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diff --git a/old/50873-0.txt b/old/50873-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3e18fa2..0000000 --- a/old/50873-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8327 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Mediaeval Church Vaulting, by Clarence Ward - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Mediaeval Church Vaulting - -Author: Clarence Ward - -Release Date: January 7, 2016 [EBook #50873] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEDIAEVAL CHURCH VAULTING *** - - - - -Produced by Chuck Greif, deaurider and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - MEDIAEVAL CHURCH VAULTING - - - - - PRINCETON MONOGRAPHS IN ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY V - - - MEDIAEVAL CHURCH VAULTING - - - BY - - CLARENCE WARD - - ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF ARCHITECTURE, RUTGERS COLLEGE - LECTURER ON ARCHITECTURE, PRINCETON UNIVERSITY - - - PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS - PRINCETON - LONDON: HUMPHREY MILFORD - OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS - 1915 - - Copyright, 1915, by - PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS - - Published November, 1915 - - - To A. M. - - WITH THE LASTING AFFECTION OF THE AUTHOR, - WHO IS INDEBTED TO HIM FOR MUCH INSPIRATION - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -The student of Mediaeval architecture, especially of the Gothic era, -finds perhaps its strongest appeal in the peculiar structural character -which it possesses. Greek architecture, even at its best, strongly -reflects a preceding art of building in wood. Roman architecture, when -it does not closely follow its Greek prototype, often depends upon a -mere revetment or surface treatment for its effects, and the Renaissance -builders in general followed this lead. Only in the Middle Ages was the -structure truly allowed to furnish its own decoration, and the -decoration itself made structural. And by far the greatest single -problem of construction was that of vaulting. A knowledge of vaulting -is, therefore, essential for the thorough student of Mediaeval -architecture. On the vaulting system depend in a large measure the shape -of piers and buttresses, the size and form of windows and arches, and a -host of decorative mouldings and details which form the complex whole of -Mediaeval construction. - -Inheriting from Early Christian times a church of well-established plan, -the builders of the eleventh to the sixteenth centuries set themselves -the problem of substituting for the wooden roof of this Early Christian -Basilica a covering of masonry which would resist the conflagrations -that were among the most destructive forces of the Middle Ages. It is -with these efforts that the following pages are to deal. It has been my -purpose to classify and to discuss in a systematic manner what has been -gathered from authorities here and abroad and from a study of the -monuments themselves. - -Especial emphasis has been laid upon the connection between the vaulting -and lighting problem. Some vaults, such as those of six-part and -five-part form, are shown to have probably derived this form from the -clerestory, while other vaults of nave, apse, and ambulatory are proved -to be very closely related to the position of the windows beneath them. -In the discussion of Romanesque vaulting, a number of churches are -suggested as forming a “School of the Loire,” in addition to the schools -which are generally listed. Suggestions are made regarding the form of -the centering employed in Perigord, and there is a somewhat extended -account of the purpose served by the triforia of Auvergne. In dealing -with ribbed vaults the use of caryatid figures for the support of the -ribs, the non-essential character of the wall rib, the origin and -development of six-part vaulting, and the types of chevet vaults are -subjects especially treated. But these and other novelties are all -subordinate to the real purpose of the work, which is to give in a -compact and systematic form a thorough résumé of all the principal forms -of vaulting employed in the middle ages. For the sake of this systematic -treatment the different portions of the church, nave and aisles, choir -and transepts, apse and ambulatory have been taken up in separate -chapters, though in each case there has been an effort to keep as -closely as possible to the chronological sequence of the monuments. This -matter of chronology has, in fact, led to an effort to date as -accurately as possible all the buildings mentioned. For this purpose the -author has consulted many authorities and in the case of doubtful -monuments has arrived at the dates given only after an analysis of the -various claims advanced. - -The illustrations are in large measure from photographs taken by the -author or purchased in Europe. The following, however, are from -publications, Figs. 31, 34 and 39 from Gurlitt, _Baukunst in Frankreich_ -(J. Bleyl Nacht, Dresden); Fig. 12 from Baum, _Romanische Baukunst in -Frankreich_ (Julius Hoffmann, Stuttgart); Fig. 38, from Bond, _Gothic -Architecture in England_ (Batsford, London), and Fig. 63 from Moore, -_The Mediaeval Church Architecture of England_ (Macmillan, New York). -The drawings are largely based upon plates in Dehio and Von Bezold, -_Kirchliche Baukunst des Abendlandes_ (Cotta, Stuttgart), supplemented -by the author’s own notes. Of course, only a limited number of -illustrations were possible and for this reason less well known -examples, and those not previously published, were in most cases chosen. -To make it possible for the reader to supplement the illustrative -material references are made in the footnotes to publications in which -reproductions of many of the churches mentioned may be found. The books -chosen for reference have, where possible, been those easily accessible -to the student. - -The principal literary sources for the work are listed in the -bibliography, though many works not mentioned were also consulted. Among -the sources which proved most useful are the works of Choisy, Enlart, -Lasteyrie, Rivoira, Porter and Moore, all of which are especially -recommended to the student of vaulting. For personal assistance in the -preparation and subsequent reading of the work, the author is much -indebted to Professor Howard Crosby Butler and Professor Frank Jewett -Mather, Jr., of Princeton University, but especially to Professor Allan -Marquand of Princeton, under whose inspiration and encouragement the -work was undertaken. - -CLARENCE WARD. - - -New Brunswick, New Jersey. - -October, 1915. - - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER I. NAVE AND AISLE VAULTS 1 - - CHAPTER II. TRANSEPT AND CROSSING VAULTS 105 - - CHAPTER III. APSE VAULTS 124 - - CHAPTER IV. AMBULATORY VAULTS 158 - - - - -CHAPTER I - -NAVE AND AISLE VAULTS - - -During the Romanesque period, or roughly speaking, from the beginning of -the eleventh to the middle of the twelfth century, three chief forms of -vaulting were employed over the naves and aisles of church edifices. The -first of these was the dome, the second the tunnel vault, and the third, -groined vaulting. With the development of the ribbed vault, all three -gave way to this new method of construction, and the Gothic era was -inaugurated. - - -DOMES ON SPHERICAL PENDENTIVES - -The dome was employed in two rather distinct ways according to the form -of pendentives used for its support. Thus a number of churches continue -the tradition of the spherical pendentive, while in others some form of -squinch or trumpet arch is found. Both methods are of early origin, -dating back, in fact, to the Roman era preceding the reign of Justinian -(483-565) and consequently earlier than the Byzantine architecture of -which they are so conspicuous a feature. Rivoira[1] has shown the -existence of numerous spherical pendentives of the second century A.D. -or even earlier, and Lasteyrie[2] has added to these a small cupola at -Beurey-Beauguay (Côte-d’Or) in France dating from the second or third -century. But even if this method were known at an early date it was not -until the Byzantine era that it obtained a wide-spread and extensive -usage. During the sixth century it became the principal method of -vaulting throughout the Roman Empire, and, as such, had a considerable -influence upon Carolingian architecture of the ninth and tenth -centuries. This is true even in France, for traces of pendentives were -found in 1870 during a restoration of the church of -Germigny-des-Prés,[3] a fact of particular interest because it is in -France that the principal Romanesque examples of this method are to be -seen. - - -DOMES ON SQUINCHES - -As for the squinch, it may possibly be of Persian origin, but the -earliest examples thus far known in Persia are to be found in the -palaces of Firouz Abad and Sarvistan, which probably date from the -Sassanian period between A.D. 226 and 641, and are therefore of later -date than the Roman examples of the first and second centuries to be -found in the Palace of the Caesars at Rome and the Villa Adriana at -Tivoli (cir. A.D. 138). Whatever its origin, the squinch in its various -forms, simple cross lintel,[4] cross arch, trumpet arch, niche head, -etc., was employed prior to and during the Byzantine period along with -the spherical pendentive. In fact a trumpet arch of domed up character -is found in the Baptistery of the cathedral of Naples[5] which dates -from the fifth century, while the niche head or half dome type, very -commonly employed in Romanesque architecture, has a sixth century -prototype in the church of San Vitale at Ravenna,[6] as well as many -earlier examples such as those in the Domus Augustana (cir. A.D. 83),[7] -or the Thermae of Caracalla (212-216)[8] at Rome. Other types of -squinches occasionally appear but they are generally referable to one of -the above mentioned forms. - - -THE SCHOOL OF PERIGORD - -By far the most important group of Romanesque churches employing the -dome on spherical pendentives, is situated in that portion of France -extending around the city of Périgueux, and constitutes what is known as -the architectural school of Perigord. Since Périgueux was a trading post -on the route from Venice to the west, it must have felt a good deal of -Byzantine influence, and it is the general theory that to this influence -is due the almost universal employment of the dome on pendentives in the -churches of this school. While this may well be the case, it is -nevertheless to be remarked that the dome as a method of vaulting seems -to have been the only importation, its construction in Perigord -differing in almost every particular from that of the Byzantine period. -This might even seem to indicate that the Perigord type of dome was not -imported, but actually indigenous to this part of France, a theory which -has lately been advanced by no less an authority than Lasteyrie.[9] But -in any case, the points of difference in construction between the domes -of Byzantine architecture and those of the school of Perigord are of -more importance in this discussion of vaulting, than is the question of -their origin. - - -COMPARISON OF PERIGORD AND BYZANTINE DOMES - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--PÉRIGUEUX, CATHEDRAL.] - -These differences have been so admirably summed up by Lasteyrie[10] that -a translation of his summary with a few additions will perhaps give the -best possible account of them. They are grouped under six chief heads -which may all be studied by using the cathedral of Saint Front at -Périgueux (Figs. 1 and 2) as a model. First, the French pendentives are -borne on pointed instead of semicircular arches; second, the surface of -the pendentive at Saint Front rises from the intrados rather than from -the extrados of the voussoirs; third, the diagonal profile of the French -pendentive is a complex curve[11] instead of a quarter circle; fourth, -the oldest French pendentives have their masonry in horizontal courses -while the Byzantine frequently have their courses more or less normal to -the curve; fifth the springing of the domes of Saint Front is some -distance back from the circle formed by the pendentives, the diameter of -the dome being thus greater than its impost,[12] while in Byzantine -models, the two correspond; and sixth and last, the domes of Saint Front -are slightly pointed and, for that matter, all the French domes are at -least semicircular, while the Byzantine domes are generally of segmental -section. The explanation of all these differences lies in the material -employed, for the domes of Perigord are of stone, those of Byzantine -architecture are of brick or some other light material. The pointed arch -having less thrust than that of semicircular section was better suited -for stone construction, a fact which explains the pointed section of -many French domes whose outward thrusts were thereby greatly reduced. -Moreover, while the light Byzantine material made possible a dome -without centering constructed after the manner of the Egyptian -“voute-par-tranches,”[13] the heavy stone of the French vault made a -centering absolutely necessary, a fact which explains the setting back -of the dome from the curve of the pendentives so that the ledge thus -formed might serve to support the wooden centering employed.[14] It -explains also the horizontal courses since these allowed a greater -amount of the weight of each course to be borne by the one beneath it, -thus reducing the pressure and making possible a centering of -comparative lightness. But these were not the only results of the -employment of stone. Since the domes of Perigord are much heavier than -the Byzantine domes and exert much more outward thrust it was essential -for them to have very firm supports. Perhaps it is with this in view -that the churches of this school are for the greater part without side -aisles, their outer walls with heavy applied and transverse arches -providing suitable support for the domes. Even when aisles exist, they -are merely deep wall arches forming transverse tunnel vaults rising -from the level of the imposts of the transverse arches of the nave and, -with them, furnishing the support for the triangular pendentives. This -is the arrangement in the cathedral of Saint Front at Périgueux (Fig. -1), the only church in France of this particular type.[15] - - -THE EXTERIOR ROOFING OF PERIGORD DOMES - - - -One advantage in the employment of the dome of stone lay in the fact -that it might be faced on both the exterior and the interior, or covered -directly by tiles without the use of a bonnet of wood and copper, or a -roof of wood and tile, so frequently seen in Byzantine work. It is -doubtful whether the earliest French domes were treated in this way, -however, for indications would seem to point to the original employment -of a wooden roof over the domes of the cathedral of Saint Front.[16] -Nevertheless, these domes have since been restored with an exterior -stone facing (Fig. 2), and a similar treatment is to be seen at Cahors -cathedral, and over - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--PÉRIGUEUX, CATHEDRAL.] - -the crossing of Angoulême. In these domes the drum is first built up in -a slightly ramping wall, to offset the outward thrust of the vault, and -the dome itself is crowned by a lantern toward which it has an upward -curve, rendering the exterior steep enough to shed water readily. At -Angoulême the domes of the nave are entirely concealed by a gable roof, -perhaps in the early manner of the school. Still another type of dome -covering appears at Saint Étienne in Périgueux,[17] where the curve of -the dome does not show on the exterior, but where the drum is first -carried up around the haunch, and then surmounted by a flattened conical -roof of tile, which rests directly upon the vault beneath. - - -CHARACTERISTICS OF PERIGORD CHURCHES - -It has already been noted that the employment of the dome on pendentives -over square bays led to the construction of churches with a broad nave -without side aisles. Among the earliest of these are the church of Saint -Astier (Dordogne), (founded about 1010 but so mutilated as to show -little of its original construction),[18] and Saint Avit-Sénieur -(Dordogne) (cir. 1117), originally with three domes which were replaced -by domed up Anjou vaults in the thirteenth century.[19] The best of the -earlier examples remaining for critical study are, first, the cathedral -of Saint Pierre at Angoulême, whose western bay was constructed between -1100-1125,--the remaining three being but slightly later--and second, -the church of Saint Étienne at Périgueux, originally with four domes, -two of which were destroyed in the religious wars of the sixteenth -century. Of the two which remain the more recent must be earlier than -1163, and the other would seem from its appearance to be about -contemporary with that of the west bay of Angoulême.[20] These two with -the cathedral of Saint Front (after 1120) furnish three excellent -examples of the school, to which a large number of other churches might -be added as illustrating some minor differences in plan or -elevation.[21] The cathedral of Angoulême (Figs. 3 and 4) is -characteristic of the school. Deep wall, and heavy transverse arches -supply substantial impost for the domes. The piers of the western bay -are of simple rectangular plan like those of Saint Avit-Sénieur and -Saint Étienne at Périgueux, while those to the east are of a later -compound type with transverse arches and wall-arches in two orders -instead of the single order of the earlier bay. Except over the -crossing, where there is a high circular drum forming a lantern, the -domes are not pierced with windows around their base. This is due to the -fact that they are covered on the exterior by a wooden roof.[22] It is -more usual to find four small windows at the base of each dome as in -Périgueux, Saint Front (Fig. 1).[23] The use of stone in the -construction of the domes explains the small number of these windows -compared to that in Byzantine architecture,[24] since the stability of -the vault would be threatened by too many openings. Besides this, the -fact that the churches of Perigord have no aisles, properly speaking, -permitted sufficient light to enter through windows in the side walls. -In fact it seems quite possible that the windows in the domes of the -Perigord churches were used to afford resting places for the frame work -of the centering even more than for light, a fact which would also seem -to be true of the four recesses left in the masonry just above the -cornice of the domes of Angoulême cathedral (Fig. 4). - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--ANGOULÊME, CATHEDRAL.] - - -THE CENTERING OF PERIGORD DOMES - -In support of this theory it is possible to point out that if long cross -beams were used in building these domes, it would be difficult if not -impossible to remove them after the dome was finished. If, however, as -at Angoulême, small spaces were left in the masonry it would be possible -to tilt a beam bevelled at each end and resting on the ledge of the dome -and thus remove it without cutting. Still another argument in favor of -this theory is the fact that the open spaces to north and south are -above the level of the ledge, which would seem to indicate that they -were planned to receive the end of a cross beam at right angles to, and -above the one running lengthwise. Of course, when windows took the place -of these small recesses the removal of the beam could be made through -them. There remain, however, a number of churches in which there are -neither windows nor recesses, but in most of these the ledge of the dome -is itself wide enough to support a beam which could be removed without -striking the vault surface. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--ANGOULÊME, CATHEDRAL.] - -As for the choirs of the churches of this school, they were occasionally -domed as at Saint Front[25] (Fig. 1), but were more often covered by a -tunnel vault terminating in the half dome of the apse. The eastern -portion of the choir of Saint Front (Fig. 1) and the choir of Angoulême -(Fig. 4) illustrate this latter arrangement. - - -NAVES VAULTED WITH DOMES ON SQUINCHES - -Although very frequently used over the crossing of Romanesque churches, -the dome on squinches is seldom found over the bays of the nave. There -is in fact no distinct school in which this method is employed and the -examples of its use are widely scattered. The principal one is, perhaps, -the cathedral of Notre Dame at Le Puy (Haute-Loire), which dates from -the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Unlike the domed churches of -Perigord it is of basilical plan with side aisles. The nave is in six -bays with broad arches opening into the aisles and a triforium arcade -above them. Across the nave are transverse arches separating the bays. -The four toward the east are semicircular, the remaining two are pointed -in elevation. These arches rise from imposts nearly or quite as low as -those of the nave arcade, and walls are built upon them to the level of -the string-course above the triforium. Six rectangular bays,--or seven -including the crossing,--of practically square plan are thus formed and -each is covered with a dome. In the western bays,--which are at least a -century later than those at the east end and therefore more advanced in -structure,--a clerestory wall is erected with a single window in its -north and south walls, and openings corresponding to windows from one -bay to the next above the transverse arches, to secure a good -distribution of light (Fig. 5). Across the upper corners of these four -walls and rising from the same level as the window heads, are arches -with half domed triangular niches beneath them, converting the square -into an octagon and furnishing the impost for the domes.[26] These are -octagonal in elevation as well as plan and are laid up in flat panels, -or gores, which meet at the crown (Fig. 6). It is a type of dome -admirably suited to its impost since it presents none of the awkward -appearances of a circular dome on an octagonal base.[27] It is also very -practical from a structural standpoint. Since the gores are flat, the -stone cutting is far less elaborate than in a hemispherical dome, and -the gored dome has the further advantage of great flexibility since it -may be flattened or raised at the crown, placed over a square bay or one -with any number of sides, and made equilateral or with gores of -different widths, all with great facility. Furthermore, when the naves -are of reasonable width, as in most churches with side aisles, the -thrust of the dome is very slight and its downward pressure is not -excessive. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--LE PUY, CATHEDRAL.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--LE PUY, CATHEDRAL.] - -But with all its structural advantages, a system like that at Le Puy was -not a satisfactory solution of nave vaulting. The transverse arches were -necessarily so far below the surface of the dome that the continuity of -the nave as a whole was destroyed, and the appearance was rather that -of a series of lantern towers or crossings juxtaposed than of a single -homogeneous vault. - -The side aisles of Le Puy are of less importance than the nave, though -the fact that some of their bays were vaulted, or revaulted, at nearly -every period of mediaeval architecture makes them interesting for a -study of consecutive methods. In the bays to the east the vaults are -groined on stilted, round headed transverse arches in the early -Romanesque manner, while the succeeding bays have pointed transverse -arches with groined vaults closely resembling those of the school of -Bourgogne, and the bays nearest the west end have ribbed vaults, in one -case with the early heavy-torus rib, in another with the light rib of -pointed section of a late Gothic rebuilding. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--POITIERS, SAINT HILAIRE.] - -Although not the basis of a school of Romanesque architecture, the -cathedral of Le Puy was not without its influence. This is especially -apparent in the large church of Saint Hilaire at Poitiers (Figs. 7, and -8), which was constructed with very broad nave and aisles,--both -covered with wooden roofs,--after a disastrous fire of 1018, and -dedicated in 1059. In 1130 the vaulting of this church was undertaken, -the result being a most unusual edifice. As the nave was too broad to be -easily covered by a vault of single span, it was subdivided by lofty and -slender piers and arches into a central portion consisting of square -bays,[28] and narrow rectangular bays forming veritable inner aisles on -either side. These narrow bays were covered with groined vaults directly -above the original clerestory windows which thus continued to light the -newly formed nave. Domes were then placed over the square central bays -as had been done at Le Puy, but instead of the niche-head-squinch and -the practically equilateral octagonal dome, small conical trumpet arches -were employed at Saint Hilaire, and the gores of the dome rising from -these were much narrower than the four remaining panels. This gives the -dome rather the character of a cloistered vault with its corners cut off -than of a dome properly speaking. Since the clerestory is below the -level of the transverse arches upon which the domes of Saint Hilaire are -built, the interior has a loftier and less broken appearance than that -of Notre Dame-du-Puy. But even so the effect is not remarkably pleasing. - -The side aisles of Saint Hilaire (Fig. 8) are quite as interesting in -their vaulting as the nave. A single broad aisle on either side, which -apparently opened into the nave through lofty arches rising almost to -the clerestory, and which probably had transverse arches with ramping -walls carrying half gable roofs, was altered when it was determined to -vault the church. In doing this, two arches with a solid wall above were -placed under each of the original arches of the nave arcade, a slender -column built up in the center of each of the original bays, and upon the -pseudo-double side aisles thus formed, compound groined vaults were -constructed in a manner best understood from the photograph (Fig. 8). - -Except for those just mentioned there are but few Romanesque -churches,--outside of Italy and Sicily,--in which the nave is covered by -a series of domes.[29] But because of the powerful Byzantine influence, -these latter - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--POITIERS, SAINT HILAIRE.] - -countries contain a large number of churches of semi-Byzantine, -semi-Romanesque character, some of which are as late as the thirteenth -century.[30] Most of these are so distinctly Byzantine that they do not -properly fall within the province of this book, in spite of their late -date; but others, like the cathedral of Molfetta,[31] have a vaulting -system quite closely allied to the Romanesque.[32] In this particular -cathedral, a nave of three square bays is covered by three domes, one -on flattened spherical pendentives, the others on niche-head-squinches. -Two of them rise from drums and unlike their Byzantine prototypes, they -are all of stone.[33] Moreover, the side aisles are covered with half -tunnel vaults on full transverse arches, the crown of the vaults -together with the nave walls above them acting as admirable buttresses -for the domes. A system not quite so logical exists in the aisles of the -church of San Sabino at Canosa (1100), where there are full tunnel -vaults which do not serve so adequately as buttresses. - - -PYRAMIDAL VAULTS - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--LOCHES, SAINT OURS.] - -Although not vaulted with domes, the church of Saint Ours at Loches in -France (Indre-et-Loire) (Figs. 9 and 10) has a close connection with -such churches as those of Perigord and Notre Dame-du-Puy. This -collegiate church was probably constructed a little before 1168, and -originally consisted of a nave divided into square bays by transverse -arches of pointed - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.--LOCHES, SAINT OURS.] - -elevation and side aisles which have now disappeared. Each nave bay is -converted from a square into an octagon by flat triangular pendentives -on very small trumpet arches. But instead of domes, the builders of -Saint Ours substituted a hollow octagonal pyramid of stone over each -bay. Such a system, while presenting the same aesthetic objection as -that of Le Puy, had greater structural advantages. The pyramids could be -built entirely without centering, and exerted almost no outward thrust, -while the stones of which they were constructed could be faced on the -exterior (Fig. 9) as well as the interior, and the steep roof thus -formed provided adequate drainage for the rain and snow of the -region.[34] - - -TUNNEL VAULTS - -If the dome played but a small part in Romanesque architecture, such was -not the case with the tunnel vault. Almost as old as civilization -itself, this method of vaulting had been employed to a greater or less -extent in every age from the Egyptian period to that of the Carolingian -Empire. It is natural, therefore, to find it the principal method in use -during the entire Romanesque era. Nor is it necessary to trace its -history back to Persian or Armenian sources. The builders of the -eleventh and subsequent centuries had plenty of examples nearer at hand. -Roman vaults, some of them of stone, were still in a good state of -preservation in many parts of the western world, and almost every -country or province possessed examples dating from Carolingian days.[35] -It is not the use of this roofing system, therefore, but the skill with -which it was adapted to the naves and aisles of churches of basilical -plan, that furnishes the most interesting features in the study of -Romanesque tunnel vaulting. In fact, so distinct are the combinations -and methods employed in different regions, that they constitute -veritable architectural schools which may be classified and separately -discussed.[36] - - -ROMANESQUE SCHOOLS OF TUNNEL VAULTED CHURCHES - -The four major schools lie in France and center around the ancient -provinces of Provence, Poitou, Auvergne, and Bourgogne, whence they -derive their names. All four are comprised in practically the same -period,--namely, the eleventh and part, at least, of the twelfth -centuries,--and it would be impossible to arrange them in any -chronological order. But from its resemblance to the Roman monuments in -the midst of which it grew and the fact that it had comparatively little -structural influence upon the other schools, Provence will be the first -to be considered. - - -THE SCHOOL OF PROVENCE - -The cities of Arles and Nîmes had been important Roman provincial -centers. Moreover, they still retained, and to this day possess, a large -number of Roman monuments whose influence upon the Romanesque churches -of the eleventh and twelfth centuries is plainly apparent. Thus vaults -which carry directly the tiles of the roof, single aisled churches -resembling the little Nymphaeum, or so-called temple of Diana at Nîmes, -the employment of flat pilasters in place of the more usual applied -shafts of curved section, and a host of minor details all reflecting -classic usage are marked characteristics of this school. - - -PROVENCE CHURCHES OF THE FIRST TYPE - -When considered from the point of view of vaulting, the churches of -Provence fall into five distinct groups. The first, illustrated by the -chapel of Saint Gabriel near Tarascon (Bouches-du-Rhône),[37] is -composed of churches with no side aisles. These are covered with tunnel -vaults of semicircular or pointed section, with or without transverse -arches and carrying directly the tiles of the roof. The supporting walls -are frequently strengthened by a series of interior applied arches in -one or more orders thickening the wall at the impost of the vault. -Outside of this interior buttressing, which has already been seen in -Perigord, the churches of this type are of little structural interest. - - -PROVENCE CHURCHES OF THE SECOND TYPE - -In the remaining groups, side aisles are always present and these have -four distinct vaulting systems. In the first, tunnel vaults are employed -throughout the edifice. Saint Nazaire[38] (after 1090), the former -cathedral of Carcassonne (Aude), though somewhat removed from the center -of the school, illustrates this system. Both nave and aisle vaults rise -from the same impost level. The vault of the nave is slightly pointed, -those of the aisles are semicircular, and both have transverse arches. -It is a simple and practical method of construction, since the aisle -vaults furnish admirable abutment for that of the nave, and all three -are covered by a gable roof of masonry resting directly upon the vault -crowns. Its one great fault is the absence of direct light in the nave, -a condition which introduces the problem of lighting a tunnel-vaulted -church. - - -THE LIGHTING OF TUNNEL-VAULTED CHURCHES - -This problem was second only to that of constructing the vaults -themselves and, furthermore, it had much to do with the forms which -these assumed and even with the plan of the church. When there were no -side aisles, windows were cut directly through the outer walls, but to -introduce a clerestory above an aisle arcade involved a number of -structural difficulties. The side aisle vaults no longer aided in -supporting that of the nave, and in fact exerted an inward pressure at a -point below its impost where such pressure was most difficult to offset. -At the same time, the outward thrust of the central tunnel vault was -increased in proportion to its elevation from the ground. The simplest -method of meeting these difficulties was to increase the thickness of -the clerestory walls, or add simple salient buttresses and trust to good -construction to offset the increased thrusts. This was the method -adopted by most of the Romanesque builders.[39] It was only in the -school of Bourgogne, and under its influence, that the problem received -a better solution--which will later be discussed at length--and not -until the Transitional and Gothic periods that it was completely solved -by dispensing entirely with the tunnel vaults. - -While its chief effect was upon vaulting, the lighting problems -frequently affected the plan of the church as well. When the nave was -without direct light, the aisles were almost always narrowed to permit -light to enter from windows in their outer wall. Double aisles were -practically impossible,[40] unless the inner aisles had triforium -galleries supplied with windows.[41] - -Nor did the problem of lighting enter merely into the construction of -simple tunnel vaulted churches. It was involved with that of all kinds -of vaulting throughout the entire Romanesque and Gothic periods. -Transverse tunnel vaults like those of Tournus, groined vaults like -those of Vézelay, the development of the Gothic chevet from the half -domed apse, and the systems of ribbed vaulting which are frequently -found in the crossings, aisles, and ambulatories of Gothic churches, all -are closely related to the lighting problem. - - -PROVENCE CHURCHES OF THE SECOND TYPE CONTINUED - -Returning to Provence, it will be recalled that Saint Nazaire at -Carcassonne was described as a typical example of the second class of -churches of this school, entirely tunnel vaulted, with narrow side -aisles whose lateral windows afford the only light with which the nave -is supplied. There are, however, a few churches, vaulted like Saint -Nazaire, in which the builders introduced a clerestory. Among these is -the abbey church of Saint Guilhem-du-Désert (Hérault) (rebuilt at the -end of the eleventh century).[42] Here the clerestory is of considerable -height, the heads of the windows lying beneath the imposts of the tunnel -vaults, a fact which renders this church one of the most developed of -the school. Yet this development lies merely in the presence of the -windows, and not in any structural advances which made their presence -possible. It was because of the excellent masonry of the heavy walls and -piers, that the Provence builders dared to attempt this innovation. The -vaults themselves are no lighter than before and still carry the entire -weight of the roof. In fact, the whole system is one of inert stability, -analogous to Roman construction, and exhibits little if any advance -toward the elasticity and balanced thrusts which were to characterize -Gothic architecture. - - -PROVENCE CHURCHES OF THE THIRD TYPE - -The churches in the third Provence group differ from those in the second -only in having half tunnel vaults in the side aisles, but this -difference is sufficient to change to some extent the character and -methods of construction. In the simple churches of this type where there -is no clerestory as, for example, in the western portion of the little -church of Saint Honorat, belonging to the monastery of the -Isle-de-Lérins (Alpes-Maritimes),[43] the half tunnel vault of the -aisles furnishes better abutment for that of the nave than the full -tunnel vaults of the second type, and at the same time permits loftier -arches to be constructed in the nave arcades, giving a better -distribution of light without raising the imposts of any of the vaults. - -When, however, a clerestory is added, as in Saint Trophime at Arles -(first half of the twelfth century), the inward pressure of the aisle -vaults is even more severe than in Saint Guilhem-du-Désert and at the -same awkward place, so that the only structural advantage at Arles lies -in the added height of the nave arches. It is a noticeable feature of -Saint Trophime that the aisles have full, instead of half arches[44] -used transversely beneath the vaults, very probably because the former -exerted less inward thrust, and could also be weighed down by a solid -wall which increased the rigidity of the structure by tying the pier of -the nave arcade to the outer wall, and strengthened the clerestory for -the support of the high vault. The system has already been noted in the -cathedral of Molfetta,[45] and will be found repeated either in the -triforia or aisles of a number of Romanesque churches of different -schools.[46] - - -PROVENCE CHURCHES OF THE FOURTH TYPE - -The employment of a three-quarters tunnel vault over the aisles renders -the fourth group of Provence churches a cross between the second and -third. Like them it contains examples with and without a clerestory. Of -these the cathedral at Vaison (Vaucluse)[47] (twelfth century) -illustrates the former, and the abbey church of Silvacane -(Bouches-du-Rhône) (second half of the twelfth century)[48] the latter -form. The advantage of the three-quarter type lies in the fact that it -exerts less thrust against the inner wall than does the half tunnel and -still makes possible loftier arches in the nave arcade compared to the -height of the aisle vault than does the full tunnel vault. But these -slight advantages are offset by its ugly appearance, and it was never in -any sense popular. - - -PROVENCE CHURCHES OF THE FIFTH TYPE - -The system of the fifth type of the school of Provence is that of a -tunnel vaulted nave with side aisles covered by transverse tunnel -vaults. This method is, however, so different from the other four and -was so widely extended,--largely through Cistercian influence--that it -can hardly be said to be inherent in any one school, but rather to -constitute an individual group of churches which will be separately -considered. - -From the foregoing discussion of the entire school, it will be seen that -the builders of Provence produced very little that was original in vault -construction. It was not a school of progress, but rather one of -conservative adherence to the Roman tradition of the province around -which it centered. Its most progressive feature was, perhaps, the -preference it displayed for the pointed tunnel vault,[49] and this may -be explained by the fact that the vault in Provence generally carries -directly the tiles of the roof and less masonry was necessary to carry a -pointed vault up into a gable than would have been the case with one of -semicircular section. One further preference, which shows the structural -sense of the Provence builders, is that for transverse arches under the -vaults, which not only make possible lighter masonry in the vaults -themselves, but also lessen the centering necessary for their -construction. - - -VAULTS SIMILAR TO THOSE OF PROVENCE IN OTHER ROMANESQUE CHURCHES - -Such methods of vaulting as those just described are not confined to -Provence. In Poitou, for example, there is a group of churches with -half-tunnel vaults in their side aisles. Some of these, like Saint -Eutrope at Saintes (Charente-Inférieure)[50] (eleventh century) and -Aigues-Vives (Loir-et-Cher),[51] have corresponding half arches, -others, like Parthenay-le-Vieux (Deux-Sèvres),[52] (cir. 1129) have full -transverse arches beneath these vaults. Moreover, in Auvergne the -triforium is regularly covered with a half tunnel vault buttressing the -tunnel vault of the nave, and in a few instances, as at Culhat -(Puy-de-Dôme),[53] the side aisles are in one story with similar -vaulting. There are also many instances outside of Provence in which the -aisles have full tunnel vaults. Between Auvergne and Bourgogne there is -an example in the abbey church at Souvigny (Allier) (eleventh century) -(Fig. 11), and such a system may quite possibly have been employed in -the aisles of Cluny[54] and in those of the choir of Saint -Benoît-sur-Loire (Loiret)[55] (second half of the eleventh century). -Even in England it occurs in the Tower Chapel at London[56] (begun -1078), and is also found in Poitou at Melle (Deux-Sèvres), Saint -Pierre[57] (early twelfth century), where the vaults are pointed, and at -Lesterps (Charente),[58] where they are of semicircular section. The -three-quarter tunnel vault also is not confined to Provence for it -appears as far north as Saint Genou (Indre) in the eleventh century. - -The foregoing examples serve only to indicate that such systems as these -which are inherently simple in construction came, very naturally, to be -widely employed during the Romanesque era. Where they originated it is -impossible to say, but the fact that they are so elementary in principle -and often vary in some of their structural characteristics[59] may -indicate that they were developed independently and contemporaneously in -various localities. - - -NAVES WITH TUNNEL VAULTS AND AISLES GROINED - -The next three schools of Romanesque architecture have one feature in -common, namely, the employment of groined vaults over the side aisles. -But the form which these assume and their relations to the tunnel vaults -of the nave differ sufficiently to distinguish the churches of Poitou, -Auvergne and Bourgogne from one another. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--SOUVIGNY, ABBEY CHURCH.] - - -THE SCHOOL OF POITOU - -The chronology of the churches of Poitou is somewhat obscure, but the -vaulting principles of the school were well developed early in the -eleventh century, to which period a number of the existing churches -belong. Their naves are tunnel vaulted and without a clerestory, the -light entering through windows in the outer walls of the aisles, which -are narrow and high and covered with groined vaults rising from the -imposts of the arches opening into the nave. The entire church has a -single-gabled exterior roof of wood and tile, its rafters supported near -their centers by a wall above the nave arcade, and thus not resting -directly upon the extrades of the vaults.[60] Certain minor structural -differences make it possible to divide the churches of Poitou into two -groups. - -The first is composed of the earlier churches, of which Saint -Savin-sur-Gartempe (Vienne) (begun cir. 1023) is the best and perhaps -the only existing example. In it, both nave and aisle vaults are without -transverse arches. All the vaults are semicircular in section, and those -of the aisles[61] have their transverse surfaces continuous with the -soffits of the nave arches.[62] This gives them the flattened groins so -characteristic of Roman architecture. Such a system as this required an -extensive wooden centering, and it is not surprising that the builders -of Poitou soon introduced transverse arches beneath the vaults,--perhaps -through the influence of Lombardy, where they were in use as early as -the tenth century[63]--thus producing a group of churches which form the -second type of the school. - -Notre Dame-la-Grande at Poitiers (Vienne) (early twelfth century), is an -early example of this class. Transverse arches are employed throughout -the church, not only strengthening the vaults but making it possible to -save centering by using the same form for each successive bay and at the -same time reducing to some extent the thickness of the web by thus -breaking it up into smaller units.[64] - -Toward the second half of the twelfth century the system was still -further improved by the introduction of pointed arches and vaults in -both nave and aisles, as for example in the abbey church of Cunault -(Maine-et-Loire). The flattened type of groin has here been abandoned, -though the vaults are not of domed-up type. Such doming is to be found -in Poitou, however, in Saint Pierre at Chauvigny (Vienne),[65] probably -with the intention of saving centering, as in Byzantine architecture. -But even though the builders of Poitou made some progress in vaulting, -they never attempted to solve the associated problem of getting direct -light in the nave. Hence such progress was but slight from the earliest -to the latest churches of the school.[66] - - -THE SCHOOL OF AUVERGNE - - -THE ORIGIN AND USE OF THE TRIFORIUM GALLERY IN AUVERGNE - -One of the distinguishing features of the typical churches of Auvergne -is the presence of a second story or triforium gallery above the side -aisles. To account for its presence a number of theories have been -advanced. That such galleries were not intended for congregational -purposes, at least in the early churches of the school, is evident from -the fact that they are but dimly lighted and accessible only by narrow -staircases in dark corners. They may have been used for storerooms or -treasuries for relics brought by pilgrims,--a possibility which is -strengthened by the fact that they ceased to be built in the thirteenth -century when the era of the Crusades was past,[67]--or they may have -been useful places from which to defend the church, corresponding in -this respect to the room frequently found in the second story of -Romanesque towers.[68] But whatever their use, they would seem, in -Auvergne, at least, to have originated on purely structural grounds. - -The expedient of dividing the openings from the nave of the church to -the aisles into two stages, with the evident intention of thus reducing -the height of the piers and even of making lighter piers possible, was -employed in a number of churches both earlier and later than those in -Auvergne. It may even be in part the explanation of the double colonnade -in the Lateran Baptistery, and the upper stories in the chapel at -Aachen, and the abbey churches at Essen, Nymwegen, and elsewhere. In any -case, it explains the system of two stories of arches in the Carolingian -church of Saint Michael at Fulda (818-822),[69] and in the early -Romanesque churches of Vignory (Haute-Marne)[70] (eleventh century), -Montiérender, (Haute-Marne)[71] (early eleventh century), and -Chatel-Montagne (Allier)[72] (early twelfth century), and probably also -in Saint Pierre at Jumièges (Seine-Inférieure)[73] (cir. 940).[74] - -A significant fact in connecting these churches which are wooden roofed, -with the vaulted churches of Auvergne, lies in their geographical -distribution. While the earliest examples such as Fulda lie in the -Carolingian region, the latter examples, Jumièges, Vignory and -Montiérender lie but slightly north of Auvergne, while Chatel-Montagne -is actually in this province.[75] What is more natural to suppose, then, -than that the vaulted churches of Auvergne were based upon these earlier -churches, and that the nave arcade in two stages was retained even when -both aisles and nave were covered with vaults? Furthermore, it would -then be perfectly natural that the builders should have built these -vaults in two stories corresponding to the two stages of arches, since -they would have promptly recognized the great advantage gained by this -system, which stiffened the interior and exterior walls for the added -weight which the high vaults brought to bear upon them, without injuring -to any extent the appearance of the church.[76] This seems all the more -plausible when the fact is considered that the churches of Auvergne -generally have broader aisles than those of Poitou or Provence. This may -also have been a heritage from the early churches with two-storied -arcades and wooden roofs just mentioned,[77] and in any case it further -explains the system of aisle vaults in two stories. For, while the -vaults of narrow aisles might be raised a considerable distance from the -ground without danger from excessive thrusts, in wide aisles they would -have exerted such thrusts and pressures on piers and walls as to have -rendered their support most difficult, particularly when they carried -directly the tiles of the roof as in Auvergne. - - -THE SCHOOL OF AUVERGNE CONTINUED - -As to the actual vaulting system of the Auvergnate churches, it is as -follows. In the nave, heavy tunnel vaults resembling those of Provence -in that they usually carried the roof.[78] Otherwise the churches are -more like those of Poitou in the form of the piers, the almost universal -absence of a clerestory, and the employment of vaults of semicircular -section with transverse arches, as in the early churches of the second -class in that school. In the triforium, the builders realized the -advantage gained by the use of a half tunnel vault as an offset to the -nave thrusts and as a means of best filling the space beneath a single -gable roof,[79] and this is therefore the universal method. At times -this vault is borne on full semicircular transverse arches,[80] and at -others on those which follow its curve.[81] In the side aisles, groined -vaults were employed because they were the only kind which could be -built without cutting into either the triforium or the side wall -windows. In form they closely resemble those of Poitou and were provided -with transverse arches. - - -CHURCHES OF THE AUVERGNE SCHOOL - -The church of Notre Dame-du-Port at Clermont-Ferrand (Puy-de-Dôme)[82] -(Fig. 12) (cir. 1100) has the Auvergnate characteristics just described. -Its great fault lies in the darkness of the interior, a darkness more -pronounced than that of the churches of Provence or Poitou because of -the width and lowness of the aisles with the consequent distance of the -lateral windows from the nave and the fact that they cannot be cut very -high above the floor. The windows of the triforium are also small,[83] -and their light is almost entirely confined to the gallery by its floor -and by the smallness of the arches opening into the nave. This fault was -remedied in the choir, where the light was most needed, by doing away -with the triforium, and placing a clerestory beneath the half dome of -the apse.[84] As a further improvement a lantern was placed over the -crossing.[85] - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--CLERMONT-FERRAND, NOTRE DAME-DU-PORT.] - -In certain churches of the school like Saint Sernin at Toulouse (nave -twelfth century), the triforium was increased in size, perhaps in order -that it might be used for congregational purposes, but more probably -because larger windows were absolutely necessary in this portion of the -church for the sake of the lighting. This theory is strengthened by the -fact that Saint Sernin has double side aisles and the lateral windows -are therefore too far away to light the nave. These added aisles are -covered with vaults of regular Auvergnate character, even to the extent -of half tunnel vaults beneath their roofs, and the remainder of the -church corresponds to the structural standards of the school.[86] - - -CHURCHES OF AUVERGNE WITH A CLERESTORY - -Although it might seem from the foregoing pages that the builders of -Auvergne were very backward in structural technique, there are a number -of churches in the school which have a clerestory in the nave. Among -them is Saint Étienne at Nevers (Nièvre)[87] (end of the eleventh -century),[88] in which the clerestory is obtained by raising the wall -above the triforium arches just high enough to permit the introduction -of comparatively small windows with their heads rising above the impost -of the vaults.[89] The principle is the same as that in Provence, and no -structural innovation is involved. The builders merely relied upon heavy -piers and walls and salient buttresses to bear the added thrust which -the tunnel vaults, thus raised, produced. That their reliance was not -especially well founded is proved by the numerous cracks in the masonry. - - -THE SCHOOL OF THE LOIRE - -The introduction of a clerestory in tunnel-vaulted churches was not yet -scientifically accomplished, and it remained for the school of Bourgogne -to find the best possible solution of the problem. But this solution -would seem to have been reached only after some intermediate steps had -been taken which may, perhaps, be traced in a number of eleventh century -churches. Two of these lie slightly to the north of Poitou and Auvergne -and strongly reflect the influence of these neighboring schools. These -churches, together with others in the same general region, may perhaps -be said to constitute a school of Romanesque architecture, which might -properly be termed the School of the Loire. - -The first of these is the small church of Saint Genou (Indre).[90] It is -a combination of the types of Auvergne and Poitou except that the tunnel -vault of its choir is raised on a clerestory wall pierced with good -sized windows. Its aisles are in only one story, and, instead of being -groined, are covered by three-quarter tunnel vaults perhaps showing the -influence of such Provence churches as those of Silvacane and Vaison. -The whole system shows an advance in structural skill in several -particulars. In the first place the aisles are built low, and with -columnar piers close together, thus insuring the support of a heavy -triforium wall. This wall is lightened in appearance but not -structurally weakened, by a wall arcade opposite the vaults and roofs of -the aisles, and is sufficiently thick at the clerestory level to be -pierced with window openings and still afford an excellent impost for -the tunnel vault. This, in turn, is built of light material like the -vaults of Poitou. With exterior salient buttresses, the system is -complete. Its only important drawbacks are the closeness of the -supporting piers and the necessity of keeping the whole choir rather low -to avoid excessive thrusts. - -The second church lies between Saint Genou and the school of Bourgogne. -It is the abbey church of Saint Benoît-sur-Loire (Loiret), begun in 1062 -and possessing a choir, transepts, and porch, dating from the second -half of the eleventh century. Its choir (Fig. 13) closely resembles that -of Saint Genou in every particular, except that the aisles have full -tunnel vaults and the church as a whole is larger with a much more lofty -nave of greater span.[91] Such a system as that of Saint Genou and Saint -Benoît is produced by the extension of the elevation so frequently seen -in the apses of the churches of Poitou and Auvergne to embrace the sides -of the choir as well. The columnar piers and small arches used are like -those in the apse rather than like those in the remainder of the church. -The builders seem, however, to have failed to realize that walls which -would support the half dome of the apse would not necessarily prove -sufficiently strong to resist the thrusts of a tunnel vault. In fact, in -spite of its apparent advance, the vault of the choir of Saint Benoît -was only prevented from falling by the addition of transverse arches -and flying-buttresses at a date subsequent to the completion of the -church, and the vault of the nave of Cluny, which was quite possibly -similar, actually fell in 1125.[92] It remained for the twelfth century -builders of Bourgogne to take the final steps which were to carry the -system of tunnel vaulted naves with direct light to its highest -development. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--SAINT BENOÎT-SUR-LOIRE, ABBEY CHURCH.] - - -THE SCHOOL OF BOURGOGNE - -It is most unfortunate for a study of the school of Bourgogne that the -mother church at Cluny (Saône-et-Loire) should have been almost totally -destroyed in the French Revolution. This great church was begun in 1089 -and must have been finished in 1125, for the nave vaults fell in that -year and were rebuilt before the final consecration in IIVO. What its -original vaulting system was is difficult to say. Reber[93] says that it -was probably vaulted like the churches of Auvergne with inner aisles in -two stories, but Rivoira[94] states that both the nave and aisles had -tunnel vaults on transverse pointed arches. The exterior view,[95] and -the model which fortunately remains, would correspond with either -arrangement.[96] The important facts to note are that the nave had a -clerestory, and that the nave vault was strengthened on the exterior by -carrying up the clerestory walls to exert a downward pressure at its -haunch, a most important structural advance over the exterior wall of -Saint Benoît-sur-Loire.[97] - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--PARAY-LE-MONIAL, ABBEY CHURCH.] - -The developed system of Bourgogne may be seen to advantage in the abbey -church of Paray-le-Monial (Saône-et-Loire) (Figs. 14, 15), which dates -from the early twelfth century and is thus only slightly later than -Cluny itself. Its nave is wider and loftier than any yet seen in which a -tunnel vault was used, though not equal in size to that at Cluny, which -was thirty-two feet wide and ninety-eight feet high. All the structural -arches are pointed, but those used for windows, doors and decoration are -still round headed.[98] The clerestory, while it has only moderately -large windows, is so high above the ground as to render the support of -the vaults above it exceptionally difficult. This difficulty was -overcome, first by giving the vault a pointed section and thus reducing -the thrust; second, by building as light a web as possible and covering -it with a wooden roof; third, by using tie-rods of wood or metal, -running along near the impost of the vault in the thickness of the -walls, thus to a certain extent concentrating the pressure upon the -piers; and, finally, as has already been stated, by carrying the -exterior walls of the church to a point considerably above the window -heads (Fig. 15), thus obtaining a downward pressure which offsets the -outward thrusts. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--PARAY-LE-MONIAL, ABBEY CHURCH.] - -The side aisles of the school of Bourgogne are also worthy of mention. -They are usually covered with groined vaults, in many cases of slightly -domical form. Whether this method came directly from Lombardy where -there exist early examples of its use, or whether it came in through the -influence of Poitou and Auvergne which had come into close contact with -Carolingian architecture, is an open question. It seems quite likely, -however, that, since the Byzantine builders developed this type and -transmitted it to the Carolingian builders of the Rhine valley, it -should have passed from there into France and spread over the three -northern-central schools as it did over Lombardy. Regardless of its -origin, it became the standard type in all the important churches of the -Cluniac region. Occasionally, as at Souvigny (Allier) (possibly eleventh -century), the enclosing arches are of stilted round headed form, a type -which is also found as far north as Vézelay (Yonne) La Madeleine (after -1140) (Fig. 16). Neither of these churches, however, is near the center -of the school,[99] and the pointed structural arch as used in the abbey -church of Paray-le-Monial (Fig. 14) is the common form. - -The system employed in Bourgogne marks the highest development attained -in the use of a tunnel vault running the length of the nave. In the -Ile-de-France a few instances might be cited[100] in which a system like -one of those already described was used, and the same is true of certain -Romanesque churches outside of France, but in none of them is any new -structural method introduced. The tunnel vault was even used -occasionally as late as the thirteenth century,[101] but the examples -are generally small and insignificant. - - -CHURCHES WITH TRANSVERSE TUNNEL VAULTS OVER THE NAVE - -Besides the methods which have just been described and which were so -localized as to form veritable Romanesque schools, there remain a number -of churches falling into two groups in which transverse tunnel vaults -replace those running longitudinally either in the nave or aisles. The -first and smaller group contains those in which such vaults were used -over the nave. Of these, the most important example is Saint Philibert -at Tournus - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--VÉZELAY, LA MADELEINE.] - -(Saône-et-Loire),[102] a church of considerable size and of early date -(dedicated 1019). Cylindrical piers and transverse arches divide the -nave into rectangular bays each of which is covered by a transverse -tunnel vault with a window in the clerestory wall at either end. -Excellent light is thus obtained and the thrusts of the vaults admirably -counteract one another. In fact, the system is so logical that it is -surprising that it gave rise to so few imitators.[103] The explanation -may perhaps lie in the lack of apparent continuity in the vault, a fault -which this method shares with that of Le Puy. As to its origin, it may -go back to such Persian monuments as Tag-Eivan, or to Syrian copies of -Sassanian work with the substitution of stone for brick as Choisy -suggests,[104] though it is not unreasonable to think that the builders -of Tournus originated the system since it involved no unknown structural -principles. The aisles of Saint Philibert furnish one of the rather rare -examples of the employment of interpenetrating vaults.[105] - - -CHURCHES WITH TRANSVERSE TUNNEL VAULTS OVER THE AISLES - -The second group is much larger and more widespread, and comprises all -the churches employing transverse tunnel vaults over the side aisles. -The examples belonging to the school of Perigord have already been -discussed,[106] and mention has been made of the fact that there are -possibly enough of such churches in Provence alone to constitute a fifth -type in that school.[107] But the system is too widespread to be -attributed to any one province. It is undoubtedly a product of Roman and -very early mediaeval architecture, for it is to be seen in such -buildings as the Basilica of Maxentius at Rome, and in a modified, -ramping form at Aachen.[108] Its structural advantage lies in the large -space which the tunnel vault affords for windows in the outer wall thus -lighting both the nave and aisles. Among the many examples are the -parish church of Chatillon-sur-Seine (Côte-d’Or)[109] of the twelfth -century, the abbey churches of Hauterive (Savoie), Ronceray[110] -(vaulted in 1115), Bénévent-l’Abbaye (Creuse),[111] and the cathedral of -Lescar (Basses-Pyrénées),--in which, however, the vaults are an addition -to a primitive construction.[112] In the church at Fontenay -(Côte-d’Or)[113] (before the middle of the twelfth century) concealed -flying buttresses appear over the transverse arches between the aisle -bays, thus aiding in securing a more even abutment for the continuous -thrust of the tunnel vault of the nave. A few churches like -Cavaillon,[114] and the cathedral of Orange (Vaucluse),[115] have -tunnel vaults over rectangular bays flanking the nave but not connected -by arches to form side aisles. - -The vaulting of the ambulatory gallery of Mantes cathedral, of the -aisles of Fountains Abbey in England, and possibly the original vaults -of the aisles of Saint Remi at Reims[116] were also transverse tunnel -vaults. These latter churches differ from the ones previously mentioned, -however, in that they are not tunnel vaulted in the nave and, moreover, -are constructed with a clerestory so that the side aisle vaults do not -serve the purpose outlined in the account of tunnel vaulted churches in -the preceding paragraph. - - -TUNNEL VAULTS WITH CROSS RIBS - -This brings the discussion of the standard methods of tunnel vaulting to -a close, but there remain two curious churches in which cross-ribs were -added beneath the surface of simple tunnel vaults. One of these is at -Lusignan (Vienne),[117] and the other at Javarzay (Deux-Sèvres). Both -date from about 1120 to 1140 though the ribs may be a later addition to -give the appearance of ribbed vaulting which was introduced at about -this time. - - -NAVES WITH GROINED VAULTS - -Although usually confined to the side aisle bays, there are a few -Romanesque churches in which the builders of the eleventh and twelfth -centuries placed groined vaulting over the nave. The scarcity of such -examples is due primarily to the difficulty of meeting the severe -outward thrusts of a groined vault raised over bays of considerable span -and at a point high above the ground. In the side aisles where the -vaults were comparatively low, the exterior wall could be thickened by -salient buttresses, and the piers strengthened by the weight of the wall -above in a manner to offset the thrust, but in the nave the problem was -more complicated. The builders had not yet invented the flying buttress. -Hence, when they attempted groined vaults at all, they blundered along -trusting that the inert mass of their walls and such timid buttresses as -could be erected above the nave piers would provide sufficient offset -for the thrusts even though these were now concentrated at four main -points in each bay. Naturally the vaults frequently gave way and had to -be reconstructed. In spite of these difficulties, the advantage of the -groined vault in providing a clerestory whose windows might rise as high -as the crown of the vault itself led to its occasional use. - - -GROINED VAULTS OVER RECTANGULAR NAVE BAYS - -The vaults thus employed were of two rather distinct classes, those over -rectangular nave bays which were usually but little domed up, and those -over square bays which were generally distinctly domed in the Byzantine -manner. Of the first type perhaps the best known example is the -Burgundian church of La Madeleine at Vézelay (Yonne), (Fig. 17) -dedicated - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--VÉZELAY, LA MADELEINE.] - -in 1104. Its nave is divided into a series of rectangular bays by -transverse arches of semicircular section, and over each bay is placed a -groined vault very slightly domed at the crown. To insure the stability -of these vaults, the builders relied on the weight of the walls, which -were carried up somewhat above the window heads, and on simple salient -buttresses. To these exterior supports were added interior arches half -imbedded in the walls above the clerestory windows (Fig. 17), furnishing -one of the earliest examples of the use of wall ribs or formerets. The -web of the vault does not, however, follow their extrados, but gradually -breaks away from it toward the crown, with the apparent object of thus -concentrating even more pressure upon the piers by stilting the wall -line of the vault surface.[118] Even these precautions were not deemed -sufficient, so iron tie-rods were employed, but these rusted and -broke,[119] the vaults settled badly,[120] and if it had not been for -the addition of exterior flying buttresses, which had meanwhile come -into general use, the vaults would most certainly have fallen. Although -not a structural success, Vézelay did prove of advantage in turning the -builders away from the tunnel vault,--and this, too, in Bourgogne where -it had been most highly developed,--to a new type which presented -problems whose solution was to lead to Gothic architecture. Vézelay was, -however, but little imitated in the Romanesque era, perhaps because of -the almost contemporary development of the ribbed vault in Lombardy, -Normandy, and the Ile-de-France. A few churches, such as Anzy-le-Duc -(Saône-et-Loire)[121] did employ groined vaults over the nave but on a -smaller scale and frequently with more pronounced doming. - -A more important and independent group of groined vaulted churches is to -be found in Normandy. In this school, the churches were usually covered -with wooden roofs though the aisles were occasionally groined. But there -are three churches in which the choir also has groined vaults. These -are, La Trinité or the Abbaye-aux-Dames at Caen (Calvados) (cir. 1066), -Saint Nicolas at Caen (cir. 1080), and Saint Georges-de-Boscherville at -Saint Martin-de-Boscherville (Seine-Inférieure) (late eleventh and early -twelfth century). The choir of the third of these churches, though later -in date than the others, is more primitive in type, for it is covered by -interpenetrating vaults, in which, however, the deep lunettes above the -windows rise so nearly to the crown that the result resembles groined -rather than tunnel vaulting. - -In both the other examples true groined vaulting is used, but at La -Trinité it is in practically square bays, and carried by walls running -down to the ground,[122] making it easier of construction than that at -Saint Nicolas[123] where the bays are rectangular and the choir has true -side aisles. This church is similar in structural principles to La -Madeleine at Vézelay--except that the wall ribs are omitted,--and these -two churches may be said to represent the highest point reached by -groined vaulting with practically flat crowns during the Romanesque -period. - -Other examples might be cited, ranging from such an unusual church as -Saint Loup-de-Naud (Seine-et-Marne) in the Ile-de-France,--which is of -uncertain date,[124]--to churches as late as the thirteenth and -fourteenth centuries, among which are Severac-le-Château (Aveyron) and -Saint Pons-de-Mauchiens (Hérault).[125] Occasionally, also, groined -vaults were used in the crypt as at Saintes (Charente-Inférieure),[126] -even when tunnel vaults were used in the upper part of the church, a -peculiarity explained by the fact that underground it was easy to -dispose of the thrusts which could not so readily be offset in the nave. - -The question of the origin of the method has frequently arisen and a -number of writers, including Choisy,[127] suggest the East as a possible -cradle of the style because of the numerous churches in Palestine thus -vaulted, but Rivoira[128] shows rather conclusively that it was the -Cluny influence which carried the method to the East rather than the -reverse, a theory strengthened by the fact that the earliest example -there, which is the church of Saint Anne at Jerusalem,[129] would seem -to be after rather than before the beginning of the twelfth -century.[130] Moreover it is quite reasonable to attribute the -development of this advanced type of vault to the builders of Bourgogne -themselves, for they were surely progressive enough to have taken such a -step. - - -GROINED VAULTS OVER SQUARE NAVE BAYS - -Churches with groined vaults over square nave bays are much more -numerous than those with rectangular bays, just described. The most -important of these belong to the school of the Rhenish Provinces, which -had, perhaps, clung to Byzantine and Carolingian traditions in this -respect. As a rule the large churches of this school were originally -planned for vaulting only in the side aisles.[131] These were usually -divided into square bays by round headed transverse arches, and then -each bay covered by a more or less domed up groined vault, which, from -its size and form, might be erected with comparatively little -centering.[132] There was no triforium gallery, but a wall with blank -arches took its place beneath the clerestory windows. In many of the -churches[133] shafts were carried up on the inner face of alternate nave -piers, probably to support the cross beams of the roof, or possibly to -carry transverse arches, but not to carry vaulting. - -By the early twelfth century, after numerous fires had played havoc with -the churches, the Rhenish builders seem to have at last made an effort -to replace the wooden roofs with vaults. In doing this, they sought a -form of vault which would exert as little as possible of outward thrust -and thus be stable at the considerable height at which it must be -placed. The Lombard builders had by this time developed the domed up -cross-ribbed vault, but, as has been admirably shown by Porter,[134] the -ribs which they employed had for their sole purpose the saving of wooden -centering, since the masonry of the vault proper was heavy enough to -stand without their aid. It was natural then for the Rhenish builders, -who copied their neighbors in Lombardy in many particulars,[135] to look -to them for a method of vault construction, which they found in domed up -vaults like those of Rivolta-d’Adda (1088-1099) or Sant’Ambrogio at -Milan (cir. 1098). These the Rhenish builders chose as models, but -being plentifully supplied with wood for centering, it would seem as if -they purposely did not adopt the diagonal ribs, but built groined vaults -of simple domed up type, placing them over square nave bays each -corresponding to two aisle bays in the true Lombard manner. This system -may be seen to advantage in the cathedral of Speyer[136] (probably -vaulted cir. 1137-1140). With extremely heavy walls like those of the -Rhenish churches, and with good masonry for their construction, such -vaults proved comparatively safe even over naves of such a span as that -of Speyer which is almost fifty feet in width. - -This account of the Rhenish school completes the discussion of groined -vaulting as applied to the naves and choirs of Romanesque churches. The -heavy walls and the general excellence of masonry construction which -they required, together with the necessity for large interior piers, did -not render them popular or widely used. - - -AISLES WITH GROINED VAULTS IN LOMBARDY AND NORMANDY - -That the use of groined vaults was far more extensive in the aisles than -in the naves of Romanesque churches has already been shown by the -examples cited from the schools of Poitou, Auvergne, Bourgogne, and -elsewhere. To these should be added a number of churches, chiefly of the -schools of Lombardy and Normandy, which have groined aisles in -combination with rib vaulted or wooden roofed naves. In Lombardy, where -the naves are ribbed, this combination has been admirably explained by -Porter[137] in connection with the use of wood for centering. Thus he -shows that groined vaults, provided that they were sufficiently domed -up, could be built over the small bays of the aisles and triforia with -almost no wooden framework, but that when such vaults were attempted in -the nave the bays were so large as to require a considerable amount of -centering beneath the vault, and therefore the builders substituted -permanent diagonal arches of very heavy character. - -The Norman groined aisles are, however, of a different sort, for they -either have level crowns or are but slightly domed up in type.[138] The -abbey church of Jumièges (Seine-Inférieure) (1040-1067) is among the -earliest examples of this construction and is the only Norman church -with groined vaults in both the aisles and triforium.[139] La Trinité at -Caen[140] and the abbey church of Lessay (Manche)[141] are also Norman -churches with groined aisles, in both cases with level crowns. In La -Trinité, as in the early churches of Poitou, the bays are not even -separated by transverse arches.[142] In Saint Étienne at Caen, and in -the choir of the cathedral of Gloucester, the aisles are vaulted in both -stories like those of Auvergne, the lower groined, the triforia with -half tunnel vaults, but it seems very probable that these latter were -added only when vaulting took the place of the wooden roof in the -central portions of the church.[143] - -Curious instances of the persistence of groined vaulting are to be seen -in the triforia of such transitional churches as Saint Germer-de-Fly -(Oise)[144] and Vézelay, where the remaining portions of the church have -ribbed vaults. For this persistence an explanation is later -attempted.[145] - - -AISLES WITH SEMI-GROINED VAULTS - -An unusual form of aisle vault appears at Creully (Calvados)[146] -(twelfth century), where the aisles are covered with a half tunnel vault -intersected toward the outer wall by lunettes, which thus convert it -into a semi-groined vault. Its obvious advantage lies in the combination -of inward pressure, which it exerts in support of the nave vaults, with -the added window space which it affords without increasing the height of -the exterior walls. - - -RIBBED VAULTS - -The introduction of ribs beneath the diagonal intersections of groined -vaulting gradually brought about a revolution in Mediaeval building, and -transformed the massiveness of Romanesque construction into the light -and graceful architecture of the Gothic era. Much has been written in an -effort to discover the origin of the new system. It is not, however, the -intention here to add to the number of theories advanced, except in an -incidental manner, but rather to classify the various forms of ribbed -vaulting as applied to naves, choirs, and aisles of the churches -following immediately after those of the Romanesque period which have -just been described. As a geographical basis is no longer practical for -such a classification, because of the widespread distribution of the new -method of construction, a structural basis will be substituted, and the -vaults will be divided into two major groups according as they were used -over square or rectangular nave bays, and then subdivided according to -their minor characteristics. - - -RIBBED VAULTS OVER NAVES WITH SQUARE BAYS - -Lombardy affords the first examples of ribbed vaults over nave bays of -square plan. According to Rivoira[147] the earliest are in the church of -Santa Maria e San Sigismondo at Rivolta d’Adda[148] (before 1099), -though this was closely followed by the more important church of Sant -Ambrogio at Milan (between 1088-1128) (Fig. 18), which furnishes an -admirable example of the Lombard type. Its nave is divided into four -great square bays, each corresponding to two bays in the side aisles. -(Plate I-a.) Of these the eastern bay is treated as a crossing and -covered by a dome above a lantern on squinches, but the remaining three -have four-part domed up vaults with heavy ribs of square section, used -not only transversely and along the walls but also diagonally, thus -forming a complete system or skeleton of arches beneath the vault -surface in the manner of true Gothic architecture. But there are many -reasons to believe with Porter[149] that the builders of Lombardy -employed these ribs purely as a permanent centering of masonry,--which -was less expensive than a temporary centering of wood in a country where -the latter material was very scarce,--and that they failed to appreciate -the fact that such ribs made possible a great reduction in the weight of -the panels, or web. of the vault, and in other ways could be made to aid -in reducing and concentrating its pressures. The masonry of the vault is -still excessively - -[Illustration: PLATE I] - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.--MILAN, SANT’ AMBROGIO.] - -thick,--between sixteen and twenty inches,--and would stand equally well -were the ribs removed. Moreover its thrust is so great that the builders -dared not raise its imposts sufficiently high to admit of a clerestory -beneath the formerets, and instead of rendering possible a lighter -construction as Gothic vaults were destined to do, these vaults of -Saint’ Ambrogio required for their support a wall forty inches thick and -ramping walls above the transverse arches of the triforium together with -interior tie-rods and wooden chains in the masonry[150] to offset their -severe outward thrust. All these facts show that the Lombard vaults are -still fundamentally Romanesque in type. Even in San Michele at Pavia -(early twelfth century), where the system was a little more developed, -in that a small clerestory was introduced, the principles were still the -same as in Milan. As a matter of fact, the Lombard builders never made -any further advance in the handling of ribbed vaults, and even went -backward rather than forward. For the builders found that groined vaults -of domed up type could be built so lightly as to require but little -centering, and a return to this simple form was made in such churches -as San Lanfranco at Pavia.[151] Later on, in the thirteenth and -fourteenth centuries, French methods of ribbed vaulting were introduced, -but throughout the whole period of Lombard supremacy the tendency was to -avoid vaulting entirely, and when adopted, it was of the heavy character -just described. - - -THE SYSTEM OF ALTERNATE SUPPORTS - -The Lombard churches are important in the present connection, however, -because of the method in which they are divided into vaulting bays. They -furnish the earliest examples of the system of alternate light and heavy -supports,--employed according to Cattaneo[152] as early as 985 in the -three original bays of SS. Felice e Fortunato at Vicenza. This system of -piers with alternate transverse arches produces one square[153] bay in -the nave to two square bays in the side aisles, and it occurs not only -in vaulted churches but also in others in which a wooden roof rests upon -these transverse supports.[154] Its advantage in the vaulted churches is -particularly important, however, and of a two-fold character. In the -first place, it renders the four enclosing arches uniform, and it makes -them as nearly as possible of equal span with the diagonals.[155] And in -the second, it saves a considerable amount of centering by rendering -possible the construction of a vault covering a space corresponding to -two rectangular bays on four instead of seven ribs.[156] - -Outside of Lombardy, the four-part cross-ribbed vault over square nave -bays was but seldom employed in churches with side aisles also divided -into square compartments. It appears, however, in the cathedral of Le -Mans, (Sarthe) (middle of the twelfth century), where it would seem to -be due to the influence of the neighboring single aisled churches of -Anjou,--which are later discussed,--and it was frequently used in -reconstructing the vaults of the Rhenish school. In the Gothic period -also, the system occasionally appears in a modified form, and naturally -enough these revivals occur where Norman and Rhenish Romanesque had -caused the principles of Lombard architecture to be strongly entrenched. -Thus the church of Saint Legerius at Gebweiler[157] (cir. 1182-1200) -furnishes a Rhenish, and the choir of Boxgrove Priory church (cir. -1235), an English application of this method. In the latter, the vaults -are no longer highly domed up, and are therefore far removed from their -Lombard prototypes, only the general division of the church reflecting -this influence. - - -NAVES WITHOUT SIDE AISLES - -More important by far, are the churches without side aisles but with -naves in square bays with four part cross-ribbed vaults. This method is -to be seen in the cathedral of Fréjus (Var),[158] which is considered by -Porter[159] to exhibit the earliest extant ribbed nave vaults in France. -These are distinctly of Lombard type, and would seem to show a strong -Lombard influence entering France from the south. It may possibly be -that this same influence followed the route taken earlier by the dome on -pendentives, and thus gave rise to the domed up ribbed vault so common -in the churches of Anjou.[160] Of these latter, the cathedral of Saint -Maurice at Angers (Maine-et-Loire) (Fig. 19), presents perhaps the best -existing example. Its nave vaults which date from as early as 1150[161] -are among the largest and finest in France, having a span of some -fifty-six feet. As in Lombardy, the crown is highly domed up while to -facilitate the construction of the web of the vault with the least -possible centering, pointed diagonals and enclosing arches are employed. -By this means the entire vault was constructed on the ribs with no -centering at all for the lower courses, and a simple _cerce_, a device -consisting of two curved boards sliding along each other, for those -near the crown. At the same time the outward thrusts were greatly -reduced by the pointed section of the vault. - - -ANJOU RIDGE RIBS - -FIG. 19.--ANGERS, CATHEDRAL. - -Since the Anjou churches possessed naves of wide span, it is not -surprising to find that their builders soon added ridge ribs beneath the -vault. That these were not mere cover-joints to conceal an irregular -intersection of the masonry, as Choisy suggests,[162] would seem to be -proved by the fact that the courses meet in a straight line at the ridge -in by far the greater number of Anjou churches in which they are -employed,--for example in La Couture at Le Mans (Fig. 20), -Airaines,[163] and numerous churches with small torus ribs, as well as -by the fact that such ridge ribs are sometimes omitted even when the -masonry is laid up in courses of equal width and therefore -interpenetrating at the ridge, as in Avesnières (Mayenne)[164] near -Laval. If not, however, primarily a cover-joint, these ribs did at least -possess both a structural and decorative quality. In the first place -they helped to keep the keystone of the diagonals rigidly fixed during -the building process, and furthermore, they gave an absolutely straight -line to the vault crown which was always difficult to adjust, -particularly in a vault of large size. One of the best and earliest -examples of the employment of such ribs appears in the nave of Notre -Dame-de-la-Couture at Le Mans (Fig. 20) which dates from about 1200, and -a later example is afforded by the church of Saint-Avit-Sénieur -(Dordogne),[165] where the vaults are of the thirteenth century and -replace an original series of domes on pendentives of true Perigord -type. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.--LEMANS, NOTRE DAME-DE-LA-COUTURE.] - -In all of the Anjou vaults thus far discussed, the ribs are of -comparatively heavy section and placed entirely beneath the vault -surface, but there was to be a decided change in the thirteenth -century. It has already been noted that domed up vaults could be erected -almost without centering and exerted little if any pressure upon the -ribs beneath them. Realizing this, the builders of Anjou soon began to -reduce the size of the ribs until they became little more than torus -mouldings running along the groin and ridge of the vault. As an actual -fact, however, these torus mouldings were carved upon a sunken rib flush -with the surface of the panel, which, if it no longer furnished a -support for the vault, at least formed a sort of permanent centering -dividing the surface to be vaulted into distinct severies and marking -the line of their intersection in an absolutely correct curve. Such -vaults are closely allied to those of groined type, the ribs playing -practically the same part as those of brick in Roman concrete vaulting. -Since, however, in the Anjou system the ribs always were merely a -permanent centering which could easily be removed without destroying the -vault, a sunken centering was quite as efficient in serving the purpose -of vault division while the torus afforded a certain amount of surface -decoration. - -Of this typical Anjou construction, there are numerous examples. At -Poitiers, in the church of Sainte Radegonde the ribs are of reduced size -but not quite flush with the vault surface and the same is true at -Saint-Hilaire--Saint-Florent near Saumur (Marne-et-Loire),[166] while -the choir and transept of Angers cathedral (Fig. 19), and the later bays -of the cathedral of Poitiers furnish examples of the standard type. -After a short period of experiment, the builders of Anjou became very -skillful in the construction of these ribs and vaults and frequently -employed them over bays of unusual plan and elevation as, for example, -in the chapel north of the choir aisle in Saint Serge at Angers (Fig. -21). - -An instance of the influence of Anjou construction upon the neighboring -territory, as well as of the relationship between this Gothic style and -the Romanesque school of Perigord, may perhaps be seen in the Old -Cathedral of Salamanca in Spain.[167] Here the three western bays of the -nave are covered with ordinary domes but with diagonal ribs beneath -them, while the two remaining bays have regular domed up Anjou vaults. -The date of this cathedral, cir. 1120-1178, may, perhaps, explain this -peculiar combination as being due to an Anjou-Gothic influence -displacing one of Perigord-Romanesque, in much the same manner as such -an influence displaced the Perigord-Romanesque architecture of western -France. - - -SQUARE NAVE BAYS OUTSIDE OF LOMBARDY AND ANJOU - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--ANGERS, SAINT SERGE.] - -Besides its use in Lombardy and Anjou, the square nave bay with four -part cross-ribbed vaults, was employed to some extent in other parts of -Europe throughout the Gothic period.[168] Some of these are churches -without side aisles, but aisles are more commonly found, divided into -rectangular bays corresponding in number to those of the nave. Of the -single naved churches, San Francesco at Assisi,[169] is a good example. -Although dating from 1236-1259, its vault ribs are still heavy and -almost square in section, as if derived from Lombard prototypes. But -they differ in being of pointed section and in not giving to the vaults -a domed up crown. In this they would seem to be examples of French -influence upon Lombard tradition. - - -SQUARE NAVE AND RECTANGULAR AISLE BAYS - -An early church with square nave bays and ribbed vaults over rectangular -bays in the side aisles (Plate I-b), is to be found at Bury (Oise) -(Fig. - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.--BURY, CHURCH.] - -22). It probably dates from about 1125, and is an important monument of -the Transitional period. Its nave vaults are quite highly domed and in -this respect seem somewhat Lombard, but their pointed arches and awkward -construction indicate an effort on the part of the builders toward -reducing this doming and a dawning consciousness of the value of the -pointed arch in the construction of ribbed vaults. This is further shown -in the side aisles. Because of the rectangular shape of the bays, the -problem was presented of getting three sets of ribs of different span to -rise to the same or practically the same height. Not being thoroughly -familiar with the flexibility of the pointed rib, the builders at Bury -were naturally somewhat clumsy in its use. Thus, the diagonals were made -segmental in elevation to lower them to the level of the pier arches, -while masonry was piled on the crown of the transverse ribs, or their -voussoirs widened, to bring them up to the level of the vault -panel.[170] A few such experimental steps as these at Bury, were all -that were necessary to give the builders a mastery of the use of the -pointed arch in ribbed vaulting. - - -RIBS WITH CARYATID SUPPORTS - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.--BURY, CHURCH.] - -But there is another feature of the side aisle vaults which is worthy of -note before turning to the more developed churches which resemble Bury -in their arrangement of vaulting bays. This is the use of small caryatid -figures which appear at the springing of the diagonal ribs (Fig. -23).[171] These would seem to serve a purely decorative purpose, perhaps -to distract attention from the great size of the ribs behind them, or to -give an apparent lightness to the vault itself by seemingly placing its -burden upon such insignificant shoulders, or more probably still, the -figures served to break the transition from shaft to rib by concealing -the impost of the latter. Whatever their explanation, other examples -besides those at Bury are to be seen. Of these, the angels--now badly -mutilated--at the base of the ribs in the narthex of Saint Ours at -Loches (Indre-et-Loire) (Fig. 24)[172] are especially interesting, and -perhaps account for the tiny figures employed at the springing of the -ridge ribs in a number of churches in Anjou, such as Angers, Saint Serge -(Fig. 21), as well as for the larger figures in the apse of Notre -Dame-de-la-Couture at Le Mans (Fig. 20).[173] It may even be through the -influence of such figures as these that grotesques were used to support -the small shafts in the arcade of the triforium passage in the cathedral -of Nevers (Nièvre) (Fig. 25). - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.--LOCHES, SAINT OURS.] - - -SQUARE NAVE AND RECTANGULAR AISLE BAYS CONTINUED - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.--NEVERS, CATHEDRAL.] - -Returning to the churches later in date than Bury but vaulted on the -same plan, it will be found that there are but few examples in France, -an interesting fact for which an explanation will later be -attempted.[174] The lower story of the Sainte Chapelle at Paris (cir. -1250) furnishes one of the rare examples, but here the nave and aisles -are of the same height and so do not exactly resemble the system at -Bury. Because of their narrowness, the side aisle vaults of the Sainte -Chapelle did not furnish proper abutment for those of the nave, and the -builders found it necessary to add tie-rods and even transverse half -arches forming veritable interior flying buttresses at about half the -height of the transverse ribs. This is, however, a most unusual -arrangement. - -It was in Italy more than elsewhere that the method of square nave and -rectangular aisle bays was adopted. Many of the largest churches of the -Gothic period in that country were thus constructed. Among these, Santa -Maria Novella at Florence (end of the thirteenth and beginning of the -fourteenth centuries) has nave bays which are practically square, while -the cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore (fourteenth century) in the same -city is a much larger church more strictly following the type.[175] This -vast edifice presented such a vaulting problem that the builders did not -hesitate to resort to the use of iron tie-rods to counteract the -thrusts,--a subterfuge common enough in Italian architecture, of which -the church of the Frari at Venice (after 1250) presents an exaggerated -example. - - -LIGHTING PROBLEMS IN NAVES WITH SQUARE BAYS - -Several factors enter into the lack of popularity of the vaulting system -just described especially in the more northern countries, but the -fundamental one would seem to be the difficulty of properly lighting -churches thus covered. If an examination be made of the churches with a -single broad nave and no aisles it will be seen that in Italy, where a -comparatively small proportion of window space was necessary, the -builders were content with a single window in each nave bay as for -example, in San Francesco at Assisi. In France, on the other hand, the -light thus admitted would have proved inadequate, and in such churches -as the cathedral of Angers (Fig. 19) and Sainte Radegonde at Poitiers -two windows were introduced under each wall rib. This is, however, an -awkward arrangement because these windows do not properly fill the wall -space, and though this is better accomplished by adding a circular -window above the upright pair as was done in La Couture at Le Mans (Fig. -20), still the effect even then is not satisfactory and much solid wall -which might be utilized for windows is wasted. Moreover, in a church -with side aisles, the clerestory arrangement was still more troublesome -since important structural difficulties were involved. To raise a great -four part vault high above the aisles in order to obtain a large -clerestory was no easy task because of the excessive thrust which such a -vault exercised at its four points of support. In Italy, where the -amount of light required was not great, a very low clerestory with -small, circular windows, one to each bay, was all that was essential, -and so in such churches as Santa Maria Novella and the cathedral at -Florence the nave vault was placed at a point only slightly above the -vaults of the aisles, and its thrusts offset by simple ramping walls -beneath the side aisle roofs. Such a church in France would have been -inadequately lighted, and even if a greater structural skill permitted -the French to erect loftier clerestories than those in Italy, there -remained the difficulty of arranging the windows to get the maximum of -light and the best appearance. A single opening occupying the entire -space beneath the wall rib would have been all head and no jamb. One -upright window would have admitted too little light for a large nave, -and two windows near together not only left a great deal of wall space -unused but were most awkwardly placed in churches where one nave bay -corresponded to two bays in the aisles as in Le Mans cathedral,[176] -because they were not on an axis with the arches of the nave arcade. On -the other hand, if placed on this axis, the resulting windows were -necessarily of small size like those in such Rhenish churches as the -cathedral of Speyer where a second stage of windows has been added one -in the center above each lower pair in a far from satisfactory manner -since it brings a window above the intermediate pier. - - -ORIGIN OF SEXPARTITE VAULTING - -In view of these facts it is at least a reasonable assumption that the -lighting problem had much to do with the discarding by the French -builders of the simple square four-part nave vault. As a matter of fact, -however, they did not exactly discard it, but evolved from it a vault in -six cells, which, while it still retained the old division of the nave -into square bays, each corresponding to two bays in the aisle, at the -same time permitted the uniform treatment of these in elevation and made -possible larger windows,--one to each aisle bay,--symmetrically placed -and, in the course of time filling the entire space beneath the wall -ribs. This six-part ribbed vaulting would seem to have originated early -in the twelfth century, in the French province of Normandy. This -province has already been mentioned as the center of a Romanesque -school, which extended over the greater part of England after the -conquest of 1066, and reached its height during the reign of Duke -William, the Conqueror (1035-1087), when a vast number of churches were -constructed, many of them of large size. These were in general wooden -roofed throughout, though, occasionally, as has been shown,[177] groined -vaults were used in the choir or aisles, or both. Toward the beginning -of the twelfth century, however, the Norman builders determined to vault -the naves of a number of these churches, among them the two abbeys at -Caen, and the result of this determination was the evolution of the true -and false six-part vault. - -Like the Rhine provinces, Normandy had always been strongly influenced -by the methods of building developed in Lombardy. Whether this was due -to the presence in Normandy of such men as Lanfranc,--who was born in -Pavia in 1005 and became successively prior of Bec (1045-1066), abbot of -Saint Étienne at Caen (1066), and archbishop of Canterbury (1070-1089), -and who may have kept Normandy closely in touch with Lombardy,--or -whether there were other more powerful influences, it is impossible to -state, but in any event the architectural analogies between the two -schools are striking. This is especially true of the type of shafted -pier most frequently found in Normandy, and of the alternate system of -light and heavy supports, which, while it does not characterize all the -churches of the school, is found in many of them. Thus when the Norman -builders determined to vault their great churches at Caen, one would -naturally expect to find them turning to Lombardy for a method of vault -construction, especially since Sant’ Ambrogio at Milan had been -successfully completed at least a quarter of a century before their -determination was made. And in fact this is probably what they did. But -there were certain differences in structure between the churches of the -two schools which made it impossible for the Norman builders to adopt -unchanged, the heavy square, domed-up, cross-ribbed vaults of Lombardy. -The first of these differences lay in the fact that the Norman churches -were originally built for wooden roofs,--which may even have been in -place, in many cases, when the vaults were begun,--while the Lombard -churches were planned from the ground for their vaulting. The second -difference was, that the Norman interior system possessed a clerestory -window of considerable size centered above each of the arches opening -into the side aisles,--that is two in each wall of what would be a -square nave bay,--while the Lombard churches either had no clerestory at -all, as at Sant’ Ambrogio, or one in which the windows were small and -there was no attempt to center them as in San Michele at Pavia. - -It was natural that the Norman builders should have preferred to -preserve their interior and exterior elevations as nearly as possible as -they were when only a wooden roof was used, both to avoid the expense -which would be involved in reconstruction and to preserve the large -clerestory so essential in a northern country. To vault these churches -and at the same time save this clerestory would seem to have been the -problem, therefore, which the builders set themselves to solve. That -they attempted to use the four-part vault in its solution will be seen -from an examination of the seven vaulted churches[178] still remaining -in which the old system of square nave bays is found, for in four of -these a variant of four-part ribbed vaulting was employed while in the -other three a new method was developed out of the four-part type. - -A study of the two abbeys at Caen will illustrate this. Of the two, -Saint Étienne or the Abbaye-aux-Hommes (cir. 1064-1066) would seem to be -the earlier as far as its vaulting is concerned and this would seem to -date from about 1135. In its nave (Fig. 26) the alternate system of -supports is employed, though all the piers are of almost the same -section with a single shaft carried up the inner face. The aisles are in -two stories and there is a clerestory with a single window in each bay. -The nave was originally covered with a wooden roof. With this elevation -existing before the church was vaulted it is quite possible to account -for the form which this vaulting assumed. The first step must have been -to divide the nave into square bays by transverse arches,--assuming that -these were not already in place. The springing of these arches must -naturally have been governed by that of those which opened into the -crossing, and the level of their crowns, by the wooden timbering of the -roofs,--which may well have been in place when the vaults were built. -The result was that these transverse arches had to rise from a point as -low as the clerestory string-course and could only be a slightly stilted -semicircle in elevation. If the - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.--CAEN, SAINT ÉTIENNE.] - -bays thus constituted were to be covered by four-part vaults of Lombard -type, the next step would have been to erect diagonals of semicircular -section thus doming up the vault at the crown, but at Caen such -diagonals would have rendered necessary an entire change in the -timbering of the roof because their intersection would have risen above -the level of the trusses. Hence segmental diagonals were substituted. -Upon this skeleton of ribs, it would have been quite possible to place a -four-part vault, but the wall intersection of its panels would have cut -off the heads of the clerestory windows. Several methods could have been -used to avoid this. In the first place the severies could have been so -shaped as to cut the walls in a curve above the window, but this would -have given a flattened form to the panel and rendered it most difficult -both to construct and to support when in place. A second expedient would -have been to reduce the size of the windows but this, besides cutting -off most necessary light would have utterly destroyed the splendid -proportions between the horizontal divisions of the Norman interior. A -third method would have been to move the windows toward the intermediate -pier, but this would have destroyed the axis line of the aisle, -triforium, and window arches, and was wisely rejected. Lastly the -imposts of the ribs could have been raised, but even this would have -introduced enormous structural changes: first, because it would have -rendered necessary a change in the timbering, or else raising the entire -roof of the church; second, because it would have placed the new impost -out of level with the crossing arches; third, because it would have -greatly increased the thrust of the vault, already most difficult to -meet because of the segmental form of the diagonals and the lack of -extensive knowledge of buttressing principles on the part of the Norman -builders. - -To avoid all these difficulties and still retain the windows, a new -method of vaulting was evolved. An intermediate transverse arch was -added meeting the diagonals at their intersection, and above the -triangular window cells thus formed, separate vault panels were -constructed (Fig. 26). The line of the window heads was thus left -undisturbed and the six-part vault created (Plate I-c). - - -FALSE OR PSEUDO-SEXPARTITE VAULTING - -Of course, the foregoing suggestion that the six-part vault was evolved -from four-part vaulting is largely conjectural, but an examination of -other churches in Normandy would seem to show that the Norman builders -almost always preferred to use the simple four-part vault in a slightly -modified form whenever it was possible to do so and still retain the -clerestory windows, rather than to employ the developed six-part type. -This modified four-part vault may properly be termed false or -pseudo-sex-partite. That it was not a mere prototype of the more -developed six-part form would seem to be shown by the fact that it was -built in churches both contemporary with, and subsequent to those with -true six-part vaults. - -A good example of pseudo-sexpartite vaulting, for comparison with that -of Saint Étienne (Fig. 26), is afforded by La Trinité or the -Abbaye-aux-Dames at Caen (Fig. 27). It would seem probable that the -upper portions of this church were extensively rebuilt at the time when -vaulting was added. In this rebuilding, concealed flying-buttresses were -constructed beneath the side-aisle roofs, and these, together with the -solid wall which - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.--CAEN, LA TRINITÉ.] - -replaces the open triforium gallery of Saint Étienne, made it possible -to raise the level of the transverse arches of the vaulting to a point -considerably above the clerestory string-course. Furthermore, since the -wooden outer roof was probably built after the vaults, it was possible -to use diagonals whose crowns were higher than those of the transverse -arches, and still place them beneath the roof trusses. With such a -skeleton of ribs as a basis, the builders proceeded to erect a four-part -vault over each nave bay, or, in other words, enclosing two side aisle -arches. Because of the higher impost of the vault ribs, the wall -intersection of the vault cells easily cleared the window heads.[179] -Curiously enough, however, the builders connected the intermediate piers -with a transverse arch having a flat wall built upon it to the level of -the crown of the longitudinal vault cells (Fig. 27). There would seem to -be several explanations of this innovation. In the first place the pier -system of La Trinité is regular, not alternate, and a greater symmetry -was obtained by having corresponding transverse arches connecting each -pair of opposite piers. Moreover such arches had been used before 1114 -in the church of Saint Georges at Boscherville, and quite possibly -elsewhere as well,[180] beneath a simple wooden roof, thus tying -together the lofty clerestory walls. In the second place, such arches -had already been introduced at Saint Étienne, though for a different -reason, as has been shown, and must have proved of value in keeping the -keystone of the diagonals rigidly fixed, besides having become a -characteristic of what was perhaps the major church of the school; and -in the third place, such an arch with its wall above aided materially -both in carrying a portion of the weight of the vault to the alternate -piers and in affording permanent centering, which was needed in Normandy -even more than in Lombardy because the Norman vault crown was never more -than slightly domed up. - -Once introduced, this pseudo-sexpartite vault was not restricted to La -Trinité but was, as has been said, employed in no less than four of the -seven square-bayed Norman churches. At Ouistreham (Calvados)[181] -(vaulted cir. 1160), the impost was raised as in La Trinité and pointed -transverse arches were used, thus increasing the curve of the diagonals -and improving the stability of the vault. More interesting still, -however, are the two churches of Bernières-sur-Mer,[182] and Saint -Gabriel (Calvados)[183] (both vaulted cir. 1150), for in them the -builders have clung so tenaciously to the pseudo form in preference to -the true that they have actually moved the windows of each bay toward -the intermediate pier in order to use this method without raising the -imposts. The latter is particularly interesting because of the extreme -flatness of its diagonals for which the intermediate transverse arches -must certainly have proved an added support. - -The preference of the Norman builders for this pseudo-sexpartite vault, -even to the extent of moving the windows out of center to make its use -possible, may find a further explanation than any yet given in the -simplicity of its construction. A comparison of one window severy of -Saint Étienne (Fig. 26) with one at La Trinité (Fig. 27) will illustrate -this point. In the former the surface of the vault is warped on either -side of the window, while in the latter, the stone courses run almost -directly back to the wall, so that the line of intersection is -approximately the projection of one-half of the diagonal rib. Of course -this second surface was far easier to calculate geometrically and could -be put in place by less skillful builders than the warped surface -required. It had, however, the fault of being in ill accord with the -curve of the window head, but, on the other hand, it possessed the -structural advantage of distributing the thrust of the vault over a -large amount of exterior wall. This might seem a fault rather than an -advantage, were it not that in such a primitive system as that of -Normandy, thickness of wall was the greatest factor in abutment and -thrusts which were widely distributed were thus more easily met than -those which were concentrated within narrow perpendicular limits.[184] -The advantage of the warped system in thus concentrating the thrusts -was, in fact, realized only when inert stability which forms the keynote -of Norman work gave way to the carefully balanced thrusts and -counter-thrusts of Gothic architecture. - -The little church of Le Petit Quévilly (Seine-Inférieure)[185] (cir. -1156) would seem at first to disprove this Norman preference for -pseudo-sexpartite vaults. The imposts of its arches are sufficiently -high to permit of such a type, yet the real six-part vault was employed. -The explanation of this would seem to lie in the geographical situation -of the church, for it is not in Calvados, like the other examples, but -in Seine Inférieure near Rouen, or in other words on the border of the -Ile-de-France, where the six-part vault had been adopted with enthusiasm -and used as early as 1140, or some fifteen years previous to the -building of Petit-Quévilly, in the large abbey church of Saint Denis. - -It is also difficult to explain the use of the true form in the seventh -of the vaulted churches, which is that of Creully (Calvados),[186] but -the fact that it has the same low imposts as Saint Étienne at Caen -combined with the evident purpose of the builders to keep the windows in -the center of the bays may perhaps furnish an explanation of its -appearance here. - - -DEVELOPMENT OF SEXPARTITE VAULTING - -The true six-part vault, as used in Saint Étienne, was far from being -perfect. In the first place, it possessed a number of inherent -structural faults. These lie chiefly in the unequal distribution of -thrusts, and the unequal size of the panels into which the vault is -divided. From an aesthetic point of view, two other faults might be -added: first, the decrease in the apparent length of the nave, due to -the fact that it was divided into a few large bays, instead of twice as -many smaller ones; and second, the fact that the crowns of the vault -cells above the windows do not run out perpendicularly from the -clerestory wall but at an awkward angle, thus greatly injuring the -symmetry of the bays. Yet in spite of these drawbacks, which were common -to all six-part vaulting, this system had a long period of popularity. -There are, however, certain structural weaknesses in these early Norman -vaults which were largely due to lack of experience on the part of the -builders, and not to the form of the vaults themselves. Wall ribs were, -for example, omitted, and the diagonals were made of segmental section, -thus rendering unnecessarily severe the thrusts of the vaults. Moreover, -such a church as St. Étienne was not planned from the ground for -vaulting and the piers had not the proper arrangement of shafts. Last of -all, the intermediate arches were of a rather ugly, stilted character, -possibly so constructed with an eye to a better distribution of light, -but in any event presenting an awkward appearance. All these faults were -gradually overcome in the Transitional and Early Gothic churches of the -Ile-de-France. - - -SEXPARTITE VAULTING IN THE ILE-DE-FRANCE - -That it should have been this province which favored the six-part system -is most curious, for at a date almost contemporary with St. Étienne at -Caen, ribbed vaults of rectangular plan had probably been constructed -over the naves of Saint Étienne at Beauvais and the abbey church at -Saint Germer-de-Fly (Oise) (cir. 1130-40). That this method was -abandoned in most of the remaining Transitional churches would seem to -have been due to the fact that the vaults of Saint Étienne at Beauvais -fell in, and those of Saint Germer did not prove very secure.[187] Such -builders as the Abbot Suger of Saint Denis, therefore, may very -naturally have looked to Normandy for a method of vaulting, since the -vaults of Saint Étienne at Caen had at least remained in place. - -Whatever the cause of its introduction into the Ile-de-France may have -been, the six-part system was used at Saint Denis (Seine) (1140-1144) -and soon became the favorite method throughout the neighboring region. -Unfortunately Saint Denis and two other important churches of the -Transition, the cathedrals of Senlis (Oise) (cir. 1150) and Noyon (Oise) -(cir. 1140), which would undoubtedly have illustrated the progress in -six-part vaulting, no longer have their original vaults, and the -cathedral of Sens (Yonne) (1140-1168) (Fig. 28) remains as perhaps the -most important example of the early developed type.[188] Its vaults show -the great advance made in construction since the completion of Saint -Étienne at Caen. The diagonals are semicircular instead of segmental -arches, and the transverse ribs are pointed and all of similar curve, -giving a more symmetrical appearance and greatly reducing the thrusts. -Furthermore the piers are profiled from the ground according to the load -which they are to carry, and, last of all, a highly stilted wall rib is -added over each clerestory window, completing the skeleton of the vault -and making possible a larger expanse of glass and more satisfactory -illumination for the interior. Of course, the use of the flying -buttress, which had been introduced a short time before Sens was built, -contributed enormously to the advancement of vault construction and in -large measure explains such an improved form of vaulting as this is. In -fact, a heavy clerestory wall was no longer essential to the support of -the vault and it was only the fact that a large expanse of glass was not -safe from the pressure of the wind, which prevented the clerestory -windows from occupying the entire - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.--SENS, CATHEDRAL.] - -space beneath the formeret. With the invention of tracery, what little -wall remained, was to disappear. A further advance is shown in the -decidedly stilted form of the wall ribs, which (Fig. 28) concentrate all -the thrust of the vault upon a very narrow strip of exterior wall where -it was admirably met by the flying-buttress.[189] In fact, the system at -Sens might be considered perfected were it not for the unnecessary size -of the ribs, especially those running transversely. It remained for the -builders of the cathedral of Notre Dame at Paris (begun 1163) to reduce -all the ribs to the same size, and for the builders of the cathedral of -Bourges (Cher) (begun 1172), still further to reduce all but the -transverse arches and to employ the vault upon a scale even greater than -that of Paris. In fact, Bourges marks the high water mark of this system -of vaulting and by the beginning of the thirteenth century it was in -general, entirely given up[190] in favor of the four-part cross-ribbed -vault of rectangular plan, which regained its supremacy in the -Ile-de-France after the introduction of the flying-buttress with the -protection which this afforded against such a catastrophe as that which -probably befell Saint Étienne at Beauvais. - -Although employed to a much greater extent in France[191] than -elsewhere, almost every country in Europe possesses a number of churches -with six-part vaults. Thus William of Sens introduced the system into -England, where it appears in Canterbury cathedral choir (1175) and later -in Lincoln transept[192] (cir. 1215). Italy possesses many examples, -among them the large churches of San Francesco at Bologna (cir. 1240), -the Certosa of Pavia (1396), and the small church of Corneto-Tarquinia -(Roma)[193] where the vault curiously enough appears over two bays of -rectangular plan which divide what would otherwise be practically a -single square nave bay.[194] Examples in other countries might be cited, -but in no case would they differ materially from the French prototypes. - - -VARIANTS OF SEXPARTITE VAULTING - -The fact that six-part vaulting declined rapidly in favor toward the -beginning of the thirteenth century, and thus before the era of -complicated vaults had begun, probably explains the few variants from -the standard type. Of these, the simplest consists in the addition of a -ridge rib along the longitudinal vault crown. This appears in one bay of -the choir of Lincoln cathedral[195] (Fig. 35), where the crown line is -horizontal, and in the great transept of the same church where it rises -and falls in accordance with the doming up of the central keystone. The -small church of Saint Jacques at Reims (Marne) (1183) (Fig. 29) presents -a still better example of this irregular ridge rib. The vault of Saint -Jacques would seem from its general appearance to be based upon Anjou -models and it is not surprising to find its possible prototype in the -church of La Trinité at Angers (Fig. 30). The reason for the employment -of the extra rib is probably twofold: first, to lessen the size of the -transverse panels; and second, to render the arrangement of the ribs and -severies more symmetrical. In England, it is quite possible that it -served as a cover-joint as well, but in France this would not seem to -hold true, at least in La Trinité, where the stone courses are laid with -as much care as those in the simple four-part vaults of Angers cathedral -(see Fig. 19). - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--REIMS, SAINT JACQUES.] - -La Trinité at Angers (Fig. 30) is also an important variant of the -six-part vault because the impost of its intermediate rib is raised to a -considerably higher level than that of the principal transverse arches -and the intermediate rib itself is highly stilted. This would seem -further evidence that the six-part vault was evolved from the four-part -vault in an effort to make the arrangement of the windows more -symmetrical in a single nave bay corresponding to two bays in the -aisles;[196] for if La Trinité with its series of side chapels, two to -each nave bay, had been vaulted in the usual Anjou style and the windows -left as they now stand on the axis of each chapel arch, their heads -would either have been cut by the wall line of a four-part vault or -would have appeared awkwardly placed beneath it. The addition of an -intermediate transverse arch and the conversion of the vault into -sexpartite form restored the symmetry of piers, arches, and windows. In -order, however, to obtain as much light as possible and to produce the -effect of square nave bays, these intermediate transverse ribs were -stilted and their imposts raised. Nor was this stilting confined to -Anjou. It appears a number of times elsewhere often in churches where -the ridge rib was not employed for example, in the cathedrals of Bremen -and Limburg[197] in Germany, and in those of Ribe,[198] and Viborg in -Denmark.[199] - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--ANGERS, LA TRINITÉ.] - -The church of the Certosa of Pavia in Italy (1396) has six-part vaults -of similar type but presents a curious arrangement of square nave bays -corresponding to rectangular bays in the side aisles (Plate I-d).[200] -The intermediate transverse arches, therefore, rise from corbels above -the crowns of the side aisle arches, a fact which explains their higher -imposts. Why such a vault should have been used can again be explained -by the desire to obtain the best possible arrangement of windows. -Five-part vaults had already been used in the aisles of the Certosa to -get square flanking chapels, and it was natural that the builders should -have wished to have a clerestory window corresponding to each exterior -bay of the church. The fact that square nave and rectangular aisle bays -were used at all would seem to have been due to the Italian fondness for -this system which caused the least possible obstruction of the church -interior by piers. The only curious feature is, therefore, the use of -the six-part, instead of the more natural four-part, vault. - -A somewhat similar arrangement with the substitution of two four-part -vaults for the six-part vaults of Pavia is to be seen in the cathedral -of Magdeburg,[201] where the same combination of nave and aisle bays -occurs. The builders, like those of Pavia, first subdivided the outer -longitudinal cells of the side aisle vaults by a half rib in order to -obtain two windows instead of one, which would necessarily be of rather -clumsy shape or of small size were it placed below the long, low wall -rib of a simple rectangular four-part vault. Then to make the nave bays -and clerestory windows correspond to those of the aisles in exterior -elevation, as well as to obtain better window space, they constructed -two rectangular four-part vaults over each square nave bay with their -intermediate transverse rib resting on corbels above the aisle arches -(Plate I-e). - - -EIGHT-PART VAULTING - -There is one more important variant of the six-part vault which is -especially interesting and unusual. It appears in the church of Saint -Quiriace at Provins (Seine-et-Marne) (cir. 1160) (Fig. 31)[202] and - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--PROVINS, SAINT QUIRIACE.] - -consists in a division of the nave into great square bays each -corresponding, not to two, but to three square bays in the side aisle -(Plate I-f). The divisions thus formed are covered by what is really an -eight-part vault, which is precisely like six-part vaulting except that -there are three instead of two window cells in either side of each bay. -Needless to say the immense size of the transverse triangular severies -thus created presented a structural problem of much difficulty, and it -is not surprising that such a vault was but seldom imitated,[203] -particularly as the great discrepancy in the size of the vault cells and -the awkward angles formed by their crowns give a decidedly unpleasant -appearance. Nevertheless, there is one instance, at least, in which this -system was not only imitated but transformed into a ten-part vault. This -was at Boppart, Germany,[204] where the thirteenth century church has -vaults with four window cells and but a single pair of diagonals. To -break up the two remaining triangular severies, added surface ribs were -introduced (Plate I-g). - - -RECTANGULAR NAVE BAYS WITH FOUR-PART CROSS-RIBBED VAULTS - -While the builders of Normandy were developing the sexpartite system -just discussed, those of the Ile-de-France were experimenting with the -simple four-part cross-ribbed vault of rectangular plan (Plate I-h). As -in Normandy, the earliest churches of the province were in the main -wooden roofed basilicas like the Basse-Oeuvre at Beauvais. When groined -vaults first appeared in the Romanesque period, they were generally -employed only in the side aisles, as at Morienval,[205] and if one may -judge from these vaults, which have unfortunately been rebuilt, they -were of slightly domed up section somewhat like those of Lombardy and -the Rhenish provinces. Toward the beginning of the twelfth century, -however, when the central power had been greatly strengthened under -Louis VI. (1108-1137), there began a marked architectural advance which -was destined to render this backward province the most important of all -in the development of Gothic architecture. One of the earliest churches -to mark this advance was Saint Étienne at Beauvais (probably early -twelfth century) (Fig. 32), which, if one may judge from the form of the -piers and the ribbed vault of the side aisles,[206] was planned from the -foundation for vaulting throughout. Unfortunately the original vaults of -the nave, if such existed, are no longer in position for they either -gave way from lack of support, a natural supposition since they had no -other abutment than the weight of the clerestory walls, or else they -were so injured by the fire of 1180 that it was necessary to replace -them by the existing vaults of the late twelfth century. These, while -they do not make up for the loss of their predecessors, are nevertheless -important because of their early date. They are antedated, however, by a -number of very important churches which still retain, in part at least, -their original vaulting. - -FIG. 32.--BEAUVAIS, SAINT ÉTIENNE. - - -IRREGULAR FOUR-PART VAULTING OF DURHAM CATHEDRAL - -The first of these is the English cathedral of Durham. The date of its -vaults is still the subject of a decided controversy, but whether they -were built between 1093 and 1133 as Bond,[207] Rivoira,[208] and -Moore[209] believe, or are later than those of Saint Denis, which is the -claim of Lasteyrie,[210] they are of sufficiently early date to be -important in a - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.--DURHAM, CATHEDRAL.] - -discussion of rectangular four-part vaulting. Those over the nave (Fig. -33) are especially interesting and furnish a unique variant of the -standard type. It was the apparent intention of the builders to roof the -nave with wood and for this purpose heavy transverse arches were -constructed between the alternate piers. When vaulting was determined -upon, the nave was therefore already divided into square bays each -containing two clerestory windows on a side. To vault these bays the -builders might naturally have been expected to adopt the Lombard system -of simple four-part vaults, but here in Durham, as in Saint Étienne at -Caen, the impost level of the transverse arches was so low that a -four-part vault would have made impossible the retention of the windows -already in position above each nave arch. As these were absolutely -essential in the north of England for lighting purposes, and also most -important in preserving the symmetry of the bays, a change either in -their size or position would have proved impractical. The six-part vault -was the Norman method of solving a similar problem. But the builders of -Durham invented a new system, made up of two rectangular cross-ribbed -vaults in each bay, their intermediate supports afforded by corbels, and -their alternate transverse arches omitted (Plate I-i). This omission of -the intermediate rib gives a very unusual character to the vault but it -preserves the alternate system with square nave bays so popular in -Norman work, and at the same time has a great advantage over the -six-part vault in that the transverse crown line of the window cells is -perpendicular to the outer wall. The panels are therefore more -symmetrical in elevation and the thrusts are more evenly distributed -from pier to pier. The large central severy, however, afforded a -difficult surface both for construction and support, and it is not -surprising that the system was not repeated. As in the early ribbed -vaults at Caen, wall ribs were not employed at Durham, and the abutment -was provided only by flat pilasters and concealed flying buttresses, -some of full and some of half arched form.[211] - - -EARLY FOUR-PART RIBBED VAULTS IN NORMANDY - -That the rectangular four-part system of vaulting was developed in -Normandy, as well as in England and the Ile-de-France, and very possibly -independently of both, is proved by the early twelfth century abbey -church of Lessay (Manche) (cir. 1130).[212] If the vaults of Lessay are -an independent development it is hardly possible to see in them anything -else than another effort to vault a church with square nave bays and yet -provide the best possible vaulting to fit above the windows. A glance at -the choir[213] will show that the alternate system was here employed -just as in Saint Étienne at Caen, yet the builders introduced two -four-part vaults instead of one of six-part type in each bay.[214] The -transverse arches are still semicircular and the vault is somewhat -rudimentary. The system as a whole may be considered as a fourth -method[215] of the Norman builders to preserve their clerestory intact -and still vault their churches. A slight advance is shown in the vaults -at Pontorson (Manche) (middle of twelfth century). This is, however, a -small church without side aisles and its vaults are in almost square -bays with pointed transverse arches and considerably domed up at the -crown. Wall ribs are still lacking as at Durham and Lessay. - - -TRANSITIONAL FOUR-PART RIBBED VAULTS IN THE ILE-DE-FRANCE - -The abbey church of Saint Germer-de-Fly (Oise) (cir. 1140), which still -retains its original vaults in the choir and two eastern bays of the -nave, presents another and perhaps more important example of rectangular -four-part cross-ribbed vaulting. Its structural arches are of pointed -section, and the piers and walls are strengthened by concealed -flying-buttresses beneath the wooden roof of the triforium.[216] These -are similar to those which have already been noted in La Trinité at Caen -and in the nave of Durham,[217] but the vaults are superior in -construction to those at Durham and are also provided with transverse -arches between each rectangular bay. With the aid of this concealed -buttress and the retention of the heavy Romanesque walls and small -openings the vaults of Saint Germer were kept from falling, and it was -doubtless this fact which led to the extension of the four-part system -until it rivaled and at length became more popular than the six-part -vaulting imported from Normandy and used at exactly the same period in -the church of Saint Denis. A number of elementary features still -remained at St. Germer, however. The transverse arches are but slightly -pointed in section, the ribs are unusually heavy, and the diagonals of -the choir bay are supported upon corbels[218] showing that the shaft -arrangement was not yet in accord with the ribs to be carried. - -A gradual development of the flying-buttress, and of the compound pier, -a reduction in the size of the ribs,[219] and many other structural -refinements rapidly followed one another in the period subsequent to the -construction of Saint Germer and led to the perfection of rectangular -four-part vaulting. The cathedral of Soissons (Aisne) (cir. 1212 on) -(Fig. 67), for example, shows a considerable structural advance over -Saint Germer. Its ribs are more decidedly pointed though still somewhat -heavy and there is no hesitation in raising the impost of the vault far -above the clerestory string-course, since its thrusts are easily met by -exterior flying-buttresses. - - -DEVELOPED FOUR-PART RIBBED VAULTS - -It is in the cathedral of Amiens (beg. 1218) (Fig. 69), however, that -the four-part vault reaches its most daring if not its most perfect -form. Here the builders constructed a vault similar to that of Soissons, -but rising over one hundred and forty feet from the pavement. Its ribs -are perfectly proportioned and finely moulded and the buttress system is -completely developed. One awkward feature does, however, appear in the -fact that the builders, perhaps, in order to concentrate the thrusts of -the vaults upon the narrowest possible strip of outer wall, have made -the wall intersection of the window severies follow an irregular curve -which does not correspond to that of the wall rib in the portion from -the impost to a point near the haunch. In spite of this defect, the -cathedral of Amiens may well be considered as marking the highest -development of rectangular ribbed vaulting. A study of other Gothic -churches will disclose few, if any, improvements, either in appearance -or construction, and many of the finest closely resemble this -masterpiece. - - -THE CURVE OF VAULT RIBS - -Such a study will, however, show a decided difference in the elevation -of the transverse ribs and consequent shape of the vaults, which is -worthy of some notice. If, for example, a triangle be inscribed beneath -a number of these transverse arches, it will be found that the angles -inside its base vary from about fifty degrees in Saint Germer-de-Fly, -Rouen cathedral and Beverley Minster;[220] to fifty-five degrees in -Soissons, Amiens, Salisbury, and Milan cathedrals, and Westminster -Abbey; and even to sixty degrees in the cathedrals of Cologne and Reims. -Moreover there is a great difference in the curve of these same -transverse ribs. Those in Saint Germer, Beverley, and Rouen closely -approach a semicircle, those in Amiens and Salisbury are much more -pointed, but made up of two arcs without, however, a long radius with -the resulting flattened appearance to be noted at Cologne and Reims and -more decidedly at Milan. All this would seem to indicate that the -elevation of these ribbed vaults,--and this is true of six-part and -complex vaults as well,--was largely a matter of individual taste with a -tendency to favor the form used at Amiens. The reason for the employment -of very sharp curves like those of Reims, Cologne and Milan, was -doubtless due to the appreciation on the part of the builders of the -fact that such curves greatly reduced the outward thrusts, rather than -to any idea of beauty of appearance to be gained, for in this they are -perhaps inferior to the less pointed examples. - - -RECTANGULAR FOUR-PART RIBBED VAULTS IN CHURCHES WITHOUT SIDE AISLES - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.--ALBI, CATHEDRAL.] - -The use of rectangular four-part ribbed vaulting was not confined to -churches with side aisles, but appears also in those with a single broad -nave. It is the method employed in the Sainte Chapelle at Paris (fin. -1248), where there are simple salient buttresses, and there is a -splendid example in the Cathedral of Albi (Tarn) (begun 1282) (Fig. 34), -where the nave has a very wide span and is flanked by chapels in two -stories between heavy pier buttresses which are thus enclosed in the -church in a truly Byzantine manner. In the smaller church of Saint -Nicholas at Toulouse these buttress chapels are in but one story and the -bays are more nearly square in plan, a compromise between the square and -rectangular systems which appears on an even larger scale in the -cathedral of Saint Bertrand-des-Comminges (Haute-Garonne) (cir. 1304). -As far as construction is concerned these vaults over a single broad -nave offer no advance over those in churches with side aisles, not even -requiring a scientific system of flying buttresses to offset their -outward thrust. Their only importance lies in the very broad space -sometimes covered by them.[221] - - -VAULTING WITH ADDED RIBS - -The simple forms of ribbed vaulting just discussed were the ones most -frequently in use during the best Gothic period. But among certain -builders, there was a tendency even in the thirteenth century to -introduce additional ribs into the vaults, a custom which later gave -rise to a vast number of complicated vaulting systems especially in -England, Spain and Germany. Even to enumerate these would be almost -impossible and a description of each is out of the question, hence only -those combinations which were frequently employed, or which gave rise to -new types, will be discussed. - - -ORIGIN AND USE OF THE RIDGE RIB - -Naturally enough the ridge rib was the first to be added to those -already constituting the four-part vault (Plate I-j). But the vaults -thus formed should be divided into two groups. The first most frequently -found in France and already discussed in connection with the churches of -Anjou,[222] is that in which the surface of each severy has a curved -crown and the rib follows this curve, with the object, probably, both of -subdividing the large rectangular bays, of marking with absolute -exactness the crown line, and of aiding in rigidly fixing the central -keystone, or even in the case of a six-part vault, of giving the same -apparent division to the transverse severies as is found in those -running longitudinally. - -Though very similar to this first type, the second, which was developed -and most used in England, is different, in that the ridge line is here - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--LINCOLN, CATHEDRAL.] - -perfectly horizontal, and the main purpose of the rib is to mark this -horizontal line with absolute exactness and to give, what Bond terms a -spine,[223] to the vault skeleton. In the earliest example in England, -the transept aisle of Ripon cathedral (cir. 1170),[224] the ribs are so -small as to be purely decorative. This leaves the choir of Lincoln -cathedral (begun 1192) (Fig. 35) as the first English example of -importance in which a true ridge rib appears. It is not yet absolutely -horizontal since there is a slight curve to each severy. Its presence -would seem to be due to the peculiar form of the vault, in which the -ribs enclosing the window cells do not meet at a common point of -intersection but at two points somewhat distant from each other along -the ridge line where each pair is abutted by a single rib running to the -nearest impost on the opposite wall (Plate I-l). This arrangement, which -was probably planned to increase the amount of centering in the large -transverse panels and thus render their construction easier,[225] gives -an extra keystone in each bay and it is quite possible that the ridge -rib was introduced in order to unite these intersections and fix them in -a straight line. It does not appear in the window cells where it would -of course have been at an awkward angle with the outer walls. - -Once introduced into English architecture the ridge rib was destined to -play a most important part in its development. In the first place, it -provided an easy method of assuring an absolutely level and straight -ridge line and was thus especially welcome to English builders, who had -been trained in the construction of vaults which were never more than -slightly and often not at all domed up, and who were, besides, rather -inferior masons, and not particularly skillful in making their masonry -courses intersect in a perfect manner. In the second place, it furnished -admirable abutment for tiercerons or intermediate ribs,[226] which were -perhaps suggested by such a vault as Lincoln choir as being valuable -additions to the rib skeleton and were thereafter very generally used to -provide more permanent centering and to further reduce the size of the -vault panels. - -It is, however, notable that a longitudinal ridge rib appears added to -simple four-part vaults without the introduction of tiercerons or -transverse ridge ribs at a comparatively early date in Worcester -cathedral choir (after 1224),[227] Westminster Abbey choir (1245-1260), -and Gloucester cathedral nave (1245), and that it is used in France in a -number of churches where there are no tiercerons.[228] In such cases it -serves the primary purpose of clearly marking the ridge line, which is -especially difficult to adjust in vaults with level crowns. That it was -the longitudinal effect thus produced which was desired is evidenced by -the fact that except when there were tiercerons in the longitudinal -cells, the transverse ridge rib was rarely added to such vaults (Plate -I-k). Among the very few examples are the cathedral of Tulle (Corrèze) -(twelfth century) and the fifteenth century chapel of the château at -Blois, both of them in France.[229] - - -TIERCERON VAULTING - -The introduction of a ridge rib was only the first step in the -development of multiple rib vaulting. It was not long before the -builders, especially in England, began to add intermediate ribs or -tiercerons between the transverse arches and the diagonals. These may -possibly have been inspired by the extra ribs in the choir of Lincoln -cathedral (Fig. 35 and Plate I-l), but whatever their origin they became -a common feature of later Gothic and gave rise to what may be termed -tierceron vaulting. In the transverse vault severies, which in England -were really sections of a tunnel vault because of the level crown line, -these ribs acted largely as added centering and as decorative features. -But when used in the window cells they served another purpose as well -for they enabled the builders to convert the ordinary “ploughshare” -curve of the vaulting conoid into a series of flat panels which could be -constructed with much less difficulty as far as the laying of the -masonry courses was concerned. - -Sometimes the tiercerons are used in both the transverse and the -longitudinal severies and sometimes only in one of them. Their number -also varies greatly, though of course they are always in pairs. Lincoln -cathedral presbytery (cir. 1266-1280) (Fig. 36) affords an example of a -single pair in each of the large transverse severies with none in the -window cells (Plate I-m), while Chester cathedral chapter-house (first -half of the thirteenth century), and Worcester cathedral nave (cir. -1350-1377) (Fig. 89) are rare examples of the opposite arrangement -(Plate I-n).[230] To support such tiercerons as these at their crown, a -transverse ridge rib was added to the construction, sometimes as in -Chester chapter-house (Plate I-n), Lincoln nave (before 1233),[231] and -Ely presbytery (1235-1252),[232] running out only to the new keystone -(Plate I-o) and thus playing a purely structural rôle, but often -extending to the window head (Plate I-p) as in Lichfield cathedral south -transept (cir. 1220) and choir (fourteenth century). These portions of -Lichfield, together with the nave of Lincoln and the presbytery of Ely -cathedral, are also important as showing the employment of a single -pair of tiercerons in each of the four panels of the vaulting bays -(Plate I-p). This system is slightly varied in the naves of Lichfield -and Hereford (Plate I-q-r), where the true transverse arch is omitted -between the bays, but these vaults like those of Durham are merely -variants of the more standard types.[233] - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--LINCOLN, CATHEDRAL.] - -The introduction of a single pair of tiercerons in each major panel was -soon followed, especially in the window cells where the surface was -warped, by the use of two (Plate I-s) and even of three such pairs -(Plate I-t). Two are found in Hereford cathedral south transept (cir. -1400),[234] and in the choir of Saint Mary Redcliffe at Bristol -(fifteenth century),[235] while three appear at Exeter (between -1280-1350) (Fig. 37). This last may well be said to mark the highest -point in tierceron vaulting,[236] and it must be acknowledged that the -decorative effect produced is most pleasing. Placed as they are over -comparatively low naves, these vaults harmonize in an admirable manner -with the clustered piers, moulded archivolts, and substantial walls -provided for their support, and carry to the crown of the vault that -wealth of moulding which lends so much of grace and charm to the English -Gothic of the Decorated period. Were such vaults used above the lofty -naves of Amiens or Beauvais, they would doubtless appear oppressively -heavy but the lowness and solidity of English construction entirely -dispels such a feeling. Of course, tiercerons are not essential members -of the vaulting system and perhaps they were better omitted altogether, -but that their usage can be vindicated from an aesthetic standpoint is -proved by such vaults as those at Exeter. - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.--EXETER, CATHEDRAL.] - - -LIERNE VAULTING - -Tierceron vaulting did not, however, mark the limit to which the English -Gothic builders were to carry their passion for added ribs and complex -design, and it was not long before short connecting ribs known as -liernes were added to the tierceron vaults. These may have been -introduced by the builders from a feeling that the tiercerons did not -have sufficient abutment, as Bond suggests,[237] but it is more -reasonable to suppose that they are the result of a striving for still -more complex vaulting forms and still more decorative patterns in vault -construction. - -The combinations in lierne vaulting are of course without number and -only a few can be discussed. The simplest is that known as the star -vault (Plate I-u) in which there is a single pair of tiercerons in each -of the four main vault panels with short liernes connecting the points -of their intersection with the ridge ribs, with a point in the same -plane on each of the diagonals. A simple example occurs at Oxford in the -Proscholium[238] and one of the same general type but much elaborated, -in the choir of Oxford cathedral.[239] - -It is almost impossible to classify the remaining lierne vaults under -separate heads, though there are certain characteristics which belong to -one group and not to another. For example, some, like those of the nave -of Saint Mary Redcliffe at Bristol[240] have no ridge rib, others have a -single rib like that found in tierceron vaulting. These last might again -be classified according to the number and arrangement of their liernes. -Thus in Ely cathedral choir[241] (beg. 1322) and Norwich nave (vaults -cir. 1470)[242] there are but few liernes, while in Winchester cathedral -nave (cir. 1394-1460) there is a much larger number. Still other lierne -vaults have more than one ridge rib. Of these, the choir (1337-1357), -and Lady chapel of Gloucester cathedral (cir. 1457-1489), and the nave -of Tewkesbury Abbey (Fig. 38)[243] are representative and varied -examples. All have three ridge ribs which is the standard number. - - -INTERPENETRATING MULTIPLE RIBBED VAULTS - -In these last three churches, however, as well as in Winchester nave and -in numerous other examples not cited, there is a still more decided -change in the form of the vault than that brought about by the use of -liernes or added ridge ribs. This lies in the fact that the window cells -no longer rise to the full height of the vault, so that the entire -system is practically a reversion to the Romanesque tunnel vault pierced -on either side with lunettes, in other words, to the interpenetrating -vault. The ribs merely form a permanent centering, and generally no -attempt is made to concentrate the pressure on a narrow strip of -wall,[244] or to make use of flying-buttresses.[245] Except for the -decoration which they afford, the ribs have little structural value -though they do make possible lighter masonry in the web than would be -possible in a continuous tunnel vault. - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.--TEWKESBURY, ABBEY CHURCH.] - -The height of the window cells in such vaults was not at all fixed -though it was quite frequently determined by the intersection of two -ribs running diagonally from each side of the window to the second -impost on the opposite wall of the church.[246] Such window cells as -these naturally left a large central space along the crown of the vault, -which was usually decorated by extra lierne and ridge ribs. - - -TRACERY VAULTS - -Not content with the liernes as a decoration, an innovation appears in -Tewkesbury choir,[247] Saint George’s Chapel at Windsor[248] and -elsewhere, which consists in the application of raised mouldings forming -tracery patterns on the few open spaces left between the ribs of complex -lierne vaults. It is as if the tracery of a window were applied to a -background of stone, with ribs taking the place of mullions. The -patterns are usually trefoils or quatrefoils, but other forms, as, for -example, the cross shaped flowers in the fan vaults at Peterborough -(Fig. 39) also occur. - -The natural consequence of such added mouldings and ribs as those just -described was to bring about the total sacrifice of the structural -principles of ribbed vaulting to those which were purely decorative, and -it is not surprising that such a vault as that of the choir of Wells -cathedral (1329-1363),[249] in which the ribs have but the slightest -claim to structural purpose should be found even at its early date as an -example of this decadent stage in English vaulting. - - -FAN VAULTING - -But the addition of multiple ribs lead not only to such debased vaulting -as that at Wells. It must have played a large part in the creation of -the distinctly novel construction known as fan vaulting. For in a vault -with many tiercerons, as for example, that at Exeter (Fig. 37), or -Hereford south transept,[250] the combined surfaces between the ribs is -a cross between half of a hollow sided pyramid and a cone. This is true -because, like most of the English churches, the wall rib is not highly -stilted to concentrate pressures on a narrow strip of outer wall, or to -leave a more pointed window head as in France, but it and the tiercerons -and diagonals have much the same curvature. It was natural, therefore, -that the English - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.--PETERBOROUGH, CATHEDRAL.] - -builders should have conceived the idea of making all the ribs of just -the same curvature but of different length according to their several -positions. This they did in Sherborne Abbey nave (vaulted -1475-1504).[251] Here the builders very logically used the shortest rib -as a measure and connected the points at corresponding distances from -the imposts on each rib with liernes. A central space was thus left, -which at Sherborne was covered by prolonging a number of the radiants -and adding a tracery of liernes and mouldings. The vault as thus -constituted is not yet of pure fan type. It was first necessary to -replace the ring of straight liernes by those of curved plan and to add -one ring above another at the various points of intersection of the -tiercerons and transverse ridge ribs, until practically the entire space -to the vault crown was filled. Thus, in certain of the fan vaults of -Peterborough (second half of the fifteenth century) (Fig. 39), there are -three such rings leaving but a small diamond shaped central space which -is largely filled by the keystone of the bay.[252] Others down the side -aisles where the bays are smaller have but a single ring and a much -larger central space. In vaults of the Peterborough type, the radiants -are continued through this central panel in a decorative way, but in the -cloister at Gloucester (before 1412) (Fig. 40), this portion of the -vault is left entirely flat and decorated with tracery patterns in -raised mouldings such as are usually found in window heads. The conoids, -also, are covered with tracery rather than continuous ribs and the term -“Fan-Tracery Vaults” might properly be used to distinguish them from the -more common type.[253] - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.--GLOUCESTER, CATHEDRAL, CLOISTER.] - -In the matter of construction, fan vaulting differs from any preceding -method. Its ribs are all of precisely the same curvature, their length -being determined by the position which they occupy, and they are no -longer supporting but rather decorative members. The lower portions of -some of the vaults still resemble true ribbed vaulting in that the -tas-de-charge is used, and also in the fact that the ribs still rise in -a single long voussoir from their imposts to the first horizontal ring. -But from this point to the crown, the ribs and mouldings are merely -carved in relief upon the jointed masonry, which they therefore in no -way support. In some fan vaults, as, for example, in Islip’s chapel in -Westminster Abbey,[254] and in Gloucester cathedral cloister (Fig. 40), -the rib is even carved upon the vault masonry for its entire length. - -The one structural advantage which the fan vault afforded lay in the -fact that it could be built up of practically horizontal courses in a -manner to exert very little outward thrust; while the substitution of -curved, for straight liernes did away with the awkward angular -intersections characteristic of lierne vaulting. Altogether, it is both -a clever and beautiful type of vaulting well suited to the builders of -the Perpendicular Gothic period, with their fondness for intricate -decorative rather than structural problems. - - -PENDANTS - -Because of its late development, fan vaulting was not extensively used -to cover an entire church. Nevertheless, King’s College Chapel at -Cambridge (vaulted between 1512 and 1515),[255] and Bath Abbey (cir. -1500-1540),[256] furnish two excellent examples, to which might be added -Henry VII’s Chapel at Westminster (cir. 1500-1520).[257] The latter is -essentially of fan type, though the fans are in combination with a -system of transverse arches and pendants best understood from the -photograph and drawing just cited. The vaults in the foregoing churches, -do however exhibit minor differences. For example, the transverse arches -are practically concealed in the vaults of the naves at Sherborne, and -Bath and in the east aisle of Peterborough, while they are prominent in -Henry VII’s and King’s College chapels. Moreover, in a number of fan -vaults as well as in others of different type, pendant voussoirs or -keystones are employed. These are supported by some clever building -trick and beautifully carved either as lanterns or reliquaries,--like -those of Oxford cathedral choir,[258]--or decorated with rich floral, -heraldic, or other designs. Thus they play a rôle which is largely -decorative, though one which also marks a very clever building -technique.[259] - - -VAULTS WITH ADDED RIBS--OUTSIDE OF ENGLAND - -The vaults thus far discussed have been largely those of England, but -some of the types with added ribs, most highly developed in that country -were not without Continental examples. In France, for instance, ridge -ribs, besides being used in vaults of the domed up Anjou type already -described, are also found marking level ridges like those of the -standard English vaults. The nave of the abbey church of Souvigny -(Allier) (late fifteenth century), the north transept of the cathedral -of LeMans (before 1430), and the chapel of the Maison de Jacques Coeur -at Bourges (middle of fifteenth century) afford excellent examples of -the use of the longitudinal without the transverse ridge rib, while the -chapel of the château of Blois, and the cathedral of Tulle (Corrèze), -have already been cited as rare instances in which both were employed in -vaults with level crowns. That the French builders were even more -impressed with the decorative possibilities which these ribs afforded -than were those of England is perhaps shown by the fact that, whereas in -England this rib has carved decoration[260] only rarely as in the nave -of Lichfield cathedral it is carved in no less than three of the French -examples cited, the chief among these being Souvigny, in which a deeply -cut foliate design decorates both sides of the rib throughout its entire -length. In Spain also there is a notable example of the decoration of -both a longitudinal and transverse ridge rib in the form of a knotted -rope or scourge in the cathedral of Vizeu.[261] - -Tiercerons as well as ridge ribs were freely used on the continent -though usually not at a very early date. Fine examples are to be seen in -France in such churches as those of Brou (Ain) (1506-1536), and Saint -Nicolas-du-Port (Meurthe-et-Moselle) (cir. 1505).[262] Both of these are -also of interest because their vaults still retain the domed up crown -characteristic of French construction, and because of this the builders, -to avoid the awkward rise and fall of continuous ridge ribs, have -brought these out only far enough to meet the pair of tiercerons in each -severy. Many other examples of tierceron vaulting could be cited both in -France and elsewhere, but they would add nothing of importance from a -structural standpoint. - -As for lierne vaults, they, too, appear on the Continent especially in -Germany and Spain. The choir of Freiburg cathedral (second half of -fifteenth century) (Fig. 72), and the church of the Holy Cross at -Gmund,[263] show two German types, both of which resemble English vaults -which have already been discussed. In Spain, the new cathedral at -Salamanca[264] (begun 1513), the cathedral at Segovia (begun 1525),[265] -and many other churches might be cited, while in France the church of -Mézières (begun 1499),[266] and Switzerland the cathedral of Bern (cir. -1421-1598)[267] show the extent of the style, sometimes with sharply -defined domed up bays as in Mézières and sometimes a continuous vault -like that of Bern. Finally in some instances, as, for example, the -Stadkirche of Wimpfen[268] the liernes are curved giving a still more -complicated character to the vault. - -Fan vaulting was unused[269] outside of Great Britain, but there are -many instances of the employment of extensively decorated vaults, -including those with pendants of somewhat English character. Among the -latter are Saint Pierre at Caen and Saint Eustache at Paris -(1532-1637),[270] while pendants of especially exaggerated type are to -be seen in the vault of one of the chapels off the south side aisle of -Noyon - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.--NOYON, CATHEDRAL, CHAPEL.] - -cathedral (Fig. 41). A tendency to decorate the panels is also -noticeable in a number of late French vaults, as for example that of the -chapel of Saint Jacques at Cléry (Loiret) (probably after 1485) (Fig. -42), where each of the larger divisions of a complicated lierne and -tierceron vault is decorated by a wallet and staff or a scourge in low -relief. At Rue (Somme), in the chapel of Saint Esprit,[271] there is a -somewhat similar vault with heraldic devices and floral ornament on the -panels. But even more notable are the angels in the round which have -been added for decorative purposes in four of the severies of the vaults -in one bay of the side aisle of the north transept (sixteenth century) -in Senlis (Oise) cathedral (Fig. 43). The final stage in elaborate -vaulting, is perhaps, to be seen in such a vault as that of the Chapelle -de la Vièrge at La Ferté-Bernard (Sarthe)[272] which dates from -1535-1544. Here the panels are merely portions of a flat ceiling -resting upon a series of arches arranged like ribs, but carrying a -tracery framework upon which the elaborately decorated ceiling with its -mouldings and stalactite pendants is made to rest. - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.--CLÉRY, CHAPEL OF SAINT JACQUES.] - - -SIDE AISLE VAULTING - -There now remain for consideration before closing this chapter, the -ribbed vaults of the aisles and triforia of Gothic churches. Very -naturally the general development of ribbed vaulting in the aisles -closely parallels that in the nave. In by far the larger number of -churches, the side aisle bays are square and covered with simple -four-part cross-ribbed vaults. As in the case of the nave, those of -early date have many clumsy features. Thus in the aisles of Saint -Étienne at Beauvais (Fig. 44)--which, fortunately, retain a few bays of -their primitive vaults dating from about 1125--the diagonals are heavy -(cir. 20-25 cm. thick)[273] and either square with simple bevelled edges -or of single torus section. No wall rib is found and the transverse -arches, besides being very thick, are of round-headed form, highly -stilted to bring them up to approximately the general vault level. The -vault itself is slightly domed up at the crown and besides the - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.--SENLIS, CATHEDRAL, CHAPEL VAULT.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.--BEAUVAIS, SAINT ÉTIENNE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.--SENS, CATHEDRAL.] - -primitive characteristics just enumerated, its panels are composed of -small stones roughly joined and in very uneven courses, while the ribs -themselves are built up of short voussoirs, which are not combined at -their springing in the familiar tas-de-charge of more developed Gothic -work. The cathedral of Sens presents in its side aisles (Fig. 45), which -date from the twelfth century[274] a slightly different system. The -transverse arches are still heavy and semicircular but they are not -stilted. The diagonals rise from corner corbels--a fact which may prove -that the aisles were originally planned for groined vaulting and thus no -provision made for the cross-ribs,--and they are also semicircular, thus -giving the vault a decidedly domed up character. This makes these vaults -at Sens very similar to Lombard work and it would seem as though their -builders had the same object of saving centering by the use of ribs as -obtained in Lombardy. There is one apparent advance over those at -Beauvais in the presence of a wall rib, but this is of too wide a span -to fit under its severy, and it would seem to have been designed to mark -the wall intersection of groined rather than ribbed vaulting. - -The early aisle vaults in England are generally similar to those at -Beauvais, with even less doming or none at all. The earliest would seem -to be those in Peterborough, Durham and the north nave aisle of -Gloucester cathedrals, all dating, apparently, from before 1140. -Although similar to those in Saint Étienne at Beauvais they differ in -the comparative lowness of their transverse arches, which are but -slightly stilted, and in the correspondingly reduced curve of the -diagonals, which are less than semicircles and thus do not raise the -crown of the vault. The explanation of this may very possibly be found -in the desire of the builders to avoid cutting into the level of the -triforium floor, especially at Peterborough, where this is a true -gallery, and also in their familiarity with the flat crowned groined -vault, which they had previously used in crypts and elsewhere. The form -of the diagonals is in any case displeasing, as they spring from the -shafts at an awkward angle and, furthermore, render the thrusts of the -vault excessive.[275] - -Many structural refinements were, of course, necessary before these -crude vaults gave rise to the fully developed type, but these -refinements followed in general the same order as those in the larger -nave vaults. First came the introduction of the pointed arch and its use -for the transverse and longitudinal ribs in place of the semicircular -type. This change may be seen in such early vaults as those of Noyon -cathedral (cir. 1150) where pointed arches are used throughout. The -noticeable feature here is the great size of the transverse ribs -compared to that of the diagonals. This same feature continues to appear -in a gradually lessening degree in many of the churches of the -transitional period, and even in the developed Gothic of the thirteenth -century, as, for example, in Bourges and Amiens cathedrals. This may, -perhaps, be explained by the function of this transverse arch which was -not merely a centering for the vault panel, but carried a considerable -amount of the weight of the exterior buttress piers and wall pilasters -which were connected above the aisle roofs by the arch of the flying -buttress. These heavy transverse ribs also aided materially in bracing -the nave piers and tying them to the outer walls. Sometimes, as in the -beautiful aisles of Rouen cathedral, all the ribs are of the same -section, but whether they were all the same or not, such vaults as those -at Rouen and Amiens set the standard for developed Gothic side aisles. - - -FIVE-PART AISLE VAULTS - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.--BEAUVAIS, CATHEDRAL, FIVE-PART VAULT.] - -Other methods, however, were employed. Perhaps the chief among these is -the five-part vault, in which the triangular severy nearest the outer -wall in a four-part vault is subdivided by a half rib running to the -main vault crown (Fig. 46). The advantage of such a system lies in the -fact that it permits a more pleasing arrangement of windows in the outer -wall, especially in bays of rectangular plan, like those in the Certosa -at Pavia and Magdeburg cathedral already discussed, where the windows -would otherwise fit but awkwardly beneath the broad low wall rib. The -same system was also used in aisles with practically square bays, as, -for example, in the cathedral of Coutances (Fig. 82), in Saint Urbain -at Troyes and in many English churches.[276] Here, too, the explanation -is to be found in the window arrangement, especially in the English and -Norman Gothic examples, where these windows are of the slender lancet -type, which could not be satisfactorily placed beneath the comparatively -low wall rib of a square four-part vault. - - -MULTIPLE-RIBBED AISLE VAULTS - -With the introduction of ridge ribs, tiercerons, and liernes, the side -aisles show the same changes as those which took place in the nave. -Simple ridge ribs appear, for example, in Lichfield cathedral, liernes -at Worcester, while tierceron vaults could be cited in great number. Fan -vaults, too, were used in the aisles, and have already been discussed in -connection with those of the nave. Reconstructions sometimes produced an -unusual vaulting system like that of Beauvais cathedral (cir. 1284), -where transverse arches with tracery spandrels were added across each -original aisle bay, giving the vault a pseudo-sexpartite character. True -six-part vaulting was by its very nature ill-suited for use in the -aisles and is very rarely found. There is an example, however, in -Magdeburg cathedral.[277] A desire for novelty also seems to have been -the cause of unusual vaults, such as those of Bristol cathedral choir -aisles,[278] in which low transverse tracery arches separate the bays -and carry a system of ribs which subdivide each bay into two rectangular -four-part vaults running lengthwise of the aisle. - - -TRIFORIUM VAULTING - -Although similar in plan to the side aisles, the triforia were apt to be -a little later in being given ribbed vaults. In the abbey church of -Saint Germer-de-Fly (Oise) (cir. 1140) and in the choir of La Madeleine -at Vézelay (Yonne) (cir. 1160 or 1170), for example, the triforium is -not only left with groined vaults but is also constructed with -round-headed arches, although both the ribbed vault and pointed arch are -used in the aisles. This peculiarity may be due to the fact that groined -vaults were easier and cheaper to construct over a low space like the -gallery than a ribbed vault would have been, because they involved less -careful stone cutting than was required for the ribs. Moreover, since -the chief object of the transitional builders in using the ribbed vault -would seem to have been to save centering, their object would not have -been especially well served in the triforia, which were kept low to -avoid detracting from the clerestory and therefore required but little -centering compared to that which would have been needed for groined -vaults in the side aisles. Another system with possibly a similar reason -for its use appears in Mantes (Seine-et-Oise) cathedral (end of twelfth -century), where the aisles are ribbed and surmounted by a triforium with -transverse tunnel vaults, a most exceptional arrangement. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.--SENLIS, CATHEDRAL.] - -It was only when the triforium began to play a larger rôle in the church -plan, when it was perhaps used for congregational purposes, that its -vaulting began to develop like that of the aisles. Thus in the cathedral -of Senlis (Oise) (cir. 1150) (Fig. 47), the triforium though -comparatively - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.--LAON, CATHEDRAL.] - -low, is a veritable second story above the side aisles with its own good -sized windows. Its vaults are still of rather primitive ribbed type. The -transverse arches, though pointed, are heavy, and to avoid the flattened -curve which the diagonals would otherwise have, the vault is given a -domed up crown. The cathedral of Laon (Aisne) (cir. 1170) (Fig. 48) -possesses a triforium of slightly greater height but still retaining -excessively heavy ribs and domed up vaults. The triforia of the naves of -Noyon (Oise) cathedral (cir. 1150-1180) and of Notre Dame at -Chalons-sur-Marne (Marne) (1157-1183) show a gradual reduction in the -size of these ribs, all of which finally become of practically equal -section in the triforium of the cathedral of Notre Dame at Paris (beg. -1163), where the doming up of the crown also disappears to a large -extent and where the gallery itself is nearly as lofty as the side -aisles. After the beginning of the thirteenth century, triforia rapidly -decline in popularity and are but rarely found except in Normandy, where -there are beautiful examples in such churches as Saint Étienne at Caen -choir rebuilt in the first quarter of the thirteenth century. Owing to -its early decline in popularity, the triforium never presents those -complex vaulting systems of the late Gothic period which have been -described as appearing in the nave and aisles. - - -NAVE AND AISLES OF EQUAL HEIGHT - -In closing this chapter brief mention should be made of the series of -churches in which the aisle vaults are nearly or quite as high as those -of the nave, which they therefore aid in supporting. Among the numerous -examples of such churches, the cathedral of Poitiers (Vienne) (cir. 1160 -and thirteenth century) illustrates the type in which the vaults of the -aisles are slightly lower than those of the nave, while Saint Serge at -Angers has all the vaults at exactly the same level. Both are of Anjou -type but this is due only to their geographical situation, for the -system was widely extended.[279] In Germany there is a fine early -example in Saint Elizabeth at Marburg (cir. 1235),[280] with vaulting of -simple Gothic character, while the church of the Holy Cross at -Gmund[281] is covered with vaulting of complex lierne type. Except for -the change in interior elevation which the system brought about and the -fact that it removed the necessity for flying-buttresses, it did not -show any special progress along structural lines. It must be -acknowledged that the churches thus constructed possess a most pleasing -effect of spaciousness in their interior elevation, though this is -offset by the lack of direct light in the nave. A final example of a -church similar to those mentioned above but with a new vaulting system -is afforded by Saint Florentin at Amboise (Indre-et-Loire) -(fifteenth-sixteenth century). Its aisles are very narrow and are -covered by transverse tunnel vaults in much the same manner as a number -of Romanesque churches already discussed, except that the nave is here -roofed with a ribbed vault. It is but a variant of the standard vaulting -types described in this chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -TRANSEPT AND CROSSING VAULTS - - -TRANSEPTS WITH TUNNEL VAULTS - -Because of the close resemblance in plan and structure between them, the -transept was vaulted like the nave in by far the larger number of -instances. Thus in the Romanesque schools, where the nave was tunnel -vaulted, similar vaults were generally placed above the transept as -well. They were, moreover, well suited to this position, especially -where there were no transept aisles, for the outer walls running down to -the ground afforded them excellent support and also provided space for -windows of considerable size. It is not surprising, therefore, to find -the tunnel-vaulted transept the standard in Romanesque church -architecture, an example appearing even as far north as Jedburgh Abbey -in Scotland, although this was a church of the Norman school in which -the nave was probably originally roofed with wood.[282] Even in the -school of Perigord, where the naves are domed, the transept is -frequently covered with a tunnel vault as, for example, in the churches -of Souillac (Lot), Tremolac (Dordogne), and Vieux Mareuil (Dordogne), in -the cathedral of Angoulême, and perhaps originally in the cathedral of -Saint Front at Périgueux.[283] Occasionally, however, other forms -displace the tunnel vault in transept construction. - -One of these appears in the abbey church of Cluny (Saône-et-Loire) -(early twelfth century). Here the bays of the transept, corresponding to -the side aisles of the church are tunnel vaulted, but beyond these, -there are two projecting bays, the inner one square and covered by an -octagonal dome on trumpet squinches, the outer covered with a tunnel -vault at a lower level[284] than that over the two bays adjoining the -crossing. Above the dome rises an octagonal tower and spire, and the -whole composition of this bay shows that it was intended to be a -flanking tower like those to be seen at Angoulême, Tréguier -(Côtes-du-Nord), and Exeter cathedrals. For such a tower, a dome is more -suitable than a tunnel vault, because it exerts less outward thrust. -This is also better distributed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.--CLERMONT-FERRAND, NOTRE DAME-DU-PORT.] - -A more original method of transept vaulting is to be seen in certain -churches of the school of Auvergne, among them Notre Dame-du-Port at -Clermont-Ferrand (Puy-de-Dôme) (eleventh and twelfth century) (Figs. 49, -50) and Saint Étienne at Nevers (Nièvre) (cir. 1097).[285] Here each arm -of the transept is divided into two distinct vaulting bays by a -transverse arch continuing the line of the outer wall of the church. All -the projecting portion is then covered by a tunnel vault, while that bay -which corresponds to a continuation of the side aisles is covered by a -half tunnel vault, its axis at right angles to the transept proper and -rising from above the crown of the intermediate transverse arch to the -springing of the crossing dome (Figs. 49-50). Such a vault has much to -commend it, for it is most logical in affording excellent abutment for -the dome, and at the same time it receives abutment from the tunnel -vault of the outer transept bay. Curiously enough, one church of the -school, namely that at Orcival (Puy-de-Dôme) (twelfth century),[286] -while following the main lines laid down by the vaults just described, -differs from them in having full tunnel vaults instead of half tunnels -abutting the dome. This is a less satisfactory form in that these vault -have to be excessively high in order to bring their thrusts to the -proper level, but they do possess the advantage of providing excellent -window space above the transept roofs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--CLERMONT-FERRAND, NOTRE DAME-DU-PORT.] - - -TRANSEPTS WITH RIBBED VAULTING - - -FIVE-PART RIBBED VAULTS - -With the introduction of ribbed vaulting, examples of six-part vaults, -four-part vaults of rectangular and square plan and many forms of -complicated vaulting are to be found in the transept exactly as they -have been in the nave. Only those vaults which are unusual in character -will therefore be discussed. Of these the most important is the -five-part rectangular vault sometimes used as a termination of the -transept arm. From its appearance in Normandy, and its evident relation -to sexpartite vaulting, this method may be assumed to have arisen there. -The Abbaye-aux-Dames at Caen (early twelfth century) affords an example -of such a vault. It was evidently employed to subdivide the end walls -into bays similar to those in the remainder of the church, and thus -provide a uniform elevation and window arrangement throughout the -edifice. In spite of its uniformity the arrangement is an awkward one, -for it brings a pier directly in the center of the transept wall where -it would be more natural to find a door. The five-part vault did not, -therefore, become a general method of transept termination, though there -is a very fine example of its survival in the church of Saint Urbain at -Troyes (Aube) (cir. 1262-1300). It may even be that the desire for a -regular elevation of the bays led to the subdivision of the transept by -a row of central piers, such as those in the large church at Saint -Nicolas-du-Port (Meurthe-et-Moselle) (sixteenth century)[287] and in a -number of smaller examples, some of them of earlier date.[288] - - -SQUARE CHEVETS - -Such a vault as that just described was, in a way, a sort of square -chevet.[289] It was built to provide a better arrangement of windows in -the terminal wall than would be possible beneath the transverse cell of -a regular four-or six-part vault. Nor was its use confined to the -transept for it is found with a varying number of cells at the end of -the nave and choir as well. Such Norman churches as Saint Georges at -Saint Martin-de-Boscherville (Fig. 51), Saint Étienne at Caen and Saint -Cross at Winchester (choir cir. 1135-1189) are examples of this,[290] -while the vaults of the transepts of Limburg Cathedral[291] (1235) and -that of the chapter house at Boscherville (Fig. 52) resemble a chevet -even more closely in that all but one of their severies are subdivided. -When the ribs all rise from the same level, the appearance of such a -vault is pleasing, but when,--as in the nave of Boscherville (Fig. -51),[292]--the intermediate ribs are shortened, - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--SAINT MARTIN-DE-BOSCHERVILLE, SAINT GEORGES.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.--SAINT MARTIN-DE-BOSCHERVILLE, SAINT GEORGES, -CHAPTER-HOUSE.] - -the effect is very unsatisfactory, though this shortening of the ribs -probably had a structural advantage in preventing the light from being -partly cut off, or the windows partly concealed by the radiants and the -masonry above them. - - -VAULTING OF SEMICIRCULAR TRANSEPTS - -The vaulting of the transept naturally differs from that in the nave -when the former is given a semicircular termination. In Romanesque -transepts of this type, the vaults are in the form either of simple half -domes, or of tunnel vaults ending in such domes, according as the -transept arms are lengthened or left merely in the form of apses. Many -churches of both these types, but usually of small size, are to be found -in southern France,[293] while others appear in Italy and still others -in the north of Europe,[294] where such a church as that of Rolduc -(Belgium) was considered by its builders as built in a Lombard manner, -“scemate longo-bardico,”[295] indicating that the semicircular transept -was thought, at least, to be of Lombard origin. The most highly -developed transepts of this tunnel-vaulted, half-domed type are probably -those in the church of Saint Mary of the Capitol at Cologne, where a -groin-vaulted ambulatory is found around each transept apse. Somewhat -similar in plan are the transepts of Tournai cathedral in Belgium -(between cir. 1110-1170) (Fig. 53), except that here the surrounding -aisle is very narrow, and, more important still, the half dome is -replaced by a clumsy chevet vault with very heavy ribs, their haunches -raised to support a series of ramping and contracting tunnel vaults. -This construction is very similar to the framework of such a dome as -that of the Baptistery at Florence. Nor is it without advantages, since -it greatly reduces the vault thrusts and therefore renders unnecessary -the use of flying-buttresses,[296] and at the same time permits the -windows to rise above the level of its impost. The next semicircular -transept of importance is that of Noyon cathedral - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.--TOURNAI, CATHEDRAL.] - -(cir. 1140),[297] where there is a developed chevet of what will later -be called the buttressing ribbed type.[298] More developed still is the -south transept of Soissons cathedral (1176-1207), which possesses an -ambulatory in two stories with three bays of trapezoidal four-part -ribbed vaults corresponding to each principal vaulting bay. The transept -proper is covered by a rectangular vault[299] and a broken-ribbed chevet -with very broad window cells. Other examples of semicircular transepts -could be cited, both of the Romanesque and Gothic periods,[300] but -either they do not present any vaulting forms not already discussed or -they will be described in connection with the apse proper. That the plan -had a long lease of life, if not a very extensive usage, is shown by the -fact that it appears in such seventeenth century churches as that of the -Lycée Corneille at Rouen (beg. cir. 1614),[301] and is found in -numerous Renaissance churches in which the vaulting returns to the -earlier tunnel and half-dome forms.[302] - - -THE VAULTS OF TRANSEPT AISLES AND CHAPELS - -As the transept developed in importance aisles were added, sometimes -merely along the east walls, but often along the west as well,[303] and -even across the ends, especially in churches where such tribunes -provided for a continuation of the triforium gallery.[304] In such -transepts the side aisles are vaulted just as those belonging to naves -of a corresponding period, and therefore require no discussion here. -More important are the chapels which open off of the transept, usually -from the eastern wall. In general these consist of a semicircular apse -either with or without one or more preceding bays. During the Romanesque -period such chapels were generally covered with a half dome sometimes -preceded by a tunnel vault as in Saint Georges-de-Boscherville, while -after the introduction of ribbed vaults, these and the chevet replace -the tunnel vaults and half domes in their respective positions. -Sometimes the chapels are square, especially in Cistercian churches. -They are then covered either with tunnel vaults, as in Kirkstall Abbey, -or with ribbed vaults in the Gothic period. Usually all these radiating -chapels are but one story in height, but in the cathedral of Laon, two -beautiful chapels more than a semicircle in plan and two stories in -height appear, one at the east end of both the north and south aisles of -the transept (Fig. 54). These chapels are vaulted with seven-part -chevets, and form, with the aisles and tribunes preceding them, -veritable churches inside of the cathedral. Chapels of similar -character, but practically a full circle in plan and vaulted with a -double chevet, are also to be seen in the two lower, stories of the -transept of Soissons cathedral. They open off of the aisles and -galleries through three slender arches, and the view into them from the -transept proper affords one of the finest examples of Gothic -perspective. - - -CROSSING VAULTS - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.--LAON, CATHEDRAL, TRANSEPT TRIFORIUM CHAPEL.] - -The intersection of the nave and transept was usually treated by the -Romanesque builders as a distinctive vaulting bay. Occasionally, in the -tunnel-vaulted churches, the builders allowed the vault of nave and -transept to intersect and form a groined vault at the crossing, as, for -example, in Saint Étienne at Beaugency (after 1050) (Loiret)[305] and in -the church of Boisney (Eure).[306] Groined vaults are also found in this -position in certain churches, like those of the Rhenish provinces, where -similar vaults are used in the nave. But as a general rule, the crossing -of the Romanesque church is covered by a dome resting on spherical -pendentives or squinches, either unraised or else placed on a drum, -which thus forms a lantern with windows to light the church interior. -There is no necessity for an extended discussion of raised and unraised -domes, since as far as construction is concerned they differ only in the -fact that when raised on a lantern they are somewhat more difficult to -support because the vaults of choir, nave, and transept no longer serve -as buttressing members. The custom, however, of erecting a tower even -above the raised domes offset to a large extent the thrusts which they -created. - -Sometimes these Romanesque crossing domes are of circular plan and -supported on spherical pendentives. These are common in the school of -Perigord, where examples are afforded by the cathedral of Périgueux -(Fig. 1) or the abbey church of Solignac.[307] But the use of such domes -on spherical pendentives was not confined to Perigord. They are found in -Poitou and Les Charentes, in the Southwest, and even in Limousin.[308] -One of the best examples, and one in which there is a circular drum -below the dome, appears in the church of Le Dorat (cir. middle twelfth -century) (Haute-Vienne).[309] Very occasionally, also, the flat -triangular pendentive is used, as in Notre Dame at Chauvigny -(Vienne).[310] - - -LANTERN TOWERS - -The use of a lantern tower with windows opening into the church below -its roof was destined to give rise to a number of interesting vaults. -That such towers existed in France as early as the sixth century, is -proved by the texts of Gregory of Tours and Fortunatus, in which such -lanterns are mentioned as existing over the churches of Saint Martin at -Tours, the cathedrals of Clermont-Ferrand, Narbonne, and Paris, as well -as at Bordeaux and Nantes,[311] while Rivoira’s contention[312] that the -church of San Salvatore or del Crocifisso at Spoleto dates from the -fourth century, if correct, would give an earlier though isolated -Italian example of such a feature. Whatever its origin, such a lantern -was a particularly pleasing feature of church construction, especially -in Romanesque churches, which were without direct light in the nave and -thus received a much needed addition to their interior illumination. It -is not surprising, therefore, to find many of the more daring Romanesque -builders including this central feature even in crossings with domes, as -has already been noted. As a rule the pendentives were introduced -beneath the wall of the clerestory drum which was therefore either of -octagonal or circular plan. The examples of such lanterns are too -numerous to cite though certain of them are worthy of some remark. In -Auvergne, for example, in Notre Dame-du-Port at Clermont-Ferrand (Figs. -49, 50), at Orcival (Puy-de-Dôme),[313] Saint Nectaire -(Puy-de-Dôme),[314] and elsewhere the system of transept and crossing -vaulting already described[315] made possible the introduction of -windows in either the east or west walls of the central towers, or both, -though rarely in those to the north or the south, where there were half -or full tunnel vaults to abut the dome. In two churches of Central -France, those at Bénévent-l’Abbaye (Creuse)[316] and Le Dorat (Haute -Vienne),[317] the lanterns are especially beautiful. They are covered -with domes raised on a drum supported upon spherical pendentives. In -such churches, where there is no direct light in the nave, the lantern -adds much to the appearance of an otherwise oppressively dark interior. - - -RIBBED DOMES - -Another lantern of interest is to be seen in southern France in the -cathedral of Notre Dame-des-Doms at Avignon (probably cir. middle of -twelfth century).[318] Here the transepts are narrower than the nave and -in order to make the crossing square, a series of four arches has been -thrown across between the spandrels of the nave and choir arches, Over -the square thus formed is an octagonal lantern on squinches which in -turn supports a circular dome with the unusual feature of a series of -flat pilaster-like ribs along its-under surface. Such ribs are, of -course, largely decorative and correspond to those found in the apses of -many neighboring churches.[319] True ribbed domes were also used as a -means of covering the crossing,[320] and this is but natural in view of -the fact that such domes were quite frequently employed over circular -churches, as for example Saint Sepulchre at Cambridge, and the Templar’s -Chapel at Laon (Fig. 55),[321] while half domes of similar character -appear over many apses of the Transitional period.[322] - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.--LAON, CHURCH OF THE TEMPLARS.] - - -LOBED DOMES - -Similar domes to that just described at Avignon are quite common in -Spain, where for that matter the lantern itself had a very remarkable -development. Thus in the cathedral of Zamora (consecrated 1144) there is -a dome with sixteen ribs. It is not of perfectly simple type, however, -for the masonry between the ribs is curved slightly outward, giving it -the form of a lobed dome.[323] The lobes are comparatively small, but -otherwise not unlike such larger ones as those in SS. Sergius and -Bacchus at Constantinople (cir. 527) and the Serapeum of the Villa -Adriana at Tivoli (125-135). As far as construction is concerned this -arrangement made it possible to lay up the masonry between the ribs with -little or no centering, so that once the ribs were in place, the task of -completing the dome was a comparatively simple one. Unlike the “Gothic -dome” which is later discussed, the thrusts were not materially -decreased by the lobed plan and in its essentials the dome thus formed -was precisely like the simple type. From the point of view of appearance -these Spanish lanterns are certainly very beautiful. Usually pierced -with windows in twelve out of the sixteen bays, and sometimes, as at -Salamanca, with a few windows in the lower of the two stages forming the -drum, they admit a great quantity of light to the very heart of the -church where its presence is most needed. Moreover, the spherical -pendentives from which the lanterns rise are more pleasing than the -squinches generally found in France. - - -“GOTHIC DOMES” OR DOUBLE CHEVETS - -Because of its resemblance to such ribbed domes as those just described -it may be well to discuss here what may be called a “Gothic dome” if -such a term be permissible. This is, in other words, the familiar chevet -vault extended to cover a space of circular or octagonal plan. One of -these vaults of circular plan and with eight ribs appears over the -crossing of Saint Nicolas at Blois (Fig. 56). Unlike the ribbed dome, -its masonry courses are not horizontal and concentric with the impost -line, but practically at right angles to it, thus giving wall arches -whose crowns are nearly as high as the central keystone itself. Each -window cell is thus precisely like one-quarter of a four-part -cross-ribbed vault. It was this form of double chevet vault which was -frequently used as late as the Renaissance period in Italy, where it -appears in such works as the Pazzi chapel at Florence (cir. 1420) (Fig. -57) and elsewhere though without - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.--BLOIS, SAINT NICHOLAS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.--FLORENCE, PAZZI CHAPEL.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--WORMS, CATHEDRAL.] - -any wall rib. These “Gothic domes” were frequently polygonal as well as -circular. Thus in the cathedral of Worms (Fig. 58) there is an octagonal -lantern, on squinches, surmounted by a vault with eight cells of -decidedly domical type, the whole being only slightly different from a -lobed dome. A more developed double chevet, dating from the second half -of the fifteenth century, appears over the crossing of the cathedral of -Evreux (Eure),[324] where there is also a complete system of ribs.[325] -The form of the pendentives is that of flat triangles, and they are -decorated with elaborate designs in flamboyant tracery. Similar flat -triangles but with a series of mouldings at the top, are used to support -the octagonal lantern of Coutances cathedral (Fig. 59), perhaps the most -beautiful in France, and apparently dating from the second half of the -thirteenth century. Its vault is in sixteen cells, two to each lantern -wall, and each containing a lofty window, the whole clerestory rising -above a lower stage of coupled arches with a narrow passage behind them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--COUTANCES, CATHEDRAL.] - -A crossing vault of similar character, but with a change in the -arrangement of the ribs, which form an eight-pointed star around a -central octagonal opening, is to be seen in the cathedral of Saragossa -in Spain (after 1500),[326] while the final stage in such vaulting, in -which the ribs become merely a framework beneath a flat ceiling, but -nevertheless a framework of elaborate and beautiful design, may be seen -over the crossing of the cathedral of Burgos (finished 1568).[327] - - -SQUARE LANTERNS WITH EIGHT-PART VAULTS - -There now remain for discussion lantern towers of square plan. This was -the form almost universally employed in Normandy, England, and churches -which came under Norman influence, especially in the earlier Gothic -period. During the Romanesque epoch such lanterns were wooden roofed. -But with the introduction of the ribbed vault, an eight-part vault was -devised for this crossing, whose severies were precisely like those -above the windows in six-part vaulting, from which, in fact, this new -type probably developed. - -Most of the towers originally wooden roofed have since been vaulted, and -it is therefore difficult to judge of their original character. Their -imposing interior appearance, however, may be judged from the ruins of -the abbey church of Jumièges (1040-1067). It would seem, from the places -for beam ends left in the wall, that such lanterns as this were -generally roofed with a flat ceiling above the first stage of openings, -the second series probably forming a belfry. It is natural, therefore, -when vaulting comes in, to find it placed at the level of the former -flat ceiling with only the lower openings used as windows, leaving the -walls above to offset the thrusts of the vault by their downward -pressure. A somewhat rudimentary vault of this eight-part character may -be seen in Saint Georges-de-Boscherville,[328] in which the wall arches -are omitted and all the ribs made to spring from corbels. This, of -course, is because the Norman Romanesque crossings were not originally -planned for vaulting. A little later, wall ribs were regularly used, and -in Saint Yved at Braisne (consecrated 1215)[329] the four major ribs -have their supports running all the way to the floor, while in the -cathedral of Laon (after 1165) (Fig. 60) even the eight wall ribs which -rise from the corners of the tower are similarly carried down. Of course -the intermediate ribs necessarily rise from corbels, but in the -developed crossings of this type such corbels are placed as near as -possible to the crowns of the four great arches of the nave, choir, and -transepts. Similar lanterns are to be seen in the church of Notre Dame -at Cluny, and in Saint Maclou at Rouen (lantern cir. 1511),[330] where, -however, ridge ribs are added in each of the eight cells. - -Notwithstanding the examples cited, the use of a lantern is not common -in developed Gothic architecture. This is perhaps due to the fact that -the rapidly increasing size of the clerestory made such an addition to -the lighting equipment unnecessary, though it is more probable that the -great height of many of the churches rendered the construction of a -tower over the crossing a dangerous undertaking. Even in the less lofty -churches of England, where a central tower is almost invariably found, -the latter is frequently closed from below by a vault. - - -RIB-VAULTED CROSSINGS WITH NO LANTERNS - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--LAON, CATHEDRAL.] - -Where there is no lantern, the vault of the crossing is generally a -continuation of that of the nave or transepts. It is, therefore, often -of simple four-part cross-ribbed type, with or without a domed up -crown.[331] Certain of the Gothic builders, however, even in the early -thirteenth century, realized the advantage to be gained by subdividing -the cells of the crossing vault with ridge ribs. Hence in the abbey -church of Fossanova (consecrated in 1208),[332] as well as in those at -Casamari and Arbona[333] in Italy, and in many churches of France,[334] -especially those of Anjou type,[335] transverse and longitudinal ridge -ribs were used and in most instances the vault was considerably domed -up. In Amiens cathedral (cir. 1265) the crossing vault, nearly forty -feet square and about one hundred and forty feet from the ground, was -further subdivided by a single pair of tiercerons in each of the major -severies, and the eight central panels thus formed were raised at the -crown to reduce the thrusts of the vault as well as the amount of -centering necessary for its construction. After its introduction at -Amiens this form of crossing was quite extensively employed, sometimes -with its ridge ribs running completely across the bay, as for example, -in Auxerre cathedral, sometimes running only to the keystone of the -tiercerons, as in Bayonne and Troyes cathedrals or Saint Euverte at -Orleans. - -With the use of many added ribs in other portions of the church, came a -corresponding elaboration in the vaults of the crossing. Thus many -examples might be cited of lierne and tierceron vaulting in all degrees -of complexity, especially in England,[336] while fan vaulting is to be -seen in the abbey church of Bath (cir. 1500-1590),[337] and pendant -vaults of elaborate character in Saint Étienne-du-Mont at Paris -(probably cir. 1550-1600). Occasionally also the transept is subdivided -by a central row of piers in which case the vault of the crossing is in -two bays.[338] It is unnecessary, however, to discuss at length these -exceptional crossing types since they do not differ structurally from -the vaulting systems already described in connection with the nave. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -APSE VAULTS - - -The traditional method of terminating the church edifice at the end -reserved for the clergy was by means of a semicircular or polygonal -apse, and this method, which was of Roman origin, continued to be -followed in the majority of Romanesque and Gothic churches. Such apses -gave to the interior of the edifice a more dignified appearance than was -possible with a flat east wall, by avoiding the abrupt termination which -the latter produced and by emphasizing the central point in the -sanctuary, which was occupied by the high altar in most of the mediaeval -churches. - - -APSES VAULTED WITH HALF DOMES - -Once adopted from Roman architecture as a standard part of the church -plan, the construction of the apse was naturally based upon Roman -models, and since these were always vaulted with a half dome of masonry, -similar half domes were employed by the Christian builders of the early -mediaeval period. During the Romanesque era, these half domes were -almost always of stone laid in horizontal courses, supported by -substantial walls of semicircular or polygonal plan. They opened -directly into a transept or a tunnel-vaulted choir. The earliest of -these half domes were of semicircular elevation, but the pointed form -made its appearance in the late eleventh or early twelfth century in -many churches. In both forms, the principles of construction are the -same. - - -LIGHTING PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THE CONSTRUCTION OF HALF DOMED APSES - -It is a characteristic of the half dome that it exerts a large amount of -downward pressure and but little outward thrust, particularly if it be -of pointed section. For this reason, such a vault requires a firm -support but only a slight amount of buttressing. As long, therefore, as -the half dome rested directly upon comparatively low exterior walls, it -had plenty of support, and it was even possible to pierce the walls with -windows without endangering its stability. But with the increase in -height of the more developed Romanesque churches and the introduction of -ambulatories, it became difficult to light the sanctuary and still -retain the half dome. - -Two methods were evolved for overcoming this difficulty. The first, -which may be seen in the abbey church at Cunault (Maine-et-Loire) -(second half of twelfth century),[339] consisted in the construction of -a lofty ambulatory opening into the apse through arches rising to the -impost of the half dome, or even slightly above it, and resting upon -piers of as slender proportions as possible, so that, although the -sanctuary was deprived of all direct light, a certain amount was -obtained from windows in the outer wall of the ambulatory or from the -radiating chapels, while, at the same time, the vault of this ambulatory -aided in the support of the apse and vice versa. Such a system, though -structurally correct, was not entirely satisfactory. The sanctuary and -choir were the portions of the church most in need of lighting, since -they contained the altar and the seats for the monks or clergy by whom -the services were chanted, and indirect light was bound to be -insufficient. - -The second method, which may be seen in the church of Saint Savin -(Vienne) (eleventh century),[340] consisted in reducing the height of -the ambulatory, even when this involved making it lower than the side -aisles, and then placing a clerestory above the ambulatory arches -beneath the springing of the half dome. This may be considered as the -best type of apsidal termination developed during the purely Romanesque -period. It was only when the half dome was discarded that a satisfactory -solution was finally reached in the development of the chevet vault. -There were, however, two important series of ribbed half domes, the -second of which, at least, may have had some bearing upon the evolution -of the chevet type. - - -APSES WITH RIBBED HALF DOMES - -The first series lies largely in southern France in the Romanesque -school of Provence. Here there are a certain number of churches, among -them the chapel of Saint Honorat in Les Alyscamps at Arles -(Bouches-du-Rhône) (eleventh century?), in which the surface of the half -dome is broken out at regular intervals into a number of flat, -pilaster-like, radiating strips, forming a part of the actual masonry of -the vault. These divide the half dome in much the same manner as true -Gothic ribs, but they do not support it in any way and seem to have been -used for the decoration which such a change in the surface of the vault -produced.[341] As a general rule, these ribs radiate from a point -slightly back from the crown of the apse arch and often from a raised -masonry ring as in the chapel just cited. They vary, however, both in -number, thickness and width, some being comparatively thick and widening -out from the central keystone as in the cathedral of Notre Dame-des-Doms -at Avignon (Vaucluse), others being but slightly salient and of the same -width throughout like those in Saint Honorat at Arles. - -Much larger in number and extent is the second series of churches with -rib-vaulted apses, though they are in general of later date than those -in Provence. Their radiants have a certain structural character, for -they are independent of the vault surface and were doubtless erected in -most cases as a permanent centering to aid in the construction of the -half dome. They do not, however, aid to any extent in its support, for -the courses of masonry in the vaults are still horizontal and concentric -with the curve of the apse, and the completed half domes would therefore -stand just as well were the ribs removed. It may be that they were -introduced in order to make the apse correspond more closely in -appearance with the ribbed vault which had in many cases been introduced -in the naves of the churches in which the ribbed half domes are found. -In any event, they mark a stage in apse vaulting between the simple half -dome and the developed chevet, which is worthy of careful consideration. -Most of these vaults date from the second quarter of the twelfth century -and are to be found within the zone of influence of the Ile-de-France, -though occasionally an example is found at a long distance from this -center as in the case of Sant’ Abondio at Como,[342] Santa Maria di -Castello at Corneto-Tarquinia in Italy,[343] and such churches as that -of the Monasterio de la Oliva (Navarra) in Spain,[344] (1198). The -number of ribs varies considerably, though two is most common -particularly in the smaller churches and chapels.[345] Of these, the -church at Morienval (Oise) (Fig. 77) furnishes a good, though recently -reconstructed, example, while Saint Georges-de-Boscherville (Fig. 61) -may be cited as possessing a large apse of similar character. - -The important thing in a comparison of these two vaults is the -difference in the lighting of the completed apse. At Boscherville, it -was a simple matter to pierce the exterior wall with windows, in this -case in two stages, and still keep their crowns practically below the -level of the impost of the half dome, since the latter rested directly -upon the outer walls. But at Morienval there was an ambulatory, and in -order to get a clerestory above its arches, the windows had to be cut -into the curved surface of the half dome itself, with the result that -they were so deep as to prove of only limited usefulness. Other examples -could be cited where this same attempt is made to obtain sufficiently -large windows by shoving their heads into the half dome,[346] while at -Beaulieu (Corrèze)[347] the windows lie entirely above the impost. - -Besides the ribbed half dome just described, there is still another type -to be seen in the Lady chapel of the church of Saint Martin-des-Champs -at Paris (Fig. 65). Its plan is a trefoil and the vault is made up of a -series of segments of domes with salient ribs marking their -intersections. As far as construction is concerned, there is really no -change from that of the more common half dome, for the courses of -masonry are still horizontal and the ribs merely serve as centering and -as a means of subdividing the surface to be vaulted and clearly marking -the lines of intersection. The vault would stand equally well were the -ribs removed and is, in structural character, very similar to the celled -domes of the Villa Adriana at Tivoli and of S.S. Sergius and Bacchus at -Constantinople. - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--SAINT MARTIN-DE-BOSCHERVILLE, SAINT GEORGES.] - - -“GROINED HALF DOMES” - -Another form of apse vault of which there would seem to be a number of -examples prior to the introduction of ribbed vaulting may perhaps be -termed the “groined half dome.” It is a vault resembling a segmental -dome except that the segments do not run down to a common impost, but -form a series of window cells not unlike those of a groined vault but -not running all the way to the vault crown. The earliest of these vaults -appears to be that in the crypt of Saint Laurent at Grenoble (Isère) -(sixth century).[348] Rivoira has shown[349] that Roman prototypes of -this form can be found in the so-called “Temple di Siepe” (second -century) at Rome, the vestibule of the Villa Adriana at Tivoli (125-135) -and elsewhere. There are also a number of Romanesque examples. Of these, -one is in the chapel off the south transept of Saint Nicholas at Caen -(1080-1093),[350] while another is to be found in Saint Andrew’s chapel -at Canterbury cathedral (cir. 1110).[351] These vaults closely resemble -the true Gothic chevet which was soon to follow them, and they might -seem to be its prototypes were it not for the fact that their -construction is of an entirely different character. All are built of -small stone or rubble and were undoubtedly laid up on a wooden centering -with no particular regard for the direction in which the masonry courses -ran, or possibly with these courses like those in a half dome. The -construction was thus a combination of half dome and groined vaulting -and not at all of the ribbed type. That they may, however, have been of -influence in the development of the true chevet will be later suggested. - - -APSES WITH FOUR-PART RIBBED VAULTS - -A final type of rather primitive vaulting which was subsequent to the -introduction of ribbed vaulting but would seem to be prior to the use or -at least to the extensive knowledge of the chevet, consisted in the -employment of a simple four-part vault over the semicircle of the apse -(Plate II-a).[352] The result was an awkward kind of chevet vault which -is worthy of consideration as perhaps having a part in the development -of the true Gothic form. It might properly be called a four-part -cross-ribbed apse vault. - -[Illustration: PLATE II] - - -THE CHEVET VAULT - -By the middle of the twelfth century, all the methods of apse vaulting -thus far described, were abandoned[353] in favor of the ribbed Gothic -chevet[354] which was then developed. In this new vault the masonry -courses are no longer horizontal and concentric but run in a generally -perpendicular direction from a series of radiating ribs, which have a -common keystone, to a wall rib or a curved line of intersection above -the heads of a series of apse windows in whole or in part above the -level of the impost of the radiants. In other words, the chevet vault -consists of a series of triangular severies, each essentially like one -quarter of a four-part cross-ribbed vault. - -The evolution of this developed chevet from the earlier types of apse -vaulting already discussed is difficult to trace and in fact it seems -most reasonable to imagine that it was a spontaneous transformation -which did not require any intermediate steps. It has, for instance, been -pointed out that the greatest problem of the apse builder was to place a -clerestory of good sized windows above the ambulatory arcade or at least -as high as possible in the apse wall and at the same time to keep the -pressures and thrusts of his vault at the lowest possible point. Imagine -then a builder with this in mind starting to construct a ribbed half -dome with windows rising above its impost. Suppose that the radiating -ribs were first constructed and the space to be vaulted thus divided -into triangular compartments. Now assume that the builder was familiar -with the four-part cross-ribbed vault--a reasonable assumption since -everything seems to point to an earlier date for such vaults than for -the ribbed chevet. Would he not be prompt to see that a series of -clerestory windows could be built around the apse precisely like those -along the walls of nave or choir and each triangular space thus formed, -be covered by one quarter of four-part vault? Is not this especially -reasonable in view of the fact that there existed groined vaults of just -this type,[355] exactly as there existed groined prototypes out of which -sprang the simple four-part cross-ribbed vault? Furthermore, if the -peculiar four-part apse vaults described as sometimes employed in -transitional churches are any or all of them earlier than the earliest -of the true chevets, would it not seem as if the builders were bent upon -using quadripartite vaulting of some form, even over the apse, in order -to obtain a clerestory? Whatever the true process of evolution may have -been, it is at least possible that the above explanations are correct -and that the chevet vault developed directly from the difficulty of -placing windows beneath the ribbed half dome. If such was the case -another type of vault would seem to have owed its origin in large part -to the lighting problem. - - -TYPES OF CHEVET VAULTS - -Once introduced, four types of chevet vault were gradually established, -not counting the variation which each of them underwent. For convenience -these will be called the radiating-ribbed type, the broken-ribbed type, -the buttressing-ribbed type, and finally the diagonal or cross-ribbed -type. Each will be considered in turn and an effort made to trace their -consecutive development. - -The chronology of these vaults is very difficult to determine. In fact, -it is probably safe to assume that the earliest example, if there were -not a number of these vaults simultaneously constructed, has -disappeared. In any event, it would seem that the vault must have been -first used somewhere between 1130 and 1150 as there are several existing -examples which date from this period. If these cannot be arranged in any -certain order, they may at least, be used to show the form of the early -chevets. - - -RADIATING-RIBBED CHEVETS - -Perhaps the most primitive, in appearance at least, is that above the -transept of Tournai cathedral (Fig. 53) in which, as has been -noted,[356] the extrados of each rib is built up until it forms a flat -sloping upper surface, each cell of the vault proper rising from the -ramps thus formed. Next to this vault at Tournai, and as a matter of -fact, probably of earlier date though of more developed type are the two -chevet vaults of Largny (Aisne) (cir. 1140).[357] and Azy-Bonneil -(Aisne),[358]--which are three-celled,--and the one in the lower story -of the chapel of the Bishop’s palace at Laon (cir. 1137-1147) (Fig. 62) -with five cells. The latter shows their general characteristics. There -are no wall ribs and the round-headed windows are only partly raised -above the impost of the radiants while there abut against the keystone -of the apsidal arch (Plate II-b). It will be noticed also that this arch -is greatly thickened to resist the pressure of these ribs, and at -Tournai is preceded by a tunnel-vaulted bay to make this resistance even -more secure.[359] - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.--LAON, CHAPEL OF THE BISHOP’S PALACE.] - -But much more important than these smaller chevet vaults, are those of a -number of large churches, also belonging to the second quarter of the -twelfth century. Of these, Saint Germer-de-Fly[360] (Fig. 63) has been -most prominently brought to notice through Mr. Moore’s work on Gothic -architecture. It is doubly of interest because it possesses chevet -vaults of two distinct stages in the development of this new form. Thus -in the original radiating chapels opening off the ambulatory,[361] -three-part chevet vaults of the type described in the previous -paragraph were employed, with this advance, namely the introduction of -stilted, round-headed wall ribs. The vaults are still highly domed at -the crown and it would seem very reasonable to suppose that they were -completed before the vault of the great apse was begun. - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.--SAINT GERMER-DE-FLY, ABBEY CHURCH.] - -This latter shows an advance in construction beyond that hitherto seen. -In the first place, the entire window is placed above the level of the -impost of the radiants with a consequent raising of the vault surface -above the windows and a great reduction in its domed-up character. The -line of intersection of the vault cell with the apse wall, which is -marked by a slightly pointed, stilted wall rib, resting upon slender -shafts rising from the clerestory string-course, is almost perpendicular -from the impost of the radiants to a point about at their haunch. Thus -the lower portion of the masonry panel is really a flat wall resting -upon the ribs. The object of the builders in thus constructing their -vault panels would seem to have been twofold, first to get a large space -of pleasing shape for clerestory windows and secondly to aid in -overcoming the thrusts of the radiating ribs. The first is perhaps the -less important of the two, for the windows in the early chevets very -rarely occupy all the space beneath the wall intersection. The second, -however, furnishes a much better explanation of this form of panel. And -this explanation would seem to lie, not so much in the fact that the -stilted wall rib concentrated the thrust along a narrow strip of -exterior wall where it could be met by exterior buttresses[362] but -rather in the fact that the weight of such a flat wall, rising -perpendicularly above the radiating rib, practically offset all of their -outward thrusts by its downward pressure while the little which remained -was taken care of by the thick walls characteristic of church -construction in the Transitional period. Thus it is possible to account -for the almost total lack of exterior abutment in such apses as this at -Saint Germer-de-Fly, where only the slenderest of shafts are found along -the exterior wall serving far more for decoration than for -abutment.[363] That the stilting was not done primarily to concentrate -the thrusts is further shown by the fact that in many of the later -Gothic churches which were built long after the flying-buttress was -perfected there is no attempt to stilt the wall rib, but the masonry of -the vault is actually curved outward from the very springing of the -radiants, which are raised to the impost of the window heads to give the -vault this form.[364] - -The highly stilted wall intersection with the consequent elevation of -the clerestory window and flattening of the lower part of the vault cell -constitutes the great structural advance in the chevet of Saint Germer. -The employment of the wall rib, however, introduces an important matter -for discussion. To be sure this is not by any means the first example of -its use, for formerets may be found even in groined vaults, but it is -one of the early examples on a large scale and may serve to introduce -the question as to the part which these ribs played in Gothic -architecture. - - -THE USE OF WALL RIBS IN GOTHIC RIBBED VAULTING - -It has generally been maintained that the wall ribs were integral and -important members of a true ribbed vault and that they actually aided in -the support of the masonry panels. There are, however, a number of -reasons for believing that this is not entirely so but that these ribs -were comparatively unimportant as far as their relation to the vaults -was concerned and were of much more importance, in the first place as -cover joints, in the second as window heads, and in the third as -relieving arches in the clerestory wall. Two important facts lend -strength to the theory that the wall rib was not as a rule a supporting -member. The first of these lies in the fact that it was quite frequently -omitted even from vaults of the true Gothic form, and the second, in the -fact that, when present, there are perhaps as many cases in which the -curve of the vault fails to follow that of the rib as there are of the -reverse condition. In fact, it is a question whether in the majority of -cases the vault panel actually rests upon or even cuts into the face of -the formeret. Take, for example, a number of chevet vaults[365] and -examine them in this respect. At Saint Germer (Fig. 63) the wall rib is -largely a relieving arch in the clerestory wall which is made much -thinner beneath it; and while the curve of the chevet cells follows in -general that of the arch, it does not exactly correspond with it. In the -large chevet vault of Saint Remi at Reims (Fig. 64), and in many other -vaults not over the apse, especially in the English churches and those -in which a group of clerestory windows is found in each bay, no wall rib -is used, showing that such a rib was not at all necessary as far as the -construction and support of the vault was concerned. Moreover, in many -of the churches in which a wall rib is used along the exact line of the -vault surface, it is too small to act as a supporting member and would -seem to be merely a cover-joint to hide the intersection of the vault -surface with the clerestory wall.[366] Finally and most important of all -are the cases in which this rib is used primarily as a window head. In -some of these, as for example in the apse of La Madeleine at Vézelay, -and those of the cathedrals of Soissons (Fig. 67) and Chartres (Fig. -68), the curve of the vault corresponds with this window-head arch, but -in many other apses such as those of Bourges cathedral (Fig. 76), of -Saint Étienne at Caen (Fig. 70), and of the Sainte Chapelle at Saint -Germer, the builders without hesitation curved their vault surface away -from the line of the window-head which would otherwise be the natural -wall rib.[367] Although from the preceding facts, it would seem evident -that the wall rib was not an essential structural member of the Gothic -vaulting system it may have been of advantage in many instances for -holding a temporary wooden centering during the construction of the -vault panels. - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.--REIMS, SAINT REMI.] - - -RADIATING-RIBBED CHEVETS CONTINUED - -Returning again to the radiating-ribbed chevet, especially that of Saint -Germer-de-Fly (Fig. 63), it is important to note the one great weakness -which this vault possesses. It lies in the position of the radiating -ribs which abut the apsidal arch at its crown, in other words at a point -not at all suited to meet the pressures which are thus brought to bear -against it. A rather heavy arch between the apse and the remaining bay -of the choir, though no heavier than those in the vaulted bays of the -nave, aids in resisting the pressure but nevertheless such a vault is -not strictly logical from a structural standpoint. It is not as well -buttressed, for example, as the ribbed half dome of Saint Georges at -Boscherville (Fig. 61), or the transept chevet at Tournai (Fig. 53), in -which a tunnel vaulted bay precedes the arch against whose crown the -radiants are brought to bear. - -It is not surprising that this vault was but little used in subsequent -Gothic architecture. It is possible, however, to cite a few examples, -among them the cathedrals of Séez (Orne) (end of the thirteenth -century), Cambrai (Nord) (cir. 1250), and Dinan (Côtes-du-Nord) (end of -the thirteenth century), the cathedral of Saint Sauveur at Bruges -(Belgium) (probably thirteenth century), and the abbey church of Moissac -(Tarn) (probably fourteenth century). There is also a peculiar form in -which the ribs are narrowed toward the crown, in Santa Maria sopra -Minerva at Rome (after 1285). Two other slight variants of the type, one -in the church of Saint Pierre-le-Guillard at Bourges and the other in -the cathedral of Moulins are later discussed. - - -BROKEN-RIBBED CHEVETS - -After that of Saint Germer-de-Fly, perhaps the next important chevet is -that of Saint Martin-des-Champs at Paris (Fig. 65), which dates from -about 1140-1150 and may possibly be the earliest of what will be termed -broken-ribbed chevets. On the exterior, this apse closely resembles -Saint Germer with no flying-buttresses and only very light exterior -buttress-shafts. In the interior, however, there is a marked difference -between the two, for the apse of Saint Martin-des-Champs is so -constructed as to include not merely the bays actually on the curve, but -one rectangular bay of the choir as well. The builders thus set -themselves the problem of constructing a chevet vault with seven cells, -over a space greater than a semicircle. If they had made all the -radiants of such a vault meet at the crown of the transverse arch, there -would have been a great disparity in the length of the ribs and a very -awkward shape to the separate vault cells. To avoid this, and to do away -with the pressure of the radiants at the crown of the apsidal arch, the -builders moved the keystone of the radiating ribs back from this crown -to a point where all of them become nearly equal in length. And since -the bay with parallel sides was of practically the same size as -four[368] of those making up the apse proper, the keystone fell very -nearly on the transverse line between the two piers marking the eastern -end of this bay (Plate II-c). In none of the chevets of this type did it -fall directly at the center of such a line, however, and it is this fact -that differentiates the chevet vaults of broken-ribbed character from -the slightly later and more developed buttressing-ribbed type. A vault -like that at Saint Martin-des-Champs, marks an advance over that at -Saint Germer in that the two western ribs furnish admirable abutment for -the keystone of the vault, and the added choir bay gives a more spacious -appearance to this portion of the church. - -[Illustration: FIG. 65.--PARIS, SAINT MARTIN-DES-CHAMPS.] - -There is another example of this broken-ribbed chevet in Paris, in the -church of Saint Germain-des-Pres (cir. 1163), while still others may be - -[Illustration: FIG. 66.--VÉZELAY, LA MADELEINE.] - -seen in Saint Quiriace at Provins (cir. 1160) (Fig. 31) and in La -Madeleine at Vézelay (cir. 1140-1180) (Fig. 66). The latter is of -especial interest because it shows some peculiar makeshifts in the -matter of construction. Here the choir would seem to have been -originally designed to consist of two rectangular bays with four-part -vaults and an apse of five sides probably with a chevet like that at -Saint Germer.[369] But by the time the western bay of the choir had been -built up to the clerestory, it would seem as if a new idea of a -seven-part chevet had come in, perhaps from Paris, and the next bay was -subdivided so as to give seven equal sides to the new vault. Then to -make all the bays of the same scale, the west bay was also subdivided, -but this necessarily at the clerestory level, and covered with a -six-part vault. This left nine bays for the chevet and as only seven -were to be actually included beneath the radiants, a narrow rectangular -four-part vault was used over that toward the choir. There now remained -an apse in all respects like those of Saint Martin-des-Champs and of -Saint Germain-des-Pres and it was similarly vaulted with a broken-ribbed -vault whose keystone does not lie quite upon the transverse line between -the first two piers of the apse proper. The chevet built upon these -radiants differs, however, from those in Paris and at Saint Germer in -having a decidedly domed up character. In other words, the windows do -not rise more than half the distance from the impost of the radiants to -their keystone.[370] - - -BUTTRESSING-RIBBED CHEVETS - -This type of chevet as developed at Paris and Vézelay played a large -part in subsequent architecture, for out of it would seem to have sprung -what will be for convenience termed the buttressing-ribbed chevet. Among -the more important early chevets of this type are those over the apses -of Noyon[371] transepts, of Saint Remi at Reims (Fig. 64), of Saint Leu -d’Esserent (Oise), and of the cathedrals of Sens, Canterbury, Noyon, and -others, all probably completed before 1180. Although differing in a -number of details, these apses have certain features in common. They all -include beneath the chevet the preceding bay of the church, and all have -the same arrangement of ribs which are so placed that the two springing -from the piers next beyond the apsidal arch on either side form a -transverse arch against whose crown all the others abut (Plate II-d). -The object of this arrangement evidently lay in the desire of the -builders to construct a distinct transverse arch between the curve of -the apse and the rectangular bay included in the chevet and at the same -time to employ the two ribs beyond those forming the arch, as -buttresses, to offset the thrust of the remaining radiants. Thus when -the rectangular bay was larger than those around the curve, as for -example in the choir of Soissons cathedral (Fig. 67), the buttressing -ribs were longer than the remainder of those forming the vault. This -made the bay containing these two ribs precisely like one-half of a -six-part vault, and as this method of vaulting was commonly used in the -nave and choir of these churches this chevet was a very - -[Illustration: FIG. 67.--SOISSONS, CATHEDRAL.] - -logical continuation of such a vault. But the builders do not seem to -have realized immediately the aesthetic advantage in so planning their -churches that such chevet vaults should come next to a six-part vault. -At Sens (Fig. 28), however, the perfected use of this new chevet is -shown for it is placed directly beyond a six-part bay and its two -buttressing ribs are the counterparts of the two diagonals of the -sexpartite vault. Once the advantage of such an arrangement was grasped, -the churches were in many cases planned to provide for an even number of -six-part bays in the choir followed by a chevet which carries the same -system into the apse of the church. Thus in the cathedrals of Paris and -Bourges, and probably originally in that of Soissons, as well as in -other churches with six-part vaulting, this chevet became the standard -form of eastern termination and the bay preceding the apse was made -sexpartite so that the completed church would be uniform -throughout.[372] Moreover the apsidal bays of the later chevets, as for -example that at Soissons (Fig. 67) were frequently so planned that the -radiants from the piers next beyond the ribs forming the transverse arch -containing the keystone, were exact extensions of the buttressing ribs. -In other words, except for the subdivision of the eastern bay into three -window cells, the chevet corresponded to a true six-part vault inscribed -in the space formed by the last bay of the choir and the polygonal-sided -apse. - -Notwithstanding the fact that the buttressing-ribbed chevet was -primarily suited to churches with six-part vaulting, it was by no means -confined to these for it is found in a large number which were from the -beginning planned for four-part vaults. Among these is the cathedral of -Rouen, in which the chevet is of distinctly six-part type with a -full-sized choir bay included beneath the vault,[373] and the cathedral -of Reims in which all the bays of the chevet are of practically the same -size, as in the early churches which gave rise to this form of apse -vault. Reims is thus an example of the perseverance of the design of a -seven-sided chevet including one bay with parallel walls and yet of the -same size as those forming the curve.[374] - -But while pleasing in appearance when used in combination with six-part -choir vaults, the chevet with buttressing ribs was not so satisfactory -in churches with four-part cross-ribbed vaulting of rectangular plan. A -reference to the vault of Soissons cathedral (Fig. 67)[375] will -illustrate the faults of such a combination. These lie largely in the -three-part vaulted bay. In the first place, though its window cells are -practically the same width as those in the remainder of the choir, their -crown lines run out at an awkward angle,[376] instead of being -practically perpendicular to the outer walls as in the remaining bays of -the apse and all those of four-part type. Secondly, the great, -triangular, transverse severy is much larger than any of the others in -the church and is thus unpleasing when contrasted with them, besides -being more difficult to construct because of its larger size. It is not -surprising to find, therefore, that a fourth form of chevet was -developed and used extensively in churches with four-part vaulting. -This chevet, which will be termed diagonal-ribbed, is perhaps the most -important distinct type developed in Gothic architecture. - - -DIAGONAL-RIBBED CHEVETS - -[Illustration: FIG. 68.--CHARTRES, CATHEDRAL.] - -It has already been noted that there were a number of early apses -covered with an elementary kind of chevet which was formed by the use of -two diagonal ribs over the semicircle of the apse in exactly the same -manner as similar ribs were used in rectangular four-part vaulting. Such -a vault as this may have been the prototype of the slightly more -developed form to be seen in the radiating chapels of the cathedral of -Noyon (before 1167)[377] and in the chapel at the end of one aisle of -Notre Dame at Étampes (Seine-et-Oise) (cir. 1160). This latter has one -extra rib added in what would have been the eastern bay of such a -four-part apse vault subdividing it into two window cells and thus -producing a four-celled chevet[378] (Plate II-e). It is exactly this -principle, applied on a larger scale and with a further subdivision of -this outer bay, which may be seen in such chevets as those of Chartres -cathedral (Fig. 68) and Saint Étienne at Caen (first quarter of -thirteenth century) (Fig. 70).[379] Of these, the one at Chartres has -the more primitive character, for all of its seven bays are on the curve -of a semicircle and thus none of the choir proper is included beneath -the chevet (Plate II-f). As a result of this increased number of bays, -the intersection of the two diagonal ribs which form the first two -radiants on each side, lies at a point comparatively near the keystone -of the apsidal arch. This gives a certain uniformity to the size and -character of the bays, but the vault is not yet perfect, for the ribs -are still noticeably different in length, and more important than this -the crowns of the window cells are at an awkward angle with the exterior -wall. These faults are, however, much less marked in Saint Étienne, -where the apse is greater than a semicircle--though even this chevet is -not of the perfected diagonal-ribbed type, since it has no wall ribs -and, moreover, is used over an apse of semicircular instead of polygonal -plan like those of the developed Gothic period. An example of the -perfected vault may be seen, however, above the apse of Amiens cathedral -(Fig. 69). Here there are but five bays of the chevet along the curve of -the apse proper, the remaining two being continuations of the choir -walls (Plate II-g). The diagonal ribs which determine the position of -the keystone are therefore precisely such ribs as those in the remainder -of the chevet except that the bay in which they lie is of smaller size -than those preceding it and thus forms a gradual transition to the still -smaller bays comprising the apse proper. As a result of this arrangement -of ribs at Amiens, the keystone of the vault is so placed that it not -only renders all the radiants of practically equal length but also makes -the crown lines of each window cell so nearly perpendicular to the wall -as to give a most symmetrical effect to the entire vault. Such a chevet -constitutes the finest method of apse vaulting developed in Gothic -architecture and in fact may well be considered the most perfect type -conceivable, at least from the point of view of appearance. It loses a -little in structural character through the fact that the first ribs do -not abut the four eastern radiants at as firm an angle as in the -previous chevet type,[380] but the advantage gained in the more -symmetrical character of the vaulting severies makes up in large degree -for this possible fault. - - -CHEVETS WITH ADDED RIBS - -[Illustration: FIG. 69.--AMIENS, CATHEDRAL.] - -Nevertheless it may have been a feeling on the part of the builders that -there was a lack of abutment to the west of the keystone which led to -the introduction of one or more short ribs at this point in a number of -chevets of various dates throughout the Gothic era. Thus in the apse of -Saint Étienne at Caen (Fig. 70),[381] of Saint Trophîme at Arles, and of -the cathedral of Notre Dame at Mantes, a single rib runs out from the -keystone of the chevet to that of the apsidal arch. (Plate II-h). Nor -was this rib a continuation of a ridge rib in the choir, for in the -instances just cited no such rib was employed. One is to be seen in a -number of churches, among them such widely separated examples as San -Saturnino at Pamplona,[382] Westminster Abbey,[383] and Saint Alpin at -Chalons-sur-Marne.[384] All of these churches have diagonal-ribbed -chevets, but there are instances of a short rib running to the apsidal -arch even where the vault is of the buttressing ribbed type, as for -example in the cathedral of Barcelona,[385] where it would seem to have -been used to subdivide the great triangular transverse cell of the vault -even more than to provide further apparent abutment for the other -radiants (Plate II-i). Even in chevets of the first type with ribs -radiating from the keystone of the apsidal arch, a rib is occasionally -added in the bay preceding this vault, as for example in Saint -Pierre-le-Guillard at Bourges (fifteenth century vaulting), where this -short rib runs out only to the crown of the six-part vault with which -the last bay of the choir is covered (Plate II-j). Occasionally, too, a -church like the cathedral of Moulins (Allier) (1468-1508), with a ridge -rib the length of the choir, is terminated by a chevet with radiating -ribs which thus receive apparent abutment at their keystone (Plate -II-k). - -[Illustration: FIG. 70.--CAEN, SAINT ÉTIENNE.] - -A similar purpose of providing apparent abutment would seem to account -for the unusual form of the chevets of Bayeux cathedral (thirteenth -century), and Sant’ Antonio at Padua (after 1232) in which all the -radiants which ordinarily stop at the keystone are carried through -against the face of the apsidal arch. At Bayeux there are two such ribs -(Plate II-l)[386] and at Padua, three (Plate II-m). The latter is also -exceptionally interesting in the form of its chevet which is really a -combination of the diagonal and the buttressing ribbed type. - -Although there are occasional instances like the one at Barcelona, in -which the transverse severy of a buttressing ribbed chevet is subdivided -only by a ridge rib, it is far more common to find a more extensive -subdivision of this bay when such subdivision was undertaken at all. -Moreover, it is an interesting fact that many of the elaborated chevet -vaults--for it may be noted here that the apse vault was elaborated just -as were those in the remainder of the church edifice--are fundamentally -based upon the simple chevet with buttressing ribs. - -Of these vaults with added ribs, perhaps the simplest are those in which -the western bay is subdivided by the introduction of a ridge rib running -about half way to the crown of the apsidal arch and there met by two -tiercerons rising from the imposts of this same arch (Plate II-n). A -good example appears in the cathedral of Bayonne (Basses-Pyrénées) -(after 1213), and another in that of Saint Quentin (Aisne) (commenced -1257), while the same subdivision of this severy in combination with -other subdivided cells is to be seen in the Marien-kirche at Stargarde -(Germany) (fourteenth century) (Plate IV-d). - -A second and unusual division of this severy appears in the cathedral of -Saint Jean at Perpignan (Pyrénées-Orientales) (1324-1509),[387] where -the customary three-part bay containing the buttressing ribs also -contains two diagonals precisely like those in a four-part vault (Plate -II-o). A similar arrangement, with the addition of a ridge rib (Plate -II-p), may be seen in the church of Saint Jean at Ambert (Puy-de-Dôme) -(fifteenth and sixteenth centuries). Such subdivisions as these last two -quite evidently had for their object not merely a reduction in the size -of the spaces to be vaulted but also an effort to retain the -buttressing-ribbed type of chevet and still obtain a window cell which -would not have the warped surface characteristic of this form. - -[Illustration: FIG. 71.--CHALONS-SUR-MARNE (NEAR), NOTRE -DAME-DE-L’ÉPINE.] - -A still more elaborate subdivision of the rectangular vaulting bay -appears in the chevet of Notre Dame-de-l’Épine near Chalons-sur-Marne -(1419-1459) (Fig. 71), where this bay contains no diagonals at all but -is divided by a series of tiercerons and short ridge ribs in a manner -best understood from the plan (Plate II-q). But it is the subdivision of -the window cells of the apse proper which is of especial interest at -l’Épine, for the method here employed was very widely extended in the -later Gothic period. It consists in the introduction into each of these -cells of a short ridge rib running from the central keystone to a point -about half way to the window crowns where it is met by two tiercerons -which rise from the impost of the principal ribs of the chevet on either -side of the window. The apparent object of the system is to so subdivide -the vault surface as to break up its compound or ploughshare curves and -substitute smaller panels whose surfaces are simpler to construct -exactly as in the similar nave vaults previously described. This purpose -does not show to advantage at l’Épine, where the awkward adjustment -between the vault panels and the window heads would seem to indicate -that the apse was originally designed for a simple form of chevet with -no added ribs. Better examples could be cited, among them Saint Severin -at Paris. Such an arrangement of window cells as that in these vaults -practically converts the chevet into a ribbed half dome pierced with -lunettes which do not rise to its crown. This may clearly be seen from a -study of the apse of Saint Jacques at Antwerp (probably sixteenth -century), where the vault is unusual in the omission of all the true -radiating ribs (Plate II-r). As a matter of fact such ribs were no -longer of value since they did not mark the intersection of two vault -panels but merely lay along a surface which is almost precisely like a -section of a half dome. The tiercerons are still important since they -mark the intersection of the window lunettes and carry the weight of the -vault down to the piers. They are therefore retained. Thus, while the -absence of radiants in Saint Jacques might seem to make this vault -structurally less correct than that of l’Épine in reality such is not -the case. - -Once it became the custom to introduce extra ribs into the chevet, this -portion of the church underwent the same treatment as the vault of the -nave or choir. Thus in England, to cite only extreme cases of -elaboration, the later Gothic produced such vaults as those of -Tewkesbury Abbey (between 1325 and 1350),[388] in France, such pendant -types as that of Saint Pierre at Caen (probably early sixteenth -century), and in Germany such a choir and apse as that of Freiburg -cathedral (late fifteenth century) (Fig. 72).[389] The last named is -especially interesting as showing the low point reached in rib vaulting -for its ribs have almost no function as supporting members, some of them -being actually free from the vault panels and are merely used to form a -decorative pattern upon a vault which would stand equally well were they -entirely removed. Such chevets are, in many cases, clever examples of -stone cutting and decorative design but they are lacking in fundamental -structural character. - - -THE NUMBER OF CHEVET CELLS - -[Illustration: FIG. 72.--FREIBURG, CATHEDRAL.] - -Thus far the discussion of chevets has been distinctly from a structural -point of view, but there remain certain other differences between these -vaults which are worthy of remark. In the first place, there is the -matter of the number of cells comprised in the chevet. The standard -during the best Gothic period was seven, though five was a frequent -number and quite often nine are found (Plate II-s), as for example, in -the apse of San Francesco at Bologna, Saint Martin at Ypres, Belgium, -and that of Béziers (Hérault), cathedral (1215-1300).[390] In the -smaller churches and in the radiating chapels there are frequently -three. Moreover, when the apse has a central pier,[391] there are an -even number of bays and thus four and six-celled chevets are employed. -That in Saint Pierre at Caen, for example, has four bays all on the -curve, and that in Notre Dame at Caudebec-en-Caux (Seine-Inférieure) -(fifteenth and sixteenth centuries) (Plate II-t) has only two bays thus -placed, a fact which gives an angular character to the apse which is far -from pleasing.[392] As for the chevets with six cells, they are of very -infrequent occurrence, though one is to be seen in Saint Pierre at -Auxerre (Plate II-u). A chevet with the unusual number of eleven cells -is to be seen in the church of La Chapelle-sur-Crécy (thirteenth -century).[393] In construction, this chevet is similar to one bay of -such an eight-part vault as that at Provins, Saint Quiriace[394] with -its easternmost cell divided into five parts. - - -THE USE OF A CENTRAL PIER IN THE APSE - -An interesting question arises in this connection as to why the central -pier was employed in the mediaeval church. It is not common, yet it -occurs frequently enough and over a sufficient space of time to prove -that it did not lack a certain amount of popularity. Thus an apse with -such a pier is to be seen in the early Romanesque church of Vignory -(Haute-Marne) (consecrated cir. 1050-1052), where it is covered by a -half dome, and again at Morienval (Oise) (Fig. 77), where there are ribs -beneath a similar vault.[395] Throughout the Gothic period, this plan of -apse surmounted by a chevet occurs in an even larger number of examples -and toward the close of the period becomes quite popular. Leaving out of -consideration the origin of the employment of a central eastern pier, -which would seem most difficult to ascertain, it is at least interesting -to note the effect which a chevet with a central rib presents when -compared with the more usual type. If, for example, the apse of Saint -Pierre at Auxerre be compared with that of the cathedral of Reims, the -advantage and disadvantage of the two methods from the point of view of -appearance may be seen. The most displeasing feature of the apse of -Reims lies in the fact that its central arch and window, being seen in -their full width, seem disproportionately wide in comparison with those -on either side, while at Auxerre there is no window shown in its full -width with the result that the transition is apparently more gradual -from the ends to the center of the apse. On the other hand, the apse of -Reims permits the addition of a lady chapel with an arch on the major -axis of the church.[396] Altogether it is largely a question of personal -preference which would seem to have guided the builders, combined, -perhaps, with some considerations based upon the size of the apsidal -curve and as to how many divisions would give the most pleasing form to -the apsidal arches. As far as the actual construction of the chevet is -concerned, the plan with a central pier made no essential difference, -except possibly in the vaulting of the ambulatory which is discussed in -the next chapter. - - -IMPOST LEVELS OF CHEVET VAULT RIBS - -Another interesting, though minor feature of chevet vaulting, lies in -the form of the masonry panels and the position of the imposts of the -radiating ribs. The position of the latter varies considerably, though -it corresponds in general with the impost level of the transverse arches -in the nave or choir of the church. In the best period this was -generally somewhat above the sill line of the clerestory windows, but in -some of the early churches like Saint Germer (Fig. 63), Saint Quiriace -at Provins (Fig. 31), and the cathedral of Bourges (Fig. 76), it is -below this line, while in a number of later churches, among them Saint -Urbain at Troyes (Aube) (1262-1329) (Fig. 73), it is as high as that of -the arches forming the window heads. This last chevet is also important -as showing a tendency to do away with the flat wall forming the lower -portion of each panel and starting the outward curve of the masonry -directly from the extrados of the ribs. Although this detracts somewhat -from the beauty of the vault by making the curve of its cells too -abrupt, it does prevent large portions of the windows from being -concealed and therefore gives a more uniform effect to the -clerestory.[397] Such an arrangement of the window cells is to be found -even earlier in the chevet of Bayeux cathedral (early thirteenth -century), where the rib rises from the clerestory string-course but is -kept close against the wall to the impost of the window arches so that -the effect produced is much like that at Saint Urbain. - - -THE SHAPE OF THE CHEVET CELLS - -[Illustration: FIG. 73.--TROYES, SAINT URBAIN.] - -Another feature of chevet vaulting which varies greatly throughout its -history, is the comparative height of the crown of the wall rib, or line -of intersection, and that of the main keystone; in other words, of the -doming up of the vault panels. In this, there is a very wide divergence -all through the Transitional and Gothic periods. Thus among the early -chevets it will be noted that in some the doming is slight though -noticeable, as at Saint Germer (Fig. 63), in others it is very -pronounced, as at Vézelay (Fig. 66), while in others the crown of the -cells actually curves downward toward the central keystone. This is an -exceptional type, of which there is an example in Saint Remi at Reims -(Fig. 64). Naturally enough, the - -[Illustration: FIG. 74.--ANGERS, CATHEDRAL.] - -vault which is most highly domed up exerts the least outward thrust and -is thus most easily supported. It is not surprising, therefore, to find -this form a favorite where large windows were not required in the apse -or where there was no ambulatory or but a low one. This may perhaps -explain its use in the south of France in the cathedral of Béziers -(Hérault), as well as its popularity throughout Italy, where it may be -seen on an exceptionally large scale in the cathedral of Milan. Certain -of these domed up chevets may also be attributed to the type of nave -vault developed in the locality in which they are found, as, for -example, the chevet of Angers cathedral (Fig. 74), which is very highly -domed, with the small torus ribs of the region forming the radiants -beneath it. As a matter of fact, such a chevet as this differs from a -ribbed-lobed-dome only in having its masonry courses running at right -angles to the supporting walls. Its pressures are almost all downward -with but little outward thrust though the arrangement of the masonry -courses and the shape of the vault cells serves to concentrate both -thrusts and pressures upon the ribs and piers instead of along the whole -curve of the outer walls, thus rendering perfectly safe the introduction -of large windows.[398] - - -CHEVETS WITH PIERCED PANELS - -[Illustration: FIG. 75.--AUXERRE, CATHEDRAL.] - -Still another interesting characteristic of certain chevet vaults is the -presence of openings from one cell to the next in the lower portion of -the panels between them. The simplest of these are to be seen in the -cathedral of Auxerre (choir finished 1234) (Fig. 75), and it seems very -reasonable from their square shape, comparatively small size, and their -position at the beginning of the curve of the vault cells to assume that -they were intended to hold wooden beams, used, quite possibly, as -supports for scaffolding or centering for the rest of the vault. -Whatever their use, they may be the prototypes of such larger openings -as those in the cathedral of Bourges (after 1215) (Fig. 76), which may -not only have been used in a similar manner but which, from their -circular shape and moulded character, supply a certain amount of -decoration to this part of the vault and even serve in a slight degree -to distribute the light from its windows over a larger area.[399] An -even greater amount of decoration is obtained by the use of tracery in -the similar openings in the cathedral of Orleans (begun 1630), which are -of larger size and of a generally triangular shape.[400] The final -development of such tracery panels may be seen in the Brunnenkapelle of -Magdeburg cathedral (fourteenth century)[401] where the apse vault -proper becomes practically a flat ceiling the entire space between it -and each of the ribs being filled with tracery. - -[Illustration: FIG. 76.--BOURGES, CATHEDRAL.] - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -AMBULATORY VAULTS - - -EARLY AMBULATORIES - -It is not the province of this essay to enter into a discussion of the -origin of the ambulatory and its introduction into the church plan.[402] -It is sufficient to note that a passage around a semicircular apse -appears even in Roman times in the imperial tribune of the so-called -stadium of Domitian on the Palatine at Rome which dates from the second -century A.D.,[403] and that a similar passage was added around the apse -of San Giovanni in Laterano by Pope Sergius II (844-845).[404] - -Such ambulatories were mere service galleries, not directly connected -with the apse and in fact shut off from it by a solid wall, but when -once adopted as a feature of the church plan, the ambulatory rapidly -became an aisle around the apse corresponding in all respects to that -which flanked the rectangular nave or choir.[405] It was natural, -therefore, that this added aisle should have been vaulted and such is -the case in the two earliest ambulatories of any size which still exist, -namely, those in Santo Stefano at Verona (end of tenth century) and the -cathedral of Ivrea (973-1001 or 1002),[406] while the early ambulatories -in France, like those of Saint Martin at Tours (end of eleventh century) -and the cathedral of Clermont-Ferrand, which have unfortunately been -destroyed, were doubtless also vaulted. - - -ORIGIN OF AMBULATORY VAULTING - -That the form which such vaulting assumes owes its origin to that of the -concentric aisles in earlier buildings of circular plan would seem a -most natural supposition since the problems in the two cases were -precisely alike. As a matter of fact, a comparison shows that all or -nearly all the methods of vaulting developed in the Roman or Byzantine -period for the aisles of circular buildings were tried by the Romanesque -builders when they added an ambulatory to the semicircular apses of -their churches. - - -ANNULAR TUNNEL VAULTS - -The principal Roman type would seem to have been the annular tunnel -vault. An excellent example is to be seen in the amphitheatre at Nîmes -in which the builders have even employed transverse arches of stone -beneath the vault of brick.[407] Similar in character, though later in -date and without transverse arches, is the fourth century annular vault -of Santa Costanza in Rome. It is not surprising, therefore, to find the -annular tunnel vault in a number of the earliest Romanesque ambulatories -as, for example, at Ivrea and in the lower story of Santo Stefano at -Verona, both dating from the close of the tenth century, and somewhat -later at Vignory in France and in the gallery of the Tower chapel in -London.[408] The annular tunnel vault never became in any sense a -popular form, however, probably because it necessitated an impost above -the level of the apsidal arches and exerted a continuous thrust -throughout its whole extent. It is more often to be found in crypts, as -in Saint Wipertus near Quedlinburg (936)[409] and in Chartres cathedral -(1020-1028)[410] where there were no structural problems of support, or -else with its imposts lowered and cut by lunettes into an -interpenetrating form which is really an elementary groined vault and is -later discussed. - - -AMBULATORIES WITH HALF TUNNEL VAULTS - -Besides these annular vaults, there are a few examples of ambulatories -with half tunnel vaults which may owe their origin to the desire of the -builders to keep the outer impost of the vaults as low as possible and -still raise the inner line above the apsidal arcade.[411] In any event -such an ambulatory is occasionally found in churches where the aisles -also are half-tunneled, as, for example, in the abbey church of -Montmajour (cir. 1015-1018)[412] and in the twelfth century church of -Saintes.[413] Though this type of vault apparently has no pre-Romanesque -prototype, it is perhaps possible that the concentric aisle of the -circular church of Rieux-Merinville (Aude) (eleventh century)[414] -affords an earlier example of its use over a space of similar plan. -There is also an interesting use of a half-tunnel vaulted triforium -above the ambulatory and abutting the half dome of the apse which opens -into it through five arches, in the church of Loctudy (Finistère) -twelfth century.[415] - -There are, however, circular buildings of the Byzantine and Carolingian -periods with vaulted aisles which may well have furnished the prototypes -for other methods of ambulatory vaulting which the Romanesque builders -employed. One of these is the Royal Chapel at Aachen (796-804), in which -the aisles are two stories high with the lower story covered by groined -vaults of alternately square and rectangular plan with no transverse -arches separating the bays.[416] - - -ROMANESQUE AMBULATORIES WITH ALTERNATING TRIANGULAR AND SQUARE BAYS - -Although there appear to be no Romanesque churches with ambulatories of -exactly this type, there are a number which are composed of triangular -sections of an annular vault alternating with groined bays of -practically square plan. One of these is the upper ambulatory of Santo -Stefano (end of tenth century) at Verona, while a similar arrangement -may be seen in the concentric aisle of the crypt of Saint Bénigne at -Dijon (Côte d’Or) (1002-1018).[417] Moreover, the type at Aachen of -alternate square and triangular groined bays, is to be seen at Paris -with the addition of transverse arches between the bays, in Saint Martin -des Champs (cir. 1136) and at Gloucester in the beautiful ambulatory of -the cathedral (1089-1100). Furthermore, this alternation of square and -triangular bays was of quite frequent occurrence in the ribbed vaulted -ambulatories later described. - - -AMBULATORIES WITH TRANSVERSE TUNNEL VAULTS - -The gallery of the Palatine chapel at Aachen is covered in still another -manner by a series of ramping tunnel vaults alternately triangular and -square in plan and springing from a series of transverse arches. -Although never exactly copied in ambulatory vaulting, a similar system -in which ramping groined vaults displace the simple tunnel form appears -in the gallery of the north transept of San Fedele at Como (twelfth -century)[418] while the system of ramping the vault had still another -application in the trapezoidal groined vaults of San Tommaso at -Almeno-San-Salvatore,[419] the evident object being to get a slant above -the vaults suitable for an exterior roof which might rest directly upon -them. But if ramping tunnel vaults were not used over the ambulatory, -there are at least two instances of the employment of expanding -transverse tunnel vaults in this position and these may well be products -of the Aachen type. The ambulatory at Vertheuil[420] affords an example -dating from about the middle of the twelfth century, which must soon -have been followed by the gallery of the cathedral of Notre Dame at -Mantes (beg. in 1160?).[421] Here the vaults are similar, but on a much -larger scale, and with quite different transverse supports consisting of -lintels, each resting upon two columns placed between the apsidal piers -and the outer walls.[422] - - -AMBULATORIES WITH GROINED VAULTED TRAPEZOIDAL BAYS - -All of the ambulatory types thus far described were but occasionally -used in the Romanesque period. Far more common, and in fact the standard -form, is that of simple four-part groined vaults over bays of -trapezoidal plan. Here again the plan at least has a Byzantine prototype -in the church of San Vitale at Ravenna where the concentric aisle is -divided into trapezoids, though these in turn are cut by the radiating -niches of the central nave and the groined vaults employed are therefore -of irregular form. - -Even without any prototypes, however, this arrangement of bays is a -direct outcome of the use of an annular tunnel vault intersected by -lunettes or transverse tunnels opposite the apsidal arches. Such vaults -may in fact be seen at a comparatively early date in the churches of -Bois-Sainte-Marie (Saône-et-Loire) (twelfth century), Champagne -(Ardèche), and Preuilly-sur-Claise (Indre-et-Loire), and in a reversed -sense at Saint Savin (Vienne) (cir. 1020-1040) where there is an early -instance of a simple annular vault cut by expanding transverse tunnel -vaults whose intrados at the smaller end corresponds to that of the -apsidal arches but whose crowns rise higher than that of the vault which -they intersect. There are no transverse arches and yet the vault is -really composed of a series of trapezoidal bays. The ambulatory of Saint -Sernin at Toulouse (choir consecrated 1096) shows this same system in -its fully developed form. There are still no transverse arches, but the -vault is no longer interpenetrating but fully groined, yet with -practically level crowns, so that it still has the general form of -intersecting tunnel vaults. - -It was far more common, however, for the Romanesque builders to separate -their trapezoidal bays by transverse arches, though their use would seem -to have been optional rather than to indicate a more developed -architectural type, since they are found at an early date in the -ambulatory of Saint Philibert at Tournus (Saône-et-Loire) (1009-1019), -where the form of the vault would otherwise be of interpenetrating type. -It is, in fact, less developed than that at Saint Sernin, the transverse -panels being considerably lower than the concentric portion of the vault -thus forming simple lunettes above the window heads. In such a vault, -the transverse arches are structurally valuable only in so far as they -make possible the erection of the vault in sections and consequently -serve as permanent centering and as a stiffening member between the -apsidal piers and the outer walls. In the fully developed vaults with -transverse arches, like those at Paray-le-Monial these arches serve -still another purpose. Here it is evident that the vault was laid up in -sections, for each bay is domed up at the crown and the transverse arch -not only carries a little of the weight of the vault but also conceals -what would otherwise be an awkward intersection line between one bay and -the next. With this doming up of the vault crown and the use of pointed -transverse arches to replace the awkward stilted form, the vault of -Paray-le-Monial marks the highest point possible before the introduction -of the diagonal rib in the Transitional and Gothic periods. - - -AMBULATORIES WITH RIBBED VAULTS - -It has already been stated that it is not the purpose of this paper to -discuss the origin of ribbed vaulting. In fact, it is rather the -intention to accept the conclusions of Mr. Porter in his “Construction -of Lombard and Gothic Vaults” that this innovation arose from the -necessity for providing a centering where wood was not to be easily -obtained or where the shape of the bays or their position in the church -made a permanent centering of stone or brick far superior to, and easier -of construction than, a similar centering in wood.[423] Accordingly the -fact that some of the earliest ribbed vaults appear over the ambulatory -is readily explained by the trapezoidal shape of the vaulting bays, for -which a wooden centering would have been especially difficult to -construct. - - -MORIENVAL - -Of these rib-vaulted ambulatories, the earliest which has come down to -us would seem to be that of the little church of Morienval (Figs. 77, -78, 79), which probably dates from about 1120-1130. A study of this -ambulatory shows most clearly the gradual changes and adjustments which -mark the development of perfected rib vaulting from its groined -prototype. In size this is an insignificant work and yet historically -most important. Perhaps its first noticeable feature lies in the use of -slightly pointed apsidal arches (Fig. 77), showing that the builders -grasped in at least a - -[Illustration: FIG. 77.--MORIENVAL, CHURCH.] - -rudimentary way the advantage to be gained in thus bringing these arches -up to a point where they would be nearly, at least, on a level with the -crown of a semicircular formeret. The use of these formerets or wall -arches is a second advance in this vault at Morienval, and though these -are unnecessarily heavy and in two orders (Fig. 78) they do reduce the -width of the vaulting bays and furthermore they clearly define the wall -line of the panels and may even have aided in the support of the wooden -centering or _cerce_ on which the severies were laid up. They do not -apparently support the actual masonry of the cell, which, as is clearly -shown in the southwest bay, does not follow the curve of the -formeret.[424] The transverse arches (Fig. 78) show little structural -advance, for they are still round headed. They are however highly -stilted yet in addition to this the builders have found it necessary to -pile their crowns with masonry in the manner already described in -connection with the vaults at Bury.[425] It is in the use and - -[Illustration: FIG. 78.--MORIENVAL, CHURCH.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 79.--MORIENVAL, CHURCH.] - -arrangement of the diagonals (Fig. 79) that the chief interest in this -early ambulatory lies. If not unknown in bays of rectangular plan, this -was probably a first attempt to apply these intersecting ribs to bays of -trapezoidal shape, a problem especially difficult when these bays had -two curved sides. The ambulatory was so narrow and the wall piers with -the two wall arches extended so far into its width that the space -actually to be covered was of such a plan that ribs directly from the -one pier to that diagonally opposite would have intersected almost -against the crown of the apsidal arch. To avoid this awkward -arrangement, and make the panels of more equal size, the builders either -timidly broke the line of the rib, as in the second bay from the -southwest (Fig. 79), or curved the ribs slightly away from the crown of -the apse arches as in the northwest bay. Whether the builders were -actually experimenting here at Morienval with the position of the -diagonals and whether this little work of the early twelfth century had -any influence upon later ambulatory vaulting may be an open question, -yet it is a fact that the later ambulatories with ribbed vaults over -trapezoidal bays show three distinct types in the arrangement of the -diagonals according as these are left straight in plan, or curved, or -broken to bring their crowns to a better point in relation to the crown -line of the enclosing arches. - - -TRAPEZOIDAL AMBULATORY VAULTS WITH STRAIGHT DIAGONAL RIBS - -Of the three types, the one with straight diagonals (Plate III-a) is -perhaps most seldom seen, probably because of the awkward place at which -its vault crown falls. It does appear, however, in the cathedral of -Aversa near Naples[426], where the heaviness of the ribs would seem to -denote an early date.[427] There are a few later examples elsewhere, -among - -[Illustration: PLATE III] - -them the cathedrals of Langres (Haute-Marne) (end of twelfth century) -(Fig. 80) and Milan (beg. 1386), while a similar system with one or more -added ribs in the outer severy is to be seen at Pontoise (Seine-et-Oise) -S. Maclou (Plate III-h), in the cathedral of Rouen (Plate III-d), and in -Saint Remi at Reims (Fig. 83), which are later described. - -[Illustration: FIG. 80.--LANGRES, CATHEDRAL.] - - -TRAPEZOIDAL AMBULATORY VAULTS WITH CURVED DIAGONAL RIBS - -A little more common, perhaps, are the ambulatories with diagonal ribs -of curved plan (Plate III-b). The earliest existing example subsequent -to Morienval would seem to be that of the abbey church at Saint -Germer-de-Fly (cir. 1130-1150).[428] Its ribs correspond in general to -the curve of the groins which would be produced by the intersection of -a transverse with an annular tunnel vault. Such ribs are naturally -difficult to construct because of their curvature in plan as well as in -elevation and as a result they are but seldom found, though an example -on a large scale appears in Bourges cathedral (Plate IV-a). - - -TRAPEZOIDAL AMBULATORY VAULTS WITH BROKEN RIBS - -The solution of the problem of covering a trapezoidal bay with ribbed -vaults lay in the employment of the broken rib, or in other words, in -the selection of a point of intersection from which four half arches -were extended to the supporting piers (Plate III-c). This system, which -was very possibly first employed at Saint Denis (1140-1144),[429] became -the standard throughout the best Gothic period wherever trapezoidal bays -were used, though there was a certain amount of variance in the position -of the keystone. At Saint Denis, and in the great majority of the best -Gothic churches it lies practically on the line of a curve through the -crowns of the apsidal arches and concentric with that of the apse,[430] -but in some instances, notably at Sens cathedral[431] and in the -ambulatory of Canterbury[432] which was directly influenced by the -first-named church, the point of intersection was moved outward to a -point where the line from this crown to the transverse arch is -practically perpendicular to the latter. The result is an equalizing in -length of the four half ribs, but this is accomplished only at a -considerable sacrifice in appearance.[433] - - -METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION IN AMBULATORY VAULTS - -The actual construction of ambulatory vaulting followed much the same -course as that of vaults in the remainder of the church and especially -those in the side aisles. Thus in the cathedral of Langres (Fig. 80), -which dates from the close of the twelfth century and is somewhat south -of the center of architectural development in the Transitional period, -the ambulatory presents a number of rudimentary characteristics. In -fact, judging from the awkward manner in which the diagonals rise from -their - -[Illustration: FIG. 81.--SAINT LEU-D’ESSERENT, ABBEY CHURCH.] - -imposts, the exceptionally large size of the transverse arches, and the -lowness of those opening into the apse, it would seem as though this -aisle had been planned for domed up groined vaulting of the Bourgogne -type, already seen at Paray-le-Monial, and that ribbed vaulting came in -before the completion of the ambulatory and was therefore substituted. -In any event, these straight diagonals and low apsidal arches combined -with the heavy transverse arches and the decidedly domed up character of -the vaults themselves produce a much more primitive appearance than is -to be seen further north in the contemporary vaults of Saint -Leu-d’Esserent (Fig. 81). In the latter, the builders have stilted the -apsidal and transverse arches, thus greatly reducing the doming of the -vaults. They have also provided an impost for the diagonals which are -themselves of the broken type, and in fact the form of the vaults is -practically perfected except in the matter of the transverse arches. -These are still much heavier than the diagonals, a feature which -continues to be manifest though in a less marked degree in many of the -ambulatory vaults even of the thirteenth century. They correspond in -this respect to side aisle vaulting.[434] Only occasionally, as in the -splendid inner ambulatory of Le Mans cathedral (1218-1254), were the -ribs all made of the same size. This advance combined with its height -and general character may perhaps entitle the ambulatory of Le Mans to -rank as the finest in Gothic architecture and the high water mark of the -trapezoidal four-part broken ribbed vault. - - -TRAPEZOIDAL AMBULATORY VAULTS WITH ADDED RIBS - -If there was one fault in the broken ribbed type of ambulatory vault -just described, it lay in the form of its intersection with the outer -wall. For example, if the ambulatory was comparatively low or the -apsidal arches of wide span, this intersection became either segmental -or semicircular or, at best a very low pointed curve, under which it was -most difficult to arrange the exterior windows and still produce a -pleasing interior effect. Thus in the ambulatory of Sens cathedral,[435] -the two round headed windows do not fill the space beneath the wall rib -and are in fact awkwardly placed beneath it, while in the ambulatory of -Trinity chapel in Canterbury cathedral,[436] where the vaults are but -slightly domed, the arrangement is even less pleasing. Of course when -these arches opened into radiating chapels, their shape did not make so -much difference since their supporting piers ran all the way to the -floor and therefore gave a fairly good proportion to the arch. But if -the entire space beneath them were occupied by a window extending only -part way to the floor, it would be largely head and very little jamb and -thus of displeasing proportions. Even in the ambulatory clerestory of Le -Mans, where the transverse and diagonal ribs are all of very pointed -section, the window is too broad for its height. It would seem, -therefore, to have been with an eye to a more pleasing arrangement of -the windows beneath these trapezoidal vaults, that many of the mediaeval -builders subdivided the outer severy of extra ribs running out from the -central keystone. This made possible two or more windows in the outer -wall of each bay. Thus in the alternate bays of the ambulatory of Rouen -cathedral (Plate III-d), where there are no radiating chapels, a single -rib is added in the outer panel making the vault of five-part form, so -that the heads of the two slender windows of the bay are - -[Illustration: FIG. 82.--COUTANCES, CATHEDRAL.] - -each situated in a separate cell. This same arrangement is -characteristic of a number of other ambulatories, including the lofty -inner one at Coutances cathedral (Fig. 82, and Plate III-e),[437] where -the windows are limited in height by the elevation and would be of -awkward shape were they not arranged in pairs under separate vault -cells.[438] Nor did the mediaeval builders restrict themselves to a -single added rib in this outer severy of the vault. In the ambulatory -gallery of Saint Remi at Reims (Fig. 83) there is an excellent example -of the subdivision of this panel into three window cells and in the -church of Saint Germain and the cathedral at Auxerre (Fig. 84 and Plate -III-f) there are excellent examples of a similar method, applied both in -bays with exterior windows and in those which open into a radiating -chapel. In the latter instance, the lofty and slender shafts between -this chapel and the ambulatory with their many radiating ribs and arches -give a charming appearance of grace and lightness to the design. - -[Illustration: FIG. 83.--REIMS, SAINT REMI.] - - -AMBULATORY VAULTS WHICH INCLUDE THE RADIATING CHAPELS - -In all the churches thus far discussed, and, in fact, in the majority of -those constructed during the Gothic period, the radiating chapels are -separated from the rest of the ambulatory by arches directly across -their entrances. But quite frequently these chapels, particularly when -they were comparatively shallow, as in the cathedral of Chartres (Plate -III-g), or - -[Illustration: FIG. 84.--AUXERRE, CATHEDRAL.] - -even when comparatively deep as at Saint Denis[439] and Saint Maclou at -Pontoise (Plate III-h), were treated as part of the ambulatory and an -added rib was introduced in vaulting them exactly in the manner -described in connection with the trapezoidal bays of Rouen and -Coutances. Furthermore, as the chapels were increased in size, more than -one extra rib was added in the severy of the trapezoidal vault which -embraced them so that there were, sometimes, two such ribs, as in the -cathedral of Tournai (1240-1260) (Fig. 85).[440] Occasionally, also, as -in the cathedral of Saint Quentin (after 1230) (Plate III-i), similar -bays and vaults occur, with the addition of large radiating chapels -opening off of the more shallow curves of the ambulatory bays, -suggesting a combination of the Tournai type with that of Auxerre (Plate -III-f). In some of the larger and deeper chapels there were even four -added ribs as, for example, in the cathedral - -[Illustration: FIG. 85.--TOURNAI, CATHEDRAL.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 86.--BAYONNE, CATHEDRAL.] - -of Bayonne (Fig. 86), where the ambulatory is further noteworthy because -the builders, in an attempt to equalize the vaulting severies, have -moved the keystones of the diagonals almost out to a point on the line -of the outer walls. As a matter of fact, it was moved out to such a -point in a number of instances (Plate III-j), as, for example, in -Soissons cathedral[441] where it becomes the keystone of an arch -directly across the entrance of the chapel as well as being the center -for all the ribs both of this chapel and the ambulatory. Each -trapezoidal bay is thus divided not into four but into three triangular -panels, the chapel itself being covered by a fully developed five-part -chevet vault for which the two ribs of the ambulatory bay act as -buttresses. A similar but more logical vault appears in the ambulatory -and two eastern chapels of Pamplona cathedral (begun 1397) (Plate -III-k). This is a church with an axial eastern pier, and its radiating -chapels are arranged so as to form perfect hexagons with the bays of the -ambulatory. The keystone is then moved out, as at Soissons, to the crown -of the chapel arch where it lies in the exact center of each hexagonal -bay and thus produces a perfectly symmetrical vault. - - -AMBULATORIES WITH ALTERNATE SQUARE AND TRIANGULAR BAYS - -Although the trapezoidal bay and its variants has been the only one thus -far considered in the discussion of ribbed vaulted ambulatories, it was -not by any means universally employed. The alternation of square and -triangular bays, which had been used as early as the Carolingian period -in the royal chapel at Aachen, and in the tenth century at Verona, in -groined vaulted ambulatories, also played a considerable rôle after the -use of ribs became general. This system afforded a number of structural -advantages, the chief one being, of course, that the major bays were -square or nearly so, and therefore presented no structural problems not -already solved in other portions of the church, while the triangular -divisions were of comparatively small size and could be covered in the -same manner as in the Romanesque period, with three-part groined vaults, -provided the builders wished to avoid attempting ribbed vaults over -them. - -Two general plans are noticeable in the use of this alternate ambulatory -system. In the first, which appears at an early date in Saint Martin of -Étampes (1165), Saint Remi at Reims (1170-1181), and Notre Dame - -[Illustration: FIG. 87.--REIMS, SAINT REMI.] - -at Chalons-sur-Marne (end of twelfth century), the square bays alternate -with two triangular bays or, in other words, the ambulatory is first -divided into trapezoids by transverse arches and these in turn -subdivided into a square and two triangles. This system may be -understood from the plan of Saint Remi (Plate III-l) and the interior -view of the same church (Fig. 87). Its most noticeable feature is the -lack of ribs in the triangular bays, these remaining of simple -Romanesque groined type. Exactly the same arrangement appears at -Chalons-sur-Marne, except that here the arches into the apse correspond -to the flat sides of a polygon, while those opening into the chapels are -on a curve in order that the exterior wall of the triforium above them -may be a semicircle.[442] In both these churches, the radiating chapels -occupy all the space included beneath each group of three outer arches -in a manner similar to that described in connection with the cathedral -of Auxerre, but in Saint Martin at Étampes, the chapel is limited in -width to the span of the central arch, making possible a window in the -exterior wall of each of the triangular bays. A very similar arrangement -appears in the outer ambulatory of Bourges cathedral (cir. 1195-1215) -(Plate IV-a), except that here the chapels are so narrow as to give a -reversed trapezoidal character to what would otherwise be a square bay -like that at Étampes and Saint Remi. Even though the triangular severies -are thus increased in size, the builders have left their vaults -unribbed. - -The second system of alternating square and triangular bays may be seen -in the outer ambulatory of the cathedral of Le Mans (Plate IV-b) and in -both ambulatories of the cathedral at Toledo (1227-seventeenth -century).[443] It is the familiar early mediaeval system of a single -triangular bay between two squares with the addition of ribs beneath the -vaults in all the bays. The chief effect of this system upon the -construction was to subdivide the outer line of the ambulatory into -twice as many parts as there were in the apse. This created a certain -difficulty in the adjustment of the buttresses, for the lack of any -transverse arch directly across the ambulatory from the apsidal piers to -the outer walls made necessary the subdivision of the flying-buttresses -into two parts. This subdivision must have added considerably to the -expense and difficulty of construction, though this was somewhat offset -by the reduced size of the buttress piers and their position in the -thickness of the chapel walls, where they in no way interfered with the -introduction of windows directly in the outer walls of the triangular -ambulatory bays. Though not extensively employed, this vaulting system -which is to be seen at Le Mans shared with all others the tendency of -the late Gothic period to add extra ribs to those forming the real -framework of the vaults. Such added ribs are to be seen in Saint -Willibrord at Wesel and Saint Lorenz at Nürnberg. Similar also to the - -[Illustration: PLATE IV] - -Le Mans type, but with the entire omission of the transverse arches -between the triangular and trapezoidal bays, is the system at Saint -Pierre-sur-Dives (Calvados)[444] which is thus like the outer ambulatory -of Coutances cathedral (Plate III-e), except that the chapels are not -included beneath the ambulatory vault and the portions containing the -three half ribs are more in proportion to the larger cross ribbed -severies. - - -AMBULATORIES WITH TRIANGULAR BAYS ONLY - -Another method of ambulatory vaulting in the Gothic period consisted in -the subdivision of the apsidal aisles into triangles by adding -intermediate supports between each pier forming the outside corners of -trapezoidal bays. This method, never had a wide popularity. It was used -at a comparatively early date and on a large scale in the cathedral of -Notre Dame at Paris (begun 1163) (Plate IV-c), where the triangular bays -have no ribs beneath their masonry. It appears with the addition of -three half ribs or even a still greater number, in a number of late -Gothic churches, especially in Germany,[445] and was also used at Saint -Eustache (1532-1637)[446] and Saint Severin[447] in Paris, whose -builders may very probably have been influenced by the cathedral church -of Notre Dame. In Notre Dame, where there are two ambulatories the -doubling of the piers did not do away with the possibility of a central -eastern chapel or window in the exterior wall. But in most cases, where -there is but one aisle, as, for example, in the Marienkirche at -Stargarde (end of fourteenth century) (Plate IV-d) or the old cathedral -of Heidelberg,[448] an axial pier prevents this arrangement. Perhaps to -avoid this the builders of Saint Steven at Nymwegen and of the cathedral -at Brandenburg left the eastern bay trapezoidal so that there might be a -central Lady chapel. At Kolin[449] where there is an axial pier in the -apse a central chapel off the ambulatory naturally follows. - - -AMBULATORIES WITH MULTIPLE RIBBED VAULTS - -As has been noted, the late Gothic passion for multiple ribs affected -the ambulatory as it did the remainder of the church, and vaults of most -complex character are to be found especially in certain German churches. -Of these, Güben (Plate IV-e) and the cathedral of Freiburg (second half -of the fifteenth century) (Fig. 88) are among the most elaborate.[450] -In them, the structural purpose of the rib is totally subordinated to -decorative principles and to a desire on the part of the builders to -show their knowledge of the intricate problems of stereotomy. With such -vaults as these, marking the decline of Gothic architecture, it is not -surprising that there was such a complete reaction in vault construction -on the part of the succeeding Renaissance builders. - -[Illustration: FIG. 88.--FREIBURG, CATHEDRAL.] - -With this discussion of the ambulatory, the study of mediaeval church -vaulting is practically complete, but a few paragraphs should be added -to give a short account of some unusual eastern terminations and a brief -reference to the radiating chapels. Both of these, while presenting no -great structural accomplishments, at least show the skill of the -builders in meeting any and all requirements imposed by the plan. - - -EXCEPTIONAL EASTERN TERMINATIONS - -Of the eastern terminations, a number are especially interesting. One is -in the church of Saint Yved at Braisne (Aisne) (1180-1216) (Plate IV-f), -where there is no ambulatory and yet two chapels have been so arranged -with their axes at an angle of forty-five degrees to that of the choir -aisle as to form a veritable series of four radiating chapels, two on -either side of the principal apse. To cover the triangular bays -immediately preceding these chapels, a two-part vault corresponding to -one of the diagonal halves of a simple four-part vault, is employed, -while the chapel itself is covered with a three-part chevet whose crown -is abutted by the half rib of the preceding bay.[451] Occasionally, too, -a similar arrangement of chapels is found even where there is an -ambulatory as in the church of Saint Nicaise at Reims (now destroyed) -and at Upsala. Another termination of interest is that in the church of -Vigan (Lot)[452] (fifteenth century) where the apse with its chevet -vault is west of the transept, into which it opens through its farthest -bay while from the transept itself open five small chapels, a unique -arrangement. - -A third eastern termination of especial interest is that of the church -of the Jacobins at Toulouse (Haute-Garonne) (Fig. 89 and Plate IV-g). -Here there is a row of central piers the length of the church and the -apse embraces the double nave thus formed. This apse the builders have -subdivided into a series of triangular bays by arches springing from a -pier at the center of its diameter. Each of these is again subdivided -like the triangular ambulatory bays of Le Mans cathedral. This completes -a vault of very beautiful character. It is not, however, an original -product in Toulouse, for the crypt of Canterbury cathedral (1175-1184) -affords a similar vault of earlier date and others on a circular plan -may be seen in a number of English Chapter Houses. - - -THE VAULTING OF RADIATING CHAPELS - -[Illustration: FIG. 89.--TOULOUSE, CHURCH OF THE JACOBINS.] - -As for the radiating chapels, they were added to the ambulatory with the -evident purpose of affording more space for altars especially in the -great pilgrimage churches.[453] At the beginning of the eleventh -century, three such chapels had already been built off the ambulatory of -Saint Martin at Tours and only slightly later in date are those in La -Couture at Le Mans followed by those of a great number of churches of -the eleventh and twelfth centuries.[454] Nor are such chapels found only -in churches with ambulatories. They frequently open directly off the -apse, sometimes being merely recesses in the thickness of the outer -wall[455] but more often extending beyond it.[456] Ordinarily, however, -churches with radiating chapels have an ambulatory as well; but even so, -there are occasional examples of chapels lying entirely within the -thickness of the exterior wall[457] in which cases they are merely -half-domed niches. - -Whenever these radiating chapels are found there is considerable -variance both in their number and ground plan. Sometimes there is but -one,[458] sometimes two,[459] in the majority of cases three,[460] very -seldom four,[461] but frequently five.[462] In plan, the chapels are -generally semicircular with or without one or more preceding rectangular -bays.[463] Naturally they are vaulted exactly in the manner used for the -principal apse of the church or the minor apses of the transept at the -time the chapels were built. The usual Romanesque form is the simple -half dome like that in Saint Nicolas at Blois, which is especially -interesting because it still retains its painted decoration. As the -ribbed half dome came in in apse vaulting it appeared in a number of -radiating chapels, at Domont and Saint Martin of Étampes, for example, -but the usual Gothic form was the chevet vault which corresponds exactly -with that over the major apse, except when it is combined with the -ambulatory vault in the manner already described,[464] or is of -square,[465] circular, polygonal, or irregular plan.[466] In such cases -the vaulting is adapted to the plan without any great structural changes -from the types found in the remainder of the church. The cathedral of -Auxerre (Fig. 84 and Plate III-f), for example, shows the use of a -ten-part vault over a square chapel, while Saint Germain also at Auxerre -and Saint Remi at Reims (Fig. 87 Plate III-l) have chapels of almost -circular plan covered with a vault which is virtually a double Gothic -chevet like that of the transept chapels of Soissons and Laon cathedrals -already described.[467] - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - -This bibliography contains in large measure only titles referred to in -the text. For further references see bibliography in Porter, Medieval -Architecture. The abbreviations listed in the first column are those -used in the notes. - - Baum Julius Baum - -Romanesque Architecture in France - - Baudot and A. de Baudot and A. - Perrault-Dabot Perrault-Dabot - -Archives de la Commission des Monuments Historiques - - - Bond Francis Bond - - Gothic Architecture in England - - Borrmann and Richard Borrmann und Joseph Neuwirth - Neuwirth - -Geschichte der Baukunst. 2 vols. - - Bumpus T. Francis Bumpus - -A Guide to Gothic Architecture - - Butler Howard Crosby Butler - -Abbeys of Scotland - - Cattaneo Raphael Cattaneo - -l’Architecture en Italie du VIe au XIe Siècle - - Caumont Arcis de Caumont - -Abecedaire ou Rudiment d’Archaeologie - - Choisy Auguste Choisy - -Histoire de l’Architecture. 2 vols. - - Cummings Charles A. Cummings - -A History of Architecture in Italy. 2 vols. - - C. M. H. - -Archives de la Commission des Monuments Historique. 1855-72 - - Dartein Fernand de Dartein - -Etude sur l’Architecture Lombarde et sur les -origines de l’Architecture Romano-Byzantine. 2 vols. - - Dehio and von G. Dehio und G. von Bezold - Bezold - -Die kirchliche Baukunst des Abendlandes. 2 vols., text and 360 plates - - - Enlart Camille Enlart - -Manuel d’Archaeologie Française. 2 vols. - - Gosset Alphonse Gosset - -Les Coupoles d’Orient et d’Occident - - Gaudet Julien Gaudet - -Elements et Theorie de l’Architecture - - Gurlitt Cornelius Gurlitt - -Die Baukunst Frankreichs. 8 vols. - - Madrazo-Gurlitt D. Pedro de Madrazo - (Spanish text) - Cornelius Gurlitt - (German text) - -Die Baukunst Spaniens - - Gwilt Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A. F.R.S.A. - -An Encyclopaedia of Architecture. Revised by -Wyatt Angelicus van Sandau Papworth - - - Hamlin A. D. F. Hamlin - -A Text-book of the History of Architecture - - Hartung Hugo Hartung - -Motive der Mittelalterlichen Baukunst in Deutschland - - - Isabelle Charles Edouard Isabelle - -Les Edifices circulaires et les Domes - - Joseph D. Joseph - -Geschichte der Architektur Italiens - - Kugler Franz Theodor Kugler - -Geschichte der Baukunst - - Lasteyrie R. de Lasteyrie - -l’Architecture Religieuse en France a l’Epoque -Romane. Ses origines, son developpement - - Lenoir Albert Lenoir - -Architecture Monastique in Collection des Documents -inedits sur Histoire de France - - Lefevre-Pontalis Eugène Lefevre-Pontalis - -l’Architecture Religieuse dans l’Ancien Diocèse -de Soissons au XIe et au XIIe Siècle - - Lubke Wilhelm Lubke - -Outlines of the History of Art. 2 vols. Edited -and revised by Russell Sturgis - - M. H. - -Archives de la Commission des Monuments Historique - - Michel André Michel - -Histoire de l’Art depuis les premiers temps -Chrétiens jusqu’á nos jours. Published -under direction of André Michel by a number -of collaborators - - Moore Charles Herbert Moore - -Development and Character of Gothic Architecture - Charles Herbert Moore - -Mediaeval Church Architecture of England - Charles Herbert Moore - -Character of Renaissance Architecture - - Mothes Oscar Mothes - -Die Baukunst des Mittelalters in Italien - - Nesfield W. Eden Nesfield - -Specimens of Medieaval Architecture. Drawings - - Osten Friedrich Osten - -Die Bauwerke in der Lombardei vom 7ten bis zum 14ten Jahrhundert - - Porter Arthur Kingsley Porter - -Mediaeval Architecture. Its Origins and Development. 2 vols. - - Arthur Kingsley Porter - -The Construction of Lombard and Gothic Vaults - - Prior Edward Schröder Prior - -The Cathedral Builders in England - - Prioux Stanislas Prioux - -Monographie de St. Yved de Braine - - Pugin Augustus Pugin - -Specimens of the Architecture of Normandy. -New Edition edited by Richard Phené Spiers - - Ramée Daniel Ramée - -Histoire Générale de l’Architecture. 3 vols. - - Reber Franz von Reber - -History of Mediaeval Art - - Revoil Henry Revoil - -Architecture du Midi de la France - - Rickman Thomas Rickman - -Gothic Architecture, or An Attempt to Discriminate -the Styles of Architecture in England -from the Conquest to the Reformation - - Rivoira G. Teresio Rivoira - -Lombardie Architecture, translated by G. McN. Rushforth - - Ross Frederick Ross - -The Ruined Abbeys of Britain - - Ruprich-Robert V. Ruprich-Robert - -L’Architecture Normande aux XIe et XIIe -Siècles. En Normandie et en Angleterre - - Sharpe Edmund Sharpe - -The Seven Periods of English Architecture - - Simpson F. M. Simpson - -A History of Architectural Development. 3 vols. - - Strange Edward F. Strange - -The Cathedral Church of Worcester. A description -of the Fabin and a brief history of the Episcopal See - - Street Geo. Edmund Street - -Gothic Architecture in Spain - - Sturgis Russell Sturgis - -A History of Architecture - - Uhde Constantin Uhde - -Baudenkmaeler in Grossbrittannien. 2 vols. Plates - - Constantin Uhde - -Baudenkmaeler in Spanien und Portugal - - Viollet-de-Duc Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc - -Dictionnaire Raisonné de l’Architecture Française -du XIe au XVIe Siècle. 10 vols. - - - Willis R. Willis - -On the construction of the vaults of the -Middle Ages (in the Transactions of the -Royal Institute of British Architects, Vol. I, Part II). - - - - -INDEX - -Abbreviations.--Ch., Church; Cath., Cathedral; Ab. Ch., Abbey Church; N. -D., Notre Dame; S. M., Santa Maria, Saint Mary, etc. - - -Aachen--Royal Chapel, 26, 36, 160, 161, 176. - -Agliate--Ch., 16 note 35. - -Aigues-Vives--Ch., 21. - -Airaines--Ch., 48 note 160, 161, 49. - -Aisles--vaults of, 96 _et seq._ - -Albi--Ch., 80, 81 note 221, 143 note 35, Fig. 34. - -Almeno-San-Salvatore--San Tommaso, 161. - -Alternate Supports--system of, 47. - -Ambert--Saint Jean, 148. - -Ambroise--Saint Florentin, 104. - -Ambulatory--vaulting of, 158 _et seq._ - ----- origin of vaulting of, 159. - ----- with annular tunnel vaults, 161. - ----- with half tunnel vaults, 160. - ----- with transverse tunnel vaults, 161. - ----- with groined vaulted trapezoidal bays, 162. - ----- with ribbed vaults, 163 _et seq._ - ----- with vaults with added ribs, 171. - ----- with multiple ribbed vaults, 181. - -Amiens--Cath., 79, 80, 86, 100, 123, 137 note 29, 145, Fig. 69. - -Anclam--Ch., 182 note 50. - -Angers--Cath. Saint Maurice, 48, 51 57, 123 note 54, 155, Figs. 19, 74. - ----- La Trinité, 70, 71, Fig. 30. - ----- Saint Serge, 51, 55, 104, Fig. 21. - -Angoulême--Cath. of Saint Pierre, 5, 6, 7, 8, 105, 106, Figs. 3, 4. - -Anjou--Churches of, 49 _et seq._ - -Antwerp--Saint Jacques, 150. - -Anzy-le-Duc--Ch., 39. - -Apse--vaults of, 124 _et seq._ - ----- vaulted with half domes, 124. - ----- with ribbed half-domes, 125. - ----- with “groined” half-domes, 128. - ----- with four-part ribbed vaults, 129. - ----- with a central pier, 152. - -Arbona--Ch., 122. - -Arles--17. - ----- Saint Trophime, 20, 146, 180 note 44. - ----- Saint Honorat in Les Alyscamps, 125, 126. - ----- Saint Jean-de-Moustier, 126 note 3. - -Assisi--San Francesco, 52, 57. - -Auvergne--School of, 16, 25 _et seq._ - -Auxerre--Cath., 123, 142 note 34, 152, 156, 173, 174, 178, 184, Figs. 75, 84. - ----- Saint Germain, 173, 184. - ----- Saint Pierre, 152. - -Aversa--Cath., 166. - -Avesnières--Ch., 49. - -Avignon--chapel of the Pont Saint-Benezet, 99 note 275. - ----- Cath. N. D. des Doms, 115, 126. - -Azy--Chapel, 34 note 101, 132. - - -Barcelona--Cath., 104 note 279, 147, 148. - -Barletta--Cath., 26 note 74. - -Bath--Ab. Ch., 92, 123. - -Bayeux--Cath., 122 note 53, 148, 153. - ----- Seminaire, Chapel of, 148 note 48. - -Bayonne--Cath., 123, 148, 176, Fig. 86. - -Beaugency--Saint Étienne, 113. - -Beaulieu--Ab. Ch., 127. - -Beauvais--Basse-Oeuvre, 74. - ----- Cath., 69 note 190, 86, 101, Fig. 46. - ----- Saint Étienne, 67, 69, 74, 96, 99, Figs. 32, 44. - ----- Saint Lucien, 110 note 15. - -Beeskow--Ch., 180 note 44. - -Belem--Ab. Ch., 104 note 279. - -Bénévent-l’Abbaye--Ch., 36, 115. - -Bernay--Ch., 42 note 138. - -Berne--Minster, 85 note 233, 94. - -Bernières-sur-Mer--Ch., 64. - -Berzy-le-Sec.--Ch., 127 note 7. - -Beurey-Beauguay--Ch., 1. - -Beverley--Minster, 79. - -Béziers--Cath., 151, 155. - -Blois--Château, chapel, 83, 93. - ----- Saint Nicolas, 117, 184, Fig. 56. - ----- Cath. Saint Louis, 145 note 41. - -Boisney--Ch., 113. - -Bois-Sainte-Marie--Ch., 162. - -Bologna--San Francesco, 69, 142 note 34, 151. - ----- San Petronio, 57 note 175. - -Bonnes--Ch., 127 note 7. - -Boppart--Ch., 74. - -Bordeaux, Cath., 114. - ----- Saint Michel, 123 note 54. - -Boscherville--See Saint Martin-de-Boscherville. - -Bourges--Cath., 68, 137, 142, 153, 156, 169, 178, Fig. 76. - ----- Maison de Jacques Coeur, 93. - ----- Saint Pierre-le-Guillard, 72 note 200, 138, 147. - -Bourgogne--School of, 11, 16, 18, 26 note 77, 31 _et seq._ - -Boxgrove--Priory Ch., 48. - -Bragny-en-Charollais--Ch., 39 note 121. - -Braisne--Saint Yved, 121, 182. - -Brandenburg--Cath., 180. - -Brantôme--Ch., 48 note 160. - -Brauveiller--Ch., 42 note 136. - -Breda--Groote Kerk, 172 note 36. - -Bremen--Cath., 71. - -Brescia--Duomo Vecchio, 161 note 16. - -Breslau--Heiligekreuze, 111 note 16. - -Bristol--Cath., 101. - _Berkeley Chapel_, p. 95, note 272. - ----- Saint Mary Redcliffe, 85, 87. - -Bruges--Cath. Saint Sauveur, 138, 172 note 36. - -Brunembert--Ch., 108 note 7. - -Bruyères--Ch., 127 note 7. - -Burgos--Cath., 120, 172 note 36. - -Bury--Ch., 52, 54, 164, Figs. 22, 23. - - -Caen--Abbaye-aux-Dames, see La Trinité. - ----- Abbaye-aux-Hommes, see Saint Étienne. - ----- La Trinité, 39, 40, 43, 59, 60, 62, 64, 65, 78, 107, Fig. 27. - ----- Saint Étienne, 43, 59, 60, 62, 63, 65, 66, 76, 77, 103, - 108, 135 note 25, 137, 144, 145, 146, Figs. 26, 70. - ----- Saint Nicolas, 39, 129. - ----- Saint Pierre, 94, 150, 151. - -Cahors--Cath., 5, 6 note 21, 7 note 23. - -Cambrai--Cath., 138. - -Cambridge--King’s College chapel, 91 note 252, 92. - ----- Saint Sepulchre, 116. - -Canosa--San Sabino, 13 note 30, 14. - -Canterbury--Cath., 69, 129, 141, 169, 183. - ----- _Trinity Chapel_, 171. - -Carcassonne--Saint Nazaire, 17, 19, 157 note 61. - -Caryatid Supports--for ribs, 54. - -Casamari--Ch., 69 note 194, 122. - -Caudebec-en-Caux, N.D., 152. - -Cavaillon--Ch., 36. - -Centering--of Perigord domes, 7. - -Cerce--48. - -Cerisy-la-Forêt--Ch., 64 note 180, 112 note 23. - -Chalons-sur-Marne--N.D., 103, 177, also note 41. - ----- Notre Dame-de-l’Épine (near), 149, Fig. 71. - ----- Saint Alpin, 147. - -Champagne--Ch., 12 note 29, 27 note 78, 162. - -Chapelle-sur-Crécy, La--Ch., 152. - -Chapels--transept, vaults of, 112. - -Chartres--Cath., 137, 144, 145, 159, 173, Fig. 68. - -Chateauneuf--Ch., 29 note 87. - -Chatel-Montagne--Ch., 26, 29 note 87, and note 89. - -Chatillon-sur-Seine--Ch., 36. - -Chaumont--Ch., 104 note 279. - -Chauvigny--N.D., 114. - ----- Saint Pierre, 25. - -Chelles--Ch. 127 note 7. - -Chester--Cath., 84. - -Chevets--110, 131 _et seq._ - ----- square, 108. - ----- radiating-ribbed, 132, 137. - ----- broken-ribbed, 138. - ----- buttressing-ribbed, 141. - ----- diagonal-ribbed, 144. - ----- with added ribs, 146. - ----- impost level of vault ribs, 153. - ----- shape of cells in, 154. - ----- with pierced panels, 156. - -Chichester--Cath., 65 note 184. - -Clermont-Ferrand--Cath., 114, 158. - ----- Notre Dame-du-Port, 27, also note 80, 106, 115, Fig. 49, 50. - -Cléry--Ch., 178 note 42. - ----- Chapel of Saint Jacques, 95, Fig. 42. - -Cluny--Ab. Ch., 31, 33, 40, 105. - ----- N.D., 121. - -Cologne--Cath., 122 note 50. - ----- Saint Mary of the Capitol, 110. - ----- Saint Maurice, 42 note 136, 79, 80. - -Como--Sant’ Abondio, 126, 127 note 7. - ----- San Fedele, 161. - -Constantinople--SS. Sergius and Bacchus, 117, 128. - -Corneto-Tarquinia--Ch., 69, 127. - -Coutances--Cath., 101, 119, 172, 174, also note 39, 180, Figs. 59, 82. - -Creully--Ch., 43, 66. - -Crossing--vaults of, 113 _et seq._ - ----- towers over, 114 _et seq._ - ----- rib-vaulted, 122. - -Culhat--Ch., 20 note 46, 22. - -Cunault--Ch., 24, 125. - -Cyprus, 5 note 15. - - -Dijon--Notre Dame, 69 note 191. - ----- Saint Bénigne, 161. - -Dinan--Cath., 138. - -Dol--Cath., 122 note 53. - -Domes--on spherical pendentives, 1, 2. - ----- on squinches, 2, 8, 9. - ----- comparison of Perigord and Byzantine, 3. - ----- exterior roofing of, in Perigord, 5. - ----- centering of, in Perigord, 7. - ----- gored, 9. - ----- ribbed, 115. - ----- lobed, 116. - ----- “Gothic,” or Double Chevets, 117. - -Domont--Ch., 78 note 217, 184. - -Dorat, Le--Ch., 114, 115. - -Durham--Cath., 69 note 102, 75, 76, 77, 78, 85, 99, Fig. 33. - - -Eastern Terminations--Exceptional, 182. - -Ely--Cath., 84, 87. - -Épinal--Ch., 108 note 7. - -l’Épine--in Notre Dame-de-l’Épine. - -Erfurt--Frankiskanerkirche, 72 note 201. - -Essen--Ch., 26. - -Étampes--N.D., 144. - ----- Saint Gilles, 122 note 53. - ----- Saint Martin, 127 note 7, 176, 178, 184. - -Evreux--Cath., 119. - -Exeter--Cath., 85, 86, 89, 106, Fig. 37. - - -Farges--Ch., 33 note 98. - -Ferté-Bernard--Chapelle de la Vièrge, 95. - -Firouz Abad--palace, 2. - -Florence--Baptistery, 110. - ----- Cath. S. M. del Fiore, 57, 58, 127 note 5. - ----- S. M. Novella, 57, 58, 122 note 50 - _Pazzi Chapel_, 117, Fig. 57. - -Fontenay--Ch., 36. - -Fontevrault--Ch., 4 note 12, 6 note 21. - -Fontfroide--Ch., 20 note 43. - -Fontgombault--Ch., 30 note 91. - -Forest--l’Abbaye--Ch., 129 note 14. - -Fortunatus--114. - -Fossanova--Ab. Ch., 122. - -Fountains Abbey--37. - -Freiberg-in-Sachsen--Cath., 94 note 263, 104 note 279. - -Freiburg--Cath., 94, 150, 181, Figs. 72, 88. - -Fréjus--Cath., 48. - -Fulda--Saint Michael, 26. - - -Gebweiler Saint Legerius, 48. - -Gelnhausen--Saint Marien, 119 note 44. - -Gensac--Ch., 6 note 21, 7 note 22. - -Germigny-des-Prés--Ch., 2, 16 note 35. - -Gerona--Cath., 81 note 221. - -Gloucester--Cath., 43, 82, 87, 99, 161. - _Lady Chapel_, 87. - _Cloister_, 91, 92, Fig. 40. - -Gmund--Ch. of Holy Cross, 94, 104. - -Gonesse--Ch., 172 note 36. - -Gourdon--Ch., 39 note 121. - -Gregory of Tours--114. - -Grenoble--Saint Laurent, 16 note 35, 129. - -Güben--Ch., 181. - -Guebviller--Ch., 42 note 136. - - -Hauterive--Ch., 36. - -Heidelberg--Old Cath., 180. - ----- Peterskirche, 104 note 279. - -Hereford--Cath., 85, 89. - -Hieroskypos--Ch., 5 note 15, 8 note 25. - - -Ile-de-France--Transitional Chs. of, 66, 67. - -Issoire--Saint Paul, 20 note 46, 106 note 4. - ----- Saint Austremoine, 27 note 82. - -Ivrea--Cath., 158, 159. - - -Javarzay--Ch., 37. - -Jedburgh--Ab. Ch., 105. - -Jerusalem--Saint Anne, 40. - -Jouaignes--Chapel, 34 note 101. - -Jumèges--Ab. Ch., 26 note 76, 43, 121. - Saint Pierre, 26. - - -Kaschau--Ch., 182 note 50. - -Keisheim--Ch., 180 note 44. - -Kirkstall--Ab. Ch., 112. - -Kolin--Ch. 180. - - -Laach--Ch., 41 notes 131, 132. - -Laffaux--Ch., 127 note 7. - -Lagny--Ch., 174 note 39, 182 note 50. - -Landshut--Saint Martin, 104 note 279. - -Lanfranc--59. - -Langres--Cath., 168, 169, Fig. 80. - -Lantern Towers--114. - ----- with Eight-Part Vaults, 120. - -Laon--Cath., 69 note 191, 103, 112, 121, 184, Figs. 48, 54, 60. - ----- Church of the templars, 116. Fig. 55. - _Bishops Palace, Chapel of_, 133, Fig. 62. - -Largny--Ch., 132. - -Larnaca--Ch., 5 note 15. - -Laval--La Trinité, 48 note 160. - -Lérins--La Trinité, 110 note 12. - ----- Saint Honorat, 17 note 38, 19. - -Lescar--Cath., 36. - -Lessay--Ch., 43, 77. - -Lesterps--Ch., 22. - -Lichfield--Cath., 84, also note 232, 93, 101. - -Lighting--of tunnel-vaulted churches, 18. - ----- in naves with square bays, 57. - ----- of half domed apses, 124. - -Limburg--Cath., 71, 108. - -Limoges--Saint Martial, 27 note 81, 29 note 87. - -Lincoln--Cath., 65 note 184, 69, also note 192, 72 note 200, - 82, 83, 84, 101, note 276, Figs. 35, 36. - -Linköping--Cath., 104 note 279. - -Lisseweghe--Ch. 182 note 50. - -Loches--Saint Ours, 14, 15, 55, Figs. 9, 10, 24. - -Loctudy--Ch. 160. - -Loire--School of, 29 _et seq._ - -Lombardy--24. - ----- School of, 26 note 77, 42, 44 _et seq._ - -London--Tower Chapel, 22, 159. - -Louis VI--74. - -Lübeck--Saint Jakob, 182 note 50. - -Lucheux--Ch., 48 note 160, 161. - -Ludinghausen--Ch., 182 note 50. - -Lusignan--Ch., 37. - - -Magdeburg--Cath., 72, 100, 101, 172 note 36. - ----- _Brunnenkapelle_, 157. - -Mainz--Cath., 41 note 133. - ----- Saint Stephen, 104 note 279. - -Malmo--Ch., 174 note 39. - -Mans, Le--Cath., 47, 93, 171, 178, 180, 182. - ----- La Couture, 48 note 160, 49, 50, 55, 57, 151 note 52, 183, Fig. 20. - ----- N.D. du Pré, 64 note 180. - -Mantes--Cath., 37, 69 note 191, 102, 146, 161. - -Marburg--Saint Elizabeth, 104, 111 note 16. - -Marseilles--La Major, 115 note 37. - -Meaux--Cath., 26 note 74. - -Mehun-sur-Yevre--Ch., 184 note 65. - -Melle--Saint Pierre, 22, 24 note 60. - -Mézières--Ch., 94. - -Milan--Cath., 79, 80, 155, 168. - ----- Sant’ Ambrogio, 16 note 35, 41, 44, 46, 59, 60, 78 note 217, Fig. 18. - ----- San Babila, 24 note 63. - ----- Sant’ Eustorgio, 24 note 63. - ----- San Nazzaro, 52 note 169. - -Minden--Cath., 104 note 279. - -Moissac--Ab. Ch., 138. - -Molfetta--Cath., 13 also note 30, 20. - -Mollèges--Saint Thomas, 17 note 37. - -Monasterio de la Oliva--Ch., 127. - -Montagne--Ch. 116 note 39. - -Montiérender--Ch., 26. - -Montmajour--Ch., 17 note 37, 127 note 7, 160. - -Mont Saint Vincent--Ch., 35 note 103. - -Morienval--Ch., 74, 78 note 219, 127, 152, 163, 166 - note 26, 168, Figs. 77, 78, 79. - -Moulins--Cath., 138, 147. - - -Nantes--Cath., 114. - -Nantille--N.D., 116 note 39. - -Naples--Cath. _Baptistry_, 2. - -Narbonne--Cath., 114. - -Naves--vaults of, 1 _et seq._ - ----- and aisles of equal height, 104. - ----- vaulted with domes on squinches, 8. - ----- without side aisles, 48. - -Nesle--Ch., 72 note 200. - -Neubourg--Ch., 152 note 54, 178 note 42. - -Neufchâtel--Ch., 111 note 19. - -Nevers--Cath., 55, Fig. 25. - ----- Saint Étienne, 18 note 39, 29, 106, 125 note 2. - -Nîmes--17. - ----- amphitheatre, 159. - ----- Nymphaeum, 17. - ----- temple of Diana, 17, 126 note 3. - -Normandy--59. - ----- School of, 26 note 77, 42. - -Norwich--Cath., 87, 184 note 65. - -Notre Dame-de-l’Épine--Ch., 149, 150, Fig. 71. - -Nouaille--Ch., 22 note 58. - -Noyon--Cath., 67, 78 note 217, 99, 103, 110, 136 note 28, 141, 144. - _Chapel of_, 94, Fig. 41. - -Nürnberg--Saint Lorenz, 178. - -Nymwegen--Ch., 26, 180. - - -Omonville-la-Rogue--Ch., 108 note 9. - -Oppenheim--Ch., 182 note 50. - -Orange--Cath., 37. - -Orcival--Ch., 107, 115, 184 note 60. - -Orleans--Saint Euverte, 123. - -Ouistreham--Ch., 64. - -Oxford--Cath., 87, 93. - ----- Christ Church staircase, 91 note 253. - ----- Proscholium, 87. - ----- Schools, 86 note 236. - - -Paderborn--Cath., 104 note 279, 111 note 16. - -Padua--Sant’ Antonio, 13 note 30, 148, 151 note 52. - -Palestine--40. - -Palognieu--Ch., 35 note 103. - -Pamplona--Cath., 176. - ----- San Saturnino, 146. - -Paray-le-Monial--Ch., 32, 34, 163, 170, Figs. 14, 15. - -Paris--Cath. N.D., 68, 103, 114, 122 note 50, 142, 180. - ----- Sainte Chapelle, 56, 80, 104 note 279. - ----- Saint Étiennne-du-Mont, 123. - ----- Saint Eustache, 94, 180. - ----- Saint Germain-des-Pres., 139, 141. - ----- Saint Martin-des-Champs, 127, 135 note 25, 136 note 28, - 138, 139, 141, 161, Fig. 65. - ----- Saint Severin, 150, 180. - -Parthenay-le-Vieux--Notre Dame, 20 note 46, 22. - -Pavia--Certosa, 69, 72, 100. - ----- San Lanfranco, 47. - ----- San Michele, 46, 58 note 176, 60. - ----- San Teodoro, 57 note 175. - -Pendants--92. - -Pendentives--3. - ----- domes on spherical, 1. - -Perigord--school of, 2, 6, 7, 51. - -Périgueux--2. - ----- Cath. of Saint Front, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 36 - note 108, 105, 114, Figs. 1, 2. - ----- Saint Étienne, 6, 7. - -Peristeroma--Ch., 5 note 15, 8 note 25. - -Perpignan--Cath. Saint Jean, 148. - -Perugia--Cath., 104 note 279. - -Peterborough--Cath., 89, 90, 91, 92, 99, Fig. 39. - -Petit Quévilly, Le--Ch., 65, 66. - -Pirna--Hauptkirche, 150 note 51. - -Poitiers--Cath., 48 note 160, 51, 104. - ----- Notre Dame-la-Grande, 24, 125 note 1. - ----- Saint Hilaire, 11, 12, 36 note 105, 112 note 22, 125 note 1, Figs. 7, 8. - ----- Sainte Radegonde, 48 note 160, 51, 57. - -Poitou--21. - ----- School of, 16, 23 _et seq._ - -Pontaubert--Ch., 39 note 121. - -Pontoise--Saint Maclou, 168, 174. - -Pontorson--Ch., 77. - -Prenzlau--Marienkirche, 104 note 279. - -Preuilly-sur-Claise--Ch., 162. - -Provence--School of, 16, 17 _et seq._, 125. - -Provins--Saint Quiriace, 72, 140, 152, 153, Fig. 31. - -Puiseaux--Ch., 108 note 9. - -Puy, Le--Cath. of Notre Dame, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 35, Figs. 5, 6. - - -Quedlinburg--Saint Wipertus (near), 159. - -Querqueville--Ch., 110 note 13. - -Quimperlé-Sainte Croix, 159 note 7. - - -Radiating Chapels--Vaulting of, 183. - -Ravenna--Palace of Theodoric, 24 note 63. - ----- San Vitale, 2, 162. - -Reims--Cath., 79, 80, 143, 152, 153. - ----- Saint Jacques, 69, Fig. 29. - ----- Saint Nicaise, 182. - ----- Saint Remi, 37, 112 note 23, 135 note 25, 136, - 141, 143 note 36, 154, 168, 173, 176, 177, 178, 184, Figs. 64, 83, 87. - -Rhenish Provinces--School of, 26 note 77, 41. - -Ribe--Cath., 71. - -Ribs--transverse, function of, 99. - ----- use of wall, in Gothic ribbed vaulting, 136. - ----- ridge, in Anjou, 49. - ----- impost level in chevet vaults, 153. - -Rieux-Merinville--Ch., 160. - -Ripon--Cath., 82. - -Rivolta-d’Adda--Ch., 41, 44, 58 note 176. - -Roberval--Ch., 108 note 7. - -Rochester--Cath., 26 note 74, 69 note 192. - -Rolduc--Ch., 110. - -Rome--Basilica of Maxentius, 36, 78 note 217. - ----- Domus Augustana, 2. - ----- Lateran Baptistry, 25. - ----- Palace of the Caesars, 2. - ----- Santa Costanza, 159. - ----- San Giovanni in Laterano, 158. - ----- S. M. sopra Minerva, 138. - ----- Stadium of Domitian, 158, 159 note 6. - ----- Temple di Siepe, 129. - ----- Thermae of Caracalla, 2. - -Ronceray--Ch., 36. - -Rosheim--Ch., 42 note 136. - -Rouen--Cath., 26 note 74, 79, 100, 143, 171, 174. - ----- Lycée Corneille, 111. - ----- Saint Maclou, 121. - -Rue--Chapel of Saint Esprit, 95. - -Rys--Ch., 108 note 9. - - -Saint Aignan--Ch., 54 note 171. - -Saint Astier--Ch., 6. - -Saint Avit-Sénieur--Ch., 6, 50. - -Saint Barnabas--Ch., 5 note 15. - -Saint Benoît sur Loire--Ch., -18 note 39, 22, 30, 125 note 2, Fig. 13. - -Saint Bertrand-des-Comminges--Ch., 81. - -Saint Denis--Ab. Ch., 66, 67, 75, 78, 169, 174. - -Saint Dié--42 note 136. - -Saint Gabriel--Ch., 64. - -Saint Genou--Ch., 18 note 39, 22, 30. - -Saint Germer-de-Fly--Ch., 43, 67, 78, 79, 101, 133, - 135, 136, 137, 138, 140, 141, 153, 154, 168, Fig. 63. - _Sainte Chapelle_, 137. - -Saint Gilles--Ch., 99 note 275. - -Saint Guilhem-du-Désert--Ch., 19, 20. - -Saint Hilaire--Saint Florent.--Ch., 51. - -Saint Jean-au-Bois--Ch., 108 note 7. - -Saint Jouin-de-Marnes--Ch., 22 note 58. - -Saint Leu d’Esserent--Ch., 54 note 170, 141, 170, Fig. 81. - -Saint Loup-de-Naud--Ch., 25 note 66, 40. - -Saint Martin-de-Boscherville--Saint Georges, 39, 64, - 108, 112, also note 23, 121, 127, 138, Figs. 51-61. - _Chapter-house,_ 108, Fig. 52. - -Saint Martin-de-Londres--Ch., 17 note 37, 110 note 12. - -Saint Nectaire--Ch., 27 note 82, 106 note 4, 115. - -Saint Nicholas-du-Port--Ch., 94, 108, 123 note 57. - -Saint Paul-Trois-Châteaux--Ch., 20 note 44, 21 note 49. - -Saint Pierre-de-Redes--Ch., 17 note 37, 127 note 7. - -Saint Pierre-sur-Dives--Ch., 180. - -Saint Pons-de-Mauchiens--Ch., 40. - -Saint Quentin--Cath., 148, 174. - -Saint Saturnin--Ch., 27 note 79, 106 note 4. - -Saint Savin-sur-Gartempe--Ch., 24, 125, 162. - -Saint Vincent-des-Prés--Ch., 33 note 98. - -Saintes--Saint Eutrope, 21, 36 note 105, 40, 160. - -Salamanca--Old Cath., 51, 55 note 173, 117 note 42.--New Cath., 94, 117. - -Salisbury--Cath., 79, 101 note 276. - -San Galgano--Ch., 69 note 194. - -San Martino--Ch., 69 note 194. - -Santiago-de-Compostella--Ch., 29 note 86, 55 note 172. - -Saragossa--Cath., 120. - -Sarvistan--palace, 2. - -Saumur--Saint Pierre, 116 note 39. - -Schlestadt--Ch., 42 note 136. - -Séez--Cath., 138. - -Segovia--Cath., 94. - -Semur-en-Auxois--N. D., 143 note 35. - -Senlis--Cath., 67, 102, 141 note 33, Fig. 47. - _Chapel of_, 95, Fig. 43. - -Sens--Cath., 67, 98, 122 note 50, 141, 142, 169, 171, Figs. 28, 45. - -Severac-le-Châteaux--Ch., 40. - -Sherborne--Ab. Ch., 90, 92. - -Silvacane--Ch., 20, 30. - -Simiane--Château, 116 note 40. - -Soest--S. M. zur Wiese, 104 note 279. - -Soissons--Cath., 78, 79, 111, 112, 122 note 50, - 135 note 25, 136 note 28, 137, 141, 142, 143, 176, 184, Fig. 67. - -Solignac--Ch., 6 note 21, 7 note 22, 114. - -Souillac--Ch., 6 note 21, 105. - -Southwell--Minster, 101 note 276. - -Souvigny--Ch., 18 note 40, 22, 34, 93. - -Speyer--Cath., 41 note 133, 42, 58. - -Spoleto--San Salvatore or del Crocifisso, 114. - -Squinches--domes on, 2. - -Stargarde--Marien-kirche, 148, 180. - ----- Johanniskirche, 180 note 44. - -Stendal--S.M., 104 note 279. - -Strassburg--Cath., 178 note 42. - - -Tag-Eivan--35. - -Tarascon--Saint Gabriel, 17. - -Tewkesbury--Ab. Ch., 87, 89, 150, 178 note 42, Fig. 38. - -Thor--Ch., 127 note 7. - -Tivoli--Villa Adriana, 2, 117, 128, 129. - -Toledo--Cath., 178. - -Torcy--Ch., 127 note 7. - -Toro--Ch., 117 note 42. - -Toul--Saint Gengoulf, 182 note 50. - -Toulon-sur-Arroux--Ch., 39 note 121. - -Toulouse--Jacobins, 182, Fig. 89. - ----- Saint Nicholas, 81. - ----- Saint Sernin, 18 note 41, 20 note 46, - 28, 29, 112 note 23, 125 note 2, 162. - -Tour--Ch., 108 note 9. - -Tournai--Cath., 110, 133, 138, 169 note 29, 174, Figs. 53, 85. - -Tournus--Saint Philibert, 34, 36, 162. - -Tours--Saint Martin, 29 note 87, 114, 158, 183. - -Trani--S. M. Immacolata, 13 note 30 and 32. - ----- S. M. dei Martiri (near), 13 notes 30 and 32. - -Transepts--Vaults of, 105, _et seq._ - ----- semicircular vaults of, 110. - ----- with tunnel vaults, 105. - ----- with five-part vaults, 107. - -Tréguier--Cath., 106. - -Tremolac--Ch., 105. - -Treptow--Ch., 180 note 44. - -Trier--Liebfrauenkirche, 182 note 50. - -Triforium--Origin and use, in Auvergne, 25. - ----- vaults of, 101. - -Troyes--Cath., 123, 143 note 35. - ----- Saint Urbain, 101, 108, 153, Fig. 73. - -Tulle--Cath., 83, 93. - - -Upsala--Ch., 182. - -Utrecht--Cath., 174 note 39. - - -Vaison--Cath., 20, 30. - -Valentigny--Ch., 108 note 7. - -Vauciennes--Ch., 108 note 7. - -Vaults and Vaulting--tunnel, 16. - ----- transverse over nave, 34. - ----- transverse over aisles, 36. - ----- Romanesque schools of tunnel-vaulted churches, 16. - ----- tunnel with cross ribs, 37. - ----- apse, 124 _et seq._ - ----- pyramidal, 14. - ----- groined, naves with, 37. - ----- with Added Ribs--Outside of England, 93. - ----- Fan Vaulting, 89. - ----- ribbed, 43. - ----- of side aisles, 96. - ----- Tracery Vaults, 89. - ----- Sexpartite, 58 _et seq._ - ----- Pseudo-sexpartite, 62. - ----- Eight-part, 72. - ----- with Added Ribs, 81. - ----- Tierceron Vaulting, 84. - ----- Lierne Vaulting, 87. - ----- Interpenetrating multiple ribbed, 88. - ----- Five-part, 100, 107. - ----- of triforia, 101. - ----- of transept, 105. - -Vauxrezis--Ch., 127 note 7. - -Vendeuvre--Ch., 108 note 7. - -Venice--Cath. San Marco, 13 note 30. - ----- Frari, 57. - ----- SS. Giovanni e Paolo, 57 note 175. - -Verberie--Ch., 108 note 7. - -Verona--Cath., 57 note 175. - ----- Santo Stefano, 158, 159, 160, 166 note 26. - -Vertheuil--Ch., 161. - -Vézelay--La Madeleine, 34, 38, 39, 40, 43, 101, - 137, 140, 154, Figs. 16, 17, 66. - -Viborg--Cath., 71. - -Vicenza--SS. Felice e Fortunato, 24 note 63, 47. - -Vieil-Arcy--Ch., 127 note 8. - -Vieux Mareuil--Ch., 105. - -Vigan--Ch., 182. - -Vignory--Ch., 26, 152, 159. - -Villemagne--Saint Gregoire, 64 note 180. - -Villeneuve-le-Comte--Ch., 182 note 50. - -Vizeu--Cath., 93. - -Voulton--Ch., 74 note 203. - -Voute-par-tranches--4. - - -Wells--Cath., 89. - -Wesel--Saint Willibrord, 178. - -Westminster--Ab. Ch., 79, 83, 147. - _Islip’s Chapel_, 92. - _Henry VII’s Chapel_, 92. - -William of Sens--69. - -Wimpfen--Stadkirche, 94. - -Winchester--Cath., 87, 88, 104 note 279, 112 note 23. - ----- Saint Cross, 108. - -Windsor--Saint George’s Chapel, 89. - -Worcester--Cath., 65 note 184, 83, 84, 101. - -Worms--Cath., 119, 127 note 5, Fig. 58. - ----- Liebfrauen kirche, 180 note 44. - - -Xanten--Ch., 182 note 50. - - -Ypres--Saint Martin, 151. - - -Zamora--Cath., 116, 117 note 42. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Rivoira I, p. 29, et seq.; also Lasteyrie, p. 272, et seq. - - [2] Lasteyrie, p. 274, and Fig. 268. - - [3] Lasteyrie, p. 270. - - [4] Early ex., Umm es-Zeitun illustrated in Rivoira, I, p. 35, Fig. 51. - - [5] Rivoira, I, p. 193, Fig. 273. - - [6] Rivoira, I, p. 57, Fig. 82. - - [7] Rivoira, I, p. 33, Fig. 46. - - [8] Rivoira, I, p. 35, Fig. 50. - - [9] Lasteyrie, p. 465 et seq. - - [10] Lasteyrie, p. 470. - - [11] Lasteyrie, p. 472, Fig. 489. - - [12] Exception to this at Fontevrault, see Reber, p. 358. - - [13] See Choisy, I, p. 20. - - [14] See Fig. 4. - - [15] Other examples, all in Cyprus: - - 1) Peristeroma. 2) Hieroskypos. 3) Saint Barnabas. 4) Larnaca. Enlart, - I, p. 210, and p. 286, note 3. - - [16] Lasteyrie, pp. 473, 474. - - [17] Lasteyrie, Figs. 491 and 498. Also cathedral of Cahors (original - state) Fig. 495. - - [18] See Lasteyrie, p. 473 and Enlart, I, p. 211, note 1. - - [19] Lasteyrie, p. 474, Fig. 490. - - [20] See Lasteyrie, p. 475. - - [21] Among them, Cahors (Lot) Cath. (consecrated 1119); Souillac (Lot) - Ch., Plan, Lasteyrie, Fig. 493; Fontevrault (Maine et Loire) Ab. - Ch., Plan, Lasteyrie, Fig. 494; Gensac (Charente) Ch. (wooden roof - over dome), Plan, Lasteyrie, Fig. 356. Section Lasteyrie, Fig. 496; - Solignac (Haute-Vienne) Ch., (consecrated 1143). - - [22] See also Gensac, Lasteyrie, Fig. 496, and Solignac, Fig. 264. - - [23] Also Cahors Cath.,--Périgueux Saint Étienne, etc. - - [24] See comparison of Périgueux, Saint Front, and Venice, San Marco - in Lasteyrie, p. 470, Fig. 486 and p. 471, Fig. 487. - - [25] Also Peristeroma (Cyprus), Enlart, I, p. 210 and p. 286, note 3; - Hieroskypos (Cyprus), Enlart, I, p. 210 and p. 286. - - [26] The clerestory is omitted in the earlier bays and the crossing - has peculiar vaulting described in a later chapter. - - [27] See Rivoira, I, p. 35, Fig. 51 and Lasteyrie, p. 267, Fig. 259 - for examples of this awkward type. - - [28] See Fig. 7. There is one rectangular bay at the end of the - transept aisles and this is covered by an interpenetrating vault at - the level of the transverse nave arches. - - [29] In France, at Champagne (Ardèche), there is a church vaulted in a - manner similar to Le Puy, but it is doubtful whether such a method was - the original intention of the builders, since each dome is placed over - two rectangular nave bays. Enlart, I, pp. 289-291. Plan, Fig. 120. - This is, however, a most interesting church for the domes are very - segmental in section, are supported upon squinches and have transverse - arches through their centers. There is also no clerestory and, in - fact, the entire church is of the standard Auvergne type except for - the vaults. A reference to the drawings in Baudot and Perrault-Dabot, - Vol. V, pl. 27, will show this peculiar system. - - [30] Among these may be cited: Venice, San Marco, reconstructed 1052 - or 1071, dedicated Dec. 8, 1094, but added to and decorated in the - twelfth century and later. Canosa, San Sabino (1101). Trani, Santa - Maria Immacolata (twelfth century). Santa Maria dei Martiri (near - Trani) (also twelfth century). Molfetta, Cathedral (late twelfth and - early thirteenth century). Padua, Sant’ Antonio (thirteenth century) - Byzantine-Gothic type, numerous Sicilian churches, etc. - - [31] Plan, in Cummings, II, p. 18, Fig. 248. Interior in Michel, I, p. - 542, Fig. 273. - - [32] Similar churches: Trani, Santa Maria Immacolata, plan in Dehio - and von Bezold, I, p. 354. Santa Maria dei Martiri, Ch. - - [33] Rarely the case in Byzantine architecture. - - [34] Choisy (Choisy, II, p. 201) thus accounts for the vaults, which - would then be variants of Perigord domes, but the plan and supports of - the pyramids suggest the influence of Le Puy. - - [35] Examples in France: Grenoble, Saint Laurent (crypt of the seventh - or eighth century), Germigny, des-Prés (ninth century), etc. Examples - in Italy: Milan, Sant’ Ambrogio (choir of the ninth century), Agliate, - etc. - - [36] For illustrations of Romanesque churches and vaults, the reader - is advised to consult Lasteyrie, Dehio and von Bezold, and Enlart. - - [37] See also Montmajour (Bouches-du-Rhône); Saint Martin-de-Londres - (Hérault); Saint Pierre-de-Redes (Hérault); Mollèges - (Bouches-du-Rhône), Saint Thomas. See Reber, pp. 337, Figs. 201-202. - - [38] Also Lérins (Alpes-Maritimes), Saint Honorat (portion). - - [39] Early examples: Saint Genou, choir (end of eleventh century), - Saint Benoît-sur-Loire, choir (begun 1602), Nevers, Saint Étienne. - - [40] The double-aisled abbey church of Souvigny, which has a - clerestory, might be cited as an exception to this statement, but - judging from the narrowness of its inner aisles (Fig. 19) it would - appear as if its nave had originally been deprived of direct light, - and that the present clerestory must have been introduced with or - without a vault above it, either before or at the time when the outer - aisles were added. If so, it would not prove an exception to the rule. - The present nave vault is an addition of a late Gothic period. - - [41] As in Saint Sernin at Toulouse. - - [42] Reber, p. 341, Fig. 205a, and Lasteyrie, p. 413, Fig. 431. - - [43] Reber, p. 342, Fig. 260a. See also, Abbaye de Fontfroide, Baudot - and Perrault-Dabot, V, pl. 41. - - [44] Found also in St. Paul-Trois-Châteaux, Lasteyrie, p. 412, Fig. - 429. - - [45] See pp. 13, 14. - - [46] Exs., Issoire (Puy-de-Dôme), Saint Paul, see Enlart, I, p. 269, - Fig. 102, or Choisy II, p. 209. Toulouse (Haute-Garonne), Saint - Sernin, see Choisy, II, p. 212. Culhat (Puy-de-Dôme), Ch. Lasteyrie, - p. 250, Fig. 241. Parthenay-le-Vieux (Deux-Sèvres), Notre Dame, ill. - in Choisy, I, p. 205, etc. - - [47] Enlart, I, p. 267, Fig. 100 and Lasteyrie, p. 413, Fig. 430. - - The clerestory at Vaison is hardly worthy of the name, for its windows - are cut entirely _above_ the imposts of the vault, which is of pointed - section, and therefore does not acquire thickness so rapidly as to - render the windows too deep to admit a reasonable amount of light. The - construction of such a clerestory consists merely in taking advantage - of the pointed form of vaulting without presenting structural - advances. Its windows are necessarily small and deep set and the - system is not a satisfactory solution of the lighting problem. - - [48] Revoil, II, pl. XVIII. - - [49] Semicircular vaults were sometimes used, however. Example, - Saint Paul-Trois Châteaux (Drome), Cath. (first half of the twelfth - century), Lasteyrie, p. 412, Fig. 429, etc. - - [50] Choisy, II, p. 206, Fig. 14. - - [51] Enlart, I, p. 268, Fig. 101. - - [52] Choisy, II, p. 205, Fig. 13. - - [53] Lasteyrie, p. 250, Fig. 241. - - [54] See statement to that effect in Rivoira, II, p. 106. - - [55] See Dehio and von Bezold, p. 260. - - [56] Ruprich-Robert, p. 8, Fig. 45, and Reber, Fig. 235. - - [57] Lasteyrie, p. 455, Fig. 473. - - [58] Lasteyrie, p. 456, Fig. 474, also Saint Jouin-de-Marnes - (Deux-Sèvres), Baudot and Perrault-Dabot, II, pl. 32, and Nouaille - (Vienne), Ch., Baudot and Perrault-Dabot, II, pl. 37. - - [59] For example, the aisle vaults seldom carry the tile of the roofs - outside of Provence and Auvergne. - - [60] This arrangement is general in the school and may be understood - by referring to the illustration of Melle, Saint Pierre, Lasteyrie, p. - 455, Fig. 473. A number of churches which are exceptions to this rule - have already been noted under Provence (see pp. 21, 22). - - [61] See Lasteyrie, p. 454, Fig. 471. - - [62] The three western bays of the church are early twelfth century - and have transverse arches. - - [63] Rivoira (Rivoira, I, p. 97) says that such arches were used - beneath groined vaults as early as the eighth century in the palace - of Theodoric at Ravenna, and gives as tenth century examples (p. 176) - the aisles of Sant’ Eustorgio at Milan and the nave and aisles of S.S. - Felice e Fortunato, at Vicenza, and as examples of the early eleventh - century, the nave and aisles of San Babila, also at Milan. - - [64] It is a question whether the transverse arches actually carried - much or any of the weight of the vault. (See discussion of this point - as regards crypts in Porter, Construction of Lombard and Gothic - Vaults, pp. 17-18.) They did, however, strengthen the church by tying - together the piers and walls besides saving centering as above stated. - - [65] Lasteyrie, p. 455, Fig. 472. - - [66] The influence of the Poitou system was quite extensive, - however, as is shown by the little church of Saint Loup-de-Naud - (Seine-et-Marne) (eleventh and twelfth centuries), Choisy, II, p. 207, - Fig. 15. - - [67] See Choisy, II, p. 210. The great objection to this is that they - are not found in the neighboring provinces, in which much the same - reason for having them must have existed. - - [68] See Lasteyrie, pp. 388-391, for account of the latter. - - [69] Rivoira, II, p. 283, Fig. 727. - - [70] Michel I, p. 444, Fig. 208. - - [71] Enlart I, p. 255, Fig. 94. - - [72] Lasteyrie, p. 330, Fig. 354. - - [73] Rivoira, II, p. 47, Fig. 410. - - [74] Other examples showing extent of the method are, Barletta - cathedral in Italy, and Rochester Cathedral (twelfth century) in - England, while Rouen and Meaux cathedrals furnish Gothic instances. - See also Enlart, I, p. 257, note 1. - - [75] It is also worthy of note as showing the architectural - influence of Lombardy and the Rhenish provinces upon Auvergne, - that Chatel-Montagne has the alternate system of supports, a - Lombard-Rhenish-Norman characteristic rarely found outside of these - schools. - - [76] This would also explain the elevation and vaulting of the aisles - of Jumièges-Abbey church, which are unlike those of the other churches - of Normandy and yet not truly Lombard in type. See p. 43. - - [77] It is also characteristic of the churches of Normandy, Bourgogne - and the Rhenish provinces, all more or less strongly Lombard. - - [78] An exception to this is to be seen in the church of Champagne - (Ardèche), see note 29. - - [79] See section of Saint Saturnin (Puy-de-Dôme), Lasteyrie, p. 437, - Fig. 454. - - [80] Clermont-Ferrand (Puy-de-Dôme), Notre Dame-du-Port, Choisy, II, - p. 230, Fig. 30. - - [81] Example, Limoges (Haute-Vienne), Saint Martial, Lasteyrie, p. - 251, Fig. 242. - - [82] See also Issoire (Puy-de-Dôme), Saint Austremoine (early twelfth - century), Michel, I, p. 461, Fig. 218. Saint Nectaire (Puy-de-Dôme) - (eleventh century). - - [83] Partly because the half tunnel vault in this part of the church - required a strong and continuous impost. - - [84] Already seen in Poitou. - - [85] See discussion of this form of crossing on p. 106 - - [86] Saint Sernin served as a model for the Spanish church of - Santiago-de-Compostella (eleventh and twelfth centuries), which shows - the extended influence of Auvergne. - - [87] Other examples are: Chatel-Montagne (Allier), Ch., Chateauneuf - (Saône-et-Loire), Ch. Choisy, II, p. 245, Limoges (Haute-Vienne), - Saint Martial, (destroyed, see Enlart, I, p. 256, note 5), without - windows according to Lasteyrie (see Lasteyrie, p. 251, Fig. 242), - Tours (Indre-et-Loire), Saint Martin (probable system). - - [88] Illustrated in Baum, p. 154. - - [89] See also Chatel-Montagne (Allier), Ch., Lasteyrie, p. 330, Fig. - 354. - - [90] Lasteyrie, p. 338, Fig. 360. - - [91] The church of Fontgombault (Indre) (Baum, p. 265) is a similar - church, but of later date (consecrated 1141), which might be classed - as belonging to the “Loire school.” - - [92] See Lasteyrie, p. 424. - - [93] Reber, p. 351. - - [94] Rivoira, II, p. 106. - - [95] Rivoira, II, p. 106, Fig. 490. - - [96] The plan as given in Guadet, p. 265, Fig. 1127, shows groined - vaults in both aisles, and the portion of the church remaining would - make it seem probable that it originally had groined aisles in one - story, but the matter is of little importance here. - - [97] Lasteyrie is of the opinion that these walls were raised to make - it possible to place straight wooden beams across the church above the - vaults (see Lasteyrie, p. 340, and also Choisy, II, p. 162, Fig. C.), - but even if this were one reason, they also materially aided by their - downward pressure, in offsetting the outward thrust. - - [98] Pointed nave arcade arches were used as early as the eleventh - century in Bourgogne in such churches as Farges and Saint - Vincent-des-Prés (Saône-et-Loire); see Lasteyrie, p. 428. - - [99] These lie along the line between Bourgogne and Auvergne, and the - influence of the latter school may account for the preference shown in - them for round headed arches. - - [100] See Enlart, I, p. 275. - - [101] Azy (Aisne), Chapel. Jouaignes (Aisne), Chapel. See Enlart, I, - p. 445, note 1. - - [102] Enlart, I, p. 270, Fig. 103, and Porter, I, p. 278. - - [103] A few examples are found, among them: Mont Saint Vincent - (Saône-et-Loire) Ch. (eleventh century), see Enlart, I, p. 272, and - Lasteyrie, p. 248; Palognieu (Loire) Ch. (twelfth century), Enlart, I, - p. 272, and Michel, I, p. 475; see also Enlart, I, p. 272, for other - examples. - - [104] Choisy, II, p. 198. - - [105] “See also Saintes (Charente-Inférieure) Saint Eutrope (Crypt of - the twelfth century restored in the thirteenth), Enlart, I, p. 294, - Fig. 120 bis; Poitiers, Saint Hilaire (aisles added in the nave), - Choisy, II, p. 199, Fig. 9. - - [106] See p. 5. - - [107] See p. 21. - - [108] This was also the original method of vaulting in the aisles of - the wooden roofed basilica church of Saint Front at Périgueux (cir. - 988-991), according to Rivoira, II, p. 113. - - [109] Enlart, I, p. 271, Fig. 104, and Michel, I, p. 475, Fig. 236. - - [110] Dehio and von Bezold, I, p. 258. - - [111] Lasteyrie, p. 249, Fig. 239. - - [112] See Lasteyrie, p. 248, and note 3. - - [113] Section in Dehio and von Bezold, I, p. 529. - - [114] Borrmann and Neuwirth, II, p. 163. - - [115] Enlart, I, p. 239. - - [116] According to Reber (p. 367), but according to Rivoira (Vol. II, - p. 117) they were originally wooden roofed. - - [117] Lasteyrie, p. 261, Fig. 251. - - [118] Common to many transitional vaulting systems. See Porter, Cons. - of Lombard and Gothic Vaults, pp. 12-14. - - [119] Viollet-le-Duc, IV, p. 26. - - [120] This can be seen by a glance at the transverse arches as shown - in Fig. 17. - - [121] See Lasteyrie, p. 427. Other examples are: Pontaubert (Yonne) - Ch., Enlart, I, p. 277, Figs. 109-110; Gourdon (Saône-et-Loire) Ch., - Lasteyrie, p. 255, Fig. 246; Toulon-sur-Arroux (Saône-et-Loire) Ch. - Bragny-en-Charollais (Saône-et-Loire) Ch. - - [122] The side aisles of La Trinité are shut off from the choir and - covered with tunnel vaults, a method which is sometimes found in this - school. See Ruprich-Robert, I, p. 61. - - [123] Bond, p. 293. - - [124] See Lasteyrie, p. 540. - - [125] See Enlart, I, p. 445, note 2. - - [126] Choisy, II, p. 206, Fig. 14. - - [127] See Choisy, II, pp. 220-222. - - [128] See Rivoira, II, p. 122. - - [129] Dehio and von Bezold, I, p. 414. - - [130] See Dehio and von Bezold, I, p. 415. - - [131] The abbey church of Laach (begun in 1093 but work neglected - somewhat until its resumption in 1112) is an exception, having been - planned from the ground for vaulting. This is not of domed-up type, - but seems to have been inspired directly by that of Vézelay. See - Rivoira, II, pp. 330-331 and Fig. 781. - - [132] See Laach, Abbey Ch. south aisle in Rivoira, II, p. 328, Fig. - 777. - - [133] Mainz, Speyer, etc. - - [134] See Porter, Cons. of Lombard and Gothic Vaults. - - [135] Alternate piers, eaves-galleries, etc. - - [136] See also Cologne, Saint Maurice (before 1144) Lasteyrie, p. 518; - Brauveiller; Guebviller; Rosheim; Schlestadt; Saint Die. See Enlart, - I, p. 279, note 2. - - [137] Porter, Cons. of Lombard and Gothic Vaults, pp. 20-21. - - [138] See aisles of Bernay (Eure), Abbey Ch., Ruprich-Robert, I, p. 61. - - [139] Although this arrangement would seem to reflect Lombard - influence, the form of the triforia and of the vaults is much more - like those of Auvergne. - - [140] Illustrated in Bond, p. 293. - - [141] Illustrated in Bond, p. 293. - - [142] See also the aisles of Bernay choir in Ruprich-Robert, I, p. 61. - - [143] In St. Étienne at least. Gloucester cathedral may or may not - have been vaulted before the transformation of its interior from - Romanesque to Perpendicular Gothic. - - [144] See Fig. 63. - - [145] See p. 101, 102. - - [146] Ruprich-Robert, pl. LXXXVII. - - [147] Rivoira, I, p. 225. - - [148] Rivoira, I, p. 224, Figs. 330, 331. - - [149] Porter, Cons. of Lombard and Gothic Vault. - - [150] Porter, Cons. of Lombard and Gothic Vaults, p. 22. - - [151] Porter, Cons. of Lombard and Gothic Vaults, p. 23. - - [152] See Cattaneo, p. 227. - - [153] The word square is used to denote bays which are approximately - as well as actually equilateral. - - [154] See list in Enlart, I, p. 264 note 2 and note 3. Examples of - transverse arches of earlier date exist in Syrian and Early Christian - architecture, but not with a regular alternate system. - - [155] This was especially important to the Lombard builders, who - always preferred the semicircular arch, which could thus be employed - for all six ribs of the vault and would cause the crown to be domed - up just high enough to permit the construction of the entire vault - by means of a simple centering from rib to rib. See Porter, Cons. of - Lombard and Gothic Vaults. - - [156] See Porter, Cons. of Lombard and Gothic Vaults. - - [157] Illustrated in M. H. - - [158] Illustrated in Porter, Cons. of Lombard and Gothic Vaults, Fig. - 19. - - [159] See Porter, Cons. of Lombard and Gothic Vaults, p. 13. - - [160] Examples include: Laval (Mayenne), La Trinité; LeMans (Sarthe), - La Couture; Poitiers (Vienne), Cath. (portion); Poitiers, Sainte - Radegonde; Brantôme (Dordogne), Ch.; Lucheux (Somme), Ch.; Airaines - (Somme), Notre Dame. - - [161] They are, perhaps, the earliest of the Anjou group. Enlart (Vol. - I, pp. 435, note 1 and 445, note 1) gives an earlier date for Lucheux - and Airaines, but the appearance of their vaults does not seem to bear - out this assertion. - - [162] See Choisy, II, p. 277 and p. 276, Fig. 8--A. B. C. - - [163] Enlart, I, p. 437, Fig. 205. - - [164] Enlart, I, p. 444, Fig. 210. See also p. 446, note 1. - - [165] Lasteyrie, p. 474, Fig. 490. - - [166] Ill. in Bond, p. 328, Fig. 4. - - [167] See Street, p. 80, and Fig. 7, opp. same. - - [168] Examples could be cited in Belgium, Holland, Norway, Spain, - etc., in fact, wherever Lombard, Rhenish or Anjou influence was strong. - - [169] See also Milan, S. Nazzaro. Cummings, I, p. 116. - - [170] Similar building-up of the arches may be seen in the nave at - Bury (Fig. 22), and in the narthex of St. Leu d’Esserent (Oise). See - Moore, p. 68 and p. 69, Fig. 24. - - [171] Very interesting examples occur also at Saint Aignan - (Loire-et-Cher), Ch. - - [172] Similar angels are found in the porch of Santiago-de-Compostella - illustrated in Uhde, Baudenkmaeler in Spainen und Portugal; also in - Madrazo-Gurlitt, pl. 166. These latter are Angels of Judgment, forming - part of the sculptural scheme of the three portals. - - [173] Similar figures also appear at Salamanca, in the old cathedral. - See Street, p. 80 and Fig. opp. p. 80. Uhde, _op. cit._, Fig. 119, p. - 50. - - [174] See p. 57. - - [175] Other examples include: Bologna, San Petronio, ill. in Joseph, - p. 172, Fig. 132; Verona, Cath. See Bond, p. 321; Pavia, San Teodoro - (1150-1180), see Bond, p. 321; Venice, SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Cummings, - II. p. 192. - - [176] See also Rivolta d’Adda--Rivoira, I. p 234, Fig. 331; Pavia, S. - Michele, Porter, I, ill. 104, opp. p. 204. - - [177] See pp. 39 and 42. - - [178] Omitting for the present the cathedral of Durham. - - [179] These windows like others of the Norman school are actually - to one side of the center of the bay but not far enough to make the - difference apparent. In fact, they would seem to have been moved over - for the purpose of making them appear in the center since the inward - curve of the diagonal, which lies on one side of them only, would make - them appear to be out of center were they placed on the axis of the - bay. - - [180] Enlart gives several examples, though not in churches with - a regular pier system. Among these are: Cerisy-la-Forêt (Manche), - Enlart, I, p. 261, Fig. 97; Le Mans, N. D. du Pré (original state); - Villemagne (Hérault), Saint Gregoire (ruined), see Enlart, I, p. 264, - note 2. - - [181] Illustrated in Ruprich-Robert, pl. LXXIX. - - [182] Ruprich-Robert, pl. LXXVIII. - - [183] Ruprich-Robert, pl. LXXXI. - - [184] In England, where thick walls are an important factor in vault - support even at a comparatively late date, this same form of vaulting - conoid is frequently found, for example in Chichester, Cath. (ill. in - Moore, Mediaeval Church Architecture of England, p. 110, Fig. 91), - Worcester, Cath. choir, (ill. in Moore, Mediaeval Church Architecture - of England, pl. XX), Lincoln, Cath., E. Transept (see Moore, Mediaeval - Church Architecture of England, p. 116), etc. - - [185] Ruprich-Robert, pl. LXXXVIII. - - [186] Ruprich-Robert, pl. LXXXVII. - - [187] Flying-buttresses had to be added not long after their - construction, to keep them from falling. - - [188] Even these vaults have suffered from reconstruction in the - thirteenth century. - - [189] See Moore, p. 130 et seq. for discussion of this point. - - [190] A later instance does appear and this, too, on a very large - scale in the rebuilt choir vaults of Beauvais cathedral (1284), but - the six-part vaults of this church are entirely due to the subdivision - of four-part rectangular vaults in order to obtain greater stability. - - [191] Among the more important examples not mentioned are: Laon - (Aisne), Cath.; Mantes (Seine-et-Oise), Cath.; Dijon (Côte-d’Or), - Notre Dame, etc. - - [192] Other examples are: Lincoln, Cath. choir; (Fig. 35) Durham, - Cath. east transept; Rochester, Cath. presbytery, (Moore, Mediaeval - Church Architecture of England, pl. XVIII), etc. - - [193] Porter, Cons. of Lombard and Gothic Vaults, Figs. 58-60. - - [194] Other Italian examples are: Casamari, Ch.; San Galgano, Ch.; San - Martino, Ch.; etc. - - [195] This bay was rebuilt (cir. 1237-1239) after the fall of the - tower and is, therefore, later than the transept (cir. 1200). - - [196] In La Trinité there are no side aisles, but a series of chapels - constitutes virtually the same arrangement. - - [197] Lubke, I, p. 440, Fig. 313. - - [198] Sturgis, II, p. 435, Fig. 382. - - [199] Sturgis, II, p. 439, Fig. 386. - - [200] See also one bay of Lincoln choir (Fig. 35) rebuilt cir. 1239, - also Bourges, S. Pierre-le-Guillard, early thirteenth century, vaults - rebuilt on original lines in the fifteenth century. Nesle (Somme) - Ch. also has this vaulting form according to Moore, Mediaeval Church - Architecture of England, p. 114, note 1. - - [201] See also Erfurt, Frankiskanerkirche. - - [202] Gurlitt, pl. 83. - - [203] Ex. Voulton (Seine-et-Marne), Ch. Baudot and Perrault-Dabot, I, - pl. 62. - - [204] Bumpus, illustration opp. p. 92. - - [205] Ill. in Moore, p. 51. - - [206] See p. 96 and Fig. 44. - - [207] Bond, p. 643. - - [208] Rivoira, II, pp. 235-243. - - [209] Moore, Mediaeval Church Architecture of England, p. 25. - - [210] Lasteyrie, p. 497, note 1. - - [211] Bond, p. 370. - - [212] Bond, pp. 315 and 319. - - [213] Bond, p. 319. - - [214] The system, moreover, is complete with a transverse arch which - might seem to indicate that it was later than that at Durham. - - [215] The other three are, the sexpartite and pseudo-sexpartite vaults - and the irregular four-part method employed at Durham. - - [216] Moore, p. 80, Fig. 32. - - [217] Whether these concealed buttresses were first used in Normandy - or the Ile-de-France is an open question, but in either case their - origin would seem to be traceable to such prototypes as the ramping - walls above the transverse aisle arches of such Lombard churches as - Sant’ Ambrogio at Milan and perhaps even to Roman monuments like the - basilica of Maxentius at Rome. The really important question is to - learn when these concealed buttresses were first raised above the - aisle roofs to constitute true flying-buttresses. This would seem to - have taken place in the Ile-de-France, perhaps at Domont as Porter - suggests (Porter, II, pp. 91-92), or at Noyon towards the middle of - the twelfth century. - - [218] Ill. in Moore, p. 76. - - [219] An example of the heavy ribs used in early work may be seen at - Morienval, Fig. 77. - - [220] These and the following churches are chosen at random merely for - the purposes of comparison. - - [221] For example in the cathedral of Albi, where the nave is sixty - feet in width, and in that of Gerona (Spain), where it is over seventy. - - [222] See pp. 49 and 70. - - [223] See Bond, p. 336. - - [224] See Bond, p. 335. - - [225] See Bond, p. 336. - - [226] As a matter of fact these in their turn help to support the - ridge rib. - - [227] See Street, p. 78 for a drawing (from Wilde) of this vault - before its restoration. - - [228] See p. 93 for examples. - - [229] So far as the writer knows there are no examples of the simple - transverse ridge rib in England, where one would naturally expect to - find it used. - - [230] Moreover the tiercerons at Worcester would seem to have been an - afterthought. See Moore, Mediaeval Church Architecture of England, p. - 175. - - [231] Illustrated in Bond, p. 327. - - [232] Illustrated in Bond, p. 327. See also Lichfield’s Cath. nave for - similar transverse rib. - - [233] Not without their influence, however, as a number of late - churches could be cited in which there is no true transverse rib, - as for example the minster at Berne (Switzerland), (illustrated in - Michel, III, p. 52, Fig. 31). - - [234] See Bond, p. 333. - - [235] Dehio and von Bezold, II, p. 234, Fig. 1. - - [236] A larger number of tiercerons is frequently found but not in - vaults without liernes, except in very rare instances such as Oxford - Schools Tower, where there are three pairs of tiercerons in each - severy. Plan in Bond, p. 324-8. - - [237] Bond, p. 340. - - [238] Illustrated in Bond, p. 329. - - [239] Illustrated in Bond, p. 331. - - [240] Michel, III, p. 27, Fig. 17. - - [241] Illustrated in Bond, p. 329. - - [242] Illustrated in Bond, p. 330. - - [243] See also illustration in Bond, p. 332. - - [244] See illustration of Gloucester choir in Bond, p. 334. - - [245] See illustration in Bond, opp. p. 132. - - [246] See illustration of Tewkesbury nave, Wells choir (Bond, p. 332) - and Gloucester choir (Bond, p. 334). - - [247] Illustrated in Bond, p. 330. - - [248] Illustrated in Bond, p. 332. - - [249] Illustrated in Bond, p. 332. - - [250] Illustrated in Bond, p. 333. - - [251] Illustrated in Bond, p. 333. - - [252] See also Cambridge, King’s College chapel, illustrated in Bond, - p. 333. - - [253] See also Oxford, Christ Church staircase, illustrated in Bond, - p. 348. - - [254] Illustrated in Willis, p. 50. - - [255] Illustrated in Bond, p. 333. - - [256] The vaults are modern but the church was planned to have this - type. - - [257] Illustrated in Bond, opp. p. 348, also Willis, pl. III, opp. p. - 54. - - [258] Illustrated in Bond, p. 297. See also Oxford, Divinity School, - illustrated in Bond, p. 331 and Henry VII’s Chapel, illustrated in - Bond, opp. p. 348. - - [259] For an extended discussion of English vaulting see Bond, English - Church Architecture, Vol. I, Chap. V, pp. 279-384. - - [260] The diagonals of many vaults in France and Spain and especially - in England had been decorated with carving, particularly in the early - Gothic period. - - [261] Illustrated in Michel, IV, p. 858. - - [262] Enlart, I, Fig. 318, opp. p. 558. - - [263] Lubke, I, p. 540, Fig. 373. See also Freiberg-i-Sachsen, Cath. - (Hartung, I, pl. 5). - - [264] Plan in Street, pl. IV, opp. p. 104. - - [265] Plan in Street, pl. XII, opp. p. 194. - - [266] Michel, III, p. 10, Fig. 4. - - [267] Michel, III, p. 52, Fig. 31. - - [268] Hartung, II, pl. 114. - - [269] So far as the writer is aware. - - [270] Michel, IV, p. 567, Fig. 376. - - [271] Enlart, I, pp. 598-599, Fig. 323. - - [272] Enlart, I, pp. 676-677, Fig. 345. See also Bristol cathedral, - Berkeley Chapel (cir. 1340) illustrated in Bond, p. 329. - - [273] See Dehio and von Bezold, II, p. 82. - - [274] Perhaps as early as between 1124-1140 when there was a - reconstruction of the cathedral. The character of their construction - certainly would not be inconsistent with such a date. - - [275] Ribs rising in a somewhat similar manner are to be found in the - south of France, in the crypt of the church of Saint Gilles (Gard.) - (Ill. in Lasteyrie, p. 263, Fig. 253) or the chapel of the Pont - Saint-Benezet at Avignon (Vaucluse), where they mark the intersection - of two flattened tunnel vaults. - - [276] Lincoln, Cath. nave aisle. Plan in Bond, pp. 308-9; Salisbury, - Cath.; Southwell, Minster. - - [277] Hartung, I, pl. 16. - - [278] Illustrated in Bond, p. 329. - - [279] Examples include: Linköping, Cath.; Paderborn, Cath.; Minden, - Cath.; Mainz, S. Stephen; Landshut, Saint Martin; Prenzlau, - Marienkirche; Heidelberg, Peterskirche; Paris, Sainte Chapelle - (lower church); Chaumont, Ch.; Perugia, Cath.; Winchester, Cath. - (Lady chapel); Belem (Portugal) Ab. Ch.; Barcelona, Cath.; - Freiberg-i-Sachsen, Cath. (1494-1501); Hartung, I, pl. 5; Soest, Sta - Maria zur Wiese, Hartung, I, pl. 49; Stendal, S. Maria (cir. 1450), - Hartung, II, pl. 69. - - [280] Hartung, III, pl. 126. - - [281] Illustration in Lubke, I, p. 540, Fig. 373. - - [282] See Butler, p. 78. - - [283] See Lasteyrie, p. 480 and notes 1-2. - - [284] From its elevation, this would seem to have been added later. - - [285] Other examples include: Issoire, Saint Paul, and the churches at - Saint Saturnin and Saint Nectaire (Puy-de-Dôme). - - [286] Illustrated in Lasteyrie, p. 445, Fig. 463. - - [287] Illustrated in Enlart, I, Fig. 318, opp. p. 588. - - [288] Saint Jean-au-Bois (Oise) (twelfth century); Épinal (Vosges) - (thirteenth century); Valentigny and Vendeuvre (Aube); Roberval, - Vauciennes, and Verberie (Oise); Brunembert (Pas-de-Calais); etc. - - [289] See p. 131, note 16 for explanation of the use of the word - chevet. - - [290] See also Tour (Calvados), Ch. Illustrated in Dehio and von - Bezold, II, p. 187. Rys (Calvados), Ch. Baudot and Perrault-Dabot II, - pl. 12; Omonville-la-Rogue, Ch. Baudot and Perrault-Dabot, II, pl. 46; - Puiseaux (Loiret), Ch. Baudot and Perrault-Dabot, III, pl. 28. - - [291] Hartung, III, pl. 134. - - [292] There is a similar vault in the transept. - - [293] Among them: Lérins, Chapelle de la Trinité. Illustrated in - Revoil I, pl. 1; St. Martin-de-Londres, Ch. Revoil, I, pl. XXXIII. - - [294] For example: Querqueville (Manche). - - [295] See Lasteyrie, p. 530. - - [296] An earlier transept with similar vaulting may have existed in - church of St. Lucien at Beauvais (1090-1109), but this church was - unfortunately destroyed during the Revolution. See Enlart, I, p. 480, - note 3. - - [297] Similar transepts at Breslau, Heiligekreuze; Paderborn, Cath.; - Marburg, St. Elizabeth. - - [298] The development and construction of chevet vaults is discussed - in Chapter III. - - [299] Apparently later than the chevet. - - [300] See Enlart, I, p. 490 note 3 and Lasteyrie, pp. 285 and 522 for - lists. Also Neufchâtel (Seine Inférieure) fifteenth century. Porter, - II, p. 95. - - [301] Plan in Gurlitt, p. 22. - - [302] See Enlart, I, p. 480 note 3 and Lasteyrie, pp. 285 and 522 for - further examples. - - [303] In rare instances, as in Saint Hilaire at Poitiers, there are - aisles along the west wall only, but this is due to a rebuilding of - the church. - - [304] Toulouse, Saint Sernin; Reims, Saint Remi (originally) - (see Lasteyrie, p. 282); Winchester, Cath. (1079-1093) (Rivoira, - II, p. 205). Tribunes are also to be seen in churches without a - triforium gallery along the transept walls as for example in Saint - Georges-de-Boscherville, Cerisy-la-Forêt (1030-1066), etc. See list in - Enlart, I, p. 236, note 1. - - [305] See Lasteyrie, p. 539 and Enlart, I, p. 265, note 1. - - [306] See Ruprich-Robert, II, p. 3. - - [307] Lasteyrie, p. 271, Fig. 264. - - [308] For other examples see Lasteyrie, p. 335, notes 3-4-5. - - [309] Lasteyrie, p. 336, Fig. 359. - - [310] See Lasteyrie, p. 270. - - [311] See Enlart, I, pp. 123, 124. - - [312] See Rivoira, II, pp. 27, 29. - - [313] Lasteyrie, p. 445, Fig. 463. - - [314] Lasteyrie, p. 316, Fig. 338. - - [315] See p. 106. - - [316] Lasteyrie, p. 249, Fig. 239. - - [317] Lasteyrie, p. 336, Fig. 359. - - [318] See also Marseilles,--La Major. - - [319] See p. 124. - - [320] Either with or without a lantern beneath them. Examples: - Montagne (Gironde); Nantille, Notre Dame; Saumur, St. Pierre. See - Michel, II, p. 108 and Lasteyrie, p. 479. - - [321] See also such other buildings as the Château de Simiane - (Basses-Alpes) (apparently twelfth century). Illustrated in Revoil, - III, pl. VIII. - - [322] See p. 125. - - [323] Similar domes may be seen in the old cathedral of Salamanca - (finished before 1178). (Moore, Character of Renaissance Architecture, - p. 57, Fig. 28.) [Street, (Fig. 7, op. p. 80) shows this dome as - having flat severies, and does not mention the fact that they - are curved, as he takes pains to do in regard to Zamora]; and - the collegiate church at Toro (begun cir. 1160-1170, finished in - thirteenth century), (Michel, II, p. 108, Fig. 76). It is difficult to - tell from the photograph whether this last example has the lobed vault - surface. - - [324] Illustrated in Simpson, II, p. 104. - - [325] There is an earlier and somewhat similar crossing vault in the - church of S. Marien at Gelnhausen (1225-on) Hartung, III, pl. 145. - - [326] Michel, IV, p. 829, Fig. 546. - - [327] Michel, IV, p. 828, Fig. 545. - - [328] It is possible that this vault is of wood. - - [329] Simpson, II, Fig. 68, opp. p. 104. - - [330] Simpson, II, Fig. 69, opp. p. 164. - - [331] Examples are furnished by: Florence, S. M. Novella; Sens, Cath. - (Fig. 28); Paris, N. D.; Soissons, Cath.; Cologne, Cath.; to cite but - a few churches. - - [332] Cummings, II, p. 141, Fig. 330. - - [333] Cummings, II, p. 149, Fig. 335. - - [334] For example in Dol, Cath.; Étampes, Saint Gilles; Bayeux, Cath., - etc. - - [335] For example in Angers, Cath. (Fig. 19); Bordeaux, Saint Michel, - etc. - - [336] Numerous illustrations may be found in Bond, Gothic Architecture - in England and English Church Architecture. - - [337] Most of the vaulting is modern but built as originally planned. - - [338] An example of this arrangement may be seen at Saint - Nicolas-du-Port (Meurthe-et-Moselle). Enlart, Fig. 318, opp. p. 588. - - [339] See also Poitiers, Saint Hilaire (Fig. 7) and Notre - Dame-la-Grande, etc. - - [340] See also Toulouse, Saint Sernin; Saint Benoît-sur-Loire (Fig. - 13); and Nevers, St. Étienne, etc. - - [341] They may have been inspired by the salient arches of such a - tunnel vault as that in the Temple of Diana at Nîmes, and in any event - would seem to owe their origin to classic prototypes and to be largely - decorative, a theory which is strengthened by the appearance of such a - vault as that in the little church of Saint Jean-de-Moustier, at Arles - (probably of the ninth century) (Revoil, I, pl. XVI), where these - radiants very closely resemble Corinthian pilasters. - - [342] Dartein, pl. 76. - - [343] Porter, Cons. of Lombard and Gothic Vaults, Fig. 62. There - are also a number of churches of the more developed period in which - somewhat similar ribbed half domes are found, though these are - frequently laid up in flat gores over polygonal apses. Examples - include: Worms, Cath.; west apse, see Fig. 58; Florence, Cath. east - and transept apses. - - [344] Madrazo-Gurlitt, pl. 178. - - [345] Examples include Berzy-le-Sec and Laffaux (Aisne); Chelles - (Oise) and Bonnes (Vienne) all dating cir. 1140-1150; Bruyères, - and Vauxrezis (Aisne) probably of about the same date, and Torcy - (Aisne) dating from the second half of the twelfth century; Étampes, - St. Martin, radiating chapel. All of these are illustrated in - Lefevre-Pontalis. Examples with three ribs include Thor (Vaucluse) - and Saint Pierre-de-Reddes (Hérault), both illustrated in Revoil. - Example with four ribs, Como, Sant’ Abondio. Example with five ribs, - Montmajour (Bouches-du-Rhône), Ab. Ch. Revoil, II, pl. XXXI. For - further examples, see Porter, II, p. 78. - - [346] For instance, at Vieil-Arcy, Ch. (Lefevre-Pontalis, pl. XLV), - where there are no ribs beneath the half dome; and in the last five - churches with two ribs listed in the preceding note. - - [347] Lasteyrie, p. 450, Fig. 470. - - [348] Rivoira, II, p. 38, Fig. 399. - - [349] Rivoira, II, pp. 39-40. - - [350] Rivoira, II, p. 93. - - [351] Moore, Mediaeval Church Architecture of England, p. 15, Fig. 11. - - [352] Forest-l’Abbaye (Somme) (plan in Enlart, I, p. 447, Fig. 211) - furnishes one example of this and others are listed in Enlart, I, p. - 447 and note 2 at the foot of that page. - - [353] There are occasionally to be found some late examples showing - the survival of the half dome as an apse vault, but these are - exceptional after cir. 1150, until the Renaissance period. - - [354] The word chevet is used here and elsewhere as referring to - the ribbed vaulting developed and applied to the apse of the Gothic - churches. - - [355] See p. 128, 129. - - [356] See p. 110. - - [357] Lefevre-Pontalis, pl. XXIX. - - [358] Lefevre-Pontalis, pl. LI. - - [359] At Laon the remaining bays of the chapel are groined and if - their vaults are original, this presents one of the few examples of a - church completely groined and especially of one with the combination - of groined vault and ribbed chevet. - - [360] Moore, Mediaeval Church Architecture of England, pl. 1, opp. p. - 19. Variously dated 1130-1150. - - [361] Illustrated in Moore, pp. 72 and 73, Figs. 26, 27. - - [362] See Moore, p. 130, et seq., and Porter, II, p. 80. - - [363] See also the apses of Saint Étienne at Caen, of Saint - Martin-des-Champs at Paris and of Soissons cathedral transept. - Other churches were probably originally designed without the - flying-buttresses, among them Saint Remi at Reims. See Porter, II, p. - 209 (from Lefevre-Pontalis). - - [364] This type of vault is later discussed. See p. 153. - - [365] The chevet vault is chosen for this discussion merely because - the photographs are handy for reference. Similar vaults could, - however, be found in all the other portions of the church. - - [366] For example, in Soissons transept. In certain other examples, - the formeret does not follow the vault curve. See Paris, St. - Martin-des-Champs (Fig. 65), Noyon transept, etc. - - [367] A vault of similar character may be noted in the name of Amiens - and numerous other instances could be cited outside of the chevet - vaults. - - [368] The eastern bay in this particular church was widened to give a - broad opening into the Lady chapel. - - [369] It may be noted that La Madeleine also resembles St. Germer in - having a groined triforium. - - [370] Vaults with just such doming were to be used side by side with - those with higher window cells, as is later shown. - - [371] Unfortunately the vaults of Sens and Noyon have been rebuilt - though apparently in the original manner, while those of Senlis, which - would have been of much value, have been reconstructed in a later - style. - - [372] Examples include: Bologna, San Francesco; Auxerre Cath. (planned - for six-part type of vaults), etc. - - [373] Other examples not mentioned include Albi (Tarn) cath.; Troyes - (Aube) cath.; Semur-en-Auxois (Côte-d’or), Notre Dame. - - [374] It is possible that it owes this arrangement to the church of - Saint Remi (Fig. 64). - - [375] Although not originally planned for four-part vaults in the - choir, its present arrangement illustrates the combination referred to. - - [376] This is not a noticeable fault with sexpartite choir vaulting - since the crowns of all the window cells form similar angles. - - [377] Porter, II, p. 83, Fig. 176. - - [378] In referring to chevet vaults, the terms three-celled, - four-celled, etc., refer to the number of window panels or severies, - while the terms four-part, five-part, etc., refer to the total number - of severies in the vault, generally one more than the number of window - cells. - - [379] See also the five-part chevet in the cathedral of Saint Louis at - Blois (Loire-et-Cher) which is, however, of much later date. - - [380] This may explain the fact that the buttressing rib type of - chevet persisted side by side with this fourth form. - - [381] In St. Étienne this rib would seem to be an addition to the - original chevet. - - [382] Street, pl. XXV. op. p. 408. - - [383] Bond, p. 63. - - [384] This church has a rather exceptional chevet in that it is - considerably more than a semicircle in plan. - - [385] Plan in Street, pl. XVI, opp. p. 306. - - [386] The double apse of the Chapel of the Seminaire at Bayeux - (thirteenth century) (Baudot and Perrault-Dabot, II, pl. 44) has two - chevets of similar character. - - [387] Plan in Caumont, p. 590. - - [388] See the illustration in Bond, p. 165. - - [389] See also Pirna, Hauptkirche (1502-1546), Hartung, I, pl. 57. - - [390] See also Le Mans, Notre Dame-de-la-Couture: Padua, Sant’ Antonio. - - [391] And sometimes in churches where this arrangement is not found. - - [392] See also Neubourg (Eure). Plan in Enlart, I, Fig. 317. - - [393] Baudot and Perrault-Dabot, I, pl. 46. - - [394] See Fig. 31. - - [395] The vault has been recently reconstructed along original lines. - - [396] A feature which certainly enhances the present appearance of the - cathedral, though it is quite possible that the builders originally - intended to shut off this vista by a high reredos behind the altar. - - [397] Compare for example the chevet of Reims with that of Saint - Urbain. - - [398] Needless to say, no flying-buttresses are necessary with such a - vault as the thrusts are easily absorbed by the piers. - - [399] Similar openings are to be seen in the apse of Saint Nazaire at - Carcassonne. - - [400] For other examples showing the employment of this feature even - in the Renaissance see Enlart, I, p. 506, note 2. - - [401] Hartung, I, pl. 15. - - [402] For a discussion of this point see E. Gall’s series of articles - on the ambulatory in Monatschefte fur Kunstwissenschaft, beginning - with the fifth volume, 1912, pp. 134-149. - - [403] See Rivoira I, p. 184. - - [404] Now destroyed. See Rivoira I, p. 184. - - [405] Some examples of the walled off ambulatory are found, however. - See Enlart, I, p. 234, note 5. - - [406] See Rivoira, I, p. 183, for dates of Santo Stefano and Ivrea. - - [407] An annular tunnel vault also covered the passage around the - tribune of the so-called stadium of Domitian already mentioned. See - Rivoira, I, p. 184. - - [408] For other examples, see Enlart, I, p. 266, note 6. A similar - vault is sometimes found in the aisles of circular churches, as for - example in Ste. Croix at Quimperlé (eleventh century). Baudot and - Perrault-Dabot, II, pl. 5. - - [409] See Rivoira, II, p. 289. - - [410] At intervals this vault is cut by lunettes or groined bays but - it is fundamentally an annular tunnel vault. - - [411] Exactly as has been suggested in regard to similar side aisle - vaults. - - [412] See Enlart, I, p. 266, note 6. - - [413] Enlart, I, p. 34, Fig. 14. - - [414] Revoil, I, pl. XLVIII. - - [415] Baudot and Perrault-Dabot, II, pl. 25. - - [416] Rivoira, II, p. 270, Fig. 718. - - [417] See Rivoira, II, p. 8. See also the Duomo Vecchio at Brescia - (Porter, Cons. of Lombard and Gothic Vaults, Fig. 49). - - [418] Porter, Cons. of Lombard and Gothic Vaults, Fig. 53. - - [419] Porter, Cons. of Lombard and Gothic Vaults, Fig. 52. - - [420] Enlart, I, p. 273, Fig. 105. - - [421] The date of this cathedral is uncertain and the exceptional - character of its triforium leads to the suspicion that it may not now - retain its original arrangement, though the writer has no proof of - this suggestion. - - [422] In some instances these lintels have been cut through with an - arch running up into the surface of the vault between the bays. - - [423] Previous to Porter there had been suggestions of this origin - of the ribbed vault in Choisy’s work and in Rivoira’s Lombardic - architecture, but their studies had been largely confined to vaults - whose ribs were sunken into the masonry panels. - - [424] See discussion of this point on p. 136. - - [425] See p. 53, 54. - - [426] Plan in Rivoira, I, p. 222, Fig. 327. - - [427] If Signor Rivoira is correct in his attribution of this - ambulatory to the third quarter of the eleventh century (Rivoira, I, - pp. 222, 223), it affords not only an extremely early example of the - straight ribbed type but an instance of a ribbed vaulted ambulatory - of large size antedating that at Morienval by half a century. I am - not prepared to accept this early date. The general elevation of the - piers and ribs, the geographical situation of the church, the lack - of any similarly vaulted ambulatories in the fifty years following - its construction and the very form of the vaults, which may easily - have once been of the groined type to be seen in the gallery of Santo - Stefano at Verona with ribs added at a later date or reconstruction - (note lower imposts of diagonal ribs and expanding soffits of - transverse arches like those at Verona) together with many other - details a discussion of which the limits of this paper forbids, make - it seem most improbable that this ambulatory dates from 1049-1078. - As a matter of fact, the date is of little importance in the present - connection, since it is the type of vault employed with which this - study is largely concerned. - - [428] Plan and interior view in Moore, pp. 72, 73, Figs. 26, 27. - - [429] Plan in Moore, p. 83, Fig. 34. - - [430] This may be plainly seen at the cathedral of Tournai (Fig. 85). - - [431] Moore, Mediaeval Church Architecture of England, p. 96, Fig. 82 - and pl. XV, opp. p. 104. - - [432] Crypt illustrated in Moore, Mediaeval Church Architecture of - England, p. 94, Fig. 80, Trinity chapel, p. 103 Fig. 86 and pi. XIV. - opp. same page. - - [433] See Moore, Mediaeval Church Architecture of England, pp. 94-95. - - [434] See p. 99 for theory regarding this. - - [435] Moore, Mediaeval Church Architecture of England, pl. XV, opp. p. - 104. - - [436] Moore, Mediaeval Church Architecture of England, pl. XIV, opp. - p. 103. - - [437] Ambulatories vaulted in a similar manner appear in Saint Sauveur - at Bruges, the Groote Kerk at Breda, the cathedral of Burgos, the - church at Gonesse (Seine-et-Oise) (plan in Enlart, I, p. 486, Fig. - 233) etc. Also, in Magdeburg Cath. (Hartung I, pl. 16), there is an - instance in which the intermediate rib is shortened evidently to admit - the greatest possible amount of light. - - [438] This is also a church employing the lancet type of window common - in Normandy and England and the subdivision of the ambulatory thus - made possible windows of general lancet shape. Furthermore, it carried - the subdivision of the triforium arcade into the clerestory above. - (For a large photograph of this ambulatory see Gurlitt, pl. 84). - - [439] Plan in Moore, p. 83, Fig. 34. - - [440] Similar vaults appear at Coutances Cath., outer ambulatory, - Utrecht Cath. (ridge ribs added), Malmo, Ch., and Lagny, Ab. Ch. - (illustrated in Lenoir, part II, p. 207). - - [441] Plan in Enlart, I, p. 505, Fig. 244. - - [442] Violet-le-Duc (Vol. IV, pp. 75-77) calls attention to the - architectural refinements in this church, mentioning the use of arches - flattened on their inner face and curved on the outer between the apse - and triforium. It is also interesting to note that here as in Saint - Remi the vault of the triforium differs from that of the ambulatory - proper. The arrangement at Saint Remi has been described, that at - Chalons consists of a simple four-part vault of trapezoidal form with - outer and inner sides curved. - - [443] Examples at Strassburg, Cath., Neubourg (Eure), ch. (irregular - type of ch. with central pier and triangular apse. See plan in Enlart, - I, p. 590, Fig. 317) and Tewkesbury Abbey (here even the triangular - bays open into chapels). See also Cléry (Loiret) (fifteenth century) - (plan in Baudot and Perrault-Dabot, III, pl. 60). - - [444] Plan in Caumont, p. 396. - - [445] Examples not mentioned include, Beeskow; Keisheim; Stargarde, - Johanniskirche (slightly elaborated); Treptow (considerably - elaborated); Worms, Liebfrauenkirche; Arles, Saint Trophime, etc. - - [446] Plan in Gaudet, III, p. 247, Fig. 1108. - - [447] Plan in Gaudet, III, p. 240, Fig. 1104. - - [448] These two churches not only show the vault with simple added - ribs but the last named is most interesting as showing an ambulatory - equal in height to the apse, a most unusual arrangement. - - [449] This church also presents certain changes in the arrangement of - the ribs but these are unimportant. - - [450] See also Kuttenberg. - - [451] A similar plan on a smaller scale and with only two side chapels - occurs at Ville-neuve-le-Comte (Seine-et-Marne) (plan in Enlart, I, p. - 485, Fig. 232) and the same arrangement in churches with central plan - appears at Trier in the Liebfrauenkirche while other examples include - Lisseweghe; Toul, Saint Gengoulf; Xant; Oppenheim; Ludinghausen; - Anclam; Lübeck, Saint Jakob; Lagny (Seine-et-Marne) (illustrated in - Lenoir, Part II, p. 207) and Kaschau (Hungary) (illustrated in Lenoir, - Part II, p. 208). See also Enlart, I, p. 485, note 2. - - [452] Baudot and Perrault-Dabot, V, pl. 79. - - [453] Such chapels were frequently omitted all through both the - Romanesque and Gothic periods even in churches with an ambulatory and - were not therefore established parts of the church plan. For examples - of such chapels see Enlart, I, p. 228 note 2 and p. 485 note 3 and - Lasteyrie, p. 297. - - [454] For discussion of prototypes see Lasteyrie, pp. 187, 188. - - [455] For examples see Lasteyrie, p. 301 and Enlart, I, p. 231, note 4. - - [456] For examples see Lasteyrie, p. 301 and Enlart, I, p. 486, note 1. - - [457] See Enlart, I, p. 231, note 2. - - [458] For examples see Lasteyrie, p. 297, and Enlart I, p. 233, note 1 - and p. 486, note 3. - - [459] For examples see Lasteyrie, p. 297, and Enlart, I, p. 233, note - 2. - - [460] For examples see Lasteyrie, p. 297, and Enlart, I, p. 233, note - 3. - - [461] Orcival (Lasteyrie, p. 297, Fig. 458). - - [462] For examples see Enlart, I, p. 233, note 3. - - [463] Rather rare in the Romanesque period. For examples see Enlart, - I, p. 232. - - [464] See page 173 _et seq._ - - [465] For examples of square chapels see Enlart, I, p. 231, note 2 and - p. 487, note 7. - - [466] For example, the chapels with other chapels added to them toward - the east at Norwich cath. and Mehun-sur-Yevre (Cher) see Enlart, I, p. - 234, note 4. - - [467] See p. 112. - - - - - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Mediaeval Church Vaulting, by Clarence Ward - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEDIAEVAL CHURCH VAULTING *** - -***** This file should be named 50873-0.txt or 50873-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/8/7/50873/ - -Produced by Chuck Greif, deaurider and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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