth day the wounds of the extremities suppurated, and on the -eighth, that in the hypochondre was perfectly healed. - -Dr. Bergierri frequently questioned him as to the motives he had -in crucifying himself, and always received the same answer—“_The -pride of man must be mortified; it must expire on the cross_.” Lovat -seldom spoke; he sat with his eyes closed, and a gloomy expression of -countenance. The impression on his mind that he must crucify himself -was very deep. He seemed fully persuaded that this was an obligation -imposed on him by the will of the Deity, and wished to inform the -tribunal of justice that this was his destiny, in order that they might -not suspect that he had received his death from any other hand than his -own. He had expressed these ideas on a paper which he wrote before his -attempt, and which afterwards fell into the hands of Dr. B. - -He did not complain much of pain during the first seven days, but -on the morning of the eighth he suffered severely; this, however, -was soon removed by the remedies had recourse to. In the course of a -short time Lovat was completely restored to bodily health, but his -mind retained until his death the same melancholy caste, although he -never had another opportunity of putting his sanguinary project into -execution.[86] - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -CAN SUICIDE BE PREVENTED BY LEGISLATIVE ENACTMENTS?—INFLUENCE OF MORAL -INSTRUCTION.—CONCLUSION. - - - The legitimate object of punishment—The argument of - Beccaria—A legal solecism—A suicide not amenable to human - tribunals—Evidence at coroners’ courts, _ex-parte_—The old - law of no advantage—No penal law will restrain a man from - the commission of suicide—Verdict of _felo-de-se_ punishes - the innocent, and therefore unjust—Are suicides insane, and - therefore not responsible agents?—The man who reasons himself - into suicide not of sound mind—Rational mode of preventing - suicide by promoting religious education. - -The only legitimate object for which punishment can be inflicted is -the prevention of crime. “Am I to be hanged for stealing a sheep?” -said a criminal at the Old Bailey, addressing the bench. “No,” replied -the judge; “you are not to be hanged for stealing a sheep, but _that -sheep may not be stolen_.” Every punishment, argues Beccaria, which -does not arise from absolute necessity is unjust. There should be a -fixed proportion between crimes and punishments. Crimes are only to be -estimated by the injury done to society; and the end of punishment is, -to prevent the criminal from doing further injury, as well as to induce -others from committing similar offences. - -The act of suicide ought not to be considered as a crime in the -legal definition of the term. It is not an offence that can be -deemed cognizable by the civil magistrate. It is to be considered a -sinful and vicious action. To punish suicide as a crime is to commit -a solecism in legislation. The unfortunate individual, by the very -act of suicide, places himself beyond the vengeance of the law; he -has anticipated its operation; he has rendered himself amenable to -the highest tribunal—viz., that of his Creator; no penal enactments, -however stringent, can affect him. What is the operation of the law -under these circumstances? A verdict of _felo-de-se_ is returned, and -the innocent relations of the suicide are disgraced and branded with -infamy, and that too on evidence of an _ex-parte_ nature. It is unjust, -inhuman, unnatural, and unchristian, that the law should punish the -innocent family of the man who, in a moment of frenzy, terminates his -own miserable existence. It was clearly established, that before the -alteration in the law respecting suicide, the fear of being buried -in a cross-road, and having a stake driven through the body, had -no beneficial effect in decreasing the number of suicides; and the -verdict of _felo-de-se_, now occasionally returned, is productive of no -advantage whatever, and only injures the surviving relatives. - -When a man contemplates an outrage of the law, the fear of the -punishment awarded for the offence may deter him from its commission; -but the unhappy person whose desperate circumstances impel him to -sacrifice his own life can be influenced by no such fear. His whole -mind is absorbed in the consideration of his own miseries, and he even -cuts asunder those ties that ought to bind him closely and tenderly to -the world he is about to leave. If an affectionate wife and endearing -family have no influence in deterring a man from suicide, is it -reasonable to suppose that he will be influenced by penal laws? - -If the view which has been taken in this work of the cause of -suicide be a correct one, no stronger argument can be urged for the -impropriety of bringing the strong arm of the law to bear upon those -who court a voluntary death. In the majority of cases, it will be -found that some heavy calamity has fastened itself upon the mind, -and the spirits have been extremely depressed. The individual loses -all pleasure in society; hope vanishes, and despair renders life -intolerable, and death an apparent relief. The evidence which is -generally submitted to a coroner’s jury is of necessity imperfect; -and although the suicide may, to all appearance, be in possession of -his right reason, and have exhibited at the moment of killing himself -the greatest calmness, coolness, and self-possession, this would not -justify the coroner or jury in concluding that derangement of mind was -not present. - -If the mind be overpowered by “grief, sickness, infirmity, or other -accident,” as Sir Mathew Hale expresses it, the law presumes the -existence of lunacy. Any passion that powerfully exercises the mind, -and prevents the reasoning faculty from performing its duty, causes -temporary derangement. It is not necessary in order to establish the -presence of insanity to prove the person to be labouring under a -delusion of intellect—a false creation of the mind. A man may allow -his imagination to dwell upon an idea until it acquires an unhealthy -ascendency over the intellect, and in this way a person may commit -suicide from an habitual belief in the justifiableness of the act.[87] -If a man, by a distorted process of reasoning, argues himself into a -conviction of the propriety of adopting a particular course of conduct, -without any reference to the necessary result of that train of thought, -it is certainly no evidence of his being in possession of a sound mind. -A person may reason himself into a belief that murder, under certain -circumstances not authorized by the law, is perfectly just and proper. -The circumstance of his allowing his mind to reason on the subject -is a _prima facie_ case against his sanity; at least it demonstrates -a great weakness of the moral constitution. A man’s _morale_ must be -in an imperfect state of development who reasons himself into the -conviction that self-murder is under any circumstances justifiable. - -We dwell at some length on this subject, because we feel assured that -juries do not pay sufficient attention to the influence of passion in -overclouding the understanding. If the notion that in every case of -suicide the intellectual or moral faculties are perverted, be generally -received, it will at once do away with the verdict of _felo-de-se_. -Should the jury entertain a doubt as to the presence of derangement, -(and such cases may present themselves,) it is their duty, in -accordance with the well-known principle of British jurisprudence, to -give the person the benefit of that doubt; and thus a verdict of lunacy -may be conscientiously returned in every case of this description. - -Having, we think, clearly established that no penal law can act -beneficially in preventing self-destruction,—first, because it would -punish the _innocent_ for the crimes of the _guilty_; and, secondly, -that, owing to insanity being present in every instance, the person -determined on suicide is indifferent as to the consequences of his -action,—it becomes our province to consider what are the legitimate -means of staying the progress of an offence that undermines the -foundation of society and social happiness. - -In the prevention of suicide, too much stress cannot be laid on the -importance of adopting a well-regulated, enlarged, and philosophic -system of education, by which all the _moral_ as well as the -intellectual faculties will be expanded and disciplined. The education -of the intellect without any reference to the moral feelings is a -species of instruction calculated to do an immense amount of injury. -The tuition that addresses itself exclusively to the perceptive and -reflective faculties is not the kind of education that will elevate -the moral character of a people. Religion must be made the basis of -all secular knowledge. We must be led to believe that the education -which fits the possessor for another world is vastly superior to -that which has relation only to the concerns of this life. We are no -opponents to the diffusion of knowledge; but we are to that description -of information which has only reference “to the life that is, and not -to that which is to be.” Such a system of instruction is of necessity -defective, because it is partial in its operation. Teach a man his -duty to God, as well as his obligations to his fellow-men; lead him to -believe that his life is not his own; that disappointment and misery -is the penalty of Adam’s transgression, and one from which there is -no hope of escaping; and, above all, inculcate a resignation to the -decrees of Divine Providence. When life becomes a burden, when the -mind is sinking under the weight of accumulated misfortunes, and no -gleam of hope penetrates through the vista of futurity to gladden the -heart, the intellect says, “Commit suicide, and escape from a world of -wretchedness and woe;” the moral principle says, “Live; it is your duty -to bear with resignation the afflictions that overwhelm you; let the -moral influence of your example be reflected in the characters of those -by whom you are surrounded.” - -If we are justified in maintaining that the majority of the cases -of suicide result from a vitiated condition of the moral principle, -then it is certainly a legitimate mode of preventing the commission -of the offence to elevate the character of man as a moral being. It -is no legitimate argument against this position to maintain that -insanity in all its phases marches side by side with civilization and -refinement; but it must not be forgotten that a people may be refined -and civilized, using these terms in their ordinary signification, who -have not a just conception of their duties as members of a Christian -community. Let the education of the _heart_ go side by side with the -education of the _head_; inculcate the ennobling thought, that we -live not for ourselves, but for others; that it is an evidence of -true Christian courage to face bravely the ills of life, to bear with -impunity “the whips and scorns of time, the oppressor’s wrong, and the -proud man’s contumely;” and we disseminate principles which will give -expansion to those faculties that alone can fortify the mind against -the commission of a crime alike repugnant to all human and Divine laws. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - - -[1] Cæsar’s reply on being told of Cato’s death was reported -to be—“Cato, I envy thee thy death, for thou hast envied me the -preservation of thy life;” on which Plutarch remarks, “Had Cato -suffered himself to be preserved by Cæsar, it is likely he would not so -much have impaired his own honour, as augmented the other’s clemency -and glory.” But Cato’s own idea was, that it was an insupportable -instance of Cæsar’s tyranny and usurpation that he should “pretend” to -shew clemency in saving lives over whom he had no legal authority. - -[2] The affection and resolution of an obscure private soldier was -very remarkable, who, standing before Otho with his drawn sword, spoke -thus—“Behold in my action an instance of the unshaken fidelity of all -your soldiery. There is not one of us but would strive thus to preserve -thee,” and immediately he stabbed himself to the heart. Many private -soldiers, after Otho’s death, gave the same proof of fidelity to their -deceased lord.—_Plutarch’s Life of Otho._ - -[3] It is said that the night before the battle the same spectre -appeared to Brutus, but vanished without saying anything. - -[4] Tac. An. xvi. - -[5] At Anchiale, there was a monument erected to the memory of -Sardanapalus. It consisted of an image carved in stone work, and having -the thumb and the finger of the right hand joined, as if making some -sound or noise with them. On the monument was inscribed these words in -Assyrian characters: “Sardanapalus, the son of Anacyndarax, founded -Anchiale and Tyre in one day. Eat, drink, and be merry. As for the -rest, it is not worth the snap of the finger.” - -[6] Varro _de Ling. Lat._, lib. iv. - -[7] 1 Samuel, xxxi. - -[8] This is the only case of suicide recorded in the New Testament. -Judas’s conduct is condemned in the strongest language; he is called in -the Gospel of St. John (vi. 70,) “a devil, and the son of perdition;” -and in the first chapter of the Acts of the Apostles, at the 25th -verse, after the account given of his violent death, he is said to have -gone _to his own peculiar place_. (Εἰς τὸν τόπον τὸν ἴδιον.) - -Virgil thus alludes to the “place of punishment” allotted to those who -sacrifice wantonly their own lives:— - - “Proxima deinde tenent mæsti loca, qui sibi letum - Insontes peperêre manu, lucemque perosi - Projecêre animas. Quàm vellent æthere in alto - Nunc et pauperiem et duros perferre labores! - Fas obstat. Tristique palus inamabilis undâ - Alligat, et novies Styx interfusa coërcet.” - - (ÆNEIS, lib. vi. ver. 434 et seq.) - - “The next in place and punishment are they - Who prodigally throw their souls away: - Fools, who, repining at their wretched state, - And loathing anxious life, suborn their fate: - With late repentance now they would retrieve - The bodies they forsook, and wish to live; - Their pains and poverty desire to bear, - To view the light of heaven and breathe the vital air. - But fate forbids, the Stygian floods oppose, - And with nine circling streams the captive souls inclose.” - - (DRYDEN.) - -[9] Macc. i. 6. - -[10] There is something sublime in the stern copiousness with which the -stoics dwelt particularly on the facility with which suicide may be -committed. “Ante omnia cavi, ne quis vos teneret invitos: PATET EXITUS. -Si pugnare non vultis, licet fugere. Ideoque ex omnibus rebus, quas -esse vobis necessarias volui, nihil feci facilius, quam mori. Attendite -modo et videbitis quam brevis ad libertatem et quam expedita ducat -via. Non tam longas in exitu vobis quam intrantibus, moras posui,” -&c.—_Seneca de Providentia_, in fine. Vide epistle lxx. - -[11] Epistles xii. and lxx.; and De Irâ, lib. iii. - -[12] Corpus Juris Civilis, lib. xlviii. tit. xxi. parag. 3. - -[13] Vide Potter’s Antiquities. - -[14] Universal Geography, vol. iii. p. 155. - -[15] It is generally believed that Rousseau killed himself by taking -arsenic; but this has been denied. Judging from the character and -disposition of the man, we should feel disposed to credit the statement -respecting his voluntary death. Rousseau always maintained that -the following stanza of Tasso had a direct application to him, and -accurately described his feelings and position in the world— - - “Still, still ’tis mine with grief and shame to rove, - A dire example of disastrous love; - While keen remorse for ever breaks my rest, - And raging furies haunt my conscious breast, - The lonely shades with terror must I view, - The shades shall every dreadful thought renew: - The rising sun shall equal horrors yield, - The sun that first the dire event revealed; - Still must I view myself with hateful eye, - And seek, though vainly, from myself to fly.” - -[16] _Duverger de Haurane_, abbot of St. Cyran, regarded as the founder -of Port Royal, wrote, in the year 1608, a treatise on suicide, which -has, says Voltaire, become one of the scarcest books in Europe. - -He says the decalogue forbids us to kill. In this precept, self-murder -seems no less to be comprised than murder of our neighbour. But if -there are cases in which it is allowable to kill our neighbour, there -likewise are cases in which it is allowable to kill ourselves. We must -not make an attempt upon our lives until we have consulted reason. The -public authority, which holds the place of God, may dispose of our -lives. The reason of man may likewise hold the place of the reason of -God,—it is a ray of the eternal light. - -Voltaire, disposed as he was to advocate the right of committing -suicide whenever a man considered death preferable to a dishonourable -life, had sufficient sagacity to see through the glaring sophistry of -St. Cyran’s reasoning on this point. The same author says, “A man may -kill himself for the good of his prince, for that of his country, or -for that of his relations.” - -[17] It is evident that the great dramatist considered that suicide was -opposed to the divine will. - - “Against self-slaughter - There is a prohibition so divine, - That cravens my weak hand.” - -Again, he says— - - “Or that the Everlasting had not fixed - His canon ’gainst self-slaughter!” - -[18] Warder’s “Letters from the Northumberland.” - -[19] London Medical and Surgical Journal, vol. v. p. 51. - -[20] In a table given by Professor Caspar, of Berlin, one hundred and -three cases of suicide are attributed to mental affections; thirty of -these may be classed under this head, and thirty-two under that of fear -and despondency combined. - -[21] The massacre of St. Bartholomew lasted seven days, during which -more than 5000 persons were slain in Paris, and from 40 to 50,000 in -the country. During the execution, the king betrayed neither pity nor -remorse, but fired with his long gun at the poor fugitives across the -river; and on viewing the body of Coligni on a gibbet, he exulted with -a fiendish malignity. In early life, this monster had been noted for -his cruelty: nothing gave him greater pleasure than cutting off the -heads of asses or pigs with a single blow from his _couteau de chasse_. -After the massacre, he is said to have contracted a singularly wild -expression of feature, and to have slept little and waked in agonies. -He attributed his thirst for human blood to the circumstance of his -mother having at an early period of his life familiarized his mind with -the brutal sport of hunting bullocks, and with all kinds of cruelty. It -is recorded that, when dying, he actually sweated blood. - -[22] Hist. Eccles. edit. Duaci, 1622, pp. 643-4. - -[23] Meaning the Duke of Gloucester. - -[24] King Henry, Act 3. - -[25] Dr. Johnson’s Rasselas. - -[26] Goëthe, in allusion to one of his own early attachments. - -[27] Love, it is said, often turns the brains of the Italians, even the -men. M. Esquirol says, “Frenchmen seldom go mad from love. A Frenchman -often kills himself in a sally of passion and feeling, but is seldom in -love long enough to go mad about it.” - -[28] “Love.” - -[29] O’Meara’s “Voice from St. Helena,” vol. i. p. 57. - -[30] “Life of Napoleon,” vol. viii. p. 244. - -[31] It is worthy of remark that the judge who condemned, as well as -the disciple who betrayed, our Saviour, were both driven by despair to -suicide. The fate of Judas is recorded in the Gospel; the concluding -scenes in the life of Pontius Pilate are related by two learned -historians (_Josephus_ and _Eusebius_). The former says that “Pontius -Pilate, after having exercised great cruelties in his government of -Judæa, was, before the Roman Emperor (Caligula), stripped of all his -dignities and fortunes, and banished to Gaul, where it is said he -suffered such extreme hardships of body and despair of mind, that, -after lingering for two years, he became his own executioner.” - -[32] Lessing. - -[33] On Lunatic Asylums. - -[34] Vide Mathews’ Life, by his widow, vol. ii. p. 158. - -[35] Dr. Haslam. - -[36] “Revue Médicale,” Dec. 1821. - -[37] Under the heathen mythology, it was believed that the struggles of -death continued till Proserpine had cropped the hair on the crown of -the head, as victims were treated at the altar. Virgil has preserved -this opinion in the fourth book of the Æneid, where he gives so fine a -picture of the dying agonies of Dido. - -[38] It is only by reasoning physiologically that we can conclude that -the act of dying is not a painful process. In proportion as death -seizes its victim, so must consciousness be suspended. What can be more -painful to the beholder than to witness the convulsive struggles, and -the foaming at the mouth, of a person in an epileptic fit, who, when -restored to consciousness, has no recollection of what has occurred? He -remembers the premonitory indications, and that is all. Death is but -an epileptic struggle. A phenomenon attends the dying moment which we -do not recollect to have seen noticed. A man who fell into the water, -and who rose several times to the surface, had a consciousness of the -hopelessness and awfulness of his situation; he felt that death was -inevitable. With this conviction on his mind, he saw presented to him -a picture of his past life; the minutest action in which he had been -engaged was brought in a kind of tableau before him. Circumstances that -had long been forgotten were conjured from his brain, and he had a -bird’s-eye view of his past career. Possibly, this may occur to every -person at the moment of dying. The expressions of those placed under -such circumstances would indicate as much. - -[39] Foreign Quarterly Review, vol. xvi. - -[40] Vol. xxi. for 1837. - -[41] It is related by Lord Bacon, in his “Historia Vitæ et Mortis,” -that a friend of his, who was particularly anxious to ascertain -whether criminals suffered much pain in undergoing the sentence of -the law, on one occasion suspended himself by the neck, having for -that purpose thrown himself off a stool, on which he supposed he could -readily remount, when he had carried his experiment sufficiently far -to satisfy his curiosity. The report goes on to state, that the loss -of consciousness which followed would have led to a fatal termination -of the experiment, had not a friend accidentally entered the apartment -in time to save the life of the adventurous experimentalist. Foderé -relates a similar incident of one of his fellow-students. This young -man, after an argument respecting the cause of death in hanging, -resolved personally to gratify his curiosity, by passing a ligature -round his neck, and attaching it to a hook behind the door. To -accomplish this, he had raised himself on tip-toe, and now gradually -brought his heels to the ground. He soon lost all consciousness, -but was cut down by a companion, who discovered him, in a state of -insensibility, very soon after the commencement of the experiment, -and by the prompt application of remedial measures he was finally -recovered. From cases of this description we learn that the first -effect experienced in hanging is the appearance of a dazzling light -before the eyes, accompanied by tingling in the ears. These sensations -are, however, momentary, for insensibility and death rapidly close the -scene. - -[42] Gazette Litteraire. - -[43] Foreign Literary Gazette. - -[44] In 1806, upwards of sixty voluntary deaths took place at Rouen, -during June and July, the air being at that time remarkably humid and -warm; and in July and August of the same year, more than three hundred -were committed at Copenhagen, the constitution of the atmosphere -presenting the same characteristics as it did at Rouen. The year 1793, -presented in the town of Versailles alone the horrible spectacle of -thirteen hundred suicides. - -[45] This was Philip Mordaunt, cousin-german to the celebrated Earl of -Peterborough, so well known to all European courts, and who boasted of -having seen more postillions and kings than any other man. Mordaunt -was young, handsome, of noble blood, highly educated, and beloved by -those who knew him. He resolved to die. Preparatory to his doing so, -he wrote to his friends, paid his debts, and even made some verses on -the occasion. He said his soul was tired of his body, and when we are -dissatisfied with our abode, it is our duty to quit it. He put a pistol -to his head and blew out his brains. An uninterrupted course of good -fortune was the only motive that could be assigned for this suicide. - -[46] M. Falret. - -[47] Dict. des Sciences Med., vol. liii. - -[48] Previous to Cowper’s attempt at suicide, he had fallen into the -company of two sophists, who both advanced claims to the right of -self-destruction, and whose fallacious arguments won him to their -pernicious views, which were, besides, aided by his recollection of -a certain book containing similar reasoning, which, however weak in -itself, now seemed to his disordered mind irrefragable. - -[49] Dr. J. Johnson. - -[50] Vide Dr. Conolly. - -[51] Wordsworth. - -[52] The _possunt quia posse videuntur_ feeling is not sufficiently -encouraged by medical philosophers in treating mental affections. - -[53] History of Music. - -[54] Edinburgh Medical Trans. - -[55] Lib. xii. cap. 51. - -[56] When Pope was on his death-bed, Bolingbroke observed to the -weeping attendants, “I have known Pope these thirty years; he was the -kindest-hearted man in the world.” - -[57] Prior to the more urgent symptoms developing themselves, he -appeared to be endeavouring to recollect Dr. B., and addressed him as -Dr. Death. - -[58] A medical student, twenty years of age, was seized with mania, -arising from the presence of worms in the intestines. He felt the most -acute pains in the different regions of his body, appearing to him -as if persons were driving arrows into him, more particularly in the -palms of his hands and soles of his feet. This caused him to utter most -distressing cries, to seek to be alone, and prevented him from walking. -The intolerable pains and madness left him as soon as the worms were -expelled. - -[59] “When powerful feelings or passions are in active operation, in -the insane or in the sane, they draw the muscles of the face into -particular forms; and, if they continue for a length of time to be -greatly predominant, they impress upon the countenance an appearance -indicative of the character. This is felt and acted upon unconsciously -in the common intercourse of life. A good countenance is a letter of -recommendation; and we have, in spite of ourselves, an unfavourable -feeling towards a stranger where this is absent. Now in the generality -of suicidal cases, the desponding feelings are in constant and active -operation; hence there is usually a melancholy and gloomy expression of -countenance. This arises from no mysterious cause peculiar to insanity, -but is perfectly intelligible on common physiognomical principles; but -there are numerous instances where the most experienced physician would -be unable to detect, by inspection only, the slightest mark of either a -disposition to suicide or insanity. The absence of this expression must -not, therefore, induce us to suppose that this disposition does not -exist.”—SIR W. ELLIS. - -[60] Ellis on Insanity. - -[61] Indications of Insanity. - -[62] Journ. Gen. de Médecine, Juillet, 1822. - -[63] “Pain is an evil; death, the deprivation of every hope or comfort -in this life. No man in his senses will burn, drown, or stab himself; -for these all produce what are called evils; neither can any of these -actions be executed without the probability of pain in the convulsive -action or struggles of death. As no rational being will voluntarily -give himself pain, or deprive himself of life, which certainly, while -human beings preserve their senses, must be acknowledged evils, it -follows that every one who commits suicide is indubitably _non compos -mentis_, not able to reason justly, but is under the influence of false -images of the mind; and therefore suicide _should ever be considered an -act of insanity_.”—DR. ROWLEY. - -[64] Lowness of spirits ought to be regarded and treated as insanity, -says Ellis, and not dreaded as its forerunner. For it is at this stage -that suicide is resorted to. Should this not be the case, specific -hallucinations may speedily appear, and the agony of mind will be -endured as a consequence of bankruptcy, the unfaithfulness of a friend, -the persecutions of enemies, or the ravages of an incurable disease. -No demonstration of the untenableness of such grounds, no picture of -brighter and happier circumstances, will avail to refute or encourage. -The sufferer clings to his hoarded misery. There is generally great -loss of physical strength in cases of this kind, and the pale emaciated -countenance, dull and sunken eye, and listless dejected form, tell as -plainly as the querulous complaint, or the long intricate description -of sorrows and anticipated evils, to what class the patient belongs. - -[65] Vide Lord Dover’s Life of Frederick, and Ray on Med. Juris. - -[66] Dr. J. Johnson. - -[67] Hill on Insanity. - -[68] This was no doubt an hallucination of the senses. On another -occasion, when in the House of Commons, Lord Castlereagh fancied -he saw the same “Radiant Boy.” Does not this fact establish that -his lordship’s senses were not always in a healthy condition? It is -possible that when impelled to suicide he laboured under some mental -delusion. - -[69] Notes to Metzger. - -[70] Annales de Hyg. pub. et de Méd. Lég. tom. v. p. 156. - -[71] We have availed ourselves of Dr. Taylor’s translation of the -particulars of the prince’s death, which are recorded with much -minuteness in the “Annales d’Hygiène Publique, et de Médecine Légale.” - -[72] Foderé, vol. iii. p. 167; from the Causes Célèbres. See also -Grimm’s Historical and Literary Memoirs, (from 1753 to 1769,) vol. ii. -pp. 41, 117, and 166. - -[73] Travels in Asia, Africa, &c. - -[74] To which may be added, anticipation of punishment, or disgrace -from misconduct. - -[75] Méd. Légale, iv. § 948; and Smith on Med. Jurisprudence. - -[76] The committee made no report. Lord Delamere undertook to draw it -up, but before he did so, parliament was prorogued. Bishop Burnet, who -has given the particulars of the case with great minuteness, says, he -had no doubt that the Earl of Essex committed suicide. He was subject -to fits of deep melancholy, and maintained the lawfulness of suicide. -This is also Hume’s opinion. - -[77] This is confirmed by the fact that within the jurisdiction of the -metropolitan police, the two districts in which the greatest number of -suicides were committed or attempted, in 1836 or 1837, were those of -the Regent’s Park and Stepney, through both of which the Regent’s Canal -runs. This circumstance tends to shew that drowning is the mode of -suicide most frequently resorted to in London, and that a canal offers -greater facilities for that purpose than the river. - -[78] The disposition to suicide may be manifested very early in life. -M. Falret knew a boy, twelve years old, who hanged himself because -he was only twelfth in his class. A similar case occurred at the -Westminster school about seventeen years ago. Harriet Cooper, of Huden -Hill, Rowly-Regis, aged ten years and two months, upon being reproved -for a trifling fault, went upstairs, after exhibiting symptoms of grief -by sighing and sobbing, and hung herself with a pair of cotton braces -from the rail of a tent bed. A girl named Green, eleven years old, -drowned herself in the New River, from the fear of correction for a -trifling fault. Dr. Schlegel states, on the authority of Casper, that -in Berlin, between the years 1812 and 1821, no less than thirty-one -children, of twelve years of age and under, committed suicide, either -because they were tired of existence or had suffered some trifling -chastisement. - -[79] “Oh, supreme God, who inhabitest the highest heavens, heal my -afflictions; as with the wretched in hell, the joyful in heaven, shew -mercy to the guilty.” - -[80] Dr. Moore’s Travels through France, vol. i. let. 32. - -[81] Hufeland’s Journal. - -[82] Hist. de l’Acad. Roy., 1769. - -[83] Paris and the Parisians, by Mrs. Trollope. - -[84] Voltaire observes, that if Creech had been translating Ovid, he -would not have committed suicide. - -[85] We refer our readers, for a minute and deeply interesting account -of this unfortunate woman’s career, to a work from which we have -gleaned the above facts; the particulars of her life will be perused -with great interest.—Vide “Memoirs of Mirabeau, by himself,” vol. -iii. chap. xi. - -[86] Vide Frontispiece. - -[87] A singular case of this kind was brought under the notice of the -Westminster Medical Society by Dr. Stone, as an argument in favour of -the possibility of a person committing suicide when in possession of a -sane mind. - - - -T. C. 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