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- width: 25.5em; - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - text-align: center; - margin-bottom: 0em; - text-indent: 0em;} - -.pf400 {margin-top: 0em; - line-height: 1em; - font-size: 90%; - font-weight: normal; - width: 27em; - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: 0em; - text-indent: 0em;} - -.footnotes {border: dashed 1px; - padding: 1em;} - -.label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor {vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: none; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal;} - -p.drop-cap04 {padding-top: 2em; text-indent: -0.4em;} -p.drop-cap06 {padding-top: 2em; text-indent: -0.6em;} -p.drop-cap08 {padding-top: 2em; text-indent: -0.8em;} -p.drop-cap16 {padding-top: 2em; text-indent: -1.6em;} - -p.drop-cap04:first-letter, -p.drop-cap06:first-letter, -p.drop-cap08:first-letter, -p.drop-cap16:first-letter - {float: left; - margin: 0.07em 0.1em 0em 0em; - font-size: 480%; - line-height:0.85em;} - -@media handheld {p.drop-cap04:first-letter, - p.drop-cap06:first-letter, - p.drop-cap08:first-letter, - p.drop-cap16:first-letter - {float: none; - margin: 0; - font-size: 100%;} -} - -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:1em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - - hr.full { width: 100%; - margin-top: 3em; - margin-bottom: 0em; - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - height: 4px; - border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ - border-style: solid; - border-color: #000000; - clear: both; } - </style> -</head> -<body> -<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Narrative and Critical History of America, -Vol. I (of 8), by Various, Edited by Justin Winsor</h1> -<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States -and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no -restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it -under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this -eBook or online at <a -href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you are not -located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this ebook.</p> -<p>Title: Narrative and Critical History of America, Vol. I (of 8)</p> -<p> Aboriginal America</p> -<p>Author: Various</p> -<p>Editor: Justin Winsor</p> -<p>Release Date: December 31, 2015 [eBook #50801]</p> -<p>Language: English</p> -<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p> -<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA, VOL. I (OF 8)***</p> -<p> </p> -<h4>E-text prepared by<br /> - Giovanni Fini, Dianna Adair, Bryan Ness,<br /> - and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> - (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> - from page images generously made available by<br /> - Internet Archive/American Libraries<br /> - (<a href="https://archive.org/details/americana">https://archive.org/details/americana</a>)</h4> -<p> </p> -<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> - <tr> - <td valign="top"> - Note: - </td> - <td> - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive/American Libraries. See - <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/narrcrithistamerica01winsrich"> - http://www.archive.org/details/narrcrithistamerica01winsrich</a> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p> </p> -<hr class="full" /> -<p> </p> -<p> </p> - -<div class="limit"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p class="pc4 large">NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL</p> - -<p class="pc1 xlarge">HISTORY OF AMERICA</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a><br /><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p> - -<table id="title" cellspacing="0" summary="title"> - - <tr> - <td class="ttit"><span class="font1">Aboriginal<br />America</span></td> - <td class="ttit"><div class="fig1"> - <img src="images/t_page.jpg" width="200" height="197" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div></td> - </tr> - -</table> - -<p class="pc4 large">NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL</p> - -<h1>HISTORY OF AMERICA</h1> - - -<p class="pc4">EDITED</p> - -<p class="pc2 large">By JUSTIN WINSOR</p> - -<p class="pc reduct">LIBRARIAN OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY<br /> -CORRESPONDING SECRETARY MASSACHUSETTS HISTORICAL SOCIETY</p> - - -<p class="pc4 large">VOL. I</p> - -<p class="pc4 lmid">BOSTON AND NEW YORK<br /> -<span class="mid">HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY</span></p> -<p class="pc font2">The Riverside Press, Cambridge</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p> - -<p class="pc4 reduct">Copyright. 1889,<br /> -By HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY.</p> - -<p class="pc2 reduct"><i>All rights reserved.</i></p> - - -<p class="pc4 reduct"><i>The Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass., U. S. A.</i><br /> -Electrotyped and Printed by H. O. Houghton & Company.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/fr.jpg" width="400" height="729" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p class="pc4">To</p> - -<p class="pc mid">CHARLES WILLIAM ELIOT, LL. D.</p> - -<p class="pc reduct"><span class="smcap">President of Harvard University.</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p class="pn"><i><span class="smcap">Dear Eliot:</span></i></p> - -<p><i>Forty years ago, you and I, having made preparation together, entered college -on the same day. We later found different spheres in the world; and you came -back to Cambridge in due time to assume your high office. Twelve years ago, -sought by you, I likewise came, to discharge a duty under you.</i></p> - -<p><i>You took me away from many cares, and transferred me to the more congenial -service of the University. The change has conduced to the progress of -those studies in which I hardly remember to have had a lack of interest.</i></p> - -<p><i>So I owe much to you; and it is not, I trust, surprising that I desire to connect, -in this work, your name with that of your</i></p> - -<p class="pr6"><i>Obliged friend</i>,</p> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/sig.jpg" width="250" height="120" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="p8"><span class="smcap">Cambridge, 1889.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a><br /><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 class="p4">CONTENTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> - -<hr class="d2" /> - -<p class="pind">[<i>The cut on the title represents a mask, which forms the centre of the Mexican Calendar Stone, as engraved -in D. Wilson’s Prehistoric Man, i. 333, from a cast now in the Collection of the Society of Antiquaries -of Scotland.</i>]</p> - -<hr class="d3" /> - -<table id="toc" summary="cont"> - - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tch">INTRODUCTION.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti1"><span class="smcap">Part I. Americana in Libraries and Bibliographies.</span> <i>The Editor</i></td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#Page_mi">i</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti2"><span class="smcap">Illustrations</span>: Portrait of Professor Ebeling, <a href="#iiii">iii</a>; of James Carson Brevoort, <a href="#ix">x</a>; of -Charles Deane, <a href="#ixi">xi</a>.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti1"><span class="smcap">Part II. Early Descriptions of America, and Collective Accounts of the Early<br /> -Voyages Thereto.</span> <i>The Editor</i></td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti2"><span class="smcap">Illustrations</span>: Title of the <i>Newe Unbekanthe Landte</i>, <a href="#ixxi">xxi</a>; of Peter Martyr’s <i>De Nuper -sub D. Carolo repertis insulis</i> (1521), <a href="#ixxii">xxii</a>; Portrait of Grynæus, <a href="#ixxiv">xxiv</a>; of Sebastian -Münster, <a href="#ixxvi">xxvi</a>, <a href="#ixxvii">xxvii</a>; of Monardes, <a href="#ixxix">xxix</a>; of De Bry, <a href="#ixxx">xxx</a>; of Feyerabend, <a href="#ixxxi">xxxi</a>.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tch">CHAPTER I.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti1"><span class="smcap">The Geographical Knowledge of the Ancients Considered in Relation To The<br /> -Discovery of America.</span> <i>William H. Tillinghast</i></td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti2"><span class="smcap">Illustrations</span>: Maps by Macrobius, <a href="#i10">10</a>, <a href="#i11">11</a>, <a href="#i12">12</a>; Carli’s <i>Traces of Atlantis</i>, <a href="#i17">17</a>; Sanson’s -<i>Atlantis Insula</i>, <a href="#i18">18</a>; Bory de St. Vincent’s <i>Carte Conjecturale de l’Atlantide</i>, <a href="#i19">19</a>; Contour -Chart of the Bottom of the Atlantic Ocean, <a href="#i20">20</a>; The Rectangular Earth, <a href="#i30">30</a>.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti1"><span class="smcap">Critical Essay</span> </td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#c33">33</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti1"><span class="smcap">Notes</span> </td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#c38">38</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti2">A. The Form of the Earth, <a href="#n38">38</a>; B. Homer’s Geography, <a href="#n39">39</a>; C. Supposed References to -America, <a href="#n40">40</a>; D. Atlantis, <a href="#n41">41</a>; E. Fabulous Islands of the Atlantic in the Middle Ages, -<a href="#n46">46</a>; F. Toscanelli’s Atlantic Ocean, <a href="#n51">51</a>. G. (<i>By the Editor.</i>) Early Maps of the Atlantic -Ocean, <a href="#n53">53</a>.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti2"><span class="smcap">Illustrations</span>: Map of the Fifteenth Century, <a href="#i53">53</a>; Map of Fr. Pizigani (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1367), and -of Andreas Bianco (1436), <a href="#i54">54</a>; Catalan Map (1375), <a href="#i55">55</a>; Map of Andreas Benincasa -(1476), <a href="#i56a">56</a>; Laon Globe, <a href="#i56b">56</a>; Maps of Bordone (1547), <a href="#i57a">57</a>, <a href="#i58a">58</a>; Map made at the End of -the Fifteenth Century, <a href="#i57b">57</a>; Ortelius’s Atlantic Ocean (1587), <a href="#i58b">58</a>.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tch">CHAPTER II.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti1"><span class="smcap">Pre-Columbian Explorations.</span> <i>Justin Winsor</i></td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti2"><span class="smcap">Illustrations</span>: Norse Ship, <a href="#i62">62</a>; Plan of a Viking Ship <a href="#i63a">63</a>, and her Rowlock, <a href="#i63b">63</a>; Norse -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>Boat used as a Habitation, <a href="#i64a">64</a>; Norman Ship from the Bayeux Tapestry, <a href="#i64b">64</a>; Scandinavian -Flags, <a href="#i64c">64</a>; Scandinavian Weapons, <a href="#i65">65</a>; Runes, <a href="#i66">66</a>, <a href="#i67">67</a>; Fac-simile of the Title of the -Zeno Narrative, <a href="#i70">70</a>; Its Section on Frisland, <a href="#i71">71</a>; Ship of the Fifteenth Century, <a href="#i73">73</a>; -The Sea of Darkness, <a href="#i74">74</a>.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti1"><span class="smcap">Critical Notes</span> </td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#c76">76</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti2">A. Early Connection of Asiatic Peoples with the Western Coast of America, <a href="#n76">76</a>; B. Ireland -the Great, or White Man’s Land, <a href="#n82">82</a>; C. The Norse in Iceland, <a href="#n83">83</a>; D. Greenland and its -Ruins, <a href="#n85">85</a>; E. The Vinland Voyages, <a href="#n87">87</a>; F. The Lost Greenland Colonies, <a href="#n107">107</a>; G. -Madoc and the Welsh, <a href="#n109">109</a>; H. The Zeni and their Map, <a href="#n111">111</a>; I. Alleged Jewish Migration, <a href="#n115">115</a>; -J. Possible Early African Migrations, <a href="#n116">116</a>.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti2"><span class="smcap">Illustrations</span>: Behring’s Sea and Adjacent Waters, <a href="#i77">77</a>; Buache’s Map of the North -Pacific and Fusang, <a href="#i79">79</a>; Ruins of the Church at Kakortok, <a href="#i86">86</a>; Fac-simile of a Saga -Manuscript and Autograph of C. C. Rafn, <a href="#i87">87</a>; Ruin at Kakortok, <a href="#i88">88</a>; Map of Julianehaab, <a href="#i89">89</a>; -Portrait of Rafn, <a href="#i90">90</a>; Title-page of <i>Historia Vinlandiæ Antiguæ per Thormodum -Torfæum</i>, <a href="#i91">91</a>; Rafn’s Map of Norse America, <a href="#i95">95</a>; Rafn’s Map of Vinland (New -England), <a href="#i100">100</a>; View of Dighton Rock, <a href="#i101">101</a>; Copies of its Inscription, <a href="#i103">103</a>; Henrik Rink, <a href="#i106">106</a>; -Fac-simile of the Title-page of Hans Egede’s <i>Det gamle Gronlands nye Perlustration</i>, <a href="#i108">108</a>; -A British Ship of the Time of Edward I, <a href="#i110">110</a>; Richard H. Major, <a href="#i112">112</a>; -Baron Nordenskjöld, <a href="#i113">113</a>.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti1"><span class="smcap">The Cartography of Greenland.</span> <i>The Editor</i></td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti2"><span class="smcap">Illustrations</span>: The Maps of Claudius Clavus (1427), <a href="#i118">118</a>, <a href="#i119">119</a>; of Fra Mauro (1459), <a href="#i120">120</a>; -Tabula Regionum Septentrionalium (1467), <a href="#i121">121</a>; Map of Donis (1482), <a href="#i122a">122</a>; of Henricus -Martellus (1489-90), <a href="#i122b">122</a>; of Olaus Magnus (1539), <a href="#i123">123</a>; (1555), <a href="#i124">124</a>; (1567), <a href="#i125">125</a>; of -Bordone (1547), <a href="#i126">126</a>; The Zeno Map, <a href="#i127">127</a>; as altered in the Ptolemy of 1561, <a href="#i128">128</a>; The -Map of Phillipus Gallæus (1585), <a href="#i129">129</a>; of Sigurd Stephanus (1570), <a href="#i130">130</a>; The Greenland -of Paul Egede, <a href="#i131">131</a>; of Isaac de la Peyrère (1647), <a href="#i132">132</a>.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tch">CHAPTER III.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti1"><span class="smcap">Mexico and Central America.</span> <i>Justin Winsor</i></td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti2"><span class="smcap">Illustrations</span>: Clavigero’s Plan of Mexico, <a href="#i143">143</a>; his Map of Anahuac, <a href="#i144">144</a>; Environs du -Lac de Méxique, <a href="#i145">145</a>; Brasseur de Bourbourg’s Map of Central America, <a href="#i151">151</a>.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti1"><span class="smcap">Critical Essay</span></td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#c153">153</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti2"><span class="smcap">Illustrations</span>: Manuscript of Bernal Diaz, <a href="#i154">154</a>; Sahagún, <a href="#i156">156</a>; Clavigero, <a href="#i159">159</a>; Lorenzo -Boturini, <a href="#i160">160</a>; Frontispiece of his <i>Idea</i>, with his Portrait, <a href="#i161">161</a>; Icazbalceta, <a href="#i163">163</a>; Daniel -G. Brinton, <a href="#i165">165</a>; Brasseur de Bourbourg, <a href="#i170">170</a>.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti1"><span class="smcap">Notes</span> </td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti2">I. The Authorities on the so-called Civilization of Ancient Mexico and Adjacent Lands, and -the Interpretation of such Authorities, <a href="#n173">173</a>; II. Bibliographical Notes upon the Ruins -and Archæological Remains of Mexico and Central America, <a href="#n176">176</a>; III. Bibliographical -Notes on the Picture-Writing of the Nahuas and Mayas, <a href="#n197">197</a>.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti2"><span class="smcap">Illustrations</span>: The Pyramid of Cholula, <a href="#i177">177</a>; The Great Mound of Cholula, <a href="#i178">178</a>; Mexican -Calendar Stone, <a href="#i179">179</a>; Court of the Mexico Museum, <a href="#i181">181</a>; Old Mexican Bridge near -Tezcuco, <a href="#i182">182</a>; The Indio Triste, <a href="#i183">183</a>; General Plan of Mitla, <a href="#i184">184</a>; Sacrificial Stone, <a href="#i185">185</a>; -Waldeck, <a href="#i186">186</a>; Désiré Charnay, <a href="#i187">187</a>; Charnay’s Map of Yucatan, <a href="#i188">188</a>; Ruined Temple -at Uxmal, <a href="#i189">189</a>; Ring and Head from Chichen-Itza, <a href="#i190">190</a>; Viollet-le-Duc’s Restoration of -a Palenqué Building, <a href="#i192">192</a>; Sculptures from the Temple of the Cross at Palenqué, <a href="#i193">193</a>; -Plan of Copan, <a href="#i194">194</a>; Yucatan Types of Heads, <a href="#i195">195</a>; Plan of Quirigua, <a href="#i196">196</a>; Fac-simile -of Landa’s Manuscript, <a href="#i198">198</a>; A Sculptured Column, <a href="#i199">199</a>; Palenqué Hieroglyphics, <a href="#i201">201</a>; -Léon de Rosny, <a href="#i202">202</a>; The Dresden Codex, <a href="#i204">204</a>; Codex Cortesianus, <a href="#i206">206</a>; Codex Perezianus, <a href="#i207">207</a>, -<a href="#i208">208</a>.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tch">CHAPTER IV.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix"><span class="reduct">[ix]</span></a></span></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti1"><span class="smcap">The Inca Civilization in Peru.</span> <i>Clements R. Markham</i></td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti2"><span class="smcap">Illustrations</span>: Brasseur de Bourbourg’s Map of Northwestern South America, <a href="#i210">210</a>; -Early Spanish Map of Peru, <a href="#i211">211</a>; Llamas, <a href="#i213">213</a>; Architectural Details at Tiahuanaca, <a href="#i214">214</a>; -Bas-Reliefs, <a href="#i215">215</a>; Doorway and other Parts, <a href="#i216">216</a>; Image, <a href="#i217">217</a>; Broken Doorway, <a href="#i218">218</a>; -Tiahuanaca Restored, <a href="#i219">219</a>; Ruins of Sacsahuaman, <a href="#i220">220</a>; Inca Manco Ccapac, <a href="#i228a">228</a>; Inca -Yupanqui, <a href="#i228b">228</a>; Cuzco, <a href="#i229">229</a>; Warriors of the Inca Period, <a href="#i230">230</a>; Plan of the Temple of -the Sun, <a href="#i234">234</a>; Zodiac of Gold, <a href="#i235">235</a>; Quipus, <a href="#i243">243</a>; Inca Skull, <a href="#i244">244</a>; Ruins at Chucuito, <a href="#i245">245</a>; -Lake Titicaca, <a href="#i246">246</a>, <a href="#i247">247</a>; Map of the Lake, <a href="#i248">248</a>; Primeval Tomb, Acora, <a href="#i249a">249</a>; Ruins -at Quellenata, <a href="#i249b">249</a>; Ruins at Escoma, <a href="#i250a">250</a>; Sillustani, <a href="#i250b">250</a>; Ruins of an Incarial Village, <a href="#i251">251</a>; -Map of the Inca Road, <a href="#i254">254</a>; Peruvian Metal-Workers, <a href="#i256a">256</a>; Peruvian Pottery, <a href="#i256b">256</a>, <a href="#i257">257</a>; -Unfinished Peruvian Cloth, <a href="#i258">258</a>.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti1"><span class="smcap">Critical Essay</span></td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#c259">259</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti2"><span class="smcap">Illustrations</span>: House in Cuzco in which Garcilasso was born, <a href="#i265">265</a>; Portraits of the Incas -in the Title-page of Herrera, <a href="#i267">267</a>; William Robertson, <a href="#i269">269</a>; Clements R. Markham, <a href="#i272">272</a>; -Márcos Jiménez de la Espada, <a href="#i274">274</a>.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti1"><span class="smcap">Notes</span></td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti2">I. Ancient People of the Peruvian Coast, <a href="#n275">275</a>; II. The Quichua Language and Literature, <a href="#n278">278</a>.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti2"><span class="smcap">Illustrations</span>: Mummy from Ancon, <a href="#i276">276</a>; Mummy from a Huaca at Pisco, <a href="#i277">277</a>; Tapestry -from the Graves of Ancon, <a href="#i278">278</a>; Idol from Timaná, <a href="#i281">281</a>.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tch">CHAPTER V.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti1"><span class="smcap">The Red Indian of North America in Contact with the French and English.</span> -<i>George E. Ellis</i></td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti1"><span class="smcap">Critical Essay.</span> <i>George E. Ellis and the Editor</i></td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#Page_316">316</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tch">CHAPTER VI.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti1"><span class="smcap">The Prehistoric Archæology of North America.</span> <i>Henry W. Haynes</i></td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#Page_329">329</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti2"><span class="smcap">Illustrations</span>: Palæolithic Implement from the Trenton Gravels, <a href="#i331">331</a>; The Trenton Gravel -Bluff, <a href="#i335">335</a>; Section of Bluff near Trenton, <a href="#i338">338</a>; Obsidian Spear Point from the Lahontan -Lake, <a href="#i349">349</a>.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti1"><span class="smcap">The Progress of Opinion respecting the Origin and Antiquity of Man in -America.</span> <i>Justin Winsor</i></td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#Page_369">369</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="ti2"><span class="smcap">Illustrations</span>: Benjamin Smith Barton, <a href="#i371">371</a>; Louis Agassiz, <a href="#i373">373</a>; Samuel Foster Haven, <a href="#i374">374</a>; -Sir Daniel Wilson, <a href="#i375">375</a>; Professor Edward B. Tylor, <a href="#i376">376</a>; Hochelagan and Cro-magnon -Skulls, <a href="#i377">377</a>; Theodor Waitz, <a href="#i378">378</a>; Sir John Lubbock, <a href="#i379">379</a>; Sir John William -Dawson, <a href="#i380">380</a>; Map of Aboriginal Migrations, <a href="#i381">381</a>; Calaveras Skull, <a href="#i385">385</a>; Ancient Footprint -from Nicaragua, <a href="#i386">386</a>; Cro-magnon, Enghis, Neanderthal, and Hochelagan Skulls, <a href="#i389">389</a>; -Oscar Peschel, <a href="#i391">391</a>; Jeffries Wyman, <a href="#i392">392</a>; Map of Cape Cod, showing Shell Heaps, <a href="#i393">393</a>; -Maps of the Pueblo Region, <a href="#i394">394</a>, <a href="#i397">397</a>; Col. Charles Whittlesey, <a href="#i399">399</a>; Increase A. -Lapham, <a href="#i400">400</a>; Plan of the Great Serpent Mound, <a href="#i401">401</a>; Cincinnati Tablet, <a href="#i404">404</a>; Old View -of the Mounds on the Muskingum (Marietta), <a href="#i405">405</a>; Map of the Scioto Valley, showing -Sites of Mounds, <a href="#i406">406</a>; Works at Newark, Ohio, <a href="#i407">407</a>; Major J. W. Powell, <a href="#i411">411</a>.</td> - </tr> - -</table> - -<table id="toc2" summary="cont2"> - - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tch">APPENDIX.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x"><span class="reduct">[x]</span></a></span></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc"><i>Justin Winsor.</i></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="tdr1">I.</td> - <td class="tdl">Bibliography of Aboriginal America</td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#a413">413</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="tdr1">II.</td> - <td class="tdl">The Comprehensive Treatises on American Antiquities</td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#a415">415</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="tdr1">III.</td> - <td class="tdl">Bibliographical Notes on the Industries and Trade of the American Aborigines</td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#a416">416</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="tdr1">IV.</td> - <td class="tdl">Bibliographical Notes on American Linguistics</td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#a421">421</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="tdr1">V.</td> - <td class="tdl">Bibliographical Notes on the Myths and Religions of America</td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#a429">429</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="tdr1">VI.</td> - <td class="tdl">Archæological Museums and Periodicals</td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#a437">437</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="ti2"><span class="smcap">Illustrations</span>: Mexican Clay Mask, <a href="#i419">419</a>; Quetzalcoatl, <a href="#i432">432</a>; The Mexican Temple, <a href="#i433">433</a>; -The Temple of Mexico, <a href="#i434">434</a>; Teoyaomiqui, <a href="#i435">435</a>; Ancient Teocalli, Oaxaca, Mexico, <a href="#i436">436</a>.</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="ti1"><span class="smcap">Index</span> </td> - <td class="tdrl"><a href="#Page_445">445</a></td> - </tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mi" id="Page_mi">[i]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="p4">INTRODUCTION.</h2> - -<p class="pc"><i>By the Editor.</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/d1.jpg" width="100" height="56" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<h3>PART I. AMERICANA IN LIBRARIES AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES.</h3> - -<p class="drop-cap06">HARRISSE, in the Introduction of his <i>Bibliotheca -Americana Vetustissima</i>, enumerates -and characterizes many of the bibliographies of -Americana, beginning with the chapter, “De -Scriptoribus rerum Americanarum,” in the <i>Bibliotheca -Classica</i> of Draudius, in 1622.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> De Laet, -in his <i>Nieuwe Wereldt</i> (1625), gives a list of -about thirty-seven authorities, which he increased -somewhat in later editions.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> The earliest -American catalogue of any moment, however, -came from a native Peruvian, Léon y Pinelo, -who is usually cited by the latter name only. -He had prepared an extensive list; but he -published at Madrid, in 1629, a selection of -titles only, under the designation of <i>Epitome -de la biblioteca oriental i occidental</i>,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> which included -manuscripts as well as books. He had -exceptional advantages as chronicler of the -Indies.</p> - -<p>In 1671, in Montanus’s <i>Nieuwe weereld</i>, and -in Ogilby’s <i>America</i>, about 167 authorities are -enumerated.</p> - -<p>Sabin<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> refers to Cornelius van Beughem’s -<i>Bibliographia Historica</i>, 1685, published at Amsterdam, -as having the titles of books on America.</p> - -<p>The earliest exclusively American catalogue -is the <i>Bibliothecæ Americanæ Primordia</i> of White -Kennett,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Bishop of Peterborough, published in -London in 1713. The arrangement of its sixteen -hundred entries is chronological; and it enters -under their respective dates the sections of such -collections as Hakluyt and Ramusio.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> It particularly -pertains to the English colonies, and -more especially to New England, where, in the -eighteenth century, three distinctively valuable -American libraries are known to have existed,—that -of the Mather family, which was in large -part destroyed during the battle of Bunker Hill, -in 1775; that of Thomas Prince, still in large -part existing in the Boston Public Library; and -that of Governor Hutchinson, scattered by the -mob which attacked his house in Boston in -1765.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> - -<p>In 1716 Lenglet du Fresnoy inserted a brief -list (sixty titles) in his <i>Méthode pour étudier la -géographie</i>. Garcia’s <i>Origen de los Indias de el -nuevo mundo</i>, Madrid, 1729, shows a list of about -seventeen hundred authors.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> - -<p>In 1737-1738 Barcia enlarged Pinelo’s work, -translating all his titles into Spanish, and added<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mii" id="Page_mii">[ii]</a></span> -numerous other entries which Rich<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> says were -“clumsily thrown together.”</p> - -<p>Charlevoix prefixed to his <i>Nouvelle France</i>, -in 1744, a list with useful comments, which the -English reader can readily approach in Dr. -Shea’s translation. A price-list which has been -preserved of the sale in Paris in 1764, <i>Catalogue -des livres des ci-devant soi-disans Jésuites du Collége -de Clermont</i>, indicates the lack of competition at -that time for those choicer Americana, now so -costly.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> The <i>Regio patronatu Indiarum</i> of Frassus -(1775) gives about 1505 authorities. There -is a chronological catalogue of books issued in -the American colonies previous to 1775, prepared -by S. F. Haven, Jr., and appended to the -edition of Thomas’s <i>History of Printing</i>, published -by the American Antiquarian Society. -Though by no means perfect, it is a convenient -key to most publications illustrative of American -history during the colonial period of the English -possessions, and printed in America. Dr. -Robertson’s <i>America</i> (1777) shows only 250 -works, and it indicates how far short he was of -the present advantages in the study of this subject. -Clavigero surpassed all his predecessors -in the lists accompanying his <i>Storia del Messico</i>, -published in 1780,—but the special bibliography -of Mexico is examined elsewhere. Equally special, -and confined to the English colonies, is the -documentary register which Jefferson inserted -in his <i>Notes on Virginia</i>; but it serves to show -how scanty the records were a hundred years ago -compared with the calendars of such material -now. Meuzel, in 1782, had published enough of -his <i>Bibliotheca Historica</i> to cover the American -field, though he never completed the work as -planned.</p> - -<p>In 1789 an anonymous <i>Bibliotheca Americana</i> -of nearly sixteen hundred entries was published -in London. It is not of much value. Harrisse -and others attribute it to Reid; but by some the -author’s name is differently given as Homer, -Dalrymple, and Long.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> - -<p>An enumeration of the documentary sources -(about 152 entries) used by Muñoz in his <i>Historia -del nuevo mundo</i> (1793) is given in Fustér’s <i>Biblioteca -Valenciana</i> (ii. 202-234) published at Valencia -in 1827-1830.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> - -<p>There is in the Library of Congress (Force -Collection) a copy of an <i>Indice de la Coleccion de -manuscritos pertinecientes a la historia de las Indias</i>, -by Fraggia, Abella, and others, dated at -Madrid, 1799.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p> - -<p>In the Sparks collection at Cornell are two -other manuscript bibliographies worthy of notice. -One is a <i>Biblioteca Americana</i>, by Antonio -de Alcedo, dated in 1807. Sparks says his copy -was made in 1843 from an original which Obadiah -Rich had found in Madrid.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> - -<p>Harrisse says that another copy is in the -Carter-Brown Library; and he asserts that, excepting -some additions of modern American -authors, it is not much improved over Barcia’s -edition of Pinelo. H. H. Bancroft<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> mentions -having a third copy, which had formerly belonged -to Prescott.</p> - -<p>The other manuscript at Cornell is a <i>Bibliotheca -Americana</i>, prepared in twelve volumes -by Arthur Homer, who had intended, but never -accomplished, the publication of it. Sparks -found it in Sir Thomas Phillipps’s library at -Middlehill, and caused the copy of it to be -made, which is now at Ithaca.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> - -<p>In 1808 Boucher de la Richarderie published -at Paris his <i>Bibliothèque universelle -des voyages</i>,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> which has in the fifth part a -critical list of all voyages to American waters. -Harrisse disagrees with Peignot in his -favorable estimate of Richarderie, and traces -to him the errors of Faribault and later -bibliographers.</p> - -<p>The <i>Bibliotheca Hispano-Americana</i> of Dr. -José Mariano Beristain de Souza was published -in Mexico in 1816-1821, in three volumes. -Quaritch, pricing it at £96 in 1880, -calls it the rarest and most valuable of all -American bibliographical works. It is a notice -of writers who were born, educated, or flourished -in Spanish America, and naturally covers much -of interest to the historical student. The author -did not live to complete it, and his nephew -finished it.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_miii" id="Page_miii">[iii]</a></span></p> -<p>In 1818 Colonel Israel Thorndike, of Boston, -bought for $6,500 the American library of Professor -Ebeling, of Germany, estimated to contain -over thirty-two hundred volumes, besides -an extraordinary collection of ten thousand -maps.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> The library was given by the purchaser -to Harvard College, and its possession -at once put the library of that institution -at the head of all libraries in the -United States for the illustration of American -history. No catalogue of it was ever -printed, except as a part of the General -Catalogue of the College Library issued -in 1830-1834, in five volumes.</p> - -<p>Another useful collection of Americana -added to the same library was that formed -by David B. Warden, for forty years -United States Consul at Paris, who printed -a catalogue of its twelve hundred volumes -at Paris, in 1820, called <i>Bibliotheca Americo-Septentrionalis</i>. -The collection in 1823 -found a purchaser at $5,000, in Mr. Samuel -A. Eliot, who gave it to the College.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-015.jpg" width="250" height="298" id="iiii" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="cf"><p class="pc">EBELING.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> -</div></div> - -<p>The Harvard library, however, as well -as several of the best collections of Americana -in the United States, owes more, -perhaps, to Obadiah Rich than to any -other. This gentleman, a native of Boston, -was born in 1783. He went as consul of -the United States to Valencia in 1815, and -there began his study of early Spanish-American -history, and undertook the gathering -of a remarkable collection of books,<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> which -he threw open generously, with his own kindly -assistance, to every investigator who visited -Spain for purposes of study. Here he won the -respect of Alexander H. Everett, then American -minister to the court of Spain. He captivated -Irving by his helpful nature, who says of him: -“Rich was one of the most indefatigable, intelligent, -and successful bibliographers in Europe. -His house at Madrid was a literary wilderness, -abounding with curious works and rare editions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_miv" id="Page_miv">[iv]</a></span> -... He was withal a man of great truthfulness -and simplicity of character, of an amiable and -obliging disposition and strict integrity.” Similar -was the estimation in which he was held by -Ticknor, Prescott, George Bancroft, and many -others, as Allibone has recorded.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> In 1828 he removed -to London, where he established himself -as a bookseller. From this period, as Harrisse<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> -fitly says, it was under his influence, acting upon -the lovers of books among his compatriots, that -the passion for forming collections of books -exclusively American grew up.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> In those days the -cost of books now esteemed rare was trifling -compared with the prices demanded at present. -Rich had a prescience in his calling, and the -beginnings of the great libraries of Colonel -Aspinwall, Peter Force, James Lenox, and John -Carter Brown were made under his fostering -eye; which was just as kindly vigilant for Grenville, -who was then forming out of the income -of his sinecure office the great collection which -he gave to the British nation in recompense for -his support.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> In London, watching the book-markets -and making his catalogue, Rich continued -to live for the rest of his life (he died in -February, 1850), except for a period when he -was the United States consul at Port Mahon in -the Balearic Islands. His bibliographies are still -valuable, his annotations in them are trustworthy, -and their records are the starting-points of the -growth of prices. His issues and reissues of -them are somewhat complicated by supplements -and combinations, but collectors and bibliographers -place them on their shelves in the -following order:</p> - -<div class="pbq"> -<p class="p1">1. <i>A Catalogue of books relating principally to America, -arranged under the years in which they were printed</i> -(1500-1700), London, 1832. This included four hundred -and eighty-six numbers, those designated by a star without -price being understood to be in Colonel Aspinwall’s collection. -Two small supplements were added to this.</p> - -<p>2. <i>Bibliotheca Americana Nova, printed since 1700 -(to 1800)</i>, London, 1835. Two hundred and fifty copies -were printed. A supplement appeared in 1841, and this -became again a part of his.</p> - -<p>3. <i>Bibliotheca Americana Nova</i>, vol. i. (1701-1800); -vol. ii. (1801-1844), which was printed (250 copies) in London -in 1846.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p> -</div> - -<p class="p1">It was in 1833 that Colonel Thomas Aspinwall, -of Boston, who was for thirty-eight years -the American consul at London, printed at Paris -a catalogue of his collection of Americana, -where seven hundred and seventy-one lots included, -beside much that was ordinarily useful, -a great number of the rarest of books on American -history. Harrisse has called Colonel Aspinwall, -not without justice, “a bibliophile of great -tact and activity.” All but the rarest part of -his collection was subsequently burned in 1863, -when it had passed into the hands of Mr. Samuel -L. M. Barlow,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> of New York.</p> - -<p>M. Ternaux-Compans, who had collected—as -Mr. Brevoort thinks<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>—the most extensive -library of books on America ever brought together, -printed his <i>Bibliothèque Américaine</i><a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> in -1837 at Paris. It embraced 1,154 works, arranged -chronologically, and all of them of a date before -1700. The titles were abridged, and accompanied -by French translations. His annotations -were scant; and other students besides Rich -have regretted that so learned a man had not -more benefited his fellow-students by ampler -notes.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p> - -<p>Also in 1837 appeared the <i>Catalogue d’ouvrages -sur l’histoire de l’Amérique</i>, of G. B. Faribault, -which was published at Quebec, and was -more specially devoted to books on New -France.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> - -<p>With the works of Rich and Ternaux the -bibliography of Americana may be considered -to have acquired a distinct recognition; and -the succeeding survey of this field may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mv" id="Page_mv">[v]</a></span> -more conveniently made if we group the contributors -by some broad discriminations of the -motives influencing them, though such distinctions -sometimes become confluent.</p> - -<p>First, as regards what may be termed professional -bibliography. One of the earliest -workers in the new spirit was a Dresden jurist, -Hermann E. Ludewig, who came to the United -States in 1844, and prepared an account of the -<i>Literature of American local history</i>, which was -published in 1846. This was followed by a -supplement, pertaining wholly to New York -State, which appeared in <i>The Literary World</i>, -February 19, 1848. He had previously published -in the <i>Serapeum</i> at Leipsic (1845, pp. 209) -accounts of American libraries and bibliography, -which were the first contributions to this -subject.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> Some years later, in 1858, there was -published in London a monograph on <i>The Literature -of the American Aboriginal Linguistics</i>,<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> -which had been undertaken by Mr. Ludewig -but had not been carried through the press, -when he died, Dec. 12, 1856.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p> - -<p>We owe to a Franco-American citizen the -most important bibliography which we have -respecting the first half century of American -history; for the <i>Bibliotheca Americana Vetustissima</i> -only comes down to 1551 in its chronological -arrangement. Mr. Brevoort<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> very -properly characterizes it as “a work which -lightens the labors of such as have to investigate -early American history.”<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p> - -<p>It was under the hospitable roof of Mr. Barlow’s -library in New York that, “having gloated -for years over second-hand compilations,” Harrisse -says that he found himself “for the first -time within reach of the fountain-heads of history.” -Here he gathered the materials for his -<i>Notes on Columbus</i>, which were, as he says, like -“pencil marks varnished over.” These first -appeared less perfectly than later, in the <i>New -York Commercial Advertiser</i>, under the title of -“Columbus in a Nut-shell.” Mr. Harrisse had -also prepared (four copies only printed) for Mr. -Barlow in 1864 the <i>Bibliotheca Barlowiana</i>, -which is a descriptive catalogue of the rarest -books in the Barlow-Aspinwall Collection, touching -especially the books on Virginian and New -England history between 1602 and 1680.</p> - -<p>Mr. Barlow now (1864) sumptuously printed -the <i>Notes on Columbus</i> in a volume (ninety-nine -copies) for private distribution. For some reason -not apparent, there were expressions in this -admirable treatise which offended some; as -when, for instance (p. vii), he spoke of being -debarred the privileges of a much-vaunted public -library, referring to the Astor Library. Similar -inadvertences again brought him hostile -criticism, when two years later (1866) he printed -with considerable typographical luxury his -<i>Bibliotheca Americana Vetustissima</i>, which was -published in New York. It embraces something -over three hundred entries.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> The work -is not without errors; and Mr. Henry Stevens, -who claims that he was wrongly accused in the -book, gave it a bad name in the <i>London Athenæum</i> -of Oct. 6, 1866, where an unfortunate -slip, in making “Ander Schiffahrt”<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> a personage, -is unmercifully ridiculed. A committee of -the Société de Géographie in Paris, of which -M. Ernest Desjardins was spokesman, came to -the rescue, and printed a <i>Rapport sur les deux -ouvrages de bibliographie Américaine de M. Henri -Harrisse</i>, Paris, 1867. In this document the -claim is unguardedly made that Harrisse’s book -was the earliest piece of solid erudition which -America had produced,—a phrase qualified later -as applying to works of American bibliography -only. It was pointed out that while for the -period of 1492-1551 Rich had given twenty -titles, and Ternaux fifty-eight, Harrisse had -enumerated three hundred and eight.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p> - -<p>Harrisse prepared, while shut up in Paris -during the siege of 1870, his <i>Notes sur la Nouvelle -France</i>, a valuable bibliographical essay -referred to elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> He later put in shape -the material which he had gathered for a supplemental -volume to his <i>Bibliotheca Americana -Vetustissima</i>, which he called <i>Additions</i>,<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> and -published it in Paris in 1872. In his introduction -to this latter volume he shows how -thoroughly he has searched the libraries of -Europe for new evidences of interest in America -during the first half century after its discovery. -He notes the depredations upon the older -libraries which have been made in recent years, -since the prices for rare Americana have ruled -so high. He finds<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> that the Biblioteca Colombina<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mvi" id="Page_mvi">[vi]</a></span> -at Seville, as compared with a catalogue of -it made by Ferdinand Columbus himself, has -suffered immense losses. “It is curious to notice,” -he finally says, “how few of the original -books relating to the early history of the New -World can be found in the public libraries of -Europe. There is not a literary institution, -however rich and ancient, which in this respect -could compare with three or four private -libraries in America. The Marciana at Venice -is probably the richest. The Trivulgiana at -Milan can boast of several great rarities.”</p> - -<p>For the third contributor to the recent bibliography -of Americana, we must still turn to an -adopted citizen, Joseph Sabin, an Englishman -by birth. Various publishing enterprises of -interest to the historical student are associated -with Mr. Sabin’s name. He published a quarto -series of reprints of early American tracts, -eleven in number, and an octavo series, seven -in number.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> He published for several years, -beginning in 1869, the <i>American Bibliopolist</i>, a -record of new books, with literary miscellanies, -largely upon Americana. In 1867 he began the -publication (five hundred copies) of the most -extensive American bibliography yet made, <i>A -Dictionary of books relating to America, from its -discovery to the present time</i>. The author’s death, -in 1881,<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> left the work somewhat more than half -done, and it has been continued since his death -by his sons.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p> - -<p>In the <i>Notas Para una bibliografia de obras -anonimas i seudonimas</i> of Diego Barros Arana, -published at Santiago de Chile in 1882, five hundred -and seven books on America (1493-1876), -without authors, are traced to their writers.</p> - -<p class="p2">As a second class of contributors to the -bibliographical records of America, we must -reckon the students who have gathered libraries -for use in pursuing their historical studies. -Foremost among such, and entitled to be -esteemed a pioneer in the modern spirit of -research, is Alexander von Humboldt. He -published his <i>Examen critique de l’histoire de la -géographie du nouveau continent</i>,<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> in five volumes, -between 1836 and 1839.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> “It is,” says Brevoort,<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> -“a guide which all must consult. With a master -hand the author combines and collates all -attainable materials, and draws light from -sources which <i>he</i> first brings to bear in his -exhaustive investigations.” Harrisse calls it -“the greatest monument ever erected to the -early history of this continent.”</p> - -<p>Humboldt’s library was bought by Henry -Stevens, who printed in 1863, in London, a -catalogue of it, showing 11,164 entries; but this -was not published till 1870. It included a set -of the <i>Examen critique</i>, with corrections, and the -notes for a new sixth volume.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> Harrisse, who -it is believed contemplated at one time a new -edition of this book, alleges that through the -remissness of the purchaser of the library the -world has lost sight of these precious memorials -of Humboldt’s unperfected labors. Stevens, in -the <i>London Athenæum</i>, October, 1866, rebuts the -charge.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p> - -<p>Of the collection of books and manuscripts -formed by Col. Peter Force we have no separate -record, apart from their making a portion -of the general catalogue of the Library -of Congress, the Government having bought -the collection in 1867.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p> - -<p>The library which Jared Sparks formed -during the progress of his historical labors was -sold about 1872 to Cornell University, and is -now at Ithaca. Mr. Sparks left behind him -“imperfect but not unfaithful lists of his books,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mvii" id="Page_mvii">[vii]</a></span>” -which, after some supervision by Dr. Cogswell -and others, were put in shape for the press by -Mr. Charles A. Cutter of the Boston Athenæum, -and were printed, in 1871, as <i>Catalogue of the -Library of Jared Sparks</i>. In the appendix was -a list of the historical manuscripts, originals and -copies, which are now on deposit in Harvard -College Library.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p> - -<p>In 1849 Mr. H. R. Schoolcraft<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> printed, at -the expense of the United States Government, -a <i>Bibliographical Catalogue of books, etc., in the -Indian tongues of the United States</i>,—a list later -reprinted with additions in his <i>Indian Tribes</i> (in -1851), vol. iv.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p> - -<p>In 1861 Mr. Ephraim George Squier published -at New York a monograph on authors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mviii" id="Page_mviii">[viii]</a></span> -who had written in the languages of Central -America, enumerating one hundred and ten, with -a list of the books and manuscripts on the -history, the aborigines, and the antiquities of -Central America, borrowed from other sources -in part. At the sale of Mr. Squier’s library in -1876, the catalogue<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> of which was made by Mr. -Sabin, the entire collection of his manuscripts -fell, as mentioned elsewhere,<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> into the hands of -Mr. Hubert Howe Bancroft of San Francisco.</p> - -<p>Probably the largest collection of books and -manuscripts<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> which any American has formed -for use in writing is that which belongs to Mr. -Bancroft. He is the organizer of an extensive -series of books on the antiquities and history -of the Pacific coast. To accomplish an examination -of the aboriginal and civilized history of -so large a field<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> as thoroughly as he has unquestionably -made it, within a lifetime, was -a bold undertaking, to be carried out in a centre -of material rather than of literary enterprise. -The task involved the gathering of a library -of printed books, at a distance from the purely -intellectual activity of the country, and where -no other collection of moment existed to supplement -it. It required the seeking and making -of manuscripts, from the labor of which one -might well shrink. It was fortunate that during -the gathering of this collection some notable collections—like -those of Maximilian,<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> Ramirez, -and Squier, not to name others—were opportunely -brought to the hammer, a chance by -which Mr. Bancroft naturally profited.</p> - -<p>Mr. Bancroft had been trained in the business -habits of the book trade, in which he had -established himself in San Francisco as early as -1856.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> He was at this time twenty-four years -old, having been born of New England stock -in Ohio in 1832, and having had already four -years residence—since 1852—in San Francisco -as the agent of an eastern bookseller. It was -not till 1869 that he set seriously to work on his -history, and organized a staff of assistants.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> -They indexed his library, which was now large -(12,000 volumes) and was kept on an upper floor -of his business quarters, and they classified the -references in paper bags.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> His first idea was to -make an encyclopædia of the antiquities and history -of the Pacific Coast; and it is on the whole -unfortunate that he abandoned the scheme, for -his methods were admirably adapted to that end, -but of questionable application to a sustained -plan of historical treatment. It is the encyclopedic -quality of his work, as the user eliminates -what he wishes, which makes and will continue -to make the books that pass under his name of -the first importance to historical students.</p> - -<p>In 1875 the first five volumes of the series, -denominated by themselves <i>The Native Races of -the Pacific States</i>, made their appearance. It was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mix" id="Page_mix">[ix]</a></span> -clear that a new force had been brought to bear -upon historical research,—the force of organized -labor from many hands; and this implied -competent administrative direction and ungrudged -expenditure of money. The work -showed the faults of such a method, in a want -of uniform discrimination, and in that promiscuous -avidity of search, which marks rather an -eagerness to amass than a judgment to select, -and give literary perspective. The book, however, -was accepted as extremely useful and -promising to the future inquirer. Despite a -certain callowness of manner, the <i>Native Races</i> -was extremely creditable, with comparatively -little of the patronizing and flippant air which -its flattering reception has since begotten in its -author or his staff. An unfamiliarity with the -amenities of literary life seems unexpectedly to -have been more apparent also in his later work.</p> - -<p>In April, 1876, Mr. Lewis H. Morgan printed -in the <i>North American Review</i>, under the title -of “Montezuma’s Dinner,” a paper in which he -controverted the views expressed in the <i>Native -Races</i> regarding the kind of aboriginal civilization -belonging to the Mexican and Central -American table-lands. A writer of Mr. Morgan’s -reputation commanded respect in all but -Mr. Bancroft, who has been unwise enough -to charge him with seeking “to gain notoriety -by attacking” his (Mr. B.’s) views or supposed -views. He dares also to characterize so well-known -an authority as “a person going about -from one reviewer to another begging condemnation -for my <i>Native Races</i>.” It was this ungracious -tone which produced a divided reception -for his new venture. This, after an interval -of seven years, began to make its appearance in -vol. vi. of the “Works,” or vol. i. of the <i>History -of Central America</i>, appearing in the autumn of -1882.</p> - -<p>The changed tone of the new series, its -rhetoric, ambitious in parts, but mixed with -passages which are often forceful and exact, -suggestive of an ill-assorted conjoint production; -the interlarding of classic allusions by -some retained reviser who served this purpose -for one volume at least; a certain cheap reasoning -and ranting philosophy, which gives place at -times to conceptions of grasp; flippancy and -egotism, which induce a patronizing air under -the guise of a constrained adulation of others; -a want of knowledge on points where the system -of indexing employed by his staff had been -deficient,—these traits served to separate the -criticism of students from the ordinary laudation -of such as were dazed by the magnitude of the -scheme.</p> - -<p>Two reviews challenging his merits on these -grounds<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> induced Mr. Bancroft to reply in a -tract<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> called <i>The Early American Chroniclers</i>. -The manner of this rejoinder is more offensive -than that of the volumes which it defends; and -with bitter language he charges the reviewers -with being “men of Morgan,” working in concert -to prejudice his success.</p> - -<p>But the controversy of which record is here -made is unworthy of the principal party to it. -His important work needs no such adventitious -support; and the occasion for it might have -been avoided by ordinary prudence. The extent -of the library upon which the work<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> is based, -and the full citation of the authorities followed -in his notes, and the more general enumeration -of them in his preliminary lists, make the work -pre-eminent for its bibliographical extent, however -insufficient, and at times careless, is the -bibliographical record.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p> - -<p>The library formed by the late Henry C. -Murphy of Brooklyn to assist him in his projected -history of maritime discovery in America, -of which only the chapter on Verrazano<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> has -been printed, was the creation of diligent search -for many years, part of which was spent in -Holland as minister of the United States. The -earliest record of it is a <i>Catalogue of an American -library chronologically arranged</i>, which was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mx" id="Page_mx">[x]</a></span> -privately printed in a few copies, about 1850, and -showed five hundred and eighty-nine entries -between the years 1480 and 1800.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-022.jpg" width="400" height="459" id="ix" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">JAMES CARSON BREVOORT.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>There has been no catalogue printed of the -library of Mr. James Carson Brevoort, so well -known as a historical student and bibliographer, -to whom Mr. Sabin dedicated the first volume of -his <i>Dictionary</i>. Some of the choicer portions -of his collection are understood to have become -a part of the Astor Library, of which Mr. Brevoort -was for a few years the superintendent, as -well as a trustee.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p> - -<p>The useful and choice collection of Mr. -Charles Deane, of Cambridge, Mass., to which, -as the reader will discover, the Editor has often -had recourse, has never been catalogued. Mr. -Deane has made excellent use of it, as his tracts -and papers abundantly show.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">A distinct class of helpers in the field of -American bibliography has been those gatherers -of libraries who are included under the somewhat -indefinite term of collectors,—owners of -books, but who make no considerable dependence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxi" id="Page_mxi">[xi]</a></span> -upon them for studies which lead to publication. -From such, however, in some instances, -bibliography has notably gained,—as in the -careful knowledge which Mr. James Lenox sometimes -dispensed to scholars either in privately -printed issues or in the pages of periodicals.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-023.jpg" width="400" height="461" id="ixi" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">CHARLES DEANE.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Harrisse in 1866 pointed to five Americana -libraries in the United States as surpassing all -of their kind in Europe,—the Carter-Brown, -Barlow, Force, Murphy, and Lenox collections. -Of the Barlow, Force (now in the Library of -Congress), and Murphy collections mention has -already been made.</p> - -<p>The Lenox Library is no longer private, -having been given to a board of trustees by Mr. -Lenox previous to his death,<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> and handsomely -housed, by whom it is held for a restricted public -use, when fully catalogued and arranged. Its -character, as containing only rare or unusual -books, will necessarily withdraw it from the -use of all but scholars engaged in recondite -studies. It is very rich in other directions than -American history; but in this department the -partial access which Harrisse had to it while -in Mr. Lenox’s house led him to infer that it -would hold the first rank. The wealth of its -alcoves, with their twenty-eight thousand volumes, -is becoming known gradually in a series -of bibliographical monographs, printed as contributions -to its catalogue, of which six have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxii" id="Page_mxii">[xii]</a></span> -thus far appeared, some of them clearly and -mainly the work of Mr. Lenox himself.</p> - -<p>Of these only three have illustrated American -history in any degree,—those devoted to -the voyages of Hulsius and Thévenot, and to the -Jesuit Relations (Canada).<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p> - -<p>The only rival of the Lenox is the library of -the late John Carter Brown, of Providence, gathered -largely under the supervision of John Russell -Bartlett; and since Mr. Brown’s death it -has been more particularly under the same oversight.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> -It differs from the Lenox Library in that -it is exclusively American, or nearly so,<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> and -still more in that we have access to a thorough -catalogue of its resources, made by Mr. Bartlett -himself, and sumptuously printed.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> It was originally -issued as <i>Bibliotheca Americana: A Catalogue -of books relating to North and South America -in the Library of John Carter Brown of Providence, -with notes by John Russell Bartlett</i>, in three -volumes,—vol. i., 1493-1600, in 1865 (302 entries); -vol. ii., 1601-1700, in 1866 (1,160 entries); -vol. iii., 1701-1800, in two parts, in 1870-1871 -(4,173 entries).</p> - -<p>In 1875 vol. i. was reprinted with fuller titles, -covering the years 1482<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a>-1601, with 600 entries, -doubling the extent of that portion.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> Numerous -facsimiles of titles and maps add much to -its value. A second and similarly extended edition -of vol. ii. (1600-1700) was printed in 1882, -showing 1,642 entries. The <i>Carter-Brown Catalogue</i>, -as it is ordinarily cited, is the most extensive -printed list of all Americana previous to -1800, more especially anterior to 1700, which now -exists.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p> - -<p>Of the other important American catalogues, -the first place is to be assigned to that of the -collection formed at Hartford by Mr. George -Brinley, the sale of which since his death<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> has -been undertaken under the direction of Dr. J. -Hammond Trumbull,<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> who has prepared the catalogue, -and who claims—not without warrant—that -it embraces “a greater number of volumes -remarkable for their rarity, value, and interest -to special collectors and to book-lovers in general, -than were ever before brought together in -an American sale-room.”<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p> - -<p>The library of William Menzies, of New York, -was sold in 1875, from a catalogue made by -Joseph Sabin.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> The library of Edward A. -Crowninshield, of Boston, was catalogued in Boston -in 1859, but withdrawn from public sale, -and sold to Henry Stevens, who took a portion -of it to London. It was not large,—the catalogue -shows less than 1,200 titles,—and was -not exclusively American; but it was rich in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxiii" id="Page_mxiii">[xiii]</a></span> -some of the rarest of such books, particularly in -regard to the English Colonies.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p> - -<p>The sale of John Allan’s collection in New -York, in 1864, was a noteworthy one. Americana, -however, were but a portion of the collection.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> -An English-American flavor of far less fineness, -but represented in a catalogue showing a very -large collection of books and pamphlets,<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> was -sold in New York in May, 1870, as the property -of Mr. E. P. Boon.</p> - -<p>Mr. Thomas W. Field issued in 1873 <i>An -Essay towards an Indian Bibliography, being a -Catalogue of books relating to the American Indians</i>, -in his own library, with a few others -which he did not possess, distinguished by an -asterisk. Mr. Field added many bibliographical -and historical notes, and gave synopses, so that -the catalogue is generally useful to the student -of Americana, as he did not confine his survey -to works dealing exclusively with the aborigines. -The library upon which this bibliography was -based was sold at public auction in New York, -in two parts, in May, 1875 (3,324 titles), according -to a catalogue which is a distinct publication -from the <i>Essay</i>.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p> - -<p>The collection of Mr. Almon W. Griswold -was dispersed by printed catalogues in 1876 and -1880, the former containing the American portion, -rich in many of the rarer books.</p> - -<p>Of the various private collections elsewhere -than in the United States, more or less rich in -Americana, mention may be made of the <i>Bibliotheca -Mejicana</i><a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> of Augustin Fischer, London, -1869; of the Spanish-American libraries of Gregorio -Beéche, whose catalogue was printed at -Valparaiso in 1879; and that of Benjamin Vicuña -Mackenna, printed at the same place in -1861.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p> - -<p>In Leipsic, the catalogue of Serge Sobolewski -(1873)<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> was particularly helpful in the -bibliography of Ptolemy, and in the voyages of -De Bry and others. Some of the rarest of -Americana were sold in the Sunderland sale<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> -in London in 1881-1883; and remarkably rich -collections were those of Pinart and Bourbourg,<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> -sold in Paris in 1883, and that of Dr. J. Court,<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> -the first part of which was sold in Paris in May, -1884. The second part had little of interest.</p> - -<p class="p2">Still another distinctive kind of bibliographies -is found in the catalogues of the better -class of dealers; and among the best of such is to -be placed the various lists printed by Henry Stevens, -a native of Vermont, who has spent most -of his manhood in London. In the dedication -to John Carter Brown of his <i>Schedule of Nuggets</i> -(1870), he gives some account of his early bibliographical -quests.<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> Two years after graduating -at Yale, he says, he had passed “at Cambridge, -reading passively with legal Story, and actively -with historical Sparks, all the while sifting and -digesting the treasures of the Harvard Library. -For five years previously he had scouted through -several States during his vacations, prospecting -in out-of-the-way places for historical nuggets, -mousing through town libraries and country garrets -in search of anything old that was historically -new for Peter Force and his American -Archives.... From Vermont to Delaware many -an antiquated churn, sequestered hen-coop, and -dilapidated flour-barrel had yielded to him rich -harvests of old papers, musty books, and golden -pamphlets. Finally, in 1845, an irrefragable -desire impelled him to visit the Old World, its -libraries and book-stalls. Mr. Brown’s enlightened -liberality in those primitive years of his -bibliographical pupilage contributed largely towards -the boiling of his kettle.... In acquiring -<i>con amore</i> these American Historiadores Primitivos, -he ... travelled far and near. In this -labor of love, this journey of life, his tracks often -become your tracks, his labors your works, his -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxiv" id="Page_mxiv">[xiv]</a></span><i>libri</i> your <i>liberi</i>,” he adds, in addressing Mr. -Brown.</p> - -<p>In 1848 Mr. Stevens proposed the publication, -through the Smithsonian Institution, of a -general <i>Bibliographia Americana</i>, illustrating the -sources of early American history;<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> but the project -failed, and one or more attempts later made -to begin the work also stopped short of a beginning. -While working as a literary agent of -the Smithsonian Institution and other libraries, -in these years, and beginning that systematic -selection of American books, for the British -Museum and Bodleian, which has made these -libraries so nearly, if not quite, the equal of any -collection of Americana in the United States, he -also made the transcriptions and indexes of the -documents in the State Paper Office which respectively -concern the States of New Jersey, -Rhode Island, Maryland, and Virginia. These -labors are now preserved in the archives of those -States.<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> Perhaps the earliest of his sale catalogues -was that of a pseudo “Count Mondidier,” -embracing Americana, which were sold in -London in December, 1851.<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> His <i>English Library</i> -in 1853 was without any distinctive American -flavor; but in 1854 he began, but suspended -after two numbers, the <i>American Bibliographer</i> -(100 copies).<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> In 1856 he prepared a <i>Catalogue -of American Books and Maps in the British Museum</i> -(20,000 titles), which, however, was never -regularly published, but copies bear date 1859, -1862, and 1866.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> In 1858—though most copies -are dated 1862<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a>—appeared his <i>Historical Nuggets; -Bibliotheca Americana, or a descriptive Account -of my Collection of rare books relating to America</i>. -The two little volumes show about three thousand -titles, and Harrisse says they are printed -“with remarkable accuracy.” There was begun -in 1885, in connection with his son Mr. Henry -Newton Stevens, a continuation of these <i>Nuggets</i>. -In 1861 a sale catalogue of his <i>Bibliotheca -Americana</i> (2,415 lots), issued by Puttick and -Simpson, and in part an abridgment of the <i>Nuggets</i> -with similarly careful collations, was accepted -by Maisonneuve as the model of his <i>Bibliothèque -Américaine</i> later to be mentioned.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p> - -<p>In 1869-1870 Mr. Stevens visited America, and -printed at New Haven his <i>Historical and Geographical -Notes on the earliest discoveries in America</i>, -1453-1530, with photo-lithographic facsimiles -of some of the earliest maps. It is a valuable -essay, much referred to, in which the author -endeavored to indicate the entanglement of the -Asiatic and American coast lines in the early -cartography.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></p> - -<p>In 1870 he sold at Boston a collection of five -thousand volumes, catalogued as <i>Bibliotheca Historica</i><a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> -(2,545 entries), being mostly Americana, -from the library of the elder Henry Stevens of -Vermont. It has a characteristic introduction, -with an array of readable notes.<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> His catalogues -have often such annotations, inserted on a principle -which he explains in the introduction to -this one: “In the course of many years of bibliographical -study and research, having picked up -various isolated grains of knowledge respecting -the early history, geography, and bibliography -of this western hemisphere, the writer has -thought it well to pigeon-hole the facts in notes -long and short.”</p> - -<p>In October, 1870, he printed at London a -<i>Schedule of Two Thousand American Historical -Nuggets taken from the Stevens Diggings in -September, 1870, and set down in Chronological -Order of Printing from 1490 to 1800 [1776], described -and recommended as a Supplement to my -printed Bibliotheca Americana</i>. It included 1,350 -titles.</p> - -<p>In 1872 he sold another collection, largely -Americana, according to a catalogue entitled -<i>Bibliotheca Geographica & Historica; or, a Catalogue -of [3,109 lots], illustrative of historical geography -and geographical history. Collected, used, -and described, with an Introductory Essay on -Catalogues, and how to make them upon the Stevens -system of photo-bibliography</i>. The title calls -it a first part; but no second part ever appeared. -Ten copies were issued, with about four hundred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxv" id="Page_mxv">[xv]</a></span> -photographic copies of titles inserted. Some -copies are found without the essay.<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p> - -<p>The next year (1873) he issued a privately -printed list of two thousand titles of American -“Continuations,” as they are called by librarians, -or serial publications in progress as taken at -the British Museum, quaintly terming the list -<i>American books with tails to ’em</i>.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p> - -<p>Finally, in 1881, he printed Part I. of <i>Stevens’s -Historical Collections</i>, a sale catalogue -showing 1,625 titles of books, chiefly Americana, -and including his Franklin Collection of manuscripts, -which he later privately sold to the -United States Government, an agent of the Boston -Public Library yielding to the nation.<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p> - -<p>One of the earliest to establish an antiquarian -bookshop in the United States was the late -Samuel G. Drake, who opened one in Boston in -1830.<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> His special field was that of the North -American Indians; and the history and antiquities -of the aborigines, together with the history -of the English Colonies, give a character to his -numerous catalogues.<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> Mr. Drake died in 1875, -from a cold taken at a sale of the library of -Daniel Webster; and his final collections of -books were scattered in two sales in the following -year.<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p> - -<p>William Gowans, of New York, was another -of the early dealers in Americana.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> The catalogues -of Bartlett and Welford have already been -mentioned. In 1854, while Garrigue and Christern -were acting as agents of Mr. Lenox, they -printed <i>Livres Curieux</i>, a list of desiderata -sought for by Mr. Lenox, pertaining to such rarities -as the letters of Columbus, Cartier, parts of -De Bry and Hulsius, and the Jesuit Relations. -This list was circulated widely through Europe, -but not twenty out of the 216 titles were ever -offered.<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p> - -<p>About 1856, Charles B. Norton, of New -York, began to issue American catalogues; and -in 1857 he established <i>Norton’s Literary Letter</i>, -intended to foster interest in the collection of -Americana.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> A little later, Joel Munsell, of -Albany, began to issue catalogues;<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> and J. W. -Randolph, of Richmond, Virginia, more particularly -illustrated the history of the southern -parts of the United States.<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> The most important -Americana lists at present issued by American -dealers are those of Robert Clarke & Co., -of Cincinnati, which are admirable specimens of -such lists.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></p> - -<p>In England, the catalogues of Henry Stevens -and E. G. Allen have been already mentioned.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxvi" id="Page_mxvi">[xvi]</a></span> -The leading English dealer at present in the -choicer books of Americana, as of all other subjects—and -it is not too much to say, the leading -one of the world—is Mr. Bernard Quaritch, -a Prussian by birth, who was born in 1819, -and after some service in the book-trade in -his native country came to London in 1842, -and entered the service of Henry G. Bohn, -under whose instruction, and as a fellow-employé -of Lowndes the bibliographer, he laid the -foundations of a remarkable bibliographical acquaintance. -A short service in Paris brought -him the friendship of Brunet. Again (1845) -he returned to Mr. Bohn’s shop; but in April, -1847, he began business in London for himself. -He issued his catalogues at once on a -small scale; but they took their well-known -distinctive form in 1848, which they have retained, -except during the interval December, -1854,-May, 1864, when, to secure favorable consideration -in the post-office rates, the serial -was called <i>The Museum</i>. It has been his habit, -at intervals, to collect his occasional catalogues -into volumes, and provide them with an index. -The first of these (7,000 entries) was issued -in 1860. Others have been issued in 1864, 1868, -1870, 1874, 1877 (this with the preceding constituting -one work, showing nearly 45,000 entries -or 200,000 volumes), and 1880 (describing 28,009 -books).<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> In the preface to this last catalogue -he says: “The prices of useful and -learned books are in all cases moderate; the -prices of palæographical and bibliographical -curiosities are no doubt in most cases high, -that indeed being a natural result of the great -rivalry between English, French, and American -collectors.... A fine copy of any edition of -a book is, and ought to be, more than twice as -costly as any other.”<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> While the Quaritch -catalogues have been general, they have included -a large share of the rarest Americana, -whose titles have been illustrated with bibliographical -notes characterized by intimate acquaintance -with the secrets of the more curious -lore.</p> - -<p>The catalogues of John Russell Smith (1849, -1853, 1865, 1867), and of his successor Alfred -Russell Smith (1871, 1874), are useful aids in -this department.<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> The <i>Bibliotheca Hispano-Americana</i> -of Trübner, printed in 1870, offered -about thirteen hundred items.<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> Occasional -reference can be usefully made to the lists of -George Bumstead, Ellis and White, John Camden -Hotten, all of London, and to those of -William George of Bristol. The latest extensive -Americana catalogue is <i>A catalogue of rare -and curious books, all of which relate more or less -to America</i>, on sale by F. S. Ellis, London, 1884. -It shows three hundred and forty-two titles, including -many of the rarer books, which are held -at prices startling even to one accustomed to the -rapid rise in the cost of books of this description. -Many of them were sold by auction in 1885.</p> - -<p>In France, since Ternaux, the most important -contribution has come from the house of -Maisonneuve et Cie., by whom the <i>Bibliotheca -Americana</i> of Charles Leclerc has been successively -issued to represent their extraordinary -stock. The first edition was printed in 1867 -(1,647 entries), the second in 1878<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> (2,638 entries, -with an admirable index), besides a first -supplement in 1881 (nos. 2,639-3,029). Mr. -Quaritch characterizes it as edited “with admirable -skill and knowledge.”</p> - -<p>Less important but useful lists, issued in -France, have been those of Hector Bossange, -Edwin Tross,<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> and the current <i>Americana</i> series -of Dufossé, which was begun in 1876.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p> - -<p>In Holland, most admirable work has been -done by Frederik Muller, of Amsterdam, and by -Mr. Asher, Mr. Tiele, and Mr. Otto Harrassowitz -under his patronage, of which ample accounts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxvii" id="Page_mxvii">[xvii]</a></span> -are given in another place.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> Muller’s -catalogues were begun in 1850, but did not reach -distinctive merit till 1872.<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> Martin Nijhoff, at -the Hague, has also issued some American catalogues.</p> - -<p>In 1858 Muller sold one of his collections of -Americana to Brockhaus, of Leipsic, and the -<i>Bibliothèque Américaine</i> issued by that publisher -in 1861, as representing this collection, was compiled -by one of the editors of the <i>Serapeum</i>, -Paul Trömel, whom Harrisse characterizes -as an “expert bibliographer and trustworthy -scholar.” The list shows 435 entries by a chronological -arrangement (1507-1700). Brockhaus -again, in 1866, issued another American list, -showing books since 1508, arranged topically -(nos. 7,261-8,611). Mr. Otto Harrassowitz, of -Leipsic, a pupil of Muller, of Amsterdam, has -also entered the field as a purveyor of choice -Americana. T. O. Weigel, of Leipsic, issued a -catalogue, largely American, in 1877.</p> - -<p class="p2">So well known are the general bibliographies -of Watt, Lowndes, Brunet, Graesse, and others, -that it is not necessary to point out their distinctive -merits.<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> Students in this field are familiar -with the catalogues of the chief American libraries. -The library of Harvard College has not -issued a catalogue since 1834, though it now prints -bulletins of its current accessions. An admirable -catalogue of the Boston Athenæum brings the -record of that collection down to 1871. The -numerous catalogues of the Boston Public Library -are of much use, especially the distinct -volume given to the Prince Collection. The -Massachusetts Historical Society’s library has -a catalogue printed in 1859-60. There has been -no catalogue of the American Antiquarian Society -since 1837, and the New England Historic Genealogical -Society has never printed any; nor has -the Congregational Library. The State Library -at Boston issued a catalogue in 1880. These libraries, -with the Carter-Brown Library at Providence, -which is courteously opened to students -properly introduced, probably make Boston -within easy distance of a larger proportion of -the books illustrating American history, than -can be reached with equal convenience from any -other literary centre. A book on the private libraries -of Boston was compiled by Luther Farnham -in 1855; but many of the private collections -then existing have since been scattered.<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> General -Horatio Rogers has made a similar record -of those in Providence. After the Carter-Brown -Collection, the most valuable of these private -libraries in New England is probably that of Mr. -Charles Deane in Cambridge, of which mention -has already been made. The collection of the -Rev. Henry M. Dexter, D.D., of New Bedford, -is probably unexampled in this country for the -history of the Congregational movement, which -so largely affected the early history of the English -Colonies.<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a></p> - -<p>Two other centres in the United States are -of the first importance in this respect. In Washington, -with the Library of Congress (of which -a general consolidated catalogue is now printing), -embracing as it does the collection formed -by Col. Peter Force, and supplementing the -archives of the Government, an investigator of -American history is situated extremely favorably.<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> -In New York the Astor and Lenox libraries, -with those of the New York Historical -Society and American Geographical Society, give -the student great opportunities. The catalogue -of the Astor Library was printed in 1857-66,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxviii" id="Page_mxviii">[xviii]</a></span> -and that of the Historical Society in 1859. No -general catalogue of the Lenox Library has yet -been printed. An account of the private libraries -of New York was published by Dr. Wynne -in 1860. The libraries of the chief importance -at the present time, in respect to American history, -are those of Mr. S. L. M. Barlow in New -York, and of Mr. James Carson Brevoort in -Brooklyn. Mr. Charles H. Kalbfleisch of New -York has a small collection, but it embraces -some of the rarest books. The New York State -Library at Albany is the chief of the libraries of -its class, and its principal characteristic pertains -to American history.</p> - -<p>The other chief American cities are of much -less importance as centres for historical research. -The Philadelphia Library and the collection of -the Historical Society of Pennsylvania are hardly -of distinctive value, except in regard to the history -of that State. In Baltimore the library of -the Peabody Institute, of which the first volume -of an excellent catalogue has been printed, and -that of the Maryland Historical Society are -scarcely sufficient for exhaustive research. The -private library of Mr. H. H. Bancroft constitutes -the only important resource of the Pacific -States;<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> and the most important collection in -Canada is that represented by the catalogue of -the Library of Parliament, which was printed in -1858.</p> - -<p>This enumeration is intended only to indicate -the chief places for ease of general -investigation in American history. Other localities -are rich in local helps, and accounts -of such will be found elsewhere in the present -History.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxix" id="Page_mxix">[xix]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="p4">INTRODUCTION.</h2> - -<p class="pc"><i>By the Editor.</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/d1.jpg" width="100" height="56" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Part II.</span> THE EARLY DESCRIPTIONS OF AMERICA AND COLLECTIVE -ACCOUNTS OF THE EARLY VOYAGES THERETO.</h3> - -<p class="drop-cap06">OF the earliest collection of voyages of -which we have any mention we possess -only a defective copy, which is in the Biblioteca -Marciana, and is called <i>Libretto de tutta -la navigazione del Rè di Spagna delle isole e terreni -nuovamente scoperti stampato per Vercellese</i>. -It was published at Venice in 1504,<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> and is said -to contain the first three voyages of Columbus. -This account, together with the narrative of -Cabral’s voyage printed at Rome and Milan, -and an original—at present unknown—of -Vespucius’ third voyage, were embodied, with -other matter, in the <i>Paesi novamente retrovati -et novo mondo da Alberico Vesputio Florentino -intitulato</i>, published at Vicentia in 1507,<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> and -again possibly at Vicentia in 1508,—though -the evidence is wanting to support the statement,—but -certainly at Milan in that year<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxx" id="Page_mxx">[xx]</a></span> -(1508).<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> There were later editions in 1512,<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> -1517,<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> 1519<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> (published at Milan), and 1521.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> -There are also German,<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> Low German,<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> Latin,<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> -and French<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> translations.</p> - -<p>While this Zorzi-Montalboddo compilation -was flourishing, an Italian scholar, domiciled in -Spain, was recording, largely at first hand, the -varied reports of the voyages which were then -opening a new existence to the world. This -was Peter Martyr, of whom Harrisse<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> cites an -early and quaint sketch from Hernando Alonso -de Herrera’s <i>Disputatio adversus Aristotelez</i> -(1517).<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> The general historians have always -made due acknowledgment of his service to -them.<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a></p> - -<p>Harrisse could find no evidence of Martyr’s -First Decade having been printed at Seville as -early as 1500, as is sometimes stated; but it has -been held that a translation of it,—though no -copy is now known,—made by Angelo Trigviano -into Italian was the <i>Libretto de tutta la -navigazione del Rè di Spagna</i>, already mentioned.<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> -The earliest unquestioned edition was -that of 1511, which was printed at Seville with -the title <i>Legatio Babylonica</i>; it contained nine -books and a part of the tenth book of the First -Decade.<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> In 1516 a new edition, without map, -was printed at Alcalá in Roman letter. The -part of the tenth book of the First Decade in -the 1511 edition is here annexed to the ninth, -and a new tenth book is added, besides two other -decades, making three in all.<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxxi" id="Page_mxxi">[xxi]</a></span></p> - -<p>There exists what has been called a German -version (<i>Die Schiffung mitt dem lanndt der Gulden -Insel</i>) of the First Decade, in which the -supposed author is called Johan von Angliara; -and its date is 1520, or thereabout; but Mr. -Deane, who has the book, -says that it is not Martyr’s.<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> -Some <i>Poemata</i>, which had -originally been included in -the publication of the First -Decade, were separately -printed in 1520.<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a></p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-033.jpg" width="250" height="387" id="ixxi" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="cf"><p class="pc250">TITLE OF THE NEWE UNBEKANTHE LANDTE (REDUCED).</p> -</div></div> - -<p>At Basle in 1521 appeared -his <i>De nuper sub D. Carolo -repertis insulis</i>, the title of -which is annexed in fac-simile. -Harrisse<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> has called -it an extract from the Fourth -Decade; and a similar statement -is made in the <i>Carter-Brown -Catalogue</i> (vol. i. no. -67). But Stevens and other -authorities define it as a substitute -for the lost First Letter -of Cortes, touching the -expedition of Grijalva and -the invasion of Mexico; and -it supplements, rather than -overlaps, Martyr’s other narratives.<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> -Mr. Deane contends -that if the Fourth Decade had -then been written, this might -well be considered an abridgment -of it.</p> - -<p>The first complete edition -(<i>De orbe novo</i>) of all the eight -decades was published in 1530 -at Complutum; and with it is -usually found the map (“Tipus -orbis universalis”) of -Apianus, which originally appeared -in Camer’s <i>Solinus</i> in -1520. In this new issue the -map has its date changed to -1530.<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a></p> - -<p>In 1532, at Paris, appeared -an abridgment in French of -the first three decades, together -with an abstract of Martyr’s <i>De insulis</i> -(Basle, 1521), followed by abridgments of the -printed second and third letters of Cortes,—the -whole bearing the title, <i>Extraict ov Recveil des -Isles nouuellemēt trouuees en la grand mer Oceane<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxxii" id="Page_mxxii">[xxii]</a></span> -en temps du roy Despaigne Fernād & Elizabeth -sa femme, faict premierement en latin par Pierre -Martyr de Millan, & depuis translate en languaige -francoys</i>.<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-034.jpg" width="400" height="547" id="ixxii" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc"></p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxxiii" id="Page_mxxiii">[xxiii]</a></span></p> - -<p>In 1533, at Basle, in folio, we find the first -three decades and the tract of 1521 (<i>De insulis</i>) -united in <i>De rebus oceanicis et orbe novo</i>.<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a></p> - -<p>At Venice, in 1534, the <i>Summario de la generale -historia de l’Indie occidentali</i> was a joint -issue of Martyr and Oviedo, under the editing -of Ramusio.<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> An edition of Martyr, published -at Paris in 1536, sometimes mentioned,<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> does -not apparently exist;<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> but an edition of 1537 -is noted by Sabin.<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> In 1555 Richard Eden’s -<i>Decades of the Newe Worlde, or West India</i>, appeared -in black-letter at London. It is made up -in large part from Martyr,<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> and was the basis -of Richard Willes’ edition of Eden in 1577, -which included the first four decades, and an -abridgment of the last four, with additions from -Oviedo and others,—all under the new name, -<i>The History of Trauayle</i>.<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a></p> - -<p>There was an edition again at Cologne in -1574,—the one which Robertson used.<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> Three -decades and the <i>De insulis</i> are also included in -a composite folio published at Basle in 1582, -containing also Benzoni and Levinus, all in -German.<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> The entire eight decades, in Latin, -which had not been printed together since the -Basle edition of 1530, were published in Paris -in 1587 under the editing of Richard Hakluyt, -with the title: <i>De orbe novo Petri Martyris -Anglerii Mediolanensis, protonotarij, et Caroli -quinti senatoris Decades octo, diligenti temporum -obseruatione, et vtilissimis annotationibus illustratæ, -suôque nitori restitutæ, labore et industria -Richardi Haklvyti Oxoniensis Angli. Additus -est in vsum lectoris accuratus totius operis index</i>. -Parisiis, apud Gvillelmvm Avvray, 1587. With -its “F. G.” map, it is exceedingly rare.<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxxiv" id="Page_mxxiv">[xxiv]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-036.jpg" width="400" height="500" id="ixxiv" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">GRYNÆUS.</p> - <p class="pf400">Fac-simile of cut in Reusner’s <i>Icones</i> (Strasburg, 1590), p. 107.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>As illustrating in some sort his more labored -work, the <i>Opus epistolarum Petri Martyris</i> was -first printed at Complutum in 1530.<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> The letters -were again published at Amsterdam, in 1670,<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> in -an edition which had the care of Ch. Patin, to -which was appended other letters by Fernando -del Pulgar.<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a></p> - -<p>The most extensive of the early collections -was the <i>Novus orbis</i>, which was issued in -separate editions at Basle and Paris in 1532. -Simon Grynæus, a learned professor at Basle, -signed the preface; and it usually passes under -his name. Grynæus was born in Swabia, was a -friend of Luther, visited England in 1531, and -died in Basle, in 1541. The compilation, however, -is the work of a canon of Strasburg, -John Huttich (born about 1480; died, 1544), -but the labor of revision fell on Grynæus.<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> It -has the first three voyages of Columbus, and -those of Pinzon and Vespucius; the rest of the -book is taken up with the travels of Marco -Polo and his successors to the East.<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxxv" id="Page_mxxv">[xxv]</a></span> -next appeared in a German translation at Strasburg -in 1534, which was made by Michal Herr, -<i>Die New Welt</i>. It has no map, gives more from -Martyr than the other edition, and substitutes -a preface by Herr for that of Grynæus.<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> The -original Latin was reproduced at Basle again in -1537, with 1536 in the colophon.<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> In 1555 -another edition was printed at Basle, enlarged -upon the 1537 edition by the insertion of the -second and third of the Cortes letters and some -accounts of efforts in converting the Indians.<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> -Those portions relating to America exclusively -were reprinted in the Latin at Rotterdam in -1616.<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a></p> - -<p>Sebastian Münster, who was born in 1489, -was forty-three years old when his map of the -world—which is preserved in the Paris (1532) -edition of the <i>Novus orbis</i>—appeared. This is -the first time that Münster significantly comes -before us as a describer of the geography of the -New World. Again in 1540 and 1542 he was associated -with the editions of Ptolemy issued at -Basle in those years.<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> It is, however, upon his -<i>Cosmographia</i>, among his forty books, that Münster’s -fame chiefly rests. The earliest editions -are extremely rare, and seem not to be clearly -defined by the bibliographers. It appears to -have been originally issued in German, probably -in 1544 at Basle,<a name="FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> under the mixed title: <i>Cosmographia. -Beschreibūg aller lender Durch Sebastianum -Munsterum. Getruckt zü Basel durch -Henrichum Petri, Anno MDxliiij.</i><a name="FNanchor_175_175" id="FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> He says -that he had been engaged upon it for eighteen -years, keeping Strabo before him as a model. -To the section devoted to Asia he adds a -few pages “Von den neüwen inseln” (folios<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxxvi" id="Page_mxxvi">[xxvi]</a></span> -dcxxxv-dcxlij).</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-038.jpg" width="400" height="502" id="ixxvi" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">MÜNSTER.</p> - <p class="pf400">Fac-simile of the cut in the <i>Ptolemy</i> of 1552.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>This account was scant; and -though it was a little enlarged in the second -edition in 1545,<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id="FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> it remained of small extent -through subsequent editions, and was confined -to ten pages in that of 1614. The last of the -German editions appeared in 1628.<a name="FNanchor_177_177" id="FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> The earliest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxxvii" id="Page_mxxvii">[xxvii]</a></span> -undoubted Latin text<a name="FNanchor_178_178" id="FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> appeared at Basle in -1550, with the same series of new views, etc., -by Manuel Deutsch, which were given in the -German edition of that date.<a name="FNanchor_179_179" id="FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> With nothing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxxviii" id="Page_mxxviii">[xxviii]</a></span> -but a change of title apparently, there were -reissues of this edition in 1551, 1552, and 1554,<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> -and again in 1559.<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id="FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> The edition of 1572 has -the same map, “Novæ insulæ,” used in the 1554 -editions; but new names are added, and new -plates of Cusco and Cuba are also furnished.<a name="FNanchor_182_182" id="FNanchor_182_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-039.jpg" width="400" height="616" id="ixxvii" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">MÜNSTER.</p> - <p class="pf400">Fac-simile of a cut in Reusner’s <i>Icones</i> (Strasburg, 1590), p. 171.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The earliest French edition, according to Brunet,<a name="FNanchor_183_183" id="FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> -appeared in 1552; and other editions followed -in that language.<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id="FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> Eden gave the fifth -book an English dress in 1553, which was again -issued in 1572 and 1574.<a name="FNanchor_185_185" id="FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> A Bohemian edition, -made by Jan z Puchowa, <i>Kozmograffia Czieská</i>, -was issued in 1554.<a name="FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> The first Italian edition -was printed at Basle in 1558, using the engraved -plates of the other Basle issues; and finally, in -1575, an Italian edition, according to Brunet,<a name="FNanchor_187_187" id="FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> -appeared at Colonia.</p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-041.jpg" width="250" height="323" id="ixxix" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="cf"><p class="pc">MONARDES.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The best-known collection of voyages of the -sixteenth century is that of Ramusio, whose -third volume—compiled probably in 1553, and -printed in 1556—is given exclusively to American -voyages.<a name="FNanchor_188_188" id="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> It contains, however, little regarding -Columbus not given by Peter Martyr -and Oviedo, except the letter to Fracastoro.<a name="FNanchor_189_189" id="FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> -In Ramusio the narratives of these early voyages -first got a careful and considerate editor,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxxix" id="Page_mxxix">[xxix]</a></span> -who at this time was ripe in knowledge and -experience, for he was well beyond sixty,<a name="FNanchor_190_190" id="FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> and -he had given his maturer years to historical -and geographical study. He had at one time -maintained a school for topographical -studies in his own house. -Oviedo tells us of the assistance -Ramusio was to him in his work. -Locke has praised his labors without -stint.<a name="FNanchor_191_191" id="FNanchor_191_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a></p> - -<p>Monardes, one of the distinguished -Spanish physicians of this -time, was busy seeking for the simples -and curatives of the New -World plants, as the adventurers to -New Spain brought them back. The -original issue of his work was the -<i>Dos Libros</i>, published at Seville in -1565, treating “of all things brought -from our West Indies which are -used in medicine, and of the Bezaar -Stone, and the herb Escuerçonera.” -This book is become rare, -and is priced as high as 200 francs -and £9.<a name="FNanchor_192_192" id="FNanchor_192_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> The “segunda parte” is -sometimes found separately with the -date 1571; but in 1574 a third part -was printed with the other two,—making -the complete work, <i>Historia -medicinal de nuestras Indias</i>,—and -these were again issued in 1580.<a name="FNanchor_193_193" id="FNanchor_193_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> -An Italian version, by Annibale Briganti, -appeared at Venice in 1575 -and 1589,<a name="FNanchor_194_194" id="FNanchor_194_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a> and a French, with Du -Jardin, in 1602.<a name="FNanchor_195_195" id="FNanchor_195_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> There were three -English editions printed under the -title of <i>Joyfull Newes out of the newe -founde world, wherein is declared -the rare and singular virtues of diverse -and sundry Herbes, Trees, Oyles, Plantes, -and Stones, by Doctor Monardus of Sevill, Englished -by John Frampton</i>, which first appeared -in 1577, and was reprinted in 1580, with additions -from Monardes’ other tracts, and again in -1596.<a name="FNanchor_196_196" id="FNanchor_196_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a></p> - -<p>The Spanish historians of affairs in Mexico, -Peru, and Florida are grouped in the <i>Hispanicarum -rerum scriptores</i>, published at Frankfort -in 1579-1581, in three volumes.<a name="FNanchor_197_197" id="FNanchor_197_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a> Of Richard -Hakluyt and his several collections,—the <i>Divers -Voyages</i> of 1582, the <i>Principall Navigations</i> of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxxx" id="Page_mxxx">[xxx]</a></span> -1589, and his enlarged edition, of which the -third volume (1600) relates to America,—there -is an account in Vol. III. of the present work.<a name="FNanchor_198_198" id="FNanchor_198_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-042.jpg" width="400" height="479" id="ixxx" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">PORTRAIT OF DE BRY.</p> - <p class="pf400">This follows a print given in fac-simile in the <i>Carter-Brown Catalogue</i>, i. 316.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The great undertaking of De Bry was also -begun towards the close of the same century. -De Bry was an engraver at Frankfort, and his -professional labors had made him acquainted -with works of travel. The influence of Hakluyt -and a visit to the English editor stimulated -him to undertake a task similar to that of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxxxi" id="Page_mxxxi">[xxxi]</a></span> -the English compiler.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-043.jpg" width="400" height="489" id="ixxxi" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">FEYERABEND.</p> - <p class="pf400">Sigmund Feyerabend was a prominent bookseller of his day in Frankfort, and was born about 1527 or -1528. He was an engraver himself, and was associated with De Bry in the publications of his <i>Voyages</i>.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>He resolved to include -both the Old and New World; and -he finally produced his volumes simultaneously -in Latin and German. As he gave a larger -size to the American parts than to the others, -the commonly used title, referring to this difference, -was soon established as <i>Grands et petits -voyages</i>.<a name="FNanchor_199_199" id="FNanchor_199_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> Theodore De Bry himself died in -March, 1598; but the work was carried forward -by his widow, by his sons John Theodore and -John Israel, and by his sons-in-law Matthew -Merian and William Fitzer. The task was not -finished till 1634, when twenty-five parts had -been printed in the Latin, of which thirteen pertain -to America; but the German has one more -part in the American series. His first part—which -was Hariot’s <i>Virginia</i>—was printed not -only in Latin and German, but also in the -original English<a name="FNanchor_200_200" id="FNanchor_200_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> and in French; but there -seeming to be no adequate demand in these -languages, the subsequent issues were confined -to Latin and German. There was a gap in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxxxii" id="Page_mxxxii">[xxxii]</a></span> -dates of publication between 1600 (when the -ninth part is called “postrema pars”) and 1619-1620, -when the tenth and eleventh parts appeared -at Oppenheim, and a twelfth at Frankfort -in 1624. A thirteenth and fourteenth part -appeared in German in 1628 and 1630; and -these, translated together into Latin, completed -the Latin series in 1634.</p> - -<p>Without attempting any bibliographical description,<a name="FNanchor_201_201" id="FNanchor_201_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> -the succession and editions of the -American parts will be briefly enumerated:—</p> - -<div class="pbq"> -<p class="p1"><b>I.</b> <i>Hariot’s Virginia.</i> In Latin, English, German, -and French, in 1590; four or more impressions of the -Latin the same year. Other editions of the German in -1600 and 1620.</p> - -<p><b>II</b>. <i>Le Moyne’s Florida.</i> In Latin, 1591 and 1609; in -German, 1591, 1603.</p> - -<p><b>III.</b> <i>Von Staden’s Brazil.</i> In Latin, 1592, 1605, 1630; -in German, 1593 (twice).</p> - -<p><b>IV.</b> <i>Benzoni’s New World.</i> In Latin, 1594 (twice), -1644; in German, 1594, 1613.</p> - -<p><b>V.</b> <i>Continuation of Benzoni.</i> In Latin, 1595 (twice); in -German, two editions without date, probably 1595 and 1613.</p> - -<p><b>VI.</b> <i>Continuation of Benzoni (Peru).</i> In Latin, 1596, -1597, 1617; in German, 1597, 1619.</p> - -<p><b>VII.</b> <i>Schmidel’s Brazil.</i> In Latin, 1599, 1625; in -German, 1597, 1600, 1617.</p> - -<p><b>VIII.</b> <i>Drake, Candish, and Ralegh.</i> In Latin, 1599 -(twice), 1625; in German, 1599, 1624.</p> - -<p><b>IX.</b> <i>Acosta</i>, etc. In Latin, 1602, 1633; in German, -probably 1601; “additamentum,” 1602; and again entire -after 1620.</p> - -<p><b>X.</b> <i>Vespucius, Hamor, and John Smith.</i> In Latin, -1619 (twice); in German, 1618.</p> - -<p><b>XI.</b> <i>Schouten and Spilbergen.</i> In Latin, 1619,—appendix, -1620; in German, 1619,—appendix, 1620.</p> - -<p><b>XII.</b> <i>Herrera.</i> In Latin, 1624; in German, 1623.</p> - -<p><b>XIII.</b> <i>Miscellaneous</i>,—<i>Cabot</i>, etc. In Latin, 1634; -in German, the first seven sections in 1627 (sometimes -1628); and sections 8-15 in 1630.</p> - -<p class="p1"><i>Elenchus: Historia Americæ sive Novus orbis</i>, 1634 -(three issues). This is a table of the Contents to the edition -which Merian was selling in 1634 under a collective title.</p> -</div> - -<p class="p1">The foregoing enumeration makes no recognition -of the almost innumerable varieties caused -by combination, which sometimes pass for new -editions. Some of the editions of the same date -are usually called “counterfeits;” and there are -doubts, even, if some of those here named really -deserve recognition as distinct editions.<a name="FNanchor_202_202" id="FNanchor_202_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxxxiii" id="Page_mxxxiii">[xxxiii]</a></span></p> - -<p>While there is distinctive merit in De Bry’s -collection, which caused it to have a due effect -in its day on the progress of geographical -knowledge,<a name="FNanchor_203_203" id="FNanchor_203_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a> it must be confessed that a certain -meretricious reputation has become attached -to the work as the test of a collector’s assiduity, -and of his supply of money, quite disproportioned -to the relative use of the collection -in these days to a student. This artificial appreciation -has no doubt been largely due to -the engravings, which form so attractive a feature -in the series, and which, while they in -many cases are the honest rendering of genuine -sketches, are certainly in not a few the merest -fancy of some designer.<a name="FNanchor_204_204" id="FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a></p> - -<p>There are several publications of the De -Brys sometimes found grouped with the <i>Voyages</i> -as a part, though not properly so, of the series. -Such are Las Casas’ <i>Narratio regionum Indicarum</i>; -the voyages of the “Silberne Welt,” by -Arthus von Dantzig, and of Olivier van Noort;<a name="FNanchor_205_205" id="FNanchor_205_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> -the <i>Rerum et urbis Amstelodamensium historia</i> -of Pontanus, with its Dutch voyages to the -north; and the <i>Navigations aux Indes par les -Hollandois</i>.<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id="FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a></p> - -<p>Another of De Bry’s editors, Gasper Ens, -published in 1680 his <i>West-unnd-Ost Indischer -Lustgart</i>, which is a summary of the sources -of American history.<a name="FNanchor_207_207" id="FNanchor_207_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a></p> - -<p>There are various abridgments of De Bry. -The earliest is Ziegler’s <i>America</i>, Frankfort, -1614,<a name="FNanchor_208_208" id="FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> which is made up from the first nine -parts of the German <i>Grands Voyages</i>. The -<i>Historia antipodum, oder Newe Welt</i> (1631), is -the first twelve parts condensed by Johann -Ludwig Gottfried, otherwise known as Johann -Phillippe Abelin, who was, in Merian’s day, -a co-laborer on the <i>Voyages</i>. He uses a large -number of the plates from the larger work.<a name="FNanchor_209_209" id="FNanchor_209_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a> -The chief rival collection of De Bry is that of -Hulsius, which is described elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_210_210" id="FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a></p> - -<p>Collections now became numerous. Conrad -Löw’s <i>Meer oder Seehanen Buch</i> was published -at Cologne in 1598.<a name="FNanchor_211_211" id="FNanchor_211_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a> The Dutch Collection of -Voyages, issued by Cornelius Claesz, appeared -in uniform style between 1598 and 1603, but -it never had a collective title. It gives the -voyages of Cavendish and Drake.<a name="FNanchor_212_212" id="FNanchor_212_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a></p> - -<p>It was well into the next century (1613) when -Purchas began his publications, of which there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxxxiv" id="Page_mxxxiv">[xxxiv]</a></span> -is an account elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_213_213" id="FNanchor_213_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a> Hieronymus Megiser’s -<i>Septentrio novantiquus</i> was published at -Leipsic in 1613. In a single volume it gave -the Zeni and later accounts of the North, besides -narratives pertaining to New France and -Virginia.<a name="FNanchor_214_214" id="FNanchor_214_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> The <i>Journalen van de Reysen op -Oostindie</i> of Michael Colijn, published at Amsterdam -in 1619, is called by Muller<a name="FNanchor_215_215" id="FNanchor_215_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> the first -series of voyages published in Dutch with a -collective title. It includes, notwithstanding the -title, Cavendish, Drake, and Raleigh. Another -Dutch folio, Herckmans’ <i>Der Zeevaert lof</i>, etc. -(Amsterdam, 1634), does not include any American -voyages.<a name="FNanchor_216_216" id="FNanchor_216_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> The celebrated Dutch collection, -edited by Isaac Commelin, at Amsterdam, and -known as the <i>Begin en Voortgangh van de Oost-Indische -Compagnie</i>, would seem originally to -have included, among its voyages to the East -and North,<a name="FNanchor_217_217" id="FNanchor_217_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> those of Raleigh and Cavendish; -but they were later omitted.<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id="FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a></p> - -<p>The collection of Thevenot was issued in -1663; but this has been described elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_219_219" id="FNanchor_219_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> -The collection usually cited as Dapper’s was -printed at Amsterdam, 1669-1729, in folio -(thirteen volumes). It has no collective title, -but among the volumes are two touching -America,—the <i>Beschrijvinge</i> of Montanus,<a name="FNanchor_220_220" id="FNanchor_220_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> and -Nienhof’s <i>Brasiliaansche Zee-en Lantreize</i>.<a name="FNanchor_221_221" id="FNanchor_221_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> A -small collection, <i>Recueil de divers voyages faits -en Africa et en l’Amérique</i>,<a name="FNanchor_222_222" id="FNanchor_222_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a> was published -in Paris by Billaine in 1674. It includes -Blome’s Jamaica, Laborde on the Caribs, etc. -Some of the later American voyages were also -printed in the second edition of a Swedish -<i>Reesa-book</i>, printed at Wysingzborg in 1674, -1675.<a name="FNanchor_223_223" id="FNanchor_223_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> The Italian collection, <i>Il genio vagante</i>, -was printed at Parma in 1691-1693, in -four volumes.</p> - -<p><i>An Account of Several Voyages</i> (London, 1694) -gives Narborough’s to Magellan’s Straits, and -Marten’s to Greenland.</p> - -<p>The important English <i>Collection of Voyages -and Travels</i> which passes under the name of -its publisher, Churchill, took its earliest form -in 1704, appearing in four volumes; but was -afterwards increased by two additional volumes -in 1733, and by two more in 1744,—these last, -sometimes called the <i>Oxford Voyages</i>, being -made up from material in the library of the -Earl of Oxford. It was reissued complete in -1752. It has an introductory discourse by -Caleb Locke; and this, and some other of its -contents, constitutes the <i>Histoire de la navigation</i>, -Paris, 1722.<a name="FNanchor_224_224" id="FNanchor_224_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a></p> - -<p>John Harris, an English divine, had compiled -a <i>Collection of Voyages</i> in 1702 which was -a rival of Churchill’s, differing from it in being -an historical summary of all voyages, instead -of a collection of some. Harris wrote the Introduction; -but it is questionable how much -else he had to do with it.<a name="FNanchor_225_225" id="FNanchor_225_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a> It was revised and -reissued in 1744-1748 by Dr. John Campbell, -and in this form it is often regarded as a supplement -to Churchill.<a name="FNanchor_226_226" id="FNanchor_226_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a> It was reprinted in two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxxxv" id="Page_mxxxv">[xxxv]</a></span> -volumes, folio, with continuations to date, in -1764.<a name="FNanchor_227_227" id="FNanchor_227_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a></p> - -<p>The well-known Dutch collection (<i>Voyagien</i>) -of Vander Aa was printed at Leyden in 1706, -1707. It gives voyages to all parts of the world -made between 1246 and 1693. He borrows from -Herrera, Acosta, Purchas, De Bry, and all available -sources, and illuminates the whole with -about five hundred maps and plates. In its -original form it made twenty-eight, sometimes -thirty, volumes of small size, in black-letter, -and eight volumes in folio, both editions being -issued at the same time and from the same type. -In this larger form the voyages are arranged by -nations; and it was the unsold copies of this -edition which, with a new general title, constitutes -the edition of 1727. In the smaller form -the arrangement is chronological. In the folio -edition the voyages to Spanish America previous -to 1540 constitute volumes three and four; -while the English voyages, to 1696, are in volumes -five and six.<a name="FNanchor_228_228" id="FNanchor_228_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a></p> - -<p>In 1707 Du Perier’s <i>Histoire universelle des -voyages</i> had not so wide a scope as its title indicated, -being confined to the early Spanish -voyages to America;<a name="FNanchor_229_229" id="FNanchor_229_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> the proposed subsequent -volumes not having been printed. An English -translation, under Du Perier’s name, was issued -in London in 1708;<a name="FNanchor_230_230" id="FNanchor_230_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a> but when reissued in 1711, -with a different title, it credited the authorship -to the Abbé Bellegarde.<a name="FNanchor_231_231" id="FNanchor_231_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> In 1711, also, Captain -John Stevens published in London his <i>New -Collection of Voyages</i>; but Lawson’s Carolina -and Cieza’s Peru were the only American sections.<a name="FNanchor_232_232" id="FNanchor_232_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> -In 1715 the French collection known -as Bernard’s <i>Recueil de voiages au Nord</i>, was -begun at Amsterdam. A pretty wide interpretation -is given to the restricted designation of -the title, and voyages to California, Louisiana, -the Upper Mississippi (Hennepin), Virginia, -and Georgia are included.<a name="FNanchor_233_233" id="FNanchor_233_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> Daniel Coxe, in -1741, united in one volume <i>A Collection of Voyages</i>, -three of which he had already printed -separately, including Captain James’s to the -Northwest. A single volume of a collection -called <i>The American Traveller</i> appeared in -London in 1743.<a name="FNanchor_234_234" id="FNanchor_234_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a></p> - -<p>The collection known as <i>Astley’s Voyages</i> -was published in London in four volumes in -1745-1747; the editor was John Green, whose -name is sometimes attached to the work. It -gives the travels of Marco Polo, but has nothing -of the early voyages to America,<a name="FNanchor_235_235" id="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a>—these -being intended for later volumes, were never -printed. These four volumes were translated, -with some errors and omissions, into French, -and constitute the first nine volumes of the -Abbé Prevost’s <i>Histoire générale des voyages</i>, -begun in Paris in 1746, and completed, in twenty -quarto volumes, in 1789.<a name="FNanchor_236_236" id="FNanchor_236_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a> An octavo edition -was printed (1749-1770) in seventy-five volumes.<a name="FNanchor_237_237" id="FNanchor_237_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_237_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a> -It was again reprinted at the Hague in -twenty-five volumes quarto (1747-1780), with -considerable revision, following the original English, -and with Green’s assistance; besides showing -some additions. The Dutch editor was -P. de Hondt, who also issued an edition in Dutch -in twenty-one volumes quarto,—including, however, -only the first seventeen volumes of his -French edition, thus omitting those chiefly concerning -America.<a name="FNanchor_238_238" id="FNanchor_238_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a> A small collection of little -moment, <i>A New Universal Collection of Voyages</i>, -appeared in London in 1755.<a name="FNanchor_239_239" id="FNanchor_239_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_239_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> De Brosses’ Histoire -des navigations aux terres australes depuis -1501 (Paris, 1756), two volumes quarto, covers -Vespucius, Magellan, Drake, and Cavendish.<a name="FNanchor_240_240" id="FNanchor_240_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxxxvi" id="Page_mxxxvi">[xxxvi]</a></span></p> - -<p>Several English collections appeared in the -next few years; among which are <i>The World -Displayed</i> (London, 1759-1761), twenty vols. -16mo,—of which seven volumes are on American -voyages, compiled from the larger collections,<a name="FNanchor_241_241" id="FNanchor_241_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a>—and -<i>A Curious Collection of Travels</i> -(London, 1761) is in eight volumes, three of -which are devoted to America.<a name="FNanchor_242_242" id="FNanchor_242_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_242_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a></p> - -<p>The Abbé de la Porte’s <i>Voyageur François</i>, -in forty-two volumes, 1765-1795 (there are other -dates), may be mentioned to warn the student of -its historical warp with a fictitious woof.<a name="FNanchor_243_243" id="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> John -Barrows’ <i>Collection of Voyages</i> (London, 1765), in -three small volumes, was translated into French -by Targe under the title of <i>Abrégé chronologique</i>. -John Callender’s <i>Voyages to the Terra australis</i> -(London, 1766-1788), three volumes, translated -for the first time a number of the narratives in De -Bry, Hulsius, and Thevenot. It gives the voyages -of Vespucius, Magellan, Drake, Galle, -Cavendish, Hawkins, and others.<a name="FNanchor_244_244" id="FNanchor_244_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> Dodsley’s -<i>Compendium of Voyages</i> was published in the -same year (1766) in seven volumes.<a name="FNanchor_245_245" id="FNanchor_245_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a> The <i>New -Collection of Voyages</i>, generally referred to as -Knox’s, from the publisher’s name, appeared in -seven volumes in 1767, the first three volumes -covering American explorations.<a name="FNanchor_246_246" id="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> In 1770 Edward -Cavendish Drake’s <i>New Universal Collection -of Voyages</i> was published at London. The -narratives are concise, and of a very popular -character.<a name="FNanchor_247_247" id="FNanchor_247_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_247_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> David Henry, a magazinist of the -day, published in 1773-1774 <i>An Historical Account -of all the Voyages Round the World by English -Navigators</i>, beginning with Drake and Cavendish.<a name="FNanchor_248_248" id="FNanchor_248_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a></p> - -<p>La Harpe issued in Paris, 1780-1801, in -thirty-two volumes,—Comeyras editing the last -eleven,—his <i>Abrégé de l’histoire générale des voyages</i>, -which proved a more readable and popular -book than Prévost’s collection. There have -been later editions and continuations.<a name="FNanchor_249_249" id="FNanchor_249_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a></p> - -<p>Johann Reinhold Forster made a positive -contribution to this field of compilation when -he printed his <i>Geschichte der Entdeckungen und -Schifffahrten im Norden</i> at Frankfort in 1785.<a name="FNanchor_250_250" id="FNanchor_250_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_250_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> -He goes back to the earliest explorations, and -considers the credibility of the Zeno narrative. -He starts with Gomez for the Spanish section. -A French collection by Berenger, <i>Voyages faits -autour du monde</i> (Paris, 1788-1789), is very scant -on Magellan, Drake, and Cavendish. A collection -was published in London (1789) by Richardson -on the voyages of the Portuguese and -Spaniards during the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries. Mavor’s <i>Voyages, Travels, and Discoveries</i> -(London, 1796-1802), twenty-five volumes, -is a condensed treatment, which passed to -other editions in 1810 and 1813-1815.</p> - -<p>A standard compilation appeared in John -Pinkerton’s <i>General Collection of Voyages</i> (London, -1808-1814), in seventeen volumes,<a name="FNanchor_251_251" id="FNanchor_251_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> with over two -hundred maps and plates, repeating the essential -English narratives of earlier collections, and -translating those from foreign languages afresh, -preserving largely the language of the explorers. -Pinkerton, as an editor, was learned, but somewhat -pedantic and over-confident; and a certain -agglutinizing habit indicates a process of amassment -rather than of selection and assimilation. -Volumes xii., xiii., and xiv. are given to America; -but the operations of the Spaniards on the -main, and particularly on the Pacific coast of -North America, are rather scantily chronicled.<a name="FNanchor_252_252" id="FNanchor_252_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a></p> - -<p>In 1808 was begun, under the supervision of -Malte-Brun and others, the well-known <i>Annales -des voyages</i>, which was continued to 1815, making -twenty-five volumes. A new series, <i>Nouvelles -annales des voyages</i>, was begun in 1819. The -whole work is an important gathering of original -sources and learned comment, and is in considerable -part devoted to America. A French <i>Collection -abrégée des voyages</i>, by Bancarel, appeared -in Paris in 1808-1809, in twelve volumes.</p> - -<p><i>The Collection of the best Voyages and Travels</i>, -compiled by Robert Kerr, and published in -Edinburgh in 1811-1824, in eighteen octavo volumes, -is a useful one, though the scheme was -not wholly carried out. It includes an historical -essay on the progress of navigation and discovery -by W. Stevenson. It also includes among -others the Northmen and Zeni voyages, the travels -of Marco Polo and Galvano, the African discoveries -of the Portuguese. The voyages of -Columbus and his successors begin in vol. iii.;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxxxvii" id="Page_mxxxvii">[xxxvii]</a></span> -and the narratives of these voyages are continued -through vol. vi., though those of Drake, -Cavendish, Hawkins, Davis, Magellan, and -others come later in the series.</p> - -<p>The <i>Histoire générale des voyages</i>, undertaken -by C. A. Walkenaer in 1826, was stopped in 1831, -after twenty-one octavos had been printed, without -exhausting the African portion.</p> - -<p>The early Dutch voyages are commemorated -in Bennet and Wijk’s <i>Nederlandsche Ontdekkingen -in America</i>, etc., which was issued at Utrecht -in 1827,<a name="FNanchor_253_253" id="FNanchor_253_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> and in their <i>Nederlandsche Zeereizen</i>, -printed at Dordrecht in 1828-1830, in five volumes -octavo. It contains Linschoten, Hudson, etc.</p> - -<p>Albert Montémont’s <i>Bibliothèque universelle -des voyages</i> was published in Paris, 1833-1836, in -forty-six volumes.</p> - -<p>G. A. Wimmer’s <i>Die Enthüllung des Erdkreises</i> -(Vienna, 1834), five volumes octavo, is a -general summary, which gives in the last two -volumes the voyages to America and to the -South Seas.<a name="FNanchor_254_254" id="FNanchor_254_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_254_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a></p> - -<p>In 1837 Henri Ternaux-Compans began the -publication of his <i>Voyages, relations, et mémoires -originaux pour servir à l’histoire de la découverte -de l’Amérique</i>, of which an account is given on -another page (see p. vi).</p> - -<p>The collection of F. C. Marmocchi, <i>Raccolta -di viaggi dalla scoperta del Nuevo Continente</i>, was -published at Prato in 1840-1843, in five volumes; -it includes the Navarrete collection on Columbus, -Xeres on Pizarro, and other of the Spanish -narratives.<a name="FNanchor_255_255" id="FNanchor_255_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> The last volume of a collection in -twelve volumes published in Paris, <i>Nouvelle bibliothèque -des voyages</i>, is also given to America.</p> - -<p>The Hakluyt Society in London began its -valuable series of publications in 1847, and has -admirably kept up its work to the present time, -having issued its volumes generally under satisfactory -editing. Its publications are not sold -outside of its membership, except at second -hand.<a name="FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a></p> - -<p>Under the editing of José Ferrer de Couto -and José March y Labores, and with the royal -patronage, a <i>Historia de la marina real Española</i> -was published in Madrid, in two volumes, 1849 -and 1854. It relates the early voyages.<a name="FNanchor_257_257" id="FNanchor_257_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> Édouard -Charton’s <i>Voyageurs anciens et modernes</i> -was published in four volumes in Paris, 1855-1857; -and it passed subsequently to a new -edition.<a name="FNanchor_258_258" id="FNanchor_258_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a></p> - -<p>A summarized account of the Portuguese and -Spanish discoveries, from Prince Henry to -Pizarro, was published in German by Theodor -Vogel, and also in English in 1877.</p> - -<p>A <i>Nouvelle histoire des voyages</i>, by Richard -Cortambert, is the latest and most popular presentation -of the subject, opening with the explorations -of Columbus and his successors; and -Édouard Cat’s <i>Les grandes découvertes maritimes -du treizième au seizième siècle</i> (Paris, 1882) is -another popular book.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_mxxxviii" id="Page_mxxxviii">[xxxviii]</a><br /><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p class="pc4 large">NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL</p> - -<p class="pc xlarge">HISTORY OF AMERICA</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/d1.jpg" width="100" height="56" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2> - -<p class="pch">THE GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE ANCIENTS -CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THE DISCOVERY OF -AMERICA.</p> - -<p class="pc">BY WILLIAM H. TILLINGHAST,</p> - -<p class="pc reduct"><i>Assistant Librarian of Harvard University.</i></p> - -<p class="drop-cap16">AS Columbus, in August, 1498, ran into the mouth of the Orinoco, he -little thought that before him lay, silent but irrefutable, the proof of -the futility of his long-cherished hopes. His gratification at the completeness -of his success, in that God had permitted the accomplishment of all -his predictions, to the confusion of those who had opposed and derided -him, never left him; even in the fever which overtook him on the last voyage -his strong faith cried to him, “Why dost thou falter in thy trust in -God? He gave thee India!” In this belief he died. The conviction that -Hayti was Cipangu, that Cuba was Cathay, did not long outlive its author; -the discovery of the Pacific soon made it clear that a new world and another -sea lay between the landfall of Columbus and the goal of his endeavors.</p> - -<p>The truth, when revealed and accepted, was a surprise more profound to -the learned than even the error it displaced. The possibility of a short passage -westward to Cathay was important to merchants and adventurers, -startling to courtiers and ecclesiastics, but to men of classical learning it -was only a corroboration of the teaching of the ancients. That a barrier to -such passage should be detected in the very spot where the outskirts of -Asia had been imagined, was unexpected and unwelcome. The treasures -of Mexico and Peru could not satisfy the demand for the products of the -East; Cortes gave himself, in his later years, to the search for a strait which -might yet make good the anticipations of the earlier discoverers. The new -interpretation, if economically disappointing, had yet an interest of its own. -Whence came the human population of the unveiled continent? How had -its existence escaped the wisdom of Greece and Rome? Had it done so? -Clearly, since the whole human race had been renewed through Noah, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> -red men of America must have descended from the patriarch; in some way, -at some time, the New World had been discovered and populated from the -Old. Had knowledge of this event lapsed from the minds of men before -their memories were committed to writing, or did reminiscences exist in -ancient literatures, overlooked, or misunderstood by modern ignorance? -Scholars were not wanting, nor has their line since wholly failed, who freely -devoted their ingenuity to the solution of these questions, but with a success -so diverse in its results, that the inquiry is still pertinent, especially -since the pursuit, even though on the main point it end in reservation of -judgment, enables us to understand from what source and by what channels -the inspiration came which held Columbus so steadily to his westward -course.</p> - -<p>Although the elder civilizations of Assyria and Egypt boasted a cultivation -of astronomy long anterior to the heroic age of Greece, their cosmographical -ideas appear to have been rude and undeveloped, so that whatever -the Greeks borrowed thence was of small importance compared with what -they themselves ascertained. While it may be doubted if decisive testimony -can be extorted from the earliest Grecian literature, represented -chiefly by the Homeric and Hesiodic poems, it is probable that the people -among whom that literature grew up had not gone, in their conception of -the universe, beyond simple acceptance of the direct evidence of their -senses. The earth they looked upon as a plane, stretching away from the -Ægean Sea, the focus of their knowledge, and ever less distinctly known, -until it ended in an horizon of pure ignorance, girdled by the deep-flowing -current of the river Oceanus. Beyond Oceanus even fancy began to fail: -there was the realm of dust and darkness, the home of the powerless spirits -of the dead; there, too, the hemisphere of heaven joined its brother hemisphere -of Tartarus.<a name="FNanchor_259_259" id="FNanchor_259_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a> This conception of the earth was not confined to Homeric -times, but remained the common belief throughout the course of -Grecian history, underlying and outlasting many of the speculations of the -philosophers.</p> - -<p>That growing intellectual activity which was signalized by a notable development -of trade and colonization in the eighth century, in the seventh -awoke to consciousness in a series of attempts to formulate the conditions -of existence. The philosophy of nature thus originated, wherein the testimony -of nature in her own behalf was little sought or understood, began -with the assumption of a flat earth, variously shaped, and as variously supported. -To whom belongs the honor of first propounding the theory of the -spherical form of the earth cannot be known. It was taught by the Italian -Pythagoreans of the sixth century, and was probably one of the doctrines<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> -of Pythagoras himself, as it was, a little later, of Parmenides, the founder -of the Eleatics.<a name="FNanchor_260_260" id="FNanchor_260_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a></p> - -<p>In neither case can there be a claim for scientific discovery. The earth -was a sphere because the sphere was the most perfect form; it was at the -centre of the universe because that was the place of honor; it was motionless -because motion was less dignified than rest.</p> - -<p>Plato, who was familiar with the doctrines of the Pythagoreans, adopted -their view of the form of the earth, and did much to popularize it among -his countrymen.<a name="FNanchor_261_261" id="FNanchor_261_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_261_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a> To the generation that succeeded him, the sphericity of -the earth was a fact as capable of logical demonstration as a geometrical -theorem. Aristotle, in his treatise “On the Heaven,” after detailing the -views of those philosophers who regarded the earth as flat, drum-shaped, or -cylindrical, gives a formal summary of the grounds which necessitate the -assumption of its sphericity, specifying the tendency of all things to seek -the centre, the unvarying circularity of the earth’s shadow at eclipses of the -moon, and the proportionate change in the altitude of stars resulting from -changes in the observer’s latitude. Aristotle made the doctrine orthodox; -his successors, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus, and Ptolemy, constituted it an -inalienable possession of the race. Greece transmitted it to Rome, Rome -impressed it upon barbaric Europe; taught by Pliny, Hyginus, Manilius, -expressed in the works of Cicero, Virgil, Ovid, it passed into the school-books -of the Middle Ages, whence, reinforced by Arabian lore, it has come -down to us.<a name="FNanchor_262_262" id="FNanchor_262_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_262_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a></p> - -<p>That the belief ever became in antiquity or in the Middle Ages widely -spread among the people is improbable; it did not indeed escape opposition -among the educated; writers even of the Augustan age sometimes -appear in doubt.<a name="FNanchor_263_263" id="FNanchor_263_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p> - -<p>The sphericity of the earth once comprehended, there follow certain -corollaries which the Greeks were not slow to perceive. Plato, indeed, -who likened the earth to a ball covered with party-colored strips of leather, -gives no estimate of its size, although the description of the world in the -<i>Phaedo</i> seems to imply immense magnitude;<a name="FNanchor_264_264" id="FNanchor_264_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_264_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> but Aristotle states that -mathematicians of his day estimated the circumference at 400,000 stadia,<a name="FNanchor_265_265" id="FNanchor_265_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a> -and Archimedes puts the common reckoning at somewhat less than 300,000 -stadia.<a name="FNanchor_266_266" id="FNanchor_266_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a> How these figures were obtained we are not informed. The first -measurement of the earth which rests on a known method was that made -about the middle of the third century <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, by Eratosthenes, the librarian -at Alexandria, who, by comparing the estimated linear distance between -Syene, under the tropic, and Alexandria with their angular distance, as -deduced from observations on the shadow of the gnomon at Alexandria, -concluded that the circumference of the earth was 250,000 or 252,000 -stadia.<a name="FNanchor_267_267" id="FNanchor_267_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> This result, owing to an uncertainty as to the exact length of the -stade used in the computation, cannot be interpreted with confidence, -but if we assume that it was in truth about twelve per cent. too large, we -shall probably not be far out of the way.<a name="FNanchor_268_268" id="FNanchor_268_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_268_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> Hipparchus, in many matters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> -the opponent of Eratosthenes, adopted his conclusion on this point, and -was followed by Strabo,<a name="FNanchor_269_269" id="FNanchor_269_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> by Pliny, who regarded the attempt as somewhat -over-bold, but so cleverly argued that it could not be disregarded,<a name="FNanchor_270_270" id="FNanchor_270_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> and by -many others.</p> - -<p>Fortunately, as it resulted, this overestimate was not allowed to stand -uncontested. Posidonius of Rhodes (<span class="smcap">b.c.</span> 135-51), by an independent -calculation based upon the difference in altitude of Canopus at Rhodes -and at Alexandria, reached a result which is reported by Cleomedes as -240,000, and by Strabo as 180,000 stadia.<a name="FNanchor_271_271" id="FNanchor_271_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> The final judgment of Posidonius -apparently approved the smaller number; it hit, at all events, the -fancy of the time, and was adopted by Marinus of Tyre and by Ptolemy,<a name="FNanchor_272_272" id="FNanchor_272_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a> -whose authority imposed it upon the Middle Ages. Accepting it as an -independent estimate, it follows that Posidonius allowed but 500 stadia to -a degree, instead of 700, thus representing the earth as about 28 per cent. -smaller than did Eratosthenes.<a name="FNanchor_273_273" id="FNanchor_273_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a></p> - -<p>To the earliest writers the known lands constituted the earth; they were -girdled, indeed, by the river Oceanus, but that was a narrow stream whose -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>further bank lay in fable-land.<a name="FNanchor_274_274" id="FNanchor_274_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> The promulgation of the theory of the -sphericity of the earth and the approximate determination of its size drew -attention afresh to the problem of the distribution of land and water upon -its surface, and materially modified the earlier conception. The increase -of geographical knowledge along lines of trade, conquest, and colonization -had greatly extended the bounds of the known world since Homer’s day, -but it was still evident that by far the larger portion of the earth, taking -the smallest estimate of its size, was still undiscovered,—a fair field for -speculation and fantasy.<a name="FNanchor_275_275" id="FNanchor_275_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a></p> - -<p>We can trace two schools of thought in respect to the configuration -of this unknown region, both represented in the primitive conception of -the earth, and both conditioned by a more fundamental postulate. It was -a near thought, if the earth was a sphere, to transfer to it the systems of -circles which had already been applied to the heavens. The suggestion -is attributed to Thales, to Pythagoras, and to Parmenides; and it is certain -that the earth was very early conceived as divided by the polar and -solstitial circles into five zones, whereof two only, the temperate in either -sphere, so the Greeks believed, were capable of supporting life; of the -others, the polar were uninhabitable from intense cold, as was the torrid -from its parching heat. This theory, which excluded from knowledge -the whole southern hemisphere and a large portion of the northern, was -approved by Aristotle and the Homeric school of geographers, and by -the minor physicists. As knowledge grew, its truth was doubted. Polybius -wrote a monograph, maintaining that the middle portion of the torrid zone -had a temperate climate, and his view was adopted by Posidonius and -Geminus, if not by Eratosthenes. Marinus and Ptolemy, who knew that -commerce was carried on along the east coast of Africa far below the -equator, cannot have fallen into the ancient error, but the error long -persisted; it was always in favor with the compilers, and thus perhaps -obtained that currency in Rome which enabled it to exert a restrictive and -pernicious check upon maritime endeavor deep into the Middle Ages.<a name="FNanchor_276_276" id="FNanchor_276_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> - -<p>Upon the question of the distribution of land and water, unanimity no -longer prevailed. By some it was maintained that there was one ocean, -confluent over the whole globe, so that the body of known lands, that -so-called continent, was in truth an island, and whatever other inhabitable -regions might exist were in like manner surrounded and so separated by -vast expanses of untraversed waves. Such was the view, scarcely more -than a survival of the ocean-river of the poets deprived of its further -bank by the assumption of the sphericity of the earth, held by Aristotle,<a name="FNanchor_277_277" id="FNanchor_277_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_277_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a> -Crates of Mallus, Strabo, Pliny, and many others. If this be called the -oceanic theory, we may speak of its opposite as the continental: according -to this view, the existing land so far exceeded the water in extent that it -formed in truth the continent, holding the seas quite separate within its -hollows. The origin of the theory is obscure, even though we recall -that Homer’s ocean was itself contained. It was strikingly presented by -Plato in the <i>Phaedo</i>, and is implied in the Atlantis myth; it may be recalled, -too, that Herodotus, often depicted as a monster of credulity, had -broken the bondage of the ocean-river, because he could not satisfy himself -of the existence of the ocean in the east or north; and while reluctantly -admitting that Africa was surrounded by water, considered Gaul to extend -indefinitely westward.<a name="FNanchor_278_278" id="FNanchor_278_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_278_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> Hipparchus revived the doctrine, teaching -that Africa divided the Indian Ocean from the Atlantic in the south, so -that these seas lay in separate basins. The existence of an equatorial -branch of the ocean, a favorite dogma of the other school, was also denied -by Polybius, Posidonius, and Geminus.<a name="FNanchor_279_279" id="FNanchor_279_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_279_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a></p> - -<p>The reports of traders and explorers led Marinus to a like conclusion; -both he and Ptolemy, misinterpreting their information, believed that the -eastern coast of Asia ran south instead of north, and they united it with -the eastern trend of Africa, supposing at the same time that the two -continents met also in the west.<a name="FNanchor_280_280" id="FNanchor_280_280"></a><a href="#Footnote_280_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a> The continental theory, despite its -famous disciples, made no headway at Rome, and was consequently hardly -known to the Middle Ages before its falsity was proved by the circumnavigation -of Africa.<a name="FNanchor_281_281" id="FNanchor_281_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_281_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p> - -<p>That portion of Europe, Asia, and Africa known to the ancients, -whether regarded as an island, or as separated from the rest of the world -by climatic conditions merely, or by ignorance, formed a distinct concept -and was known by a particular name, <i>ἡ οἰκουμένη</i>. Originally supposed to -be circular, it was later thought to be oblong and as having a length -more than double its width. Those who believed in its insularity likened -its shape to a sling, or to an outspread chlamys or military cloak, and -assumed that it lay wholly within the northern hemisphere. In absolute -figures, the length of the known world was placed by Eratosthenes at -77,800 stadia, and by Strabo at 70,000. The latter figure remained the -common estimate until Marinus of Tyre, in the second century a.d., -receiving direct information from the silk-traders of a caravan route to -China, substituted the portentous exaggeration of 90,000 stadia on the -parallel of Rhodes, or 225°. Ptolemy, who followed Marinus in many -things, shrank from the naïveté whereby the Tyrian had interpreted a seven -months’ caravan journey to represent seven months’ travelling in a direct -line at the rate of twenty miles a day, and cut down his figures to 180°, or -72,000 stadia.<a name="FNanchor_282_282" id="FNanchor_282_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> It appears, therefore, that Strabo considered the known -world as occupying not much over one third of the circuit of the temperate -zone, while Marinus, who adopted 180,000 stadia as the measure of the -earth, claimed a knowledge of two thirds of that zone, and supposed that -land extended indefinitely eastward beyond the limit of knowledge.</p> - -<p>What did the ancients picture to themselves of this unknown portion -of the globe? The more imaginative found there a home for ancient myth -and modern fable; the geographers, severely practical, excluded it from -the scope of their survey; philosophers and physicists could easily supply -from theory what they did not know as fact. Pythagoras, it is said, had -taught that the whole surface of the earth was inhabited. Aristotle demonstrated -that the southern hemisphere must have its temperate zone, -where winds similar to our own prevailed; his successors elaborated the -hint into a systematized nomenclature, whereby the inhabitants of the -earth were divided into four classes, according to their location upon the -surface of the earth with relation to one another.<a name="FNanchor_283_283" id="FNanchor_283_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p> - -<p>This system was furthest developed by the oceanic school. The rival of -Eratosthenes, Crates of Mallus (who achieved fame by the construction of a -large globe), assumed the existence of a southern continent, separated from -the known world by the equatorial ocean; it is possible that he introduced -the idea of providing a distinct residence for each class of earth-dwellers, by -postulating four island continents, one in each quarter of the globe. Eratosthenes -probably thought that there were inhabitable regions in the southern -hemisphere, and Strabo added that there might be two, or even more, habitable -earths in the northern temperate zone, especially near the parallel of -Rhodes.<a name="FNanchor_284_284" id="FNanchor_284_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a> Crates introduced his views at Rome, and the oceanic theory -remained a favorite with the Roman physicists. It was avowed by Pliny, -who championed the existence of antipodes against the vulgar disbelief. In -the fine episode in the last book of Cicero’s <i>Republic</i>, the younger Scipio -relates a dream, wherein the elder hero of his name, Scipio Africanus, conveying -him to the lofty heights of the Milky Way, emphasized the futility -of fame by showing him upon the earth the regions to which his name could -never penetrate: “Thou seest in what few places the earth is inhabited, and -those how scant; great deserts lie between them, and they who dwell upon -the earth are not only so scattered that naught can spread from one community -to another, but so that some live off in an oblique direction from -you, some off toward the side, and some even dwell directly opposite to -you.”<a name="FNanchor_285_285" id="FNanchor_285_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a> Mela confines himself to a mention of the <i>Antichthones</i>, who live -in the temperate zone in the south, and are cut off from us by the intervening -torrid zone.<a name="FNanchor_286_286" id="FNanchor_286_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_286_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-060.jpg" width="400" height="393" id="i10" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">MACROBIUS</p> - <p class="pf400">From <i>Macrobii Ambrosii Aurelii Theodosii in Somnium Scipionis, Lib. II.</i> (Lugduni, 1560).</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Indeed, the southern continent, the other world, as it was called,<a name="FNanchor_287_287" id="FNanchor_287_287"></a><a href="#Footnote_287_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a> made a -more distinct impression than the possible other continents in the northern -hemisphere. Hipparchus thought that Trapobene might be a part of this -southern world, and the idea that the Nile had its source there was widespread: -some supposing that it flowed beneath the equatorial ocean; others -believing, with Ptolemy, that Africa was connected with the southern continent. -The latter doctrine was shattered by the discovery of the Cape of -Good Hope; but the continent was revived when Tierra del Fuego, Australia, -and New Zealand were discovered, and attained gigantic size on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> -maps of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries only within the last two -centuries has it shrunk to the present limits of the antarctic ice.</p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-061.jpg" width="250" height="250" id="i11" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="cf"><p class="pc">MACROBIUS</p> - <p class="pf250">From <i>Avr. Theodosii Macrobii Opera</i> (Lipsiæ, 1774).</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The oceanic theory, and the -doctrine of the Four Worlds, -as it has been termed,<a name="FNanchor_288_288" id="FNanchor_288_288"></a><a href="#Footnote_288_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a><i> terra -quadrifiga</i>, was set forth in the -greatest detail in a commentary -on the Dream of Scipio, -written by Macrobius, probably -in the fifth century a.d. -In the concussion and repulsion -of the ocean streams he -found a sufficient cause for -the phenomena of the tides.<a name="FNanchor_289_289" id="FNanchor_289_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_289_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a></p> - -<p>Such were the theories of -the men of science, purely -speculative, originating in -logic, not discovery, and they -give no hint of actual knowledge -regarding those distant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> -regions with which they deal. From them we turn to examine the literature -of the imagination, for geography, -by right the handmaid of -history, is easily perverted to -the service of myth.</p> - -<div class="floatleft"> - <img src="images/ill-062.jpg" width="250" height="248" id="i12" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="cf"><p class="pc">MACROBIUS</p> - <p class="pf250">After Santarem’s <i>Atlas</i>, as a “mappemonde tirée d’un manuscrit de Macrobe du Xème siècle.”</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The expanding horizon of the -Greeks was always hedged with -fable: in the north was the -realm of the happy Hyperboreans, -beyond the blasts of Boreas; -in the east, the wonderland -of India; in the south, Panchæa -and the blameless Ethiopians; -nor did the west lack -lingering places for romance. -Here was the floating isle of -Æolus, brazen-walled; here the -mysterious Ogygia, navel of the -sea;<a name="FNanchor_290_290" id="FNanchor_290_290"></a><a href="#Footnote_290_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a> and on the earth’s extremest -verge were the Elysian Fields, the home of heroes exempt from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> -death, “where life is easiest to man. No snow is there, nor yet great storm -nor any rain, but always ocean sendeth forth the breeze of the shrill west to -blow cool on men.”<a name="FNanchor_291_291" id="FNanchor_291_291"></a><a href="#Footnote_291_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a> Across the ocean river, where was the setting of the -sun, all was changed. There was the home of the Cimmerians, who dwelt -in darkness; there the grove of Persephone and the dreary house of the -dead.<a name="FNanchor_292_292" id="FNanchor_292_292"></a><a href="#Footnote_292_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a></p> - -<p>In the Hesiodic poems the Elysian Fields are transformed into islands, -the home of the fourth race, the heroes, after death:—</p> - -<p class="pp6q p1">“Them on earth’s utmost verge the god assign’d<br /> -A life, a seat, distinct from human kind:<br /> -Beside the deepening whirlpools of the main,<br /> -In those blest isles where Saturn holds his reign,<br /> -Apart from heaven’s immortals calm they share<br /> -A rest unsullied by the clouds of care:<br /> -And yearly thrice with sweet luxuriance crown’d<br /> -Springs the ripe harvest from the teeming ground.”<a name="FNanchor_293_293" id="FNanchor_293_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_293_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a></p> - -<p class="p1">“Those who have had the courage to remain stedfast thrice in each life, -and to keep their souls altogether from wrong,” sang Pindar, “pursue the -road of Zeus to the castle of Cronos, where o’er the isles of the blest -ocean breezes blow, and flowers gleam with gold, some from the land on -glistering trees, while others the water feeds; and with bracelets of these -they entwine their hands and make crowns for their heads.”<a name="FNanchor_294_294" id="FNanchor_294_294"></a><a href="#Footnote_294_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a></p> - -<p>The Islands of the Blest, <i>μακάρων νῆσοι</i>, do not vanish henceforward from -the world’s literature, but continue to haunt the Atlantic through the Roman -period and deep into the Middle Ages. In the west, too, were localized -other and wilder myths; here were the scenes of the Perseus fable, the -island of the weird and communistic sisters, the Graeae, and the Gorgonides, -the homes of Medusa and her sister Gorgons, the birthplace of the -dread Chimaera.<a name="FNanchor_295_295" id="FNanchor_295_295"></a><a href="#Footnote_295_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a> The importance of the far west in the myths connected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> -with Hercules is well known. In the traditionary twelve labors the Greek -hero is confused with his prototype the Tyrian Melkarth, and those labors -which deal with the west were doubtless borrowed from the cult which -the Greeks had found established at Gades when trade first led them -thither. In the tenth labor it is the western isle Erytheia, which Hercules -visits in the golden cup wherein Helios was wont to make his nocturnal -ocean voyage, and from which he returns with the oxen of the giant -Geryon. Even more famous was the search for the apples of the Hesperides, -which constituted the eleventh labor. This golden fruit, the wedding -gift produced by Gaa for Hera, the prudent goddess, doubtful of the -security of Olympus, gave in charge to the Hesperian maids, whose island -garden lay at earth’s furthest bounds, near where the mysterious Atlas, -their father or their uncle, wise in the secrets of the sea, watched over the -pillars which propped the sky, or himself bore the burden of the heavenly -vault. The poets delighted to depict these isles with their shrill-singing -nymphs, in the same glowing words which they applied to the Isles of the -Blessed. “Oh that I, like a bird, might fly from care over the Adriatic -waves!” cries the chorus in the Crowned Hippolytus,</p> - -<p class="ppi6q p1">“Or to the famed Hesperian plains,<br /> -Whose rich trees bloom with gold,</p> -<p class="ppi6">To join the grief-attuned strains<br /> -My winged progress hold:</p> -<p class="pp6">Beyond whose shores no passage gave<br /> -The ruler of the purple wave;</p> - -<p class="ppi6q p1">“But Atlas stands, his stately height<br /> -The awfull boundary of the skies:<br /> -There fountains of Ambrosia rise,</p> -<p class="pp6">Wat’ring the seat of Jove: her stores</p> -<p class="ppi6">Luxuriant there the rich soil pours<br /> -All, which the sense of gods delights.”<a name="FNanchor_296_296" id="FNanchor_296_296"></a><a href="#Footnote_296_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a></p> - -<p class="p1">When these names first became attached to some of the Atlantic islands -is uncertain. Diodorus Siculus does not apply either term to the island -discovered by the Carthaginians, and described by him in phrases applicable -to both. The two islands described by sailors to Sertorius about 80 -<span class="smcap">b.c.</span> were depicted in colors which reminded Plutarch of the Isles of the -Blessed, and it is certain that toward the close of the republic the name -<i>Insulae Fortunatae</i> was given to certain of the Atlantic islands, including the -Canaries. In the time of Juba, king of Numidia, we seem to distinguish -at least three groups, the <i>Insulae Fortunatae</i>, the <i>Purpurariae</i>, and the -<i>Hesperides</i>, but beyond the fact that the first name still designated some of -the Canaries identification is uncertain; some have thought that different -groups among the Canaries were known by separate names, while others<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> -hold that one or both of the Madeira and Cape de Verde groups were -known.<a name="FNanchor_297_297" id="FNanchor_297_297"></a><a href="#Footnote_297_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a> The Canaries were soon lost out of knowledge again, but the -Happy or Fortunate Islands continued to be an enticing mirage throughout -the Middle Ages, and play a part in many legends, as in that of St. -Brandan, and in many poems.<a name="FNanchor_298_298" id="FNanchor_298_298"></a><a href="#Footnote_298_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a></p> - -<p>Beside these ancient, widespread, popular myths, embodying the universal -longing for a happier life, we find a group of stories of more recent -date, of known authorship and well-marked literary origin, which treat of -western islands and a western continent. The group comprises, it is hardly -necessary to say, the tale of Atlantis, related by Plato; the fable of the -land of the Meropes, by Theopompus; and the description of the Saturnian -continent attributed to Plutarch.</p> - -<p>The story of Atlantis, by its own interest and the skill of its author, has -made by far the deepest impression. Plato, having given in the <i>Republic</i> -a picture of the ideal political organization, the state, sketched in the <i>Timaeus</i> -the history of creation, and the origin and development of mankind; -in the <i>Critias</i> he apparently intended to exhibit the action of two types -of political bodies involved in a life-and-death contest. The latter dialogue -was unfinished, but its purport had been sketched in the opening of the -<i>Timaeus</i>. Critias there relates “a strange tale, but certainly true, as Solon -declared,” which had come down in his family from his ancestor Dropidas, -a near relative of Solon. When Solon was in Egypt he fell into talk with -an aged priest of Saïs, who said to him: “Solon, Solon, you Greeks are -all children,—there is not an old man in Greece. You have no old traditions, -and know of but one deluge, whereas there have been many destructions -of mankind, both by flood and fire; Egypt alone has escaped them, -and in Egypt alone is ancient history recorded; you are ignorant of your -own past.” For long before Deucalion, nine thousand years ago, there was -an Athens founded, like Saïs, by Athena; a city rich in power and wisdom, -famed for mighty deeds, the greatest of which was this. At that time there -lay opposite the columns of Hercules, in the Atlantic, which was then navigable, -an island larger than Libya and Asia together, from which sailors -could pass to other islands, and so to the continent. The sea in front of the -straits is indeed but a small harbor; that which lay beyond the island, however, -is worthy of the name, and the land which surrounds that greater sea -may be truly called the continent. In this island of Atlantis had grown -up a mighty power, whose kings were descended from Poseidon, and had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> -extended their sway over many islands and over a portion of the great continent; -even Libya up to the gates of Egypt, and Europe as far as Tyrrhenia, -submitted to their sway. Ever harder they pressed upon the other -nations of the known world, seeking the subjugation of the whole. “Then, -O Solon, did the strength of your republic become clear to all men, by -reason of her courage and force. Foremost in the arts of war, she met the -invader at the head of Greece; abandoned by her allies, she triumphed -alone over the western foe, delivering from the yoke all the nations within -the columns. But afterwards came a day and night of great floods and -earthquakes; the earth engulfed all the Athenians who were capable of -bearing arms, and Atlantis disappeared, swallowed by the waves: hence it is -that this sea is no longer navigable, from the vast mud-shoals formed by the -vanished island.” This tale so impressed Solon that he meditated an epic -on the subject, but on his return, stress of public business prevented his -design. In the <i>Critias</i> the empire and chief city of Atlantis is described -with wealth of detail, and the descent of the royal family from Atlas, son -of Poseidon, and a nymph of the island, is set forth. In the midst of a -council upon Olympus, where Zeus, in true epic style, was revealing to the -gods his designs concerning the approaching war, the dialogue breaks off.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-067.jpg" width="400" height="629" id="i17" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">TRACES OF ATLANTIS.</p> - <p class="pf400">Section of a map given in <i>Briefe über Amerika aus dem Italienischen des Hn. Grafen Carlo Carli -übersetzt, Dritter Theil</i> (Gera, 1785), where it is called an “Auszug aus denen Karten welche der Pariser -Akademie der Wissenschaften (1737, 1752) von dem Herrn von Buache übergeben worden sind.”</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-068.jpg" width="400" height="539" id="i18" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="pf400">The annexed cut is an extract from Sanson’s map of America, showing views respecting the new world as -constituting the Island of Atlantis. It is called: <i>Atlantis insula à Nicolao Sanson, antiquitati restituta; -nunc demum majori forma delineata, et in decem regna juxta decem Neptuni filios distributa. Præterea -insulæ, nostræq. continentis regiones quibus imperavere Atlantici reges; aut quas armis tentavere, ex -conatibus geographicis Gulielmi Sanson, Nicolai filii</i> (Amstelodami apud Petrum Mortier). Uricoechea in -the <i>Mapoteca Colombiana</i> puts this map under 1600, and speaks of a second edition in 1688, which must be -an error. Nicholas Sanson was born in 1600, his son William died in 1703. Beside the undated Amsterdam -print quoted above, Harvard College Library possesses a copy in which the words <i>Novus orbis potius Altera -continent sive</i> are prefixed to the title, while the date <span class="smcap">MDCLXVIIII</span> is inserted after <i>filii</i>. This copy was -published by Le S. Robert at Paris in 1741.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-069.jpg" width="400" height="624" id="i19" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">CARTE CONJECTURALE DE L’ATLANTIDE.</p> - <p class="pf400">From a map in Bory de St. Vincent’s <i>Essais sur les isles Fortunées</i>, Paris [1803]. A map in Anastasius -Kircher’s <i>Mundus Subterraneus</i> (Amsterdam, 1678), i. 82, shows Atlantis as a large island midway -between the pillars of Hercules and America.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-070.jpg" width="400" height="561" id="i20" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">CONTOUR CHART OF THE BOTTOM OF THE ATLANTIC.</p> - <p class="pf400">Sketched from the colored map of the United States Hydrographic office, as given in Alexander Agassiz’s -<i>Three Cruises of the Blake</i> (Cambridge, 1888), vol. i. The outline of the continents is shown by an unbroken -line. The 500 fathom shore line is a broken one (—— —— —— ——). The 2,000 fathom shore -line is made by a dash and dot (——.——.——.——). The large areas in mid-ocean enclosed by this line, -have this or lesser depths. Of the small areas marked by this line, the depth of 2,000 fathoms or less is within -these areas in all cases except as respects the small areas on the latitude of Newfoundland, where the larger -areas of 2,000 fathoms’ depth border on the small areas of greater depth. Depths varying from 1,500 to -1,000 fathoms are shown by horizontal lines; from 1,000 to 500 by perpendicular lines; and the crossed lines -show the shallowest spots in mid-ocean of 500 fathoms or less. The areas of greatest depth (over 3,500 -fathoms) are marked with crosses.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p> - -<p>Such is the tale of Atlantis. Read in Plato, the nature and meaning of -the narrative seem clear, but the commentators, ancient and modern, have -made wild work. The voyage of Odysseus has grown marvellously in -extent since he abandoned the sea; Io has found the pens of the learned -more potent goads than Hera’s gadfly; but the travels of Atlantis have -been even more extraordinary. No region has been so remote, no land so -opposed by location, extent, or history to the words of Plato, but that some -acute investigator has found in it the origin of the lost island. It has -been identified with Africa, with Spitzbergen, with Palestine. The learned -Latreille convinced himself that Persia best fulfilled the conditions of the -problem; the more than learned Rudbeck ardently supported the claims of -Sweden through three folios. In such a search America could not be -overlooked. Gomara, Guillaume de Postel, Wytfliet, are among those who -have believed that this continent was Atlantis; Sanson in 1669, and Vaugondy -in 1762, ventured to issue a map, upon which the division of that -island among the sons of Neptune was applied to America, and the outskirts -of the lost continent were extended even to New Zealand. Such work, of -course, needs no serious consideration. Plato is our authority, and Plato declares -that Atlantis lay not far west from Spain, and that it disappeared some -8,000 years before his day. An inquiry into the truth or meaning of the -record as it stands is quite justifiable, and has been several times undertaken, -with divergent results. Some, notably Paul Gaffarel<a name="FNanchor_299_299" id="FNanchor_299_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_299_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a> and Ignatius -Donnelly,<a name="FNanchor_300_300" id="FNanchor_300_300"></a><a href="#Footnote_300_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a> are convinced that Plato merely adapted to his purposes a story -which Solon had actually brought from Egypt, and which was in all essentials -true. Corroboration of the existence of such an island in the Atlantic -is found, according to these writers, in the physical conformation of the -Atlantic basin, and in marked resemblances between the flora, fauna, -civilization, and language of the old and new worlds, which demand for their -explanation the prehistoric existence of just such a bridge as Atlantis would -have supplied. The Atlantic islands are the loftiest peaks and plateaus of -the submerged island. In the widely spread deluge myths Mr. Donnelly -finds strong confirmation of the final cataclysm; he places in Atlantis that -primitive culture which M. Bailly sought in the highlands of Asia, and -President Warren refers to the north pole. Space fails for a proper examination -of the matter, but these ingenious arguments remain somewhat top-heavy -when all is said. The argument from ethnological resemblances is -of all arguments the weakest in the hands of advocates. It is of value only -when wielded by men of judicial temperament, who can weigh difference -against likeness, and allow for the narrow range of nature’s moulds. The -existence of the ocean plateaus revealed by the soundings of the “Dolphin” -and the “Challenger” proves nothing as to their having been once raised -above the waves; the most of the Atlantic islands are sharply cut off from -them. Even granting the prehistoric migration of plants and animals between -America and Europe, as we grant it between America and Asia, it -does not follow that it took place across the mid-ocean, and it would still -be a long step from the botanic “bridge” and elevated “ridge” to the -island empire of Plato. In short, the conservative view advocated by Longinus, -that the story was designed by Plato as a literary ornament and a -philosophic illustration, is no less probable to-day than when it was suggested -in the schools of Alexandria. Atlantis is a literary myth, belonging -with <i>Utopia</i>, the <i>New Atlantis</i>, and the <i>Orbis alter et idem</i> of Bishop Hall.</p> - -<p class="p2">Of the same type is a narrative which has come down indirectly, among -the flotsam and jetsam of classic literature: it is a fragment from a lost -work by Theopompus of Chios, a historian of the fourth century <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, found -in the <i>Varia Historia</i> of Aelian, a compiler of the third century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span><a name="FNanchor_301_301" id="FNanchor_301_301"></a><a href="#Footnote_301_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a> The -story is told by the satyr Silenus to Midas, king of Phrygia, and is, as few -commentators have refrained from remarking, worthy the ears of its auditor.<a name="FNanchor_302_302" id="FNanchor_302_302"></a><a href="#Footnote_302_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a> -“Selenus tolde Midas of certaine Islands, named Europa, Asia, and -Libia, which the Ocean Sea circumscribeth and compasseth round about. -And that without this worlde there is a continent or percell of dry lande, -which in greatnesse (as hee reported) was infinite and unmeasurable, that it -nourished and maintained, by the benifite of the greene medowes and pasture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> -plots, sundrye bigge and mighty beastes; that the men which inhabite -the same climats, exceede the stature of us twise, and yet the length of -there life is not equale to ours.” Many other wonders he related of the -two cities, Machimus, the warlike, and Euseues, the city of peace, and how -the inhabitants of the former once made an attack upon Europe, and came -first upon the Hyperboreans; but learning that they were esteemed the -most holy of the dwellers in that island, they “had them in contempte, detesting -and abhorring them as naughty people, of preposterous properties, -and damnable behauiour, and for that cause interrupted their progresse, -supposing it an enterprise of little worthinesse or rather none at al, to trauaile -into such a countrey.” The concluding passage relating to the strange -country inhabited by the Meropes, from whose name later writers have -called the continent Meropian, bears only indirectly upon the subject, as -characterizing the whole narrative.<a name="FNanchor_303_303" id="FNanchor_303_303"></a><a href="#Footnote_303_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a></p> - -<p>Without admitting the harsh judgment of Aelian, who brands Theopompus -as a “coyner of lyes and a forger of fond fables,” it is clear that we are -dealing here with literature, not with history, and that the identification of -the land of the Meropes, or, as Strabo calls it, Meropis, with Atlantis or -with America is arbitrary and valueless.<a name="FNanchor_304_304" id="FNanchor_304_304"></a><a href="#Footnote_304_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p> - -<p>The same remark applies to the account of the great Saturnian continent -that closes the curious and interesting dialogue “On the Face appearing in -the Orb of the Moon,” attributed to Plutarch, and printed with his <i>Morals</i>:</p> - -<p>“‘An isle, Ogygia, lies in Ocean’s arms,’” says the narrator, “about -five days’ sail west from Britain; and before it are three others, of equal -distance from one another, and also from that, bearing northwest, where -the sun sets in summer. In one of these the barbarians feign that Saturn -is detained in prison by Zeus.” The adjacent sea is termed the Saturnian, -and the continent by which the great sea is circularly environed is distant -from Ogygia about five thousand stadia, but from the other islands not so -far. A bay of this continent, in the latitude of the Caspian Sea, is inhabited -by Greeks. These, who had been visited by Heracles, and revived -by his followers, esteemed themselves inhabitants of the firm land, calling -all others islanders, as dwelling in land encompassed by the sea. Every -thirty years these people send forth certain of their number, who minister to -the imprisoned Saturn for thirty years. One of the men thus sent forth, at -the end of his service, paid a visit to the great island, as they called Europe. -From him the narrator learned many things about the state of men after -death, which he unfolds at length, the conclusion being that the souls of -men ultimately arrive at the moon, wherein lie the Elysian Fields of Homer. -“And you, O Lamprias,” he adds, “may take my relation in such -part as you please.” After which hint there is, I think, but little doubt as -to the way in which it should be taken by us.<a name="FNanchor_305_305" id="FNanchor_305_305"></a><a href="#Footnote_305_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a></p> - -<p>That Plato, Theopompus, and Plutarch, covering a range of nearly five -centuries, should each have made use of the conception of a continent beyond -the Atlantic, is noteworthy; but it is more naturally accounted for by -supposing that all three had in mind the continental hypothesis of land distribution, -than by assuming for them an acquaintance with the great western -island, America. From this point of view, the result of our search into -the geographical knowledge and mythical tales of the ancients is purely -negative. We find, indeed, well-developed theories of physical geography, -one of which accords remarkably well with the truth; but we also find that -these theories rest solely on logical deductions from the mathematical doctrine -of the sphere, and on an aesthetic satisfaction with symmetry and -analogy. This conclusion could be invalidated were it shown that exploration -had already revealed the secrets of the west, and we must now consider -this branch of the subject.</p> - -<p>The history of maritime discovery begins among the Phœnicians. The -civilization of Egypt, as self-centred as that of China, accepted only -the commerce that was brought to its gates; but the men of Sidon and -Tyre, with their keen devotion to material interests, their almost modern -ingenuity, had early appropriated the carrying trade of the east and the -west. As they looked adventurously seaward from their narrow domain,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> -the dim outline of Cyprus beckoned them down a long lane of island stations -to the rich shores of Spain. Even their religion betrayed their bent: -El and Cronos, their oldest deities, were wanderers, and vanished in the -west; on their traces Melkarth led a motley swarm of colonists to the Atlantic. -These legends, filtering through Cyprus, Crete, or Rhodes, or borne -by rash adventurers from distant Gades, appeared anew in Grecian mythology, -the deeds of Melkarth mingling with the labors of Hercules. We do -not know when the Phœnicians first reached the Atlantic, nor what were -the limits of their ocean voyages. Gades, the present Cadiz, just outside -the Straits of Gibraltar, was founded a few years before 1100 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, but not, -it is probable, without previous knowledge of the commercial importance -of the location. There were numerous other settlements along the adjacent -coast, and the gold, silver, and tin of these distant regions grew familiar in -the markets of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and India. The trade with Tartessus, -the El Dorado of antiquity, gave the Phœnician merchant vessels a name -among the Jews, as well in the tenth century, when Solomon shared the -adventures of Hiram, as in the sixth, when Ezekiel depicted the glories of -Tyrian commerce. The Phœnician seamanship was wide-famed; their vessels -were unmatched in speed,<a name="FNanchor_306_306" id="FNanchor_306_306"></a><a href="#Footnote_306_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a> and their furniture and discipline excited -the outspoken admiration of Xenophon. Beside the large Tarshish ships, -they possessed light merchant vessels and ships of war, provided with both -sails and oars, and these, somewhat akin to steamships in their independence -of wind, were well adapted for exploration. Thus urged and thus -provided, it is improbable that the Phœnicians shunned the great ocean. -The evidence is still strong in favor of their direct trade with Britain for -tin, despite what has been urged as to tin mines in Spain and the prehistoric -existence of the trade by land across Gaul.<a name="FNanchor_307_307" id="FNanchor_307_307"></a><a href="#Footnote_307_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">Whether the Tyrians discovered any of the Atlantic islands is unknown; -the adventures and discoveries attributed to Hercules, who in this aspect -is but Melkarth in Grecian raiment, points toward an early knowledge of -western islands, but these myths alone are not conclusive proof. Diodorus -Siculus attributes to the Phœnicians the discovery, by accident, of a large -island, with navigable rivers and a delightful climate, many days’ sail westward -from Africa. In the compilation <i>De Mirabilibus Auscultationibus</i>, -printed with the works of Aristotle, the discovery is attributed to Carthaginians.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> -Both versions descend from one original, now lost, and it is impossible -to give a date to the event, or to identify the locality.<a name="FNanchor_308_308" id="FNanchor_308_308"></a><a href="#Footnote_308_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a> Those who -find America in the island of Diodorus make improbabilities supply the -lack of evidence. Stories seldom lose in the telling, and while it is not -impossible that a Phœnician ship might have reached America, and even -made her way back, it is not likely that the voyage would have been tamely -described as of many <i>days’</i> duration.</p> - -<p>When Carthage succeeded Tyre as mistress of the Mediterranean commerce, -interest in the West revived. In the middle of the fifth century <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, -two expeditions of importance were dispatched into these waters. A large -fleet under Hanno sailed to colonize, or re-colonize, the western coast of -Africa, and succeeded in reaching the latitude of Sierra Leone. Himilko, -voyaging in the opposite direction, spent several months in exploring the -ocean and tracing the western shores of Europe. He appears to have -run into the Sargasso Sea, but beyond this little is known of his adventures.<a name="FNanchor_309_309" id="FNanchor_309_309"></a><a href="#Footnote_309_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a></p> - -<p>Ultimately the Carthaginians discovered and colonized the Canary -Islands, and perhaps the Madeira and Cape Verde groups; the evidence of -ethnology, the presence of Semitic inscriptions, and the occurrence in the -descriptions of Pliny, Mela, and Ptolemy of some of the modern names of -the separate islands, establishes this beyond a doubt for the Canaries.<a name="FNanchor_310_310" id="FNanchor_310_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a> -There is no evidence that the Phœnicians or Carthaginians penetrated -much beyond the coast islands, or that they reached any part of America, -or even the Azores.</p> - -<p>The achievements of the Greeks and Romans were still more limited. -A certain Colaeus visited Gades towards the middle of the seventh century -B.C., and was, according to Herodotus, the first Greek who passed outside -of the columns of Hercules. His example could not have been widely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> -followed, for we find Pindar and his successors referring to the Pillars as -the limit of navigation. In 600 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, Massilia was founded, and soon -became a rival of Carthage in the western Mediterranean. In the fourth -century we have evidence of an attempt to search out the secrets of the -ocean after the manner of Hanno and Himilko. In that century, Pytheas -made his famous voyage to the lands of tin and amber, discovering the -still mysterious Thule; while at the same time his countryman Euthymenes -sailed southward to the Senegal. With these exceptions we hear -of no Grecian or Roman explorations in the Atlantic, and meet with no -indication that they were aware of any other lands beyond the sea than -the Fortunate Isles or the Hesperides of the early poets.<a name="FNanchor_311_311" id="FNanchor_311_311"></a><a href="#Footnote_311_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a></p> - -<p>About 80 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, Sertorius, being for a time driven from Spain by the -forces of Sulla, fell in, when on an expedition to Baetica, with certain -sailors who had just returned from the “Atlantic islands,” which they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> -described as two in number, distant 10,000 stadia from Africa, and enjoying -a wonderful climate. The account in Plutarch is quite consistent with -a previous knowledge of the islands, even on the part of Sertorius. Be -this as it may, the glowing praises of the eye-witnesses so impressed him -that only the unwillingness of his followers prevented his taking refuge -there. Within the next few years, the Canaries, at least, became well -known as the <i>Fortunatae Insulae</i>; but when Horace, in the dark days of -civil war, urged his countrymen to seek a new home across the waves, it -was apparently the islands of Sertorius that he had in mind, regarding -them as unknown to other peoples.<a name="FNanchor_312_312" id="FNanchor_312_312"></a><a href="#Footnote_312_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a></p> - -<p>As we trace the increasing volume and extent of commerce from the -days of Tyre and Carthage and Alexandria to its fullest development under -the empire, and remember that as the drafts of luxury-loving Rome upon -the products of the east, even of China and farther India, increased, the -true knowledge of the form of the earth, and the underestimate of the -breadth of the western ocean, became more widely known, the question -inevitably suggests itself, Why did not the enterprise which had long since -utilized the monsoons of the Indian Ocean for direct passage to and from -India essay the passage of the Atlantic? The inquiry gains force as we recall -that the possibility of such a route to India had been long ago asserted. -Aristotle suggested, if he did not express it; Eratosthenes stated plainly -that were it not for the extent of the Atlantic it would be possible to sail -from Spain to India along the same parallel;<a name="FNanchor_313_313" id="FNanchor_313_313"></a><a href="#Footnote_313_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> and Strabo could object -nothing but the chance of there being another island-continent or two in -the way,—an objection unknown to Columbus. Seneca, the philosopher, -iterating insistence upon the smallness of the earth and the pettiness of its -affairs compared with the higher interests of the soul, exclaims: “The -earth, which you so anxiously divide by fire and sword into kingdoms, is a -point, a mere point, in the universe.... How far is it from the utmost -shores of Spain to those of India? But very few days’ sail with a favoring -wind.”<a name="FNanchor_314_314" id="FNanchor_314_314"></a><a href="#Footnote_314_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p> - -<p>Holding these views of the possibility of the voyage, it is improbable -that the size of their ships and the lack of the compass could have long -prevented the ancients from putting them in practice had their interest so -demanded.<a name="FNanchor_315_315" id="FNanchor_315_315"></a><a href="#Footnote_315_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a> Their interest in the matter was, however, purely speculative, -since, under the unity and power of the Roman empire, which succeeded -to and absorbed the commercial supremacy of the Phœnicians, international -competition in trade did not exist, nor were the routes of trade subject to -effective hostile interruption. The two causes, therefore, which worked -powerfully to induce the voyages of Da Gama and Columbus, after the rise -of individual states had given scope to national jealousy and pride, and -after the fall of Constantinople had placed the last natural gateway of the -eastern trade in the hands of Arab infidels, were non-existent under the -older civilization. It is certain, too, that the ancients had a vivid horror of -the western ocean. In the Odyssey, the western Mediterranean even is -full of peril. With knowledge of the ocean, the Greeks received tales of -“Gorgons and Chimeras dire,” and the very poets who sing the beauties -of the Elysian or Hesperian isles dwell on the danger of the surrounding -sea. Beyond Gades, declared Pindar, no man, however brave, could -pass; only a god might voyage those waters. The same idea recurs in -the reports of travellers and the writings of men of science, but here it -is the storms, or more often the lack of wind, the viscid water or vast -shoals, that check and appall the mariner. Aristotle thought that beyond -the columns the sea was shallow and becalmed. Plato utilized the common -idea of the mudbanks and shoal water of the Atlantic in accounting for -the disappearance of Atlantis. Scylax reported the ocean not navigable -beyond Cerne in the south, and Pytheas heard that beyond Thule sea and -air became confounded. Even Tacitus believed that there was a peculiar -resistance in the waters of the northern ocean.<a name="FNanchor_316_316" id="FNanchor_316_316"></a><a href="#Footnote_316_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a></p> - -<p>Whether the Greeks owed this dread to the Phœnicians, and whether the -latter shared the feeling, or simulated and encouraged it for the purpose of -concealing their profitable adventures beyond the Straits, is doubtful. In -two cases, at least, it is possible to trace statements of this nature to Punic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> -sources, and antiquity agreed in giving the Phœnicians credit for discouraging -rivalry by every art.<a name="FNanchor_317_317" id="FNanchor_317_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_317_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a></p> - -<p>To an age averse to investigation for its own sake, ignorant of scientific -curiosity, and unimpelled by economic pressure, tales like these might seem -decisive against an attempt to sail westward to India. Rome could thoroughly -appreciate the imaginative mingling of science and legend which -vivified the famous prophecy of the poet Seneca:</p> - -<p class="pp6 p1">Venient annis saecula seris<br /> -Quibus Oceanus vincula rerum<br /> -Laxet, et ingens patebit tellus<br /> -Tethysque novos deteget orbes<br /> -Nec sit terris ultima Thule.<a name="FNanchor_318_318" id="FNanchor_318_318"></a><a href="#Footnote_318_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a></p> - -<p class="p1">But even were it overlooked that the prophecy suited better the revelation -of an unknown continent, such as the theory of Crates and Cicero -placed between Europe and Asia, than the discovery of the eastern coast of -India, mariners and merchants might be pardoned if they set the deterrent -opinions collected by the elder Seneca above the livelier fancies of his son.<a name="FNanchor_319_319" id="FNanchor_319_319"></a><a href="#Footnote_319_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a></p> - -<p>The scanty records of navigation and discovery in the western waters -confirm the conclusions drawn from the visions of the poets and the theories -of the philosophers. No evidence from the classic writers justifies the -assumption that the ancients communicated with America. If they guessed -at the possibility of such a continent, it was only as we to-day imagine an -antarctic continent or an open polar sea. Evidence from ethnological comparisons<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> -is of course admissible, but those who are best fitted to handle -such evidence best know its dangers; hitherto its use has brought little but -discredit to the cause in which it was invoked.</p> - -<p class="p2">The geographical doctrines which antiquity bequeathed to the Middle -Ages were briefly these: that the earth was a sphere with a circumference -of 252,000 or 180,000 stadia; that only the temperate zones were inhabitable, -and the northern alone known to be inhabited; that of the southern, -owing to the impassable heats of the torrid zone, it could not be discovered -whether it were inhabited, or whether, indeed, land existed there; and that -of the northern, it was unknown whether the intervention of another continent, -or only the shoals and unknown horrors of the ocean, prevented a -westward passage from Europe to Asia. The legatee preserved, but did -not improve his inheritance. It has been supposed that the early Middle -Ages, under the influence of barbarism and Christianity, ignored the sphericity -of the earth, deliberately returning to the assumption of a plane surface, -either wheel-shaped or rectangular. That knowledge dwindled after -the fall of the empire, that the early church included the learning as well -as the religion of the pagans in its ban, is undeniable; but on this point -truth prevailed. It was preserved by many school-books, in many popular<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> -compilations from classic authors, and was accepted by many ecclesiastics. -St. Augustine did not deny the sphericity of the earth. It was assumed -by Isidor of Seville, and taught by Bede.<a name="FNanchor_320_320" id="FNanchor_320_320"></a><a href="#Footnote_320_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a> The schoolmen buttressed the -doctrine by the authority of Aristotle and the living science which the Arabs -built upon the Almagest. Gerbert, Albert the Great, Roger Bacon, Dante, -were as familiar with the idea of the earth-globe as were Hipparchus and -Ptolemy. The knowledge of it came to Columbus not as an inspiration or -an invention, but by long, unbroken descent from its unknown Grecian, or -pre-Grecian, discoverer.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-080.jpg" width="400" height="260" id="i30" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">THE RECTANGULAR EARTH.</p> - <p class="pf400">Sketched in the <i>Bollettino della Società geografica italiana</i> (Roma, 1882), p. 540, from the original in -the Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana in Florence. The representation of this sketch of the earth by Cosmas -Indicopleustes more commonly met with is from the engraving in the edition of Cosmas in Montfaucon’s -<i>Collectio nova patrum</i>, Paris, 1706. The article by Marinelli which contains the sketch given here has also -appeared separately in a German translation (<i>Die Erdkunde bei den Kirchenvätern</i>, Leipzig, 1884). The -continental land beyond the ocean should be noticed.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>As to the distribution of land and water, the oceanic theory of Crates, as -expounded by Macrobius, prevailed in the west, although the existence of -antipodes fell a victim to the union, in the ecclesiastic mind, of the heathen -theory of an impassable torrid zone with the Christian teaching of the descent -of all men from Adam.<a name="FNanchor_321_321" id="FNanchor_321_321"></a><a href="#Footnote_321_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a> The discoveries made by the ancients in the -ocean, of the Canaries and other islands known to them, were speedily forgotten, -while their geographic myths were superseded by a ranker growth. -The Saturnian continent, Meropis, Atlantis, the Fortunate Isles, the Hesperides, -were relegated to the dusty realm of classical learning; but the -Atlantic was not barren of their like. Mediæval maps swarmed with fabulous -islands, and wild stories of adventurous voyages divided the attention -with tales of love and war. Antillia was the largest, and perhaps the most -famous, of these islands; it was situated in longitude 330° east, and near -the latitude of Lisbon, so that Toscanelli regarded it as much facilitating -the plan of Columbus. Well known, too, was Braçir, or Brazil, having its -proper position west and north of Ireland, but often met with elsewhere; -both this island and Antillia afterward gave names to portions of the new -continent.<a name="FNanchor_322_322" id="FNanchor_322_322"></a><a href="#Footnote_322_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a></p> - -<p>Antillia, otherwise called the Island of Seven Cities, was discovered and -settled by an archbishop and six bishops of Spain, who fled into the ocean -after the victory of the Moors, in 714, over Roderick; it is even reported -to have been rediscovered in 1447.<a name="FNanchor_323_323" id="FNanchor_323_323"></a><a href="#Footnote_323_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a> Mayda, Danmar, Man Satanaxio, Isla -Verde, and others of these islands, of which but little is known beside the -names, appear for the first time upon the maps of the fourteenth and fifteenth -centuries, but their origin is quite unknown. It might be thought -that they were derived from confused traditions of their classical predecessors,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> -with which they have been identified, but modern folk-lore has -shown that such fancies spring up spontaneously in every community. -To dream of a distant spot where joy is untroubled and rest unbroken by -grief or toil is a natural and inalienable bent of the human mind. Those -happy islands which abound in the romances of the heathen Celts, Mag -Mell, Field of Delight, Flath Inis, Isle of the Heroes, the Avallon of the -Arthur cycle, were but a more exuberant forth-putting of the same soil -that produced the Elysian Fields of Homer or the terrestrial paradise of the -Hebrews. The later growth is not born of the seed of the earlier, though -somewhat affected by alien grafts, as in the case of the famous island of -St. Brandan, where there is a curious commingling of Celtic, Greek, and -Christian traditions. It is dangerous, indeed, to speak of earlier or later -in reference to such myths; one group was written before the others, but -it is quite possible that the earthly paradise of the Celt is as old as those -of the Mediterranean peoples. The idea of a phantom or vanishing island, -too, is very old,—as old, doubtless, as the fact of fog-banks and -mirage,—and it is well exemplified in those mysterious visions which enticed -the sailors of Bristol to many a fruitless quest before the discovery of -America, and for centuries tantalized the inhabitants of the Canaries with -hope of discovery. The Atlantic islands were not all isles of the blessed; -there were many Isles of Demons, such as Ramusio places north of Newfoundland, -a name of evil report which afterward attached itself with more -reason to Sable Island and even to the Bermudas:</p> - -<p class="pp6q p1">“Kept, as suppos’d by Hel’s infernal dogs;<br /> -Our fleet found there most honest courteous hogs.”<a name="FNanchor_324_324" id="FNanchor_324_324"></a><a href="#Footnote_324_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a></p> - -<p class="p1">Not until the revival of classical learning did the continental system of -Ptolemy reach the west; the way, however, had been prepared for it. The -measurement of a degree, executed under the Calif Mamun, seemed to the -Europeans to confirm the smallest estimate of the size of the earth, which -Ptolemy also had adopted,<a name="FNanchor_325_325" id="FNanchor_325_325"></a><a href="#Footnote_325_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a> while the travels of Marco Polo, revealing the -great island of Japan, exaggerated the popular idea of the extent of the -known world, until the 225° of Marinus seemed more probable than the -180° of Ptolemy. If, however, time brought this shrinkage in the breadth -of the Atlantic, the temptation to navigators was opposed by the belief in -the dangers of the ocean, which shared the persistent life of the dogma -of the impassable torrid zone, and was strongly reinforced by Arab lore. -Their geographers never tire of dilating on the calms and storms, mudbanks -and fogs, and unknown dangers of the “Sea of Darkness.” Nevertheless, -as the turmoil of mediæval life made gentler spirits sigh for peace -in distant homes, while the wild energy of others found the very dangers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> -of the sea delightful, there was opened a double source of adventures, both -real and imaginary. Those pillars cut with inscriptions forbidding further -advance westward, which we owe to Moorish fancy, confounding Hercules -and Atlas and Alexander, were transformed into a knightly hero pointing -oceanwards, or became guide-posts to the earthly paradise.</p> - -<p>If there be a legendary flavor in the flight of the seven bishops, we -must set down the wanderings of the Magrurin<a name="FNanchor_326_326" id="FNanchor_326_326"></a><a href="#Footnote_326_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a> among the African -islands, the futile but bold attempts of the Visconti to circumnavigate Africa, -as real, though without the least footing in a list of claimants for the -discovery of America. The voyages of St. Brandan and St. Malo, again, -are distinctly fabulous, and but other forms of the ancient myth of the -soul-voyages; and the same may be said of the strange tale of Maelduin.<a name="FNanchor_327_327" id="FNanchor_327_327"></a><a href="#Footnote_327_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a> -But what of those other Irish voyages to Irland-it-mikla and Huitramannaland, -of the voyage of Madoc, of the explorations of the Zeni? While -these tales merit close investigation, it is certain that whatever liftings of -the veil there may have been—that there were any is extremely doubtful—were -unheralded at the time and soon forgotten.<a name="FNanchor_328_328" id="FNanchor_328_328"></a><a href="#Footnote_328_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a></p> - -<p>It was reserved for the demands of commerce to reveal the secrets of -the west. But when the veil was finally removed it was easy for men to -see that it had never been quite opaque. The learned turned naturally to -their new-found classics, and were not slow to find the passages which -seemed prophetic of America. Seneca, Virgil, Horace, Aristotle, and Theopompus, -were soon pressed into the service, and the story of Atlantis -obtained at once a new importance. I have tried to show in this chapter -that these patrons of a revived learning put upon these statements an -interpretation which they will not bear.</p> - -<p>The summing up of the whole matter cannot be better given than in the -words applied by a careful Grecian historian to another question in ancient -geography: “In some future time perhaps our pains may lead us to a -knowledge of those countries. But all that has hitherto been written or -reported of them must be considered as mere fable and invention, and not -the fruit of any real search, or genuine information.”<a name="FNanchor_329_329" id="FNanchor_329_329"></a><a href="#Footnote_329_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/d2.jpg" width="200" height="63" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<h3><a name="c33" id="c33">CRITICAL ESSAY ON THE SOURCES OF INFORMATION.</a></h3> - -<p class="drop-cap04">THE views of the ancient Mediterranean peoples upon geography are preserved -almost solely in the ancient classics. The poems attributed to Homer and Hesiod, -the so-called Orphic hymns, the odes of Pindar, even the dramatic works of Æschylus and -his successors, are sources for the earlier time. The writings of the earlier philosophers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -are lost, and their ideas are to be found in later writers, and in compilations like the Biographies -of Diogenes Laertius (3d cent. <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>), the <i>De placitis philosophorum</i> attributed to -Plutarch, and the like. Among the works of Plato the <i>Phaedo</i> and <i>Timaeus</i> and the last -book of the <i>Republic</i> bear on the form and arrangement of the earth; the Timaeus and -<i>Critias</i> contain the fable of Atlantis. The first scientific treatises preserved are the <i>De -Caelo</i> and <i>Meteorologica</i> of Aristotle.<a name="FNanchor_330_330" id="FNanchor_330_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_330_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a> It is needless to speak in detail of the geographical -writers, accounts of whom will be found in any history of Greek and Roman literature. -The minor pieces, such as the <i>Periplus</i> of Hanno, of Scylax of Caryanda, of Dionysius -Periegetes, the Geography of Agatharcides, and others, have been several times collected;<a name="FNanchor_331_331" id="FNanchor_331_331"></a><a href="#Footnote_331_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> -and so have the minor historians, which may be consulted for Theopompus, Hecataeus, -and the mythologists.<a name="FNanchor_332_332" id="FNanchor_332_332"></a><a href="#Footnote_332_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a> The geographical works of Pytheas (<span class="smcap">b.c.</span> 350?), of Eratosthenes -(<span class="smcap">b.c.</span> 276-126), of Polybius (<span class="smcap">b.c.</span> 204-122), of Hipparchus (flor. circ. <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> 125), of Posidonius -(1st cent. <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>), are preserved only in quotations made by later writers; they have, -however, been collected and edited in convenient form.<a name="FNanchor_333_333" id="FNanchor_333_333"></a><a href="#Footnote_333_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a> The most important source of -our knowledge of Greek geography and Greek geographers is of course the great <i>Geography</i> -of Strabo, which a happy fortune preserved to us. The long introduction upon -the nature of geography and the size of the earth and the dimensions of the known world -is of especial interest, both for his own views and for those he criticises.<a name="FNanchor_334_334" id="FNanchor_334_334"></a><a href="#Footnote_334_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a> Strabo lived -about <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> 60 to <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 24.</p> - -<p>The works of Marinus of Tyre having perished, the next important geographical work -in Greek is the world-renowned <i>Geography</i> of Ptolemaeus, who wrote in the second half -of the second century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> Despite the peculiar merits and history of this work, it is not -so important for our purpose as the work of Strabo, though it exercised infinitely more -influence on the Middle Ages and on early modern geography.<a name="FNanchor_335_335" id="FNanchor_335_335"></a><a href="#Footnote_335_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p> - -<p>The astronomical writers are also of importance. Eudoxus of Cnidus, said to have first -adduced the change in the altitude of stars accompanying a change of latitude as proof -of the sphericity of the earth, wrote works now known only in the poems of Aratus, -who flourished in the latter half of the third century <span class="smcap">b.c.</span><a name="FNanchor_336_336" id="FNanchor_336_336"></a><a href="#Footnote_336_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a> Geminus (circ. <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> 50),<a name="FNanchor_337_337" id="FNanchor_337_337"></a><a href="#Footnote_337_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a> and -Cleomedes,<a name="FNanchor_338_338" id="FNanchor_338_338"></a><a href="#Footnote_338_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a> whose work is famous for having preserved the method by which Eratosthenes -measured the circumference of the earth, were authors of brief popular compilations -of astronomical science. Of vast importance in the history of learning was the -astronomical work of Ptolemy, <i>ἡ μεγάλη σύνταξις τῆς ἀστρονομίας</i>, which was so honored by -the Arabs that it is best known to us as the <i>Almagest</i>, from <i>Tabric al Magisthri</i>, the -title of the Arabic translation which was made in 827. It has been edited and translated -by Halma (Paris, 1813, 1816).</p> - -<p>Much is to be learned from the <i>Scholia</i> attached in early times to the works of -Hesiod, Homer, Pindar, the <i>Argonautica</i> of Apollonius Rhodius (<span class="smcap">b.c.</span> 276-193?), and -to the works of Aristotle, Plato, etc. In some cases these are printed with the works -commented upon; in other cases, the <i>Scholia</i> have been printed separately. The commentary -of Proclus (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 412-485) upon the <i>Timaeus</i> of Plato is of great importance in -the Atlantis myth.<a name="FNanchor_339_339" id="FNanchor_339_339"></a><a href="#Footnote_339_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a></p> - -<p>Much interest attaches to the dialogue entitled <i>On the face appearing in the orb of the -moon</i>, which appears among the <i>Moralia</i> of Plutarch. Really a contribution to the -question of life after death, this work also throws light upon geographical and astronomical -knowledge of its time.</p> - -<p>Among the Romans we find much the same succession of sources. The poets, Virgil, -Horace, Ovid, Tibullus, Lucretius, Lucan, Seneca, touch on geographical or astronomical -points and reflect the opinion of their day.<a name="FNanchor_340_340" id="FNanchor_340_340"></a><a href="#Footnote_340_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a></p> - -<p>The first six books of the great encyclopaedia compiled by Pliny the elder (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 23-79)<a name="FNanchor_341_341" id="FNanchor_341_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_341_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a> -contain an account of the universe and the earth, which is of the greatest value, and was -long exploited by compilers of later times, among the earliest and best of whom was Solinus.<a name="FNanchor_342_342" id="FNanchor_342_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_342_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a> -Equally famous with Solinus was the author of a work of more independent character, -Pomponius Mela, who lived in the first century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> His geography, commonly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> -known as <i>De situ orbis</i> from the mediæval title, though the proper name is <i>De chorographia</i>, -is a work of importance and merit. In the Middle Ages it had wonderful popularity.<a name="FNanchor_343_343" id="FNanchor_343_343"></a><a href="#Footnote_343_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a> -Cicero, who contemplated writing a history of geography, touches upon the arrangement -of the earth’s surface several times in his works, as in the <i>Tusculan Disputations</i>, and -notably in the sixth book of the <i>Republic</i>, in the episode known as the “Dream of Scipio.” -The importance of this piece is enhanced by the commentary upon it written by Macrobius -in the fifth century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span><a name="FNanchor_344_344" id="FNanchor_344_344"></a><a href="#Footnote_344_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a> A peculiar interest attaches to the poems of Avienus, of -the fourth century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>, in that they give much information about the character attributed -to the Atlantic Ocean.<a name="FNanchor_345_345" id="FNanchor_345_345"></a><a href="#Footnote_345_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a> The astronomical poems of Manilius<a name="FNanchor_346_346" id="FNanchor_346_346"></a><a href="#Footnote_346_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a> and Hyginus were favorites -in early Middle Ages. The astrological character of the work of Manilius made it popular, -but it conveyed also the true doctrine of the form of the earth. The curious work of -Marcianus Capella gave a résumé of science in the first half of the fifth century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>, and -had a like popularity as a school-book and house-book which also helped maintain the -truth.<a name="FNanchor_347_347" id="FNanchor_347_347"></a><a href="#Footnote_347_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a></p> - -<p>Such in the main are the ancient writers upon which we must chiefly rely in considering -the present question. In the interpretation of these sources much has been done by the -leading modern writers on the condition of science in ancient times; like Bunbury, Ukert, -Forbiger, St. Martin, and Peschel on geography;<a name="FNanchor_348_348" id="FNanchor_348_348"></a><a href="#Footnote_348_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a> like Zeller on philosophy, not to name -many others;<a name="FNanchor_349_349" id="FNanchor_349_349"></a><a href="#Footnote_349_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a> and like Lewis and Martin on astronomy;<a name="FNanchor_350_350" id="FNanchor_350_350"></a><a href="#Footnote_350_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a> but there is no occasion to go -to much length in the enumeration of this class of books. The reader is referred to -the examination of the literature of special points of the geographical studies of the -ancients to the notes following this Essay.</p> - -<p class="p2">Mediæval cosmology and geography await a thorough student; they are imbedded in -the wastes of theological discussions of the Fathers, or hidden in manuscript cosmographies -in libraries of Europe. It should be noted that confusion has arisen from the use -of the word <i>rotundus</i> to express both the sphericity of the earth and the circularity of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -known lands, and from the use of <i>terra</i>, or <i>orbis terrae</i>, to denote the inhabited lands, as -well as the globe. It has been pointed out by Ruge (<i>Gesch. d. Zeitalters der Entdeckungen</i>, -p. 97) that the later Middle Age adopted the circular form of the <i>oekoumene</i> in -consequence of a peculiar theory as to the relation of the land and water masses of the -earth, which were conceived as two intercepting spheres. The <i>oekoumene</i> might easily -be spoken of as a round disk without implying that the whole earth was plane.<a name="FNanchor_351_351" id="FNanchor_351_351"></a><a href="#Footnote_351_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a> That -the struggle of the Christian faith, at first for existence and then for the proper harvesting -of the fruits of victory, induced its earlier defenders to wage war against the learning -as well as the religion of the pagans; that Christians were inclined to think time taken -from the contemplation of the true faith worse than wasted when given to investigations -into natural phenomena, which might better be accepted for what they professed to be; -and that they often found in Scripture a welcome support for the evidence of the senses,—cannot -be denied. It was inevitable that St. Chrysostom, Lactantius, Orosius and -Origines rejected or declined to teach the sphericity of the earth. The curious systems -of Cosmas and Aethicus, marked by a return to the crudest conceptions of the universe, -found some favor in Europe. But the truth was not forgotten. The astronomical poems -of Aratus, Hyginus, and Manilius were still read. Solinus and other plunderers of Pliny -were popular, and kept alive the ancient knowledge. The sphericity of the earth was not -denied by St. Augustine; it was maintained by Martianus Capella, and assumed by -Isidor of Seville. Bede<a name="FNanchor_352_352" id="FNanchor_352_352"></a><a href="#Footnote_352_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a> taught the whole system of ancient geography; and but little -later, Virgilius, bishop of Saltzburg, was threatened with papal displeasure, not for teaching -the sphericity of the earth, but for upholding the existence of antipodes.<a name="FNanchor_353_353" id="FNanchor_353_353"></a><a href="#Footnote_353_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a> The -canons of Ptolemy were cited in the eleventh century by Hermann Contractus in his <i>De -utilitatibus astrolabii</i>, and in the twelfth by Hugues de Saint Victor in his <i>Eruditio -didascalica</i>. Strabo was not known before Pope Nicholas V., who ordered the first -translation. Not many to-day can illustrate the truth more clearly than the author of -<i>L’Image du Monde</i>, an anonymous poem of the thirteenth century. If two men, he says, -were to start at the same time from a given point and go, the one east, the other west,—</p> - -<p class="pp6 p1">Si que andui egaumont alassent<br /> -Il convendroit qu’il s’encontrassent<br /> -Dessus le leu dont il se mûrent.<a name="FNanchor_354_354" id="FNanchor_354_354"></a><a href="#Footnote_354_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a></p> - -<p class="p1">In general, the mathematical and astronomical treatises were earlier known to the West -than the purely metaphysical works: this was the case in the eleventh and twelfth centuries; -in the thirteenth the schoolmen were familiar with the whole body of Aristotle’s -works. Thus the influence of Aristotle on natural science was early important, either -through Arabian commentators or paraphrasers, or through translations made from the -Arabic, or directly from the Greek.<a name="FNanchor_355_355" id="FNanchor_355_355"></a><a href="#Footnote_355_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a></p> - -<p>Jourdain affirms that it was the influence of Aristotle and his interpreters that kept alive -in the Middle Ages the doctrine that India and Spain were not far apart. He also maintains<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> -that the doctrine of the sphericity of the earth was familiar throughout the Middle -Age, and, if anything, more of a favorite than the other view.</p> - -<p>The field of the later ecclesiastical and scholastic writers, who kept up the contentions -over the form of the earth and kindred subjects, is too large to be here minutely surveyed. -Such of them as were well known to the geographical students of the centuries next preceding -Columbus have been briefly indicated in another place;<a name="FNanchor_356_356" id="FNanchor_356_356"></a><a href="#Footnote_356_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a> and if not completely, yet -with helpful outlining, the whole subject of the mediæval cosmology has been studied by -not a few of the geographical and cartographical students of later days.<a name="FNanchor_357_357" id="FNanchor_357_357"></a><a href="#Footnote_357_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a> So far as these -studies pertain to the theory of a Lost Atlantis and the fabulous islands of the Atlantic -Ocean, they will be particularly illustrated in the notes which follow this Essay.</p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-088.jpg" width="500" height="70" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<h3><a name="c38" id="c38">NOTES.</a></h3> - -<p><b><a name="n38" id="n38">A.</a></b> <span class="smcap">The Form of the Earth.</span>—It is not easy to demonstrate that the earliest Greeks believed the earth -to be a flat disk, although that is the accepted and probably correct view of their belief. It is possible to -examine but a small part of the earliest literature, and what we have is of uncertain date and dubious origin; -its intent is religious or romantic, not scientific; its form is poetic. It is difficult to interpret it accurately, -since the prevalent ideas of nature must be deduced from imagery, qualifying words and phrases, and seldom -from direct description. The interpreter, doubtful as to the proportion in which he finds mingled fancy and -honest faith, is in constant danger of overreaching himself by excess of ingenuity. In dealing with such a -literature one is peculiarly liable to abuse the always dangerous argument by which want of knowledge is -inferred from lack of mention. Other difficulties beset the use of later philosophic material, much of which is -preserved only in extracts made by antagonists or by compilers, so that we are forced to confront a lack of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> -context and possible misunderstanding or misquotation. The frequent use of the word <i>στρογγύλος</i>, which has -the same ambiguity as our word “round” in common parlance, often leads to uncertainty. A more fruitful -cause of trouble is inherent in the Greek manner of thinking of the world. It is often difficult to know -whether a writer means the planet, or whether he means the agglomeration of known lands which later -writers called <i>ἡ οἰκουμένη</i>. It is not impossible that when writers refer to the earth as encircled by the river -Oceanus, they mean, not the globe, but the known lands, the eastern continent, as we say, what the Romans -sometimes called <i>orbis terrae or orbis terrarum</i>, a term which may mean the “circle of the lands,” not the -“orb of the earth.” At a later time it was a well-known belief that the earth-globe and water-globe were -excentrics, so that a segment of the former projected beyond the surface of the latter in one part, and constituted -the known world.<a name="FNanchor_358_358" id="FNanchor_358_358"></a><a href="#Footnote_358_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a></p> - -<p>I cannot attach much importance to the line of argument with which modern writers since Voss have tried -to prove that the Homeric poems represent the earth flat. That Poseidon, from the mountains of the Solymi, -sees Odesseus on the sea to the west of Greece (<i>Od.</i> v. 282); that Helios could see his cattle in Thrinakia -both as he went toward the heavens and as he turned toward the earth again (<i>Od.</i> xii. 380); that at sunset -“all the ways are darkened;” that the sun and the stars set in and rose from the ocean,—these and similar -proofs seem to me to have as little weight as attaches to the expressions “ends of the earth,” or to the flowing -of Oceanus around the earth. There are, however, other and better reasons for assuming that the earth in -earliest thought was flat. Such is the most natural assumption from the evidence of sight, and there is -certainly nothing in the older writings inconsistent with such an idea. We know, moreover, that in the time -of Socrates it was yet a matter of debate as to whether the earth was flat or spherical, as it was in the time of -Plutarch.<a name="FNanchor_359_359" id="FNanchor_359_359"></a><a href="#Footnote_359_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a> We are distinctly told by Aristotle that various forms were attributed to earth by early philosophers, -and the implication is that the spherical theory, whose truth he proceeds to demonstrate, was a new -thought.<a name="FNanchor_360_360" id="FNanchor_360_360"></a><a href="#Footnote_360_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a> It is very unlikely, except to those who sincerely accept the theory of a primitive race of unequalled -wisdom, that the sphericity of the earth, having been known to Homer, should have been cast aside by the -Ionic philosophers and the Epicureans, and forgotten by educated people five or six centuries later, as it -must have been before the midnight voyage of Helios in his golden cup, and before similar attempts to -account for the return of the sun could have become current. Ignorance of the true shape of the earth is also -indicated by the common view that the sun appeared much larger at rising to the people of India than to the -Grecians, and at setting presented the same phenomenon in Spain.<a name="FNanchor_361_361" id="FNanchor_361_361"></a><a href="#Footnote_361_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a> As we have seen, the description of -Tartarus in the Theogony of Hesiod, which Fick thinks an interpolation of much later date, likens the earth -to a lid.</p> - -<p>The question has always been an open one. Crates of Mallos, Strabo, and other Homer-worshippers of -antiquity, could not deny to the poet any knowledge current in their day, but their reasons for assuming that -he knew the earth to be a globe are not strong. In recent years President Warren has maintained that -Homer’s earth was a sphere with Oceanus flowing around the equator, that the pillars of Atlas meant the axis -of the earth, and that Ogygia was at the north pole.<a name="FNanchor_362_362" id="FNanchor_362_362"></a><a href="#Footnote_362_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a> Homer, however, thought that Oceanus flowed around -the known lands, not that it merely grazed their southern border: it is met with in the east where the sun -rises, in the west (<i>Od.</i> iv. 567), and in the north (<i>Od.</i> v. 275).</p> - -<p>That “Homer and all the ancient poets conceived the earth to be a plane” was distinctly asserted by -Geminus in the first century <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>,<a name="FNanchor_363_363" id="FNanchor_363_363"></a><a href="#Footnote_363_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a> and has been in general steadfastly maintained by moderns like Voss,<a name="FNanchor_364_364" id="FNanchor_364_364"></a><a href="#Footnote_364_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a> -Völcker,<a name="FNanchor_365_365" id="FNanchor_365_365"></a><a href="#Footnote_365_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a> Buchholtz,<a name="FNanchor_366_366" id="FNanchor_366_366"></a><a href="#Footnote_366_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a> Gladstone,<a name="FNanchor_367_367" id="FNanchor_367_367"></a><a href="#Footnote_367_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a> Martin,<a name="FNanchor_368_368" id="FNanchor_368_368"></a><a href="#Footnote_368_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a> Schaefer,<a name="FNanchor_369_369" id="FNanchor_369_369"></a><a href="#Footnote_369_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a> and Gruppe.<a name="FNanchor_370_370" id="FNanchor_370_370"></a><a href="#Footnote_370_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a> It is therefore intrinsically probable, -commonly accepted, and not contradicted by what is known of the literature of the time itself.<a name="FNanchor_371_371" id="FNanchor_371_371"></a><a href="#Footnote_371_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a></p> - -<p class="p1"><b><a name="n39" id="n39">B.</a></b> <span class="smcap">Homer’s Geography.</span>—There is an extensive literature on the geographic attainments of Homer, but -it is for the most part rather sad reading. The later Greeks had a local identification for every place mentioned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> -in the <i>Odyssey</i>; but conservative scholars at present are chary of such, while agreed in confining the -scene of the wanderings to the western Mediterranean. Gladstone, in <i>Homer and the Homeric Age</i>, has -argued with ingenuity for the transfer of the scene from the West to the East, and has constructed on this -basis one of the most extraordinary maps of “the ancient world” known. K. E. von Baer (<i>Wo ist der Schauplatz -d. Fahrten d. Odysseus zu finden? 1875</i>), agreeing with Gladstone, “identifies” the Lastrygonian -harbor with Balaklava, and discovers the very poplar grove of Persephone. It is a favorite scheme with -others to place the wanderings outside the columns of Hercules, among the Atlantic isles,<a name="FNanchor_372_372" id="FNanchor_372_372"></a><a href="#Footnote_372_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a> and to include a -circumnavigation of Africa. The better opinion seems to me that which leaves the wanderings in the western -Mediterranean, which was considered to extend much farther north than it actually does. The maps which -represent the voyage within the actual coast lines of the sea, and indicate the vessel passing through the -Straits to the ocean, are misleading. There is not enough given in the poem to resolve the problem. The -courses are vague, the distances uncertain or conventional,—often neither are given; and the matter is complicated -by the introduction of a <i>floating</i> island, and the mysterious voyages from the land of the Phaeacians. -It is a pleasant device adopted by Buchholtz and others to assume that where the course is not given, the -wind last mentioned must be considered to still hold, and surely no one will grudge the commentators this -amelioration of their lot.</p> - -<p class="p1"><b><a name="n40" id="n40">C.</a></b> <span class="smcap">Supposed References to America.</span>—It is well known that Columbus’s hopes were in part based -on passages in classical authors.<a name="FNanchor_373_373" id="FNanchor_373_373"></a><a href="#Footnote_373_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a> Glareanus, quoting Virgil in 1527, after Columbus’s discovery had -made the question of the ancient knowledge prominent, has been considered the earliest to open the discussion;<a name="FNanchor_374_374" id="FNanchor_374_374"></a><a href="#Footnote_374_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a> -and after this we find it a common topic in the early general writers on America, like Las Casas (<i>Historia -General</i>), Ramusio (introd. vol. iii.), and Acosta (book i. ch. 11, etc.)</p> - -<p>In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries it was not an uncommon subject of academic and learned discussion.<a name="FNanchor_375_375" id="FNanchor_375_375"></a><a href="#Footnote_375_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a> -It was a part of the survey made by many of the writers who discussed the origin of the American -tribes, like Garcia,<a name="FNanchor_376_376" id="FNanchor_376_376"></a><a href="#Footnote_376_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a> Lafitau,<a name="FNanchor_377_377" id="FNanchor_377_377"></a><a href="#Footnote_377_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a> Samuel Mather,<a name="FNanchor_378_378" id="FNanchor_378_378"></a><a href="#Footnote_378_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a> Robertson,<a name="FNanchor_379_379" id="FNanchor_379_379"></a><a href="#Footnote_379_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a> not to name others.</p> - -<p>It was not till Humboldt compassed the subject in his <i>Examen Critique de l’histoire de la géographie du -nouveau continent</i> (Paris, 1836), that the field was fully scanned with a critical spirit, acceptable to the -modern mind. He gives two of the five volumes which comprise the work to this part of his subject, and -very little has been added by later research, while his conclusions still remain, on the whole, those of the most -careful of succeeding writers. The French original is not equipped with guides to its contents, such as a -student needs; but this is partly supplied by the index in the German translation.<a name="FNanchor_380_380" id="FNanchor_380_380"></a><a href="#Footnote_380_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a> The impediments which -the student encounters in the <i>Examen Critique</i> are a good deal removed in a book which is on the whole the -easiest guide to the sources of the subject,—Paul Gaffarel’s <i>Etude sur les rapports de l’Amérique et de -l’ancien continent avant Christophe Colomb</i> (Paris, 1869).<a name="FNanchor_381_381" id="FNanchor_381_381"></a><a href="#Footnote_381_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a></p> - -<p>The literature of the supposed old-world communication with America shows other phases of this question -of ancient knowledge, and may be divided, apart from the Greek embraced in the previous survey, into -those of the Egyptians, Phœnicians, Tyrians, Carthaginians, and Romans.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Egyptian theory has been mainly worked out in the present century. Paul Felix Cabrera’s <i>Teatro critico -Americano</i>, printed with Rio’s <i>Palenqué</i> (Lond., 1822), formulates the proofs. An essay by A. Lenoir, comparing -the Central American monuments with those of Egypt, is appended to Dupaix’s <i>Antiquités Méxicaines</i> -(1805). Delafield’s <i>Inquiry into the Origin of the Antiquities of America</i> (Cincinnati, 1839), traces it -to the Cushites of Egypt, and cites Garcia y Cubas, <i>Ensayo de an Estudio Comparativo entre las Pirámides -Egipcias y Méxicanas</i>. Brasseur de Bourbourg discussed the question, <i>S’il existe des sources de l’histoire -primitive du Méxique dans les monuments égyptiens de l’histoire primitive de l’ancien monde dans les -monuments américains?</i> in his ed. of Landa’s <i>Relations des Choses de Yucatan</i> (Paris, 1864). Buckle (<i>Hist. -of Civilization</i>, i. ch. 2) believes the Mexican civilization to have been strictly analogous to that of India and -Egypt. Tylor (<i>Early Hist. of Mankind</i>, 98) compares the Egyptian hieroglyphics with those of the Aztecs. -John T. C. Heaviside, <i>Amer. Antiquities, or the New World the Old, and the Old World the New</i> (London, -1868), maintains the reverse theory of the Egyptians being migrated Americans. F. de Varnhagen -works out his belief in <i>L’origine touranienne des américains tupis-caribes et des anciens égyptiens montrée -principalement par la philologie comparée; et notice d’une émigration en Amérique effectuée à travers -l’Atlantique plusieurs siècles avant notre ère</i> (Vienne 1876).<a name="FNanchor_382_382" id="FNanchor_382_382"></a><a href="#Footnote_382_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a></p> - -<p>Aristotle’s mention of an island discovered by the Phœnicians was thought by Gomara and Oviedo to refer to -America. The elder leading writers on the origin of the Indians, like Garcia, Horn, De Laet, and at a later day -Lafitau, discuss the Phœnician theory; as does Voss in his annotations on Pomponius Mela (1658), and Count -de Gebelin in his <i>Monde primitif</i> (Paris, 1781). In the present century the question has been touched by -Cabrera in Rio’s <i>Palenqué</i> (1822). R. A. Wilson, in his <i>New Conquest of Mexico</i>, assigns (ch. v.) the ruins -of Middle America to the Phœnicians. Morlot, in the <i>Actes de la Société Jurassienne d’Emulation</i> (1863), -printed his “La découverte de l’Amérique par les Phènicièns.” Gaffarel sums up the evidences in a paper in -the <i>Compte Rendu, Cong. des Amér.</i> (Nancy), i. 93.<a name="FNanchor_383_383" id="FNanchor_383_383"></a><a href="#Footnote_383_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a></p> - -<p>The Tyrian theory has been mainly sustained by a foolish book, by a foolish man, <i>An Original History of -Anc. America</i> (London, 1843), by Geo. Jones, later known as the Count Johannes (cf. Bancroft’s <i>Native -Races</i>, v. 73).</p> - -<p>The Carthaginian discovery rests mainly on the statements of Diodorus Siculus.<a name="FNanchor_384_384" id="FNanchor_384_384"></a><a href="#Footnote_384_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a></p> - -<p>Baron Zach in his <i>Correspondenz</i> undertakes to say that Roman voyages to America were common in the -days of Seneca, and a good deal of wild speculation has been indulged in.<a name="FNanchor_385_385" id="FNanchor_385_385"></a><a href="#Footnote_385_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a></p> - -<p class="p1"><b><a name="n41" id="n41">D.</a></b> <span class="smcap">Atlantis.</span>—The story of Atlantis rests solely upon the authority of Plato, who sketched it in the -<i>Timaeus</i>, and began an elaborated version in the <i>Critias</i> (if that fragment be by him), which old writers often -cite as the <i>Atlanticus</i>. This is frequently forgotten by those who try to establish the truth of the story, who -often write as if all statements in print were equally available as “authorities,” and quote as corroborations -of the tale all mentions of it made by classical writers, regardless of the fact that all are later than Plato, and -can no more than Ignatius Donnelly corroborate him. In fact, the ancients knew no better than we what to -make of the story, and diverse opinions prevailed then as now. Many of these opinions are collected by Proclus -in the first book of his commentary on the <i>Timaeus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_386_386" id="FNanchor_386_386"></a><a href="#Footnote_386_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a> and all shades of opinion are represented from -those who, like Crantor, accepted the story as simply historical, to those who regarded it as a mere fable. -Still others, with Proclus himself, accepted it as a record of actual events, while accounting for its introduction -in Plato by a variety of subtile metaphysical interpretations. Proclus reports that Crantor, the first commentator -upon Plato (<i>circa</i> <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> 300), asserted that the Egyptian priests said that the story was written on pillars -which were still preserved,<a name="FNanchor_387_387" id="FNanchor_387_387"></a><a href="#Footnote_387_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a> and he likewise quotes from the <i>Ethiopic History</i> of Marcellus, a writer of whom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> -nothing else is known, a statement that according to certain historians there were seven islands in the external -sea sacred to Proserpine; and also three others of great size, one sacred to Pluto, one to Ammon, and another, -the middle one, a thousand stadia in size, sacred to Neptune. The inhabitants of it preserved the remembrance, -from their ancestors, of the Atlantic island which existed there, and was truly prodigiously great, -which for many periods had dominion over all the islands in the Atlantic sea, and was itself sacred to Neptune.<a name="FNanchor_388_388" id="FNanchor_388_388"></a><a href="#Footnote_388_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a> -Testimony like this is of little value in such a case. What comes to us at third hand is more apt to -need support than give it; yet these two passages are the strongest evidence of knowledge of Atlantis -outside of Plato that is preserved. We do indeed find mention of it elsewhere and earlier. Thus Strabo<a name="FNanchor_389_389" id="FNanchor_389_389"></a><a href="#Footnote_389_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a> -says that Posidonius (<span class="smcap">b.c.</span> 135-51) suggested that, as the land was known to have changed in elevation, -Atlantis might not be a fiction, but that such an island-continent might actually have existed and disappeared. -Pliny<a name="FNanchor_390_390" id="FNanchor_390_390"></a><a href="#Footnote_390_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a> also mentions Atlantis in treating of changes in the earth’s surface, though he qualifies his quotation -with “si Platoni credimus.”<a name="FNanchor_391_391" id="FNanchor_391_391"></a><a href="#Footnote_391_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a> A mention of the story in a similar connection is made by Ammianus -Marcellinus.<a name="FNanchor_392_392" id="FNanchor_392_392"></a><a href="#Footnote_392_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a></p> - -<p>In the Scholia to Plato’s <i>Republic</i> it is said that at the great Panathenaea there was carried in procession a -<i>peplum</i> ornamented with representations of the contest between the giants and the gods, while on the <i>peplum</i> -carried in the little Panathenaea could be seen the war of the Athenians against the Atlantides. Even -Humboldt accepted this as an independent testimony in favor of the antiquity of the story; but Martin has -shown that, apart from the total inconsistency of the report with the expressions of Plato, who places the narration -of this forgotten deed of his countrymen at the celebration of the festival of the little Panathenaea, the -scholiast has only misread Proclus, who states that the <i>peplum</i> depicted the repulse of the barbarians, <i>i. e.</i> -Persians, by the Greeks.<a name="FNanchor_393_393" id="FNanchor_393_393"></a><a href="#Footnote_393_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a> To these passages it is customary to add references to the Meropian continent of -Theopompus,<a name="FNanchor_394_394" id="FNanchor_394_394"></a><a href="#Footnote_394_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a> the Saturnian of Plutarch, the islands of Aristotle, Diodorus and Pausanias,—which is very -much as if one should refer to the <i>New Atlantis</i> of Bacon as evidence for the existence of More’s <i>Utopia</i>.<a name="FNanchor_395_395" id="FNanchor_395_395"></a><a href="#Footnote_395_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a> -Plutarch in his life of Solon attributes Solon’s having given up the idea of an epic upon Atlantis to his advanced -age rather than to want of leisure; but there is nothing to show that he had any evidence beyond Plato that -Solon ever thought of such a poem, and Plato does not say that Solon began the poem, though Plutarch -appears to have so understood him.<a name="FNanchor_396_396" id="FNanchor_396_396"></a><a href="#Footnote_396_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a> Thus it seems more probable that all the references to Atlantis by -ancient writers are derived from the story in Plato than that they are independent and corroborative statements.</p> - -<p>With the decline of the Platonic school at Alexandria even the name of Atlantis readily vanished from -literature. It is mentioned by Tertullian,<a name="FNanchor_397_397" id="FNanchor_397_397"></a><a href="#Footnote_397_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a> and found a place in the strange system of Cosmas Indicopleustes,<a name="FNanchor_398_398" id="FNanchor_398_398"></a><a href="#Footnote_398_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a> -but throughout the Middle Ages little or nothing was known of it. That it was not quite forgotten appears -from its mention in the <i>Image du Monde</i>, a poem of the thirteenth century, still in MS., where it is assigned -a location in the <i>Mer Betée</i> (= coagulée).<a name="FNanchor_399_399" id="FNanchor_399_399"></a><a href="#Footnote_399_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a> Plato was printed in Latin in 1483, 1484, 1491, and in Greek -in 1513, and in 1534 with the commentary of Proclus on the Timaeus.<a name="FNanchor_400_400" id="FNanchor_400_400"></a><a href="#Footnote_400_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a> The <i>Timaeus</i> was printed separately -five times in the sixteenth century, and also in a French and an Italian translation.<a name="FNanchor_401_401" id="FNanchor_401_401"></a><a href="#Footnote_401_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a></p> - -<p>The discovery of America doubtless added to the interest with which the story was perused, and the old -controversy flamed up with new ardor. It was generally assumed that the account given by Plato was not his -invention. Opinions were, however, divided as to whether he had given a correct account. Of those who -believed that he had erred as to the locality or as to the destruction of the island, some thought that America -was the true Atlantis, while others, with whose ideas we have no concern here, placed Atlantis in Africa, Asia, -or Europe, as prejudice led them. Another class of scholars, sensible of the necessity of adhering to the text -of the only extant account, accepted the whole narrative, and endeavored to find in the geography of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> -Atlantic, or as indicated by the resemblances between the flora, fauna, and civilization of America and of the -old world, additional reasons for believing that such an island had once existed, and had disappeared after -serving as a bridge by which communication between the continents was for a time carried on. The discussion -was prolonged over centuries, and is not yet concluded. The wilder theories have been eliminated by time, -and the contest may now be said to be between those who accept Plato’s tale as true and those who regard it -as an invention. The latter view is at present in favor with the most conservative and careful scholars, but -the other will always find advocates. That Atlantis was America was maintained by Gomara, Guillaume -de Postel, Horn, and others incidentally, and by Birchrod in a special treatise,<a name="FNanchor_402_402" id="FNanchor_402_402"></a><a href="#Footnote_402_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a> which had some influence even -upon the geographer Cellarius. In 1669 the Sansons published a map showing America divided among the -descendants of Neptune as Atlantis was divided, and even as late as 1762 Vaugondy reproduced it.<a name="FNanchor_403_403" id="FNanchor_403_403"></a><a href="#Footnote_403_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a> In -his edition of Plato, Stallbaum expressed his belief that the Egyptians might have had some knowledge of -America.<a name="FNanchor_404_404" id="FNanchor_404_404"></a><a href="#Footnote_404_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a> Cluverius thought the story was due to a knowledge of America.<a name="FNanchor_405_405" id="FNanchor_405_405"></a><a href="#Footnote_405_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a></p> - -<p>Very lately Hyde Clark has found in the Atlantis fable evidence of a knowledge of America: he does not -believe in the connecting island Atlantis, but he holds that Plato misinterpreted some account of America -which had reached him.<a name="FNanchor_406_406" id="FNanchor_406_406"></a><a href="#Footnote_406_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a> Except for completeness it is scarcely worth mentioning that Blackett, whose work -can really be characterized by no other word than absurd, sees America in Atlantis.<a name="FNanchor_407_407" id="FNanchor_407_407"></a><a href="#Footnote_407_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a></p> - -<p>Here should be mentioned a work by Berlioux, which puts Euhemerus to the blush in the manner in which -history with much detail is extorted from mythology.<a name="FNanchor_408_408" id="FNanchor_408_408"></a><a href="#Footnote_408_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a> He holds that Atlantis was the northwestern coast of -Africa; that under Ouranos and Atlas, astronomers and kings, it was the seat of a great empire which had -conquered portions of America and kept a lively commercial intercourse with that country.</p> - -<p>Ortelius in several places speaks of the belief that America was the old Atlantis, and also attributes that -belief to Mercator.<a name="FNanchor_409_409" id="FNanchor_409_409"></a><a href="#Footnote_409_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a></p> - -<p>That Atlantis might really have existed<a name="FNanchor_410_410" id="FNanchor_410_410"></a><a href="#Footnote_410_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a> and disappeared, leaving the Atlantic islands as remnants, was too -evident to escape notice. Ortelius suggested that the island of Gades might be a fragment of Atlantis,<a name="FNanchor_411_411" id="FNanchor_411_411"></a><a href="#Footnote_411_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a> and -the doctrine was early a favorite. Kircher, in his very curious work on the subterranean world, devotes -considerable space to Atlantis, rejecting its connection with America, while he maintains its former existence, -and holds that the Azores, Canaries, and other Atlantic islands were formerly parts thereof, and that they -showed traces of volcanic fires in his day.<a name="FNanchor_412_412" id="FNanchor_412_412"></a><a href="#Footnote_412_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a></p> - -<p>Las Casas in his history of the Indies devoted an entire chapter to Atlantis, quoting the arguments of -Proclus, in his commentary on Plato, in favor of the story, though he is himself more doubtful. He also -cites confirmative passages from Philo and St. Anselm, etc. He considers the question of the Atlantic isles, -and cites authorities for great and sudden changes in the earth’s surface.<a name="FNanchor_413_413" id="FNanchor_413_413"></a><a href="#Footnote_413_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a></p> - -<p>The same view was taken by Becman,<a name="FNanchor_414_414" id="FNanchor_414_414"></a><a href="#Footnote_414_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a> and Fortia D’Urban. Turnefort included America in the list of -remnants; and De la Borde followed Sanson in extending Atlantis to the farthest Pacific islands.<a name="FNanchor_415_415" id="FNanchor_415_415"></a><a href="#Footnote_415_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a> Bory -de St. Vincent,<a name="FNanchor_416_416" id="FNanchor_416_416"></a><a href="#Footnote_416_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a> again, limited Atlantis to the Atlantic, and gave on a map his ideas of its contour.</p> - -<p>D’Avezac maintains this theory in his <i>Iles africaines de l’Océan Atlantique</i>,<a name="FNanchor_417_417" id="FNanchor_417_417"></a><a href="#Footnote_417_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a> p. 5-8. Carli devoted a -large part of the second volume of his <i>Lettere Americane</i> to Atlantis, controverting Baily, who placed Atlantis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> -in Spitzbergen. Carli goes at considerable length into the topographical and geological arguments in favor of -its existence.<a name="FNanchor_418_418" id="FNanchor_418_418"></a><a href="#Footnote_418_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a> The early naturalists, when the doctrine of great and sudden changes in the earth’s surface -was in favor, were inclined to look with acquiescence on this belief. Even Lyell confessed a temptation to -accept the theory of an Atlantis island in the northern Atlantic, though he could not see in the Atlantic -islands trace of a mid-Atlantic bridge.<a name="FNanchor_419_419" id="FNanchor_419_419"></a><a href="#Footnote_419_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a> About the middle of this century scholars in several departments of -learning, accepting the evidences of resemblances between the product of the old and new world, were induced -to turn gladly to such a connection as would have been offered by Atlantis; and the results obtained at about -the same time by studies in the pre-Columbian traditions and civilization of Mexico were brought forward as -supporting the same theory. That the Antilles were remnants of Atlantis; that the Toltecs were descendants -from the panic-stricken fugitives of the great catastrophe, whose terrors were recorded in their traditions, as -well as in those of the Egyptians, was ardently urged by Brasseur de Bourbourg.<a name="FNanchor_420_420" id="FNanchor_420_420"></a><a href="#Footnote_420_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a></p> - -<p>In 1859 Retzius announced that he found a close resemblance between the skulls of the Guanches of the -Canaries and the Guaranas of Brazil, and recalled the Atlantis story to explain it.<a name="FNanchor_421_421" id="FNanchor_421_421"></a><a href="#Footnote_421_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a> In 1846 Forbes declared -his belief in the former existence of a bridge of islands in the North Atlantic, and in 1856 Heer attempted to -show the necessity of a similar connection from the testimony of palæontological botany.</p> - -<p>In 1860, Unger deliberately advocated the Atlantis hypothesis to explain the likeness between the fossil -flora of Europe and the living flora of America, enumerating over fifty similar species; and Kuntze found in -the case of the tropical seedless banana, occurring at once in America before 1492 and in Africa, a strong -evidence of the truth of the theory.<a name="FNanchor_422_422" id="FNanchor_422_422"></a><a href="#Footnote_422_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a></p> - -<p>A condensed review of the scientific side of the question is given by A. Boué in his article <i>Ueber die Rolle -der Veränderungen des unorganischen Festen im grossen Massstabe in der Natur</i>.<a name="FNanchor_423_423" id="FNanchor_423_423"></a><a href="#Footnote_423_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a></p> - -<p>The deep-sea soundings taken in the Atlantic under the auspices of the governments of the United States, -England, and Germany resulted in discoveries which gave a new impetus to the Atlantis theory. It was -shown that, starting from the Arctic plateau, a ridge runs down the middle of the Atlantic, broadening toward -the Azores, and contracting again as it trends toward the northeast coast of South America. The depth over -the ridge is less than 1,000 fathoms, while the valleys on either side average 3,000; it is known after the U. S. -vessel which took the soundings as the Dolphin ridge. A similar though more uniformly narrow ridge -was found by the “Challenger” expedition (1873-76), extending from somewhat north of Ascension Island -directly south between South America and Africa. It is known as the Challenger ridge. There is, beside, -evidence for the existence of a ridge across the tropical Atlantic, connecting the Dolphin and Challenger -ridges. Madeira, the Canaries, and the Cape Verde Islands are cut off from these ridges by a deep valley, -but are connected by shoals with the continent. Upon the publication of the Challenger chart (<i>Special Report</i>, -vii. 1876), those who favored the theory of communication between the continents were not slow to -appropriate its disclosures in their interests (<i>Nature</i>, Dec. 21, 1876, xv. 158). In March, 1877, W. Stephen -Mitchell delivered a lecture at South Kensington, wherein he placed in juxtaposition the theory of Unger -and the revelations of the deep-sea soundings, when he announced, however, that he did not mean to assert -that these ridges had ever formed a connecting link above water between the continents.<a name="FNanchor_424_424" id="FNanchor_424_424"></a><a href="#Footnote_424_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a> Others were less -cautious,<a name="FNanchor_425_425" id="FNanchor_425_425"></a><a href="#Footnote_425_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a> but in general this interpretation did not commend itself as strongly to conservative men of science -as it might have done a few years before, because such men were gradually coming to doubt the fact of -changes of great moment in the earth’s surface, even those of great duration.</p> - -<p>In 1869, M. Paul Gaffarel published his first treatise on Atlantis,<a name="FNanchor_426_426" id="FNanchor_426_426"></a><a href="#Footnote_426_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a> advocating the truth of the story, and in -1880 he made it the subject of deeper research, utilizing the facts which ocean exploration had placed at -command.<a name="FNanchor_427_427" id="FNanchor_427_427"></a><a href="#Footnote_427_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a> This is the best work which has appeared upon this side of the question, and can only be set against<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> -the earlier work by Martin.<a name="FNanchor_428_428" id="FNanchor_428_428"></a><a href="#Footnote_428_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a> The same theory has been supported by D. P. de Novo y Colson, who went so -far as to predict the ultimate recovery of some Atlantean manuscripts from submarine grottoes of some of the -Atlantic islands,—a hope which surpasses Mr. Donnelly.<a name="FNanchor_429_429" id="FNanchor_429_429"></a><a href="#Footnote_429_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a></p> - -<p>Winchell found the theory too useful in his scheme of ethnology to be rejected,<a name="FNanchor_430_430" id="FNanchor_430_430"></a><a href="#Footnote_430_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a> but it was reserved for -Ignatius Donnelly to undertake the arrangement of the deductions of modern science and the data of old -traditions into a set argument for the truth of Plato’s story. His book,<a name="FNanchor_431_431" id="FNanchor_431_431"></a><a href="#Footnote_431_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a> in many ways a rather clever statement -of the argument, so evidently presented only the evidence in favor of his view, and that with so little -critical estimate of authorities and weight of evidence, that it attracted only uncomplimentary notice from the -scientific press.<a name="FNanchor_432_432" id="FNanchor_432_432"></a><a href="#Footnote_432_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a> It was, however, the first long presentation of the case in English, and as such made an impression -on many laymen. In 1882 was also published the second volume of the <i>Challenger Narrative</i>, -containing a report by M. Renard on the geologic character of the mid-Atlantic island known as St. Paul’s -rocks. The other Atlantic islands are confessedly of volcanic origin, and this, which laymen interpreted in -favor of the Atlantis theory, militated with men of science against the view that they were remnants of a -sunken continent. St. Paul’s, however, was, as noted by Darwin, of doubtful character, and Renard came -to the conclusion that it was composed of crystalline schists, and had therefore probably been once overlaid -by masses since removed.<a name="FNanchor_433_433" id="FNanchor_433_433"></a><a href="#Footnote_433_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a> This conclusion, which tended in favor of Atlantis, was controverted by A. Geikie<a name="FNanchor_434_434" id="FNanchor_434_434"></a><a href="#Footnote_434_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a> -and by M. E. Wadsworth,<a name="FNanchor_435_435" id="FNanchor_435_435"></a><a href="#Footnote_435_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a> (the latter having personally inspected specimens,) on the ground that the rocks -were volcanic in origin, and that, had they been schists, the inference of denudation would not follow. Dr. -Guest declared that ethnologists have fully as good cause as the botanists to regard Atlantis as a fact.<a name="FNanchor_436_436" id="FNanchor_436_436"></a><a href="#Footnote_436_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a> A. J. -Weise in treating of the Discoveries of America adopted the Atlantis fable unhesitatingly, and supposes that -America was known to the Egyptians through that channel.<a name="FNanchor_437_437" id="FNanchor_437_437"></a><a href="#Footnote_437_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a></p> - -<p>That the whole story was invented by Plato as a literary ornament or allegorical argument, or that he thus -utilized a story which he had really received from Egypt, but which was none the less a myth, was maintained -even among the early Platonists, and was the view of Longinus. Even after the discovery of America many -writers recognized the fabulous touch in it, as Acosta,<a name="FNanchor_438_438" id="FNanchor_438_438"></a><a href="#Footnote_438_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a> who thought, “being well considered, they are rediculous -things, resembling rather to <i>Ovid’s</i> tales then a Historie of Philosophie worthy of accompt,” and “cannot -be held for true but among children and old folkes”—an opinion adopted by the judicious Cellarius.<a name="FNanchor_439_439" id="FNanchor_439_439"></a><a href="#Footnote_439_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p> - -<p>Among more recent writers, D’Anville, Bartoli,<a name="FNanchor_440_440" id="FNanchor_440_440"></a><a href="#Footnote_440_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a> Gosselin,<a name="FNanchor_441_441" id="FNanchor_441_441"></a><a href="#Footnote_441_441" class="fnanchor">[441]</a> Ukert,<a name="FNanchor_442_442" id="FNanchor_442_442"></a><a href="#Footnote_442_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a> approved this view.</p> - -<p>Humboldt threw the weight of his great influence in favor of the mythical interpretation, though he found -the germ of the story in the older geographic myth of the destruction of Lyctonia in the Mediterranean (Orph. -<i>Argonaut.</i>, 1274, etc.);<a name="FNanchor_443_443" id="FNanchor_443_443"></a><a href="#Footnote_443_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a> while Martin, in his work on the <i>Timaeus</i>, with great learning and good sense, reduced -the story to its elements, concluding that such an island had never existed, the tale was not invented by Plato, -but had really descended to him from Solon, who had heard it in Egypt.</p> - -<p>Prof. Jowett regards the entire narrative as “due to the imagination of Plato, who could easily invent ‘Egyptians -or anything else,’ and who has used the name of Solon ... and the tradition of the Egyptian priest to give -verisimilitude to his story;”<a name="FNanchor_444_444" id="FNanchor_444_444"></a><a href="#Footnote_444_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a> and Bunbury is of the same opinion, regarding the story as “a mere fiction,” -and “no more intended to be taken seriously ... than the tale of Er the Pamphylian.”<a name="FNanchor_445_445" id="FNanchor_445_445"></a><a href="#Footnote_445_445" class="fnanchor">[445]</a> Mr. Archer-Hind, the -editor of the only separate edition of the <i>Timaeus</i> which has appeared in England, thinks it impossible to -determine “whether Plato has invented the story from beginning to end, or whether it really more or less -represents some Egyptian legend brought home by Solon,” which seems to be a fitting conclusion to the -whole matter.</p> - -<p>The literature of the subject is widely scattered, but a good deal has been done bibliographically in some -works which have been reserved for special mention here. The earliest is the <i>Dissertation sur l’Atlantide</i>, by -Th. Henri Martin,<a name="FNanchor_446_446" id="FNanchor_446_446"></a><a href="#Footnote_446_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a> wherein, beside a carefully reasoned examination of the story itself and similar geographic -myths, the opposing views of previous writers are set forth in the second section, <i>Histoire des Systèmes sur -l’Atlantide</i>, pp. 258-280. Gaffarel has in like manner given a résumé of the literature, which comes down -later than that of Martin, in the two excellent treatises which he has devoted to the subject; he is convinced -of the existence of such an island, but his work is marked by such care, orderliness, and fulness of citations -that it is of the greatest value.<a name="FNanchor_447_447" id="FNanchor_447_447"></a><a href="#Footnote_447_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a> The references in these treatises are made with intelligence, and are, in general, -accurate and useful. That this is not the case with the work of Mr. Donnelly deprives the volume of -much of the value which it might have had.<a name="FNanchor_448_448" id="FNanchor_448_448"></a><a href="#Footnote_448_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a></p> - -<p class="p1"><b><a name="n46" id="n46">E.</a></b> <span class="smcap">Fabulous Islands of the Atlantic in the Middle Ages.</span>—Fabulous islands belong quite as -much to the domain of folk-lore as to that of geography. The legends about them form a part of the great -mass of superstitions connected with the sea. What has been written about these island myths is for the -most part scattered in innumerable collections of folk-tales and in out-of-the-way sources, and it does not lie -within the scope of the present sketch to track in these directions all that has been said. It will not be out of -place, however, to refer to a few recent works where much information and many references can be found. -One of the fullest collections, though not over-well sorted, is by Lieut. F. S. Bassett,<a name="FNanchor_449_449" id="FNanchor_449_449"></a><a href="#Footnote_449_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a> consisting of brief notes -made in the course of wide reading, well provided with references, which are, however, often so abbreviated as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> -to inflict much trouble on those who would consult them,—an all too common fault. Of interest is a chapter -on <i>Les îles</i>, in a similar work by M. Paul Sebillot.<a name="FNanchor_450_450" id="FNanchor_450_450"></a><a href="#Footnote_450_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a> An island home has often been assigned to the soul after -death, and many legends, some mediæval, some of great antiquity, deal with such islands, or with voyages -to them. Some account of these will be found in Bassett, and particularly in an article by E. Beauvois in the -<i>Revue de l’histoire de Religion</i>,<a name="FNanchor_451_451" id="FNanchor_451_451"></a><a href="#Footnote_451_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a> where further references are to be found. Wm. F. Warren has also collected -many references to the literature of this subject in the course of his endeavor to show that Paradise was at the -North Pole.<a name="FNanchor_452_452" id="FNanchor_452_452"></a><a href="#Footnote_452_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a> The long articles on <i>Eden</i> and <i>Paradise</i> in McClintock and Strong’s <i>Biblical Encyclopedia</i> -should also be consulted.</p> - -<p>In what way the fabulous islands of the Atlantic originated is not known, nor has the subject been exhaustively -investigated. The islands of classical times, in part actual discoveries, in part born of confused -reports of actual discoveries, and in part probably purely mythical, were very generally forgotten as ancient -civilization declined.<a name="FNanchor_453_453" id="FNanchor_453_453"></a><a href="#Footnote_453_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a> The other islands which succeeded them were in part reminiscences of the islands -known to the ancients or invented by them, and in part products of a popular mythology, as old perhaps as -that of the Greeks, but until now unknown to letters. The writers who have dealt with these islands have -treated them generally from the purely geographic point of view. The islands are known principally from -maps, beginning with the fourteenth century, and are not often met with in descriptive works. Formaleoni, -in his attempt to show that the Venetians had discovered the West Indies prior to Columbus, made studies -of the older maps which naturally led him to devote considerable attention to these islands.<a name="FNanchor_454_454" id="FNanchor_454_454"></a><a href="#Footnote_454_454" class="fnanchor">[454]</a></p> - -<p>They are also considered by Zurla.<a name="FNanchor_455_455" id="FNanchor_455_455"></a><a href="#Footnote_455_455" class="fnanchor">[455]</a> The first general account of them was given by Humboldt in the -<i>Examen Critique</i>,<a name="FNanchor_456_456" id="FNanchor_456_456"></a><a href="#Footnote_456_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a> and to what he did little if anything has since been added. D’Avezac<a name="FNanchor_457_457" id="FNanchor_457_457"></a><a href="#Footnote_457_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a> treated the subject, -giving a brief sketch of the islands known to the Arab geographers,—a curious matter which deserves -more attention.</p> - -<p>Still more recently Paul Gaffarel has treated the matter briefly, but carefully.<a name="FNanchor_458_458" id="FNanchor_458_458"></a><a href="#Footnote_458_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a> A study of old maps by H. -Wuttke, in the <i>Jahresbericht des Vereins für Erdkunde zu Dresden</i>,<a name="FNanchor_459_459" id="FNanchor_459_459"></a><a href="#Footnote_459_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a> gives considerable attention to the -islands; and Theobald Fischer, in his commentary on the collection of maps reproduced by Ongania, has briefly -touched on the subject,<a name="FNanchor_460_460" id="FNanchor_460_460"></a><a href="#Footnote_460_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a> as has Cornelio Desimoni in various papers in the <i>Atti della Società Ligure di Storia -patria</i>, xiv., and other years, in the <i>Atti dell’ Acad. dei Nuova Lincei</i>, in the <i>Gionale ligustico</i>, etc. R. H. -Major’s <i>Henry the Navigator</i> should also be consulted.<a name="FNanchor_461_461" id="FNanchor_461_461"></a><a href="#Footnote_461_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a></p> - -<p class="p1">Strictly speaking, the term mythical islands ought to include, if not Frisland and Drogeo, at least the land -of Bus, the island of Bimini with its fountain of life, an echo of one of the oldest of folk-tales, the island of -Saxenburg, and the other non-existent islands, shoals, and rocks, with which the imagination of sailors and -cartographers have connected the Atlantic even into the present century. In fact, the name is by common -consent restricted to certain islands which occur constantly on old charts: the Island of St. Brandan, Antillia -or Isle of the Seven Cities, Satanaxio, Danmar, Brazil, Mayda, and Isla Verte. It is interesting to note that -the Arab geographers had their fabulous islands, too, though so little is known of them that it is at present -impossible to say what relation they bear to those mentioned. They say that Ptolemy assigned 25,000 islands -to the Atlantic, but they name and describe seventeen only, among which we may mention the Eternal Islands -(Canaries? Azores?),<a name="FNanchor_462_462" id="FNanchor_462_462"></a><a href="#Footnote_462_462" class="fnanchor">[462]</a> El-Ghanam (Madeira?), Island of the Two Sorcerers (Lancerote?), etc.<a name="FNanchor_463_463" id="FNanchor_463_463"></a><a href="#Footnote_463_463" class="fnanchor">[463]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p> - -<p>There has been some difference of opinion as to which of the Atlantic islands answer to the ancient conception -of the Fortunate Islands. It is probable that the idea is at the bottom of several of these, but it may -be doubted whether the island of St. Brandan is not entirely due to the christianizing of this ancient fable.</p> - -<p>We proceed now to examine the accounts of some of these islands.</p> - -<p class="p1"><span class="smcap">St. Brandan.</span>—St. Brandan, or Brendan, who died May 16, 577, was Abbot of Cluainfert, in Ireland, -according to the legend, where he was visited by a friend, Barontus, who told him that far in the ocean -lay an island which was the land promised to the saints. St. Brandan set sail for this island in company -with 75 monks, and spent seven years upon the ocean, in two voyages (according to the Irish text in the MS. -<i>book of Lismore</i>, which is probably the most archaic form of the legend), discovering this island and many -others equally marvellous, including one which turned out to be the back of a huge fish, upon which they celebrated -Easter. This story cannot be traced beyond the eleventh century, its oldest form being a Latin -prose version in a MS. of that century. It is known also in French, English, and German translations, both -prose and verse, and was evidently a great favorite in the Middle Ages. Intimately connected with the St. -Brandan legend is that of St. Malo, or Maclovius, Bishop of Aleth, in Armorica, a disciple of St. Brandan, who -accompanied his superior, and whose eulogists, jealous of the fame of the Irish saint, provided for the younger -a voyage on his own account, with marvels transcending those found by Brandan. His church-day is November -17th. The story of St. Brandan is given by Humboldt and D’Avezac,<a name="FNanchor_464_464" id="FNanchor_464_464"></a><a href="#Footnote_464_464" class="fnanchor">[464]</a> and by Gaffarel.<a name="FNanchor_465_465" id="FNanchor_465_465"></a><a href="#Footnote_465_465" class="fnanchor">[465]</a> Further -accounts will be found in the <i>Acta Sanctorum</i> of the Bollandists,<a name="FNanchor_466_466" id="FNanchor_466_466"></a><a href="#Footnote_466_466" class="fnanchor">[466]</a> and in the introductions and notes to the -numerous editions of the voyages, among which reference only need be made to the original Latin edited by -M. Jubinal,<a name="FNanchor_467_467" id="FNanchor_467_467"></a><a href="#Footnote_467_467" class="fnanchor">[467]</a> and to the English version edited by Thomas Wright for the Percy Society.<a name="FNanchor_468_468" id="FNanchor_468_468"></a><a href="#Footnote_468_468" class="fnanchor">[468]</a> A Latin text of the -fourteenth century is now to be found in the <i>Acta Sanctorum Hiberniae ex codice Salmanticensi nunc -premium integre edita opera C. de Smedt et J. de Backer</i> (Edinb. etc., 1888), 4to, pp. 111-154. As is well -known, Philoponus gives an account of the voyages of St. Brandan with a curious map, in which he places the -island N. W. of Spain and N. E. of the Canaries, or <i>Insulae Fortunatae</i>.<a name="FNanchor_469_469" id="FNanchor_469_469"></a><a href="#Footnote_469_469" class="fnanchor">[469]</a> The island of St. Brandan was at -first apparently imagined in the north, but it afterward took a more southerly location. Honoré d’Autun -identifies it with a certain island called Perdita, once discovered and then lost in the Atlantic; we have here, -perhaps, some reminiscence of the name “Aprositos,” which Ptolemy bestows on one of the <i>Fortunatae -Insulae</i>.<a name="FNanchor_470_470" id="FNanchor_470_470"></a><a href="#Footnote_470_470" class="fnanchor">[470]</a> In some of the earlier maps there is an inlet on the west coast of Ireland called <i>Lacus Fortunatus</i>, -which is packed with islands which are called <i>Insulae Fortunatae</i> or <i>Beatae</i>, and sometimes given as 300 or -368 in number.<a name="FNanchor_471_471" id="FNanchor_471_471"></a><a href="#Footnote_471_471" class="fnanchor">[471]</a> But the Pizigani map of 1367 puts the <i>Isole dicte Fortunate S. Brandany</i> in the place of -Madeira; and Behaim’s globe, in 1492, sets it down in the latitude of Cape de Verde,—a legend against it -assigning the discovery to St. Brandan in 565.</p> - -<p>It is this island which was long supposed to be seen as a mountainous land southeast of the Canaries. -After the discovery of the Azores expeditions were fitted out to search for it, and were continued until 1721, -which are described by Viera, and have been since retold by all writers on the subject.<a name="FNanchor_472_472" id="FNanchor_472_472"></a><a href="#Footnote_472_472" class="fnanchor">[472]</a> The island was again -reported as seen in 1759.</p> - -<p class="p1"><span class="smcap">Antillia, or Isle of Seven Cities.</span>—The largest of these islands, the one most persistent in its form -and location, is Antillia, which is depicted as a large rectangular island, extending from north to south, lying<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> -in the mid-Atlantic about lat. 35° N. This island first appears on the map of 1424, preserved at Weimar, and -is found on the principal maps of the rest of the century, notably in the Bianco of 1436.<a name="FNanchor_473_473" id="FNanchor_473_473"></a><a href="#Footnote_473_473" class="fnanchor">[473]</a> On some maps of the -sixteenth and seventeenth centuries appears a smaller island under the name of Sette Citade, or Sete Ciudades, -which is properly another name for Antillia, as Toscanelli says in his famous letter, wherein he recommended -Antillia as likely to be useful as a way-station on the India voyage. We owe to Behaim the preservation on -his globe of 1492 of the legend of this island. It was discovered and settled, according to him, by refugees -from Spain in 714, after the defeat of King Roderick by the Moors. The settlers were accompanied by an -archbishop and six bishops, each of whom built him a town. There is a story that the island was rediscovered -by a Portuguese sailor in 1447.<a name="FNanchor_474_474" id="FNanchor_474_474"></a><a href="#Footnote_474_474" class="fnanchor">[474]</a></p> - -<p>In apparent connection with <i>Antillia</i> are the smaller islands <i>Danmar</i> or <i>Tanmar</i>, <i>Reillo</i> or <i>Royllo</i>, and -<i>Satanaxio</i>. The latter alone is of special interest. Formaleoni found near Antillia, on the map of Bianco of -1436, an island with a name which he read as “Y.<sup>d</sup> laman Satanaxio,”—a name which much perplexed him, -until he found, in an old Italian romance, a legend that in a certain part of India a great hand arose every day -from the sea and carried off the inhabitants into the ocean. Adapting this tale to the west, he translated the -name “Island of the hand of Satan,”<a name="FNanchor_475_475" id="FNanchor_475_475"></a><a href="#Footnote_475_475" class="fnanchor">[475]</a> in which interpretation Humboldt acquiesced. D’Avezac, however, -was inclined to think that there were two islands, one called Delamar, a name which elsewhere appears -as Danmar or Tanmar, and Satanaxio, or, as it appears on a map by Beccario at Parma, <i>Satanagio</i>,<a name="FNanchor_476_476" id="FNanchor_476_476"></a><a href="#Footnote_476_476" class="fnanchor">[476]</a> and suggests -that the word is a corrupt form for S. Atanaxio or S. Atanagio, i. e. St. Athanasius, with which Gaffarel -is inclined to agree.<a name="FNanchor_477_477" id="FNanchor_477_477"></a><a href="#Footnote_477_477" class="fnanchor">[477]</a></p> - -<p>Formaleoni saw in <i>Antillia</i> a foreknowledge of the Antilles, and Hassel believed that North and South -America were respectively represented by Satanaxio and Antillia, with a strait between, just as the American -continent was indeed represented after the discovery. It is certainly curious that Beccario designates the -group of Antillia, Satanagio, and Danmar, as <i>Isle de novo reperte</i>, the name afterwards applied to the discoveries -of Columbus; but it is not now believed that the fifteenth-century islands were aught but geographical -fancies. To transfer their names to the real discoveries was of course easy and natural.<a name="FNanchor_478_478" id="FNanchor_478_478"></a><a href="#Footnote_478_478" class="fnanchor">[478]</a></p> - -<p class="p1"><span class="smcap">Brazil</span>.—Among the islands which prefigured the Azores on fourteenth-century maps appears <i>I. de Brazi</i> -on the Medicean portulano of 1351, and it is apparently Terceira or San Miguel.<a name="FNanchor_479_479" id="FNanchor_479_479"></a><a href="#Footnote_479_479" class="fnanchor">[479]</a> On the Pizigani map of -1367 appear three islands with this name, <i>Insula de Bracir</i> or <i>Bracie</i>, two not far from the Azores, and one -off the south or southeast end of Ireland. On the Catalan map of 1375 is an <i>Insula de Brazil</i> in the southern -part of the so-called Azores group, and an <i>Insula de Brazil</i> (?) applied to a group of small islands enclosed -in a heavy black ring west of Ireland. The same reduplication occurs in the Solerio of 1385, in a map of 1426<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> -preserved at Regensburg, in Bianco’s map of 1436, and in that of 1448: here <i>de Braxil</i> is the easternmost of -the Azores group (i. e. <i>y de Colombi, de Zorzi</i>, etc.), while the large round island—more like a large ink-blot -than anything else—west of Ireland is <i>y de Brazil d. binar</i>.<a name="FNanchor_480_480" id="FNanchor_480_480"></a><a href="#Footnote_480_480" class="fnanchor">[480]</a> In a map in St. Mark’s Library, Venice, dated -about 1450, Brazil appears in four places. Fra Mauro puts it west of Ireland,<a name="FNanchor_481_481" id="FNanchor_481_481"></a><a href="#Footnote_481_481" class="fnanchor">[481]</a> and it so appears in Ptolemy -of 1519, and Ramusio in 1556; but Mercator and Ortelius inscribe it northwest of the Azores.</p> - -<p>Humboldt has shown<a name="FNanchor_482_482" id="FNanchor_482_482"></a><a href="#Footnote_482_482" class="fnanchor">[482]</a> that brazil-wood, being imported into Europe from the East Indies long before the -discovery of America, gave its name to the country in the west where it was found in abundance, and he -infers that the designation of the Atlantic island was derived from the same source. The duplication of the -name, however, seems to point to a confusion of different traditions, and in the Brazil off Ireland we doubtless -have an attempt to establish the mythical island of <i>Hy Brazil</i>, or <i>O’Brasile</i>, which plays a part as a vanishing -island in Irish legends, although it cannot be traced to its origin. In the epic literature of Ireland relating to -events of the sixth and subsequent centuries, and which was probably written down in the twelfth, there are -various stories of ocean voyages, some involuntary, some voluntary, and several, like the voyage of the sons of -Ua Corra about 540, of St. Brandan about 560, and of Mailduin in the eighth century, taking place in the Atlantic, -and resulting in the discovery of numerous fabulous islands.<a name="FNanchor_483_483" id="FNanchor_483_483"></a><a href="#Footnote_483_483" class="fnanchor">[483]</a> The name of Brazil does not appear in these -early records, but it seems to belong to the same class of legends.<a name="FNanchor_484_484" id="FNanchor_484_484"></a><a href="#Footnote_484_484" class="fnanchor">[484]</a> It is first mentioned, as far as I know, -by William Betoner, called William of Worcester, who calls the island <i>Brasyle</i> and <i>Brasylle</i>, and says that -July 15, 1480, his brother-in-law, John Jay, began a voyage from Bristol in search of the island, returning -Sept. 18 without having found it.<a name="FNanchor_485_485" id="FNanchor_485_485"></a><a href="#Footnote_485_485" class="fnanchor">[485]</a> This evidently belongs to the series of voyages made by Bristol men in -search of this island, which is mentioned by Pedro d’Ayala, the Spanish ambassador to England, in his famous -letter of July 25, 1498, where he says that such voyages in search of <i>Brazylle</i> and the <i>seven cities</i> had been -made for seven years past, “according to the fancies of the Genoese,” meaning Sebastian Cabot.<a name="FNanchor_486_486" id="FNanchor_486_486"></a><a href="#Footnote_486_486" class="fnanchor">[486]</a></p> - -<p>It would seem that the search for Brazil was of older date than Cabot’s arrival. He probably gave an -additional impetus to the custom, adding to the stories of the fairy isles the legends of the <i>Sette Citade</i> or -<i>Antillia</i>. Hardiman,<a name="FNanchor_487_487" id="FNanchor_487_487"></a><a href="#Footnote_487_487" class="fnanchor">[487]</a> quoting from a MS. history of Ireland, in the library of the Royal Irish Academy, -written about 1636, mentions an “iland, which lyeth far att sea, on the west of Connaught, and some times is -perceived by the inhabitants of the <i>Oules</i> and <i>Iris</i> ... and from Saint Helen Head. Like wise several seamen -have discovered it, ... one of whom, named Captain Rich, who lives about Dublin, of late years had a -view of the land, and was so neere that he discovered a harbour ... but could never make to land” because -of “a mist which fell upon him.... Allsoe in many old mappes ... you still find it by the name of <i>O’Brasile</i> -under the longitude of 03°, 00´, and the latitude of 50° 20´.”<a name="FNanchor_488_488" id="FNanchor_488_488"></a><a href="#Footnote_488_488" class="fnanchor">[488]</a> In 1675 a pretended account of a visit to -this island was published in London, which is reprinted by Hardiman.<a name="FNanchor_489_489" id="FNanchor_489_489"></a><a href="#Footnote_489_489" class="fnanchor">[489]</a></p> - -<p>An account of the island as seen from Arran given in O’Flaherty’s <i>Sketch of the Island of Arran</i>,<a name="FNanchor_490_490" id="FNanchor_490_490"></a><a href="#Footnote_490_490" class="fnanchor">[490]</a> is quoted -by H. Halliday Sterling, <i>Irish Minstrelsy</i>, p. 307 (London, 1887). Mr. Marshall, in a note in <i>Notes and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> -Queries</i>, Sept. 22, 1883 (6th s., viii. 224), quotes Guest, <i>Origines Celticae</i> (London, 1883), i. 126, and -R. O’Flaherty, <i>Ogygia, sive rerum Hibernicarum chronologiae</i> (London, 1685; also in English translation, -Dublin, 1793), as speaking of O’Brazile. The latter work I have not seen. Mr. Marshall also quotes -a familiar allusion to it by Jeremy Taylor (<i>Dissuasive from Popery</i>, 1667). This note was replied to in -the same periodical, Dec. 15, 1883, by Mr. Kerslake, “N.” and W. Fraser. Fraser’s interest had been -attracted by the entry of the island—much smaller than usual—on a map of the French Geographer Royal, -Le Sieur Tassin, 1634-1652, and he read a paper before the Geological Society of Ireland, Jan. 20, 1870, suggesting -that Brazil might be the present <i>Porcupine Bank</i>, once above water. On the same map <i>Rockall</i> is -laid down as two islands, where but a solitary rock is now known.<a name="FNanchor_491_491" id="FNanchor_491_491"></a><a href="#Footnote_491_491" class="fnanchor">[491]</a> Brasil appears on the maps of the last -two centuries, with <i>Mayda</i> and <i>Isle Verte</i>, and even on the great Atlas by Jefferys, 1776, is inserted, although -called “imaginary island of O’Brasil.” It grows constantly smaller, but within the second half of this -century has appeared on the royal Admiralty charts as <i>Brazil Rock</i>.<a name="FNanchor_492_492" id="FNanchor_492_492"></a><a href="#Footnote_492_492" class="fnanchor">[492]</a></p> - -<p>It would be too tedious to enumerate the numerous other imaginary islands of the Atlantic to which clouds, -fogs, and white caps have from time to time given rise. They are marked on all charts of the last century in -profusion; mention, however, may be made of the “land of <i>Bus</i>” or <i>Busse</i>, which Frobisher’s expedition -coasted along in 1576, and which has been hunted for with the lead even as late as 1821, though in vain.</p> - -<p class="p1"><b><a name="n51" id="n51">F.</a></b> <span class="smcap">Toscanelli’s Atlantic Ocean</span>.—It has been shown elsewhere (Vol. II. pp. 30, 31, 38, 90, 101, 103) -that Columbus in the main accepted the view of the width of the Atlantic, on the farther side of which Asia -was supposed to be, which Toscanelli had calculated; and it has not been quite certain what actual measurement -should be given to this width, but recent discoveries tend to make easier a judgment in the matter.</p> - -<p>When Humboldt wrote the <i>Examen Critique</i>, Toscanelli’s letter to Columbus, of unknown date,<a name="FNanchor_493_493" id="FNanchor_493_493"></a><a href="#Footnote_493_493" class="fnanchor">[493]</a> enclosing -a copy of the one he sent to Martinez in 1474, was known only in the Italian form in Ulloa’s translation of -the <i>Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo</i> (Venice, 1571), and in the Spanish translation of Ulloa’s version -by Barcia in the <i>Historiades primitivos de las Indias occidentales</i> (Madrid, 1749), i. 5 bis, which was reprinted -by Navarrete, <i>Coleccion de los viages y descubrimientos</i>, etc., ii. p. 1. In the letter to Martinez, in this form, it -is said that there are in the map which accompanied it twenty-six <i>spaces</i> between Lisbon and <i>Quisai</i>, each -space containing 250 miles according to the Ulloa version, but according to the re-translation of Barcia 150 -miles. This, with several other changes made by Barcia, were followed by Navarrete and accepted as correct -by Humboldt, who severely censures Ximenes for adopting the Italian rendering in his <i>Gnomone fiorent</i>. -But the Latin copy of the letter in Columbus’s handwriting, discovered by Harrisse and made public (with -fac-simile) in his <i>D. Fernando Colon</i> (Seville, 1871),<a name="FNanchor_494_494" id="FNanchor_494_494"></a><a href="#Footnote_494_494" class="fnanchor">[494]</a> sustained the correctness of Ulloa’s version, giving 250 -miliaria to the space. This authoritative rendering also showed that while the translator had in general followed -the text, he had twice inserted a translation of miles into degrees, and once certainly, incorrectly, making -in one place 100 miles = 35 leagues, and in another, 2,500 miles = 225 leagues. Probably this discrepancy -led to the omissions made by Barcia; he was wrong, however, in changing the number 250, supposing the 150 -not to be a typographical error, and in omitting the phrase, “which space (from Lisbon to Quinsai) is about -the third part of the sphere.” The Latin text showed, too, that this whole passage about distances was not in -the Martinez letter at all, but formed the end of the letter to Columbus, since in the Latin it follows the date -of the Martinez letter, into which it has been interpolated by a later hand. Finally the publication of Las -Casas’s <i>Historia de las Indias</i> (Madrid, 1875) gave us another Spanish version, which differs from Barcia’s -in closely agreeing with the Ulloa version, and which gives the length of a space at 250 miles.</p> - -<p>There were then 26 × 250 = 6500 miles between Lisbon and Quinsai, and this was about one third of the circumference -of the earth in this latitude, but it is not clear whether Roman or Italian miles were meant.</p> - -<p>If the MS. in the Biblioteca Nazionale at Florence [<i>Cod. Magliabechiano Classe</i> xi. <i>num.</i> 121], described by -G. Uzielli in the <i>Bollettino della Società Geografica Italiana</i>, x. 1 (1873), 13-28 (“Ricerche intorno a Paolo dal -Pozzo Toscanelli, ii. Della grandezza della terra secondo Paolo Toscanelli”), actually represents the work of -Toscanelli, it is of great value in settling this point. The MS. is inscribed “Discorso di M<sup>o</sup> Paolo Puteo Toscanelli -sopra la cometa del 1456.” In it were found two papers: 1. A plain projection in rectangular form -apparently for use in sketching a map. It is divided into spaces, each subdivided into five degrees, and numbers -36 spaces in length. It is believed by Sig. Uzielli that this is the form used in the map sent to Martinez. -If this be so, the 26 spaces between Lisbon and Quinsai = 130°. 2. A list of the latitude and longitude of -various localities, at the end of which is inscribed this table:</p> - -<p class="pp6 p1">Gradus continet .68 miliaria minus 3ª unius.<br /> -Miliarum tria millia bracchia.<br /> -Bracchium duos palmas.<br /> -Palmus. 12. uncias. 7. filos.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p1">The Florentine mile of 3,000 braccia da terra contains, according to Sig. Uzielli, 1653.6<sup>m</sup>. (as against -1481<sup>m</sup>. to the Roman mile). Hence Toscanelli estimated a degree of the meridian at 111,927<sup>m</sup>, or only 552<sup>m</sup>. -more than the mean adopted by Bessel and Bayer. Since, according to the letter, one space = 250 miles, and by -the map one space = 5°, we have 50 miles to a degree, which would point to an estimate for a latitude of about -42°, allowing 67 2-3 miles to an equatorial degree. Lisbon was entered in the table of Alphonso at 41° N. (true -lat. 38° 41’ N.) By this reckoning Quinsai would fall 124° west of Lisbon or 10° west of San Francisco. It -does not appear that the Florence MS. can be traced directly to Toscanelli, but the probability is certainly strong -that we have here some of the astronomer’s working papers, and that Ximenes did not deserve the rebuke -administered by Humboldt for allowing 250 miles to a space, and assuming that a space contained five degrees. -Certainly Humboldt’s use of 150 miles is unjustifiable, and his calculation of 52° as the angular distance -between Lisbon and Quinsai, according to Toscanelli, is very much too small, whatever standard we take for the -mile. If we follow Uzielli, the result obtained by Ruge (<i>Geschichte des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen</i>, p. 230), -104°, is also too small.<a name="FNanchor_495_495" id="FNanchor_495_495"></a><a href="#Footnote_495_495" class="fnanchor">[495]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-102.jpg" width="400" height="406" id="i52" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">GAFFAREL’S MAP.</p> - <p class="pf400">From a map by Gaffarel, “L’Océan Atlantique et les restes de l’Atlantide,” in the <i>Revue de Géographie</i>, vi. p. -400, accompanying a paper by Gaffarel in the numbers for April-July, 1880, and showing such rocks and islets as have -from time to time been reported as seen, or thought to have been seen, and which Gaffarel views as vestiges of the -lost continent.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p> - -<p><b><a name="n53" id="n53">G.</a></b><span class="smcap">Early Maps of the Atlantic Ocean.</span>—<i>By the Editor</i>—The cartographical history of the Atlantic -Ocean is, even down to our own day, an odd mixture of uncertain fact and positive fable. The island -of Bresil or Brazil was only left off the British Admiralty charts within twenty years (see Vol. II. p. 36), -and editions of the most popular atlases, like Colton’s, within twenty-five years have shown Jacquet Island, -the Three Chimneys, Maida, and others lying in the mid-sea. It may possibly be a fair question if some -of the reports of islands and rocks made within recent times may not have had a foundation in temporary -uprisings from the bed of the sea.<a name="FNanchor_496_496" id="FNanchor_496_496"></a><a href="#Footnote_496_496" class="fnanchor">[496]</a> We must in this country depend for the study of this subject -on the great collections of facsimiles of early maps made by Santarem, Kunstmann, Jomard, and on the -Sammlung which is now in progress at Venice, under the editing of Theobald Fischer, and published by -Ongania.<a name="FNanchor_497_497" id="FNanchor_497_497"></a><a href="#Footnote_497_497" class="fnanchor">[497]</a></p> - -<p>We may place the beginning of the Atlantic cartography<a name="FNanchor_498_498" id="FNanchor_498_498"></a><a href="#Footnote_498_498" class="fnanchor">[498]</a> in the map of Marino Sanuto in 1306, who was -first of the nautical map-makers of that century to lay down the Canaries;<a name="FNanchor_499_499" id="FNanchor_499_499"></a><a href="#Footnote_499_499" class="fnanchor">[499]</a> but Sanuto was by no means sure -of their existence, if we may judge from his omission of them in his later maps.<a name="FNanchor_500_500" id="FNanchor_500_500"></a><a href="#Footnote_500_500" class="fnanchor">[500]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-103.jpg" width="400" height="403" id="i53" - alt="" - title="" /> -<p class="pf400">A conventional map of the older period, which is given in Santarem’s <i>Atlas</i> as a “Mappemonde qui se trouve au -revers d’une Médaille du Commencement du XVe Siècle.”</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-104.jpg" width="400" height="669" id="i54" - alt="" - title="" /> -<p class="pf400"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The above maps are reduced a little from the engraving in <i>Allgemeine Geographische Ephemeriden</i> -(Weimar, 1807), vol. xxiv. p. 248. The smaller is an extract from that of Fr. Pizigani (1367), and the larger that of -Andreas Bianco (1436). There is another fac-simile of the latter in F. M. Erizzo’s <i>Le Scoperte Artiche</i> (Venice, 1855).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-105.jpg" width="400" height="524" id="i55" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">CATALAN MAP, 1375.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a sketch in St. Martin’s <i>Atlas</i>, pl. vii.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>There are two maps of Hygden (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1350), but the abundance of islands which they present can hardly -be said to show more than a theory.<a name="FNanchor_501_501" id="FNanchor_501_501"></a><a href="#Footnote_501_501" class="fnanchor">[501]</a> There is more likelihood of well considered work in the Portolano -Laurenziano-Gaddiano (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1351), preserved in the Biblioteca Mediceo-Laurenziana at Florence, of which -Ongania, of Venice, published a fac-simile in 1881.<a name="FNanchor_502_502" id="FNanchor_502_502"></a><a href="#Footnote_502_502" class="fnanchor">[502]</a> There are two maps of Francisco Pizigani, which seem -to give the Canaries, Madeira, and the Azores better than any earlier one. One of these maps (1367) is in -the national library at Parma, and the other (1373) is in the Ambrosian library at Milan (<i>Studi biog. e -bibliog.</i>, vol. ii. pp. viii, 57, 58). The 1367 map is given by Jomard and Santarem. The most famous of all -these early maps is the Catalan Mappemonde of 1375, preserved in the great library at Paris. It gives the -Canaries and other islands further north, but does not reach to the Azores.<a name="FNanchor_503_503" id="FNanchor_503_503"></a><a href="#Footnote_503_503" class="fnanchor">[503]</a> These last islands are included, -however, in another Catalan planisphere of not far from the same era, which is preserved in the national library -at Florence, and has been reproduced by Ongania (1881).<a name="FNanchor_504_504" id="FNanchor_504_504"></a><a href="#Footnote_504_504" class="fnanchor">[504]</a> The student will need to compare other maps of the -fourteenth century, which can be found mentioned in the <i>Studi</i>, etc., with references in the <i>Kohl Maps</i>, sect. -1. The phototypic series of Ongania is the most important contribution to this study, though the yellow tints -of the original too often render the details obscurely.<a name="FNanchor_505_505" id="FNanchor_505_505"></a><a href="#Footnote_505_505" class="fnanchor">[505]</a> So for the next century there are the same guides; but -a number of conspicuous charts may well be mentioned. Chief among them are those of Andrea Bianco contained -in the Atlas (1436), in the Biblioteca Marciana at Venice, published by Ongania (1871), who also published -(1881) the Carta Nautica of Bianco, in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan.<a name="FNanchor_506_506" id="FNanchor_506_506"></a><a href="#Footnote_506_506" class="fnanchor">[506]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p> - -<div class="floatleft"> - <img src="images/ill-106a.jpg" width="250" height="408" id="i56a" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="cf"><p class="pc">ANDREAS BENINCASA, 1476.</p> - <p class="pf250">After a sketch in St. Martin’s <i>Atlas</i>, pl. vii.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The 1436 map has been reproduced in colors in Pietro Amat de San Filippo’s <i>Planisferio disegnato -del 1436</i> (<i>Bollettino Soc. Geografia</i>, 1879, p. 560); and -a sketch of the Atlantic part is given in the <i>Allgem. -Geog. Ephemeriden</i>, xxiv. no. 248.<a name="FNanchor_507_507" id="FNanchor_507_507"></a><a href="#Footnote_507_507" class="fnanchor">[507]</a></p> - -<p>During the next twenty years or more, the varying -knowledge of the Atlantic is shown in a number of -maps, a few of which may be named:—The Catalan -map “de Gabriell de Valsequa, faite à Mallorcha en -1439,” which shows the Azores, and which Vespucius -is said to have owned (Santarem, pl. 54). The planisphere -“in lingua latina dell’ anno 1447,” in the national -library at Florence (Ongania, 1881). The world -maps of Giovanni Leardo (Johannes Leardus), 1448 and -1452, the former of which is given in Santarem (pl. 25,—also -<i>Hist. Cartog.</i> iii. 398), and the latter reproduced -by Ongania, 1880. One is in the Ambrosian library, -and the other in the Museo Civico at Vicenza (cf. <i>Studi</i>, -etc., ii. 72, 73). In the Biblioteca Vittorio Emanuele -at Rome there is the sea-chart of Bartolomaeus de -Pareto of 1455, on which we find laid down the Fortunate -Islands, St. Brandan’s, Antillia, and Royllo.<a name="FNanchor_508_508" id="FNanchor_508_508"></a><a href="#Footnote_508_508" class="fnanchor">[508]</a> The -World of Fra Mauro<a name="FNanchor_509_509" id="FNanchor_509_509"></a><a href="#Footnote_509_509" class="fnanchor">[509]</a> has been referred to elsewhere in -the present volume.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-106b.jpg" width="400" height="273" id="i56b" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">LAON GLOBE.</p> - <p class="pf400">From a “projection Synoptique Cordiforme” in the <i>Bull. de la Soc. de Géog.</i>, 4e série, xx. (1860), in connection -with a paper by D’Avezac (p. 398). Cf. Oscar Peschel in <i>Ausland</i> May 12, 1861; also in his <i>Abhandlungen</i>, i. 226.</p> -</div></div> - - -<p>We come now to the conditions of the Atlantic cartography -immediately preceding the voyage of Columbus. -The most prominent specimens of this period -are the various marine charts of Grogioso and Andreas -Benincasa from 1461 to 1490. Some of these are given -by Santarem, Lelewel, and St. Martin; but the best -enumeration of them is given in the <i>Studi biog. e -bibliog. della Soc. Geog. Ital.</i> ii. 66, 77-84, 92, 99, 100. -Of Toscanelli’s map of 1474, which influenced Columbus, -we have no sketch, though some attempts have -been made to reconstruct it from descriptions. -(Cf. Vol. II. p. 103; Harrisse’s <i>Christophe Colomb.</i>, -i. 127, 129.) Brief mention may also be -made of the Laon globe of 1486 (dated 1493), of -which D’Avezac gives a projection in the <i>Bulletin -de la Soc. de Géog.</i> xx. 417; of the Majorcan -(Catalan) Carta nautica of about 1487 (cf. <i>Studi</i>, -etc., ii. no. 397; <i>Bull. Soc. Géog.</i>, i. 295); of the -chart in the Egerton MSS., Brit. Mus., made by -Christofalo Soligo about the same time, and which -has no dearth of islands (cf. <i>Studi</i>, etc., i. 89); of -those of Nicola Fiorin, Canepa, and Giacomo -Bertran (<i>Studi</i>, etc., ii. 82, 86, and no. 398). The -globe of Behaim (1492) gives the very latest of -these ante-Columbian views (see Vol. II. 105).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-107a.jpg" width="400" height="238" id="i57a" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc"><i>A Fac-simile from</i> BORDONE, 1547.</p> -</div></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-107b.jpg" width="400" height="405" id="i57b" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">END OF FIFTEENTH CENTURY. (Santarem’s <i>Atlas</i>.)</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p> - -<p>It took, after this, a long time for the Atlantic -to be cleared, even partially, of these intrusive -islands, and to bring the proper ones into accurate -relations. How the old ideas survived may be -traced in the maps of Ruysch, 1508 (Vol. II. 115); -Coppo, 1528, with its riot of islands (II. 127); -Mercator, 1541 (II. 177); Bordone, 1547; Zaltière, -1566 (II. 451); Porcacchi, 1572 (II. 453); Ortelius, -1575, 1587,—not to continue the series further.</p> - -<div class="floatleft"> - <img src="images/ill-108a.jpg" width="230" height="380" id="i58a" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-108b.jpg" width="230" height="301" id="i58b" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<p class="reduct pn">NOTE.—The left of the annexed cuts -is from Bordone’s <i>Isolario</i>, 1547; -the right one is an extract from -the “World” of Ortelius, 1587.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="p4">CHAPTER II.</h2> - -<p class="pc2 lmid">PRE-COLUMBIAN EXPLORATIONS.</p> - -<p class="pc reduct">BY JUSTIN WINSOR, THE EDITOR.</p> - -<p class="drop-cap04">IN the previous chapter, in attempting to trace the possible connection -of the new world with the old in the dimmest past, it was hard, if not -hopeless, to find among the entangled myths a path that we could follow -with any confidence into the field of demonstrable history. It is still a -doubt how far we exchange myths for assured records, when we enter upon -the problems of pre-Columbian explorations, which it is the object of the -present chapter to discuss. We are to deal with supposable colonizations, -from which the indigenous population of America, as the Spaniards found -it, was sprung, wholly or in part; and we are to follow the venturesome -habits of navigators, who sought experience and commerce in a strange -country, and only incidentally left possible traces of their blood in the peoples -they surprised. If Spain, Italy, and England gained consequence by -the discoveries of Columbus and Cabot, there were other national prides to -be gratified by the priority which the Basques, the Normans, the Welsh, the -Irish, and the Scandinavians, to say nothing of Asiatic peoples, claimed as -their share in the gift of a new world to the old. The records which these -peoples present as evidences of their right to be considered the forerunners -of the Spanish and English expeditions have in every case been questioned -by those who are destitute of the sympathetic credence of a common kinship. -The claims which Columbus and Cabot fastened upon Spain and -England, to the disadvantage of Italy, who gave to those rival countries -their maritime leaders, were only too readily rejected by Italy herself, when -the opportunity was given to her of paling such borrowed glories before -the trust which she placed in the stories of the Zeni brothers.</p> - -<p class="p2">There is not a race of eastern Asia—Siberian, Tartar, Chinese, Japanese, -Malay, with the Polynesians—which has not been claimed as discoverers, -intending or accidental, of American shores, or as progenitors, more -or less perfect or remote, of American peoples; and there is no good reason -why any one of them may not have done all that is claimed. The historical -evidence, however, is not such as is based on documentary proofs of -indisputable character, and the recitals advanced are often far from precise -enough to be convincing in details, if their general authenticity is allowed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> -Nevertheless, it is much more than barely probable that the ice of Behring -Straits or the line of the Aleutian Islands was the pathway of successive -immigrations, on occasions perhaps far apart, or may be near together; and -there is hardly a stronger demonstration of such a connection between the -two continents than the physical resemblances of the peoples now living on -opposite sides of the Pacific Ocean in these upper latitudes, with the similarity -of the flora which environs them on either shore.<a name="FNanchor_510_510" id="FNanchor_510_510"></a><a href="#Footnote_510_510" class="fnanchor">[510]</a> It is quite as conceivable -that the great northern current, setting east athwart the Pacific, -should from time to time have carried along disabled vessels, and stranded -them on the shores of California and farther north, leading to the infusion -of Asiatic blood among whatever there may have been antecedent or autochthonous -in the coast peoples. It is certainly in this way possible that -the Chinese or Japanese may have helped populate the western slopes of -the American continent. There is no improbability even in the Malays of -southeastern Asia extending step by step to the Polynesian islands, and -among them and beyond them, till the shores of a new world finally received -the impress of their footsteps and of their ethnic characteristics. We may -very likely recognize not proofs, but indications, along the shores of South -America, that its original people constituted such a stock, or were increased -by it.</p> - -<p class="p2">As respects the possible early connections of America on the side of -Europe, there is an equally extensive array of claims, and they have been -set forth, first and last, with more persistency than effect.<a name="FNanchor_511_511" id="FNanchor_511_511"></a><a href="#Footnote_511_511" class="fnanchor">[511]</a></p> - -<p>Leaving the old world by the northern passage, Iceland lies at the threshold -of America. It is nearer to Greenland than to Norway, and Greenland -is but one of the large islands into which the arctic currents divide the -North American continent. Thither, to Iceland, if we identify the localities -in Geoffrey of Monmouth, King Arthur sailed as early as the beginning -of the sixth century, and overcame whatever inhabitants he may have -found there. Here too an occasional wandering pirate or adventurous Dane -had glimpsed the coast.<a name="FNanchor_512_512" id="FNanchor_512_512"></a><a href="#Footnote_512_512" class="fnanchor">[512]</a> Thither, among others, came the Irish, and in the -ninth century we find Irish monks and a small colony of their countrymen -in possession.<a name="FNanchor_513_513" id="FNanchor_513_513"></a><a href="#Footnote_513_513" class="fnanchor">[513]</a> Thither the Gulf Stream carries the southern driftwood,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> -suggesting sunnier lands to whatever race had been allured or driven to its -shelter.<a name="FNanchor_514_514" id="FNanchor_514_514"></a><a href="#Footnote_514_514" class="fnanchor">[514]</a> Here Columbus, when, as he tells us,<a name="FNanchor_515_515" id="FNanchor_515_515"></a><a href="#Footnote_515_515" class="fnanchor">[515]</a> he visited the island in -1477, found no ice. So that, if we may place reliance on the appreciable -change of climate by the precession of the equinoxes, a thousand years ago -and more, when the Norwegians crossed from Scandinavia and found these -Christian Irish there,<a name="FNanchor_516_516" id="FNanchor_516_516"></a><a href="#Footnote_516_516" class="fnanchor">[516]</a> the island was not the forbidding spot that it seems -with the lapse of centuries to be becoming.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-112.jpg" width="400" height="256" id="i62" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">NORSE SHIP.</p> - <p class="pf400">This cut is copied from one in Nordenskiöld’s <i>Voyage of the Vega</i> (London, 1881), vol. i. p. 50, where it -is given as representing the vessel found at Sandefjord in 1880. It is drawn from the restoration given in <i>The -Viking ship discovered at Gokstad in Norway (Langskibet fra Gokstad ved Sandefjord) described by N. -Nicholaysen</i> (Christiania, 1882). The original vessel owed its preservation to being used as a receptacle for -the body of a Viking chief, when he was buried under a mound. When exhumed, its form, with the sepulchral -chamber midships, could be made out, excepting that the prow and stern in their extremities had to be restored. -In the ship and about it were found, beside some of the bones of a man, various appurtenances of the vessel, -and the remains of horses buried with him. They are all described in the book above cited, from which the -other cuts herewith given of the plan of the vessel and one of its rowlocks are taken. The <i>Popular Science -Monthly</i>, May, 1881, borrowing from <i>La Nature</i>, gives a view of the ship as when found <i>in situ</i>. There are -other accounts in <i>The Antiquary</i>, Aug., 1880; Dec., 1881; 1882, p. 87; <i>Scribner’s Magazine</i>, Nov., 1887, by -John S. White; <i>Potter’s American Monthly</i>, Mar., 1882. Cf. the illustrated paper, “Les navires des peuples -du nord,” by Otto Jorell, in <i>Congrès Internat. des Sciences géographiques</i> (Paris, 1875; pub. 1878), i. 318.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Of an earlier discovery in 1872 there is an account in <i>The ancient vessel found in the parish of Tune, -Norway</i> (Christiania, 1872). This is a translation by Mr. Gerhard Gadé of a Report in the Proceedings of the -Society for preserving Norwegian Antiquities. (Cf. <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, xiii. p. 10.) This vessel was -also buried under a mound, and she was 43½ feet long and four feet deep.</p> - -<p>There is in the Nicholaysen volume a detailed account of the naval architecture of the Viking period, and -other references may be made to Otto Jorell’s <i>Les navires des peuples du Nord</i>, in the <i>Congrès internat. des -sciences géog., compte rendu, 1875</i> (1878, i. 318); <i>Mémoires de la Soc. royal des Antiquaires du Nord</i> (1887, -p. 280); Preble, in <i>United Service</i> (May, 1883, p. 463), and in his <i>Amer. Flag</i>, p. 159; De Costa’s <i>Pre-Columbian -Discovery of America</i>, p. xxxvii; Fox’s <i>Landfall of Columbus</i>, p. 3; <i>Pop. Science Monthly</i>, xix. -80; <i>Van Nostrand’s Eclectic Engineering Mag.</i>, xxiii. 320; <i>Good Words</i>, xxii. 759; Higginson’s <i>Larger -History U. S.</i> for cuts; and J. J. A. Worsaae’s <i>Prehistory of the North</i> (Eng. transl., London,1886) for the -burial in ships.</p> - -<p>There is a paper on the daring of the Norsemen as navigators by G. Brynjalfson (<i>Compte Rendu , Congrès -des Américanistes</i>, Copenhagen, p. 140), entitled “Jusqu’où les anciens Scandinaves ont-ils pénétré vers le -pôle arctique dans leurs expéditions à la mer glaciale?”</p> - -<p>It was in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 875 that Ingolf, a jarl<a name="FNanchor_517_517" id="FNanchor_517_517"></a><a href="#Footnote_517_517" class="fnanchor">[517]</a> of Norway, came to Iceland with -Norse settlers. They built their habitation at first where a pleasant headland -seemed attractive, the present Ingolfshofdi, and later founded Reikjavik, -where the signs had directed them; for certain carved posts, which -they had thrown overboard as they approached the island, were found to -have drifted to that spot. The Christian Irish preferred to leave their -asylum rather than consort with the new-comers, and so the island was -left to be occupied by successive immigrations of the Norse, which their -king could not prevent. In the end, and within half a century, a hardy -little republic—as for a while it was—of near seventy thousand inhabitants -was established almost under the arctic circle. The very next year -(<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 876) after Ingolf had come to Iceland, a sea-rover, Gunnbiorn, -driven in his ship westerly, sighted a strange land, and the report that he -made was not forgotten.<a name="FNanchor_518_518" id="FNanchor_518_518"></a><a href="#Footnote_518_518" class="fnanchor">[518]</a> Fifty years later, more or less, for we must treat -the dates of the Icelandic sagas with some reservation, we learn that a -wind-tossed vessel was thrown upon a coast far away, which was called Ireland -the Great. Then again we read of a young Norwegian, Eric the Red, -not apparently averse to a brawl, who killed his man in Norway and fled to -Iceland, where he kept his dubious character; and again outraging the -laws, he was sent into temporary banishment,—this time in a ship which -he fitted out for discovery; and so he sailed away in the direction of Gunnbiorn’s -land, and found it. He whiled away three years on its coast, and as -soon as he was allowed ventured back with the tidings, while, to propitiate -intending settlers, he said he had been to Greenland, and so the land got a -sunny name. The next year, which seems to have been <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 985, he -started on his return with thirty-five ships, but only fourteen of them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> -reached the land. Wherever there was a habitable fiord, a settlement grew -up, and the stream of immigrants was for a while constant and considerable. -Just at the end of the century (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 999), Leif, a son of Eric, sailed back to -Norway, and found the country in the early fervor of a new religion; for -King Olaf Tryggvesson had embraced Christianity and was imposing it on -his people. Leif accepted the new faith, and a priest was assigned to him -to take back to Greenland; and thus Christianity was introduced into arctic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> -America. So they began to build churches<a name="FNanchor_519_519" id="FNanchor_519_519"></a><a href="#Footnote_519_519" class="fnanchor">[519]</a> in Greenland, the considerable -ruins of one of which stand to this day.<a name="FNanchor_520_520" id="FNanchor_520_520"></a><a href="#Footnote_520_520" class="fnanchor">[520]</a> The winning of Iceland to the -Church was accomplished at the same time.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-113a.jpg" width="400" height="104" id="i63a" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">PLAN OF VIKING SHIP.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>There were two centres of settlement on the Greenland coast, not where -they were long suspected to be, on the coast opposite Iceland, nor as supposed -after the explorations of Baffin’s Bay, on both the east and west side -of the country; but the settlers seem to have reached and doubled Cape -Farewell, and so formed what was called their eastern settlement (Eystribygd), -near the cape, while farther to the north they formed their western -colony (Westribygd).<a name="FNanchor_521_521" id="FNanchor_521_521"></a><a href="#Footnote_521_521" class="fnanchor">[521]</a> Their relative positions are still involved in doubt.</p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-113b.jpg" width="250" height="183" id="i63b" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">ROWLOCK OF THE VIKING SHIP.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>In the next year after the second voyage of Eric the Red, one of the -ships which were sailing from Iceland to the new settlement, was driven -far off her course, according to the sagas, and Bjarni Herjulfson, who commanded -the vessel, reported that he had come upon a land, away to the -southwest, where the coast country was level; and he added that when he -turned north it took him nine days to reach Greenland.<a name="FNanchor_522_522" id="FNanchor_522_522"></a><a href="#Footnote_522_522" class="fnanchor">[522]</a> Fourteen years -later than this voyage of Bjarni, which is said to have been in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 986,—that -is, in the year 1000 or thereabouts,—Leif, the same who had brought -the Christian priest to Greenland, taking -with him thirty-five companions, sailed -from Greenland in quest of the land seen -by Bjarni, which Leif first found, where -a barren shore stretched back to ice-covered -mountains, and because of the -stones there he called the region Hellu -land. Proceeding farther south, he found -a sandy shore, with a level forest-country -back of it, and because of the woods it -was named Markland. Two days later -they came upon other land, and tasting the dew upon the grass they found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> -it sweet. Farther south and westerly they went, and going up a river came -into an expanse of water, where on the shores they built huts to lodge in -for the winter, and sent out exploring parties. In one of these, Tyrker, a -native of a part of Europe where grapes grew, found vines hung with their -fruit, which induced Leif to call the country Vinland.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-114a.jpg" width="400" height="408" id="i64a" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">NORSE BOAT USED AS A HABITATION.</p> - <p class="pf400">From Viollet-le-Duc’s <i>Habitation humaine</i> (Paris, 1875).</p> -</div></div> - -<div class="floatleft"> - <img src="images/ill-114b.jpg" width="250" height="174" id="i64b" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">NORMAN SHIP FROM THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY.</p> - <p class="pf250">From Worsaae’s <i>Danes and Norwegians in England</i>, etc. “With the exception of very imperfect representation -carved on rocks and runic stones [see Higginson’s <i>Larger History</i>, p. 27], there are no images -left in the countries of Scandinavia of ships of the olden times; but the tapestry at Bayeux, in Normandy, is -a contemporary evidence of the appearance of the Normanic ships.”</p> -</div></div> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-114c.jpg" width="200" height="228" id="i64c" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc200">SCANDINAVIAN FLAGS.</p> - <p class="pf200">This group from Worsaae’s <i>Danes and Norwegians in England, etc.</i>, p. 64, shows the transition from -the raven to the cross.</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="vh">————</p> - -<p>Attempts have been made to identify these various regions by the inexact -accounts of the direction of their sailing, by the very general descriptions -of the country, by the number of days occupied in going from one point to -another, with the uncertainty if the ship sailed at night, and by the length -of the shortest day in Vinland,—the last a statement that might help us, -if it could be interpreted with a reasonable concurrence of opinion, and if it -were not confused with other inexplicable statements. The next year Leif’s -brother, Thorvald, went to Vinland with a single ship, and passed three winters -there, making explorations meanwhile, south and north. Thorfinn Karlsefne, -arriving in Greenland in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1006, married a courageous widow -named Gudrid, who induced him to sail with his ships to Vinland and make -there a permanent settlement, taking with him livestock and other necessaries -for colonization. Their first winter in the place was a severe one; but -Gudrid gave birth to a son, Snorre, from whom it is claimed Thorwaldsen, -the Danish sculptor, was descended. The next season they removed to the -spot where Leif had wintered, and called the bay Hóp. Having spent a -third winter in the country, Karlsefne, with a part of the colony, returned -to Greenland.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-115.jpg" width="400" height="201" id="i65" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">FROM OLAUS MAGNUS.</p> - <p class="pf400">Fac-simile of Norse weapons from the <i>Historia</i> of Olaus Magnus (b. 1490; d. 1568), Rome, 1555, p. 222.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The saga then goes on to say that trading voyages to the settlement -which had been formed by Karlsefne now became frequent, and that the -chief lading of the return voyages was timber, which was much needed in -Greenland. A bishop of Greenland, Eric Upsi, is also said to have gone to -Vinland in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1121. In 1347 the last ship of which we have any record -in these sagas went to Vinland after timber. After this all is oblivion.</p> - -<p>There are in all these narratives many details beyond this outline, and -those who have sought to identify localities have made the most they could -of the mention of a rock here or a bluff there, of an island where they -killed a bear, of others where they found eggs, of a headland where they -buried a leader who had been killed, of a cape shaped like a keel, of broadfaced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> -natives who offered furs for red cloths, of beaches where they hauled -up their ships, and of tides that were strong; but the more these details -are scanned in the different sagas the more they confuse the investigator, -and the more successive relators try to enlighten us the more our doubts -are strengthened, till we end with the conviction that all attempts at consistent -unravelment leave nothing but a vague sense of something somewhere -done.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<p class="pf400"><b>FULL-SIZE FAC-SIMILE OF THE TABLET, <i>engraved by Prof. Magnus -Petersen, with the Runes as he sees them</i>.</b></p> - <img src="images/ill-116.jpg" width="400" height="200" id="i66" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">(TRANSLITERATION OF THE LEADEN TABLET.),</p> - <p class="pf400">+ (AT) Þ(E)R KUEN(E) SINE PRINSINED (B)AD (M)OTO LANANA<br /> -KRISTI DONAVISTI GARDIAR IARDIAR<br /> -IBODIAR KRISTUS UINKIT KRISTUS REGNAT<br /> -KRISTUS IMPERAT KRISTUS AB OMNI<br /> -MALO ME ASAM LIPERET KRUX KRISTI<br /> -SIT SUPER ME ASAM HIK ET UBIQUE<br /> -+ KHORDA + IN KHORDA + KHORDAE<br /> -(t) (M)AGLA + SANGUIS KRISTI SIGNET ME</p> -<p class="pc">RUNES, A.D. 1000.</p> -<p class="pf400">This cut is of some of the oldest runes known, giving two lines in Danish and the rest in Latin, as the -transliteration shows. It is copied from <i>The oldest yet found Document in Danish, by Prof Dr. George Stephens</i> -(Copenhagen, 1888,—from the <i>Mémoires des Antiquaires du Nord</i>, 1887). The author says that the -leaden tablet on which the runes were cut was found in Odense, Fyn, Denmark, in 1883, and he places the -date of it about the year <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1000.<br /> -George Stephens’s <i>Handbook of the old Northern Runic Monuments of Scandinavia and England</i> is a -condensation, preserving all the cuts, and making some additions to his larger folio work in 3 vols., <i>The -old-northern Runic monuments of Scandinavia and England, now first collected and deciphered</i> (London, -etc., 1866-68). It does not contain either Icelandic or Greenland runes. He says that by the time of the colonization -of Iceland “the old northern runes as a system had died out on the Scandinavian main, and were -followed by the later runic alphabet. But even this modern Icelandic of the tenth century has not come -down to us. If it had, it would be very different from what is now vulgarly so called, which is the greatly -altered Icelandic of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.... The oldest written Icelandic known to us is -said to date from about the year 1200.... The whole modern doctrine of one uniform Icelandic language -all over the immense north in the first one thousand winters after Christ is an impossible absurdity.... It is -very seldom that any of the Scandinavian runic stones bear a date.... No Christian runic gravestone is -older than the fourteenth century.”<br /> -On runes in general, see Mallet, Bohn’s ed., pp. 227, 248, following the cut of the Kingektorsoak stone, in -Rafn’s <i>Antiq. Americanæ</i>; Wilson’s <i>Prehist. Man</i>, ii. 88; Wollheim’s <i>Nat. Lit. der Scandinavier</i> (Berlin, -1875), vol. i. pp. 2-15; Legis-Glueckselig’s <i>Die Runen and ihre Denkmäler</i> (Leipzig, 1829); De Costa’s -<i>Pre-Columb. Disc.</i>, pp. xxx; <i>Revue polit. et lit.</i>, Jan. 10, 1880.<br /> -It is held that runes are an outgrowth of the Latin alphabet. (L. F. A. Wimmer’s <i>Runeskriftens Oprindelse -og Udvikling i norden</i>, Copenhagen, 1874.)</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Everywhere else where the Northmen went they left proofs of their occupation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> -on the soil, but nowhere in America, except on an island on the east -shore of Baffin’s Bay,<a name="FNanchor_523_523" id="FNanchor_523_523"></a><a href="#Footnote_523_523" class="fnanchor">[523]</a> has any authentic runic inscription been found outside -of Greenland. Not a single indisputable grave has been discovered to -attest their alleged centuries of fitful occupation. The consistent and natural -proof of any occupation of America south of Davis Straits is therefore -lacking; and there is not sufficient particularity in the descriptions<a name="FNanchor_524_524" id="FNanchor_524_524"></a><a href="#Footnote_524_524" class="fnanchor">[524]</a> to -remove the suspicion that the story-telling of the fireside has overlaid the -reports of the explorer. Our historic sense is accordingly left to consider, -as respects the most general interpretation, what weight of confidence -should be yielded to the sagas, pre-Columbian as they doubtless are. But -beyond this is perhaps, what is after all the most satisfactory way of solving -the problem, a dependence on the geographical and ethnical probabilities -of the case. The Norsemen have passed into credible history as the most -hardy and venturesome of races. That they colonized Iceland and Greenland -is indisputable. That their eager and daring nature should have deserted -them at this point is hardly conceivable. Skirting the Greenland -shores and inuring themselves to the hardships and excitements of northern -voyaging, there was not a long stretch of open sea before they could strike -the Labrador coast. It was a voyage for which their ships, with courageous -crews, were not unfitted. Nothing is more likely than that some ship of -theirs may have been blown westerly and unwillingly in the first instance, -just as Greenland was in like manner first made known to the Icelanders. -The coast once found, to follow it to the south would have been their most -consistent action.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-117.jpg" width="400" height="202" id="i67" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">FROM OLAUS MAGNUS.</p> - <p class="pf400">Fac-simile of a cut to the chapter “De Alphabeto Gothorum” in the <i>Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus</i> -(Romæ, M.D.LV.).</p> -</div></div> - -<p>We may consider, then, that the weight of probability<a name="FNanchor_525_525" id="FNanchor_525_525"></a><a href="#Footnote_525_525" class="fnanchor">[525]</a> is in favor of a -Northman descent upon the coast of the American mainland at some point, -or at several, somewhere to the south of Greenland; but the evidence is -hardly that which attaches to well-established historical records.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span></p> - -<p>The archæological traces, which are lacking farther south, are abundant -in Greenland, and confirm in the most positive way the Norse occupation. -The ruins of churches and baptisteries give a color of truth to the ecclesiastical -annals which have come down to us, and which indicate that after -having been for more than a century under the Bishop of Iceland, a succession -of bishops of its own was established there early in the twelfth century. -The names of seventeen prelates are given by Torfæus, though it is -not quite certain that the bishops invariably visited their see. The last -known to have filled the office went thither in the early years of the fifteenth -century. The last trace of him is in the celebration of a marriage -at Gardar in 1409.</p> - -<p>The Greenland colonists were equipped with all the necessities of a permanent -life. They had horses, sheep, and oxen, and beef is said to have been -a regular article of export to Norway. They had buildings of stone, of which -the remains still exist. They doubtless brought timber from the south, and -we have in runic records evidence of their explorations far to the north. -They maintained as late as the thirteenth century a regular commercial intercourse -with the mother country,<a name="FNanchor_526_526" id="FNanchor_526_526"></a><a href="#Footnote_526_526" class="fnanchor">[526]</a> but this trade fell into disuse when -a royal mandate constituted such ventures a monopoly of the throne; and -probably nothing so much conduced to the decadence and final extinction -of the colonies as this usurped and exclusive trade, which cut off all personal -or conjoined intercourse.</p> - -<p>The direct cause of the final extinction of the Greenland colonies is involved -in obscurity, though a variety of causes, easily presumable, would -have been sufficient, when we take into consideration the moribund condition -into which they naturally fell after commercial restriction had put a -stop to free intercourse with the home government.</p> - -<p>The Eskimos are said to have appeared in Greenland about the middle -of the fourteenth century, and to have manifested hostility to such a degree -that about 1342 the imperilled western colony was abandoned. The -eastern colony survived perhaps seventy years longer, or possibly to a still -later period. We know they had a new bishop in 1387, but before the end -of that century the voyages to their relief were conducted only after long -intervals.</p> - -<p>Before communication was wholly cut off, the attacks of the Skrælings, -and possibly famine and the black death, had carried the struggling colonists -to the verge of destruction. Bergen, in Norway, upon which they depended -for succor, had at one time been almost depopulated by the same -virulent disease, and again had been ravaged by a Hanseatic fleet. Thus -such intercourse as the royal monopoly permitted had become precarious, -and the marauding of freebooters, then prevalent in northern waters, still -further served to impede the communications, till at last they wholly ceased, -during the early years of the fifteenth century.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p> - -<p>It has sometimes been maintained that the closing in of ice-packs was -the final stroke which extinguished the last hopes of the expiring colonists.<a name="FNanchor_527_527" id="FNanchor_527_527"></a><a href="#Footnote_527_527" class="fnanchor">[527]</a> -This view, however, meets with little favor among the more enlightened -students of climatic changes, like Humboldt.<a name="FNanchor_528_528" id="FNanchor_528_528"></a><a href="#Footnote_528_528" class="fnanchor">[528]</a></p> - -<p>There has been published what purports to be a bull of Pope Nicholas V,<a name="FNanchor_529_529" id="FNanchor_529_529"></a><a href="#Footnote_529_529" class="fnanchor">[529]</a> -directing the Bishop of Iceland to learn what he could of the condition -of the Greenland colonies, and in this document it is stated that part of -the colonists had been destroyed by barbarians thirty years before,—the -bull bearing date in 1448. There is no record that any expedition followed -upon this urging, and there is some question as to the authenticity of the -document.<a name="FNanchor_530_530" id="FNanchor_530_530"></a><a href="#Footnote_530_530" class="fnanchor">[530]</a> In the <i>Relation</i> of La Peyrère there is a story of some sailors -visiting Greenland so late as 1484; but it is open to question.</p> - -<p class="p2">Early in the sixteenth century fitful efforts to learn the fate of the colonies -began, and these were continued, without result, well into the seventeenth -century; but nothing explicable was ascertained till, in 1721, Hans Egede, -a Norwegian priest, prevailed upon the Danish government to send him on -a mission to the Eskimos. He went, accompanied by wife and children; -and the colony of Godthaab, and the later history of the missions, and the -revival of trade with Europe, attest the constancy of his purpose and the -fruits of his earnestness. In a year he began to report upon certain -remains which indicated the former occupation of the country by people -who built such buildings as was the habit in Europe. He and his son Paul -Egede, and their successors in the missions, gathered for us, first among<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> -modern searchers, the threads of the history of this former people; and, -as time went on, the researches of Graah, Nordenskjöld, and other explorers, -and the studious habits of Major, Rink, and the rest among the investigators, -have enabled us to read the old sagas of the colonization of -Greenland with renewed interest and with the light of corroborating -evidence.<a name="FNanchor_531_531" id="FNanchor_531_531"></a><a href="#Footnote_531_531" class="fnanchor">[531]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-120.jpg" width="300" height="528" id="i70" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<p>We are told that it was one result of these Northman voyages that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> -fame of them spread to other countries, and became known among the -Welsh, at a time when, upon the death of Owen Gwynedd, who ruled in -the northern parts of that country, the people were embroiled in civil strife. -That chieftain’s son, Prince Madoc, a man bred to the sea, was discontented -with the unstable state of society, and resolved to lead a colony to these -western lands, where they could live more in peace.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-121.jpg" width="400" height="632" id="i71" - alt="" - title="" /> -<p class="pf400"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The cuts above are facsimiles of the title and of the first page of the section on Frisland, etc., from -the Harvard College copy. The book is rare. The Beckford copy brought £50; the Hamilton, £38; the -Tross catalogue (1882) price one at 150 francs; the Tweitmeyer, Leipzig, 1888, at 250 marks; Quaritch -(1885), at £25. Cf. Court Catalogue, no. 378; Leclerc, no. 3002; Dufossé, no. 4965; Carter-Brown, i. 226; -Murphy, nos. 2798-99. The map is often in fac-simile, as in the Harvard College copy.</p> -</div> - -<p>Accordingly, in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> -1170, going seaward on a preliminary exploration by the south of Ireland, -he steered west, and established a pioneer colony in a fertile land. Leaving -here 120 persons, he returned to Wales, and fitted out a larger expedition -of ten ships, with which he again sailed, and passed out of view forever. -The evidence in support of this story is that it is mentioned in early<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> -annals, and that sundry persons have discovered traces of the Welsh -tongue among the lighter-colored American Indians, to say nothing of -manifold legends among the Indians of an original people, white in color, -coming from afar towards the northeast,—proofs not sufficient to attract -the confidence of those who look for historical tests, though, as Humboldt -contends,<a name="FNanchor_532_532" id="FNanchor_532_532"></a><a href="#Footnote_532_532" class="fnanchor">[532]</a> there may be no impossibility in the story.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>There seems to be a general agreement that a crew of Arabs, somewhere -about the eleventh or twelfth century, explored the Atlantic westward, -with the adventurous purpose of finding its further limits, and that they -reached land, which may have been the Canaries, or possibly the Azores, -though the theory that they succeeded in reaching America is not without -advocates. The main source of the belief is the historical treatise of the -Arab geographer Edrisi, whose work was composed about the middle of -the twelfth century.<a name="FNanchor_533_533" id="FNanchor_533_533"></a><a href="#Footnote_533_533" class="fnanchor">[533]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-123.jpg" width="400" height="339" id="i73" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">SHIP OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.</p> - <p class="pf400">From the <i>Isolario</i> (Venice, 1547).</p> -</div></div> - -<p>In the latter part of the fourteenth century,<a name="FNanchor_534_534" id="FNanchor_534_534"></a><a href="#Footnote_534_534" class="fnanchor">[534]</a> as the story goes, two -brothers of Venice, Nicolo and Antonio Zeno, being on a voyage in the -North Atlantic were wrecked there, and lived for some years at Frislanda, -and visited Engroneland. During this northern sojourn they encountered -a sailor, who, after twenty-six years of absence, had returned, and reported -that the ship in which he was had been driven west in a gale to an island, -where he found civilized people, who possessed books in Latin and could -not speak Norse, and whose country was called Estotiland; while a region -on the mainland, farther south, to which he had also gone, was called -Drogeo, and that here he had encountered cannibals. Still farther south -was a great country with towns and temples. This information, picked up -by these exiled Zeni, was finally conveyed to another brother in Venice, -accompanied by a map of these distant regions. These documents long<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> -remained in the family palace in Venice, and were finally neglected and -became obscured, until at last a descendant of the family compiled from -them, as best he could, a book, which was printed in Venice in 1558 as -<i>Dei Commentarii del Viaggio</i>, which was accompanied by a map drawn -with difficulty from the half obliterated original which had been sent from -Frislanda.<a name="FNanchor_535_535" id="FNanchor_535_535"></a><a href="#Footnote_535_535" class="fnanchor">[535]</a> The original documents were never produced, and the publication -took place opportunely to satisfy current curiosity, continually incited<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> -by the Spanish discoveries. It was also calculated to appeal to the national -pride of Italy, which had seen Spain gain the glory of her own sons, Columbus -and Vespucius, if it could be established that these distant regions, of -which the Zeni brothers so early reported tidings, were really the great -new world.<a name="FNanchor_536_536" id="FNanchor_536_536"></a><a href="#Footnote_536_536" class="fnanchor">[536]</a> The cartography of the sixteenth century shows that the -narrative and its accompanying map made an impression on the public -mind, but from that day to this it has been apparent that there can be no -concurrence of opinion as to what island the Frislanda of the Zeni was, if -it existed at all except in some disordered or audacious mind; and, as a -matter of course, the distant regions of Estotiland and Drogeo have been -equally the subject of belief and derision. No one can be said wholly to -have taken the story out of the category of the uncertain.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-124.jpg" width="400" height="198" id="i74" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">THE SEA OF DARKNESS.</p> - <p class="pf400">(From Olaus Magnus.)</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The presence of the Basques on the coasts of North America long before -the voyage of Columbus is often asserted,<a name="FNanchor_537_537" id="FNanchor_537_537"></a><a href="#Footnote_537_537" class="fnanchor">[537]</a> and there is no improbability -in a daring race of seamen, in search of whales, finding a way to -the American waters. There are some indications in the early cartography -which can perhaps be easily explained on this hypothesis;<a name="FNanchor_538_538" id="FNanchor_538_538"></a><a href="#Footnote_538_538" class="fnanchor">[538]</a> there are said -to be unusual linguistic correspondences in the American tongues with -those of this strange people.<a name="FNanchor_539_539" id="FNanchor_539_539"></a><a href="#Footnote_539_539" class="fnanchor">[539]</a> There are the reports of the earliest navigators,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> -who have left indisputable records that earlier visitors from Europe -had been before them, and Cabot may have found some reminders of such;<a name="FNanchor_540_540" id="FNanchor_540_540"></a><a href="#Footnote_540_540" class="fnanchor">[540]</a> -and it is even asserted that it was a Basque mariner, who had been on the -Newfoundland banks, and gave to Columbus some premonitions of the New -World.<a name="FNanchor_541_541" id="FNanchor_541_541"></a><a href="#Footnote_541_541" class="fnanchor">[541]</a></p> - -<p>Certain claims of the Dutch have also been advanced;<a name="FNanchor_542_542" id="FNanchor_542_542"></a><a href="#Footnote_542_542" class="fnanchor">[542]</a> and one for an -early discovery of Newfoundland, in 1463-64, by John Vas Costa Cortereal -was set forth by Barrow in his <i>Chronological Hist. of Voyages into the -Arctic Regions</i> (London, 1818); but he stands almost alone in his belief.<a name="FNanchor_543_543" id="FNanchor_543_543"></a><a href="#Footnote_543_543" class="fnanchor">[543]</a> -Biddle in his <i>Cabot</i> has shown its great improbability.</p> - -<p>In the years while Columbus was nourishing his purpose of a western voyage, -there were two adventurous navigators, as alleged, who were breasting -the dangers of the Sea of Darkness both to the north and to the south. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> -cannot be said that either the Pole Skolno, in his skirting the Labrador coasts -in 1476,<a name="FNanchor_544_544" id="FNanchor_544_544"></a><a href="#Footnote_544_544" class="fnanchor">[544]</a> or the Norman Cousin, who is thought to have traversed a part of -the South American coast in 1488-89,<a name="FNanchor_545_545" id="FNanchor_545_545"></a><a href="#Footnote_545_545" class="fnanchor">[545]</a> have passed with their exploits -into the accepted truths of history; but there was nothing improbable in -what was said of them, and they flourish as counter-rumors always survive -when attendant upon some great revelation like that of Columbus.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/d2.jpg" width="200" height="63" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<h3 class="p2"><a name="c76" id="c76">CRITICAL NOTES ON THE SOURCES OF INFORMATION.</a></h3> - -<p class="p1"><b><a name="n76" id="n76"></a>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Early Connection of Asiatic Peoples -with the Western Coast of America</span>.— -The question of the origin of the Americans, -whether an autochthonous one or associated -with the continents beyond either ocean, is more -properly discussed in another place of the present -volume. We can only indicate here in -brief such of the phases of the question as suppose -an Asiatic connection, and the particular -lines of communication.</p> - -<p>The ethnic unity of the American races, as -urged by Morton and others, hardly meets the -requirements of the problem in the opinion of -most later students, like Sir Daniel Wilson, for -instance; and yet, if A. H. Keane represents, as -he claims, the latest ethnological beliefs, the -connection with Asia, of the kind that forms -ethnic traces, must have been before the history -of the present Asiatic races, since the correspondence -of customs, etc. is not sufficient for -more recent affiliation.<a name="FNanchor_546_546" id="FNanchor_546_546"></a><a href="#Footnote_546_546" class="fnanchor">[546]</a> It should be remembered -also, that if this is true, and if there is -the strong physical resemblance between Asiatics -and the indigenous tribes of the northwest -coast which early travellers and physiologists -have dwelt on, we have in such a correspondence -strong evidence of the persistency of types.<a name="FNanchor_547_547" id="FNanchor_547_547"></a><a href="#Footnote_547_547" class="fnanchor">[547]</a></p> - -<p>The Asiatic theory was long a favorite one. -So popular a book as Lafitau’s <i>Mœurs des Sauvages</i> -(Paris, 1724) advocated it. J. B. Scherer’s -<i>Recherches historiques et géographiques sur -le nouveau monde</i> (Paris, 1777) was on the -same side. One of the earliest in this country, -Benj. Smith Barton, to give expression to American -scholarship in this field held like opinions -in his <i>New Views of the Origin of the Tribes of -America</i> (Philad., 1797).<a name="FNanchor_548_548" id="FNanchor_548_548"></a><a href="#Footnote_548_548" class="fnanchor">[548]</a> Twenty years later -(1816) one of the most active of the American -men of letters advocated the same views,—Samuel -L. Mitchell in the <i>Archæologia Americana</i> -(i. 325, 338, 346). The weightiest authority -of his time, Alex. von Humboldt, formulated -his belief in several of his books: <i>Vues -des Cordillères; Ansichten der Natur; Cosmos</i>.<a name="FNanchor_549_549" id="FNanchor_549_549"></a><a href="#Footnote_549_549" class="fnanchor">[549]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-127.jpg" width="400" height="411" id="i77" - alt="" - title="" /> - <p class="pf400"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—Sketch map from the <i>U. S. Geodetic Survey</i>, 1880, App. xvi; also in <i>Journal Amer. Geog. Soc.</i>, -xv. p. 114. Cf. Bancroft’s <i>Nat. Races</i>, i. 35.</p> -</div> - -<p>Of the northern routes, that by Behring’s -Straits is the most apparent, and Lyell says -that when half-way over Dover Straits, which -have not far from the same dimensions, he saw -both the English and French shores at the -same time, he was easily convinced that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> -passage by Behring’s Straits solved many of -the difficulties of the American problem.<a name="FNanchor_550_550" id="FNanchor_550_550"></a><a href="#Footnote_550_550" class="fnanchor">[550]</a></p> - -<p>The problem as to the passage by the Aleutian -Islands is converted into the question -whether primitive people could have successfully -crossed an interval from Asia of 130 miles -to reach the island Miedna, 126 more to Behring’s -Island, and then 235 to Attu, the westernmost -of the Aleutian Islands, or nearly 500 miles -in all, and to have crossed in such numbers as to -affect the peopling of the new continent. There -are some, like Winchell, who see no difficulty in -the case.<a name="FNanchor_551_551" id="FNanchor_551_551"></a><a href="#Footnote_551_551" class="fnanchor">[551]</a> There are no authenticated relics, it -is believed, to prove the Tartar occupancy of -the northwest of America.<a name="FNanchor_552_552" id="FNanchor_552_552"></a><a href="#Footnote_552_552" class="fnanchor">[552]</a> That there have -been occasional estrays upon the coasts of -British Columbia, Oregon, and California, by -the drifting thither of Chinese and Japanese -junks, is certainly to be believed; but the argument -against their crews peopling the country -is usually based upon the probable absence of -women in them,—an argument that certainly -does not invalidate the belief in an infusion of -Asiatic blood in a previous race.<a name="FNanchor_553_553" id="FNanchor_553_553"></a><a href="#Footnote_553_553" class="fnanchor">[553]</a></p> - -<p>The easterly passage which has elicited most -interest is one alleged to have been made by -some Buddhist priests to a country called Fusang, -and in proof of it there is cited the narrative -of one Hœi-Shin, who is reported to have -returned to China in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 499. Beside much -in the story that is ridiculous and impossible, -there are certain features which have led some -commentators to believe that the coast of Mexico -was intended, and that the Mexican maguey -plant was the tree fusang, after which the -country is said to have been called. The story -was first brought to the attention of Europeans -in 1761, when De Guignes published his paper -on the subject in the 28th volume (pp. 505-26) -of the Academy of Inscriptions.<a name="FNanchor_554_554" id="FNanchor_554_554"></a><a href="#Footnote_554_554" class="fnanchor">[554]</a> It seems to -have attracted little attention till J. H. von -Klaproth, in 1831, discredited the American -theory in his “Recherches sur le pays de Fousang,” -published in the <i>Nouvelles Annales des -Voyages</i> (2d ser., vol. xxi.), accompanied by a -chart. In 1834 there appeared at Paris a French -translation, <i>Annales des Empereurs du Japon</i> -(<i>Nipon o dai itsi rau</i>), to which (vol. iv.) Klaproth -appended an “Aperçu de l’histoire mythologique -du Japon,” in which he returned to the -subject, and convinced Humboldt at least,<a name="FNanchor_555_555" id="FNanchor_555_555"></a><a href="#Footnote_555_555" class="fnanchor">[555]</a> that -the country visited was Japan, and not Mexico, -though he could but see striking analogies, as -he thought, in the Mexican myths and customs -to those of the Chinese.<a name="FNanchor_556_556" id="FNanchor_556_556"></a><a href="#Footnote_556_556" class="fnanchor">[556]</a></p> - -<p>In 1841, Karl Friedrich Neumann, in the <i>Zeitschrift -für allgemeine Erdkunde</i> (new series, vol. -xvi.), published a paper on “Ost Asien und -West Amerika nach Chinesischen Quellen aus -dem fünften, sechsten und siebenten Jahrhundert,” -in which he gave a version of the Hœi-shin -(Hœi-schin, Hui-shën) narrative, which -Chas. G. Leland, considering it a more perfect -form of the original than that given by De -Guignes, translated into English in <i>The Knickerbocker -Mag.</i> (1850), xxxvi. 301, as “California -and Mexico in the fifth century.”<a name="FNanchor_557_557" id="FNanchor_557_557"></a><a href="#Footnote_557_557" class="fnanchor">[557]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-129.jpg" width="400" height="246" id="i79" - alt="" - title="" /> - <p class="pf400"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The map of Buache, 1752, showing De Guignes’ route of the Chinese emigration to Fusang. -Reduced from the copy in the <i>Congrès internationale des Américanistes, Compte Rendu, Nancy, 1875</i>.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p> - -<p>The next to discuss the question, and in an -affirmative spirit, was Charles Hippolyte de -Paravey, in the <i>Annales de Philosophie Chrétienne</i> -(Feb., 1844), whose paper was published -separately as <i>L’Amérique sous le nom de pays de -Fou-Sang, est elle citée dès le 5<sup>e</sup> siècle de notre ère, -dans les grandes annales de la Chine</i>, etc. <i>Discussion -ou dissertation abrégée, où l’affirmative est -prouvée</i> (Paris, 1844); and in 1847 he published -<i>Nouvelles preuves que le pays du Fousang est -l’Amérique</i>.<a name="FNanchor_558_558" id="FNanchor_558_558"></a><a href="#Footnote_558_558" class="fnanchor">[558]</a></p> - -<p>The controversy as between De Guignes and -Klaproth was shared, in 1862, by Gustave -d’Eichthal, taking the Frenchman’s side, in the -<i>Revue Archéologique</i> (vol. ii.), and finally in his -<i>Etudes sur les origines Bouddhiques de la civilisation -Américaine</i> (Paris, 1865).<a name="FNanchor_559_559" id="FNanchor_559_559"></a><a href="#Footnote_559_559" class="fnanchor">[559]</a></p> - -<p>In 1870, E. Bretschneider, in his “Fusang, or -who discovered America?” in the <i>Chinese Recorder -and Missionary Journal</i> (Foochow, Oct., -1870), contended that the whole story was the -fabrication of a lying priest.<a name="FNanchor_560_560" id="FNanchor_560_560"></a><a href="#Footnote_560_560" class="fnanchor">[560]</a></p> - -<p>In 1875 there was new activity in discussing -the question. Two French writers of considerable -repute in such studies attracted attention: -the one, Lucien Adam, in the Congrès des Américanistes -at Nancy (<i>Compte Rendu</i>, i. 145); and -the other, Léon de Rosny, entered the discussions -at the same session (<i>Ibid.</i> i. p. 131).<a name="FNanchor_561_561" id="FNanchor_561_561"></a><a href="#Footnote_561_561" class="fnanchor">[561]</a></p> - -<p>The most conspicuous study for the English -reader was Charles Godfrey Leland’s <i>Fusang, or -The discovery of America by Chinese Buddhist -priests in the fifth century</i> (London, 1875).<a name="FNanchor_562_562" id="FNanchor_562_562"></a><a href="#Footnote_562_562" class="fnanchor">[562]</a></p> - -<p>The Marquis d’Hervey de Saint Denis published -in the <i>Actes de la Soc. d’Ethnographie</i> -(1869), vol. vi., and later in the <i>Comptes Rendus</i> -of the French Academy of Inscriptions, a <i>Mémoire -sur le pays connu des anciens Chinois sous -le nom de Fousang, et sur quelques documents -inédits pour servir à l’identifier</i>, which was -afterwards published separately in Paris, 1876, -in which he assented to the American theory. -The student of the subject need hardly go, however, -beyond E. P. Vining’s <i>An inglorious Columbus: -or, Evidence that Hwui Shăn and a -party of Buddhist monks from Afghanistan discovered -America in the fifth century</i> <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> (New -York, 1885), since the compiler has made it a -repository of all the essential contributions to -the question from De Guignes down. He gives -the geographical reasons for believing Fusang -to be Mexico (ch. 20), comparing the original -description of Fusang with the early accounts -of aboriginal Mexico, and rehearsing the traditions, -as is claimed, of the Buddhists still found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> -by the Spaniards pervading the memories of the -natives, and at last (ch. 37) summarizing all the -grounds of his belief.<a name="FNanchor_563_563" id="FNanchor_563_563"></a><a href="#Footnote_563_563" class="fnanchor">[563]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">The consideration of the Polynesian route as -a possible avenue for peopling America involves -the relations of the Malays to the inhabitants -of the Oceanic Islands and the capacity of early -man to traverse long distances by water.<a name="FNanchor_564_564" id="FNanchor_564_564"></a><a href="#Footnote_564_564" class="fnanchor">[564]</a></p> - -<p>E. B. Tylor has pointed out the Asiatic relations -of the Polynesians in the <i>Journal of the -Anthropological Inst.</i>, xi. 401. Pickering, in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> -ethnological chart accompanying the reports of -the Wilkes Expedition, makes the original people -of Chili and Peru to be Malay, and he connects -the Californians with the Polynesians.<a name="FNanchor_565_565" id="FNanchor_565_565"></a><a href="#Footnote_565_565" class="fnanchor">[565]</a></p> - -<p>The earliest elaboration of this theory was in -John Dunmore Lang’s <i>View of the origin and -migrations of the Polynesian nations, demonstrating -their ancient discovery and progressive settlement -of the continent of America</i> (London, -1834; 2d ed., Sydney, 1877). /Francis A. Allen -has advanced similar views at the meetings of -the Congrès des Américanistes at Luxembourg -and at Copenhagen.<a name="FNanchor_566_566" id="FNanchor_566_566"></a><a href="#Footnote_566_566" class="fnanchor">[566]</a></p> - -<p>The Mongol theory of the occupation of Peru, -which John Ranking so enthusiastically pressed -in his <i>Historical researches on the conquest of -Peru, Mexico, Bogota, Natchez, and Talomeco, in -the thirteenth century, by the Mongols, accompanied -with elephants; and the local agreement -of history and tradition, with the remains of -elephants and mastodontes found in the new -world</i> [etc.] (London, 1827), implies that in the -thirteenth century the Mongol emperor Kublai -Khan sent a fleet against Japan, which, being -scattered in a storm, finally in part reached the -coasts of Peru, where the son of Kublai Khan -became the first Inca.<a name="FNanchor_567_567" id="FNanchor_567_567"></a><a href="#Footnote_567_567" class="fnanchor">[567]</a> The book hardly takes -rank as a sensible contribution to ethnology, -and Prescott says of it that it embodies “many -curious details of Oriental history and manners -in support of a whimsical theory.”<a name="FNanchor_568_568" id="FNanchor_568_568"></a><a href="#Footnote_568_568" class="fnanchor">[568]</a></p> - -<p class="p1"><b><a name="n82" id="n82">B.</a></b> <span class="smcap">Ireland the Great, or White Man’s -Land.</span>—The claims of the Irish to have preceded -the Norse in Iceland, and to have discovered -America, rest on an Icelandic saga, which -represents that in the tenth century Are Marson, -driven off his course by a gale, found a land -which became known as Huitramannaland, or -white man’s land, or otherwise as Irland it Mikla.<a name="FNanchor_569_569" id="FNanchor_569_569"></a><a href="#Footnote_569_569" class="fnanchor">[569]</a> -This region was supposed by the colonists -of Vinland to lie farther south, which Rafn<a name="FNanchor_570_570" id="FNanchor_570_570"></a><a href="#Footnote_570_570" class="fnanchor">[570]</a> interprets -as being along the Carolina coast,<a name="FNanchor_571_571" id="FNanchor_571_571"></a><a href="#Footnote_571_571" class="fnanchor">[571]</a> and -others have put it elsewhere, as Beauvois in -Canada above the Great Lakes; and still others -see no more in it than the pressing of some -storm-driven vessel to the Azores<a name="FNanchor_572_572" id="FNanchor_572_572"></a><a href="#Footnote_572_572" class="fnanchor">[572]</a> or some -other Atlantic island. The story is also coupled, -from another source, with the romance of Bjarni -Asbrandson, who sailed away from Iceland and -from a woman he loved, because the husband -and relatives of the woman made it desirable that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> -he should. Thirty years later, the crew of another -ship, wrecked on a distant coast,<a name="FNanchor_573_573" id="FNanchor_573_573"></a><a href="#Footnote_573_573" class="fnanchor">[573]</a> found -that the people who took them prisoners spoke -Irish,<a name="FNanchor_574_574" id="FNanchor_574_574"></a><a href="#Footnote_574_574" class="fnanchor">[574]</a> and that their chieftain was this same renegade, -who let them go apparently for the purpose -of conveying some token by which he would -be remembered to the Thurid of his dreams. Of -course all theorists who have to deal with these -supposed early discoveries by Europeans connect, -each with his own pet scheme, the prevailing -legendary belief among the American Indians -that white men at an early period made -their appearance on the coasts all the way from -Central America to Labrador.<a name="FNanchor_575_575" id="FNanchor_575_575"></a><a href="#Footnote_575_575" class="fnanchor">[575]</a> Whether these -strange comers be St. Patrick,<a name="FNanchor_576_576" id="FNanchor_576_576"></a><a href="#Footnote_576_576" class="fnanchor">[576]</a> St. Brandan -even, or some other Hibernian hero, with his -followers, is easily to be adduced, if the disposing -mind is inclined.</p> - -<p>There have been of late years two considerable -attempts to establish the historical verity of -some of these alleged Irish visits.<a name="FNanchor_577_577" id="FNanchor_577_577"></a><a href="#Footnote_577_577" class="fnanchor">[577]</a></p> - -<p class="p1"><b><a name="n83" id="n83">C.</a></b> <span class="smcap">The Norse in Iceland.</span>—The chief -original source for the Norse settlement of Iceland -is the famous <i>Landnamabók</i>,<a name="FNanchor_578_578" id="FNanchor_578_578"></a><a href="#Footnote_578_578" class="fnanchor">[578]</a> which is a -record by various writers, at different times, of -the partitioning and ownership of lands during -the earliest years of occupation.<a name="FNanchor_579_579" id="FNanchor_579_579"></a><a href="#Footnote_579_579" class="fnanchor">[579]</a> This and -other contemporary manuscripts, including the -<i>Heimskringla</i> of Snorre Sturleson and the great -body of Icelandic sagas, either at first hand or -as filtered through the leading writers on Icelandic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> -history, constitute the material out of -which is made up the history of Iceland, in the -days when it was sending its adventurous spirits -to Greenland and probably to the American -main.<a name="FNanchor_580_580" id="FNanchor_580_580"></a><a href="#Footnote_580_580" class="fnanchor">[580]</a></p> - -<p>Respecting the body of the sagas, Laing -(<i>Heimskringla</i>, i. 23) says: “It does not appear -that any saga manuscript now existing has -been written before the fourteenth century, however -old the saga itself may be. It is known -that in the twelfth century, Are Frode, Sæmund -and others began to take the sagas out of the -traditionary state and fix them in writing; but -none of the original skins appear to have come -down to our time, but only some of the numerous -copies of them.” Laing (p. 24) also instances -numerous sagas known to have existed, -but they are not now recognized;<a name="FNanchor_581_581" id="FNanchor_581_581"></a><a href="#Footnote_581_581" class="fnanchor">[581]</a> and he gives -us (p. 30) the substance of what is known respecting -the writers and transcribers of this early -saga literature. It is held that by the beginning -of the thirteenth century the sagas of the discoveries -and settlements had all been put in writing, -and thus the history, as it exists, of mediæval -Iceland is, as Burton says (<i>Ultima Thule</i>, i. 237), -more complete than that of any European country.<a name="FNanchor_582_582" id="FNanchor_582_582"></a><a href="#Footnote_582_582" class="fnanchor">[582]</a></p> - -<p>Among the secondary writers, using either at -first or second hand the early MS. sources, the -following may be mentioned:—</p> - -<p>One of the earliest brought to the attention of -the English public was <i>A Compendious Hist. of the -Goths, Swedes and Vandals, and other northern -powers</i> (London, 1650 and 1658), translated in an -abridged form from the Latin of Olaus Magnus, -which had been for more than a hundred years -the leading comprehensive authority on the -northern nations. The <i>Svearikes Historia</i> (Stockholm, -1746-62) of Olof von Dalin and the similar -work of Sven Lagerbring (1769-1788), covering -the early history of the north, are of interest -for the comparative study of the north, rather -than as elucidating the history of Iceland in -particular.<a name="FNanchor_583_583" id="FNanchor_583_583"></a><a href="#Footnote_583_583" class="fnanchor">[583]</a> More direct aid will be got from -Mallet’s <i>Northern Antiquities</i> (London edition, -1847) and from Wheaton’s <i>Northmen</i>. More -special is the <i>Histoire de l’Island</i> of Xavier -Marmier; and the German historian F. C. Dahlman -also touches Iceland with particular attention -in his <i>Geschichte von Dänemark bis zur -Reformation, mit Inbegriff von Norwegen und -Island</i> (Hamburg, 1840-43).</p> - -<p>A history of more importance than any other -yet published, and of the widest scope, was that -of Sweden by E. J. Geijer (continued by F. F. -Carlson), which for the early period (down to -1654) is accessible in English in a translation by -J. H. Turner (London, 1845).<a name="FNanchor_584_584" id="FNanchor_584_584"></a><a href="#Footnote_584_584" class="fnanchor">[584]</a></p> - -<p>Prominent among the later school of northern -historians, all touching the Icelandic annals -more or less, have been Peter Andreas Munch -in his <i>Det Norske Folks Historie</i> (Christiania, -1852-63);<a name="FNanchor_585_585" id="FNanchor_585_585"></a><a href="#Footnote_585_585" class="fnanchor">[585]</a> N. M. Petersen in his <i>Danmarks -Historie i Hedenold</i> (Copenhagen, 1854-55); K.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> -Keyser in his <i>Norges Historie</i> (Christiania, 1866-67); -J. E. Sars in his <i>Udsigt over den Norske -Historie</i> (Christiania, 1873-77); but all are surpassed -by Konrad Maurer’s <i>Island von seiner -ersten Entdeckung bis zum Untergange des Freistaates</i>,—<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> -800-1262 (Munich, 1874), published -as commemorating the thousandth anniversary -of the settlement of Iceland, and it has -the repute of being the best book on early Icelandic -history.<a name="FNanchor_586_586" id="FNanchor_586_586"></a><a href="#Footnote_586_586" class="fnanchor">[586]</a></p> - -<p>The change from Paganism to Christianity -necessarily enters into all the histories covering -the tenth and eleventh centuries; but it has -special treatment in C. Merivale’s <i>Conversion of -the Northern Nations</i> (Boyle lectures,—London, -1866).<a name="FNanchor_587_587" id="FNanchor_587_587"></a><a href="#Footnote_587_587" class="fnanchor">[587]</a></p> - -<p>There is a considerable body of the later literature -upon Iceland, retrospective in character, -and affording the results of study more or less -patient as to the life in the early Norse days in -Iceland.<a name="FNanchor_588_588" id="FNanchor_588_588"></a><a href="#Footnote_588_588" class="fnanchor">[588]</a></p> - -<p>G.W. Dasent’s introduction to his <i>Story of -Burnt Njal</i> (Edinburgh, 1861)<a name="FNanchor_589_589" id="FNanchor_589_589"></a><a href="#Footnote_589_589" class="fnanchor">[589]</a> and his <i>Norsemen -in Iceland</i> (Oxford Essays, 1858) give what -Max Müller (<i>Chips from a German Workshop</i>, -ii. 191) calls “a vigorous and lively sketch of -primitive northern life;” and are well supplemented -by Sabine Baring-Gould’s <i>Iceland, its -scenes and sagas</i> (London, 1863 and later), and -Richard F. Burton’s <i>Ultima Thule, with an historical -introduction</i> (London, 1875).<a name="FNanchor_590_590" id="FNanchor_590_590"></a><a href="#Footnote_590_590" class="fnanchor">[590]</a></p> - -<p class="p1"><b><a name="n85" id="n85">D.</a></b> <span class="smcap">Greenland and its Ruins.</span>—The sagas -still serve us for the colonization of Greenland, -and of particular use is that of Eric the Red.<a name="FNanchor_591_591" id="FNanchor_591_591"></a><a href="#Footnote_591_591" class="fnanchor">[591]</a> -The earliest to use these sources in the historic -spirit was Torfæus in his <i>Historia Gronlandiæ -Antiquæ</i> (1715).<a name="FNanchor_592_592" id="FNanchor_592_592"></a><a href="#Footnote_592_592" class="fnanchor">[592]</a> The natural successor of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> -Torfæus and the book upon which later writers -mostly depend is David Crantz’s <i>Historie von -Grönland, enthaltend die Beschreibung des Landes -und der Einwohner, insbesonders die Geschichten -der dortigen Mission. Nebst Fortsetzung</i> (Barby, -1765-70, 3 vols.). An English translation appeared -in London in 1767, and again, though in -an abridged form with some changes, in 1820.<a name="FNanchor_593_593" id="FNanchor_593_593"></a><a href="#Footnote_593_593" class="fnanchor">[593]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-136.jpg" width="400" height="220" id="i86" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">RUINS OF THE CHURCH AT KATORTOK.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a cut in Nordenskjöld’s <i>Den Andra Dicksonska Expeditionen till Grönland</i>, p. 369, following one -in <i>Efter Meddelelser om Grönland</i>.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Crantz says of his own historic aims, referring -to Torfæus and to the accounts given by the -Eskimos of the east coast, that he has tried to -investigate “where the savage inhabitants came -from, and how the ancient Norwegian inhabitants -came to be so totally extirpated,” while at -the same time he looks upon the history of the -Moravian missions as his chiefest theme.</p> - -<p class="p2">The principal source for the identification of -the ruins of Greenland is the work compiled by -Rafn and Finn Magnusen, <i>Grönlands Historiske -Mindesmærker</i>,<a name="FNanchor_594_594" id="FNanchor_594_594"></a><a href="#Footnote_594_594" class="fnanchor">[594]</a> with original texts and Danish -versions. Useful summaries and observations -will be found in the paper by K. Steenstrup on -“Old Scandinavian ruins in South Greenland” -in the <i>Compte Rendu, Congrès des Américanistes</i> -(Copenhagen, 1883, p. 108), and in one on “Les -Voyages des Danois au Greenland” in the same -(p. 196). Steenstrup’s paper is accompanied by -photographs and cuts, and a map marking the -site of the ruins. The latest account of them -is by Lieut. Holm in the <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i> -(Copenhagen, 1883), vol. vi. Other views -and plans showing the arrangement of their -dwellings and the curious circular ruins,<a name="FNanchor_595_595" id="FNanchor_595_595"></a><a href="#Footnote_595_595" class="fnanchor">[595]</a> which -seems to have usually been near their churches, -are shown in the Baron Nordenskjöld’s <i>Den -andra dicksonska expeditionen till Grönland, dess -inre isöken och dess ostkust, utförd år 1883</i> (Stockholm,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> -1885), the result of the ripest study and -closest contact.</p> - -<p>We need also to scan the narratives of Hans -Egede and Graah. Parry found in 1824, on an -island on the Baltic coast, a runic stone, commemorating -the occupancy of the spot in 1135 -(<i>Antiquitates Americanæ</i>; Mallet’s <i>Northern -Antiquities</i>, 248); and in 1830 and 1831 other -runes were found on old gravestones (Rink’s -<i>Danish Greenland</i>, app. v.; Laing’s <i>Heimskringla</i>, -i. 151). These last are in the Museum -at Copenhagen. Most of these imperishable -relics have been found in the district of Julianeshaab.<a name="FNanchor_596_596" id="FNanchor_596_596"></a><a href="#Footnote_596_596" class="fnanchor">[596]</a></p> - -<p class="p1"><b><a name="n87" id="n87">E.</a></b> <span class="smcap">The Vinland Voyages.</span>—What Leif -and Karlsefne knew they experienced, and what -the sagas tell us they underwent, must have just -the difference between a crisp narrative of personal -adventure and the oft-repeated and embellished -story of a fireside narrator, since the -traditions of the Norse voyages were not put in -the shape of records till about two centuries -had elapsed, and we have no earlier manuscript -of such a record than one made nearly two hundred -years later still. It is indeed claimed that -the transmission by tradition in those days was a -different matter in respect to constancy and exactness -from what it has been known to be in -later times; but the assumption lacks proof and -militates against well-known and inevitable processes -of the human mind.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-137.jpg" width="400" height="314" id="i87" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">SAGA MANUSCRIPT.</p> - <p class="pf400">This is a portion of one of the plates in the <i>Antiquitates Americanæ</i>, given by Rafn to Charles Sumner, -with a key in manuscript by Rafn himself. His signature is from a copy of his <i>Mémoire</i> given by him to -Edward Everett, and now in Harvard College library.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>In regard to the credibility of the sagas, the -northern writers recognize the change which -came over the oral traditionary chronicles when -the romancing spirit was introduced from the -more southern countries, at a time while the -copies of the sagas which we now have were -making, after having been for so long a time -orally handed down; but they are not so successful -in making plain what influence this imported -spirit had on particular sagas, which we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> -are asked to receive as historical records. They -seem sometimes to forget that it is not necessary -to have culture, heroes, and impossible occurrences -to constitute a myth. A blending of history -and myth prompts Horn to say “that some -of the sagas were doubtless originally based on -facts, but the telling and re-telling have changed -them into pure myths.” The unsympathetic -stranger sees this in stories that the patriotic -Scandinavians are over-anxious to make appear -as genuine chronicles.<a name="FNanchor_597_597" id="FNanchor_597_597"></a><a href="#Footnote_597_597" class="fnanchor">[597]</a> It is certainly unfortunate -that the period of recording the older -sagas coincides mainly with the age of this -southern romancing influence.<a name="FNanchor_598_598" id="FNanchor_598_598"></a><a href="#Footnote_598_598" class="fnanchor">[598]</a> It is a somewhat -anomalous condition when long-transmitted -oral stories are assigned to history, and certain -other written ones of the age of the recorded -sagas are relegated to myth. If we would believe -some of the northern writers, what appears -to be difference in kind of embellishment was -in reality the sign that separated history from -fable.<a name="FNanchor_599_599" id="FNanchor_599_599"></a><a href="#Footnote_599_599" class="fnanchor">[599]</a> Of the interpreters of this olden lore, -Torfæus has been long looked upon as a characteristic -exemplar, and Horn<a name="FNanchor_600_600" id="FNanchor_600_600"></a><a href="#Footnote_600_600" class="fnanchor">[600]</a> says of his works -that they are “perceptibly lacking in criticism. -Torfæus was upon the whole incapable of distinguishing -between myth and history.”<a name="FNanchor_601_601" id="FNanchor_601_601"></a><a href="#Footnote_601_601" class="fnanchor">[601]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-138.jpg" width="400" height="293" id="i88" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">RUIN AT KATORTOK.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a cut in Nordenskjöld’s <i>Exped. till Grönland</i>, p. 371, following the <i>Meddel. om Grönland</i>, vi. 98.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p> - -<p>Erasmus Rask, in writing to Wheaton in 1831,<a name="FNanchor_602_602" id="FNanchor_602_602"></a><a href="#Footnote_602_602" class="fnanchor">[602]</a> enumerates eight of the early manuscripts -which mention Vinland and the voyages; -but Rafn, in 1837, counted eighteen such manuscripts.<a name="FNanchor_603_603" id="FNanchor_603_603"></a><a href="#Footnote_603_603" class="fnanchor">[603]</a> -We know little or nothing about the -recorders or date of any of these copies, excepting -the <i>Heimskringla</i>,<a name="FNanchor_604_604" id="FNanchor_604_604"></a><a href="#Footnote_604_604" class="fnanchor">[604]</a> nor how long they had -existed orally. Some of them were doubtless -put into writing soon after the time when such -recording was introduced, and this date is sometimes -put as early as <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1120, and sometimes -as late as the middle or even end of that century. -Meanwhile, Adam of Bremen, in the -latter part of the eleventh century (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1073), -prepared his <i>Historia Ecclesiastica</i>, an account -of the spread of Christianity in the north, in -which he says he was told by the Danish king -that his subjects had found a country to the -west, called Winland.<a name="FNanchor_605_605" id="FNanchor_605_605"></a><a href="#Footnote_605_605" class="fnanchor">[605]</a> A reference is also supposed -to be made in the <i>Historia Ecclesiastica</i> of -Ordericus Vitalis, written about the middle (say -<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1140) of the twelfth century. But it was -not until somewhere between <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1385 and -1400 that the oldest Icelandic manuscript which -exists, touching the voyages, was compiled,—the -so-called <i>Codex Flatoyensis</i>,<a name="FNanchor_606_606" id="FNanchor_606_606"></a><a href="#Footnote_606_606" class="fnanchor">[606]</a> though how -much earlier copies of it were made is not -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>known. It is in this manuscript that we find the -saga of Olaf Tryggvesson,<a name="FNanchor_607_607" id="FNanchor_607_607"></a><a href="#Footnote_607_607" class="fnanchor">[607]</a> wherein the voyages -of Leif Ericson are described, and it is only by -a comparison of circumstances detailed here and -in other sagas that the year <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1000 has been -approximately determined as the date.<a name="FNanchor_608_608" id="FNanchor_608_608"></a><a href="#Footnote_608_608" class="fnanchor">[608]</a> In this -same codex we find the saga of Eric the Red, -one of the chief narratives depended upon by -the advocates of the Norse discovery, and in -Rask’s judgment it “appears to be somewhat -fabulous, written long after the event, and taken -from tradition.”<a name="FNanchor_609_609" id="FNanchor_609_609"></a><a href="#Footnote_609_609" class="fnanchor">[609]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-139.jpg" width="400" height="410" id="i89" - alt="" - title="" /> - <p class="pf400"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The above is a reproduction of a corner map in the map of <i>Danish Greenland</i> given in Rink’s -book of that name. The sea in the southwest corner of the cut is not shaded; but shading is given to the -interior ice field on the northern and northeastern part of the map. Rink gives a similar map of the Westerbygd.</p> -</div> - -<p>The other principal saga is that of Thorfinn -Karlsefne, which with some differences and -with the same lack of authenticity, goes over the -ground covered by that of Eric the Red.<a name="FNanchor_610_610" id="FNanchor_610_610"></a><a href="#Footnote_610_610" class="fnanchor">[610]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-140.jpg" width="400" height="453" id="i90" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">RAFN.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p> - -<p>Of all the early manuscripts, the well-known -<i>Heimskringla</i> of Snorro Sturleson (b. 1178; d. -1241), purporting to be a history of the Norse -kings down to <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1177, is the most entitled to -be received as an historical record, and all that -it says is in these words: “Leif also found Vinland -the Good.”<a name="FNanchor_611_611" id="FNanchor_611_611"></a><a href="#Footnote_611_611" class="fnanchor">[611]</a></p> - -<p>Saxo Grammaticus (d. about 1208) in his <i>Historia Danica</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> -begins with myths, and evidently -follows the sagas, but does not refer to them -except in his preface.<a name="FNanchor_612_612" id="FNanchor_612_612"></a><a href="#Footnote_612_612" class="fnanchor">[612]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-141.jpg" width="400" height="696" id="i91" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<p>For about five hundred years after this the -stories attracted little or no attention.<a name="FNanchor_613_613" id="FNanchor_613_613"></a><a href="#Footnote_613_613" class="fnanchor">[613]</a> We -have seen that Peringskiöld produced these -sagas in 1697. Montanus in his <i>Nieuwe en onbekende -Weereld</i> (Amsterdam, 1671), and Campanius, -in 1702, in his <i>Kort Beskrifning om -Provincien Nya Swerige uti America</i> (Stockholm),<a name="FNanchor_614_614" id="FNanchor_614_614"></a><a href="#Footnote_614_614" class="fnanchor">[614]</a> -gave some details. The account which -did most, however, to revive an interest in the -subject was that of Torfæus in his <i>Historia -Vinlandiæ Antiquæ</i> (Copenhagen, 1705), but he -was quite content to place the scene of his narrative -in America, without attempting to identify -localities.<a name="FNanchor_615_615" id="FNanchor_615_615"></a><a href="#Footnote_615_615" class="fnanchor">[615]</a> The voyages were, a few years -later, the subject of a dissertation at the University -of Upsala in Sweden.<a name="FNanchor_616_616" id="FNanchor_616_616"></a><a href="#Footnote_616_616" class="fnanchor">[616]</a> J. P. Cassell, of -Bremen, discusses the Adam of Bremen story -in another Latin essay, still later.<a name="FNanchor_617_617" id="FNanchor_617_617"></a><a href="#Footnote_617_617" class="fnanchor">[617]</a></p> - -<p>About 1750, Pieter Kalm, a Swede, brought -the matter to the attention of Dr. Franklin, as -the latter remembered twenty-five years later, -when he wrote to Samuel Mather that “the circumstances -gave the account a great appearance -of authenticity.”<a name="FNanchor_618_618" id="FNanchor_618_618"></a><a href="#Footnote_618_618" class="fnanchor">[618]</a> In 1755, Paul Henri Mallet -(1730-1807), in his <i>Histoire de Dannemarc</i>, determines -the localities to be Labrador and -Newfoundland.<a name="FNanchor_619_619" id="FNanchor_619_619"></a><a href="#Footnote_619_619" class="fnanchor">[619]</a></p> - -<p>In 1769, Gerhard Schöning, in his <i>Norges -Riges Historie</i>, established the scene in America. -Robertson, in 1777, briefly mentions the voyages -in his <i>Hist. of America</i> (note xvii.), and, referring -to the accounts given by Peringskiöld, calls -them rude and confused, and says that it is -impossible to identify the landfalls, though he -thinks Newfoundland may have been the scene -of Vinland. This is also the belief of J. R. -Forster in his <i>Geschichte der Entdeckungen im -Norden</i> (Frankfurt, 1784).<a name="FNanchor_620_620" id="FNanchor_620_620"></a><a href="#Footnote_620_620" class="fnanchor">[620]</a> M. C. Sprengel, in -his <i>Geschichte der Europäer in Nordamerika</i> -(Leipzig, 1782), thinks they went as far south as -Carolina. Pontoppidan’s <i>History of Norway</i> -was mainly followed by Dr. Jeremy Belknap in -his <i>American Biography</i> (Boston, 1794), who -recognizes “circumstances to confirm and none -to disprove the relations.” In 1793, Muñoz, in -his <i>Historia del Nuevo Mundo</i>, put Vinland in -Greenland. In 1796 there was a brief account<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> -in Fritsch’s <i>Disputatio historico-geographica in -qua quæritur utrum veteres Americam noverint -necne</i>. H. Stenström published at Lund, in -1801, a short dissertation, <i>De America Norvegis -ante tempora Columbi adita</i>. Boucher de la -Richarderie, in his <i>Bibliothèque Universelle des -Voyages</i> (Paris, 1808), gives a short account, -and cites some of the authorities. Some of the -earlier American histories of this century, like -Williamson’s <i>North Carolina</i>, took advantage -of the recitals of Torfæus and Mallet. Ebenezer -Henderson’s <i>Residence in Iceland</i> (1814-15)<a name="FNanchor_621_621" id="FNanchor_621_621"></a><a href="#Footnote_621_621" class="fnanchor">[621]</a> -presented the evidence anew. Barrow, in his -<i>Voyages to the Arctic Regions</i> (London, 1818), -places Vinland in Labrador or Newfoundland; -but J. W. Moulton, in his <i>History of the State -of New York</i> (N. Y., 1824), brings that State -within the region supposed to have been visited.</p> - -<p>A writer more likely to cause a determinate -opinion in the public mind came in Washington -Irving, who in his <i>Columbus</i> (London, 1828) dismissed -the accounts as untrustworthy; though -later, under the influence of Wheaton and -Rafn, he was inclined to consider them of possible -importance; and finally in his condensed -edition he thinks the facts “established to the -conviction of most minds.”<a name="FNanchor_622_622" id="FNanchor_622_622"></a><a href="#Footnote_622_622" class="fnanchor">[622]</a> Hugh Murray, in -his <i>Discoveries and Travels in North America</i> -(London, 1829), regards the sagas as an authority; -but he doubts the assigning of Vinland to -America. In 1830, W. D. Cooley, in his <i>History -of Maritime and Inland Discovery</i>,<a name="FNanchor_623_623" id="FNanchor_623_623"></a><a href="#Footnote_623_623" class="fnanchor">[623]</a> thought -it impossible to shake the authenticity of the -sagas.</p> - -<p>While Henry Wheaton was the minister of -the United States at Copenhagen, and having -access to the collections of that city, he prepared -his <i>History of the Northmen</i>, which was -published in London and Philadelphia in 1831.<a name="FNanchor_624_624" id="FNanchor_624_624"></a><a href="#Footnote_624_624" class="fnanchor">[624]</a> -The high character of the man gave unusual -force to his opinions, and his epitome of the -sagas in his second chapter contributed much -to increase the interest in the Northmen story. -He was the first who much impressed the New -England antiquaries with the view that Vinland -should be looked for in New England; and a -French version by Paul Guillot, issued in Paris in -1844, is stated to have been “revue et augmentée -par l’auteur, avec cartes, inscriptions, et alphabet -runique.”<a name="FNanchor_625_625" id="FNanchor_625_625"></a><a href="#Footnote_625_625" class="fnanchor">[625]</a> The opinions of Wheaton, -however, had no effect upon the leading historian -of the United States, nor have any subsequent -developments caused any change in the -opinion of Bancroft, first advanced in 1834, in -the opening volume of his <i>United States</i>, where -he dismissed the sagas as “mythological in -form and obscure in meaning; ancient yet not -contemporary.” He adds that “the intrepid -mariners who colonized Greenland could easily -have extended their voyage to Labrador; but -no clear historical evidence establishes the natural -probability that they accomplished the passage.”<a name="FNanchor_626_626" id="FNanchor_626_626"></a><a href="#Footnote_626_626" class="fnanchor">[626]</a> -All this is omitted by Bancroft in his -last revised edition; but a paragraph in his -original third volume (1840), to the intent that, -though “Scandinavians may have reached the -shores of Labrador, the soil of the United -States has not one vestige of their presence,” is -allowed to remain,<a name="FNanchor_627_627" id="FNanchor_627_627"></a><a href="#Footnote_627_627" class="fnanchor">[627]</a> and is true now as when -first written.</p> - -<p>The chief apostle of the Norseman belief, -however, is Carl Christian Rafn, whose work -was accomplished under the auspices of the -Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries at Copenhagen.<a name="FNanchor_628_628" id="FNanchor_628_628"></a><a href="#Footnote_628_628" class="fnanchor">[628]</a></p> - -<p>Rafn was born in 1795, and died at Copenhagen -in 1864.<a name="FNanchor_629_629" id="FNanchor_629_629"></a><a href="#Footnote_629_629" class="fnanchor">[629]</a> At the University, as well as -later as an officer of its library, he had bent his -attention to the early Norse manuscripts and -literature,<a name="FNanchor_630_630" id="FNanchor_630_630"></a><a href="#Footnote_630_630" class="fnanchor">[630]</a> so that in 1825 he was the natural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> -founder of the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries; -and much of the value of its long -series of publications is due to his active and -unflagging interest.<a name="FNanchor_631_631" id="FNanchor_631_631"></a><a href="#Footnote_631_631" class="fnanchor">[631]</a> The summit of his American -interest, however, was reached in the great -folio <i>Antiquitates Americanæ</i>,<a name="FNanchor_632_632" id="FNanchor_632_632"></a><a href="#Footnote_632_632" class="fnanchor">[632]</a> in which he for the -first time put the mass of original Norse documents -before the student, and with a larger accumulation -of proofs than had ever been adduced -before, he commented on the narratives and -came to conclusions respecting traces of their -occupancy to which few will adhere to-day.</p> - -<p>The effect of Rafn’s volume, however, was -marked, and we see it in the numerous presentations -of the subject which followed; and every -writer since has been greatly indebted to him.</p> - -<p>Alexander von Humboldt in his <i>Examen Critique</i> -(Paris, 1837) gave a synopsis of the sagas, -and believed the scene of the discoveries to be -between Newfoundland and New York; and in -his <i>Cosmos</i> (1844) he reiterated his views, holding -to “the undoubted first discovery by the -Northmen as far south as 41° 30’.”<a name="FNanchor_633_633" id="FNanchor_633_633"></a><a href="#Footnote_633_633" class="fnanchor">[633]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-145.jpg" width="350" height="718" id="i95" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc350">NORSE AMERICA.</p> - <p class="pf350">Opposite is a section of Rafn’s map in the <i>Antiquitates Americanæ</i>, giving his identification of the Norse -localities. This and the other map by Rafn is reproduced in his <i>Cabinet d’Antiquités Américaines</i> (Copenhagen, -1858). The map in the atlas of St. Martin’s <i>Hist. de la Géographie</i> does not track them below Newfoundland. -The map in J. T. Smith’s <i>Northmen in New England</i> (Boston, 1839) shows eleven voyages to -America from Scandinavia, <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 861-1285. Cf. map in Wilhelmi’s <i>Island</i>, etc. (Heidelberg, 1842).</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p> - -<p>Two books which for a while were the popular -treatises on the subject were the immediate -outcome of Rafn’s book. The first of these -was <i>The Northmen in New England</i>, giving the -stories in the form of a dialogue, by Joshua -Toulmin Smith (Boston, 1839), which in a -second edition (London, 1842) was called <i>The -Discovery of America by the Northmen in the -Tenth Century</i>.</p> - -<p>The other book was largely an English version -of parts of Rafn’s book, translating the -chief sagas, and reproducing the maps: Nathaniel -Ludlow Beamish’s <i>Discovery of America by -the Northmen in the Tenth Century</i> (London, -1841).<a name="FNanchor_634_634" id="FNanchor_634_634"></a><a href="#Footnote_634_634" class="fnanchor">[634]</a> Two German books owed almost as -much to Rafn, those of K. Wilhelmi<a name="FNanchor_635_635" id="FNanchor_635_635"></a><a href="#Footnote_635_635" class="fnanchor">[635]</a> and K. -H. Hermes.<a name="FNanchor_636_636" id="FNanchor_636_636"></a><a href="#Footnote_636_636" class="fnanchor">[636]</a> Prescott, at this time publishing -the third volume of his <i>Mexico</i> (1843), accords to -Rafn the credit of taking the matter out of the -category of doubt, but he hesitates to accept -the Dane’s identifications of localities; but R. -H. Major, in considering the question in the introduction -to his <i>Select letters of Columbus</i> (1847), -finds little hesitation in accepting the views of -Rafn, and thinks “no room is left for disputing -the main fact of discovery.”</p> - -<p>When Hildreth, in 1849, published his <i>United -States</i>, he ranged himself, with his distrusts, by -the side of Bancroft but J. Elliot Cabot, in making -a capital summary of the evidence in the -<i>Mass. Quarterly Review</i> (vol. ii.), accords with -the believers, but places the locality visited -about Labrador and Newfoundland. Haven in -his <i>Archæology of the United States</i> (Washington, -1856) regards the discovery as well attested, -and that the region was most likely that of Narragansett -Bay. C. W. Elliott in his <i>New England -History</i> (N. Y., 1857) holds the story to be -“in some degree mythical.” Palfrey in his <i>Hist. -of New England</i> (Boston, 1858) goes no farther -than to consider the Norse voyage as in “nowise -unlikely,” and Oscar F. Peschel in his <i>Geschichte -des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen</i> (Stuttgart, 1858) -is on the affirmative side. Paul K. Sinding goes -over the story with assent in his <i>History of Scandinavia</i>,—a -book not much changed in his -<i>Scandinavian Races</i> (N. Y., 1878).<a name="FNanchor_637_637" id="FNanchor_637_637"></a><a href="#Footnote_637_637" class="fnanchor">[637]</a> Eugène -Beauvois did little more than translate from -Rafn in his <i>Découvertes des Scandinaves en<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> -Amérique,—fragments de Sagas Islandaises -traduits pour la première fois en français</i> (Paris, -1859)—an extract from the <i>Revue Orientale et -Américaine</i> (vol. ii.).<a name="FNanchor_638_638" id="FNanchor_638_638"></a><a href="#Footnote_638_638" class="fnanchor">[638]</a></p> - -<p>Professor Daniel Wilson, of Toronto, has discussed -the subject at different times, and with -these conclusions: “With all reasonable doubts -as to the accuracy of details, there is the strongest -probability in favor of the authenticity of the -American Vinland.... The data are the mere -vague allusions of a traveller’s tale, and it is -indeed the most unsatisfactory feature of the -sagas that the later the voyages the more confused -and inconsistent their narratives become -in every point of detail.”<a name="FNanchor_639_639" id="FNanchor_639_639"></a><a href="#Footnote_639_639" class="fnanchor">[639]</a></p> - -<p>Dr. B. F. De Costa’s first book on the subject -was his <i>Pre-Columbian Discovery of America by -the Northmen, illustrated by Translations from -the Icelandic Sagas, edited with notes and a general -introduction</i> (Albany, 1868). It is a convenient -gathering of the essential parts of the -sagas; but the introduction rather opposes than -disproves some of the “feeble paragraphs, -pointed with a sneer,” which he charges upon -leading opponents of the faith. Professor J. L. -Diman, in the <i>North American Review</i> (July, -1869), made De Costa’s book the occasion of an -essay setting forth the grounds of a disbelief in -the historical value of the sagas. De Costa -replied in <i>Notes on a Review</i>, etc. (Charlestown, -1869). In the same year, Dr. Kohl, following -the identifications of Rafn, rehearsed the narratives -in his <i>Discovery of Maine</i> (Portland, 1869), -and tracked Karlsefne through the gulf of -Maine. De Costa took issue with him on this -latter point in his Northmen in Maine (Albany, -1870).<a name="FNanchor_640_640" id="FNanchor_640_640"></a><a href="#Footnote_640_640" class="fnanchor">[640]</a> In the introduction to his <i>Sailing Directions -of Henry Hudson</i>, De Costa argues that -these mariners’ guides are the same used by the -Northmen, and in his <i>Columbus and the Geographers -of the North</i> (Hartford, 1872,—cf. -<i>Amer. Church Review</i>, xxiv. 418) he recapitulates -the sagas once more with reference to the -knowledge which he supposes Columbus to -have had of them. Paul Gaffarel, in his <i>Etudes -sur les rapports de l’Amérique et de l’ancien -Continent avant Colomb</i> (Paris, 1869), entered -more particularly into the evidence of the commerce -of Vinland and its relations to Europe.</p> - -<p>Gabriel Gravier, another French author, was -rather too credulous in his <i>Découverte de l’Amérique -par les normands au X<sup>e</sup> Siècle</i> (Paris, 1874), -when he assumed with as much confidence as -Rafn ever did everything that the most ardent -advocate had sought to prove.<a name="FNanchor_641_641" id="FNanchor_641_641"></a><a href="#Footnote_641_641" class="fnanchor">[641]</a></p> - -<p>There were two American writers soon to follow, -hardly less intemperate. These were Aaron -Goodrich, in <i>A History of the Character and -Achievements of the so-called Christopher Columbus</i> -(N. Y., 1874), who took the full complement -of Rafn’s belief with no hesitancy; and Rasmus -B. Anderson in his <i>America not discovered by Columbus</i> -(Chicago, 1874; improved, 1877; again -with Watson’s bibliography, 1883),<a name="FNanchor_642_642" id="FNanchor_642_642"></a><a href="#Footnote_642_642" class="fnanchor">[642]</a> in which -even the Skeleton in Armor is made to play a -part. Excluding such vagaries, the book is not -without use as displaying the excessive views entertained -in some quarters on the subject. The -author is, we believe, a Scandinavian, and shows -the tendency of his race to a facility rather than -felicity in accepting evidence on this subject.</p> - -<p>The narratives were first detailed among our -leading general histories when the <i>Popular -History of the United States</i> of Bryant and Gay -appeared in 1876. The claims were presented -decidedly, and in the main in the directions indicated -by Rafn; but the wildest pretensions of -that antiquary were considerately dismissed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></p> - -<p>During the last score years the subject has -been often made prominent by travellers like -Kneeland<a name="FNanchor_643_643" id="FNanchor_643_643"></a><a href="#Footnote_643_643" class="fnanchor">[643]</a> and Hayes,<a name="FNanchor_644_644" id="FNanchor_644_644"></a><a href="#Footnote_644_644" class="fnanchor">[644]</a> who have recapitulated -the evidence; by lecturers like Charles Kingsley;<a name="FNanchor_645_645" id="FNanchor_645_645"></a><a href="#Footnote_645_645" class="fnanchor">[645]</a> -by monographists like Moosmüller;<a name="FNanchor_646_646" id="FNanchor_646_646"></a><a href="#Footnote_646_646" class="fnanchor">[646]</a> by -the minor historians like Higginson,<a name="FNanchor_647_647" id="FNanchor_647_647"></a><a href="#Footnote_647_647" class="fnanchor">[647]</a> who has -none of the fervor of the inspired identifiers of -localities, and Weise,<a name="FNanchor_648_648" id="FNanchor_648_648"></a><a href="#Footnote_648_648" class="fnanchor">[648]</a> who is inclined to believe -the sea-rovers did not even pass Davis’s Straits; -and by contributors to the successive sessions -of the Congrès des Américanistes<a name="FNanchor_649_649" id="FNanchor_649_649"></a><a href="#Footnote_649_649" class="fnanchor">[649]</a> and to other -learned societies.<a name="FNanchor_650_650" id="FNanchor_650_650"></a><a href="#Footnote_650_650" class="fnanchor">[650]</a></p> - -<p>The question was brought to a practical issue -in Massachusetts by a proposition raised—at -first in Wisconsin—by the well-known musician -Ole Bull, to erect in Boston a statue to Leif -Ericson.<a name="FNanchor_651_651" id="FNanchor_651_651"></a><a href="#Footnote_651_651" class="fnanchor">[651]</a> The project, though ultimately carried -out, was long delayed, and was discouraged -by members of the Massachusetts Historical -Society on the ground that no satisfactory evidence -existed to show that any spot in New -England had been reached by the Northmen.<a name="FNanchor_652_652" id="FNanchor_652_652"></a><a href="#Footnote_652_652" class="fnanchor">[652]</a> -The sense of the society was finally expressed in -the report of their committee, Henry W. Haynes -and Abner C. Goodell, Jr., in language which -seems to be the result of the best historical criticism; -for it is not a question of the fact of discovery, -but to decide how far we can place reliance -on the details of the sagas. There is likely to remain -a difference of opinion on this point. The -committee say: “There is the same sort of reason -for believing in the existence of Leif Ericson -that there is for believing in the existence of -Agamemnon,—they are both traditions accepted -by later writers; but there is no more reason for -regarding as true the details related about his -discoveries than there is for accepting as historic -truth the narratives contained in the Homeric -poems. It is antecedently probable that -the Northmen discovered America in the early -part of the eleventh century; and this discovery -is confirmed by the same sort of historical tradition, -not strong enough to be called evidence, -upon which our belief in many of the accepted -facts of history rests.”<a name="FNanchor_653_653" id="FNanchor_653_653"></a><a href="#Footnote_653_653" class="fnanchor">[653]</a></p> - -<p>In running down the history of the literature -of the subject, the present aim has been simply -to pick out such contributions as have been in -some way significant, and reference must be made -to the bibliographies for a more perfect record.<a name="FNanchor_654_654" id="FNanchor_654_654"></a><a href="#Footnote_654_654" class="fnanchor">[654]</a></p> - -<p>Irrespective of the natural probability of the -Northmen visits to the American main, other -evidence has been often adduced to support the -sagas. This proof has been linguistic, ethnological, -physical, geographical, and monumental.</p> - -<p>Nothing could be slenderer than the alleged -correspondences of languages, and we can see in -Horsford’s <i>Discovery of America by Northmen</i> to -what a fanciful extent a confident enthusiasm -can carry it.<a name="FNanchor_655_655" id="FNanchor_655_655"></a><a href="#Footnote_655_655" class="fnanchor">[655]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span></p> - -<p>The ethnological traces are only less shadowy. -Hugo Grotius<a name="FNanchor_656_656" id="FNanchor_656_656"></a><a href="#Footnote_656_656" class="fnanchor">[656]</a> contended that the people of -Central America were of Scandinavian descent. -Brasseur found remnants of Norse civilization -in the same region.<a name="FNanchor_657_657" id="FNanchor_657_657"></a><a href="#Footnote_657_657" class="fnanchor">[657]</a> Viollet le Duc<a name="FNanchor_658_658" id="FNanchor_658_658"></a><a href="#Footnote_658_658" class="fnanchor">[658]</a> discovers -great resemblances in the northern religious -ceremonials to those described in the <i>Popul -Vuh</i>. A general resemblance did not escape -the notice of Humboldt. Gravier<a name="FNanchor_659_659" id="FNanchor_659_659"></a><a href="#Footnote_659_659" class="fnanchor">[659]</a> is certain -that the Aztec civilization is Norse.<a name="FNanchor_660_660" id="FNanchor_660_660"></a><a href="#Footnote_660_660" class="fnanchor">[660]</a> Chas. -Godfrey Leland claims that the old Norse spirit -pervades the myths and legends of the Algonkins, -and that it is impossible not to admit that -there must have been at one time “extensive intercourse -between the Northmen and the Algonkins;” -and in proof he points out resemblances -between the Eddas and the Algonkin mythology.<a name="FNanchor_661_661" id="FNanchor_661_661"></a><a href="#Footnote_661_661" class="fnanchor">[661]</a> -It is even stated that the Micmacs have -a tradition of a people called Chenooks, who -in ships visited their coast in the tenth century.</p> - -<p>The physical and geographical evidences are -held to exist in the correspondences of the coast -line to the descriptions of the sagas, including -the phenomena of the tides<a name="FNanchor_662_662" id="FNanchor_662_662"></a><a href="#Footnote_662_662" class="fnanchor">[662]</a> and the length of -the summer day.<a name="FNanchor_663_663" id="FNanchor_663_663"></a><a href="#Footnote_663_663" class="fnanchor">[663]</a> Laing and others, who make -no question of the main fact, readily recognize -the too great generality and contradictions of -the descriptions to be relied upon.<a name="FNanchor_664_664" id="FNanchor_664_664"></a><a href="#Footnote_664_664" class="fnanchor">[664]</a></p> - -<p>George Bancroft, in showing his distrust, has -said that the advocates of identification can no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> -farther agree than to place Vinland anywhere -from Greenland to Africa.<a name="FNanchor_665_665" id="FNanchor_665_665"></a><a href="#Footnote_665_665" class="fnanchor">[665]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-150.jpg" width="400" height="493" id="i100" - alt="" - title="" /> - <p class="pf400"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The above map is a fac-simile of one of C. C. Rafn’s maps. Cf. the maps in Smith, Beamish, -Gravier, Slafter, Preble’s <i>Amer. Flag</i>, etc.</p> -</div> - -<p>The earliest to go so far as to establish to a -certainty<a name="FNanchor_666_666" id="FNanchor_666_666"></a><a href="#Footnote_666_666" class="fnanchor">[666]</a> the sites of the sagas was Rafn, who -placed them on the coast of Massachusetts and -Rhode Island, wherein nearly all those have followed -him who have thought it worth while to -be thus particular as to headland and bay.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-151.jpg" width="400" height="262" id="i101" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">DIGHTON ROCK.<a name="FNanchor_667_667" id="FNanchor_667_667"></a><a href="#Footnote_667_667" class="fnanchor"><span class="reduct">[667]</span></a></p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span></p> - -<p>In applying the saga names they have, however, -by no means agreed, for Krossanes is with -some Point Alderton, at the entrance of Boston -Harbor, and with others the Gurnet Head; the -island where honey dew was found is Nantucket -with Rafn, and with De Costa an insular region, -Nauset, now under water near the elbow of Cape -Cod;<a name="FNanchor_668_668" id="FNanchor_668_668"></a><a href="#Footnote_668_668" class="fnanchor">[668]</a> the Vinland of Rafn is in Narragansett -Bay, that of Dr. A. C. Hamlin is at Merry Meeting -Bay on the coast of Maine,<a name="FNanchor_669_669" id="FNanchor_669_669"></a><a href="#Footnote_669_669" class="fnanchor">[669]</a> and that of Horsford -is north of Cape Cod,<a name="FNanchor_670_670" id="FNanchor_670_670"></a><a href="#Footnote_670_670" class="fnanchor">[670]</a>—not to mention -other disagreements of other disputants.</p> - -<p>We get something more tangible, if not more -decisive, when we come to the monumental evidences. -DeWitt Clinton and Samuel L. Mitchell -found little difficulty at one time in making -many people believe that the earthworks of -Onondaga were Scandinavian. A pretended -runic inscription on a stone said to have been -found in the Grave Creek mound was sedulously -ascribed to the Northmen.<a name="FNanchor_671_671" id="FNanchor_671_671"></a><a href="#Footnote_671_671" class="fnanchor">[671]</a> What some have -called a runic inscription exists on a rock near -Yarmouth in Nova Scotia, which is interpreted -“Hako’s son addressed the men,” and is supposed -to commemorate the expedition of Thorfinn -in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1007.<a name="FNanchor_672_672" id="FNanchor_672_672"></a><a href="#Footnote_672_672" class="fnanchor">[672]</a> A rock on the little islet -of Menana, close to Monhegan, on the coast of -Maine, and usually referred to as the Monhegan -Rock, bears certain weather marks, and there -have been those to call them runes.<a name="FNanchor_673_673" id="FNanchor_673_673"></a><a href="#Footnote_673_673" class="fnanchor">[673]</a> A similar -claim is made for a rock in the Merrimac Valley.<a name="FNanchor_674_674" id="FNanchor_674_674"></a><a href="#Footnote_674_674" class="fnanchor">[674]</a> -Rafn describes such rocks as situated in -Tiverton and Portsmouth Grove, R. I., but the -markings were Indian, and when Dr. S. A. -Green visited the region in 1868 some of them -had disappeared.<a name="FNanchor_675_675" id="FNanchor_675_675"></a><a href="#Footnote_675_675" class="fnanchor">[675]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-153.jpg" width="400" height="213" id="i103" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">INSCRIPTION ON DIGHTON ROCK.</p> - <p class="pf400"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The opposite plate is reduced from one in the <i>Antiq. Americanæ</i>. They show the difficulty, even -before later weathering, of different persons in discerning the same things on the rock, and in discriminating between -fissures and incisions. Col. Garrick Mallery (<i>4th Rept. Bureau of Ethnology</i>, p. 250) asserts that the -inscription has been “so manipulated that it is difficult now to determine the original details.” The drawings -represented are enumerated in the text. Later ones are numerous. Rafn also gives that of Dr. Baylies and -Mr. Gooding in 1790, and that made for the Rhode Island Hist. Society in 1830. The last has perhaps been -more commonly copied than the others. Photographs of late years are common; but almost invariably the -photographer has chalked what he deems to be the design,—in this they do not agree, of course,—in order -to make his picture clearer. I think Schoolcraft in making his daguerreotype was the first to do this. The -most careful drawing made of late years is that by Professor Seager of the Naval Academy, under the direction -of Commodore Blake; and there is in the Cabinet of the American Antiquarian Society a MS. essay -on the rock, written at Blake’s request by Chaplain Chas. R. Hale of the U. S. Navy. Haven disputes -Blake’s statement that a change in the river’s bed more nearly submerges the rock at high tide than was -formerly the case. Cf. <i>Am. Antiq. Soc.</i> Proc., Oct., 1864, p. 41, where a history of the rock is given; and in -Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, ii. 93.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p> - -<p>The most famous of all these alleged memorials<a name="FNanchor_676_676" id="FNanchor_676_676"></a><a href="#Footnote_676_676" class="fnanchor">[676]</a> -is the Dighton Rock, lying in the tide on -the side of Taunton River, in the town of Berkeley, -in Massachusetts.<a name="FNanchor_677_677" id="FNanchor_677_677"></a><a href="#Footnote_677_677" class="fnanchor">[677]</a> Dr. De Costa thinks it -possible that the central portion may be runic. -This part is what has been interpreted to mean -that Thorfinn with 151 men took possession of -the country, and it is said to be this portion of -the inscription which modern Indians discard -when giving their interpretations.<a name="FNanchor_678_678" id="FNanchor_678_678"></a><a href="#Footnote_678_678" class="fnanchor">[678]</a> That it is -the work of the Indian of historic times seems -now to be the opinion common to the best -trained archæologists.<a name="FNanchor_679_679" id="FNanchor_679_679"></a><a href="#Footnote_679_679" class="fnanchor">[679]</a></p> - -<p>Rafn was also the first to proclaim the stone<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> -tower now standing at Newport, R. I., as a work -of the Northmen; but the recent antiquaries -without any exception worth considering, believe -that the investigations have shown that -it was erected by Governor Arnold of Rhode -Island as a windmill, sometime between 1670 -and 1680; and Palfrey in his <i>New England</i> is -thought to have put this view beyond doubt in -showing the close correspondence in design of -the tower to a mill at Chesterton, in England.<a name="FNanchor_680_680" id="FNanchor_680_680"></a><a href="#Footnote_680_680" class="fnanchor">[680]</a></p> - -<p>Certain hearthstones which were discovered -over twenty-five years ago under a peat bed on -Cape Cod were held at the time to be a Norse -relic.<a name="FNanchor_681_681" id="FNanchor_681_681"></a><a href="#Footnote_681_681" class="fnanchor">[681]</a> In 1831 there was exhumed in Fall River, -Mass., a skeleton, which had with it what seemed -to be an ornamental belt made of metal tubes, -formed by rolling fragments of flat brass and an -oblong plate of the same metal,—not of bronze, -as is usually said,—with some arrow-heads, cut -evidently from the same material. The other -concomitants of the burial indicated an Indian -of the days since the English contact. The skeleton -attracted notice in this country by being -connected with the Norsemen in Longfellow’s -ballad, <i>The Skeleton in Armor</i>, and Dr. Webb -sent such an account of it to the Royal Society -of Northern Antiquaries that it was looked upon -as another and distinct proof of the identification -of Vinland. Later antiquaries have dismissed -all beliefs of that nature.<a name="FNanchor_682_682" id="FNanchor_682_682"></a><a href="#Footnote_682_682" class="fnanchor">[682]</a></p> - -<p>There is not a single item of all the evidence -thus advanced from time to time which can be -said to connect by archæological traces the -presence of the Northmen on the soil of North -America south of Davis’ Straits. Arguments -of this kind have been abandoned except by a -few enthusiastic advocates.</p> - -<p class="p2">That the Northmen voyaging to Vinland encountered -natives, and that they were called -Skraelings, may be taken as a sufficiently broad -statement in the sagas to be classed with those -concomitants of the voyages which it is reasonable -to accept. Sir William Dawson (<i>Fossil -Men</i>, 49) finds it easy to believe that these natives -were our red Indians; and Gallatin saw -no reason to dissociate the Eskimos with other -American tribes.<a name="FNanchor_683_683" id="FNanchor_683_683"></a><a href="#Footnote_683_683" class="fnanchor">[683]</a> That they were Eskimos -seems to be the more commonly accepted -view.<a name="FNanchor_684_684" id="FNanchor_684_684"></a><a href="#Footnote_684_684" class="fnanchor">[684]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span></p> - -<p>That the climate of the Atlantic coast of the -United States and the British provinces was -such as was favorable to the present Arctic -dwellers is held to be shown by such evidences -as tusks of the walrus found in phosphate beds -in South Carolina. Rude implements found in -the interglacial Jersey drift have been held by -C. C. Abbott to have been associated with a -people of the Eskimo stock, and some have -noted that palæolithic implements found in -Pennsylvania closely resemble the work of the -modern Eskimos (<i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, i. 10).<a name="FNanchor_685_685" id="FNanchor_685_685"></a><a href="#Footnote_685_685" class="fnanchor">[685]</a> -Dall remarks upon implements of Innuit origin -being found four hundred miles south of the -present range of the Eskimos of the northwest -coast (<i>Contributions to Amer. Ethnology</i>, i. p. 98). -Charlevoix says that Eskimos were occasionally -seen in Newfoundland in the beginning of the -last century; and ethnologists recognize to-day -the same stock in the Eskimos of Labrador and -Greenland.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-156.jpg" width="400" height="472" id="i106" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">HINRIK RINK.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a likeness given by Nordenskjöld in his <i>Exped. till Grönland</i>, p. 121.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The best authority on the Eskimos is generally -held to be Hinrich Rink, and he contends that -they formerly occupied the interior of the continent, -and have been pressed north and across -Behring’s Straits.<a name="FNanchor_686_686" id="FNanchor_686_686"></a><a href="#Footnote_686_686" class="fnanchor">[686]</a> W. H. Dall holds similar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> -views.<a name="FNanchor_687_687" id="FNanchor_687_687"></a><a href="#Footnote_687_687" class="fnanchor">[687]</a> C. R. Markham, who dates their first -appearance in Greenland in 1349, contends, on -the other hand, that they came from the west -(Siberia) along the polar regions (Wrangell -Land), and drove out the Norse settlers in Greenland.<a name="FNanchor_688_688" id="FNanchor_688_688"></a><a href="#Footnote_688_688" class="fnanchor">[688]</a> -The most active of the later students of -the Eskimos is Dr. Franz Boas, now of New -York, who has discussed their tribal boundaries.<a name="FNanchor_689_689" id="FNanchor_689_689"></a><a href="#Footnote_689_689" class="fnanchor">[689]</a></p> - -<p class="p1"><b><a name="n107" id="n107">F.</a></b> <span class="smcap">The Lost Greenland Colonies.</span>—After -intercourse with the colonies in Greenland -ceased, and definite tradition in Iceland had died -out, and when the question of the re-discovery -should arise, it was natural that attention -should first be turned to that coast of Greenland -which lay opposite Iceland as the likelier -sites of the lost colonies, and in this way we find -all the settlements placed in the maps of the -sixteenth century. The Archbishop Erik Walkendorf, -of Lund, in the early part of that century -had failed to persuade the Danish government -to send an expedition. King Frederick II -was induced, however, to send one in 1568; but -it accomplished nothing; and again in 1579 he -put another in command of an Englishman, -Jacob Allday, but the ice prevented his landing. -A Danish navigator was more successful in -1581; but the coast opposite Iceland yielded as -yet no traces of the Norse settlers. Frobisher’s -discovery of the west coast seems to have failed -of recognition among the Danes; but they with -the rest of Europe did not escape noting the importance -of the explorations of John Davis in -1585-86, through the straits which bear his name. -It now became the belief that the west settlement -must be beyond Cape Farewell. In 1605, -Christian IV of Denmark sent a new expedition -under Godske Lindenow; but there was -a Scotchman in command of one of the three -ships, and Jacob Hall, who had probably served -under Davis, went as the fleet pilot. He guided -the vessels through Davis’s Straits. But it was -rather the purpose of Lindenow to find a northwest -passage than to discover a lost colony; -and such was mainly the object which impelled -him again in 1606, and inspired Karsten Rikardsen -in 1607. Now and for some years to come -we have the records of voyages made by the -whalers to this region, and we read their narratives -in Purchas and in such collections of voyages -as those of Harris and Churchill.<a name="FNanchor_690_690" id="FNanchor_690_690"></a><a href="#Footnote_690_690" class="fnanchor">[690]</a> They -yield us, however, little or no help in the problem -we are discussing. In 1670 and 1671 Christian -V sent expeditions with the express purpose -of discovering the lost colonies; but Otto Axelsen, -who commanded, never returned from his -second voyage, and we have no account of his -first.</p> - -<p>The mission of the priest Hans Egede gave -the first real glimmer of light.<a name="FNanchor_691_691" id="FNanchor_691_691"></a><a href="#Footnote_691_691" class="fnanchor">[691]</a> He was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> -earliest to describe the ruins and relics observable -on the west coast, but he continued to regard -the east settlements as belonging to the -east coast, and so placed them on the map. -Anderson (Hamburg, 1746) went so far as to -place on his map the cathedral of Gardar in a -fixed location on the east coast, and his map -was variously copied in the following years.</p> - -<p>In 1786 an expedition left Copenhagen to explore -the east coast for traces of the colonies, -but the ice prevented the approach to the coast, -and after attempts in that year and in 1787 the -effort was abandoned. Heinrich Peter von Eggers, -in his <i>Om Grönlands österbygds sande Beliggenhed</i> -(1792), and <i>Ueber die wahre Lage des -alten Ostgrönlands</i> (Kiel, 1794), a German translation, -first advanced the opinion that the eastern -colony as well as the western must have -been on the west coast, and his views were -generally accepted; but Wormskjöld in the -<i>Skandinavisk Litteraturselskab’s Skrifter</i>, vol. x. -(Copenhagen, 1814), still adhered to the earlier -opinions, and Saabye still believed it possible to -reach the east coast.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-158.jpg" width="400" height="495" id="i108" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">REDUCED FAC-SIMILE.</p> - <p class="pf400">[Harvard College Library copy.]</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p> - -<p>Some years later (1828-31) W. A. Graah made, -by order of the king of Denmark, a thorough -examination of the east coast, and in his <i>Undersögelses -Reise til Ostkysten af Grönland</i> (Copenhagen, -1832)<a name="FNanchor_692_692" id="FNanchor_692_692"></a><a href="#Footnote_692_692" class="fnanchor">[692]</a> he was generally thought to establish -the great improbability of any traces of a -colony ever existing on that coast. Of late years -Graah’s conclusions have been questioned, for -there have been some sites of buildings discovered -on the east side.<a name="FNanchor_693_693" id="FNanchor_693_693"></a><a href="#Footnote_693_693" class="fnanchor">[693]</a> The Reverend J. Brodbeck, -a missionary, described some in <i>The Moravian -Quarterly</i>, July and Aug., 1882. Nordenskjöld -has held that when the east coast is explored -from 65° to 69°, there is a chance of discovering -the site of an east colony.<a name="FNanchor_694_694" id="FNanchor_694_694"></a><a href="#Footnote_694_694" class="fnanchor">[694]</a></p> - -<p>R. H. Major, in a paper (<i>Journal Roy. Geog. -Soc.</i>, 1873, p. 184) on the site of the lost colony, -questioned Graah’s conclusions, and gave a -sketch map, in which he placed its site near Cape -Farewell; and he based his geographical data -largely upon the chorography of Greenland and -the sailing directions of Ivan Bardsen, who was -probably an Icelander living in Greenland some -time in the fifteenth century.<a name="FNanchor_695_695" id="FNanchor_695_695"></a><a href="#Footnote_695_695" class="fnanchor">[695]</a></p> - -<p class="p1"><b><a name="n109" id="n109">G.</a></b> <span class="smcap">Madoc and the Welsh.</span>—Respecting -the legends of Madoc, there are reports, which -Humboldt (<i>Cosmos</i>, Bohn, ii. 610) failed to verify, -of Welsh bards rehearsing the story before -1492,<a name="FNanchor_696_696" id="FNanchor_696_696"></a><a href="#Footnote_696_696" class="fnanchor">[696]</a> and of statements in the early Welsh -annals. The original printed source is in Humfrey -Lloyd’s <i>History of Cambria, now called -Wales, written in the British language</i> [by Caradoc] -<i>about 200 years past</i> (London, 1584).<a name="FNanchor_697_697" id="FNanchor_697_697"></a><a href="#Footnote_697_697" class="fnanchor">[697]</a> -The book contained corrections and additions -by David Powell, and it was in these that the -passages of importance were found, and the -supposition was that the land visited lay near -the Gulf of Mexico. Richard Hakluyt, in his -<i>Principall Navigations</i>, took the story from -Powell, and connected the discovery with Mexico -in his edition of 1589, and with the West -Indies in that of 1600 (iii. p. 1),—and there was -not an entire absence of the suspicion that it -was worth while to establish some sort of a -British claim to antedate the Spanish one established -through Columbus.<a name="FNanchor_698_698" id="FNanchor_698_698"></a><a href="#Footnote_698_698" class="fnanchor">[698]</a></p> - -<p>The linguistic evidences were not brought -into prominence till after one Morgan Jones had -fallen among the Tuscaroras<a name="FNanchor_699_699" id="FNanchor_699_699"></a><a href="#Footnote_699_699" class="fnanchor">[699]</a> in 1660, and -found, as he asserted, that they could understand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> -his Welsh. He wrote a statement of his -experience in 1685-6, which was not printed till -1740.<a name="FNanchor_700_700" id="FNanchor_700_700"></a><a href="#Footnote_700_700" class="fnanchor">[700]</a></p> - -<p>During the eighteenth century we find Campanius -in his <i>Nye Swerige</i> (1702) repeating the -story; Torfæus (<i>Hist. Vinlandiæ</i>, 1705) not rejecting -it; Carte (<i>England</i>, 1747) thinking it -probable; while Campbell (<i>Admirals</i>, 1742), -Lyttleton (<i>Henry the Second</i>, 1767), and Robertson -(<i>America</i>, 1777) thought there was no -ground, at least, for connecting the story with -America.</p> - -<p>It was reported that in 1764 a man, Griffeth, -was taken by the Shawnees to a tribe of Indians -who spoke Welsh.<a name="FNanchor_701_701" id="FNanchor_701_701"></a><a href="#Footnote_701_701" class="fnanchor">[701]</a> In 1768, Charles Beatty -published his <i>Journal of a two months’ Tour in -America</i> (London), in which he repeated information -of Indians speaking Welsh in Pennsylvania -and beyond the Mississippi, and of the -finding of a Welsh Bible among them.</p> - -<p>In 1772-73, David Jones wandered among the -tribes west of the Ohio, and in 1774, at Burlington, -published his <i>Journal of two visits</i>, in which -he enumerates the correspondence of words -which he found in their tongues with his native -Welsh.<a name="FNanchor_702_702" id="FNanchor_702_702"></a><a href="#Footnote_702_702" class="fnanchor">[702]</a></p> - -<p>Without noting other casual mentions, some -of which will be found in Paul Barron Watson’s -bibliography (in Anderson’s <i>America not -discovered by Columbus</i>, p. 142), it is enough -to say that towards the end of the century the -papers of John Williams<a name="FNanchor_703_703" id="FNanchor_703_703"></a><a href="#Footnote_703_703" class="fnanchor">[703]</a> and George Burder<a name="FNanchor_704_704" id="FNanchor_704_704"></a><a href="#Footnote_704_704" class="fnanchor">[704]</a> -gave more special examination to the subject -than had been applied before.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-160.jpg" width="400" height="265" id="i110" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">A BRITISH SHIP.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a cut in <i>The Mirror of Literature</i>, etc. (London, 1823), vol. i. p. 177, showing a vessel then recently -exhumed in Kent, and supposed to be of the time of Edward I, or the thirteenth century. The vessel was -sixty-four feet long.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The renewed interest in the matter seems to -have prompted Southey to the writing of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> -poem <i>Madoc</i>, though he refrained from publishing -it for some years. If one may judge from -his introductory note, Southey held to the historical -basis of the narrative. Meanwhile, reports -were published of this and the other tribes -being found speaking Welsh.<a name="FNanchor_705_705" id="FNanchor_705_705"></a><a href="#Footnote_705_705" class="fnanchor">[705]</a> In 1816, Henry -Kerr printed at Elizabethtown, New Jersey, his -<i>Travels through the Western interior of the -United States, 1808-16, with some account of a -tribe whose customs are similar to those of the -ancient Welsh</i>. In 1824, Yates and Moulton -(<i>State of New York</i>) went over the ground -rather fully, but without conviction. Hugh -Murray (<i>Travels in North America</i>, London, -1829) believes the Welsh went to Spain. In -1834, the different sides of the case were discussed -by Farcy and Warden in Dupaix’s <i>Antiquités -Méxicaines</i>. Some years later the publication -of George Catlin<a name="FNanchor_706_706" id="FNanchor_706_706"></a><a href="#Footnote_706_706" class="fnanchor">[706]</a> probably gave more -conviction than had been before felt,<a name="FNanchor_707_707" id="FNanchor_707_707"></a><a href="#Footnote_707_707" class="fnanchor">[707]</a> arising -from his statements of positive linguistic correspondences -in the language of the so-called -White<a name="FNanchor_708_708" id="FNanchor_708_708"></a><a href="#Footnote_708_708" class="fnanchor">[708]</a> Mandans<a name="FNanchor_709_709" id="FNanchor_709_709"></a><a href="#Footnote_709_709" class="fnanchor">[709]</a> on the Missouri River, the -similarity of their boats to the old Welsh coracles, -and other parallelisms of custom. He believed -that Madoc landed at Florida, or perhaps -passed up the Mississippi River. His conclusions -were a reinforcement of those reached by Williams.<a name="FNanchor_710_710" id="FNanchor_710_710"></a><a href="#Footnote_710_710" class="fnanchor">[710]</a> -The opinion reached by Major in his -edition of <i>Columbus’ Letters</i> (London, 1847) -that the Welsh discovery was quite possible, -while it was by no means probable, is with little -doubt the view most generally accepted to-day; -while the most that can be made out of the -claim is presented with the latest survey in B. -F. Bowen’s <i>America discovered by the Welsh -in 1170</i> <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> (Philad., 1876). He gathers up, -as helping his proposition, such widely scattered -evidences as the Lake Superior copper mines -and the Newport tower, both of which he appropriates; -and while following the discoverers -from New England south and west, he does not -hesitate to point out the resemblance of the -Ohio Valley mounds<a name="FNanchor_711_711" id="FNanchor_711_711"></a><a href="#Footnote_711_711" class="fnanchor">[711]</a> to those depicted in Pennant’s -<i>Tour of Wales</i>; and he even is at no loss -for proofs among the relics of the Aztecs.<a name="FNanchor_712_712" id="FNanchor_712_712"></a><a href="#Footnote_712_712" class="fnanchor">[712]</a></p> - -<p class="p1"><b><a name="n111" id="n111">H.</a></b> <span class="smcap">The Zeni and their Map.</span>—Something -has been said elsewhere (Vol. III. p. 100) -of the influence of the Zeni narrative and its -map, in confusing Frobisher in his voyages. -The map was reproduced in the Ptolemy of -1561, with an account of the adventures of the -brothers, but it was so far altered as to dissever -Greenland from Norway, of which the Zeni -map had made it but an extension.<a name="FNanchor_713_713" id="FNanchor_713_713"></a><a href="#Footnote_713_713" class="fnanchor">[713]</a></p> - -<p>The story got further currency in Ramusio -(1574, vol. ii.), Ortelius (1575), Hakluyt (1600, -vol. iii.), Megiser’s <i>Septentrio Novantiquus</i> (1613), -Purchas (1625), Pontanus’ <i>Rerum Danicarum</i> -(1631), Luke Fox’s <i>North-West Fox</i> (1633), and -in De Laet’s Notæ (1644), who, as well as Hornius, -<i>De Originibus Americanis</i> (1644), thinks -the story suspicious. It was repeated by Montanus -in 1671, and by Capel, <i>Vorstellungen des -Norden</i>, in 1676. Some of the features of the -map had likewise become pretty constant in the -attendant cartographical records. But from -the close of the seventeenth century for about a -hundred years, the story was for the most part -ignored, and it was not till 1784 that the interest -in it was revived by the publications of Forster<a name="FNanchor_714_714" id="FNanchor_714_714"></a><a href="#Footnote_714_714" class="fnanchor">[714]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> -and Buache,<a name="FNanchor_715_715" id="FNanchor_715_715"></a><a href="#Footnote_715_715" class="fnanchor">[715]</a> who each expressed their belief in -the story.</p> - -<p>A more important inquiry in behalf of the -narrative took place at Venice in 1808, when -Cardinal Zurla republished the map in an essay, -and marked out the track of the Zeni on a -modern chart.<a name="FNanchor_716_716" id="FNanchor_716_716"></a><a href="#Footnote_716_716" class="fnanchor">[716]</a></p> - -<p>In 1810, Malte-Brun accorded his belief in -the verity of the narrative, and was inclined to -believe that the Latin books found in Estotiland -were carried there by colonists from Greenland.<a name="FNanchor_717_717" id="FNanchor_717_717"></a><a href="#Footnote_717_717" class="fnanchor">[717]</a> -A reactionary view was taken by Biddle -in his <i>Sebastian Cabot</i>, in 1831, who believed the -publication of 1558 a fraud; but the most effective -denial of its authenticity came a few years -later in sundry essays by Zahrtmann.<a name="FNanchor_718_718" id="FNanchor_718_718"></a><a href="#Footnote_718_718" class="fnanchor">[718]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-162.jpg" width="400" height="490" id="i112" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">RICHARD H. MAJOR.</p> - <p class="pf400">[After a photograph kindly furnished by himself at the editor’s request.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The story got a strong advocate, after nearly -forty years of comparative rest, when R. H. -Major, of the map department of the British -Museum, gave it an English dress and annexed -a commentary, all of which was published by -the Hakluyt Society in 1873. In this critic’s -view, the good parts of the map are of the fourteenth -century, gathered on the spot, while the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> -false parts arose from the misapprehensions of -the young Zeno, who put together the book of -1558.<a name="FNanchor_719_719" id="FNanchor_719_719"></a><a href="#Footnote_719_719" class="fnanchor">[719]</a> The method of this later Zeno was -in the same year (1873) held by Professor Konrad -Maurer to be hardly removed from a fraudulent -compilation of other existing material. -There has been a marked display of learning, of -late years, in some of the discussions.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-163.jpg" width="400" height="497" id="i113" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">BARON NORDENSKJÖLD.</p> - <p class="pf400">[From a recent photograph. There is another engraved likeness in the second volume of his <i>Vega</i>.]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Cornelio -Desimoni, the archivist of Genoa, has -printed two elaborate papers.<a name="FNanchor_720_720" id="FNanchor_720_720"></a><a href="#Footnote_720_720" class="fnanchor">[720]</a> The Danish -archivist Frederik Krarup published (1878) a -sceptical paper in the <i>Geografisk Tidsskrift</i> (ii.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> -145).<a name="FNanchor_721_721" id="FNanchor_721_721"></a><a href="#Footnote_721_721" class="fnanchor">[721]</a> The most exhaustive examination, however, -has come from a practical navigator, the -Baron A. E. Nordenskjöld, who in working up -the results of his own Arctic explorations was -easily led into the intricacies of the Zeno controversy. -The results which he reaches are that -the Zeni narratives are substantially true; that -there was no published material in 1558 which -could have furnished so nearly an accurate account -of the actual condition of those northern -waters; that the map which Zahrtmann saw in -the University library at Copenhagen, and -which he represented to be an original from -which the young Zeno of 1558 made his pretended -original, was in reality nothing but the -Donis map in the Ptolemy of 1482, while the Zeno -map is much more like the map of the north -made by Claudius Clavis in 1427, which was -discovered by Nordenskjöld in a codex of Ptolemy -at Nancy.<a name="FNanchor_722_722" id="FNanchor_722_722"></a><a href="#Footnote_722_722" class="fnanchor">[722]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">Since Nordenskjöld advanced his views there -have been two other examinations: the one by -Professor Japetus Steenstrup of Copenhagen,<a name="FNanchor_723_723" id="FNanchor_723_723"></a><a href="#Footnote_723_723" class="fnanchor">[723]</a> -and the other by the secretary of the Danish -Geographical Society, Professor Ed. Erslef, who -offered some new illustrations in his <i>Nye Oplysninger -om Broedrene Zenis Rejser</i> (Copenhagen, -1885).<a name="FNanchor_724_724" id="FNanchor_724_724"></a><a href="#Footnote_724_724" class="fnanchor">[724]</a></p> - -<p>Among those who accept the narratives there -is no general agreement in identifying the principal -geographical points of the Zeno map. The -main dispute is upon Frislanda, the island where -the Zeni were wrecked. That it was Iceland -has been maintained by Admiral Irminger,<a name="FNanchor_725_725" id="FNanchor_725_725"></a><a href="#Footnote_725_725" class="fnanchor">[725]</a> and -Steenstrup (who finds, however, the text not to -agree with the map), while the map accompanying -the <i>Studi biografici e bibliografici sulla storia -della geografia in Italia</i> (Rome, 1882) traces the -route of the Zeni from Iceland to Greenland, -under 70° of latitude.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, Major has contended for -the Faröe islands, arguing that while the engraved -Zeno map shows a single large island, it -might have been an archipelago in the original, -with outlines run together by the obscurities of -its dilapidation, and that the Faröes by their -preserved names and by their position correspond -best with the Frislanda of the Zeni.<a name="FNanchor_726_726" id="FNanchor_726_726"></a><a href="#Footnote_726_726" class="fnanchor">[726]</a> Major’s -views have been adopted by most later writers, -perhaps, and a similar identification had earlier -been made by Lelewel,<a name="FNanchor_727_727" id="FNanchor_727_727"></a><a href="#Footnote_727_727" class="fnanchor">[727]</a> Kohl,<a name="FNanchor_728_728" id="FNanchor_728_728"></a><a href="#Footnote_728_728" class="fnanchor">[728]</a> and others.</p> - -<p>The identification of Estotiland involves the -question if the returned fisherman of the narrative -ever reached America. It is not uncommon -for even believers in the story to deny -that Estotiland and Drogeo were America. -That they were parts of the New World was,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> -however, the apparent belief of Mercator and of -many of the cartographers following the publication -of 1558, and of such speculators as Hugo -Grotius, but there was little common consent -in their exact position.<a name="FNanchor_729_729" id="FNanchor_729_729"></a><a href="#Footnote_729_729" class="fnanchor">[729]</a></p> - -<p class="p1"><b><a name="n115" id="n115">I.</a></b> <span class="smcap">Alleged Jewish Migration.</span>—The -identification of the native Americans with the -stock of the lost tribes of Israel very soon became -a favorite theory with the early Spanish -priests settled in America. Las Casas and -Duran adopted it, while Torquemada and -Acosta rejected it. André Thevet, of mendacious -memory, did not help the theory by espousing -it. It was approved in J. F. Lumnius’s <i>De -extremo Dei Judicio et Indorum vocatione, libri -iii.</i> (Venice and Antwerp, 1569);<a name="FNanchor_730_730" id="FNanchor_730_730"></a><a href="#Footnote_730_730" class="fnanchor">[730]</a> and a century -later the belief attracted new attention in the -<i>Origen de los Americanos de Manasseh Ben Israel</i>, -published at Amsterdam in 1650.<a name="FNanchor_731_731" id="FNanchor_731_731"></a><a href="#Footnote_731_731" class="fnanchor">[731]</a> It was -in the same year (1650) that the question received -the first public discussion in English in -Thomas Thorowgood’s <i>Jewes in America, or, -Probabilities that the Americans are of that Race. -With the removall of some contrary reasonings, -and earnest desires for effectuall endeavours to -make them Christian</i> (London, 1650).<a name="FNanchor_732_732" id="FNanchor_732_732"></a><a href="#Footnote_732_732" class="fnanchor">[732]</a> Thorowgood -was answered by Sir Hamon L’Estrange -in <i>Americans no Iewes, or Improbabilities that -the Americans are of that race</i> (London, 1652). -The views of Thorowgood found sympathy with -the Apostle Eliot of Massachusetts; and when -Thorowgood replied to L’Estrange he joined -with it an essay by Eliot, and the joint work was -entitled <i>Iewes in America, or probabilities that -those Indians are Judaical, made more probable -by some additionals to the former conjectures: an -accurate discourse is premised of Mr. John Eliot -(who preached the gospel to the natives in their -own language) touching their origination, and -his Vindication of the planters</i> (London, 1660). -What seems to have been a sort of supplement, -covering, however, in part, the same ground, appeared -as <i>Vindiciæ Judæcorum, or a true account -of the Jews, being more accurately illustrated than -heretofore</i>, which includes what is called “The -learned conjectures of Rev. Mr. John Eliot” (32 -pp.). Some of the leading New England divines, -like Mayhew and Mather,<a name="FNanchor_733_733" id="FNanchor_733_733"></a><a href="#Footnote_733_733" class="fnanchor">[733]</a> espoused the cause -with similar faith. Roger Williams also was of -the same opinion. William Penn is said to -have held like views. The belief may be said to -have been general, and had not died out in New -England when Samuel Sewall, in 1697, published -his <i>Phænomena quædam Apocalyptica ad aspectum -Novi Orbis Configurata</i>.<a name="FNanchor_734_734" id="FNanchor_734_734"></a><a href="#Footnote_734_734" class="fnanchor">[734]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span></p> - -<p>After the middle of the last century we begin -to find new signs of the belief. Charles Beatty, -in his <i>Journal of a two months’ tour with a view -of promoting religion among the frontier inhabitants -of Pennsylvania</i> (Lond., 1768), finds traces -of the lost tribes among the Delawares, and repeats -a story of the Indians long ago selling the -same sacred book to the whites with which the -missionaries in the end aimed to make them acquainted. -Gerard de Brahm and Richard Peters, -both familiar with the Southern Indians, found -grounds for accepting the belief. The most -elaborate statement drawn from this region is -that of James Adair, who for forty years had -been a trader among the Southern Indians.<a name="FNanchor_735_735" id="FNanchor_735_735"></a><a href="#Footnote_735_735" class="fnanchor">[735]</a> -Jonathan Edwards in 1788 pointed out in the -Hebrew some analogies to the native speech.<a name="FNanchor_736_736" id="FNanchor_736_736"></a><a href="#Footnote_736_736" class="fnanchor">[736]</a> -Charles Crawford in 1799 undertook the proof.<a name="FNanchor_737_737" id="FNanchor_737_737"></a><a href="#Footnote_737_737" class="fnanchor">[737]</a> -In 1816 Elias Boudinot, a man eminent in his -day, contributed further arguments.<a name="FNanchor_738_738" id="FNanchor_738_738"></a><a href="#Footnote_738_738" class="fnanchor">[738]</a> Ethan -Smith based his advocacy largely on the linguistic -elements.<a name="FNanchor_739_739" id="FNanchor_739_739"></a><a href="#Footnote_739_739" class="fnanchor">[739]</a> A few years later an Englishman, -Israel Worsley, worked over the material -gathered by Boudinot and Smith, and added -something.<a name="FNanchor_740_740" id="FNanchor_740_740"></a><a href="#Footnote_740_740" class="fnanchor">[740]</a> A prominent American Jew, M. -M. Noah, published in 1837 an address on the -subject which hardly added to the weight of -testimony.<a name="FNanchor_741_741" id="FNanchor_741_741"></a><a href="#Footnote_741_741" class="fnanchor">[741]</a> J. B. Finlay, a mulatto missionary -among the Wyandots, was satisfied with the -Hebrew traces which he observed in that tribe.<a name="FNanchor_742_742" id="FNanchor_742_742"></a><a href="#Footnote_742_742" class="fnanchor">[742]</a> -Geo. Catlin, working also among the Western -Indians, while he could not go to the length of -believing in the lost tribes, was struck with the -many analogies which he saw.<a name="FNanchor_743_743" id="FNanchor_743_743"></a><a href="#Footnote_743_743" class="fnanchor">[743]</a> The most elaborate -of all expositions of the belief was made -by Lord Kingsborough in his <i>Mexican Antiquities</i> -(1830-48).<a name="FNanchor_744_744" id="FNanchor_744_744"></a><a href="#Footnote_744_744" class="fnanchor">[744]</a> Since this book there has been -no pressing of the question with any claims to -consideration.<a name="FNanchor_745_745" id="FNanchor_745_745"></a><a href="#Footnote_745_745" class="fnanchor">[745]</a></p> - -<p class="p1"><b><a name="n116" id="n116">J.</a></b> <span class="smcap">Possible Early African Migrations.</span>—These -may have been by adventure or by -helpless drifting, with or without the Canaries -as a halting-place. The primitive people of the -Canaries, the Guanches, are studied in Sabin -Berthelot’s <i>Antiquités Canariennes</i> (Paris, 1879) -and A. F. de Fontpertuis’ <i>L’archipel des Canaries, -et ses populations primitives</i>, also in the <i>Revue -de Géographie</i>, June, 1882, not to mention earlier -histories of the Canary Islands (see Vol. II.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> -p. 36). Retzius of Stockholm traces resemblances -in the skulls of the Guanches and the -Caribs (<i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, 1859, p. 266). Le -Plongeon finds the sandals of the statue Chac-mool, -discovered by him in Yucatan, to resemble -those of the Guanches (Salisbury’s <i>Le Plongeon -in Yucatan</i>, 57).</p> - -<p>The African and even Egyptian origin of the -Caribs has had some special advocates.<a name="FNanchor_746_746" id="FNanchor_746_746"></a><a href="#Footnote_746_746" class="fnanchor">[746]</a> Peter -Martyr, and Grotius following him, contended -for the people of Yucatan being Ethiopian -Christians. Stories of blackamoors being found -by the early Spaniards are not without corroboration.<a name="FNanchor_747_747" id="FNanchor_747_747"></a><a href="#Footnote_747_747" class="fnanchor">[747]</a> -The correspondence of the African and -South American flora has been brought into -requisition as confirmatory.<a name="FNanchor_748_748" id="FNanchor_748_748"></a><a href="#Footnote_748_748" class="fnanchor">[748]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/d2.jpg" width="200" height="63" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<h3 class="p2"><a name="c117" id="c117">THE CARTOGRAPHY OF GREENLAND.</a></h3> - -<p>The oldest map yet discovered to show any part of Greenland, and consequently of America,<a name="FNanchor_749_749" id="FNanchor_749_749"></a><a href="#Footnote_749_749" class="fnanchor">[749]</a> is one found -by Baron Nordenskjöld attached to a Ptolemy Codex in the Stadtbibliothek at Nancy. He presented a colored -fac-simile of it in 1883 at the Copenhagen Congrès des Américanistes, in his little brochure <i>Trois Cartes</i>. It -was also used in illustration of his paper on the Zeni Voyages, published both in Swedish and German. -It will be seen by the fac-simile given herewith, and marked with the author’s name, Claudius Clavus, that -“Gronlandia Provincia” is an extension of a great arctic region, so as to lie over against the Scandinavian -peninsula of Europe, with “Islandia,” or Iceland, midway between the two lands. Up to the time of this -discovery by Nordenskjöld, the map generally recognized as the oldest to show Greenland is a Genovese portolano, -preserved in the Pitti Palace at Florence, about which there is some doubt as to its date, which is said -to be 1417 by Santarem (<i>Hist. de la Cartog.</i>, iii., p. xix), but Lelewel (<i>Epilogue</i>, p. 167) is held to be trustier -in giving it as 1447.<a name="FNanchor_750_750" id="FNanchor_750_750"></a><a href="#Footnote_750_750" class="fnanchor">[750]</a> It shows how little influence the Norse stories of their Greenland colonization exerted -at this time on the cartography of the north, that few of the map-makers deemed it worth while to break the -usual terminal circle of the world by including anything west or beyond Iceland. It was, further, not easy to -convince them that Greenland, when they gave it, lay in the direction which the Sagas indicated. The map of -Fra Mauro, for instance, in 1459 cuts off a part of Iceland by its incorrigible terminal circle, as will be seen -in a bit of it given herewith, the reader remembering as he looks at it that the bottom of the segment is to the -north.<a name="FNanchor_751_751" id="FNanchor_751_751"></a><a href="#Footnote_751_751" class="fnanchor">[751]</a> We again owe to Nordenskjöld the discovery of another map of the north, <i>Tabula Regionum Septentrionalium</i>, -which he found in a Codex of Ptolemy in Warsaw a few years since, and which he places about -1467. The accompanying partial sketch is reproduced from a fac-simile kindly furnished by the discoverer. -The peninsula of “Gronlandia,” with its indicated glaciers, is placed with tolerable accuracy as the western -extremity of an arctic region, which to the north of Europe is separated from the Scandinavian peninsula by a -channel from the “Mare Gotticum” (Baltic Sea), which sweeps above Norway into the “Mare Congelatum.” -The confused notions arising from an attempt by the compiler of the map to harmonize different drafts is -shown by his drawing a second Greenland (“Engronelant”) to his “Norbegia,” or Norway, and placing just<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> -under it the “Thile”<a name="FNanchor_752_752" id="FNanchor_752_752"></a><a href="#Footnote_752_752" class="fnanchor">[752]</a> of the ancients, which he makes a different island from “Islandia,” placed in proper -relations to his larger Greenland.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-168.jpg" width="400" height="500" id="i118" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">CLAUDIUS CLAVUS, 1427.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>A few years later, or perhaps about the same time, and before 1471, the earliest engraved map which shows -Greenland is that of Nicolas Donis, in the Ulm edition of Ptolemy in 1482. It will be seen from the little -sketch which is annexed that the same doubling of Greenland is adhered to.<a name="FNanchor_753_753" id="FNanchor_753_753"></a><a href="#Footnote_753_753" class="fnanchor">[753]</a> With the usual perversion put<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> -upon the Norse stories, Iceland is made to lie due west of Greenland, though not shown in the present -sketch.</p> - -<p>At a date not much later, say 1486, it is supposed the Laon globe, dated in 1493, was actually made, or at -least it is shown that in some parts the knowledge was rather of the earlier date, and here we have “Grolandia,” -a small island off the Norway coast.<a name="FNanchor_754_754" id="FNanchor_754_754"></a><a href="#Footnote_754_754" class="fnanchor">[754]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-169.jpg" width="400" height="494" id="i119" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">CLAUDIUS CLAVUS, 1427.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>We have in 1489-90 a type of configuration, which later became prevalent. It is taken from an <i>Insularium -illustratum Henrici Martelli Germani</i>, a manuscript preserved in the British Museum, and shows, as seen by -the annexed extract, a long narrow peninsula, running southwest from the northern verge of Europe. A sketch -of the whole map is given elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_755_755" id="FNanchor_755_755"></a><a href="#Footnote_755_755" class="fnanchor">[755]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p> - -<p>This seems to have been the prevailing notion of what and where Greenland was at the time of Columbus’ -voyage, and it could have carried no significance to his mind that the explorations of the Norse had found the -Asiatic main, which he started to discover. How far this notion was departed from by Behaim in his globe -of 1492 depends upon the interpretation to be given to a group of islands, northwest of Iceland and northeast -of Asia, upon the larger of which he writes among its mountains, “Hi man weise Volker.”<a name="FNanchor_756_756" id="FNanchor_756_756"></a><a href="#Footnote_756_756" class="fnanchor">[756]</a></p> - -<p>As this sketch of the cartographical development goes on, it will be seen how slow the map-makers were to -perceive the real significance of the Norse discoveries, and how reluctant they were to connect them with the -discoveries that followed in the train of Columbus, though occasionally there is one who is possessed with a sort -of prevision. The Cantino map of 1502<a name="FNanchor_757_757" id="FNanchor_757_757"></a><a href="#Footnote_757_757" class="fnanchor">[757]</a> does not settle the question, for a point lying northeast of the Portuguese -discoveries in the Newfoundland region only seems to be the southern extremity of Greenland. What -was apparently a working Portuguese chart of 1503 grasps pretty clearly the relations of Greenland to -Labrador.<a name="FNanchor_758_758" id="FNanchor_758_758"></a><a href="#Footnote_758_758" class="fnanchor">[758]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-170.jpg" width="400" height="358" id="i120" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">FRA MAURO, 1459.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Lelewel (pl. 43), in a map made to show the Portuguese views at this time,<a name="FNanchor_759_759" id="FNanchor_759_759"></a><a href="#Footnote_759_759" class="fnanchor">[759]</a> which he represents by combining -and reconciling the Ptolemy maps of 1511 and 1513, still places the “Gronland” peninsula in the northwest -of Europe, and if his deductions are correct, the Portuguese had as yet reached no clear conception that the -Labrador coasts upon which they fished bore any close propinquity to those which the Norse had colonized. -Ruysch, in 1508, made a bold stroke by putting “Gruenlant” down as a peninsula of Northeastern Asia, -thus trying to reconcile the discoveries of Columbus with the northern sagas.<a name="FNanchor_760_760" id="FNanchor_760_760"></a><a href="#Footnote_760_760" class="fnanchor">[760]</a> This view was far from acceptable. -Sylvanus, in the Ptolemy of 1511, made “Engroneland” a small protuberance on the north shore of -Scandinavia, and east of Iceland, evidently choosing between the two theories instead of accepting both, as -was common, in ignorance of their complemental relations.<a name="FNanchor_761_761" id="FNanchor_761_761"></a><a href="#Footnote_761_761" class="fnanchor">[761]</a> Waldseemüller, in the Ptolemy of 1513, in his -“Orbis typus universalis,” reverted to and adopted the delineation of Henricus Martellus in 1490.<a name="FNanchor_762_762" id="FNanchor_762_762"></a><a href="#Footnote_762_762" class="fnanchor">[762]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-171.jpg" width="400" height="245" id="i121" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">TABULA REGIONUM SEPTENTRIONALIUM, 1467.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-172a.jpg" width="400" height="208" id="i122a" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">DONIS, 1482.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>In 1520, Apian, in the map in Camer’s <i>Solinus</i>, took the view of Sylvanus, while still another representation -was given by Laurentius Frisius in 1522, in an edition of Ptolemy,<a name="FNanchor_763_763" id="FNanchor_763_763"></a><a href="#Footnote_763_763" class="fnanchor">[763]</a> in which “Gronland” becomes a large -island on the Norway coast, in one map called “Orbis typus Universalis,” while in another map, “Tabula -nova Norbegiæ et Gottiæ,” the “Engronelant” peninsula is a broad region, stretching from Northwestern -Europe.<a name="FNanchor_764_764" id="FNanchor_764_764"></a><a href="#Footnote_764_764" class="fnanchor">[764]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-172b.jpg" width="400" height="226" id="i122b" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">HENRICUS MARTELLUS, 1489-90.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>This Ptolemy was again issued in 1525, repeating these two methods of showing Greenland already -given, and adding a third,<a name="FNanchor_765_765" id="FNanchor_765_765"></a><a href="#Footnote_765_765" class="fnanchor">[765]</a> that of the long narrow European peninsula, already familiar in earlier maps—the -variety of choice indicating the prevalent cartographical indecision on the point.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-173.jpg" width="400" height="252" id="i123" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">OLAUS MAGNUS, 1539.</p> - <p class="pf400"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—This fac-simile accompanies a paper appearing in the <i>Videnskabsselskabs Forhandinger</i> -(1886, no. 15) <i>and separately as Die ächte karte des Olaus Magnus vom jahre 1539, nach dem exemplar der Münchener -Staatsbibliothek</i> (Christiania, 1886). In this Dr. Brenner traces the history of the great map of Archbishop Olaus -Magnus, pointing out how Nordenskjöld is in error in supposing the map of 1567, which that scholar gives, was but a -reproduction of the original edition of 1539, which was not known to modern students till Brenner found it in the library -at Munich, in March, 1886, and which proves to be twelve times larger than that of 1567. Brenner adds the long Latin -address, “Olaus Gothus benigno lectori salutem,” with annotations. The map is entitled “Carta Marina et descriptio -septentrionalium errarum ac mirabilium rerum in eis contentarum diligentissime elaborata, Anno Dni, 1539.” Brenner -institutes a close comparison between it and the Zeno chart.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Kohl, in his collection of maps,<a name="FNanchor_766_766" id="FNanchor_766_766"></a><a href="#Footnote_766_766" class="fnanchor">[766]</a> copies from what he calls the Atlas of Frisius, 1525, still another map -which apparently shows the southern extremity of Greenland, with “Terra Laboratoris,” an island just west -of it, and southwest of that a bit of coast marked “Terra Nova Conterati,” which may pass for Newfoundland -and the discoveries of Cortereal.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-174.jpg" width="300" height="461" id="i124" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc350">OLAUS MAGNUS, 1555.</p> - <p class="pf350">This map, here reproduced on a somewhat smaller scale, is called: <i>Regnorum Aquilonarum descriptio, hujus -Operis subiectum</i>.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span></p> - -<p>Thorne, the Englishman, in the map which he sent from Seville in 1527,<a name="FNanchor_767_767" id="FNanchor_767_767"></a><a href="#Footnote_767_767" class="fnanchor">[767]</a> seems to conform to the view which -made Greenland a European peninsula, which may also have been the opinion of Orontius Finæus in 1531.<a name="FNanchor_768_768" id="FNanchor_768_768"></a><a href="#Footnote_768_768" class="fnanchor">[768]</a> -A novel feature attaches to an Atlas, of about this date, preserved at Turin, in which an elongated Greenland -is made to stretch northerly.<a name="FNanchor_769_769" id="FNanchor_769_769"></a><a href="#Footnote_769_769" class="fnanchor">[769]</a> In 1532 we have the map in Ziegler’s <i>Schondia</i>, which more nearly resembles -the earliest map of all, that of Claudius Clavus, than any other.<a name="FNanchor_770_770" id="FNanchor_770_770"></a><a href="#Footnote_770_770" class="fnanchor">[770]</a> The 1538 cordiform map of Mercator -makes it a peninsula of an arctic region connected with Scandinavia.<a name="FNanchor_771_771" id="FNanchor_771_771"></a><a href="#Footnote_771_771" class="fnanchor">[771]</a> This map is known to me only -through a fac-simile of the copy given in the <i>Geografia</i> of Lafreri, published at Rome about 1560, with which -I am favored by Nordenskjöld in advance of its publication in his <i>Atlas</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-175.jpg" width="400" height="313" id="i125" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">FROM OLAUS MAGNUS’ HISTORIA, 1567.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The great <i>Historia</i> of Olaus Magnus, as for a long time the leading authority on the northern geography, -as well as on the Scandinavian chronicles, gives us some distinct rendering of this northern geographical -problem. It was only recently that his earliest map of 1539 has been brought to light, and a section of it is -here reproduced from a much reduced fac-simile kindly sent to the editor by Dr. Oscar Brenner of the university -at Munich. Nordenskjöld, in giving a full fac-simile of the Olaus Magnus map of 1567,<a name="FNanchor_772_772" id="FNanchor_772_772"></a><a href="#Footnote_772_772" class="fnanchor">[772]</a> of which a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> -fragment is herewith also given in fac-simile, says that it embodies the views of the northern geographers in -separating Greenland from Europe, which was in opposition to those of the geographers of the south of Europe, -who united Greenland to Scandinavia. Sebastian Münster in his 1540 edition of Ptolemy introduced a new confusion. -He preserved the European elongated peninsula, but called it “Islandia,” while to what stands for -Iceland is given the old classical name of Thyle.<a name="FNanchor_773_773" id="FNanchor_773_773"></a><a href="#Footnote_773_773" class="fnanchor">[773]</a> This confusion is repeated in his map of 1545,<a name="FNanchor_774_774" id="FNanchor_774_774"></a><a href="#Footnote_774_774" class="fnanchor">[774]</a> where he -makes the coast of “Islandia” continuous with Baccalaos. This continuity of coast line seemed now to -become a common heritage of some of the map-makers,<a name="FNanchor_775_775" id="FNanchor_775_775"></a><a href="#Footnote_775_775" class="fnanchor">[775]</a> though in the Ulpius globe of 1542 “Groestlandia,” -so far as it is shown, stands separate from either continent,<a name="FNanchor_776_776" id="FNanchor_776_776"></a><a href="#Footnote_776_776" class="fnanchor">[776]</a> but is connected with Europe according to the -early theory in the <i>Isolario</i> of Bordone in 1547.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-176.jpg" width="400" height="390" id="i126" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">BORDONE’S SCANDINAVIA, 1547.</p> - <p class="pf400">Reproduced from the fac-simile given in Nordenskjöld’s <i>Studien</i> (Leipzig, 1885).</p> -</div></div> - -<p>We have run down the main feature of the northern cartography, up to the time of the publication of the -Zeno map in 1558. The chief argument for its authenticity is that there had been nothing drawn and published -up to that time which could have conduced, without other aid, to so accurate an outline of Greenland as -it gives. In an age when drafts of maps freely circulated over Europe, from cartographer to cartographer, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> -manuscript, it does not seem necessary that the search for prototypes or prototypic features should be confined -to those which had been engraved.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-177.jpg" width="400" height="306" id="i127" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">ZENO MAP. <span class="wn">(<i>Reduced</i>.)</span></p> - <p class="pf400">The original measures 12 × 15½ inches. Fac-similes of the original size or reduced, or other reproductions, will be found -in Nordenskjöld’s <i>Trois Cartes</i>, and in his <i>Studien</i>; Malte Brun’s <i>Annales des Voyages</i>; Lelewel’s <i>Moyen Age</i> (ii. -169); <i>Carter-Brown Catalogue</i> (i. 211); Kohl’s <i>Discovery of Maine</i>, 97; Ruge’s <i>Geschichte des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen</i>, -p. 27; Bancroft’s <i>Central America</i>, i. 81; Gay’s <i>Pop. Hist. U. S</i>., i. 84; Howley’s <i>Ecclesiast. Hist. Newfoundland</i>, -p. 45; Erizzo’s <i>Le Scoperte Artiche</i> (Venice, 1855),—not to name others.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>With these allowances the map does not seem to be very exceptional in -any feature. It is connected with northwestern Europe in just the manner appertaining to several of the -earlier maps. Its shape is no great improvement on the map of 1467, found at Warsaw. There was then -no such constancy in the placing of mid-sea islands in maps, to interdict the random location of other islands -at the cartographer’s will, without disturbing what at that day would have been deemed geographical probabilities, -and there was all the necessary warranty in existing maps for the most wilfully depicted archipelago. -The early Portuguese charts, not to name others, gave sufficient warrant for land where Estotiland and Drogeo -appear.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-178.jpg" width="400" height="296" id="i128" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">THE PTOLEMY ALTERATION <span class="wn">(1561, etc.)</span> OF THE ZENO MAP.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p> - -<p>Mention has already been made of the changes in this map, which the editors of the Ptolemy of 1561 made -in severing Greenland from Europe, when they reëngraved it.<a name="FNanchor_777_777" id="FNanchor_777_777"></a><a href="#Footnote_777_777" class="fnanchor">[777]</a> The same edition contained a map of “Schonlandia,” -in which it seems to be doubtful if the land which stands for Greenland does, or does not, connect -with the Scandinavian main.<a name="FNanchor_778_778" id="FNanchor_778_778"></a><a href="#Footnote_778_778" class="fnanchor">[778]</a> That Greenland was an island seems now to have become the prevalent opinion, -and it was enforced by the maps of Mercator (1569 and 1587), Ortelius (1570, 1575), and Gallæus (1585), -which placed it lying mainly east and west between the Scandinavian north and the Labrador coast, which it -was now the fashion to call Estotiland. In its shape it closely resembled the Zeni outline. Another feature of -these maps was the placing of another but smaller island west of “Groenlant,” which was called “Grocland,” -and which seems to be simply a reduplication of the larger island by some geographical confusion,<a name="FNanchor_779_779" id="FNanchor_779_779"></a><a href="#Footnote_779_779" class="fnanchor">[779]</a> which -once started was easily seized upon to help fill out the arctic spaces.<a name="FNanchor_780_780" id="FNanchor_780_780"></a><a href="#Footnote_780_780" class="fnanchor">[780]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-179.jpg" width="400" height="290" id="i129" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">SEPTENTRIONALES REGIONES.</p> - <p class="pf400">From <i>Theatri orbis Terrarum Enchiridion, per Phillipum Gallæum, et per Hugonem Favolium</i> (Antwerp, 1585).</p> -</div></div> - -<p>It was just at this time (1570) that the oldest maps which display the geographical notions of the saga men -were drawn, though not brought to light for many years. We note two such of this time, and one of a date -near forty years later. One marked “Jonas, Gudmundi filius, delineavit, 1570,” is given as are the two others -by Torfæus in his <i>Gronlandia Antiqua</i>. They all seem to recognize a passage to the Arctic seas between -Norway and Greenland, the northern parts of which last are called “Risaland,” or “Riseland,” and Jonas -places “Oster Bygd” and “Wester Bygd” on the opposite sides of a squarish peninsula. Beyond what must -be Davis’ Straits is “America,” and further south “Terra Florida” and “Albania.”</p> - -<p>If this description is compared with the key of Stephanius’ map, next to be mentioned, while we remember<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> -that both represent the views prevailing in the north in 1570, it is hard to resist the conclusion that Vinland -was north even of Davis’ Straits, or at least held to be so at that time.</p> - -<p>The second map, that of Stephanius, is reproduced herewith, dating back to the same period (1570); but -the third, by Gudbrandus Torlacius, was made in 1606, and is sketched in Kohl’s <i>Discovery of Maine</i> (p. 109). -It gives better shape to “Gronlandia” than in either of the others.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-180.jpg" width="400" height="474" id="i130" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">SIGURD STEPHANIUS, 1570.</p> - <div class="pf400"> -<p class="pn">Reproduced from the <i>Saga Time</i> of J. Fulford Vicary (London, 1887), after the map as given in the publication of -the geographical society at Copenhagen, 1885-86, and it is supposed to have been drafted upon the narrative of the sagas. -Key:</p> - -<p class="pn1">“<i>A.</i> This is where the English have come and has a name for barrenness, either from sun or cold.</p> - -<p class="pn"><i>B.</i> This is near where Vineland lies, which from its abundance of useful things, or from the land’s fruitfulness, is called Good. Our -countrymen (Icelanders) have thought that to the south it ends with the wild sea and that a sound or fjord separates it -from America.</p> - -<p class="pn"><i>C.</i> This land is called Rüseland or land of the giants, as they have horns and are called Skrickfinna -(Fins that frighten).</p> - -<p class="pn"><i>D.</i> This is more to the east, and the people are called Klofinna (Fins with claws) on account of -their large nails.</p> - -<p class="pn"><i>E.</i> This is Jotunheimer, or the home of the misshapen giants.</p> - -<p class="pn"><i>F.</i> Here is thought to be a fjord, or -sound, leading to Russia.</p> - -<p class="pn"><i>G.</i> A rocky land often referred to in histories.</p> - -<p class="pn"><i>H.</i> What island that is I do not know, unless -it be the island that a Venetian found, and the Germans call Friesland.”</p> - -<p class="pn1">It will be observed under the <i>B</i> of the Key, the Norse of 1570 did not identify the Vinland of 1000 with the America of -later discoveries.</p> - -<p class="pn">This map is much the same, but differs somewhat in detail, from the one called of Stephanius, as produced in Kohl’s -<i>Discovery of Maine</i>, p. 107, professedly after a copy given in Torfæus’ <i>Gronlandia Antiqua</i> (1706). Torfæus quotes -Theodorus Torlacius, the Icelandic historian, as saying that Stephanius appears to have drawn his map from ancient Icelandic -records. The other maps given by Torfæus are: by Bishop Gudbrand Thorlakssen (1606); by Jonas Gudmund -(1640); by Theodor Thorlakssen (1666), and by Torfæus himself. Cf. other copies of the map of Stephanius in Malte-Brun’s -<i>Annales des Voyages, Weise’s Discoveries of America</i>, p. 22; <i>Geog. Tidskrift</i>, viii. 123, and in Horsford’s -<i>Disc. of America by Northmen</i>, p. 37.</p></div> -</div></div> - -<p>It is not necessary to follow the course of the Greenland cartography farther with any minuteness. As the -sixteenth century ended we have leading maps by Hakluyt in 1587 and 1599 (see Vol. III. 42), and De Bry in -1596 (Vol. IV. 99), and Wytfliet in 1597, all of which give Davis’s Straits with more or less precision. Barentz’s -map of 1598 became the exemplar of the circumpolar chart in Pontanus’ <i>Rerum et Urbis Amstelodamensium -Historia</i> of 1611.<a name="FNanchor_781_781" id="FNanchor_781_781"></a><a href="#Footnote_781_781" class="fnanchor">[781]</a> The chart of Luke Fox, in 1635, marked progress<a name="FNanchor_782_782" id="FNanchor_782_782"></a><a href="#Footnote_782_782" class="fnanchor">[782]</a> better than that of La Peyrère -(1647), though his map was better known.<a name="FNanchor_783_783" id="FNanchor_783_783"></a><a href="#Footnote_783_783" class="fnanchor">[783]</a> Even as late as 1727, Hermann Moll could not identify his -“Greenland” with “Groenland.” In 1741, we have the map of Hans Egede in his “Grönland,” repeated in -late editions, and the old delineation of the east coast after Torfæus was still retained in the 1788 map of -Paul Egede.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-181.jpg" width="400" height="508" id="i131" - alt="" - title="" /> - <p class="pf400"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The annexed map is a reduced fac-simile of the map in the <i>Efterretninger om Grönland uddragne af en -Journal holden fra 1771 til 1788</i>, by Paul Egede (Copenhagen, 1789). Paul Egede, son of Hans, was born in 1708, and -remained in Greenland till 1740. He was made Bishop of Greenland in 1770, and died in 1789. The above book gives -a portrait. There is another fac-simile of the map in Nordenskjöld’s <i>Exped. till Grönland</i>, p. 234.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p> - -<p>In the map of 1653, made by De la Martinière, who was of the Danish expedition to the north, Greenland -was made to connect with Northern Asia by way of the North pole.<a name="FNanchor_784_784" id="FNanchor_784_784"></a><a href="#Footnote_784_784" class="fnanchor">[784]</a> Nordenskjöld calls him the Münchhausen -of the northeast voyagers; and by his own passage in the “Vega,” along the northern verge of Europe, -from one ocean to the other, the Swedish navigator has of recent years proved for the first time that Greenland -has no such connection. It yet remains to be proved that there is no connection to the north with at least -the group of islands that are the arctic outlyers of the American continent.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-182.jpg" width="400" height="248" id="i132" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">GREENLAND.</p> - <p class="pf400">Extracted from the “Carte de Grœnland” in Isaac de la Peyrère’s <i>Relation du Groenland</i> (Paris, 1647). Cf. Winsor’s -<i>Kohl Maps</i>, no. 122.</p> -</div></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="p4">CHAPTER III.</h2> - -<p class="pc2 lmid">MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.</p> - -<p class="pc reduct">BY JUSTIN WINSOR.</p> - -<p class="drop-cap04">THE traditions of the migrations of the Chichimecs, Colhuas, and Nahuas,” -says Max Müller,<a name="FNanchor_785_785" id="FNanchor_785_785"></a><a href="#Footnote_785_785" class="fnanchor">[785]</a> “are no better than the Greek traditions -about Pelasgians, Æolians, and Ionians, and it would be a mere waste of -time to construct out of such elements a systematic history, only to be -destroyed again, sooner or later, by some Niebuhr, Grote, or Lewis.”</p> - -<p>“It is yet too early,” says Bandelier,<a name="FNanchor_786_786" id="FNanchor_786_786"></a><a href="#Footnote_786_786" class="fnanchor">[786]</a> “to establish a definite chronology, -running farther back from the Conquest than two centuries,<a name="FNanchor_787_787" id="FNanchor_787_787"></a><a href="#Footnote_787_787" class="fnanchor">[787]</a> and even -within that period but very few dates have been satisfactorily fixed.”</p> - -<p>Such are the conditions of the story which it is the purpose of this chapter -to tell.</p> - -<p>We have, to begin with, as in other history, the recognition of a race -of giants, convenient to hang legends on, and accounted on all hands to have -been occupants of the country in the dimmest past, so that there is nothing -back of them. Who they were, whence they came, and what stands for -their descendants after we get down to what in this pre-Spanish history we -rather presumptuously call historic ground, is far from clear. If we had -the easy faith of the native historian Ixtlilxochitl, we should believe that -these gigantic Quinames, or Quinametin, were for the most part swallowed -up in a great convulsion of nature, and it was those who escaped which the -Olmecs and Tlascalans encountered in entering the country.<a name="FNanchor_788_788" id="FNanchor_788_788"></a><a href="#Footnote_788_788" class="fnanchor">[788]</a> If all this -means anything, which may well be doubted, it is as likely as not that these -giants were the followers of a demi-god, Votan,<a name="FNanchor_789_789" id="FNanchor_789_789"></a><a href="#Footnote_789_789" class="fnanchor">[789]</a> who came from over-sea to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> -America,<a name="FNanchor_790_790" id="FNanchor_790_790"></a><a href="#Footnote_790_790" class="fnanchor">[790]</a> found it peopled, established a government in Xibalba,—if such -a place ever existed,—with the germs of Maya if not of other civilizations, -whence, by migrations during succeeding times, the Votanites spread north -and occupied the Mexican plateau, where they became degenerate, doubtless, -if they deserved the extinction which we are told was in store for -them. But they had an alleged chronicler for their early days, the writer -of the Book of Votan, written either by the hero himself or by one of his -descendants,—eight or nine generations in the range of authorship making -little difference apparently. That this narrative was known to Francisco -Nuñez de la Vega<a name="FNanchor_791_791" id="FNanchor_791_791"></a><a href="#Footnote_791_791" class="fnanchor">[791]</a> would seem to imply that somebody at that time -had turned it into readable script out of the unreadable hieroglyphics, while -the disguises of the Spanish tongue, perhaps, as Bancroft<a name="FNanchor_792_792" id="FNanchor_792_792"></a><a href="#Footnote_792_792" class="fnanchor">[792]</a> suggests, may -have saved it from the iconoclastic zeal of the priests. When, later, Ramon -de Ordoñez had the document,—perhaps the identical manuscript,—it consisted -of a few folios of quarto paper, and was written in Roman script in -the Tzendal tongue, and was inspected by Cabrera, who tells us something -of its purport in his <i>Teatro critico Americano</i>, while Ramon himself was at -the same time using it in his <i>Historia del Cielo y de la Tierra</i>. It was from -a later copy of this last essay, the first copy being unknown, that the Abbé -Brasseur de Bourbourg got his knowledge of what Ramon had derived from -the Votan narrative, and which Brasseur has given us in several of his -books.<a name="FNanchor_793_793" id="FNanchor_793_793"></a><a href="#Footnote_793_793" class="fnanchor">[793]</a> That there was a primitive empire—Votanic, if you please—seems -to some minds confirmed by other evidences than the story of Votan; -and out of this empire—to adopt a European nomenclature—have come, -as such believers say, after its downfall somewhere near the Christian era, -and by divergence, the great stocks of people called Maya, Quiché, and -Nahua, inhabiting later, and respectively, Yucatan, Guatemala, and Mexico. -This is the view, if we accept the theory which Bancroft has prominently -advocated, that the migrations of the Nahuas were from the south -northward,<a name="FNanchor_794_794" id="FNanchor_794_794"></a><a href="#Footnote_794_794" class="fnanchor">[794]</a> and that this was the period of the divergence, eighteen centuries -ago or more, of the great civilizing stocks of Mexico and of Central -America.<a name="FNanchor_795_795" id="FNanchor_795_795"></a><a href="#Footnote_795_795" class="fnanchor">[795]</a> We fail to find so early a contact of these two races, if, on the -other hand, we accept the old theory that the migrations which established<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> -the Toltec and Aztec powers were from the north southward,<a name="FNanchor_796_796" id="FNanchor_796_796"></a><a href="#Footnote_796_796" class="fnanchor">[796]</a> through -three several lines, as is sometimes held, one on each side of the Rocky -Mountains, with a third following the coast. In this way such advocates -trace the course of the Olmecs, who encountered the giants, and later of the -Toltecs.</p> - -<p>That the Votanic peoples or some other ancient tribes were then a distinct -source of civilization, and that Palenqué may even be Xibalba, or the -Nachan, which Votan founded, is a belief that some archæologists find -the evidence of in certain radical differences in the Maya tongues and in -the Maya ruins.<a name="FNanchor_797_797" id="FNanchor_797_797"></a><a href="#Footnote_797_797" class="fnanchor">[797]</a></p> - -<p>In the Quiché traditions, as preserved in the <i>Popul Vuh</i>, and in the -<i>Annals of the Cakchiquels</i>, we likewise go back into mistiness and into the -inevitable myths which give the modern comparative mythologists so much -comfort and enlightenment; but Bancroft<a name="FNanchor_798_798" id="FNanchor_798_798"></a><a href="#Footnote_798_798" class="fnanchor">[798]</a> and the rest get from all this -nebulousness, as was gotten from the Maya traditions, that there was a -great power at Xibalba,<a name="FNanchor_799_799" id="FNanchor_799_799"></a><a href="#Footnote_799_799" class="fnanchor">[799]</a>—if in Central America anywhere that place may -have been,—which was overcome<a name="FNanchor_800_800" id="FNanchor_800_800"></a><a href="#Footnote_800_800" class="fnanchor">[800]</a> when from Tulan<a name="FNanchor_801_801" id="FNanchor_801_801"></a><a href="#Footnote_801_801" class="fnanchor">[801]</a> went out migrating -chiefs, who founded the Quiché-Cakchiquel peoples of Guatemala, while -others, the Yaqui,—very likely only traders,—went to Mexico, and still -others went to Yucatan, thus accounting for the subsequent great centres -of aboriginal power—if we accept this view.</p> - -<p>As respects the traditions of the more northern races, there is the same -choice of belief and alternative demonstration. The Olmecs, the earliest -Nahua corners, are sometimes spoken of as sailing from Florida and landing -on the coast at what is now Pánuco, whence they travelled to Guatemala,<a name="FNanchor_802_802" id="FNanchor_802_802"></a><a href="#Footnote_802_802" class="fnanchor">[802]</a> -and finally settled in Tamoanchan, and offered their sacrifices farther -north at Teotihuacan.<a name="FNanchor_803_803" id="FNanchor_803_803"></a><a href="#Footnote_803_803" class="fnanchor">[803]</a> This is very likely the Votan legend suited to the -more northern region, and if so, it serves to show, unless we discard the -whole theory, how the Votanic people had scattered. The other principal -source of our suppositions—for we can hardly call it knowledge—of these -times is the <i>Codex Chimalpòpoca</i>, of which there is elsewhere an account,<a name="FNanchor_804_804" id="FNanchor_804_804"></a><a href="#Footnote_804_804" class="fnanchor">[804]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> -and from it we can derive much the same impressions, if we are disposed to -sustain a preconceived notion.</p> - -<p>The periods and succession of the races whose annals make up the history -of what we now call Mexico, prior to the coming of the Spaniards, are -confused and debatable. Whether under the name of Chichimecs we are to -understand a distinct people, or a varied and conglomerate mass of people, -which, in a generic way, we might call barbarians, is a question open to -discussion.<a name="FNanchor_805_805" id="FNanchor_805_805"></a><a href="#Footnote_805_805" class="fnanchor">[805]</a> There is no lack of names<a name="FNanchor_806_806" id="FNanchor_806_806"></a><a href="#Footnote_806_806" class="fnanchor">[806]</a> to be applied to the tribes and -bands which, according to all accounts, occupied the Mexican territory previous -to the sixth century. Some of them were very likely Nahua forerunners<a name="FNanchor_807_807" id="FNanchor_807_807"></a><a href="#Footnote_807_807" class="fnanchor">[807]</a> -of the subsequent great influx of that race, like the Olmecs and -Xicalancas, and may have been the people, “from the direction of Florida,” -of whom mention has been made. Others, as some say, were eddies of those -populous waves which, coming by the north from Asia, overflowed the -Rocky Mountains, and became the builders of mounds and the later peoples -of the Mississippi Valley,<a name="FNanchor_808_808" id="FNanchor_808_808"></a><a href="#Footnote_808_808" class="fnanchor">[808]</a> passed down the trend of the Rocky Mountains, -and built cliff-houses and pueblos, or streamed into the table-land of Mexico. -This is all conjecture, perhaps delusion, but may be as good a supposition -as any, if we agree to the northern theory, as Nadaillac<a name="FNanchor_809_809" id="FNanchor_809_809"></a><a href="#Footnote_809_809" class="fnanchor">[809]</a> does, but not -so tenable, if, with the contrary Bancroft,<a name="FNanchor_810_810" id="FNanchor_810_810"></a><a href="#Footnote_810_810" class="fnanchor">[810]</a> we hold rather that they came -from the south. We can turn from one to the other of these theorists and -agree with both, as they cite their evidences. On the whole, a double compliance -is better than dogmatism. It is one thing to lose one’s way in this -labyrinth of belief, and another to lose one’s head.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span></p> - -<p>It was the Olmecs who found the Quinames, or giants, near Puebla and -Cholula, and in the end overcame them. The Olmecs built, according to -one story, the great pyramid of Cholula,<a name="FNanchor_811_811" id="FNanchor_811_811"></a><a href="#Footnote_811_811" class="fnanchor">[811]</a> and it was they who received -the great Quetzalcoatl from across the sea, a white-bearded man, as the -legends went, who was benign enough, in the stories told of him, to make -the later Spaniards think, when they heard them, that he was no other than -the Christian St. Thomas on his missions. When the Spaniards finally induced -the inheritors of the Olmecs’ power to worship Quetzalcoatl as a -beneficent god, his temple soon topped the mound at Cholula.<a name="FNanchor_812_812" id="FNanchor_812_812"></a><a href="#Footnote_812_812" class="fnanchor">[812]</a> We have -seen that the great Nahua occupation of the Mexican plateau, at a period -somewhere from the fourth to the seventh century,<a name="FNanchor_813_813" id="FNanchor_813_813"></a><a href="#Footnote_813_813" class="fnanchor">[813]</a> was preceded by -some scattered tribal organizations of the same stock, which had at an -early date mingled with the primitive peoples of this region. We have -seen that there is a diversity of opinion as to the country from which they -came, whether from the north or south. A consideration of this question -involves the whole question of the migration of races in these pre-Columbian -days, since it is the coming and going of peoples that form the basis -of all its history.</p> - -<p>In the study of these migrations, we find no more unanimity of interpretation -than in other questions of these early times.<a name="FNanchor_814_814" id="FNanchor_814_814"></a><a href="#Footnote_814_814" class="fnanchor">[814]</a> The Nahua peoples -(Toltecs, Aztecs, Mexicans, or what you will), according to the prevalent -views of the early Spanish writers, came by successive influxes from the -north or northwest, and from a remote place called Tollan, Tula, Tlapallan, -Huehue-Tlapallan, as respects the Toltec group,<a name="FNanchor_815_815" id="FNanchor_815_815"></a><a href="#Footnote_815_815" class="fnanchor">[815]</a> and called Aztlan as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> -respects the Aztec or Mexican. When, by settlement after settlement, each -migratory people pushed farther south, they finally reached Central Mexico. -This sequence of immigration seems to be agreed upon, but as to where -their cradle was and as to what direction their line of progress took, there -is a diversity of opinion as widely separated as the north is from the south. -The northern position and the southern direction is all but universally -accepted among the early Spanish writers<a name="FNanchor_816_816" id="FNanchor_816_816"></a><a href="#Footnote_816_816" class="fnanchor">[816]</a> and their followers,<a name="FNanchor_817_817" id="FNanchor_817_817"></a><a href="#Footnote_817_817" class="fnanchor">[817]</a> while it is -claimed by others that the traditions as preserved point to the south -as the starting-point. Cabrera took this view. Brasseur sought to reconcile -conflicting tradition and Spanish statement by carrying the line of -migration from the south with a northerly sweep, so that in the end Anahuac -would be entered from the north, with which theory Bancroft<a name="FNanchor_818_818" id="FNanchor_818_818"></a><a href="#Footnote_818_818" class="fnanchor">[818]</a> is -inclined to agree. Aztlan, as well as Huehue-Tlapallan, by those who -support the northern theory, has been placed anywhere from the California -peninsula<a name="FNanchor_819_819" id="FNanchor_819_819"></a><a href="#Footnote_819_819" class="fnanchor">[819]</a> within a radius that sweeps through Wisconsin and strikes -the Atlantic at Florida.<a name="FNanchor_820_820" id="FNanchor_820_820"></a><a href="#Footnote_820_820" class="fnanchor">[820]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p> - -<p>The advocates of the southern starting-point of these migrations have -been comparatively few and of recent prominence; chief among them are -Squier and Bancroft.<a name="FNanchor_821_821" id="FNanchor_821_821"></a><a href="#Footnote_821_821" class="fnanchor">[821]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">With the appearance of a people, which, for want of a better designation, -are usually termed Toltecs, on the Mexican table-land in the sixth century -or thereabouts,<a name="FNanchor_822_822" id="FNanchor_822_822"></a><a href="#Footnote_822_822" class="fnanchor">[822]</a> we begin the early history of Mexico, so far as we can make -any deductions from the semi-mythical records and traditions which the -Spaniards or the later aborigines have preserved for us. This story of the -Nahua occupation of Anáhuac is one of strife and shifting vassalage, with -rivalries and uprisings of neighboring and kindred tribes, going on for centuries. -While the more advanced portion of the Nahuas in Anáhuac were -making progress in the arts, that division of the same stock which was -living beyond such influence, and without the bounds of Anáhuac, were -looked upon rather as barbarians than as brothers, and acquired the name -which had become a general one for such rougher natures, Chichimec. -It is this Chichimec people under some name or other who are always -starting up and overturning something. At one time they unite with the -Colhuas and found Colhuacan, and nearly subjugate the lake region. Then -the Toltec tarriers at Huehue-Tlapallan come boldly to the neighborhood -of the Chichimecs and found Tollan; and thus they turn a wandering community -into what, for want of a better name, is called a monarchy. They -strengthened its government by an alliance with the Chichimecs,<a name="FNanchor_823_823" id="FNanchor_823_823"></a><a href="#Footnote_823_823" class="fnanchor">[823]</a> and -placed their seat of power at Colhuacan.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span></p> - -<p>Then we read of a power springing up at Tezcuco, and of various other -events, which happened or did not happen, according as you believe this or -the other chronicle. The run of many of the stories of course produces -the inevitable and beautiful daughter, and the bold princess, who control -many an event. Then there is a league of Colhuacan, Otompan, and Tollan. -Suddenly appears the great king Quetzalcoatl,—though it may be we confound -him with the divinity of that name; and with him, to perplex matters, -comes his sworn enemy Huemac. Quetzalcoatl’s devoted labors to -make his people give up human sacrifice arrayed the priesthood against -him, until at last he fell before the intrigues that made Huemac succeed in -Tollan, and that drove his luckless rival to Cholula, where he reigned anew. -Huemac followed him and drove him farther; but in doing so he gave his -enemies in Tollan a chance to put another on the throne.</p> - -<p>Then came a season of peace and development, when Tollan grew -splendid. Colhuacan flourished in political power, and Teotihuacan<a name="FNanchor_824_824" id="FNanchor_824_824"></a><a href="#Footnote_824_824" class="fnanchor">[824]</a> and -Cholula were the religious shrines of the people. But at last the end was -near.</p> - -<p>The closing century of the Toltec power was a frightful one for broil, -pestilence, and famine among the people, amours and revenge in the great -chieftain’s household, revolt among the vassals; with sorcery rampant -and the gods angry; with volcanoes belching, summers like a furnace, and -winters like the pole; with the dreaded omen of a rabbit, horned like a deer, -confronting the ruler, while rebel forces threatened the capital. There -was also civil strife within the gates, phallic worship and debauchery,—all -preceding an inundation of Chichimecan hordes. Thus the power that -had flourished for several hundred years fell,—seemingly in the latter half -of the eleventh century.<a name="FNanchor_825_825" id="FNanchor_825_825"></a><a href="#Footnote_825_825" class="fnanchor">[825]</a> The remnant that was left of the desolated -people went hither and thither, till the fragments were absorbed in the -conquerors, or migrated to distant regions south.<a name="FNanchor_826_826" id="FNanchor_826_826"></a><a href="#Footnote_826_826" class="fnanchor">[826]</a></p> - -<p>Whether the term Toltec signified a nation, or only denoted a dynasty, -is a question for the archæologists to determine. The general opinion -heretofore has been that they were a distinct race, of the Nahua stock, however, -and that they came from the north. The story which has been thus -far told of their history is the narrative of Ixtlilxochitl, and is repeated -by Veytia, Clavigero, Prescott, Brasseur de Bourbourg, Orozco y Berra,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> -Nadaillac, and the later compilers. Sahagún seems to have been the first -to make a distinct use of the name Toltec, and Charency in his paper on -<i>Xibalba</i> finds evidence that the Toltecs constituted two different migrations, -the one of a race that was straight-headed, which came from the -northwest, and the other of a flat-headed people, which came from Florida.</p> - -<p>Brinton, on the contrary, finds no warrant either for this dual migration, -or indeed for considering the Toltecs to be other than a section of the -same race, that we know later as Aztecs or Mexicans. This sweeping -denial of their ethnical independence had been forestalled by Gallatin;<a name="FNanchor_827_827" id="FNanchor_827_827"></a><a href="#Footnote_827_827" class="fnanchor">[827]</a> -but no one before Brinton had made it a distinct issue, though some -writers before and since have verged on his views.<a name="FNanchor_828_828" id="FNanchor_828_828"></a><a href="#Footnote_828_828" class="fnanchor">[828]</a> Others, like Charnay, -have answered Brinton’s arguments, and defended the older views.<a name="FNanchor_829_829" id="FNanchor_829_829"></a><a href="#Footnote_829_829" class="fnanchor">[829]</a> Bandelier’s -views connect them with the Maya rather than with the Nahua -stock,<a name="FNanchor_830_830" id="FNanchor_830_830"></a><a href="#Footnote_830_830" class="fnanchor">[830]</a> if, as he thinks may be the case, they were the people who landed -at Pánuco and settled at Tamoanchan, the Votanites, as they are sometimes -called. He traces back to Herrera and Torquemada the identification for -the first time of the Toltecs with these people.<a name="FNanchor_831_831" id="FNanchor_831_831"></a><a href="#Footnote_831_831" class="fnanchor">[831]</a> Bandelier’s conclusions, -however, are that “all we can gather about them with safety is, that they -were a sedentary Indian stock, which at some remote period settled in Central -Mexico,” and that “nothing certain is known of their language.”<a name="FNanchor_832_832" id="FNanchor_832_832"></a><a href="#Footnote_832_832" class="fnanchor">[832]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span></p> - -<p>The desolation of Anáhuac as the Toltecs fell invited a foreign occupation, -and a remote people called Chichimecs<a name="FNanchor_833_833" id="FNanchor_833_833"></a><a href="#Footnote_833_833" class="fnanchor">[833]</a>—not to be confounded with the -primitive barbarians which are often so called—poured down upon the country. -Just how long after the Toltec downfall this happened, is in dispute;<a name="FNanchor_834_834" id="FNanchor_834_834"></a><a href="#Footnote_834_834" class="fnanchor">[834]</a> -but within a few years evidently, perhaps within not many months, came -the rush of millions, if we may believe the big stories of the migration. -They surged by the ruined capital of the Toltecs, came to the lake, founded -Xoloc and Tenayocan, and encountered, as they spread over the country, -what were left of the Toltecs, who secured peace by becoming vassals. Not -quite so humble were the Colhuas of Colhuacan,—not to be confounded -with the Acolhuas,—who were the most powerful section of the Toltecs -yet left, and the Chichimecs set about crushing them, and succeeded in -making them also vassals.<a name="FNanchor_835_835" id="FNanchor_835_835"></a><a href="#Footnote_835_835" class="fnanchor">[835]</a> The Chichimec monarchs, if that term does -not misrepresent them, soon formed alliances with the Tepanecs, the Otomis, -and the Acolhuas, who had been prominent in the overthrow of the -Toltecs, and all the invaders profited by the higher organizations and arts -which these tribes had preserved and now imparted. The Chichimecs also -sought to increase the stability of their power by marriages with the noble -Toltecs still remaining. But all was not peace. There were rebellions -from time to time to be put down; and a new people, whose future they did -not then apprehend, had come in among them and settled at Chapultepec. -These were the Aztecs, or Mexicans, a part of the great Nahua immigration, -but as a tribe they had dallied behind the others on the way, but were -now come, and the last to come.<a name="FNanchor_836_836" id="FNanchor_836_836"></a><a href="#Footnote_836_836" class="fnanchor">[836]</a></p> - -<p>Tezcuco soon grew into prominence as a vassal power,<a name="FNanchor_837_837" id="FNanchor_837_837"></a><a href="#Footnote_837_837" class="fnanchor">[837]</a> and upon the capital -city many embellishments were bestowed, so that the great lord of the -Chichimecs preferred it to his own Tenayocan, which gave opportunity for -rebellious plots to be formed in his proper capital; and here at Tezcuco -the next succeeding ruler preferred to reign, and here he became isolated -by the uprising of rebellious nobles. The ensuing war was not simply of -side against side, but counter-revolutions led to a confusion of tumults, and -petty chieftains set themselves up against others here and there. The -result was that Quinantzin, who had lost the general headship of the country, -recovered it, and finally consolidated his power to a degree surpassing -all his predecessors.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-193.jpg" width="400" height="284" id="i143" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">CLAVIGERO’S MEXICO.<a name="FNanchor_838_838" id="FNanchor_838_838"></a><a href="#Footnote_838_838" class="fnanchor">[838]</a> <span class="wn">(Ed. of 1780, vol. iii.)</span></p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-194.jpg" width="400" height="417" id="i144" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">CLAVIGERO’S MAP. <span class="wn">(Ed. of 1580, vol. i.)</span></p> - <p class="pf400">Clavigero speaks of his map “per servire all storia antica del Messico.” A map of the Aztec dominion -just before the Conquest is given in Ranking (London, 1827). See note in Vol. II. p. 358.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Meanwhile the Aztecs at Chapultepec, growing arrogant, provoked their -neighbors, and were repressed by those who were more powerful. But they -abided their time. They were good fighters, and the Colhua ruler courted -them to assist him in his maraudings, and thus they were becoming accustomed -to warfare and to conquest, and were giving favors to be repaid. This -intercourse, whether of association or rivalry, of the Colhuas and Mexicans -(Aztecs), was continued through succeeding periods, with a confusion of -dates and events which it is hard to make clear. There was mutual distrust -and confidence alternately, and it all ended in the Aztecs settling on an -island in the lake, where later they founded Tenochtitlan, or Mexico.<a name="FNanchor_839_839" id="FNanchor_839_839"></a><a href="#Footnote_839_839" class="fnanchor">[839]</a> Here<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> -they developed those bloody rites of sacrifice which had already disgusted -their allies and neighbors.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-195.jpg" width="400" height="573" id="i145" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">THE LAKE OF MEXICO.</p> - <p class="pf400">A map which did service in different forms in various books about Mexico and its aboriginal localities in -the early part of the eighteenth century. It is here taken from the <i>Voyages de Francois Coreal</i> (Amsterdam, -1722).</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p> - -<p>Meanwhile the powers at Colhuacan and Azcapuzalco flourished and -repressed uprisings, and out of all the strife Tezozomoc came into prominence -with his Tepanecs, and amid it all the Aztecs, siding here and there, -gained territory. With all this occurring in different parts of his dominions, -the Chichimec potentate grew stronger and stronger, and while by his -countenance the old Toltec influences more and more predominated. And -so it was a flourishing government, with little to mar its prospects but the -ambition of Tezozomoc, the Tepanec chieftain, and the rising power of the -Aztecs, who had now become divided into Mexicans and Tlatelulcas. The -famous ruler of the Chichimecs, Techotl, died in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1357, and the young -Ixtlilxochitl took his power with all its emblems. The people of Tenochtitlan, -or their rulers, were adepts in practising those arts of diplomacy by -which an ambitious nation places itself beside its superiors to secure a sort -of reflected consequence. Thus they pursued matrimonial alliances and -other acts of prudence. Both Tenochtitlan and its neighbor Tlatelulco grew -apace, while skilled artisans and commercial industries helped to raise them -in importance.</p> - -<p>The young Ixtlilxochitl at Tezcuco was not so fortunate, and it soon -looked as if the Tepanec prince, Tezozomoc, was only waiting an opportunity -to rebel. It was also pretty clear that he would have the aid of Mexico -and Tlatelulco, and that he would succeed in securing the sympathy of many -wavering vassals or allies. The plans of the Tepanec chieftain at last -ripened, and he invaded the Tezcucan territory in 1415. In the war which -followed, Ixtlilxochitl reversed the tide and invaded the Tepanec territory, -besieging and capturing its capital, Azcapuzalco.<a name="FNanchor_840_840" id="FNanchor_840_840"></a><a href="#Footnote_840_840" class="fnanchor">[840]</a> The conqueror lost by -his clemency what he had gained by arms, and it was not long before he -was in turn shut up in his own capital. He did not succeed in defending it, -and was at last killed. So Tezozomoc reached his vantage of ambition, and -was now in his old age the lord paramount of the country. He tried to -harmonize the varied elements of his people; but the Mexicans had not -fared in the general successes as they had hoped for, and were only openly -content. The death of Tezozomoc prepared the way for one of his sons, -Maxtla, to seize the command, and the vassal lords soon found that the -spirit which had murdered a brother had aims that threatened wider desolation. -The Mexicans were the particular object of Maxtla’s oppressive -spirit, and by the choice of Itzcoatl for their ruler, who had been for many -years the Mexican war-chief, that people defied the lord of all, and in this -they were joined by the Tlatelulcas under Quauhtlatohuatzin, and by lesser -allies. Under this combination of his enemies Maxtla’s capital fell, the -usurper was sacrificed, and the honors of the victory were shared by Itzcoatl, -Nezahualcoyotl (the Acolhuan prince whose imperial rights Maxtla -had usurped), and Montezuma, the first of the name,—all who had in their -several capacities led the army of three or four hundred thousand allies,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> -if we may believe the figures, to their successes, which occurred apparently -somewhere between 1425 and 1430. The political result was a tripartite -confederacy in Anáhuac, consisting of Acolhua, Mexico, and Tlacopan. In -the division of spoils, the latter was to have one fifth, and the others two -fifths each, the Acolhuan prince presiding in their councils as senior.<a name="FNanchor_841_841" id="FNanchor_841_841"></a><a href="#Footnote_841_841" class="fnanchor">[841]</a></p> - -<p>The next hundred years is a record of the increasing power of this confederacy, -with a constant tendency to give Mexico a larger influence.<a name="FNanchor_842_842" id="FNanchor_842_842"></a><a href="#Footnote_842_842" class="fnanchor">[842]</a> The -two capitals, Tenochtitlan and Tezcuco, looking at each other across the -lake, were uninterruptedly growing in splendor, or in what the historians call -by that word,<a name="FNanchor_843_843" id="FNanchor_843_843"></a><a href="#Footnote_843_843" class="fnanchor">[843]</a> with all the adjuncts of public works,—causeways, canals, -aqueducts, temples, palaces and gardens, and other evidences of wealth, -which perhaps these modern terms only approximately represent. Tezcuco -was taken possession of by Nezahualcoyotl as his ancient inheritance, and -his confederate Itzcoatl placed the crown on his head. Together they made -war north and south. Xochimilco, on the lake next south of Mexico, -yielded; and the people of Chalco, which was on the most southern of the -string of lakes, revolted and were suppressed more than once, as opportunities -offered. The confederates crossed the ridge that formed the southern -bound of the Mexican valley and sacked Quauhnahuac. The Mexican ruler -had in all this gained a certain ascendency in the valley coalition, when he -died in 1440, and his nephew, Montezuma the soldier, and first of the name,<a name="FNanchor_844_844" id="FNanchor_844_844"></a><a href="#Footnote_844_844" class="fnanchor">[844]</a> -succeeded him. This prince soon had on his hands another war with Chalco, -and with the aid of his confederates he finally humbled its presumptuous -people. So, with or without pretence, the wars and conquests went on, if -for no other reasons, to obtain prisoners for sacrifice.<a name="FNanchor_845_845" id="FNanchor_845_845"></a><a href="#Footnote_845_845" class="fnanchor">[845]</a> They were diversified -at times, particularly in 1449, by contests with the powers of nature, -when the rising waters of the lake threatened to drown their cities, and -when, one evil being cured, others in the shape of famine and plague succeeded.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span></p> - -<p>Sometimes in the wars the confederates over-calculated their own prowess, -as when Atonaltzin of Tilantongo sent them reeling back, only, however, to -make better preparations and to succeed at last. In another war to the -southeast they captured, as the accounts say, over six thousand victims for -the stone of sacrifice.</p> - -<p>The first Montezuma died in 1469, and the choice for succession fell on -his grandson, the commander of the Mexican army, Axayacatl, who at once -followed the usual custom of raiding the country to the south to get the -thousands of prisoners whose sacrifice should grace his coronation. Nezahualcoyotl, -the other principal allied chieftain, survived his associate but -two years, dying in 1472, leaving among his hundred children but one legitimate -son, Nezahualpilli, a minor, who succeeded. This gave the new Mexican -ruler the opportunity to increase his power. He made Tlatelulco -tributary, and a Mexican governor took the place there of an independent -sovereign. He annexed the Matlaltzinca provinces on the west. So Axayacatl, -dying in 1481, bequeathed an enlarged kingdom to his brother and -successor, Tizoc, who has not left so warlike a record. According to some -authorities, however, he is to be credited with the completion of the great -Mexican temple of Huitzilopochtli. This did not save him from assassination, -and his brother Ahuitzotl in 1486 succeeded, and to him fell the lot -of dedicating that great temple. He conducted fresh wars vigorously -enough to be able within a year, if we may believe the native records, to -secure sixty or seventy thousand captives for the sacrificial stone, so essential -a part of all such dedicatory exercises. It would be tedious to enumerate -all the succeeding conquests, though varied by some defeats, like that -which they experienced in the Tehuantepec region. Some differences grew -up, too, between the Mexican chieftain and Nezahualpilli, notwithstanding -or because of the virtues of the latter, among which doubtless, according to -the prevailing standard, we must count his taking at once three Mexican -princesses for wives, and his keeping a harem of over two thousand women, -if we may believe his descendant, the historian Ixtlilxochitl. His justice -as an arbitrary monarch is mentioned as exemplary, and his putting to death -a guilty son is recounted as proof of it.</p> - -<p>Ahuitzotl had not as many virtues, or perhaps he had not a descendant to -record them so effectively; but when he died in 1503, what there was heroic -in his nature was commemorated in his likeness sculptured with others -of his line on the cliff of Chapultepec.<a name="FNanchor_846_846" id="FNanchor_846_846"></a><a href="#Footnote_846_846" class="fnanchor">[846]</a> To him succeeded that Montezuma, -son of Axayacatl, with whom later this ancient history vanishes. -When he came to power, the Aztec name was never significant of more -lordly power, though the confederates had already had some reminders that -conquest near home was easier than conquest far away. The policy of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> -last Aztec ruler was far from popular, and while he propitiated the higher -ranks, he estranged the people. The hopes of the disaffected within and -without Anáhuac were now centred in the Tlascalans, whose territory lay -easterly towards the Gulf of Mexico, and who had thus far not felt the burden -of Aztec oppression. Notwithstanding that their natural allies, the Cholulans, -turned against the Tlascalans, the Aztec armies never succeeded in -humbling them, as they did the Mistecs and the occupants of the region -towards the Pacific. Eclipses, earthquakes, and famine soon succeeded one -another, and the forebodings grew numerous. Hardly anything happened -but the omens of disaster<a name="FNanchor_847_847" id="FNanchor_847_847"></a><a href="#Footnote_847_847" class="fnanchor">[847]</a> were seen in it, and superstition began to do its -work of enervation, while a breach between Montezuma and the Tezcucan -chief was a bad augury. In this condition of things the Mexican king tried -to buoy his hopes by further conquests; but widespread as these invasions -were, Michoacan to the west, and Tlascala to the east, always kept their -independence. The Zapotecs in Oajaca had at one time succumbed, but -this was before the days of the last Montezuma.</p> - -<p>His rival across the lake at Tezcuco was more oppressed with the tales of -the soothsayers than Montezuma was, and seems to have become inert before -what he thought an impending doom some time before he died, or, as -his people believed, before he had been translated to the ancient Amaquemecan, -the cradle of his race. This was in 1515. His son Cacama was -chosen to succeed; but a younger brother, Ixtlilxochitl, believed that the -choice was instigated by Montezuma for ulterior gain, and so began a revolt -in the outlying provinces, in which he received the aid of Tlascala. The -appearance of the Spaniards on the coasts of Yucatan and Tabasco, of which -exaggerated reports reached the Mexican capital, paralyzed Montezuma, so -that the northern revolt succeeded, and Cacama and Ixtlilxochitl came to an -understanding, which left the Mexicans without much exterior support. -Montezuma was in this crippled condition when his lookouts on the coast -sent him word that the dreaded Spaniards had appeared, and he could recognize -their wonderful power in the pictured records which the messenger -bore to him.<a name="FNanchor_848_848" id="FNanchor_848_848"></a><a href="#Footnote_848_848" class="fnanchor">[848]</a> This portent was the visit in 1518 of Juan de Grijalva to the -spot where Vera Cruz now stands; and after the Spaniard sailed away, there -were months of anxiety before word again reached the capital, in 1519, of -another arrival of the white-winged vessels, and this was the coming of Cortés, -who was not long in discovering that the path of his conquest was made -clear by the current belief that he was the returned Quetzalcoatl,<a name="FNanchor_849_849" id="FNanchor_849_849"></a><a href="#Footnote_849_849" class="fnanchor">[849]</a> and by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> -his quick perception of the opportunity which presented itself of combining -and leading the enemies of Montezuma.<a name="FNanchor_850_850" id="FNanchor_850_850"></a><a href="#Footnote_850_850" class="fnanchor">[850]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">Among what are usually reckoned the civilized nations of middle America, -there are two considerable centres of a dim history that have little -relation with the story which has been thus far followed. One of these is -that of the people of what we now call Guatemala, and the other that of -Yucatan. The political society which existed in Guatemala had nothing of -the known duration assigned to the more northern people, at least not in -essential data; but we know of it simply as a very meagre and perplexing -chronology running for the most part back two or three centuries only. -Whether the beginnings of what we suppose we know of these people have -anything to do with any Toltec migration southward is what archæologists -dispute about, and the philologists seem to have the best of the argument -in the proof that the tongue of these southern peoples is more like Maya -than Nahua. It is claimed that the architectural remains of Guatemala indicate -a departure from the Maya stock and some alliance with a foreign -stock; and that this alien influence was Nahuan seems probable enough -when we consider certain similarities in myth and tradition of the Nahuas -and the Quichés. But we have not much even of tradition and myth of -the early days, except what we my read in the <i>Popul Vuh</i>, where we may -make out of it what we can, or even what we please,<a name="FNanchor_851_851" id="FNanchor_851_851"></a><a href="#Footnote_851_851" class="fnanchor">[851]</a> with some mysterious -connection with Votan and Xibalba. Among the mythical traditions of -this mythical period, there are the inevitable migration stories, beginning -with the Quichés and ending with the coming of the Cakchiquels, but no -one knows to a surety when. The new-comers found Maya-speaking people, -and called them mem or memes (stutterers), because they spoke the -Maya so differently from themselves.</p> - -<p>It was in the twelfth or thirteenth century that we get the first traces of -any historical kind of the Quichés and of their rivals the Cakchiquels. Of -their early rulers we have the customary diversities and inconsistencies -in what purports to be their story, and it is difficult to say whether this or -the other or some other tribe revolted, conquered, or were beaten, as we read -the annals of this constant warfare. We meet something tangible, however, -when we learn that Montezuma sent a messenger, who informed the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> -Quichés of the presence of the Spaniards in his capital, which set them -astir to be prepared in their turn.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-201.jpg" width="400" height="548" id="i151" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">MAP IN BRASSEUR’S POPUL VUH.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>It is in the beginning of the sixteenth century that we encounter the -rivalries of three prominent peoples in this Guatemala country, and these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> -were the Quichés, the Cakchiquels, and the Zutigils; and of these the Quichés, -with their main seat at Utatlan, were the most powerful, though not -so much so but the Cakchiquels could get the best of them at times in the -wager of war; as they did also finally when the Spaniard Alvarado appeared, -with whom the Cakchiquels entered into an alliance that brought -the Quichés into sore straits.</p> - -<p class="p2">A more important nationality attracts us in the Mayas of Yucatan. There -can be nothing but vague surmise as to what were the primitive inhabitants -of this region; but it seems to be tolerably clear that a certain homogeneousness -pervaded the people, speaking one tongue, which the Spaniards -found in possession. Whether these had come from the northern regions, -and were migrated Toltecs, as some believe, is open to discussion.<a name="FNanchor_852_852" id="FNanchor_852_852"></a><a href="#Footnote_852_852" class="fnanchor">[852]</a> It has -often been contended that they were originally of the Nahua and Toltec -blood; but later writers, like Bancroft,<a name="FNanchor_853_853" id="FNanchor_853_853"></a><a href="#Footnote_853_853" class="fnanchor">[853]</a> have denied it. Brinton discards -the Toltec element entirely.</p> - -<p>What by a license one may call history begins back with the semi-mythical -Zamná, to whom all good things are ascribed—the introduction of the -Maya institutions and of the Maya hieroglyphics.<a name="FNanchor_854_854" id="FNanchor_854_854"></a><a href="#Footnote_854_854" class="fnanchor">[854]</a> Whether Zamná had -any connection, shadowy or real, with the great Votanic demi-god, and with -the establishment of the Xibalban empire, if it may be so called, is a thing -to be asserted or denied, as one inclines to separate or unite the traditions -of Yucatan with those of the Tzendal, Quiché, and Toltec. Ramon de Ordonez, -in a spirit of vagary, tells us that Mayapan, the great city of the -early Mayas, was but one of the group of centres, with Palenqué, Tulan, -and Copan for the rest, as is believed, which made up the Votanic empire. -Perhaps it was. If we accept Brinton’s view, it certainly was not. Then -Torquemada and Landa tell us that Cukulcan, a great captain and a god, -was but another Quetzalcoatl, or Gucumatz. Perhaps he was. Possibly -also he was the bringer of Nahua influence to Mayapan, away back in a -period corresponding to the early centuries of the Christian era. It is easy -to say, in all this confusion, this is proved and that is not. The historian, -accustomed to deal with palpable evidence, feels much inclined to leave all -views in abeyance.</p> - -<p>The Cocomes of Yucatan history were Cukulcan’s descendants or followers, -and had a prosperous history, as we are told; and there came to live -among them the Totul Xius, by some considered a Maya people, who like<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> -the Quichés had been subjected to Nahua influences, and who implanted -in the monuments and institutions of Yucatan those traces of Nahua character -which the archæologists discover.<a name="FNanchor_855_855" id="FNanchor_855_855"></a><a href="#Footnote_855_855" class="fnanchor">[855]</a> The Totul Xius are placed in -Uxmal in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries, where they flourished -along with the Cocomes, and it is to them that it is claimed many of the -ruins which now interest us in Yucatan can be traced, though some of them -perhaps go back to Zamná and to the Xibalban period, or at least it would -be hard to prove otherwise.</p> - -<p>When at last the Cocome chieftains began to oppress their subjects, the -Totul Xius gave them shelter, and finally assisted them in a revolt, which -succeeded and made Uxmal the supreme city, and Mayapan became a ruin, -or at least was much neglected. The dynasty of the Totul Xius then flourished, -but was in its turn overthrown, and a period of factions and revolutions -followed, during which Mayapan was wholly obliterated, and the Totul -Xius settled in Mani, where the Spaniards found them when they invaded -Yucatan to make an easy conquest of a divided people.<a name="FNanchor_856_856" id="FNanchor_856_856"></a><a href="#Footnote_856_856" class="fnanchor">[856]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/d2.jpg" width="200" height="63" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<h3 class="p2"><a name="c153" id="c153">CRITICAL ESSAY ON THE SOURCES OF INFORMATION.</a></h3> - -<p class="drop-cap06">FROM the conquerors of New Spain we fail to get any systematic portrayal of the character -and history of the subjugated people; but nevertheless we are not without some -help in such studies from the letters of Cortes,<a name="FNanchor_857_857" id="FNanchor_857_857"></a><a href="#Footnote_857_857" class="fnanchor">[857]</a> the accounts of the so-called anonymous -conqueror,<a name="FNanchor_858_858" id="FNanchor_858_858"></a><a href="#Footnote_858_858" class="fnanchor">[858]</a> and from what Stephens<a name="FNanchor_859_859" id="FNanchor_859_859"></a><a href="#Footnote_859_859" class="fnanchor">[859]</a> calls “the hurried and imperfect observations of -an unlettered soldier,” Bernal Diaz.<a name="FNanchor_860_860" id="FNanchor_860_860"></a><a href="#Footnote_860_860" class="fnanchor">[860]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-204.jpg" width="400" height="316" id="i154" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400"> MS. OF BERNAL DIAZ.</p> - <p class="pf400">Fac-simile of the beginning of Capitulo LXXIV. of his <i>Historia Verdadera</i>, following a plate in the fourth -volume of J. M. de Heredia’s French translation (Paris, 1877).</p> -</div></div> - -<p>We cannot neglect for this ancient period the more general writers on New Spain, -some of whom lived near enough to the Conquest to reflect current opinions upon the aboriginal -life as it existed in the years next succeeding the fall of Mexico. Such are Peter -Martyr, Grynæus, Münster, and Ramusio. More in the nature of chronicles is the <i>Historia -General</i> of Oviedo (1535, etc.).<a name="FNanchor_861_861" id="FNanchor_861_861"></a><a href="#Footnote_861_861" class="fnanchor">[861]</a> The <i>Historia General</i> of Gomara became generally -known soon after the middle of the sixteenth century.<a name="FNanchor_862_862" id="FNanchor_862_862"></a><a href="#Footnote_862_862" class="fnanchor">[862]</a> The <i>Rapport</i>, written about 1560, -by Alonzo de Zurita, throws light on the Aztec laws and institutions.<a name="FNanchor_863_863" id="FNanchor_863_863"></a><a href="#Footnote_863_863" class="fnanchor">[863]</a> Benzoni about this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> -time traversed the country, observing the Indian customs.<a name="FNanchor_864_864" id="FNanchor_864_864"></a><a href="#Footnote_864_864" class="fnanchor">[864]</a> We find other descriptions -of the aboriginal customs by the missionary Didacus Valades, in his <i>Rhetorica Christiana</i>, -of which the fourth part relates to Mexico.<a name="FNanchor_865_865" id="FNanchor_865_865"></a><a href="#Footnote_865_865" class="fnanchor">[865]</a> Brasseur says that Valades was well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> -informed and appreciative of the people which he so kindly depicted.<a name="FNanchor_866_866" id="FNanchor_866_866"></a><a href="#Footnote_866_866" class="fnanchor">[866]</a> By the beginning -of the seventeenth century we find in Herrera’s <i>Historia</i> the most comprehensive of the -historical surveys, in which he summarizes the earlier writers, if not always exactly.<a name="FNanchor_867_867" id="FNanchor_867_867"></a><a href="#Footnote_867_867" class="fnanchor">[867]</a> -Bandelier (<i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i>, ii. 387) says of the ancient history of Mexico that “it -appears as if the twelfth century was the limit of definite tradition. What lies beyond it -is vague and uncertain, remnants of tradition being intermingled with legends and mythological -fancies.” He cites some of the leading writers as mainly starting in their stories -respectively as follows: Brasseur, <span class="smcap">B. C</span>. 955; Clavigero, <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 596; Veytia, <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 697; Ixtlilxochitl, -<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 503. Bandelier views all these dates as too mythical for historical investigations, -and finds no earlier fixed date than the founding of Tenochtitlan (Mexico) in -<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1325. “What lies beyond the twelfth century can occasionally be rendered of value -for ethnological purposes, but it admits of no definite historical use.” Bancroft (v. 360) -speaks of the sources of disagreement in the final century of the native annals, from the -constant tendency of such writers as Ixtlilxochitl, Tezozomoc, Chimalpain, and Camargo, -to laud their own people and defame their rivals.</p> - -<p class="p2">In the latter part of the sixteenth century the viceroy of Mexico, Don Martin Enriquez, -set on foot some measures to gather the relics and traditions of the native Mexicans. -Under this incentive it fell to Juan de Tobar, a Jesuit, and to Diego Duran, a Dominican, -to be early associated with the resuscitation of the ancient history of the country.</p> - -<p>To Father Tobar (or Tovar) we owe what is known as the <i>Codex Ramirez</i>, which in the -edition of the <i>Crónica Mexicana</i><a name="FNanchor_868_868" id="FNanchor_868_868"></a><a href="#Footnote_868_868" class="fnanchor">[868]</a> by Hernando de Alvarado Tezozomoc, issued in Mexico -(1878), with annotations by Orozco y Berra, is called a <i>Relacion del origen de los Indios -que habitan esta nueva España segun sus historias</i> (José M. Vigil, editor). It is an important -source of our knowledge of the ancient history of Mexico, as authoritatively interpreted -by the Aztec priests, from their picture-writings, at the bidding of Ramirez de Fuenleal, -Bishop of Cuenca. This ecclesiastic carried the document with him to Spain, where -in Madrid it is still preserved. It was used by Herrera. Chavero and Brinton recognize -its representative value.<a name="FNanchor_869_869" id="FNanchor_869_869"></a><a href="#Footnote_869_869" class="fnanchor">[869]</a></p> - -<p>To Father Duran we are indebted for an equally ardent advocacy of the rights of the -natives in his <i>Historia de las Indias de Nueva-España y islas de Tierra-Firme</i> (1579-81), -which was edited in part (1867), as stated elsewhere<a name="FNanchor_870_870" id="FNanchor_870_870"></a><a href="#Footnote_870_870" class="fnanchor">[870]</a> by José F. Ramirez, and after -an interval completed (1880) by Prof. Gumesindo Mendoza, of the Museo Nacional,—the -perfected work making two volumes of text and an atlas of plates. Both from Tobar -and from Duran some of the contemporary writers gathered largely their material.<a name="FNanchor_871_871" id="FNanchor_871_871"></a><a href="#Footnote_871_871" class="fnanchor">[871]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span></p> - -<div class="floatleft"> - <img src="images/ill-206.jpg" width="250" height="360" id="i156" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">SAHAGUN.</p> - <p class="pf250">After a lithograph in Cumplido’s Mexican edition of Prescott’s <i>Mexico</i>.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>We come to a different kind of record when we deal with the Roman script of the early -phonetic rendering of the native tongues. It has been pointed out that we have perhaps -the earliest of such renderings -in a single sentence in a publication -made at Antwerp in 1534, -where a Franciscan, Pedro de -Gante,<a name="FNanchor_872_872" id="FNanchor_872_872"></a><a href="#Footnote_872_872" class="fnanchor">[872]</a> under date of June 21, -1529, tells the story of his arriving -in America in 1523, and his -spending the interval in Mexico -and Tezcuco, acquiring a -knowledge of the natives and -enough of their language to -close his epistle with a sentence -of it as a sample.<a name="FNanchor_873_873" id="FNanchor_873_873"></a><a href="#Footnote_873_873" class="fnanchor">[873]</a> But no -chance effort of this kind was -enough. It took systematic -endeavors on the part of the -priests to settle grammatical -principles and determine phonetic -values, and the measure -of their success was seen in the -speedy way in which the interpretation -of the old idiograms -was forgotten. Mr. Brevoort -has pointed out how much the -progress of what may be called -native literature, which is to-day -so helpful to us in filling the -picture of their ancient life, is -due to the labors in this process -of linguistic transfer of Motolinfa,<a name="FNanchor_874_874" id="FNanchor_874_874"></a><a href="#Footnote_874_874" class="fnanchor">[874]</a> -Alonzo de Molina,<a name="FNanchor_875_875" id="FNanchor_875_875"></a><a href="#Footnote_875_875" class="fnanchor">[875]</a> Andrés -de Olmos,<a name="FNanchor_876_876" id="FNanchor_876_876"></a><a href="#Footnote_876_876" class="fnanchor">[876]</a> and, above all, -of the ablest student of the -ancient tongues in his day, as -Mendieta calls Father Sahagún,<a name="FNanchor_877_877" id="FNanchor_877_877"></a><a href="#Footnote_877_877" class="fnanchor">[877]</a> who, dying in 1590 at ninety, had spent a good part of -a long life so that we of this generation might profit by his records.<a name="FNanchor_878_878" id="FNanchor_878_878"></a><a href="#Footnote_878_878" class="fnanchor">[878]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p> - -<p>Coming later into the field than Duran, Acosta, and Sahagún, and profiting from the -labors of his predecessors, we find in the <i>Monarchia Indiana</i> of Torquemada<a name="FNanchor_879_879" id="FNanchor_879_879"></a><a href="#Footnote_879_879" class="fnanchor">[879]</a> the most -comprehensive treatment of the ancient history given to us by any of the early Spanish -writers. The book, however, is a provoking one, from the want of plan, its chronological -confusion, and the general lack of a critical spirit<a name="FNanchor_880_880" id="FNanchor_880_880"></a><a href="#Footnote_880_880" class="fnanchor">[880]</a> pervading it.</p> - -<p>It is usually held that the earliest amassment of native records for historical purposes, -after the Conquest, was that made by Ixtlilxochitl of the archives of his Tezcucan line, -which he used in his writings in a way that has not satisfied some later investigators. -Charnay says that in his own studies he follows Veytia by preference; but Prescott finds -beneath the high colors of the pictures of Ixtlilxochitl not a little to be commended. -Bandelier,<a name="FNanchor_881_881" id="FNanchor_881_881"></a><a href="#Footnote_881_881" class="fnanchor">[881]</a> on the other hand, expresses a distrust when he says of Ixtlilxochitl that “he -is always a very suspicious authority, not because he is more confused than any other Indian -writer, but because he wrote for an interested object, and with a view of sustaining -tribal claims in the eyes of the Spanish government.”<a name="FNanchor_882_882" id="FNanchor_882_882"></a><a href="#Footnote_882_882" class="fnanchor">[882]</a></p> - -<p>Among the manuscripts which seem to have belonged to Ixtlilxochitl was the one -known in our day under the designation given to it by Brasseur de Bourbourg, <i>Codex<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> -Chimalpopoca</i>,<a name="FNanchor_883_883" id="FNanchor_883_883"></a><a href="#Footnote_883_883" class="fnanchor">[883]</a> in honor of Faustino Chimalpopoca, a learned professor of Aztec, who -assisted Brasseur in translating it. The anonymous author had set to himself the task of -converting into the written native tongue a rendering of the ancient hieroglyphics, constituting, -as Brasseur says, a complete and regular history of Mexico and Colhuacan. He -describes it in his <i>Lettres à M. le duc de Valmy</i> (<i>lettre seconde</i>)—the first part (in Mexican) -being a history of the Chichimecas; the second (in Spanish), by another hand, elucidating -the antiquities—as the most rare and most precious of all the manuscripts -which escaped destruction, elucidating what was obscure in Gomara and Torquemada.</p> - -<p>Brasseur based upon this MS. his account of the Toltec period in his <i>Nations Civilisées -du Mexique</i> (i. p. lxxviii), treating as an historical document what in later years, -amid his vagaries, he assumed to be but the record of geological changes.<a name="FNanchor_884_884" id="FNanchor_884_884"></a><a href="#Footnote_884_884" class="fnanchor">[884]</a> A similar use -was made by him of another MS., sometimes called a Memorial de Colhuacan, and which -he named the <i>Codex Gondra</i> after the director of the Museo Nacional in Mexico.<a name="FNanchor_885_885" id="FNanchor_885_885"></a><a href="#Footnote_885_885" class="fnanchor">[885]</a></p> - -<p>Brasseur says, in the <i>Annales de Philosophie Chrétienne</i>, that the <i>Chimalpopoca MS.</i> is -dated in 1558, but in his <i>Hist. Nat. Civ.</i>, i. p. lxxix, he says that it was written in 1563 -and 1579, by a writer of Quauhtitlan, and not by Ixtlilxochitl, as was thought by Pichardo, -who with Gama possessed copies later owned by Aubin. The copy used by Brasseur -was, as he says, made from the MS. in the Boturini collection,<a name="FNanchor_886_886" id="FNanchor_886_886"></a><a href="#Footnote_886_886" class="fnanchor">[886]</a> where it was called <i>Historia -de los Reynos de Colhuacan y México</i>,<a name="FNanchor_887_887" id="FNanchor_887_887"></a><a href="#Footnote_887_887" class="fnanchor">[887]</a> and it is supposed to be the original, now -preserved in the Museo Nacional de México. It is not all legible, and that institution -has published only the better preserved and earlier parts of it, though Aubin’s copies are -said to contain the full text. This edition, which is called <i>Anales de Cuauhtitlan</i>, is -accompanied by two Spanish versions, the early one made for Brasseur, and a new one -executed by Mendoza and Solis, and it is begun in the <i>Anales del Museo Nacional</i> for -1879 (vol. i.).<a name="FNanchor_888_888" id="FNanchor_888_888"></a><a href="#Footnote_888_888" class="fnanchor">[888]</a></p> - -<p>The next after Ixtlilxochitl to become conspicuous as a collector, was Sigüenza y -Gongora (b. 1645), and it was while he was the chief keeper of such records<a name="FNanchor_889_889" id="FNanchor_889_889"></a><a href="#Footnote_889_889" class="fnanchor">[889]</a> that the -Italian traveller Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Carreri examined them, and made some -record of them.<a name="FNanchor_890_890" id="FNanchor_890_890"></a><a href="#Footnote_890_890" class="fnanchor">[890]</a> A more important student inspected the collection, which was later -gathered in the College of San Pedro and San Pablo, and this was Clavigero,<a name="FNanchor_891_891" id="FNanchor_891_891"></a><a href="#Footnote_891_891" class="fnanchor">[891]</a> who manifested -a particular interest in the picture-writing of the Mexicans,<a name="FNanchor_892_892" id="FNanchor_892_892"></a><a href="#Footnote_892_892" class="fnanchor">[892]</a> and has given us a -useful account of the antecedent historians.<a name="FNanchor_893_893" id="FNanchor_893_893"></a><a href="#Footnote_893_893" class="fnanchor">[893]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span></p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-209.jpg" width="250" height="276" id="i159" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">CLAVIGERO.</p> - <p class="pf250">After a lithograph in Cumplido’s Mexican edition of Prescott’s <i>Mexico</i>, vol. iii.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The best known efforts at collecting material for the ante-Spanish history of Mexico -were made by Boturini,<a name="FNanchor_894_894" id="FNanchor_894_894"></a><a href="#Footnote_894_894" class="fnanchor">[894]</a> who had come over to New Spain in 1736, on some agency for -a descendant of Montezuma, the Countess de -Santibañez. Here he became interested in the -antiquities of the country, and spent eight years -roving about the country picking up manuscripts -and pictures, and seeking in vain for some one to -explain their hieroglyphics. Some action on his -part incurring the displeasure of the public authorities, -he was arrested, his collection<a name="FNanchor_895_895" id="FNanchor_895_895"></a><a href="#Footnote_895_895" class="fnanchor">[895]</a> taken -from him, and he was sent to Spain. On the voyage -an English cruiser captured the vessel in which -he was, and he thus lost whatever he chanced to -have with him.<a name="FNanchor_896_896" id="FNanchor_896_896"></a><a href="#Footnote_896_896" class="fnanchor">[896]</a> What he left behind remained in -the possession of the government, and became the -spoil of damp, revolutionists, and curiosity-seekers. -Once again in Spain, Boturini sought redress of the -Council of the Indies, and was sustained by it in -his petition; but neither he nor his heirs succeeded -in recovering his collection. He also prepared a -book setting forth how he proposed, by the aid of these old manuscripts and pictures, to resuscitate -the forgotten history of the Mexicans. The book<a name="FNanchor_897_897" id="FNanchor_897_897"></a><a href="#Footnote_897_897" class="fnanchor">[897]</a> is a jumble of notions; but -appended to it was what gives it its chief value, a “Catálogo del Museo histórico Indiano,” -which tells us what the collection was. While it was thus denied to its collector, Mariano -Veytia,<a name="FNanchor_898_898" id="FNanchor_898_898"></a><a href="#Footnote_898_898" class="fnanchor">[898]</a> who had sympathized with Boturini in Madrid, had possession, for a while at -least, of a part of it, and made use of it in his <i>Historia Antigua de Méjico</i>, but it is -denied, as usually stated, that the authorities upon his death (1778) prevented the publication -of his book. The student was deprived of Veytia’s results till his MS. was ably -edited, with notes and an appendix, by C. F. Ortega (Mexico, 1836).<a name="FNanchor_899_899" id="FNanchor_899_899"></a><a href="#Footnote_899_899" class="fnanchor">[899]</a> Another, who was -connected at a later day with the Boturini collection, and who was a more accurate writer -than Veytia, was Antonio de Leon y Gama, born in Mexico in 1735. His <i>Descripcion -histórica y Cronológica de las Dos Piedras</i> (Mexico, 1832)<a name="FNanchor_900_900" id="FNanchor_900_900"></a><a href="#Footnote_900_900" class="fnanchor">[900]</a> was occasioned by the finding, -in 1790, of the great Mexican Calendar Stone and other sculptures in the Square of -Mexico. This work brought to bear Gama’s great learning to the interpretation of these -relics, and to an exposition of the astronomy and mythology of the ancient Mexicans, -in a way that secured the commendation of Humboldt.<a name="FNanchor_901_901" id="FNanchor_901_901"></a><a href="#Footnote_901_901" class="fnanchor">[901]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-210.jpg" width="400" height="495" id="i160" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">LORENZO BOTURINI.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a lithograph in Cumplido’s Mexican edition of Prescott’s <i>Mexico</i>. There is an etched portrait in -the <i>Archives de la Soc. Américaine de France, nouvelle série</i>, i., which is accompanied by an essay on this -“Père de l’Américanisme,” and “les sources aux quelles il a puisé son précis d’histoire Américaine,” by -Léon Cahun.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>During these years of uncertainty respecting the Boturini collection, a certain hold -upon it seems to have been shared successively by Pichardo and Sanchez, by which in the -end some part came to the Museo Nacional, in Mexico.<a name="FNanchor_902_902" id="FNanchor_902_902"></a><a href="#Footnote_902_902" class="fnanchor">[902]</a> It was also the subject of lawsuits, -which finally resulted in the dispersion of what was left by public auction, at a time -when Humboldt was passing through Mexico, and some of its treasures were secured by -him and placed in the Berlin Museum. Others passed hither and thither (a few to Kingsborough), -but not in a way to obscure their paths, so that when, in 1830, Aubin was sent -to Mexico by the French government, he was able to secure a considerable portion of -them, as the result of searches during the next ten years. It was with the purpose, some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> -years later, of assisting in the elucidation and publication of Aubin’s collection that the -Société Américaine de France was established. The collection of historical records, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> -Aubin held it, was described, in 1881, by himself,<a name="FNanchor_903_903" id="FNanchor_903_903"></a><a href="#Footnote_903_903" class="fnanchor">[903]</a> when he divided his Mexican picture-writings -into two classes,—those which had belonged to Boturini, and those which had -not.<a name="FNanchor_904_904" id="FNanchor_904_904"></a><a href="#Footnote_904_904" class="fnanchor">[904]</a> Aubin at the same time described his collection of the Spanish MSS. of Ixtlilxochitl,<a name="FNanchor_905_905" id="FNanchor_905_905"></a><a href="#Footnote_905_905" class="fnanchor">[905]</a> -while he congratulated himself that he had secured the old picture-writings upon -which that native writer depended in the early part of his <i>Historia Chichimeca</i>. These -Spanish MSS. bear the signature and annotations of Veytia.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-211.jpg" width="400" height="601" id="i161" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">FRONTISPIECE OF BOTURINI’S IDEA.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>We have another description of the Aubin collection by Brasseur de Bourbourg.<a name="FNanchor_906_906" id="FNanchor_906_906"></a><a href="#Footnote_906_906" class="fnanchor">[906]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p> - -<p>If we allow the first place among native writers, using the Spanish tongue, to Ixtlilxochitl, -we find several others of considerable service: Diego Muñoz Camargo, a Tlaxcallan -Mestizo, wrote (1585) a <i>Historia de Tlaxcallan</i>.<a name="FNanchor_907_907" id="FNanchor_907_907"></a><a href="#Footnote_907_907" class="fnanchor">[907]</a> Tezozomoc’s <i>Crónica Mexicana</i> is -probably best known through Ternaux’s version,<a name="FNanchor_908_908" id="FNanchor_908_908"></a><a href="#Footnote_908_908" class="fnanchor">[908]</a> and there is an Italian abridgment in -F. C. Marmocchi’s <i>Raccolta di Viaggi</i> (vol. x.). The catalogue of Boturini discloses a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> -MS. by a Cacique of Quiahuiztlan, Juan Ventura Zapata y Mendoza, which brings the -<i>Crónica de la muy noble y real Ciudad de Tlaxcallan</i> from the earliest times down to -1689; but it is not now known. Torquemada and others cite two native Tezcucan writers,—Juan -Bautista Pomar, whose <i>Relacion de las Antigüedades de los Indios</i><a name="FNanchor_909_909" id="FNanchor_909_909"></a><a href="#Footnote_909_909" class="fnanchor">[909]</a> treats of the -manners of his ancestors, and Antonio Pimentel, whose <i>Relaciones</i> are well known. The -MS. <i>Crónica Mexicana</i> of Anton Muñon Chimalpain (b. 1579), tracing the annals from -the eleventh century, is or was among the Aubin MSS.<a name="FNanchor_910_910" id="FNanchor_910_910"></a><a href="#Footnote_910_910" class="fnanchor">[910]</a> There was collected before 1536, -under the orders of Bishop Zumárraga, a number of aboriginal tales and traditions, which -under the title of <i>Historia de los Mexicanos por sus Pinturas</i> was printed by Icazbalceta, -who owns the MS., in the <i>Anales del Museo Nacional</i> (ii. no. 2).<a name="FNanchor_911_911" id="FNanchor_911_911"></a><a href="#Footnote_911_911" class="fnanchor">[911]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-213.jpg" width="400" height="496" id="i163" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">ICAZBALCETA.</p> - <p class="pf400">[After a photograph kindly furnished by himself at the editor’s request.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>As regards Yucatan, Brasseur<a name="FNanchor_912_912" id="FNanchor_912_912"></a><a href="#Footnote_912_912" class="fnanchor">[912]</a> speaks of the scantiness of the historical material, and -Brinton<a name="FNanchor_913_913" id="FNanchor_913_913"></a><a href="#Footnote_913_913" class="fnanchor">[913]</a> does not know a single case where a Maya author has written in the Spanish -tongue, as the Aztecs did, under Spanish influence. We owe more to Dr. Daniel Garrison -Brinton than to any one else for the elucidation of the native records, and he had -had the advantage of the collection of Yucatan MSS. formed by Dr. C. H. Berendt,<a name="FNanchor_914_914" id="FNanchor_914_914"></a><a href="#Footnote_914_914" class="fnanchor">[914]</a> -which, after that gentleman’s death, passed into Brinton’s hands.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-215.jpg" width="400" height="441" id="i165" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">PROFESSOR DANIEL G. BRINTON.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>After the destruction of the ancient records by Landa, considerable efforts were made -throughout Yucatan, in a sort of reactionary spirit, to recall the lingering recollections -of what these manuscripts contained. The grouping of such recovered material became -known as Chilan Balam.<a name="FNanchor_915_915" id="FNanchor_915_915"></a><a href="#Footnote_915_915" class="fnanchor">[915]</a> It is from local collections of this kind that Brinton selected the -narratives which he has published as <i>The Maya Chronicles</i>, being the first volume of his -<i>Library of Aboriginal American Literature</i>. The original texts<a name="FNanchor_916_916" id="FNanchor_916_916"></a><a href="#Footnote_916_916" class="fnanchor">[916]</a> are accompanied by an -English translation. One of the books, the Chilan Balam of Mani, had been earlier printed -by Stephens, in his <i>Yucatan</i>.<a name="FNanchor_917_917" id="FNanchor_917_917"></a><a href="#Footnote_917_917" class="fnanchor">[917]</a> The only early Spanish chronicle is Bishop Landa’s <i>Relation -des choses de Yucatan</i>,<a name="FNanchor_918_918" id="FNanchor_918_918"></a><a href="#Footnote_918_918" class="fnanchor">[918]</a> which follows not an original, but a copy of the bishop’s -text, written, as Brasseur thinks, thirty years after Landa’s death, or about 1610, and -which Brasseur first brought to the world’s attention when he published his edition, with -both Spanish and French texts, at Paris, in 1864. The MS. seems to have been incomplete,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> -and was perhaps inaccurately copied at the time. At this date (1864) Brasseur had -become an enthusiast for his theory of the personification of the forces of nature in the old -recitals, and there was some distrust how far his zeal had affected his text; and moreover -he had not published the entire text, but had omitted about one sixth. Brasseur’s -method of editing became apparent when, in 1884, at Madrid, Juan de Dios de la Rada y -Delgado published literally the whole Spanish text, as an appendix to the Spanish translation -of Rosny’s essay on the hieratic writing. The Spanish editor pointed out some but -not all the differences between his text and Brasseur’s,—a scrutiny which Brinton has -perfected in his <i>Critical Remarks on the Editions of Landa’s Writings</i> (Philad., 1887).<a name="FNanchor_919_919" id="FNanchor_919_919"></a><a href="#Footnote_919_919" class="fnanchor">[919]</a> -Landa gives extracts from a work by Bernardo Lizana, relating to Yucatan, of which it -is difficult to get other information.<a name="FNanchor_920_920" id="FNanchor_920_920"></a><a href="#Footnote_920_920" class="fnanchor">[920]</a> The earliest published historical narrative was -Cogolludo’s <i>Historia de Yucathan</i> (Madrid, 1688).<a name="FNanchor_921_921" id="FNanchor_921_921"></a><a href="#Footnote_921_921" class="fnanchor">[921]</a> Stephens, in his study of the subject,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> -speaks of it as “voluminous, confused, and ill-digested,” and says “it might almost be -called a history of the Franciscan friars, to which order Cogolludo belonged.”<a name="FNanchor_922_922" id="FNanchor_922_922"></a><a href="#Footnote_922_922" class="fnanchor">[922]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">The native sources of the aboriginal history of Guatemala, and of what is sometimes -called the Quiché-Cakchiquel Empire, are not abundant,<a name="FNanchor_923_923" id="FNanchor_923_923"></a><a href="#Footnote_923_923" class="fnanchor">[923]</a> but the most important are the -<i>Popul Vuh</i>, a traditional book of the Quichés, and the <i>Memorial de Tecpan-Atitlan</i>.</p> - -<p>The <i>Popul Vuh</i> was discovered in the library of the university at Guatemala, probably -not far from 1700,<a name="FNanchor_924_924" id="FNanchor_924_924"></a><a href="#Footnote_924_924" class="fnanchor">[924]</a> by Francisco Ximenez, a missionary in a mountain village of the -country. Ximenez did not find the original Quiché book, but a copy of it, made after it -was lost, and later than the Conquest, which we may infer was reproduced from memory -to replace the lost text, and in this way it may have received some admixture of Christian -thought.<a name="FNanchor_925_925" id="FNanchor_925_925"></a><a href="#Footnote_925_925" class="fnanchor">[925]</a> It was this sort of a text that Ximenez turned into Spanish; and this version, -with the copy of the Quiché, which Ximenez also made, is what has come down to us. -Karl Scherzer, a German traveller<a name="FNanchor_926_926" id="FNanchor_926_926"></a><a href="#Footnote_926_926" class="fnanchor">[926]</a> in the country, found Ximenez’ work, which had -seemingly passed into the university library on the suppression of the monasteries, and -which, as he supposes, had not been printed because of some disagreeable things in -it about the Spanish treatment of the natives. Scherzer edited the MS., which was -published as <i>Las Historias del Origen de los Indios de Esta Provincia de Guatemala</i><a name="FNanchor_927_927" id="FNanchor_927_927"></a><a href="#Footnote_927_927" class="fnanchor">[927]</a> -(Vienna, 1857).</p> - -<p>Brasseur, who had seen the Ximenez MSS. in 1855, considered the Spanish version -untrustworthy, and so with the aid of some natives he gave it a French rendering, and -republished it a few years later as <i>Popol Vuh</i>. <i>Le Livre sacré et les Mythes de l’antiquité -américaine, avec les livres héroïques et historiques des Quichés. Ouvrage original des -indigènes de Guatémala, texte Quiché et trad. française en regard, accompagnée de notes -philologiques et d’un commentaire sur la mythologie et les migrations des peuples anciens -de l’Amérique, etc., composé sur des documents originaux et inédits</i> (Paris, 1861).</p> - -<p>Brasseur’s introduction bears the special title: <i>Dissertation sur les mythes de l’antiquité -Américaine sur la probabilité des Communications existant anciennement d’un Continent -à l’autre, et sur les migrations des peuples indigènes de l’Amérique</i>,—in which he took -occasion to elucidate his theory of cataclysms and Atlantis. He speaks of his annotations -as the results of his observations among the Quichés and of his prolonged studies. -He calls the <i>Popul Vuh</i> rather a national than a sacred book,<a name="FNanchor_928_928" id="FNanchor_928_928"></a><a href="#Footnote_928_928" class="fnanchor">[928]</a> and thinks it the original in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> -some part of the “Livre divin des Toltèques,” the Teo-Amoxtli.<a name="FNanchor_929_929" id="FNanchor_929_929"></a><a href="#Footnote_929_929" class="fnanchor">[929]</a> Brinton avers that -neither Ximenez nor Brasseur has adequately translated the Quiché text,<a name="FNanchor_930_930" id="FNanchor_930_930"></a><a href="#Footnote_930_930" class="fnanchor">[930]</a> and sees no -reason to think that the matter has been in any way influenced by the Spanish contact, -emanating indeed long before that event; and he has based some studies upon it.<a name="FNanchor_931_931" id="FNanchor_931_931"></a><a href="#Footnote_931_931" class="fnanchor">[931]</a> In -this opinion Bandelier is at variance, at least as regards the first portion, for he believes -it to have been <i>written</i> after the Conquest and under Christian influences.<a name="FNanchor_932_932" id="FNanchor_932_932"></a><a href="#Footnote_932_932" class="fnanchor">[932]</a> Brasseur in -some of his other writings has further discussed the matter.<a name="FNanchor_933_933" id="FNanchor_933_933"></a><a href="#Footnote_933_933" class="fnanchor">[933]</a></p> - -<p>The <i>Memorial of Tecpan-Atitlan</i>, to use Brasseur’s title, is an incomplete MS.,<a name="FNanchor_934_934" id="FNanchor_934_934"></a><a href="#Footnote_934_934" class="fnanchor">[934]</a> -found in 1844 by Juan Gavarrete in rearranging the MSS. of the convent of San Francisco, -of Guatemala, and it was by Gavarrete that a Spanish version of Brasseur’s rendering -was printed in 1873 in the <i>Boletin de la Sociedad económica de Guatemala</i> (nos. -29-43). This translation by Brasseur, made in 1856, was never printed by him, but, passing -into Pinart’s hands with Brasseur’s collections,<a name="FNanchor_935_935" id="FNanchor_935_935"></a><a href="#Footnote_935_935" class="fnanchor">[935]</a> it was entrusted by that collector to -Dr. Brinton, who selected the parts of interest (46 out of 96 pp.), and included it as vol. vi. -in his <i>Library of Aboriginal American Literature</i>, under the title of <i>The annals of the -Cakchiquels</i>. <i>The original text, with a translation, notes, and introduction</i> (Philadelphia, -1885).</p> - -<p>Brinton disagrees with Brasseur in placing the date of its beginning towards the opening -of the eleventh century, and puts it rather at about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1380. Brasseur says he -received the original from Gavarrete, and it would seem to have been a copy made between -1620 and 1650, though it bears internal evidence of having been written by one -who was of adult age at the time of the Conquest.</p> - -<p>Brinton’s introduction discusses the ethnological position of the Cakchiquels, who he -thinks had been separated from the Mayas for a long period.</p> - -<p>The next in importance of the Guatemalan books is the work of Francisco Antonio de -Fuentes y Guzman, <i>Historia de Guatemala, ó Recordación florida escrita el siglo xvii., que -publica por primera vez con notas é ilustraciones F. Zaragoza</i> (Madrid, 1882-83), being -vols. 1 and 2 of the <i>Biblioteca de los americanistas</i>. The original MS., dated 1690, is in -the archives of the city of Guatemala. Owing to a tendency of the author to laud the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> -natives, modern historians have looked with some suspicion on his authority, and have -pointed out inconsistencies and suspected errors.<a name="FNanchor_936_936" id="FNanchor_936_936"></a><a href="#Footnote_936_936" class="fnanchor">[936]</a> Of a later writer, Ramon de Ordoñez -(died about 1840), we have only the rough draught of a <i>Historia de la creation del Cielo y -de la tierra, conforme al sistema de la gentilidad Americana</i>, which is of importance for -traditions.<a name="FNanchor_937_937" id="FNanchor_937_937"></a><a href="#Footnote_937_937" class="fnanchor">[937]</a> This manuscript, preserved in the Museo Nacional in Mexico, is all that now -exists, representing the perfected work. Brasseur (<i>Bib. Mex.-Guat.</i>, 113) had a copy of -this draught (made in 1848-49). The original fair copy was sent to Madrid for the press, -and it is suspected that the Council for the Indies suppressed it in 1805. Ramon cites a -manuscript <i>Hist. de la Prov. de San Vicente de Chiappas y Goathemala</i>, which is perhaps -the same as the <i>Crónica de la Prov. de Chiapas y Guatemala</i>, of which the seventh book -is in the Museo Nacional (<i>Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, n. s., i. 97; Brasseur, <i>Bib. Mex.-Guat.</i>, -157).</p> - -<p>The work of Antonio de Remesal is sometimes cited as <i>Historia general de las Indias -occidentales, y particular de la gobernacion de Chiapas y Guatemala</i>, and sometimes as -<i>Historia de la Provincia de San Vicente de Chyapa y Guatemala</i> (Madrid, 1619, 1620).<a name="FNanchor_938_938" id="FNanchor_938_938"></a><a href="#Footnote_938_938" class="fnanchor">[938]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">Bandelier (<i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, i. 95) has indicated the leading sources of the history -of Chiapas, so closely associated with Guatemala. To round the study of the aboriginal -period of this Pacific region, we may find something in Alvarado’s letters on the -Conquest;<a name="FNanchor_939_939" id="FNanchor_939_939"></a><a href="#Footnote_939_939" class="fnanchor">[939]</a> in Las Casas for the interior parts, and in Alonso de Zurita’s <i>Relacion</i>, 1560,<a name="FNanchor_940_940" id="FNanchor_940_940"></a><a href="#Footnote_940_940" class="fnanchor">[940]</a> -as respects the Quiché tribes, which is the source of much in Herrera.<a name="FNanchor_941_941" id="FNanchor_941_941"></a><a href="#Footnote_941_941" class="fnanchor">[941]</a> For Oajaca (Oaxaca, -Guaxaca) the special source is Francisco de Burgoa’s <i>Geográfica descripcion de la -parte septentrional del Polo Artico de la América</i>, etc. (México, 1674), in two quarto volumes,—or -at least it is generally so regarded. Bandelier, who traces the works on Oajaca -(<i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, n. s., i. 115), says there is a book of a modern writer, Juan B. -Carriedo, which follows Burgoa largely. Brasseur (<i>Bib. Mex.-Guat.</i>, p. 33) speaks of -Burgoa as the only source which remains of the native history of Oajaca. He says it is a -very rare book, even in Mexico. He largely depends upon its full details in some parts -of his <i>Nations Civilisées</i> (iii. livre 9). Alonso de la Rea’s <i>Crónica de Mechoacan</i> (Mexico, -1648) and Basalenque’s <i>Crónica de San Augustin de Mechoacan</i> (Mexico, 1673) are books -which Brinton complains he could find in no library in the United States.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></p> - -<p>We trace the aboriginal condition of Nicaragua in Peter Martyr, Oviedo, Torquemada, -and Ixtlilxochitl.<a name="FNanchor_942_942" id="FNanchor_942_942"></a><a href="#Footnote_942_942" class="fnanchor">[942]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">The earliest general account of all these ancient peoples which we have in English is -in the <i>History of America</i>, by William Robertson, who describes the condition of Mexico -at the time of the Conquest, and epitomizes the early Spanish accounts of the natives. -Prescott and Helps followed in his steps, with new facilities. Albert Gallatin brought the -powers of a vigorous intellect to bear, though but cursorily, upon the subject, in his -“Notes on the semi-civilized nations of Mexico, Yucatan, and Central America,” in the -<i>Amer. Ethnological Society’s Transactions</i> (N. Y., 1845, vol. i.), and he was about the -first to recognize the dangerous pitfalls of the pseudo-historical narratives of these peoples. -The <i>Native Races</i><a name="FNanchor_943_943" id="FNanchor_943_943"></a><a href="#Footnote_943_943" class="fnanchor">[943]</a> of H. H. Bancroft was the first very general sifting and massing -in English of the great confusion of material upon their condition, myths, languages, antiquities, -and history.<a name="FNanchor_944_944" id="FNanchor_944_944"></a><a href="#Footnote_944_944" class="fnanchor">[944]</a> The archæological remains are treated by Stephens for Yucatan -and Central America, by Dr. Le Plongeon<a name="FNanchor_945_945" id="FNanchor_945_945"></a><a href="#Footnote_945_945" class="fnanchor">[945]</a> for Yucatan, by Ephraim G. Squier for Nicaragua -and Central America in general,<a name="FNanchor_946_946" id="FNanchor_946_946"></a><a href="#Footnote_946_946" class="fnanchor">[946]</a> by Adolphe F. A. Bandelier in his communications -to the Peabody Museum and to the Archæological Institute of America,<a name="FNanchor_947_947" id="FNanchor_947_947"></a><a href="#Footnote_947_947" class="fnanchor">[947]</a> and by -Professor Daniel G. Brinton in his editing of ancient records<a name="FNanchor_948_948" id="FNanchor_948_948"></a><a href="#Footnote_948_948" class="fnanchor">[948]</a> and in his mythological -and linguistic studies, referred to elsewhere. To these may be added, as completing the -English references, various records of personal observations.<a name="FNanchor_949_949" id="FNanchor_949_949"></a><a href="#Footnote_949_949" class="fnanchor">[949]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span></p> - -<div class="floatleft"> - <img src="images/ill-220.jpg" width="250" height="285" id="i170" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG.</p> - <p class="pf250">Follows an etching published in the <i>Annuaire de la Société Américaine de France</i>, 1875. He died at -Nice, Jan. 8, 1874, aged 59 years.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>During the American Civil War, when there were hopes of some permanence for French -influence in Mexico, the French government made some organized efforts to further the -study of the antiquities of the country, and the results were published in the <i>Archives -de la Commission Scientifique du Méxique</i> -(Paris, 1864-69, in 3 vols.).<a name="FNanchor_950_950" id="FNanchor_950_950"></a><a href="#Footnote_950_950" class="fnanchor">[950]</a> The -Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg, who took -a conspicuous part in this labor, has -probably done more than any other -Frenchman to bring into order the studies -upon these ancient races, and in -some directions he is our ultimate -source. Unfortunately his character as -an archæological expounder did not improve -as he went on, and he grew to be -the expositor of some wild notions that -have proved acceptable to few. He -tells us that he first had his attention -turned to American archæology by the -report, which had a short run in European -circles, of the discovery of a Macedonian -helmet and weapons in Brazil -in 1832, and by a review of Rio’s report -on Palenqué, which he read in the -<i>Journal des Savants</i>. Upon coming -to America, fresh from his studies in -Rome, he was made professor of history -in the seminary at Quebec in 1845-46, writing at that time a <i>Histoire du Canada</i>, of little -value. Later, in Boston, he perfected his English and read Prescott. Then we find him -at Rome poring over the <i>Codex Vaticanus</i>, and studying the <i>Codex Borgianus</i> in the -library of the Propaganda. In 1848 he returned to the United States, and, embarking at -New Orleans for Mexico, he found himself on shipboard in the company of the new French -minister, whom he accompanied, on landing, to the city of Mexico, being made almoner to -the legation. This official station gave him some advantage in beginning his researches, -in which Rafael Isidro Gondra, the director of the Museo, with the curators of the vice-regal -archives, and José Maria Andrade, the librarian of the university, assisted him.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> -Later he gave himself to the study of the Nahua tongue, under the guidance of Faustino -Chimalpopoca Galicia, a descendant of a brother of Montezuma, then a professor in the -college of San Gregorio. In 1851 he was ready to print at Mexico, in French and Spanish, -his <i>Lettres pour servir d’introduction à l’histoire primitive des anciennes nations civilisées -du Méxique</i>, addressed (October, 1850) to the Duc de Valmy, in which he sketched -the progress of his studies up to that time. He speaks of it as “le premier fruit de mes -travaux d’archéologie et d’histoire méxicaines.”<a name="FNanchor_951_951" id="FNanchor_951_951"></a><a href="#Footnote_951_951" class="fnanchor">[951]</a> It was this brochure which introduced -him to the attention of Squier and Aubin, and from the latter, during his residence in -Paris (1851-54), he received great assistance. Pressed in his circumstances, he was -obliged at this time to eke out his living by popular writing, which helped also to enable -him to publish his successive works.<a name="FNanchor_952_952" id="FNanchor_952_952"></a><a href="#Footnote_952_952" class="fnanchor">[952]</a> To complete his Central American studies, he -went again to America in 1854, and in Washington he saw for the first time the texts of -Las Casas and Duran, in the collection of Peter Force, who had got copies from Madrid. -He has given us<a name="FNanchor_953_953" id="FNanchor_953_953"></a><a href="#Footnote_953_953" class="fnanchor">[953]</a> an account of his successful search for old manuscripts in Central America. -Finally, as the result of all these studies, he published his most important work,—<i>Histoire -des nations civilisées du Méxique et de l’Amérique centrale durant les siècles antérieurs -à C. Colomb, écrite sur des docs. origin. et entièrement inédits, puisés aux anciennes -archives des indigènes</i> (Paris, 1857-58).<a name="FNanchor_954_954" id="FNanchor_954_954"></a><a href="#Footnote_954_954" class="fnanchor">[954]</a> This was the first orderly and extensive effort -to combine out of all available material, native and Spanish, a divisionary and consecutive -history of ante-Columbian times in these regions, to which he added from the native -sources a new account of the conquest by the Spaniards. His purpose to separate the -historic from the mythical may incite criticism, but his views are the result of more labor -and more knowledge than any one before him had brought to the subject.<a name="FNanchor_955_955" id="FNanchor_955_955"></a><a href="#Footnote_955_955" class="fnanchor">[955]</a> In his later -publications there is less reason to be satisfied with his results, and Brinton<a name="FNanchor_956_956" id="FNanchor_956_956"></a><a href="#Footnote_956_956" class="fnanchor">[956]</a> even thinks -that “he had a weakness to throw designedly considerable obscurity about his authorities -and the sources of his knowledge.” His fellow-students almost invariably yield praise to -his successful research and to his great learning, surpassing perhaps that of any of them, -but they are one and all chary of adopting his later theories.<a name="FNanchor_957_957" id="FNanchor_957_957"></a><a href="#Footnote_957_957" class="fnanchor">[957]</a> These were expressed at -length in his <i>Quatre lettres sur le Mexique</i>. <i>Exposition du système hiéroglyphique mexicain. -La fin de l’âge de pierre. Époque glaciaire temporaire. Commencement de l’âge -de bronze. Origines de la civilisation et des religions de l’antiquité. D’après le Teo-Amoxtli</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> -[etc.] (Paris, 1868), wherein he accounted as mere symbolism what he had earlier -elucidated as historical records, and connected the recital of the <i>Codex Chimalpopoca</i> with -the story of Atlantis, making that lost land the original seat of all old-world and new-world -civilization, and finding in that sacred history of Colhuacan and Mexico the secret evidence -of a mighty cataclysm that sunk the continent from Honduras (subsequently with -Yucatan elevated) to perhaps the Canaries.<a name="FNanchor_958_958" id="FNanchor_958_958"></a><a href="#Footnote_958_958" class="fnanchor">[958]</a> Two years later, in his elucidation of the -<i>MS. Troano</i> (1869-70), this same theory governed all his study. Brasseur was quite -aware of the loss of estimation which followed upon his erratic change of opinion, as the -introduction to his <i>Bibl. Mex.-Guatémalienne</i> shows. No other French writer, however, -has so associated his name with the history of these early peoples.<a name="FNanchor_959_959" id="FNanchor_959_959"></a><a href="#Footnote_959_959" class="fnanchor">[959]</a></p> - -<p>In Mexico itself the earliest general narrative was not cast in the usual historical form, -but in the guise of a dialogue, held night after night, between a Spaniard and an Indian, -the ancient history of the country was recounted. The author, Joseph Joaquin Granados -y Galvez, published it in 1778, as <i>Tardes Américanas: gobierno gentil y católico: breve y -particular noticia de toda la historia Indiana: sucesos, casos notables, y cosas ignoradas, -desde la entrada de la Gran nacion Tulteca á esta tierra de Anahuac, hasta los presentes -tiempos</i>.<a name="FNanchor_960_960" id="FNanchor_960_960"></a><a href="#Footnote_960_960" class="fnanchor">[960]</a></p> - -<p>The most comprehensive grouping of historical material is in the <i>Diccionario Universal -de historia y de Geografía</i> (Mexico, 1853-56),<a name="FNanchor_961_961" id="FNanchor_961_961"></a><a href="#Footnote_961_961" class="fnanchor">[961]</a> of which Manuel Orozco y Berra was one -of the chief collaborators. This last author has in two other works added very much to -our knowledge of the racial and ancient history of the indigenous peoples. These are his -<i>Geografía de las lenguas y Carta Etnográfica de México</i> (Mexico, 1864),<a name="FNanchor_962_962" id="FNanchor_962_962"></a><a href="#Footnote_962_962" class="fnanchor">[962]</a> and his <i>Historia -antigua y de la Conquista de México</i> (Mexico, 1880, in four volumes).<a name="FNanchor_963_963" id="FNanchor_963_963"></a><a href="#Footnote_963_963" class="fnanchor">[963]</a> Perhaps -the most important of all the Mexican publications is Manuel Larrainzar’s <i>Estudios sobre -la historia de América, sus ruinas y antigüedades, comparadas con lo más notable del otro -Continente</i> (Mexico, 1875-1878, in five volumes).</p> - -<p>In German the most important of recent books is Hermann Strebel’s <i>Alt-Mexico</i> (Hamburg, -1885); but Waitz’s <i>Amerikaner</i> (1864, vol. ii.) has a section on the Mexicans. Adolph -Bastian’s “Zur Geschichte des Alten Mexico” is contained in the second volume of his -<i>Culturländer des Alten America</i> (Berlin, 1878), in which he considers the subject of Quetzalcoatl, -the religious ceremonial, administrative and social life, as well as the different -stocks of the native tribes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/d2.jpg" width="200" height="63" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<h3 class="p2"><a name="c173" id="c173">NOTES.</a></h3> - -<p class="pc1"><a name="n173" id="n173">I.</a><span class="smcap">The Authorities on the so-called Civilization of Ancient Mexico and Adjacent Lands, -and the Interpretation of such Authorities.</span></p> - -<p class="drop-cap04">THE ancient so-called civilization which the Spaniards found in Mexico and Central America is the subject -of much controversy: in the first place as regards its origin, whether indigenous, or allied to and derived from -the civilizations of the Old World; and in the second place as regards its character, whether it was something -more than a kind of grotesque barbarism, or of a nature that makes even the Spanish culture, which supplanted -it, inferior in some respects by comparison.<a name="FNanchor_964_964" id="FNanchor_964_964"></a><a href="#Footnote_964_964" class="fnanchor">[964]</a> The first of these problems, as regards its origin, is considered -in another place. As respects the second, or its character, it is proposed here to follow the history of opinions.</p> - -<p>In a book published at Seville in 1519, Martin Fernandez d’Enciso’s <i>Suma de geographia que trata de todas -las partidas y provincias del mundo: en especial de las Indias</i>,<a name="FNanchor_965_965" id="FNanchor_965_965"></a><a href="#Footnote_965_965" class="fnanchor">[965]</a> the European reader is supposed to have -received the earliest hints of the degree of civilization—if it be so termed—of which the succeeding Spanish -writers made so much. A brief sentence was thus the shadowy beginning of the stories of grandeur and magnificence<a name="FNanchor_966_966" id="FNanchor_966_966"></a><a href="#Footnote_966_966" class="fnanchor">[966]</a> -which we find later in Cortes, Bernal Diaz, Las Casas, Torquemada, Sahagún, Ramusio, Gomara, -Oviedo, Zurita, Tezozomoc, and Ixtlilxochitl, and which is repeated often with accumulating effect in Acosta, -Herrera, Lorenzana, Solis, Clavigero, and their successors.<a name="FNanchor_967_967" id="FNanchor_967_967"></a><a href="#Footnote_967_967" class="fnanchor">[967]</a> Bandelier<a name="FNanchor_968_968" id="FNanchor_968_968"></a><a href="#Footnote_968_968" class="fnanchor">[968]</a> points out how Robertson, in his views -of Mexican civilization as in “the infancy of civil life,”<a name="FNanchor_969_969" id="FNanchor_969_969"></a><a href="#Footnote_969_969" class="fnanchor">[969]</a> really opened the view for the first time of the exaggerated -and uncritical estimates of the older writers, which Morgan has carried in our day to the highest -pitch, and, as it would seem, without sufficient recognition of some of the contrary evidence.</p> - -<p>It has usually been held that the creation among the Mexicans about thirty years after the founding of Mexico -of a chief-of-men (Tlacatecuhtli) instituted a feudal monarchy. Bandelier,<a name="FNanchor_970_970" id="FNanchor_970_970"></a><a href="#Footnote_970_970" class="fnanchor">[970]</a> speaking of the application of -feudal terms by the old writers to Mexican institutions, says: “What in their first process of thinking was -merely a comparative, became very soon a positive terminology for the purpose of describing institutions to -which this foreign terminology never was adapted.” He instances that the so-called “king” of these early -writers was a translation of the native term, which in fact only meant “one of those who spoke;” that is, a -prominent member of the council.<a name="FNanchor_971_971" id="FNanchor_971_971"></a><a href="#Footnote_971_971" class="fnanchor">[971]</a> Bandelier traces the beginning of the feudal ideas as a graft upon the -native systems, in the oldest document issued by Europeans on Mexican soil, when Cortes (May 20, 1519) conferred -land on his allies, the chiefs of Axapusco and Tepeyahualco, and for the first time made their offices -hereditary. It is Bandelier’s opinion that “the grantees had no conception of the true import of what they -accepted; neither did Cortes conceive the nature of their ideas.” This was followed after the Spanish occupation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> -of Mexico by the institution of “repartimientos,” through which the natives became serfs of the soil to the -conquerors.<a name="FNanchor_972_972" id="FNanchor_972_972"></a><a href="#Footnote_972_972" class="fnanchor">[972]</a></p> - -<p>The story about this unknown splendor of a strange civilization fascinated the world nearly half a century ago -in the kindly recital of Prescott;<a name="FNanchor_973_973" id="FNanchor_973_973"></a><a href="#Footnote_973_973" class="fnanchor">[973]</a> but it was observed that he quoted too often the somewhat illusory and -exaggerated statements of Ixtlilxochitl, and was not a little attracted by the gorgeous pictures of Waldeck and -Dupaix. With such a charming depicter, the barbaric gorgeousness of this ancient empire, as it became the -fashion to call it, gathered a new interest, which has never waned, and Morgan<a name="FNanchor_974_974" id="FNanchor_974_974"></a><a href="#Footnote_974_974" class="fnanchor">[974]</a> is probably correct in affirming -that it “has called into existence a larger number of works than were ever before written upon any people of -the same number and of the same importance.”<a name="FNanchor_975_975" id="FNanchor_975_975"></a><a href="#Footnote_975_975" class="fnanchor">[975]</a> Even those who, like Tylor, had gone to Mexico sceptics, had -been forced to the conclusion that Prescott’s pictures were substantially correct, and setting aside what he felt -to be the monstrous exaggerations of Solis, Gomara, and the rest, he could not find the history much less trustworthy -than European history of the same period.<a name="FNanchor_976_976" id="FNanchor_976_976"></a><a href="#Footnote_976_976" class="fnanchor">[976]</a> It has been told in another place<a name="FNanchor_977_977" id="FNanchor_977_977"></a><a href="#Footnote_977_977" class="fnanchor">[977]</a> how the derogatory -view, as opposed to the views of Prescott, were expressed by R. A. Wilson in his <i>New Conquest of Mexico</i>, in -assuming that all the conquerors said was baseless fabrication, the European Montezuma becoming a petty -Indian chief, and the great city of Mexico a collection of hovels in an everglade,—the ruins of the country -being accounted for by supposing them the relics of an ancient Phœnician civilization, which had been stamped -out by the inroads of barbarians, whose equally barbarious descendants the Spaniards were in turn to overcome. -It cannot be said that such iconoclastic opinions obtained any marked acceptance; but it was apparent -that the notion of the exaggeration of the Spanish accounts was becoming sensibly fixed in the world’s opinion. -We see this reaction in a far less excessive way in Daniel Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i> (i. 325, etc.), and he was -struck, among other things, with the utter obliteration of the architectural traces of the conquered race in the -city of Mexico itself.<a name="FNanchor_978_978" id="FNanchor_978_978"></a><a href="#Footnote_978_978" class="fnanchor">[978]</a> When, in 1875, Hubert H. Bancroft published the second volume of his <i>Native Races</i>, -he confessed “that much concerning the Aztec civilization had been greatly exaggerated by the old Spanish -writers, and for obvious reasons;” but he contended that the stories of their magnificence must in the main be -accepted, because of the unanimity of witnesses, notwithstanding their copying from one another, and because -of the evidence of the ruins.<a name="FNanchor_979_979" id="FNanchor_979_979"></a><a href="#Footnote_979_979" class="fnanchor">[979]</a> He strikes his key-note in his chapter on the “Government of the Nahua Nations,” -in speaking of it as “monarchical and nearly absolute;”<a name="FNanchor_980_980" id="FNanchor_980_980"></a><a href="#Footnote_980_980" class="fnanchor">[980]</a> but it was perhaps in his chapter on the “Palaces -and Households of the Nahua Kings,” where he fortifies his statement by numerous references, that he carried -his descriptions to the extent that allied his opinions to those who most unhesitatingly accepted the old stories.<a name="FNanchor_981_981" id="FNanchor_981_981"></a><a href="#Footnote_981_981" class="fnanchor">[981]</a></p> - -<p>The most serious arraignment of these long-accepted views was by Lewis H. Morgan, who speaks of them -as having “caught the imagination and overcome the critical judgment of Prescott, ravaged the sprightly brain -of Brasseur de Bourbourg, and carried up in a whirlwind our author at the Golden Gate.”<a name="FNanchor_982_982" id="FNanchor_982_982"></a><a href="#Footnote_982_982" class="fnanchor">[982]</a></p> - -<p>Morgan’s studies had been primarily among the Iroquois, and by analogy he had applied his reasoning to the -aboriginal conditions of Mexico and Central America, thus degrading their so-called civilization to the level of -the Indian tribal organization, as it was understood in the North.<a name="FNanchor_983_983" id="FNanchor_983_983"></a><a href="#Footnote_983_983" class="fnanchor">[983]</a> Morgan’s confidence in its deductions was -perfect, and he was not very gracious in alluding to the views of his opponents. He looked upon “the fabric of -Aztec romance as the most deadly encumbrance upon American ethnology.”<a name="FNanchor_984_984" id="FNanchor_984_984"></a><a href="#Footnote_984_984" class="fnanchor">[984]</a> The Spanish chroniclers, as he -contended, “inaugurated American aboriginal history upon a misconception of Indian life, which has remained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> -substantially unquestioned till recently.”<a name="FNanchor_985_985" id="FNanchor_985_985"></a><a href="#Footnote_985_985" class="fnanchor">[985]</a> He charges upon ignorance of the structure and principles of Indian -society, the perversion of all the writers,<a name="FNanchor_986_986" id="FNanchor_986_986"></a><a href="#Footnote_986_986" class="fnanchor">[986]</a> from Cortes to Bancroft, who, as he says, unable to comprehend its -peculiarities, invoked the imagination to supply whatever was necessary to fill out the picture.<a name="FNanchor_987_987" id="FNanchor_987_987"></a><a href="#Footnote_987_987" class="fnanchor">[987]</a> The actual -condition to which the Indians of Spanish America had reached was, according to his schedule, the upper status -of barbarism, between which and the beginning of civilization he reckoned an entire ethnical period. “In the -art of government they had not been able to rise above gentile institutions and establish political society. -This fact,” Morgan continues, “demonstrates the impossibility of privileged classes and of potentates, under -their institutions, with power to enforce the labor of the people for the erection of palaces for their use, and -explains the absence of such structures.”<a name="FNanchor_988_988" id="FNanchor_988_988"></a><a href="#Footnote_988_988" class="fnanchor">[988]</a></p> - -<p>This is the essence of the variance of the two schools of interpretation of the Aztec and Maya life. The -reader of Bancroft will find, on the other hand, due recognition of an imperial system, with its monarch and -nobles and classes of slaves, and innumerable palaces, of which we see to-day the ruins. The studies of Bandelier -are appealed to by Morgan as substantiating his view.<a name="FNanchor_989_989" id="FNanchor_989_989"></a><a href="#Footnote_989_989" class="fnanchor">[989]</a> Mrs. Zelia Nuttall (<i>Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci.</i>, -Aug., 1886) claims to be able to show that the true interpretation of the Borgian and other codices points in -part at least to details of a communal life.</p> - -<p>The special issues which for a test Morgan takes with Bancroft are in regard to the character of the house -in which Montezuma lived, and of the dinner which is represented by Bernal Diaz and the rest as the daily -banquet of an imperial potentate. Morgan’s criticism is in his <i>Houses and House Life of the American Aborigines</i> -(Washington, 1881).<a name="FNanchor_990_990" id="FNanchor_990_990"></a><a href="#Footnote_990_990" class="fnanchor">[990]</a> The basis of this book had been intended for a fifth Part of his <i>Ancient Society</i>, -but was not used in that publication. He printed the material, however, in papers on “Montezuma’s Dinner” -(<i>No. Am. Rev.</i>, Ap. 1876), “Houses of the Moundbuilders” (<i>Ibid.</i>, July, 1876), and “Study of the Houses -and House Life of the Indian Tribes” (<i>Archæol. Inst. of Amer. Publ.</i>). These papers amalgamated now -make the work called <i>Houses and House Life</i>.<a name="FNanchor_991_991" id="FNanchor_991_991"></a><a href="#Footnote_991_991" class="fnanchor">[991]</a></p> - -<p>Morgan argues that a communal mode of living accords with the usages of aboriginal hospitality, as well as -with their tenure of lands,<a name="FNanchor_992_992" id="FNanchor_992_992"></a><a href="#Footnote_992_992" class="fnanchor">[992]</a> and with the large buildings, which others call palaces, and he calls joint tenement -houses. He instances, as evidence of the size of such houses, that at Cholula four hundred Spaniards and one -thousand allied Indians found lodging in such a house; and he points to Stephens’s description of similar communal -establishments which he found in our day near Uxmal.<a name="FNanchor_993_993" id="FNanchor_993_993"></a><a href="#Footnote_993_993" class="fnanchor">[993]</a> He holds that the inference of communal -living from such data as these is sufficient to warrant a belief in it, although none of the early Spanish writers -mention such communism as existing; while they actually describe a communal feast in what is known as -Montezuma’s dinner;<a name="FNanchor_994_994" id="FNanchor_994_994"></a><a href="#Footnote_994_994" class="fnanchor">[994]</a> and while the plans of the large buildings now seen in ruins are exactly in accord with -the demands of separate families united in joint occupancy. In such groups, he holds, there is usually one building -devoted to the purpose of a Tecpan, or official house of the tribe.<a name="FNanchor_995_995" id="FNanchor_995_995"></a><a href="#Footnote_995_995" class="fnanchor">[995]</a> Under the pressure to labor, which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> -Spaniards inflicted on their occupants, these communal dwellers were driven, to escape such servitude, into the -forest, and thus their houses fell into decay. Morgan’s views attracted the adhesion of not a few archæologists, -like Bandelier and Dawson; but in Bancroft, as contravening the spirit of his <i>Native Races</i>, they begat -feelings that substituted disdain for convincing arguments.<a name="FNanchor_996_996" id="FNanchor_996_996"></a><a href="#Footnote_996_996" class="fnanchor">[996]</a> The less passionate controversialists point out, -with more effect, how hazardous it is, in coming to conclusions on the quality of the Nahua, Maya, or Quiché -conditions of life, to ignore such evidences as those of the hieroglyphics, the calendars, the architecture and -carvings, the literature and the industries, as evincing quite another kind, rather than degree, of progress, -from that of the northern Indians.<a name="FNanchor_997_997" id="FNanchor_997_997"></a><a href="#Footnote_997_997" class="fnanchor">[997]</a></p> - -<p class="pc1"><a name="n176" id="n176">II.</a><span class="smcap">Bibliographical Notes upon the Ruins and Archæological Remains of Mexico and -Central America.</span></p> - -<p class="p1">Elsewhere in this work some account is given of the comprehensive treatment of American antiquities. It -is the purpose of this note to characterize such other descriptions as have been specially confined to the -antiquities of Mexico, Central America, and adjacent parts; together with noting occasionally those more -comprehensive works which have sections on these regions. The earliest and most distinguished of all such -treatises are the writings of Alexander von Humboldt,<a name="FNanchor_998_998" id="FNanchor_998_998"></a><a href="#Footnote_998_998" class="fnanchor">[998]</a> to whom may be ascribed the paternity of what the -French define as the Science of Americanism, which, however, took more definite shape and invited discipleship -when the Société Américaine de France was formed, and Aubin in his <i>Mémoire sur la peinture didactique -et l’écriture figurative des Anciens Méxicains</i> furnished a standard of scholarship. How new this -science was may be deduced from the fact that Robertson, the most distinguished authority on early American -history, who wrote in English, in the last part of the preceding century, had ventured to say that in all New -Spain there was not “a single monument or vestige of any building more ancient than the Conquest.” After -Humboldt, the most famous of what may be called the pioneers of this art were Kingsborough, Dupaix, and -Waldeck, whose publications are sufficiently described elsewhere. The most startling developments came from -the expeditions of Stephens and Catherwood, the former mingling both in his <i>Central America</i> and <i>Yucatan</i> -the charms of a personal narrative with his archæological studies, while the draughtsman, beside furnishing the -sketches for Stephens’s book, embodied his drawings on a larger scale in the publication which passes under -his own name.<a name="FNanchor_999_999" id="FNanchor_999_999"></a><a href="#Footnote_999_999" class="fnanchor">[999]</a> The explorations of Charnay are those which have excited the most interest of late years, -though equally significant results have been produced by such special explorers as Squier in Nicaragua, Le -Plongeon in Yucatan, and Bandelier in Mexico.</p> - -<p>The labors of the French archæologist, which began in 1858, resulted in the work <i>Cités et ruines Américaines:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> -Mitla, Palenqué, Izamal, Chichen-Itza, Uxmal, recueillies et photographiées par Désiré Charnay, -avec un Texte par M. Viollet le Duc</i>. (Paris, 1863.) Charnay contributed to this joint publication, beside -the photographs, a paper called “Le Méxique, 1858-61,—souvenirs et impressions de Voyage.” The Architect -Viollet le Duc gives us in the same book an essay by an active, well-equipped, and ingenious mind, -but his speculations about the origin of this Southern civilization and its remains are rather curious than convincing.<a name="FNanchor_1000_1000" id="FNanchor_1000_1000"></a><a href="#Footnote_1000_1000" class="fnanchor">[1000]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-227.jpg" width="400" height="258" id="i177" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">THE PYRAMID OF CHOLULA.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a drawing in Cumplido’s Spanish translation of Prescott’s <i>Mexico</i>, vol. iii. (Mexico, 1846.)</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The public began to learn better what Charnay’s full and hearty confidence in his own sweeping assertions -was, when he again entered the field in a series of papers on the ruins of Central America which he contributed -(1879-81) to the <i>North American Review</i> (vols. cxxxi.-cxxxiii.), and which for the most part reached the -public newly dressed in some of the papers contributed by L. P. Gratacap to the American Antiquarian,<a name="FNanchor_1001_1001" id="FNanchor_1001_1001"></a><a href="#Footnote_1001_1001" class="fnanchor">[1001]</a> -and in a paper by F. A. Ober on “The Ancient Cities of America,” in the <i>Amer. Geog. Soc. Bulletin</i>, Mar., -1888. Charnay took moulds of various sculptures found among the ruins, which were placed in the Trocadero -Museum in Paris.<a name="FNanchor_1002_1002" id="FNanchor_1002_1002"></a><a href="#Footnote_1002_1002" class="fnanchor">[1002]</a> What Charnay communicated in English to the <i>No. Amer. Review</i> appeared in better -shape in French in the <i>Tour du Monde</i> (1886-87), and in a still riper condition in his latest work, <i>Les anciens -villes du Nouveau Monde: voyages d’explorations au Méxique et dans l’Amérique Centrale</i>. 1857-1882. -<i>Ouvrage contenant 214 gravures et 19 cartes ou plans.</i> (Paris, 1885.)<a name="FNanchor_1003_1003" id="FNanchor_1003_1003"></a><a href="#Footnote_1003_1003" class="fnanchor">[1003]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-228.jpg" width="400" height="263" id="i178" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">GREAT MOUND OF CHOLULA.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a sketch in Bandelier’s <i>Archæological Tour</i>, p. 233, who also gives a plan of the mound. The modern Church -of Nuestra Señora de los Remedios is on the summit, where there are no traces of aboriginal works. A paved road leads -to the top. A suburban road skirts its base, and fields of maguey surround it. The circuit of the base is 3859 feet, and -the mound covers nearly twenty acres. Estimates of its height are variously given from 165 to 208 feet, according as one -or another base line is chosen. It is built of adobe brick laid in clay, and it has suffered from erosion, slides, and other -effects of time. There are some traces of steps up the side. Bandelier (pl. xv.) also gives a fac-simile of an old map of -Cholula. The earliest picture which we have of the mound, evidently thought by the first Spaniards to be a natural one, -is in the arms of Cholula (1540). There are other modern cuts in Carbajal-Espinosa’s <i>Mexico</i> (i. 195); <i>Archæologia -Americana</i> (i. 12); Brocklehurst’s <i>Mexico to-day</i>, 182. The degree of restoration which draughtsmen allow to themselves, -accounts in large measure for the great diversity of appearance which the mound makes in the different drawings of it. -There is a professed restoration by Mothes in Armin’s <i>Heutige Mexico</i>, 63, 68, 72. The engraving in Humboldt is -really a restoration (<i>Vues</i>, etc., pl. vii., or pl. viii. of the folio ed.). Bandelier gives a slight sketch of a restoration (p. -246, pl. viii.).</p> -</div></div> - -<p>We proceed now to note geographically some of the principal ruins. In the vicinity of Vera Cruz the pyramid -of Papantla is the conspicuous monument,<a name="FNanchor_1004_1004" id="FNanchor_1004_1004"></a><a href="#Footnote_1004_1004" class="fnanchor">[1004]</a> but there is little else thereabouts needing particular mention. -Among the ruins of the central plateau of Mexico, the famous pyramid of Cholula is best known. The time -of its construction is a matter about which archæologists are not agreed, though it is perhaps to be connected -with the earliest period of the Nahua power. Duran, on the other hand, has told a story of its erection by -the giants, overcome by the Nahuas.<a name="FNanchor_1005_1005" id="FNanchor_1005_1005"></a><a href="#Footnote_1005_1005" class="fnanchor">[1005]</a> Its purpose is equally debatable, whether intended for a memorial, a -refuge, a defence, or a spot of worship—very likely the truth may be divided among them all.<a name="FNanchor_1006_1006" id="FNanchor_1006_1006"></a><a href="#Footnote_1006_1006" class="fnanchor">[1006]</a> It is a similar -problem for divided opinion whether it was built by a great display of human energy, in accordance with the -tradition that the bricks which composed its surface were passed from hand to hand by a line of men, extending -to the spot where they were made leagues away, or constructed by a slower process of accretion, spread -over successive generations, which might not have required any marvellous array of workmen.<a name="FNanchor_1007_1007" id="FNanchor_1007_1007"></a><a href="#Footnote_1007_1007" class="fnanchor">[1007]</a> The fierce -conflict which—as some hold—Cortés had with the natives around the mound and on its slopes settled its -fate; and the demolition begun thereupon, and continued by the furious desolaters of the Church, has been -aided by the erosions of time and the hand of progress, till the great monument has become a ragged and corroded -hill, which might to the casual observer stand for the natural base, given by the Creator, to the modern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> -chapel that now crowns its summit; but if Bandelier’s view (p. 249) is correct, that none of the conquerors -mention it, then the conflict which is recorded took place, not here, but on the vanished mound of Quetzalcoatl,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> -which in Bandelier’s opinion was a different structure from this more famous mound, while other writers -pronounce it the shrine itself of Quetzalcoatl.<a name="FNanchor_1008_1008" id="FNanchor_1008_1008"></a><a href="#Footnote_1008_1008" class="fnanchor">[1008]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-229.jpg" width="400" height="454" id="i179" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">MEXICAN CALENDAR STONE.</p> - <div class="pf400"><p class="pn">After a cut in <i>Harper’s Magazine</i>. An enlarged engraving of the central head is given on the title-page of the present -volume. A photographic reproduction, as the “Stone of the Sun,” is given in Bandelier’s <i>Archæological Tour</i>, p. 54, -where he summarizes the history of it, with references, including a paper by Alfredo Chavero, in the <i>Anales del Museo -nacional de México</i>, and another, with a cut, by P. J. J. Valentini, in <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, April, 1878, and in -<i>The Nation</i>, Aug. 8 and Sept. 19, 1878. Chavero’s explanation is translated in Brocklehurst’s <i>Mexico to-day</i>, p. 186. -The stone is dated in a year corresponding to <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1479, and it was early described in Duran’s <i>Historia de las Indias</i>, -and in Tezozomoc’s <i>Crónica mexicana</i>. Tylor (<i>Anahuac</i>, 238) says that of the drawings made before the days of photography, -that in Carlos Nebel’s <i>Viaje pintoresco y Arqueológico sobre la República Mejicana</i>, 1829-1834 (Paris, 1839), -is the best, while the engravings given by Humboldt (pl. xxiii.) and others are more or less erroneous. Cf. other cuts in -Carbajal’s <i>México</i>, i. 528; Bustamante’s <i>Mañanas de la Alameda</i> (Mexico, 1835-36); Short’s <i>No. Amer. of Antiq.</i>, 408, -451, with references; Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i>, ii. 520; iv. 506; Stevens’s <i>Flint Chips</i>, 309.</p> -<p class="pn">Various calendar disks are figured in Clavigero (Casena, 1780); a colored calendar on agave paper is reproduced in the -<i>Archives de la Commission Scientifique du Méxique</i>, iii. 120. (Quaritch held the original document in Aug., 1888, at -£25, which had belonged to M. Boban.)</p> -<p class="pn">For elucidations of the Mexican astronomical and calendar system see Acosta, vi. cap. 2; Granados y Galvez’s <i>Tardes -Americanas</i> (1778); Humboldt’s essay in connection with pl. xxiii. of his <i>Atlas</i>; Prescott’s <i>Mexico</i>, i. 117; Bollaert in -<i>Memoirs read before the Anthropol. Soc. of London</i>, i. 210; E. G. Squier’s <i>Some new discoveries respecting the dates -on the great calendar stone of the ancient Mexicans, with observations on the Mexican cycle of fifty-two years</i>, in the -<i>American Journal of Science and Arts</i>, 2d ser., March, 1849, pp. 153-157; Abbé J. Pipart’s <i>Astronomie, Chronologie -et rites des Méxicaines</i> in the <i>Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France</i> (n. ser. i.); Brasseur’s <i>Nat. Civ.</i>, iii. livre ii.; -Bancroft’s <i>Nat. Races</i>, ii. ch. 16; Short, ch. 9, with ref., p. 445; Cyrus Thomas in Powell’s <i>Rept. Ethn. Bureau</i>, iii. 7. -Cf. Brinton’s <i>Abor. Amer. Authors</i>, p. 38; Brasseur’s “Chronologie historique des Méxicaines” in the <i>Actes de la Soc. -d’Ethnographie</i> (1872), vol. vi.; Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, i. 355, for the Toltecs as the source of astronomical ideas, -with which compare Bancroft, v. 192; the <i>Bulletin de la Soc. royale Belge de Géog.</i>, Sept., Oct., 1886; and Bandelier -in the <i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i>, ii. 572, for a comparison of calendars.</p> -<p class="pn">Wilson in his <i>Prehistoric Man</i> (i. 246) says: “By the unaided results of native science, the dwellers on the Mexican -plateau had effected an adjustment of civil to solar time so nearly correct that when the Spaniards landed on their coast, -their own reckoning, according to the unreformed Julian calendar, was really eleven days in error, compared with that of -the barbarian nation whose civilization they so speedily effaced.”</p> -<p class="pn">See what Wilson (<i>Prehistoric Man</i>, i. 333) says of the native veneration for this calendar stone, when it was exhumed. -Mrs. Nuttall (<i>Proc. Am. Asso. Adv. Sci.</i>, Aug., 1886) claims to be able to show that this monolith is really a stone which -stood in the Mexican market-place, and was used in regulating the stated market-days.</p></div> -</div></div> - -<p>We have reference to a Cholula mound in some of the earliest writers. Bernal Diaz counted the steps on its -side.<a name="FNanchor_1009_1009" id="FNanchor_1009_1009"></a><a href="#Footnote_1009_1009" class="fnanchor">[1009]</a> Motolinía saw it within ten years of the Conquest, when it was overgrown and much ruined. Sahagún -says it was built for defensive purposes. Rojas, in his <i>Relacion de Cholula</i>, 1581, calls it a fortress, and says the -Spaniards levelled its convex top to plant there a cross, where later, in 1594, they built a chapel. Torquemada, -following Motolinía and the later Mendieta, says it was never finished, and was decayed in his time, though he -traced the different levels. Its interest as a relic thus dates almost from the beginnings of the modern history -of the region. Boturini mentions its four terraces. Clavigero, in 1744, rode up its sides on horseback, impelled -by curiosity, and found it hard work even then to look upon it as other than a natural hill.<a name="FNanchor_1010_1010" id="FNanchor_1010_1010"></a><a href="#Footnote_1010_1010" class="fnanchor">[1010]</a> The earliest of -the critical accounts of it, however, is Humboldt’s, made from examinations in 1803, when much more than -now of its original construction was observable, and his account is the one from which most travellers have -drawn,—the result of close scrutiny in his text and of considerable license in his plate, in which he aimed at -something like a restoration.<a name="FNanchor_1011_1011" id="FNanchor_1011_1011"></a><a href="#Footnote_1011_1011" class="fnanchor">[1011]</a> The latest critical examination is in Bandelier’s “Studies about Cholula and -its vicinity,” making part iii. of his <i>Archæological Tour in Mexico in 1881</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1012_1012" id="FNanchor_1012_1012"></a><a href="#Footnote_1012_1012" class="fnanchor">[1012]</a></p> - -<p>What are called the finest ruins in Mexico are those of Xochicalco, seventy-five miles southwest of the capital, -consisting of a mound of five terraces supported by masonry, with a walled area on the summit. Of late years -a cornfield surrounds what is left of the pyramidal structure, which was its crowning edifice, and which up to -the middle of the last century had five receding stories, though only one now appears. It owes its destruction -to the needs which the proprietors of the neighboring sugar-works have had for its stones. The earliest -account of the ruins appeared in the “Descripcion (1791) de los antiqüedades de Xochicalco” of José Antonio -Alzate y Ramirez, in the <i>Gacetas de Literatura</i> (Mexico, 1790-94, in 3 vols.; reprinted Puebla, 1831, in 4 -vols.), accompanied by plates, which were again used in Pietro Marquez’s <i>Due Antichi Monumenti de Architettura -Messicana</i> (Roma, 1804),<a name="FNanchor_1013_1013" id="FNanchor_1013_1013"></a><a href="#Footnote_1013_1013" class="fnanchor">[1013]</a> with an Italian version of Alzate, from which the French translation in -Dupaix was made. Alzate furnished the basis of the account in Humboldt’s <i>Vues</i> (i. 129; pl. ix. of folio ed.), -and Waldeck (<i>Voyage pitt.</i>, 69) regrets that Humboldt adopted so inexact a description as that of Alzate. -From Nebel (<i>Viage pintoresco</i>) we get our best graphic representations, for Tylor (<i>Anahuac</i>) says that Casteñeda’s -drawings, accompanying Dupaix, are very incorrect. Bancroft says that one, at least, of these drawings -in Kingsborough bears not the slightest resemblance to the one given in Dupaix. In 1835 there were -explorations made under orders of the Mexican government, which were published in the <i>Revista Mexicana</i> -(i. 539,—reprinted in the <i>Diccionario Universal</i>, x. 938). Other accounts, more or less helpful, are given by -Latrobe, Mayer,<a name="FNanchor_1014_1014" id="FNanchor_1014_1014"></a><a href="#Footnote_1014_1014" class="fnanchor">[1014]</a> and in Isador Löwenstern’s <i>Le Méxique</i> (Paris, 1843).<a name="FNanchor_1015_1015" id="FNanchor_1015_1015"></a><a href="#Footnote_1015_1015" class="fnanchor">[1015]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-231.jpg" width="400" height="242" id="i181" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">COURT IN THE MEXICO MUSEUM.</p> - <div class="pf400"><p class="pn"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The opposite view of the court of the Museum is from Charnay, p. 57. He says: “The Museum cannot be -called rich, in so far that there is nothing remarkable in what the visitor is allowed to see.” The vases, which had so -much deceived Charnay, earlier, as to cause him to make casts of them for the Paris Museum, he at a later day pronounced -forgeries; and he says that they, with many others which are seen in public and private museums, were manufactured -at Tlatiloco, a Mexican suburb, between 1820 and 1828. See Holmes on the trade in Mexican spurious relics -in <i>Science</i>, 1886.</p> - -<p class="pn">The reclining statue in the foreground is balanced by one similar to it at an opposite part of the court-yard. One is the -Chac-mool, as Le Plongeon called it, unearthed by him at Chichen-Itza, and appropriated by the Mexican government; -the other was discovered at Tlaxcala.</p> - -<p class="pn">The round stone in the centre is the sacrificial stone dug up in the great square in Mexico, of which an enlarged view -is given on another page.</p> - -<p class="pn">The museum is described in Bancroft, iv. 554; in Mayer’s <i>Mexico as it was</i>, etc., and his <i>Mexico, Aztec, etc.</i>; Fossey’s -<i>Mexique</i>.</p> - -<p class="pn">On Le Plongeon’s discovery of the Chac-mool see <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, Apr., 1877; Oct., 1878, and new series, i. -280; Nadaillac, Eng. tr., 346; Short, 400; Le Plongeon’s <i>Sacred Mysteries</i>, 88, and his paper in the <i>Amer. Geog. Soc. -Journal</i>, ix. 142 (1877). Hamy calls it the Toltec god Tlaloc, the rain-god; and Charnay agrees with him, giving (pp. -366-7) cuts of his and of the one found at Tlaxcala.</p></div> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span></p> - -<p>The ancient Anahuac corresponds mainly to the valley of Mexico city.<a name="FNanchor_1016_1016" id="FNanchor_1016_1016"></a><a href="#Footnote_1016_1016" class="fnanchor">[1016]</a> Bancroft (iv. 497) shows in a -summary way the extent of our knowledge of the scant archæological remains within this central area.<a name="FNanchor_1017_1017" id="FNanchor_1017_1017"></a><a href="#Footnote_1017_1017" class="fnanchor">[1017]</a></p> - -<p>In the city of Mexico not a single relic of the architecture of the earlier peoples remains,<a name="FNanchor_1018_1018" id="FNanchor_1018_1018"></a><a href="#Footnote_1018_1018" class="fnanchor">[1018]</a> though a few -movable sculptured objects are preserved.<a name="FNanchor_1019_1019" id="FNanchor_1019_1019"></a><a href="#Footnote_1019_1019" class="fnanchor">[1019]</a></p> - -<div class="floatleft"> - <img src="images/ill-232.jpg" width="250" height="140" id="i182" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">OLD MEXICAN BRIDGE NEAR TEZCUCO.</p> - <p class="pf250">After a sketch in Tylor’s <i>Anahuac</i>, who thinks it the original <i>Puente de las Bergantinas</i>, where Cortes had his -brigantines launched. The span is about 20 feet, and this Tylor thinks “an immense span for such a construction.” Cf. -H. H. Bancroft, <i>Native Races</i>, iv. 479, 528. Bandelier (<i>Peabody Mus. Reports</i>, ii. 696) doubts its antiquity.</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="p2">Tezcuco, on the other side of the lake from Mexico, -affords some traces of the ante-Conquest architecture, -but has revealed no such interesting movable -relics as have been found in the capital city.<a name="FNanchor_1020_1020" id="FNanchor_1020_1020"></a><a href="#Footnote_1020_1020" class="fnanchor">[1020]</a> -Twenty-five miles north of Mexico are the ruins -of Teotihuacan, which have been abundantly described -by early writers and modern explorers. -Bancroft (iv. 530) makes up his summary mainly -from a Mexican official account, Ramon Almaraz’s -<i>Memoria de los trabajos ejecutados por la comision -cientifica de Pachuca</i> (Mexico, 1865), adding -what was needed to fill out details from Clavigero, -Humboldt, and the later writers.<a name="FNanchor_1021_1021" id="FNanchor_1021_1021"></a><a href="#Footnote_1021_1021" class="fnanchor">[1021]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></p> - -<p>Bancroft (iv. ch. 10), in describing what is known of the remains in the northern parts of Mexico, gives a -summary of what has been written regarding the most famous of these ruins, Quemada in Zacatecas.<a name="FNanchor_1022_1022" id="FNanchor_1022_1022"></a><a href="#Footnote_1022_1022" class="fnanchor">[1022]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-233.jpg" width="400" height="564" id="i183" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">THE INDIO TRISTE.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a photograph in Bandelier’s <i>Archæological Tour</i>, p. 68. He thinks it was intended to be a bearer of a torch, -and has no symbolical meaning.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span></p> - -<p>Bancroft (iv. ch. 7) has given a separate chapter to the antiquities of Oajaca (Oaxaca) and Guerrero, as the -most southern of what he terms the Nahua people, including -and lying westerly of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and he -speaks of it as a region but little known to travellers, except -as they pass through a part of it lying on the commercial -route from Acapulco to the capital city of Mexico. Bancroft’s -summary, with his references, must suffice for the inquirer -for all except the principal group of ruins in this -region, that of Mitla (or Lyó-Baa), of which a full recapitulation -of authorities may be made, most of which are also to -be referred to for the lesser ruins, though, as Bancroft points -out, the information respecting Monte Alban and Zachila is -far from satisfactory. Of Monte Alban, Dupaix and Charnay -are the most important witnesses, and the latter says -that he considers Monte Alban “one of the most precious -remains, and very surely the most ancient of the American -civilizations.”<a name="FNanchor_1023_1023" id="FNanchor_1023_1023"></a><a href="#Footnote_1023_1023" class="fnanchor">[1023]</a> On Dupaix alone we must depend for what -we know of Zachila.</p> - -<p>It is, however, of Mitla (sometime Miquitlan, Mictlan) that -more considerable mention must be made, and its ruins, -about thirty miles southerly from Mexico, have been oftenest -visited, as they deserve to be; and we have to regret that -Stephens never took them within the range of his observations. -Their demolition had begun during a century or two -previous to the Spanish Conquest, and was not complete -even then. Nature is gloomy, and even repulsive in its desolation -about the ruins;<a name="FNanchor_1024_1024" id="FNanchor_1024_1024"></a><a href="#Footnote_1024_1024" class="fnanchor">[1024]</a> but a small village still exists -among them. The place is mentioned by Duran<a name="FNanchor_1025_1025" id="FNanchor_1025_1025"></a><a href="#Footnote_1025_1025" class="fnanchor">[1025]</a> as inhabited -about 1450; Motolinía describes it as still lived in,<a name="FNanchor_1026_1026" id="FNanchor_1026_1026"></a><a href="#Footnote_1026_1026" class="fnanchor">[1026]</a> and -in 1565-74 it had a gobernador of its own. Burgoa speaks -of it in 1644.<a name="FNanchor_1027_1027" id="FNanchor_1027_1027"></a><a href="#Footnote_1027_1027" class="fnanchor">[1027]</a></p> - -<div class="floatleft"> - <img src="images/ill-234.jpg" width="250" height="412" id="i184" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">GENERAL PLAN OF MITLA.</p> - <p class="pf250">After Bandelier’s sketch (<i>Archæological Tour</i>, p. 276). KEY:<br /> -A, the ruins on the highest ground, with a church -and curacy built into the walls.<br /> -B, C, E, are ruins outside the village.<br /> -D is within the modern village.<br /> -F is beyond the river.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The earliest of the modern explorers were Luis Martin, a -Mexican architect, and Colonel de la Laguna, who examined the ruins in 1802; and it was from Martin and his -drawings that Humboldt drew the information with which, in 1810, he first engaged the attention of the general -public upon Mitla, in his <i>Vues des Cordillères</i>. Dupaix’s visit was in 1806. The architect Eduard L. -Mühlenpfordt, in his <i>Versuch einer getreuen Schilderung der Republik Mejico</i> (Hannover, 1844, in 2 vols.), -says that he made plans and drawings in 1830,<a name="FNanchor_1028_1028" id="FNanchor_1028_1028"></a><a href="#Footnote_1028_1028" class="fnanchor">[1028]</a> which, passing into the hands of Juan B. Carriedo, were used -by him to illustrate a paper, “Los palacios antiguos de Mitla,” in the <i>Ilustracion Mexicana</i> (vol. ii.), in -which he set forth the condition of the ruins in 1852. Meanwhile, in 1837, some drawings had been made, -which were twenty years later reproduced in the ninth volume of the <i>Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge</i>, -as Brantz Mayer’s <i>Observations on Mexican history and archæology, with a special notice of Zapotec, -remains as delineated in Mr. J. G. Sawkins’s drawings of Mitla, etc.</i> (Washington, 1857). Bancroft points -out (iv. 406) that the inaccuracies and impossibilities of Sawkins’ drawings are such as to lead to the conclusion -that he pretended to explorations which he never made, and probably drafted his views from some indefinite -information; and that Mayer was deceived, having no more precise statements than Humboldt’s by which to -test the drawings. Matthieu Fossey visited the ruins in 1838; but his account in his <i>Le Méxique</i> (Paris, -1857) is found by Bancroft to be mainly a borrowed one. G. F. von Tempsky’s <i>Mitla, a narrative of incidents -and personal adventure on a journey in Mexico, Guatemala and Salvador, 1853-1855, edited by J. S. -Bell</i> (London, 1858), deceives us by the title into supposing that considerable attention is given in the book to -Mitla, but we find him spending but a part of a day there in February, 1854 (p. 250). The book is not prized; -Bandelier calls it of small scientific value, and Bancroft says his plates must have been made up from other -sources than his own observations.<a name="FNanchor_1029_1029" id="FNanchor_1029_1029"></a><a href="#Footnote_1029_1029" class="fnanchor">[1029]</a> Charnay, here, as well as elsewhere, made for us some important photographs -in 1859.<a name="FNanchor_1030_1030" id="FNanchor_1030_1030"></a><a href="#Footnote_1030_1030" class="fnanchor">[1030]</a> This kind of illustration received new accessions of value when Emilio Herbrüger issued a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> -series of thirty-four fine plates as <i>Album de Vistas fotográficas de las Antiguas Ruinas de los palacios de -Mitla</i> (Oaxaca, 1874). In 1864, J. W. von Müller, in his <i>Reisen in den Vereinigten Staaten, Canada und -Mexico</i> (Leipzig, in 3 vols.), included an account of a visit.<a name="FNanchor_1031_1031" id="FNanchor_1031_1031"></a><a href="#Footnote_1031_1031" class="fnanchor">[1031]</a> The most careful examination made since Bancroft -summarized existing knowledge is that of Bandelier in his <i>Archæological Tour in Mexico in 1881</i> -(Boston, 1885), published as no. ii. of the American series of the <i>Papers of the Archæological Institute of -America</i>, which is illustrated with heliotypes and sketch plans of the ruins and architectural details in all -their geometrical symmetry. Bancroft (iv. 392, etc.) could only give a plan of the ruins based on the sketches -of Mühlenpfordt as published by Carriedo, but the student will find a more careful one<a name="FNanchor_1032_1032" id="FNanchor_1032_1032"></a><a href="#Footnote_1032_1032" class="fnanchor">[1032]</a> in Bandelier, who -also gives detailed ones of the several buildings (pl. xvii., xviii.)</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-235.jpg" width="400" height="322" id="i185" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">SACRIFICIAL STONE.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a photograph in Bandelier’s <i>Archæological Tour</i>, p. 67. See on another page, cut of the court-yard of the -Museum, where this stone is preserved. Cf. Humboldt, pl. xxi.; Bandelier in <i>Amer. Antiq</i>., 1878; Bancroft, iv. 509; -Stevens’s <i>Flint Chips</i>, 311. There is a discussion of the stone in Orozco y Berra’s <i>El Cuauhxicalli de Tizoc</i>, in the -<i>Anales del Museo Nacional</i>, i. no. 1; ii. no. 1. On the sacrificial stone of San Juan Teotihuacan, see paper by Amos -W. Butler in the <i>Amer. Antiq</i>., vii. 148. A cut in Clavigero (ii.) shows how the stone was used in sacrifices; the engraving -has been often copied. In Mrs. Nuttall’s view this stone simply records the periodical tribute days (<i>Am. Ass. Adv. -Sci. Proc.</i>, Aug. 1886).</p> -</div></div> - -<p>There is no part of Spanish America richer in architectural remains than the northern section of Yucatan, -and Bancroft (iv. ch. 5) has occasion to enumerate and to describe with more or less fullness between fifty and -sixty independent groups of ruins.<a name="FNanchor_1033_1033" id="FNanchor_1033_1033"></a><a href="#Footnote_1033_1033" class="fnanchor">[1033]</a> Stephens explored forty-four of these abandoned towns, and such was -the native ignorance that of only a few of them could anything be learned in Merida. And yet that this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> -country was the land of a peculiar architecture was known to the earliest explorers. Francisco Hernandez de -Cordova in 1517, Juan de Grijalva in 1518, Cortés himself in 1519, and Francisco de Montejo in 1527 observed -the ruins in Cozumel, an island off the northwest coast of the peninsula, and at other points of the shore.<a name="FNanchor_1034_1034" id="FNanchor_1034_1034"></a><a href="#Footnote_1034_1034" class="fnanchor">[1034]</a> It -is only, however, within the present century that -we have had any critical notices. Rio heard reports -of them merely. Lorenzo de Zavala saw -only Uxmal, as his account given in Dupaix -shows. The earliest detailed descriptions were -those of Waldeck in his <i>Voyage pittoresque et achéologique -dans la province d’Yucatan</i> (Paris, -1838, folio, with steel plates and lithographs), but -he also saw little more than the ruins of Uxmal, -in the expedition in which he had received pecuniary -support from Lord Kingsborough.<a name="FNanchor_1035_1035" id="FNanchor_1035_1035"></a><a href="#Footnote_1035_1035" class="fnanchor">[1035]</a> It is to -John L. Stephens and his accompanying draughtsman, -Frederic Catherwood, that we owe by far the -most essential part of our knowledge of the Yucatan -remains. He had begun a survey of Uxmal -in 1840, but had made little progress when the illness -of his artist broke up his plans. Accordingly -he gave the world but partial results in his <i>Incidents -of Travel in Central America</i>. Not satisfied -with his imperfect examination, he returned to -Yucatan in 1841, and in 1843 published at New -York the book which has become the main source -of information for all compilers ever since, his <i>Incidents -of Travel in Yucatan</i> (N. Y., 1842; London, -1843; again, N. Y., 1856, 1858). It was in -the early days of the Daguerrean process, and -Catherwood took with him a camera, from which -his excellent drawings derive some of their fidelity. They appeared in his own <i>Views of Ancient Monuments -in Central America</i> (N. Y., 1844), on a larger scale than in Stephens’s smaller pages.</p> - -<div class="floatleft"> - <img src="images/ill-236.jpg" width="250" height="287" id="i186" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">WALDECK.</p> - <p class="pf250">After an etching published in the <i>Annuaire de la Soc. Amer. de France</i>. Cf. <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, October, -1875.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Stephens’s earlier book had had an almost immediate success. The reviewers were unanimous in commendation, -as they might well be.<a name="FNanchor_1036_1036" id="FNanchor_1036_1036"></a><a href="#Footnote_1036_1036" class="fnanchor">[1036]</a> It has been asserted that it was in order to avail of this new interest that a resident -of New Orleans, Mr. B. M. Norman, hastened to Yucatan, while Stephens was there a second time, and -during the winter of 1841-42 made the trip among the ruins, which is recorded in his <i>Rambles in Yucatan, or -Notes of Travel through the peninsula, including a Visit to the Remarkable Ruins of Chi-chen, Kabah -Zayi, and Uxmal</i> (New York, 1843).<a name="FNanchor_1037_1037" id="FNanchor_1037_1037"></a><a href="#Footnote_1037_1037" class="fnanchor">[1037]</a></p> - -<p>The Daguerrean camera was also used by the Baron von Friederichsthal in his studies at Uxmal and -Chichen-Itza, and his exploration seems to have taken place between the two visits of Stephens, as Bancroft -determines from a letter (April 21, 1841) written after the baron had started on his return voyage to Europe.<a name="FNanchor_1038_1038" id="FNanchor_1038_1038"></a><a href="#Footnote_1038_1038" class="fnanchor">[1038]</a> -In Paris, in October, 1841, under the introduction of Humboldt, Friederichsthal addressed the Academy, and -his paper was printed in the <i>Nouvelles Annales des Voyages</i> (xcii. 297) as “Les Monuments de l’Yucatan.”<a name="FNanchor_1039_1039" id="FNanchor_1039_1039"></a><a href="#Footnote_1039_1039" class="fnanchor">[1039]</a> -The camera was not, however, brought to the aid of the student with the most satisfactory results till -Charnay, in 1858, visited Izamal, Chichen-Itza, and Uxmal. He gave a foretaste of his results in the <i>Bulletin -de la Soc. de Géog</i>. (1861, vol. ii. 364), and in 1863 gave not very extended descriptions, relying mostly -on his <i>Atlas</i> of photographs in his <i>Cités et Ruines Américaines</i>, a part of which volume consists of the -architectural speculations of Viollet le Duc. Beside the farther studies of Charnay in his <i>Anciens Villes du -Nouveau Monde</i> (Paris, 1885), there have been recent explorations in Yucatan by Dr. Augustus Le Plongeon -and his wife, mainly at Chichen-Itza, in which for a while he had the aid and countenance of Mr. Stephen -Salisbury, Jr.,<a name="FNanchor_1040_1040" id="FNanchor_1040_1040"></a><a href="#Footnote_1040_1040" class="fnanchor">[1040]</a> of Worcester, Mass. Le Plongeon’s results are decidedly novel and helpful, but they were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> -expressed with more license of explication than satisfied the committee of that society, when his papers were -referred to them for publication, and than has proved acceptable to other examiners.<a name="FNanchor_1041_1041" id="FNanchor_1041_1041"></a><a href="#Footnote_1041_1041" class="fnanchor">[1041]</a> Nearly all other -descriptions of the Yucatan ruins have been derived substantially from these chief authorities.<a name="FNanchor_1042_1042" id="FNanchor_1042_1042"></a><a href="#Footnote_1042_1042" class="fnanchor">[1042]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-237.jpg" width="400" height="543" id="i187" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">DÉSIRÉ CHARNAY.</p> - <p class="pf400">Reproduced from an engraving in the London edition, 1887, of the English translation of his <i>Ancient Cities of the -New World</i>.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span></p> - -<p>The principal ruins of Yucatan are those of Uxmal and Chichen-Itza, and references to the literature of -each will suffice. Those at Uxmal are in some respects distinct in character from the remains of Honduras -and of Chiapas. There are no idols as at Copan. There are no extensive stucco-work and no tablets as at -Palenqué. The general type is Cyclopean masonry, faced with dressed stones. The Casa de Monjas, or -nunnery (so called), is often considered the most remarkable ruin in Central America; and no architectural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> -feature of any of them has been the subject of more inquiry than the protuberant ornaments in the cornices, -which are usually called elephants’ trunks.<a name="FNanchor_1043_1043" id="FNanchor_1043_1043"></a><a href="#Footnote_1043_1043" class="fnanchor">[1043]</a> It has been contended that the place was inhabited in the days -of Cortes.<a name="FNanchor_1044_1044" id="FNanchor_1044_1044"></a><a href="#Footnote_1044_1044" class="fnanchor">[1044]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-238.jpg" width="400" height="375" id="i188" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">FROM CHARNAY.</p> - <p class="pf400">Also in the <i>Bull. Soc. de Géog. de Paris</i>, 1882 (p. 542). The best large (36 × 28 in.) topographical and historical map -of Yucatan, showing the site of ruins, is that of Huebbe and Azuar, 1878. The <i>Plano de Yucatan</i>, of Santiago Nigra de -San Martin, also showing the ruins, 1848, is reduced in Stephen Salisbury’s <i>Mayas</i> (Worcester, 1877), or in the <i>Amer. -Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, April, 1876, and April, 1877. V. A. Malte-Brun’s map, likewise marking the ruins, is in Brasseur de -Bourbourg’s <i>Palenqué</i> (1866). There are maps in C. G. Fancourt’s <i>Hist. Yucatan</i> (London, 1854); Dupaix’s <i>Antiquités -Méxicaines</i>; Waldeck’s <i>Voyage dans la Yucatan</i> (his MS. map was used by Malte-Brun). Cf. the map of Yucatan and -Chiapas, in Brasseur and Waldeck’s <i>Monuments Anciens du Méxique</i> (1866). Perhaps the most convenient map to use -in the study of Maya antiquities is that in Bancroft’s <i>Nat. Races</i>, iv. Cf. Crescentio Carrillo’s “Geografía Maya” in -the <i>Anales del Museo nacional de México</i>, ii. 435.</p> -<p class="pf400">The map in Stephens’s <i>Yucatan</i>, vol. i., shows his route among the ruins, but does not pretend to be accurate for -regions off his course.</p> -<p class="pf400">The <i>Journal of the Royal Geog. Soc.</i>, vol. xi., has a map showing the ruins in Central America.</p> -<p class="pf400">The best map to show at a glance the location of the ruins in the larger field of Spanish America is in Bancroft’s <i>Nat. -Races</i>, iv.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The earliest printed account of Uxmal is in Cogolludo’s <i>Yucathan</i> (Madrid, 1688), pp. 176, 193, 197; but -it was well into this century before others were written. Lorenzo de Zavala gave but an outline account in his -<i>Notice</i>, printed in Dupaix in 1834. Waldeck (<i>Voyage Pitt.</i> 67, 93) spent eight days there in May, 1835, and -Stephens gives him the credit of being the earliest describer to attract attention. Stephens’s first visit in 1840 -was hasty (<i>Cent. Amer.</i>, ii. 413), but on his second visit (1842) he took with him Waldeck’s <i>Voyage</i>, and his -description and the drawings of Catherwood were made with the advantage of having these earlier drawings -to compare. Stephens (<i>Yucatan</i>, i. 297) says that their plans and drawings differ materially from Waldeck’s; -but Bancroft, who compares the two, says that Stephens exaggerated the differences, which are not material, -except in a few plates (Stephens’s <i>Yucatan</i>, i. 163; ii. 264—ch. 24, 25). About the same time Norman and -Friederichsthal made their visits. Bancroft (iv. 150) refers to the lesser narratives of Carillo (1845), and -another, recorded in the <i>Registro Yucateco</i> (i. 273, 361), with Carl Bartholomæus Heller (April, 1847) in his -<i>Reisen in Mexico</i> (Leipzig, 1853). Charnay’s <i>Ruines</i> (p. 362), and his <i>Anciens Villes</i> (ch. 19, 20), record -visits in 1858 and later. Brasseur reported upon Uxmal in 1865 in the <i>Archives de la Com. Scientifique du -Méxique</i> (ii. 234, 254), and he had already made mention of them in his <i>Hist. Nations Civ.</i>, ii. ch. 1.<a name="FNanchor_1045_1045" id="FNanchor_1045_1045"></a><a href="#Footnote_1045_1045" class="fnanchor">[1045]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-239.jpg" width="400" height="359" id="i189" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">RUINED TEMPLE AT UXMAL.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a cut in Ruge’s <i>Gesch. des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen</i>, p. 357.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span></p> - -<p>The ruins of Chichen-Itza make part of the eastern group of the Yucatan remains. As was not the case -with some of the other principal ruins, the city in its prime has a record in Maya tradition; it was known -in the days of the Conquest, and has not been lost sight of since,<a name="FNanchor_1046_1046" id="FNanchor_1046_1046"></a><a href="#Footnote_1046_1046" class="fnanchor">[1046]</a> though its ruins were not visited by explorers -till well within the present century, the first of whom, according to Stephens, was John Burke, in 1838. -Stephens had heard of them and mentioned them to Friederichsthal, who was there in 1840 (<i>Nouv. Annales -des Voyages</i>, xcii. 300-306). Norman was there -in February, 1842 (<i>Rambles</i>, 104), and did not -seem aware that any one had been there before -him; and Stephens himself, during the next -month (<i>Yucatan</i>, ii. 282), made the best record -which we have. Charnay made his observations -in 1858 (<i>Ruines</i>, 339,—cf. <i>Anciens -Villes</i>, ch. 18), and gives us nine good photographs. -The latest discoverer is Le Plongeon, whose investigations were signalized by the finding (1876) of -the statue of Chackmool, and by other notable researches (<i>Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, April, 1877; October, 1878).<a name="FNanchor_1047_1047" id="FNanchor_1047_1047"></a><a href="#Footnote_1047_1047" class="fnanchor">[1047]</a></p> - -<div class="floatleft"> - <img src="images/ill-240a.jpg" width="230" height="231" id="i190" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc230">FROM CHICHEN-ITZA.</p> - <p class="pf230">After a cut in Squier’s <i>Serpent Symbol</i>. There are two of these rings in the walls of one of the buildings twenty or -thirty feet from the ground. They are four feet in diameter. Cf. Stephens’s <i>Yucatan</i>, ii. 304; Bancroft, iv. 230.</p> -</div></div> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-240b.jpg" width="230" height="268" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc230">FROM CHICHEN-ITZA.</p> - <p class="pf230">A bas-relief, one of the best preserved at Chichen-Itza, after a sketch in Charnay and Viollet-le-Duc’s <i>Cités et Ruines -Américaines</i> (Paris, 1863), p. 53, of which Viollet-le-Duc says: “Le profil du guerrier se rapproche sensiblement les -types du Nord de l’Europe.”</p> -</div></div> - -<p>It seems hardly to admit of doubt that the cities—if that be their proper designation—of Yucatan were -the work of the Maya people, whose descendants were found by the Spaniards in possession of the peninsula, -and that in some cases, like those of Uxmal and Toloom, their sacred edifices did not cease to be used till -some time after the Spaniards had possessed the country. Such were the conclusions of Stephens,<a name="FNanchor_1048_1048" id="FNanchor_1048_1048"></a><a href="#Footnote_1048_1048" class="fnanchor">[1048]</a> the sanest -mind that has spent its action upon these remains; and he tells us that a deed of the region where Uxmal is -situated, which passed in 1673, mentions the daily religious rites which the natives were then celebrating there, -and speaks of the swinging doors and cisterns then in use. The abandonment of one of the buildings, at least, -is brought down to within about two centuries, and comparisons of Catherwood’s drawings with the descriptions -of more recent explorers, by showing a very marked deterioration within a comparatively few years, -enable us easily to understand how the piercing roots of a rapidly growing vegetation can make a greater havoc<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> -in a century than will occur in temperate climates. The preservation of paint on the walls, and of wooden lintels -in some places, also induce a belief that no great time, such as would imply an extinct race of builders, is -necessary to account for the present condition of the ruins, and we must always remember how the Spaniards -used them as quarries for building their neighboring towns. How long these habitations and shrines stood in -their perfection is a question about which archæologists have had many and diverse estimates, ranging from -hundreds to thousands of years. There is nothing in the ruins themselves to settle the question, beyond a -study of their construction. So far as the traditionary history of the Mayas can determine, some of them may -have been built between the third and the tenth century.<a name="FNanchor_1049_1049" id="FNanchor_1049_1049"></a><a href="#Footnote_1049_1049" class="fnanchor">[1049]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">We come now to Chiapas. The age of the ruins of Palenqué<a name="FNanchor_1050_1050" id="FNanchor_1050_1050"></a><a href="#Footnote_1050_1050" class="fnanchor">[1050]</a> can only be conjectured, and very indefinitely, -though perhaps there is not much risk in saying that they represent some of the oldest architectural structures -known in the New World, and were very likely abandoned three or four centuries before the coming of the -Spaniards. Still, any confident statement is unwise. Perhaps there may be some fitness in Brasseur’s belief -that the stucco additions and roofs were the work of a later people than those who laid the foundations.<a name="FNanchor_1051_1051" id="FNanchor_1051_1051"></a><a href="#Footnote_1051_1051" class="fnanchor">[1051]</a> Bancroft -(iv. 289) has given the fullest account of the literature describing these ruins. They seem to have been -first found in 1750, or a few years before. The report reaching Ramon de Ordoñez, then a boy, was not forgotten -by him, and prompted him to send his brother in 1773 to explore them. Among the manuscripts in -the Brasseur Collection (<i>Bib. Mex.-Guat.</i>, p. 113; Pinart, no. 695) are a <i>Memoria relativa à las ruinas... -de Palenqué</i>, and <i>Notas de Chiapas y Palenqué</i>, which are supposed to be the record of this exploration written -by Ramon, as copied from the original in the Museo Nacional, and which, in part at least, constituted the -report which Ramon made in 1784 to the president of the Audiencia Real. Ramon’s view was that he had hit -upon the land of Ophir, and the country visited by the Phœnicians. This same president now directed José -Antonio Calderon to visit the ruins, and we have his “Informe” translated in Brasseur’s <i>Palenqué</i> (introd. -p. 5). From February to June of 1785, Antonio Benasconi, the royal architect of Guatemala, inspected the -ruins under similar orders. His report, as well as the preceding one, with the accompanying drawings, were -dispatched to Spain, where J. B. Muñoz made a summary of them for the king. I do not find any of them -have been printed. The result of the royal interest in the matter was, that Antonio del Rio was next commissioned -to make a more thorough survey, which he accomplished (May-June, 1787) with the aid of a band of -natives to fell the trees and fire the rubbish. He broke through the walls in a reckless way, that added greatly -to the devastation of years. Rio’s report, dated at Palenqué June 24, 1787, was published first in 1855, in the -<i>Diccionario Univ. de Geog.</i>, viii. 528.<a name="FNanchor_1052_1052" id="FNanchor_1052_1052"></a><a href="#Footnote_1052_1052" class="fnanchor">[1052]</a> Meanwhile, beside the copy of the manuscript sent to Spain, other -manuscripts were kept in Guatemala and Mexico; and one of these falling into the hands of a Dr. M’Quy, was -taken to England and translated under the title <i>Description of the Ruins of an Ancient City discovered near -Palenque in Guatemala, Spanish America, translated from the Original MS. Report of Capt. Don A. Del -Rio; followed by Teatro Critico Americano, or a Critical Investigation and Research into the History of -the Americans, by Doctor Felix Cabrera</i> (London, 1822).<a name="FNanchor_1053_1053" id="FNanchor_1053_1053"></a><a href="#Footnote_1053_1053" class="fnanchor">[1053]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-242.jpg" width="400" height="630" id="i192" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">A RESTORATION BY VIOLLET-LE-DUC.</p> - <p class="pf400">From <i>Histoire de l’Habitation Humaine, par Viollet-le-Duc</i> (Paris, 1875). There is a restoration of the Palenqué -palace—so called—in Armin’s <i>Das heutige Mexico</i> (copied in Short, 342, and Bancroft, iv. 323).</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The results of the explorations of Dupaix, made early in the present century by order of Carlos IV. of Spain, -long remained unpublished. His report and the drawings of Castañeda lay uncared for in the Mexican archives -during the period of the Revolution. Latour Allard, of Paris, obtained copies of some of the drawings, -and from these Kingsborough got copies, which he engraved for his <i>Mexican Antiquities</i>, in which Dupaix’s -report was also printed in Spanish and English (vols. iv., v., vi.). It is not quite certain whether the originals -or copies were delivered (1828) by the Mexican authorities to Baradère, who a few years later secured their -publication with additional matter as <i>Antiquités méxicaines</i>. <i>Relation des trois expéditions du capitaine -Dupaix, ordonnées en 1805, 1806 et 1807, pour la recherche des antiquités du pays, notamment celles de -Mitla et de Palenque; accompagnée des dessins de Castañeda, et d’une carte du pays exploré; suivie d’un -parallèle de ces monuments avec ceux de l’Égypte, de l’Indostan, et du reste de l’ancien monde par Alexandre -Lenoir; d’une dissertation sur l’origine de l’ancienne population des deux Amériques par [D. B.] -Warden; avec un discours préliminaire par. M. Charles Farcy, et des notes explicatives, et autres documents -par MM. Baradère, de St. Priest [etc.].</i> (Paris 1834, texte et atlas.)<a name="FNanchor_1054_1054" id="FNanchor_1054_1054"></a><a href="#Footnote_1054_1054" class="fnanchor">[1054]</a> The plates of this edition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> -are superior to those in Kingsborough and in Rio; and are indeed improved in the engraving over Castañeda’s -drawings. The book as a whole is one of the most important on Palenqué which we have. The investigations -were made on his third expedition (1807-8). A tablet taken from the ruins by him is in the Museo -Nacional, and a cast of it is figured in the <i>Numis. and Antiq. Soc. of Philad. Proc.</i>, Dec. 4, 1884.</p> - -<p>During the twenty-five years next following Dupaix, we find two correspondents of the French and English -Geographical Societies supplying their publications with occasional accounts of their observations among the -ruins. One of them, Dr. F. Corroy,<a name="FNanchor_1055_1055" id="FNanchor_1055_1055"></a><a href="#Footnote_1055_1055" class="fnanchor">[1055]</a> was then living at Tabasco; the other, Col. Juan Gallindo,<a name="FNanchor_1056_1056" id="FNanchor_1056_1056"></a><a href="#Footnote_1056_1056" class="fnanchor">[1056]</a> was resident -in the country as an administrative officer.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-243.jpg" width="400" height="398" id="i193" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">SCULPTURES, TEMPLE OF THE CROSS, PALENQUÉ.</p> - <p class="pf400">These slabs, six feet high, were taken from Palenqué, and when Stephens saw them they were in private hands at -San Domingo, near by, but later they were placed in the church front in the same town, and here Charnay took impressions -of them, from which they were engraved in <i>The Ancient Cities</i>, etc., p. 217, and copied thence in the above cuts. -This same type of head is considered by Rosny the Aztec head of Palenqué (<i>Doc. écrits de la Antiq. Amer.</i>, 73), and as -belonging to the superior classes. In order to secure the convex curve of the nose and forehead an ornament was sometimes -added, as shown in a head of the second tablet at Palenqué, and in the photograph of a bas-relief, preserved in the -Museo Archeologico at Madrid, given by Rosny (vol. 3), and hypothetically called by him a statue of Cuculkan. This -ornament is not infrequently seen in other images of this region.</p> -<p class="pf400">Bandelier (<i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i>, ii. 126), speaking of the tablet of the Cross of Palenqué, says: “These tablets and -figures show in dress such a striking analogy of what we know of the military accoutrements of the Mexicans, that it is a -strong approach to identity.”</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p> - -<p>Fréderic de Waldeck, the artist who some years before had familiarized himself with the character of the -ruins in the preparation of the engravings for Rio’s work, was employed in 1832-34. He was now considerably -over sixty years of age, and under the pay of a committee, which had raised a subscription, in which the -Mexican government shared. He made the most thorough examination of Palenqué which has yet been made. -Waldeck was a skilful artist, and his drawings are exquisite; but he was not free from a tendency to improve -or restore, where the conditions gave a hint, and so as we have them in the final publication they have not been -accepted as wholly trustworthy. He made more than 200 drawings, and either the originals or copies—Stephens -says “copies,” the originals being confiscated—were taken to Europe. Waldeck announced his -book in Paris, and the public had already had a taste of his not very sober views in some communications -which he had sent in Aug. and Nov., 1832, to the Société de Géographie de Paris. Long years of delay followed, -and Waldeck had lived to be over ninety, when the French government bought his collection<a name="FNanchor_1057_1057" id="FNanchor_1057_1057"></a><a href="#Footnote_1057_1057" class="fnanchor">[1057]</a> (in 1860), -and made preparations for its publication. Out of the 188 drawings thus secured, 56 were selected and were -admirably engraved, and only that portion of Waldeck’s text was preserved which was purely descriptive, -and not all of that. Selection was made of Brasseur de Bourbourg, who at that time had never visited the -ruins,<a name="FNanchor_1058_1058" id="FNanchor_1058_1058"></a><a href="#Footnote_1058_1058" class="fnanchor">[1058]</a> to furnish some introductory matter. This he prepared in an <i>Avant-propos</i>, recapitulating the progress -of such studies; and this was followed by an <i>Introduction aux Ruines de Palenqué</i>, narrating the course of -explorations up to that time; a section also published separately as <i>Recherches sur les Ruines de Palenqué -et sur les origines de la civilisation du Méxique</i> (Paris, 1886), and finally Waldeck’s own <i>Description des -Ruines</i>, followed by the plates, most of which relate to Palenqué. Thus composed, a large volume was published -under the general title of <i>Monuments anciens du Méxique</i>. <i>Palenqué et autres ruines de l’ancienne -civilisation du Méxique. Collection de vues [etc.], cartes et plans dessinés d’après nature et relevés par M. -de Waldeck. Texte rédigé par M. Brasseur de Bourbourg.</i> (Paris, 1864-1866.)<a name="FNanchor_1059_1059" id="FNanchor_1059_1059"></a><a href="#Footnote_1059_1059" class="fnanchor">[1059]</a> While Waldeck’s results -were still unpublished the ruins of Palenqué were brought most effectively to the attention of the English -reader in the <i>Travels in Central America</i> (vol. ii. ch. 17) of Stephens, which was illustrated by the drawings -of Catherwood,<a name="FNanchor_1060_1060" id="FNanchor_1060_1060"></a><a href="#Footnote_1060_1060" class="fnanchor">[1060]</a> since famous. These better cover the field, and are more exact than those of Dupaix.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-244.jpg" width="400" height="261" id="i194" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">PLAN OF COPAN (RUINS AND VILLAGE).</p> - <p class="pf400">From <i>The Stone Sculptures of Copán and Quiriguá</i> (N. Y., 1883) of Meye and Schmidt.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Bancroft refers to an anonymous account in the <i>Registro Yucateco</i> (i. 318). One of the most intelligent of -the later travellers is Arthur Morelet, who privately printed his <i>Voyage dans l’Amérique Central, Cuba et le -Yucatan</i>, which includes an account of a fortnight’s stay at Palenqué. His results would be difficult of access<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> -except that Mrs. M. F. Squier, with an introduction by E. G. Squier, published a translation of that part of it -relating to the main land as <i>Travels in Central America, including accounts of regions unexplored since the -Conquest</i> (N. Y., 1871).<a name="FNanchor_1061_1061" id="FNanchor_1061_1061"></a><a href="#Footnote_1061_1061" class="fnanchor">[1061]</a></p> - -<p>Désiré Charnay was the first to bring photography to the aid of the student when he visited Palenqué in -1858, and his plates forming the folio atlas accompanying his <i>Cités et Ruines Américaines</i> (1863), pp. 72, 411, -are, as Bancroft (iv. 293) points out, of interest to enable us to test the drawings of preceding delineators, and -to show how time had acted on the ruins since the visit of Stephens. His later results are recorded in his -<i>Les anciennes villes du Nouveau Monde</i> (Paris, 1885).<a name="FNanchor_1062_1062" id="FNanchor_1062_1062"></a><a href="#Footnote_1062_1062" class="fnanchor">[1062]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-245.jpg" width="400" height="194" id="i195" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">YUCATAN TYPES.</p> - <p class="pf400">Given by Rosny, <i>Doc. Écrits de la Antiq. Amér.</i>, p. 73, as types of the short-headed race which preceded the Aztec -occupation. They are from sculptures at Copan. Cf. Stephens’s <i>Cent. America</i>, i. 139; Bancroft, iv. 101.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p> - -<div class="floatleft"> - <img src="images/ill-246.jpg" width="250" height="387" id="i196" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">PLAN OF THE RUINS OF QUIRIGUA.</p> - <p class="pf250">From Meye and Schmidt’s <i>Stone Sculptures of Copán and Quiriguá</i> (N. Y., 1883).</p> -</div></div> - -<p>There have been only two statues found at Palenqué, in connection with the T -emple of the Cross,<a name="FNanchor_1063_1063" id="FNanchor_1063_1063"></a><a href="#Footnote_1063_1063" class="fnanchor">[1063]</a> but the -considerable number of carved figures discovered at Copan,<a name="FNanchor_1064_1064" id="FNanchor_1064_1064"></a><a href="#Footnote_1064_1064" class="fnanchor">[1064]</a> as well as the general impression that these latter -ruins are the oldest on the American continent,<a name="FNanchor_1065_1065" id="FNanchor_1065_1065"></a><a href="#Footnote_1065_1065" class="fnanchor">[1065]</a> -have made in some respects these most -celebrated of the Honduras remains more interesting -than those of Chiapas. It is now -generally agreed that the ruins of Copan<a name="FNanchor_1066_1066" id="FNanchor_1066_1066"></a><a href="#Footnote_1066_1066" class="fnanchor">[1066]</a> do -not represent the town called Copan, assaulted -and captured by Hernando de Choves in 1530, -though the identity of names has induced -some writers to claim that these ruins were -inhabited when the Spaniards came.<a name="FNanchor_1067_1067" id="FNanchor_1067_1067"></a><a href="#Footnote_1067_1067" class="fnanchor">[1067]</a> The -earliest account of them which we have is that -in Palacio’s letter to Felipe II., written (1576) -hardly more than a generation after the Conquest, -and showing that the ruins then were -much in the same condition as later described.<a name="FNanchor_1068_1068" id="FNanchor_1068_1068"></a><a href="#Footnote_1068_1068" class="fnanchor">[1068]</a> -The next account is that of Fuentes y Guzman’s -<i>Historia de Guatemala</i> (1689), now -accessible in the Madrid edition of 1882; but -for a long time only known in the citation in -Juarros’ <i>Guatemala</i> (p. 56), and through those -who had copied from Juarros.<a name="FNanchor_1069_1069" id="FNanchor_1069_1069"></a><a href="#Footnote_1069_1069" class="fnanchor">[1069]</a> His account -is brief, speaks of Castilian costumes, and is -otherwise so enigmatical that Brasseur calls -it mendacious. Colonel Galindo, in visiting -the ruins in 1836, confounded them with the -Copan of the Conquest.<a name="FNanchor_1070_1070" id="FNanchor_1070_1070"></a><a href="#Footnote_1070_1070" class="fnanchor">[1070]</a> The ruins also came -Under the scrutiny of Stephens in 1839, and -they were described by him, and drawn by -Catherwood, for the first time with any fullness -and care, in their respective works.<a name="FNanchor_1071_1071" id="FNanchor_1071_1071"></a><a href="#Footnote_1071_1071" class="fnanchor">[1071]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">Always associated with Copan, and perhaps -even older, if the lower relief of the carvings -can bear that interpretation, are the ruins near -the village of Quiriguá, in Guatemala, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> -known by that name. Catherwood first brought them into notice;<a name="FNanchor_1072_1072" id="FNanchor_1072_1072"></a><a href="#Footnote_1072_1072" class="fnanchor">[1072]</a> but the visit of Karl Scherzer in 1854 produced -the most extensive account of them which we have, in his <i>Ein Besuch bei den Ruinen von Quiriguá</i> -(Wien, 1855).<a name="FNanchor_1073_1073" id="FNanchor_1073_1073"></a><a href="#Footnote_1073_1073" class="fnanchor">[1073]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">The principal explorers of Nicaragua have been Ephraim George Squier, in his <i>Nicaragua</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1074_1074" id="FNanchor_1074_1074"></a><a href="#Footnote_1074_1074" class="fnanchor">[1074]</a> and Frederick -Boyle, in his <i>Ride across a Continent</i> (Lond. 1868),<a name="FNanchor_1075_1075" id="FNanchor_1075_1075"></a><a href="#Footnote_1075_1075" class="fnanchor">[1075]</a> and their results, as well as the scattered data of others,<a name="FNanchor_1076_1076" id="FNanchor_1076_1076"></a><a href="#Footnote_1076_1076" class="fnanchor">[1076]</a> -are best epitomized in Bancroft (iv. ch. 2), who gives other references to second-hand descriptions (p. 29). -Since Bancroft’s survey there have been a few important contributions.<a name="FNanchor_1077_1077" id="FNanchor_1077_1077"></a><a href="#Footnote_1077_1077" class="fnanchor">[1077]</a></p> - -<p class="pc1"><a name="n197" id="n197">III.</a><span class="smcap">Bibliographical Notes on the Picture-Writing of the Nahuas and Mayas.</span></p> - -<p class="drop-cap04">IN considering the methods of record and communication used by these peoples, we must keep in mind -the two distinct systems of the Aztecs and the Mayas;<a name="FNanchor_1078_1078" id="FNanchor_1078_1078"></a><a href="#Footnote_1078_1078" class="fnanchor">[1078]</a> and further, particularly as regards the former, we -must not forget that some of these writings were made after the Conquest, and were influenced in some -degree by Spanish associations. Of this last class were land titles and catechisms, for the native system -obtained for some time as a useful method with the conquerors for recording the transmission of lands and -helping the instruction by the priests.<a name="FNanchor_1079_1079" id="FNanchor_1079_1079"></a><a href="#Footnote_1079_1079" class="fnanchor">[1079]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-248.jpg" width="400" height="445" id="i198" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">FAC-SIMILE OF A PART OF LANDA’S MS.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a fac-simile in the <i>Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France, nouv. ser.</i>, ii. 34. (Cf. pl. xix. of Rosny’s <i>Essai sur -le déchiffrement</i>, etc.) It is a copy, not the original, of Landa’s text, but a nearly contemporary one (made thirty years -after Landa’s death), and the only one known.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>It is usual in tracing the development of a hieroglyphic system to advance from a purely figurative one—in -which pictures of objects are used—through a symbolic phase; in which such pictures are interpreted conventionally -instead of realistically. It was to this last stage that the Aztecs had advanced; but they mingled -the two methods, and apparently varied in the order of reading, whether by lines or columns, forwards, upwards, -or backwards. The difficulty of understanding them is further increased by the same object holding -different meanings in different connections, and still more by the personal element, or writer’s style, as we -should call it, which was impressed on his choice of objects and emblems.<a name="FNanchor_1080_1080" id="FNanchor_1080_1080"></a><a href="#Footnote_1080_1080" class="fnanchor">[1080]</a> This rendered interpretation by no -means easy to the aborigines themselves, and we have statements that when native documents were referred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> -to them it required sometimes long consultations to reach a common understanding.<a name="FNanchor_1081_1081" id="FNanchor_1081_1081"></a><a href="#Footnote_1081_1081" class="fnanchor">[1081]</a> The additional step -by which objects stand for sounds, the Aztecs seem not to have taken, except in the names of persons and -places, in which they understood the modern child’s art of the rebus, where such symbol more or less clearly -stands for a syllable, and the representation was usually of conventionalized forms, somewhat like the art -of the European herald. Thus the Aztec system was what Daniel Wilson<a name="FNanchor_1082_1082" id="FNanchor_1082_1082"></a><a href="#Footnote_1082_1082" class="fnanchor">[1082]</a> calls “the pictorial suggestion of -associated ideas.”<a name="FNanchor_1083_1083" id="FNanchor_1083_1083"></a><a href="#Footnote_1083_1083" class="fnanchor">[1083]</a> The phonetic scale, if not comprehended in the Aztec system, made an essential part of -the Maya hieroglyphics, and this was the great distinctive feature of the latter, as we learn from the early -descriptions,<a name="FNanchor_1084_1084" id="FNanchor_1084_1084"></a><a href="#Footnote_1084_1084" class="fnanchor">[1084]</a> and from the alphabet which Landa has preserved for us. It is not only in the codices or -books of the Mayas that their writing is preserved to us, but in the inscriptions of their carved architectural -remains.<a name="FNanchor_1085_1085" id="FNanchor_1085_1085"></a><a href="#Footnote_1085_1085" class="fnanchor">[1085]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-249.jpg" width="300" height="515" id="i199" - alt="" - title="" /> - <p class="pf350"><span class="smcap">Note</span>—This representation of Yucatan hieroglyphics is a reduction of pl. i. in Léon de Rosny’s -<i>Essai sur le déchiffrement de l’écriture hiératique de l’Amérique Centrale</i>, Paris, 1876. Cf. Bancroft, iv. 92; Short, 405.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span></p> - -<p>When the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg found, in 1863, in the library of the Royal Academy of History at -Madrid, the MS. of Landa’s <i>Relacion</i>, and discovered in it what purported to be a key to the Maya alphabet, -there were hopes that the interpretation of the Maya books and inscriptions was not far off. Twenty-five -years, however, has not seen the progress that was wished for; and if we may believe Valentini, the alphabet -of Landa is a pure fabrication of the bishop himself;<a name="FNanchor_1086_1086" id="FNanchor_1086_1086"></a><a href="#Footnote_1086_1086" class="fnanchor">[1086]</a> and even some of those who account it genuine, like Le -Plongeon, hold that it is inadequate in dealing with the older Maya inscriptions.<a name="FNanchor_1087_1087" id="FNanchor_1087_1087"></a><a href="#Footnote_1087_1087" class="fnanchor">[1087]</a> Cyrus Thomas speaks of -this alphabet as simply an attempt of the bishop to pick out of compound characters their simple elements -on the supposition that something like phonetic representations would be the result.<a name="FNanchor_1088_1088" id="FNanchor_1088_1088"></a><a href="#Footnote_1088_1088" class="fnanchor">[1088]</a> Landa’s own description<a name="FNanchor_1089_1089" id="FNanchor_1089_1089"></a><a href="#Footnote_1089_1089" class="fnanchor">[1089]</a> -of the alphabet accompanying his graphic key<a name="FNanchor_1090_1090" id="FNanchor_1090_1090"></a><a href="#Footnote_1090_1090" class="fnanchor">[1090]</a> is very unsatisfactory, not to say incomprehensible. -Brasseur has tried to render it in French, and Bancroft in English; but it remains a difficult problem to interpret -it intelligibly.</p> - -<p>Brasseur very soon set himself the task of interpreting the Troano manuscript by the aid of this key, and -he soon had the opportunity of giving his interpretation to the public when the Emperor Napoleon III. ordered -that codex to be printed in the sumptuous manner of the imperial press.<a name="FNanchor_1091_1091" id="FNanchor_1091_1091"></a><a href="#Footnote_1091_1091" class="fnanchor">[1091]</a> The efforts of Brasseur met<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> -with hardly a sign of approval. Léon de Rosny criticised him,<a name="FNanchor_1092_1092" id="FNanchor_1092_1092"></a><a href="#Footnote_1092_1092" class="fnanchor">[1092]</a> and Dr. Brinton found in his results nothing -to commend.<a name="FNanchor_1093_1093" id="FNanchor_1093_1093"></a><a href="#Footnote_1093_1093" class="fnanchor">[1093]</a></p> - -<p>No one has approached the question of interpreting these Maya writings with more careful scrutiny than -Léon de Rosny, who first attracted attention with his -comparative study, <i>Les écritures figuratives et hiéroglyphiques -des différens peuples anciens et moderns</i> (Paris, -1860; again, 1870, augmentée). From 1869 to 1871 he -published at Paris four parts of <i>Archives paléographiques -de l’Orient et de l’Amérique, publiées avec des notices -historiques et philologiques</i>, in which he included several -studies of the native writings, and gave a bibliography -(pp. 101-115) of American paleography up to that time. -His <i>L’interprétation des anciens textes Mayas</i> made part -of the first volume of the <i>Archives de la Soc. Américaine -de France</i> (new series). His chief work, making -the second volume of the same, is his <i>Essai sur le déchiffrement -de l’écriture hiératique de l’Amérique Central</i> -(Paris, 1876), and it is the most thorough examination -of the problem yet made.<a name="FNanchor_1094_1094" id="FNanchor_1094_1094"></a><a href="#Footnote_1094_1094" class="fnanchor">[1094]</a> The last part (4th) was -published in 1878, and a Spanish translation appeared in -1881.</p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-251.jpg" width="250" height="377" id="i201" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">PALENQUÉ HIEROGLYPHICS.</p> - <p class="pf250">After a cut in Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, ii. p. 63. It is also given in Bancroft (iv. 355), and others. It is from the -Tablet of the Cross.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Wm. Bollaert, who had paid some attention to the paleography -of America,<a name="FNanchor_1095_1095" id="FNanchor_1095_1095"></a><a href="#Footnote_1095_1095" class="fnanchor">[1095]</a> was one of the earliest in England -to examine Brasseur’s work on Landa, which he did -in a memoir read before the Anthropological Society,<a name="FNanchor_1096_1096" id="FNanchor_1096_1096"></a><a href="#Footnote_1096_1096" class="fnanchor">[1096]</a> and -later in an “Examination of the Central American hieroglyphs -by the recently discovered Maya alphabet.”<a name="FNanchor_1097_1097" id="FNanchor_1097_1097"></a><a href="#Footnote_1097_1097" class="fnanchor">[1097]</a> Brinton<a name="FNanchor_1098_1098" id="FNanchor_1098_1098"></a><a href="#Footnote_1098_1098" class="fnanchor">[1098]</a> -calls his conclusions fanciful, and Le Plongeon -claims that the inscription in Stephens, which Bollaert -worked upon, is inaccurately given, and that Bollaert’s results -were nonsense.<a name="FNanchor_1099_1099" id="FNanchor_1099_1099"></a><a href="#Footnote_1099_1099" class="fnanchor">[1099]</a> Hyacinthe de Charency’s efforts -have hardly been more successful, though he attempted -the use of Landa’s alphabet with something like scientific -care. He examined a small part of the inscription of the Palenqué tablet of the Cross in his <i>Essai de -déchiffrement d’un fragment d’inscription palenquéene</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1100_1100" id="FNanchor_1100_1100"></a><a href="#Footnote_1100_1100" class="fnanchor">[1100]</a></p> - -<p>Dr. Brinton translated Charency’s results, and, adding Landa’s alphabet, published his <i>Ancient phonetic -alphabet of Yucatan</i> (N. Y., 1870), a small tract.<a name="FNanchor_1101_1101" id="FNanchor_1101_1101"></a><a href="#Footnote_1101_1101" class="fnanchor">[1101]</a> His continued studies were manifest in the introduction -on “The graphic system and the ancient records of the Mayas” to Cyrus Thomas’s <i>Manuscript Troano</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1102_1102" id="FNanchor_1102_1102"></a><a href="#Footnote_1102_1102" class="fnanchor">[1102]</a> -In this paper Dr. Brinton traces the history of the attempts which have thus far been made in solving this -perplexing problem.<a name="FNanchor_1103_1103" id="FNanchor_1103_1103"></a><a href="#Footnote_1103_1103" class="fnanchor">[1103]</a> The latest application of the scientific spirit is that of the astronomer E. S. Holden,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> -who sought to eliminate the probabilities of recurrent signs by the usual mathematical methods of resolving -systems of modern cipher.<a name="FNanchor_1104_1104" id="FNanchor_1104_1104"></a><a href="#Footnote_1104_1104" class="fnanchor">[1104]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">There are few examples of the aboriginal ideographic writings left to us. Their fewness is usually charged -to the destruction which was publicly made of them under the domination of the Church in the years following<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> -the Conquest.<a name="FNanchor_1105_1105" id="FNanchor_1105_1105"></a><a href="#Footnote_1105_1105" class="fnanchor">[1105]</a> The alleged agents in this demolition were Bishop Landa, in 1562, at Mani, in Yucatan,<a name="FNanchor_1106_1106" id="FNanchor_1106_1106"></a><a href="#Footnote_1106_1106" class="fnanchor">[1106]</a> -and Bishop Zumárraga at Tlatelalco, or, as some say, at Tezcuco, in Mexico.<a name="FNanchor_1107_1107" id="FNanchor_1107_1107"></a><a href="#Footnote_1107_1107" class="fnanchor">[1107]</a> Peter Martyr<a name="FNanchor_1108_1108" id="FNanchor_1108_1108"></a><a href="#Footnote_1108_1108" class="fnanchor">[1108]</a> has told us -something of the records as he saw them, and we know also from him, and from their subsequent discovery in -European collections, that some examples of them were early taken to the Old World. We have further -knowledge of them from Las Casas and from Landa himself.<a name="FNanchor_1109_1109" id="FNanchor_1109_1109"></a><a href="#Footnote_1109_1109" class="fnanchor">[1109]</a> There have been efforts made of late years by -Icazbalceta and Canon Carrillo to mitigate the severity of judgment, particularly as respects Zumárraga.<a name="FNanchor_1110_1110" id="FNanchor_1110_1110"></a><a href="#Footnote_1110_1110" class="fnanchor">[1110]</a> -The first, and indeed the only attempt that has been made to bring together for mutual illustration all that -was known of these manuscripts which escaped the fire,<a name="FNanchor_1111_1111" id="FNanchor_1111_1111"></a><a href="#Footnote_1111_1111" class="fnanchor">[1111]</a> was in the great work of the Viscount Kingsborough -(b. 1795, d. 1837). It was while, as Edward King, he was a student at Oxford that this nobleman’s passion for -Mexican antiquities was first roused by seeing an original Aztec pictograph, described by Purchas (<i>Pilgrimes</i>, -vol. iii.), and preserved in the Bodleian. In the studies to which this led he was assisted by some special -scholars, including Obadiah Rich, who searched for him in Spain in 1830 and 1832, and who after Kingsborough’s -death obtained a large part of the manuscript collections which that nobleman had amassed (<i>Catalogue -of the Sale</i>, Dublin, 1842). Many of the Kingsborough manuscripts passed into the collection of Sir Thomas -Phillipps (<i>Catalogue</i>, no. 404), but the correspondence pertaining to Kingsborough’s life-work seems to have -disappeared. Phillipps had been one of the main encouragers of Kingsborough in his undertaking.<a name="FNanchor_1112_1112" id="FNanchor_1112_1112"></a><a href="#Footnote_1112_1112" class="fnanchor">[1112]</a> Kingsborough, -who had spent £30,000 on his undertaking, had a business dispute with the merchants who furnished -the printing-paper, and he was by them thrown into jail as a debtor, and died in confinement.<a name="FNanchor_1113_1113" id="FNanchor_1113_1113"></a><a href="#Footnote_1113_1113" class="fnanchor">[1113]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-252.jpg" width="400" height="536" id="i202" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">LÉON DE ROSNY.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a photogravure in <i>Les Documents écrits de l’antiquité Américaine</i> (Paris, 1882). Cf. cut in <i>Mém. de la Soc. -d’Ethnographie</i> (1887), xiii. p. 71.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Kingsborough’s great work, the most sumptuous yet bestowed upon Mexican archæology, was published -between 1830 and 1848, there being an interval of seventeen years between the seventh and eighth volumes. -The original intention seems to have embraced ten volumes, for the final section of the ninth volume is signatured -as for a tenth.<a name="FNanchor_1114_1114" id="FNanchor_1114_1114"></a><a href="#Footnote_1114_1114" class="fnanchor">[1114]</a> The work is called: <i>Antiquities of Mexico; comprising facsimiles of Ancient Mexican -Paintings and Hieroglyphics, preserved in the Royal Libraries of Paris, Berlin, and Dresden; in the -Imperial Library of Vienna; in the Vatican Library; in the Borgian Museum at Rome; in the Library -of the Institute of Bologna; and in the Bodleian Library at Oxford; together with the Monuments of New -Spain, by M. Dupaix; illustrated by many valuable inedited MSS</i>. With the theory maintained by Kingsborough -throughout the work, that the Jews were the first colonizers of the country, we have nothing to do here; -but as the earliest and as yet the largest repository of hieroglyphic material, the book needs to be examined. -The compiler states where he found his MSS., but he gives nothing of their history, though something more -is now known of their descent. Peter Martyr speaks of the number of Mexican MSS. which had in his day -been taken to Spain, and Prescott remarks it as strange that not a single one given by Kingsborough was -found in that country. There are, however, some to be seen there now.<a name="FNanchor_1115_1115" id="FNanchor_1115_1115"></a><a href="#Footnote_1115_1115" class="fnanchor">[1115]</a> Comparisons which have been made -of Kingsborough’s plates show that they are not inexact; but they almost necessarily lack the validity that -the modern photographic processes give to facsimiles.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-254.jpg" width="350" height="763" id="i204" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc350">FAC-SIMILE OF PLATE XXV OF THE DRESDEN CODEX.</p> - <p class="pf350">From Cyrus Thomas’s <i>Manuscript Troano</i>.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Kingsborough’s first volume opens with a fac-simile of what is usually called the <i>Codex Mendoza</i>, preserved in -the Bodleian. It is, however, a contemporary copy on European paper of an original now lost, which was sent -by the Viceroy Mendoza to Charles V. Another copy made part of the Boturini collection, and from this -Lorenzana<a name="FNanchor_1116_1116" id="FNanchor_1116_1116"></a><a href="#Footnote_1116_1116" class="fnanchor">[1116]</a> engraved that portion of it which consists of tribute-rolls. The story told of the fate of the original<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> -is, that on its passage to Europe it was captured by a French cruiser and taken to Paris, where it was -bought by the chaplain of the English embassy, the antiquary Purchas, who has engraved it.<a name="FNanchor_1117_1117" id="FNanchor_1117_1117"></a><a href="#Footnote_1117_1117" class="fnanchor">[1117]</a> It was then lost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> -sight of, and if Prescott’s inference is correct it was not the original, but the Bodleian copy, which came into -Purchas’ hands.<a name="FNanchor_1118_1118" id="FNanchor_1118_1118"></a><a href="#Footnote_1118_1118" class="fnanchor">[1118]</a></p> - -<p>Beside the tribute-rolls,<a name="FNanchor_1119_1119" id="FNanchor_1119_1119"></a><a href="#Footnote_1119_1119" class="fnanchor">[1119]</a> which make one part of it, the MS. covers the civil history of the Mexicans, with a -third part on the discipline and economy of the people, which renders it of so much importance in an archæological -sense.<a name="FNanchor_1120_1120" id="FNanchor_1120_1120"></a><a href="#Footnote_1120_1120" class="fnanchor">[1120]</a> The second reproduction in Kingsborough’s first volume is what he calls the <i>Codex Telleriano-Remensis</i>, -preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris, and formerly owned by M. Le Tellier.<a name="FNanchor_1121_1121" id="FNanchor_1121_1121"></a><a href="#Footnote_1121_1121" class="fnanchor">[1121]</a> The rest -of this initial volume is made up of facsimiles of Mexican hieroglyphics and paintings, from the Boturini and -Selden collections, which last is in the Bodleian.</p> - -<p>The second Kingsborough volume opens with a reproduction of the <i>Codex Vaticanus</i> (the explanation<a name="FNanchor_1122_1122" id="FNanchor_1122_1122"></a><a href="#Footnote_1122_1122" class="fnanchor">[1122]</a> is -in volume vi.), which is in the library of the Vatican, and it is known to have been copied in Mexico by Pedro -de los Rios in 1566. It is partly historical and partly mythological.<a name="FNanchor_1123_1123" id="FNanchor_1123_1123"></a><a href="#Footnote_1123_1123" class="fnanchor">[1123]</a> The rest of this volume is made up -of facsimiles of other manuscripts,—one given to the Bodleian by Archbishop Laud, others at Bologna,<a name="FNanchor_1124_1124" id="FNanchor_1124_1124"></a><a href="#Footnote_1124_1124" class="fnanchor">[1124]</a> -Vienna,<a name="FNanchor_1125_1125" id="FNanchor_1125_1125"></a><a href="#Footnote_1125_1125" class="fnanchor">[1125]</a> and Berlin.</p> - -<p>The third volume reproduces one belonging to the Borgian Museum at Rome, written on skin, and thought -to be a ritual and astrological almanac. This is accompanied by a commentary by Frabega.<a name="FNanchor_1126_1126" id="FNanchor_1126_1126"></a><a href="#Footnote_1126_1126" class="fnanchor">[1126]</a> Kingsborough -gives but a single Maya MS., and this is in his third volume, and stands with him as an Aztec production. -This is the <i>Dresden Codex</i>, not very exactly rendered, which is preserved in the royal library in that city, for -which it was bought by Götz,<a name="FNanchor_1127_1127" id="FNanchor_1127_1127"></a><a href="#Footnote_1127_1127" class="fnanchor">[1127]</a> at Vienna, in 1739. Prescott (i. 107) seemed to recognize its difference from -the Aztec MSS., without knowing precisely how to class it.<a name="FNanchor_1128_1128" id="FNanchor_1128_1128"></a><a href="#Footnote_1128_1128" class="fnanchor">[1128]</a> Brasseur de Bourbourg calls it a religious and -astrological ritual. It is in two sections, and it is not certain that they belong together. In 1880 it was reproduced -at Dresden by polychromatic photography (Chromo-Lichtdruck), as the process is called, under the -editing of Dr. E. Förstemann, who in an introduction describes it as composed of thirty-nine oblong sheets -folded together like a fan. They are made of the bark of a tree, and covered with varnish. Thirty-five have -drawings and hieroglyphics on both sides; the other four on one side only. It is now preserved between glass -to prevent handling, and both sides can be examined. Some progress has been made, it is professed, in deciphering -its meaning, and it is supposed to contain “records of a mythic, historic, and ritualistic character.”<a name="FNanchor_1129_1129" id="FNanchor_1129_1129"></a><a href="#Footnote_1129_1129" class="fnanchor">[1129]</a></p> - -<p>Another script in Kingsborough, perhaps a Tezcucan MS., though having some Maya affinities, is the -<i>Fejérvary Codex</i>, then preserved in Hungary, and lately owned by Mayer, of Liverpool.<a name="FNanchor_1130_1130" id="FNanchor_1130_1130"></a><a href="#Footnote_1130_1130" class="fnanchor">[1130]</a></p> - -<p>Three other Maya manuscripts have been brought to light since Kingsborough’s day, to say nothing of three -others said to be in private hands, and not described.<a name="FNanchor_1131_1131" id="FNanchor_1131_1131"></a><a href="#Footnote_1131_1131" class="fnanchor">[1131]</a> Of these, the <i>Codex Troano</i> has been the subject of -much study. It is the property of a Madrid gentleman, Don Juan Tro y Ortolano, and the title given to the -manuscript has been somewhat fantastically formed from his name by the Abbé Etienne Charles Brasseur -de Bourbourg, who was instrumental in its recognition about 1865 or 1866, and who edited a sumptuous two-volume -folio edition with chromo-lithographic plates.<a name="FNanchor_1132_1132" id="FNanchor_1132_1132"></a><a href="#Footnote_1132_1132" class="fnanchor">[1132]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-256.jpg" width="350" height="649" id="i206" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc350">CODEX CORTESIANUS.</p> - <p class="pf350">From a fac-simile in the <i>Archives de la Société Américaine de France, nouv. ser.</i>, ii. 30.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-257.jpg" width="250" height="409" id="i207" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">CODEX PEREZIANUS.</p> -<p class="pf250">One of the leaves of a MS. No. 2, in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, following the fac-simile (pl. 124) in Léon -de Rosny’s <i>Archives paléographiques</i> (Paris, 1869).</p> -</div></div> - -<p>While Léon de Rosny was preparing his <i>Essai -sur le déchiffrement de l’Ecriture hiératique</i> -(1876), a Maya manuscript was offered to the -Bibliothèque Impériale in Paris and declined, because -the price demanded was too high. Photographic -copies of two of its leaves had been submitted, -and one of these is given by Rosny in the -<i>Essai</i> (pl. xi.). The Spanish government finally -bought the MS., which, because it was supposed -to have once belonged to Cortes, is now known as -the <i>Codex Cortesianus</i>. Rosny afterwards saw -it and studied it in the Museo Archeológico at -Madrid, as he makes known in his <i>Doc. Ecrits -de la Antiq. Amér.</i>, p. 79, where he points out -the complementary character of one of its leaves -with another of the MS. Troano, showing them -to belong together, and gives photographs of the -two (pl. v. vi.), as well as of other leaves (pl. 8 and -9). The part of this codex of a calendar character -(Tableau des Bacab) is reproduced from Rosny’s -plate by Cyrus Thomas<a name="FNanchor_1133_1133" id="FNanchor_1133_1133"></a><a href="#Footnote_1133_1133" class="fnanchor">[1133]</a> in an essay in the <i>Third -Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</i>, together -with an attempted restoration of the plate, which -is obscure in parts. Finally a small edition (85 -copies) of the entire MS. was published at Paris -in 1883.<a name="FNanchor_1134_1134" id="FNanchor_1134_1134"></a><a href="#Footnote_1134_1134" class="fnanchor">[1134]</a></p> - -<p>The last of the Maya MSS. recently brought -to light is sometimes cited as the <i>Codex Perezianus</i>, -because the paper in which it was wrapped, -when recognized in 1859 by Rosny,<a name="FNanchor_1135_1135" id="FNanchor_1135_1135"></a><a href="#Footnote_1135_1135" class="fnanchor">[1135]</a> bore the -name “Perez”; and sometimes designated as -Codex Mexicanus, or Manuscrit Yucatèque No. -2, of the National Library at Paris. It was a -few years later published as <i>Manuscrit dit -Méxicain No. 2 de la Bibliothèque Impériale, -photographié par ordre de S. E. M. Duruy, -ministre de l’instruction publique</i> (Paris, 1864, in folio, 50 copies). The original is a fragment of eleven -leaves, and Brasseur<a name="FNanchor_1136_1136" id="FNanchor_1136_1136"></a><a href="#Footnote_1136_1136" class="fnanchor">[1136]</a> speaks of it as the most beautiful of all the MSS. in execution, but the one which has -suffered the most from time and usage.<a name="FNanchor_1137_1137" id="FNanchor_1137_1137"></a><a href="#Footnote_1137_1137" class="fnanchor">[1137]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-258.jpg" width="400" height="655" id="i208" - alt="" - title="" /> - <p class="pf400"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—This Yucatan bas-relief follows a photograph by Rosny (1880), reproduced in the <i>Mém. de la Soc. d’Ethnographie</i>, -no. 3 (Paris, 1882).</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="p4">CHAPTER IV.</h2> - -<p class="pc elarge">THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU.</p> - -<p class="pc">BY CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, C. B.</p> - -<p class="drop-cap04">THE civilization of the Incas of Peru is the most important, because -it is the highest, phase in the development of progress among the -American races. It represents the combined efforts, during long periods, -of several peoples who eventually became welded into one nation. The -especial interest attaching to the study of this civilization consists in the -fact that it was self-developed, and that, so far as can be ascertained, it -received no aid and no impulse from foreign contact.</p> - -<p>It is necessary, however, to bear in mind that the empire of the Incas, -in its final development, was formed of several nations which had, during -long periods, worked out their destinies apart from each other; and that -one, at least, appears to have been entirely distinct from the Incas in race -and language.<a name="FNanchor_1138_1138" id="FNanchor_1138_1138"></a><a href="#Footnote_1138_1138" class="fnanchor">[1138]</a> These facts must be carefully borne in mind in pursuing -inquiries relating to the history of Inca civilization. It is also essential -that the nature and value of the evidence on which conclusions must be -based should be understood and carefully weighed. This evidence is of -several kinds. Besides the testimony of Spanish writers who witnessed the -conquest of Peru, or who lived a generation afterwards, there is the evidence -derived from a study of the characteristics of descendants of the Inca people, -of their languages and literature, and of their architectural and other -remains. These various kinds of evidence must be compared, their respective -values must be considered, and thus alone, in our time, can the nearest -approximation to the truth be reached.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-260.jpg" width="400" height="599" id="i210" - alt="" - title="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="pc400">MAP IN BRASSEUR’S POPUL VUH.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The testimony of writers in the sixteenth century, who had the advantage -of being able to see the workings of Inca institutions, to examine the outcome -of their civilization in all its branches, and to converse with the Incas -themselves respecting the history and the traditions of their people, is the -most important evidence. Much of this testimony has been preserved, but -unfortunately a great deal is lost. The sack of Cadiz by the Earl of Essex, -in 1595, was the occasion of the loss of Blas Valera’s priceless work.<a name="FNanchor_1139_1139" id="FNanchor_1139_1139"></a><a href="#Footnote_1139_1139" class="fnanchor">[1139]</a> Other -valuable writings have been left in manuscript, and have been mislaid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> -through neglect and carelessness. Authors are mentioned, or even quoted, -whose books have disappeared. The contemplation of the fallen Inca -empire excited the curiosity and interest of a great number of intelligent -men among the Spanish conquerors. Many wrote narratives of what they -saw and heard. A few studied the language and traditions of the people -with close attention. And these authors were not confined to the clerical -and legal professions; they included several of the soldier-conquerors themselves.<a name="FNanchor_1140_1140" id="FNanchor_1140_1140"></a><a href="#Footnote_1140_1140" class="fnanchor">[1140]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-261.jpg" width="400" height="573" id="i211" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">EARLY SPANISH MAP OF PERU.</p> - <p class="pf400">[From the Paris (1774) edition of Zarate. The development of Peruvian cartography under the Spanish -explorations is traced in a note in Vol. II. p. 509; but the best map for the student is a map of the empire of -the Incas, showing all except the provinces of Quito and Chili, with the routes of the successive Inca conquerors -marked on it, given in the <i>Journal of the Roy. Geog. Soc.</i> (1872), vol. xlii. p. 513, compiled by Mr. -Trelawny Saunders to illustrate Mr. Markham’s paper of the previous year, on the empire of the Incas. The -map was republished by the Hakluyt Society in 1880. The map of Wiener in his <i>Pérou et Bolivie</i> is also a -good one. Cf. Squier’s map in his <i>Peru</i>.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p> - -<p>The nature of the country and climate was a potent agent in forming the -character of the people, and in enabling them to make advances in civilization. -In the dense forests of the Amazonian valleys, in the boundless -prairies and savannas, we only meet with wandering tribes of hunters and -fishers. It is on the lofty plateaux of the Andes, where extensive tracts of -land are adapted for tillage, or in the comparatively temperate valleys of -the western coast, that we find nations advanced in civilization.<a name="FNanchor_1141_1141" id="FNanchor_1141_1141"></a><a href="#Footnote_1141_1141" class="fnanchor">[1141]</a></p> - -<p>The region comprised in the empire of the Incas during its greatest -extension is bounded on the east by the forest-covered Amazonian plains, -on the west by the Pacific Ocean, and its length along the line of the Cordilleras -was upwards of 1,500 miles, from 2° N. to 20° S. This vast tract -comprises every temperature and every variety of physical feature. The inhabitants -of the plains and valleys of the Andes enjoyed a temperate and -generally bracing climate, and their energies were called forth by the physical -difficulties which had to be overcome through their skill and hardihood. -Such a region was suited for the gradual development of a vigorous race, -capable of reaching to a high state of culture. The different valleys and -plateaux are separated by lofty mountain chains or by profound gorges, so -that the inhabitants would, in the earliest period of their history, make their -own slow progress in comparative isolation, and would have little intercommunication. -When at last they were brought together as one people, and -thus combined their efforts in forming one system, it is likely that such a -union would have a tendency to be of long duration, owing to the great -difficulties which must have been overcome in its creation. On the other -hand, if, in course of time, disintegration once began, it might last long, and -great efforts would be required to build up another united empire. The -evidence seems to point to the recurrence of these processes more than -once, in the course of ages, and to their commencement in a very remote -antiquity.</p> - -<p>One strong piece of evidence pointing to the great length of time during -which the Inca nations had been a settled and partially civilized race, is to -be found in the plants that had been brought under cultivation, and in the -animals that had been domesticated. Maize is unknown in a wild state,<a name="FNanchor_1142_1142" id="FNanchor_1142_1142"></a><a href="#Footnote_1142_1142" class="fnanchor">[1142]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> -and many centuries must have elapsed before the Peruvians could have produced -numerous cultivated varieties, and have brought the plant to such a -high state of perfection. The peculiar edible roots, called <i>oca</i> and <i>aracacha</i>, -also exist only as cultivated plants. There is no wild variety of the <i>chirimoya</i>, -and the Peruvian species -of the cotton plant is -known only under cultivation.<a name="FNanchor_1143_1143" id="FNanchor_1143_1143"></a><a href="#Footnote_1143_1143" class="fnanchor">[1143]</a> -The potato is found -wild in Chile, and probably in -Peru, as a very insignificant -tuber. But the Peruvians, -after cultivating it for centuries, -increased its size and -produced a great number of -edible varieties.<a name="FNanchor_1144_1144" id="FNanchor_1144_1144"></a><a href="#Footnote_1144_1144" class="fnanchor">[1144]</a> Another -proof of the great antiquity of -Peruvian civilization is to be -found in the llama and alpaca, -which are domesticated -animals, with individuals varying in color: the one a beast of burden yielding -coarse wool, and the other bearing a thick fleece of the softest silken -fibres. Their prototypes are the wild huanaco and vicuña, of uniform -color, and untameable. Many centuries must have elapsed before the wild -creatures of the Andean solitudes, with the habits of chamois, could have -been converted into the Peruvian sheep which cannot exist apart from men.<a name="FNanchor_1145_1145" id="FNanchor_1145_1145"></a><a href="#Footnote_1145_1145" class="fnanchor">[1145]</a></p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-263.jpg" width="250" height="185" id="i213" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">LLAMAS.</p> - <p class="pf250">[One of the cuts which did service in the Antwerp edition of Cieza de Leon. Cf. Bollaert on the llama, -alpaca, huanaco, and vicuña species in the <i>Sporting Review</i>, Feb., 1863; the cuts in Squier, pp. 246, 250; -Dr. Van Tschudi, in the <i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i>, 1885.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>These considerations point to so vast a period during which the existing -race had dwelt in the Peruvian Andes, that any speculation respecting its -origin would necessarily be futile in the present state of our knowledge.<a name="FNanchor_1146_1146" id="FNanchor_1146_1146"></a><a href="#Footnote_1146_1146" class="fnanchor">[1146]</a> -The weight of tradition indicates the south as the quarter whence the -people came whose descendants built the edifices at Tiahuanacu.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></p> - -<p>The most ancient remains of a primitive people in the Peruvian Andes -consist of rude <i>cromlechs</i>, or burial-places, which are met with in various -localities. Don Modesto Basadre has described some by the roadside, in -the descent from Umabamba to Charasani, in Bolivia. These cromlechs are -formed of four great slabs of slate, each slab being about five feet high, four -or five in width, and more than an inch thick. The four slabs are perfectly -shaped and worked so as to fit into each other at the corners. A fifth slab -is placed over them, and over the whole a pyramid of clay and rough stones -is piled. These cromlechs are the early memorials of a race which was succeeded -by the people who constructed the cyclopean edifices of the Andean -plateaux.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-264.jpg" width="400" height="270" id="i214" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">DETAILS AT TIAHUANACU.</p> - <p class="pf400">KEY:—<br /> -A, Lid or cover of some aperture, of stone, with two handles neatly undercut.<br /> -B, A window of trachyte, of careful workmanship, in one piece.<br /> -C, Block of masonry with carving.<br /> -D, E, Two views of a corner-piece to some stone conduit, carefully ornamented with projecting lines.<br /> -F, G, H, I, Other pieces of cut masonry lying about.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>For there is reason to believe that a powerful empire had existed in Peru -centuries before the rise of the Inca dynasty. Cyclopean ruins, quite foreign -to the genius of Inca architecture, point to this conclusion. The wide -area over which they are found is an indication that the government which -caused them to be built ruled over an extensive empire, while their cyclopean -character is a proof that their projectors had an almost unlimited supply -of labor. Religious myths and dynastic traditions throw some doubtful -light on that remote past, which has left its silent memorials in the huge -stones of Tiahuanacu, Sacsahuaman, and Ollantay, and in the altar of Concacha.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-265a.jpg" width="400" height="222" id="i215" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">CARVINGS AT TIAHUANACU.</p> - <p class="pf400">KEY:—<br /> -A, Portion of the ornament which runs along the base of the rows of figures on the monolithic doorway.<br /> -B, Prostrate idol lying on its face near the ruins; about 9 feet long.</p> -</div></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-265b.jpg" width="400" height="206" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">BAS-RELIEFS AT TIAHUANACU.</p> - <p class="pf400">KEY:—<br /> -A, A winged human figure with the crowned head of a condor, from the central row on the monolithic doorway.<br /> -B, A winged human figure with human head crowned, from the upper row on the monolithic doorway.</p> -<p class="pf400">[There are well-executed cuts of these sculptures in Ruge’s <i>Geschichte des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen</i>, -pp. 430, 431. Cf. Squier’s <i>Peru</i>, p. 292.—<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The most interesting ruins in Peru are those of the palace or temple near -the village of Tiahuanacu,<a name="FNanchor_1147_1147" id="FNanchor_1147_1147"></a><a href="#Footnote_1147_1147" class="fnanchor">[1147]</a> on the southern side of Lake Titicaca. They -are 12,930 feet above the level of the sea, and 130 above that of the lake, -which is about twelve miles off.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-266a.jpg" width="400" height="274" id="i216" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">FRAGMENTS AT TIAHUANACU.</p> - <p class="pf400">Various curiously carved stones found scattered about the ruins.</p> -</div></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-266b.jpg" width="400" height="286" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">REVERSE OF THE DOORWAY AT TIAHUANACU.</p> - <p class="pf400">[Cf. view in Squier’s <i>Peru</i>, p. 289, with other particulars of the ruins, p. 276, etc.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span></p> - -<p>They consist of a quadrangular space, entered -by the famous monolithic doorway, and surrounded by large stones -standing on end; and of a hill or mound encircled by remains of a wall, -consisting of enormous blocks of stone. The whole covers an area about -400 yards long by 350 broad. There is a lesser temple, about a quarter of -a mile distant, containing stones 36 feet long by 7, and 26 by 16, with -recesses in them which have been compared to seats of judgment. The -weight of the two great stones has been estimated at from 140 to 200 tons -each, and the distance of the quarries whence they could have been brought -is from 15 to 40 miles.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-267.jpg" width="400" height="595" id="i217" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">IMAGE AT TIAHUANACU.</p> - <p class="pf400">[This is an enlarged drawing of the bas-relief shown in the picture of the broken doorway (p. <a href="#i218">218</a>). Cf. -the cuts in the article on the ruins of Tiahuanacu in the <i>Revue d’Architecture des Travaux publics</i>, vol. -xxiv.; in Ch. Wiener’s <i>L’Empire des Incas</i>, pl. iii.; in D’Orbigny’s Atlas to his <i>L’Homme Américain</i>; and -in Squier’s <i>Peru</i>, p. 291.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The monolithic portal is one block of hard trachytic rock, now deeply<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> -sunk in the ground. Its height above ground is 7 ft. 2 in., width 13 ft. 5 in., -thickness 1 ft. 6 in., and the opening is 4 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 9 in. The outer -side is ornamented by accurately cut niches and rectangular mouldings. The -whole of the inner side, from a line level with the upper lintel of the doorway -to the top, is a mass of sculpture, which speaks to us, in difficult riddles, -alas! of the customs and art-culture, of the beliefs and traditions, of an -ancient and lost civilization.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-268.jpg" width="400" height="286" id="i218" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">BROKEN MONOLITH DOORWAY AT TIAHUANACU.</p> - <p class="pf400">[An enlarged drawing of the image over the arch is given in another cut. This same ruin is well represented -in Ruge’s <i>Gesch. des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen</i>; and not so well in Wiener’s <i>Pérou et Bolivie</i>, -p. 419. Cf. Squier’s <i>Peru</i>, p. 288.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>In the centre there is a figure carved in high relief, in an oblong compartment, -2 ft. 2 in. long by 1 ft. 6 in.<a name="FNanchor_1148_1148" id="FNanchor_1148_1148"></a><a href="#Footnote_1148_1148" class="fnanchor">[1148]</a> Squier describes this figure as -angularly but boldly cut. The head is surrounded by rays, each terminating -in a circle or the head of an animal. The breast is adorned with two -serpents united by a square band. Another band, divided into ornamented -compartments, passes round the neck, and the ends are brought down to -the girdle, from which hang six human heads. Human heads also hang -from the elbows, and the hands clasp sceptres which terminate in the heads -of condors. The legs are cut off near the girdle, and below there are a -series of frieze-like ornaments, each ending with a condor’s head. On -either side of this central sculpture there are three tiers of figures, 16 in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> -each tier, or 48 in all, each in a kneeling posture, and facing towards the -large central figure. Each figure is in a square, the sides of which measure -eight inches. All are winged, and hold sceptres ending in condors’ heads; -but while those in the upper and lower tiers have crowned human heads, those -in the central tier have the heads of condors. There is a profusion of ornament -on all these figures, consisting of heads of birds and fishes. An ornamental -frieze runs along the base of the lowest tier of figures, consisting of -an elaborate pattern of angular lines ending in condors’ heads, with larger -human heads surrounded by rays, in the intervals of the pattern. Cieza de -Leon and Alcobasa<a name="FNanchor_1149_1149" id="FNanchor_1149_1149"></a><a href="#Footnote_1149_1149" class="fnanchor">[1149]</a> mention that, besides this sculpture over the doorway, -there were richly carved statues at Tiahuanacu, which have since been destroyed, -and many cylindrical pillars with capitals. The head of one statue, -with a peculiar head-dress, which is 3 ft. 6 in. long, still lies by the roadside.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-269.jpg" width="400" height="266" id="i219" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">TIAHUANACU RESTORED.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a drawing given in <i>The Temple of the Andes</i> by Richard Inwards (London, 1884).</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The masonry of the ruins is admirably worked, according to the testimony -of all visitors. Squier says: “The stone itself is a dark and exceedingly -hard trachyte. It is faced with a precision that no skill can excel. -Its lines are perfectly drawn, and its right angles turned with an accuracy -that the most careful geometer could not surpass. I do not believe there -exists a better piece of stone-cutting, the material considered, on this or -the other continent.”</p> - -<p>It is desirable to describe these ruins, and especially the sculpture over<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> -the monolithic doorway, with some minuteness, because, with the probable -exception of the cromlechs, they are the most ancient, and, without any -exception, the most interesting that have been met with in Peru. There is -nothing elsewhere that at all resembles the sculpture on the monolithic -doorway at Tiahuanacu.<a name="FNanchor_1150_1150" id="FNanchor_1150_1150"></a><a href="#Footnote_1150_1150" class="fnanchor">[1150]</a> The central figure, with rows of kneeling worshippers -on either side, all covered with symbolic designs, represents, it -may be conjectured, either the sovereign and his vassals, or, more probably, -the Deity, with representatives of all the nations bowing down before him. -The sculpture and the most ancient traditions should throw light upon each -other.</p> - -<p>Further north there are other examples of prehistoric cyclopean remains. -Such is the great wall, with its “stone of 12 corners,” in the Calle del Triunfo -at Cuzco. Such is the famous fortress of Cuzco, on the Sacsahuaman -Hill. Such, too, are portions of the ruins at Ollantay-tampu. Still farther -north there are cyclopean ruins at Concacha, at Huiñaque, and at Huaraz.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-270.jpg" width="400" height="283" id="i220" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">RUINS OF SACSAHUAMAN.</p> - <p class="pf400">[After a cut in Ruge’s <i>Geschichte des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen</i>. Markham has elsewhere described -these ruins,—<i>Cieza de Leon</i>, 259, 324; 2d part, 160; <i>Royal Commentaries of the Incas</i>, ii., with a plan, reproduced -in Vol. II. p. 521, and another plan of Cuzco, showing the position of the fortress in its relations to the -city. There are plans and views in Squier’s <i>Peru</i>, ch. 23.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Tiahuanacu is interesting because it is possible that the elaborate character -of its symbolic sculpture may throw glimmerings of light on remote<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> -history; but Sacsahuaman, the fortress overlooking the city of Cuzco, is, -without comparison, the grandest monument of an ancient civilization in -the New World. Like the Pyramids and the Coliseum, it is imperishable. -It consists of a fortified work 600 yards in length, built of gigantic stones, -in three lines, forming walls supporting terraces and parapets arranged in -salient and retiring angles. This work defends the only assailable side of a -position which is impregnable, owing to the steepness of the ascent in all -other directions. The outer wall averages a height of 26 feet. Then there -is a terrace 16 yards across, whence the second wall rises to 18 feet. The -second terrace is six yards across, and the third wall averages a height of -12 feet. The total height of the fortification is 56 feet. The stones are of -blue limestone, of enormous size and irregular in shape, but fitted into each -other with rare precision. One of the stones is 27 feet high by 14, and -stones 15 feet high by 12 are common throughout the work.</p> - -<p>At Ollantay-tampu the ruins are of various styles, but the later works -are raised on ancient cyclopean foundations.<a name="FNanchor_1151_1151" id="FNanchor_1151_1151"></a><a href="#Footnote_1151_1151" class="fnanchor">[1151]</a> There are six porphyry slabs -12 feet high by 6 or 7; stone beams 15 and 20 feet long; stairs and -recesses hewn out of the solid rock. Here, as at Tiahuanacu, there were, -according to Cieza de Leon,<a name="FNanchor_1152_1152" id="FNanchor_1152_1152"></a><a href="#Footnote_1152_1152" class="fnanchor">[1152]</a> men and animals carved on the stones, but -they have disappeared. The same style of architecture, though only in -fragments, is met with further north.</p> - -<p>East of the river Apurimac, and not far from the town of Abancay, there -are three groups of ancient monuments in a deep valley surrounded by -lofty spurs of the Andes. There is a great cyclopean wall, a series of seats -or thrones of various forms hewn out of the solid stone, and a huge block -carved on five sides, called the <i>Rumi-huasi</i>. The northern face of this -monolith is cut into the form of a staircase; on the east there are two enormous -seats separated by thick partitions, and on the south there is a sort of -lookout place, with a seat. Collecting channels traverse the block, and join -trenches or grooves leading to two deep excavations on the western side. -On this western side there is also a series of steps, apparently for the fall -of a cascade of water connected with the sacrificial rites. Molina gives a -curious account of the water sacrifices of the Incas.<a name="FNanchor_1153_1153" id="FNanchor_1153_1153"></a><a href="#Footnote_1153_1153" class="fnanchor">[1153]</a> The <i>Rumi-huasi</i> seems -to have been the centre of a great sanctuary, and to have been used as an -altar. Its surface is carved with animals amidst a labyrinth of cavities and -partition ridges. Its length is 20 feet by 14 broad, and 12 feet high. Here -we have, no doubt, a sacrificial altar of the ancient people, on which the -blood of animals and libations of <i>chicha</i> flowed in torrents.<a name="FNanchor_1154_1154" id="FNanchor_1154_1154"></a><a href="#Footnote_1154_1154" class="fnanchor">[1154]</a></p> - -<p>Spanish writers received statements from the Indians that one or other -of these cyclopean ruins was built by some particular Inca. Garcilasso de -la Vega even names the architects of the Cuzco fortress. But it is clear -from the evidence of the most careful investigators, such as Cieza de Leon,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> -that there was no real knowledge of their origin, and that memory of the -builders was either quite lost, or preserved in vague, uncertain traditions.</p> - -<p>The most ancient myth points to the region of Lake Titicaca as the -scene of the creative operations of a Deity, or miracle-working Lord.<a name="FNanchor_1155_1155" id="FNanchor_1155_1155"></a><a href="#Footnote_1155_1155" class="fnanchor">[1155]</a> This -Deity is said to have created the sun, moon, and stars, or to have caused -them to rise out of Lake Titicaca. He also created men of stone at Tiahuanacu, -or of clay; making them pass under the earth, and appear again out -of caves, tree-trunks, rocks, or fountains in the different provinces which -were to be peopled by their descendants. But this seems to be a later attempt -to reconcile the ancient Titicaca myth with the local worship of natural objects -as ancestors or founders of their race, among the numerous subjugated -tribes; as well as to account for the colossal statues of unknown origin at -Tiahuanacu. There are variations of the story, but there is general concurrence -in the main points: that the Deity created the heavenly bodies and -the human race, and that the ancient people, or their rulers, were called -<i>Pirua</i>. Tradition also seems to point to regions south of the lake as the -quarter whence the first settlers came who worked out the earliest civilization.<a name="FNanchor_1156_1156" id="FNanchor_1156_1156"></a><a href="#Footnote_1156_1156" class="fnanchor">[1156]</a> -We may, in accordance with all the indications that are left to us, -connect the great god <i>Illa Ticsi</i> with the central figure of the Tiahuanacu -sculpture, and the kneeling worshippers with the rulers of all the nations and -tribes which had been subjugated by the <i>Hatun-runa</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1157_1157" id="FNanchor_1157_1157"></a><a href="#Footnote_1157_1157" class="fnanchor">[1157]</a>—the great men -who had Pirua for their king, and who originally came from the distant -south. The Piruas governed a vast empire, erected imperishable cyclopean -edifices, and developed a complicated civilization, which is dimly indicated -to us by the numerous symbolical sculptures on the monolith. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> -also, in a long course of years, brought wild plants under cultivation, and -domesticated the animals of the lofty Andean plateau. But it is remarkable -that the shores of Lake Titicaca, which are almost treeless, and where corn -will not ripen, should have been chosen as the centre of this most ancient -civilization. Yet the ruins of Tiahuanacu conclusively establish the fact -that the capital of the Piruas was on the loftiest site ever selected for the -seat of a great empire.</p> - -<p>The Amautas, or learned men of the later Inca period, preserved the -names of sovereigns of the Pirua dynasty, commencing with Pirua Manco, -and continuing for sixty-five generations. Lopez conjectures that there -was a change of dynasty after the eighteenth Pirua king, because hitherto -Montesinos, who has recorded the list, had always called each successor son -and heir, but after the eighteenth only heir. Hence he thinks that a new -dynasty of Amautas, or kings of the learned caste, succeeded the Piruas. -The only deeds recorded of this long line of kings are their success in -repelling invasions and their alterations of the calendar. At length there -appears to have been a general disruption of the empire: Cuzco was nearly -deserted, rebel leaders rose up in all directions, the various tribes became -independent, and the chief who claimed to be the representative of the old -dynasties was reduced to a small territory to the south of Cuzco, in the -valley of the Vilcamayu, and was called “King of Tampu Tocco.” This -state of disintegration is said to have continued for twenty-eight generations, -at the end of which time a new empire began to be consolidated under -the Incas, which inherited the civilization and traditions of the ancient -dynasties, and succeeded to their power and dominion.</p> - -<p>It was long believed that the lists of kings of the earlier dynasties rested -solely on the authority of Montesinos, and they consequently received little -credit. But recent research has brought to light the work of another writer, -who studied before Montesinos, and who incidentally refers to two of the -sovereigns in his lists.<a name="FNanchor_1158_1158" id="FNanchor_1158_1158"></a><a href="#Footnote_1158_1158" class="fnanchor">[1158]</a> This furnishes independent evidence that the -catalogues of early kings had been preserved orally or by means of <i>quipus</i>, -and that they were in existence when the Spaniards conquered Peru; thus -giving weight to the testimony of Montesinos.</p> - -<p>The second myth of the Peruvians refers to the origin of the Incas, who -derived their descent from the kings of Tampu Tocco, and had their original -home at Paccari-tampu, in the valley of the Vilcamayu, south of Cuzco. It -is, therefore, an ancestral myth. It is related that four brothers, with their -four sisters, issued forth from apertures (<i>Tocco</i>) in a cave at Paccari-tampu, -a name which means “the abode of dawn.” The brothers were called Ayar -Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Uchu, and Ayar Sauca, names to which the -Incas, in the time of Garcilasso de la Vega, gave a fanciful meaning.<a name="FNanchor_1159_1159" id="FNanchor_1159_1159"></a><a href="#Footnote_1159_1159" class="fnanchor">[1159]</a> One<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> -of the brothers showed extraordinary prowess in hurling a stone from a -sling. The others became jealous, and, persuading Ayar Auca, the expert -slingsman, to return into the cave, they blocked the entrance with rocks. -Ayar Uchu was converted into a stone idol, on the summit of a hill near -Cuzco, called Huanacauri. Manco then advanced to Cuzco with his youngest -brother, and found that the place was occupied by a chief named Alcaviza -and his people. Here Manco established the seat of his government, -and the Alcaviza tribe appears to have submitted to him, and to have lived -side by side with the Incas for some generations. The Huanacauri hill -was considered the most sacred place in Peru; while the <i>Tampu-tocco</i>, or -cave at Paccari-tampu, was, through the piety of descendants, faced with a -masonry wall, having three windows lined with plates of gold.</p> - -<p>There is a third myth which seems to connect the ancient tradition of -Titicaca with the ancestral myth of the Incas. It is said that long after -the creation by the Deity, a great and beneficent being appeared at Tiahuanacu, -who divided the world among four kings: Manco Ccapac, Colla, Tocay<a name="FNanchor_1160_1160" id="FNanchor_1160_1160"></a><a href="#Footnote_1160_1160" class="fnanchor">[1160]</a> -or Tocapo,<a name="FNanchor_1161_1161" id="FNanchor_1161_1161"></a><a href="#Footnote_1161_1161" class="fnanchor">[1161]</a> and Pinahua.<a name="FNanchor_1162_1162" id="FNanchor_1162_1162"></a><a href="#Footnote_1162_1162" class="fnanchor">[1162]</a> The names Tuapaca, Arnauan,<a name="FNanchor_1163_1163" id="FNanchor_1163_1163"></a><a href="#Footnote_1163_1163" class="fnanchor">[1163]</a> Tonapa,<a name="FNanchor_1164_1164" id="FNanchor_1164_1164"></a><a href="#Footnote_1164_1164" class="fnanchor">[1164]</a> -and Tarapaca occur in connection with this being, while some authorities -tell us that his name was unknown. Betanzos says that he went from Titicaca -to Cuzco, where he set up a chief named Alcaviza, and that he advanced -through the country until he disappeared over the sea at Puerto -Viejo. It is also related that the people of Canas attacked him, but were -converted by a miracle, and that they built a great temple, with an image, -at Cacha, in honor of this being, or of his god Illa Ticsi Uira-cocha. This -temple now forms a ruin which in its structure and arrangement is unique -in Peru, and therefore deserves special attention.</p> - -<p>The ruins of the temple of Cacha are in the valley of the Vilcamayu, -south of Cuzco. They were described by Garcilasso de la Vega, and have -been visited and carefully examined by Squier. The main temple was 330 -feet long by 87 broad, with wrought-stone walls and a steep pitched roof. -A high wall extended longitudinally through the centre of the structure, -consisting of a wrought-stone foundation, 8 feet high and 5½ feet thick on -the level of the ground, supporting an adobe superstructure, the whole being -40 feet high. This wall was pierced by 12 lofty doorways, 14 feet high. -But midway there are sockets for the reception of beams, showing the -existence of a second story, as described by Garcilasso. Between the transverse -and outer walls there were two series of pillars, 12 on each side, built -like the transverse wall, with 8 feet of wrought stone, and completed to a -height of 22 feet with adobes. These pillars appear to have supported the -second floor, where, according to Garcilasso, there was a shrine containing -the statue of Uira-cocha. At right angles to the temple, Squier discovered -the remains of a series of supplemental edifices surrounding courts, and -built upon a terrace 260 yards long.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p> - -<p>The peculiarities of the temple of Cacha consist in the use of rows of -columns to support a second floor, and in the great height of the walls. In -these respects it is unique, and if similar edifices ever existed, they appear -to have been destroyed previous to the rise of the Inca empire. The Cacha -temple belongs neither to the cyclopean period of the Piruas nor to the -Inca style of architecture. Connected with the strange myth of the wandering -prophet of Viracocha, it stands by itself, as one of those unsolved -problems which await future investigation. The statue in the shrine on -the upper story is described by Cieza de Leon, who saw it.</p> - -<p>Both the Titicaca and the Cacha myths have, in later times, been connected -and more or less amalgamated with the ancestral myth of the Incas. -Thus Garcilasso de la Vega makes Manco Ccapac come direct from Titicaca; -while Molina refers to him as one of the beings created there, who -went down through the earth and came up at Paccari-tampu. Salcamayhua -makes the being Tonapa, of the Cacha myth, arrive at Apu Tampu, or Paccari-tampu, -and leave a sacred sceptre there, called <i>tupac yauri</i>, for Manco -Ccapac. These are later interpolations, made with the object of connecting -the family myth of the Incas with more ancient traditions. The wise men -of the Inca system, through the care of Spanish writers of the time of the -conquest, have handed down these three traditions and the catalogue of -kings. The Titicaca myth tells us of the Deity worshipped by the builders -of Tiahuanacu, and the story of the creation. The Cacha myth has reference -to some great reformer of very ancient times. The Paccari-tampu -myth records the origin of the Inca dynasty. Although they are overlaid -with fables and miraculous occurrences, the main facts touching the original -home of Manco Ccapac and his march to Cuzco are probably historical.</p> - -<p>The catalogue of kings given by Montesinos, allowing an average of twenty -years for each, would place the commencement of the Pirua dynasty in -about 470 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>; in the days when the Greeks, under Cimon, were defeating -the Persians, and nearly a century after the death of Sakya Muni in -India. This early empire flourished for about 1,200 years, and the disruption -took place in 830 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>, in the days of King Egbert. The disintegration -continued for 500 years, and the rise of the Incas under Manco was -probably coeval with the days of St. Louis and Henry III of England.<a name="FNanchor_1165_1165" id="FNanchor_1165_1165"></a><a href="#Footnote_1165_1165" class="fnanchor">[1165]</a> By -that time the country had been broken up into separate tribes for 500 -years, and the work of reunion, so splendidly achieved by the Incas, was -most arduous. At the same time, the ancient civilization of the Piruas was -partially inherited by the various peoples whose ancestors composed their -empire; so that the Inca civilization was a revival rather than a creation.</p> - -<p>The various tribes and nations of the Andes, separated from each other -by uninhabited wildernesses and lofty mountain chains, were clearly of the -same origin, speaking dialects of the same language. Since the fall of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> -Piruas they had led an independent existence. Some had formed powerful -confederations, others were isolated in their valleys. But it was only -through much hard fighting and by consummate statesmanship that the -one small Inca lineage established, in a period of less than three centuries, -imperial dominion over the rest. It will be well, in this place, to take a -brief survey of the different nations which were to form the empire of the -Incas, and of their territories.</p> - -<p>The central Andean region, which was the home of the imperial race of -Incas, extends from the water-parting between the sources of the Ucayali -and the basin of Lake Titicaca to the river Apurimac. It includes wild -mountain fastnesses, wide expanses of upland, grassy slopes, lofty valleys -such as that in which the city of Cuzco is built, and fertile ravines, with -the most lovely scenery. The inhabitants composed four tribes: that of the -Incas in the valley of the Vilcamayu, of the Quichuas in the secluded ravines -of the Apurimac tributaries, and those of the Canas and Cauchis in the -mountains bordering on the Titicaca basin. These people average a height -of 5 ft. 4 in., and are strongly built. The nose is invariably aquiline, the -mouth rather large; the eyes black or deep brown, bright, and generally -deep set, with long fine lashes. The hair is abundant and long, fine, and of -a deep black-brown. The men have no beards. The skin is very smooth -and soft, and of a light coppery-brown color, the neck thick, and the shoulders -broad, with great depth of chest. The legs are well formed, feet and -hands very small. The Incas have the build and physique of mountaineers.</p> - -<p>To the south of this cradle of the Inca race extended the region of the -Collas<a name="FNanchor_1166_1166" id="FNanchor_1166_1166"></a><a href="#Footnote_1166_1166" class="fnanchor">[1166]</a> and allied tribes, including the whole basin of Lake Titicaca, which -is 12,000 feet above the level of the sea. The Collas dwelt in stone huts, -tended their flocks of llamas, and raised crops of ocas, quinoas, and potatoes. -They were divided into several tribes, and were engaged in constant -feuds, their arms being slings and <i>ayllos</i>, or bolas. The Collas are remarkable -for great length of body compared with the thigh and leg, and they -are the only people whose thighs are shorter than their legs. Their build -fits them for excellence in mountain climbing and pedestrianism, and for -the exercise of extraordinary endurance.<a name="FNanchor_1167_1167" id="FNanchor_1167_1167"></a><a href="#Footnote_1167_1167" class="fnanchor">[1167]</a> The homes of the Collas were -around the seat of ancient civilization at Tiahuanacu.</p> - -<p>A remarkable race, apart from the Incas and Collas, of darker complexion -and more savage habits, dwelt and still dwell among the vast beds of reeds -in the southwestern angle of Lake Titicaca. They are called Urus, and -are probably descendants of an aboriginal people who occupied the Titicaca -basin before the arrival of the Hatun-runas from the south. The Urus -spoke a distinct language, called <i>Puquina</i>, specimens of which have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> -preserved by Bishop Oré.<a name="FNanchor_1168_1168" id="FNanchor_1168_1168"></a><a href="#Footnote_1168_1168" class="fnanchor">[1168]</a> The ancestors of the Urus may have been the -cromlech builders, driven into the fastnesses of the lake when their country -was occupied by the more powerful invaders, who erected the imperishable -monuments at Tiahuanacu. These Urus are now lake-dwellers. Their -homes consist of large canoes, made of the tough reeds which cover the shallow -parts of the lake, and they live on fish, and on quinua and potatoes, -which they obtain by barter.</p> - -<p>North of Cuzco there were several allied tribes, resembling the Incas in -physique and language, in a similar stage of civilization, and their rivals in -power. Beyond the Apurimac, and inhabiting the valleys of the Andes -thence to the Mantaro, was the important nation of the Chancas; and still -further north and west, in the valley of the Xauxa, was the Huanca nation. -Agricultural people and shepherds, forming <i>ayllus</i>, or tribes of the Chancas -and Huancas, occupied the ravines of the maritime cordillera, and extended -their settlements into several valleys of the seacoast, between the Rimac -and Nasca. These coast people of Inca race, known as Chinchas, held -their own against an entirely different nation, of distinct origin and language, -who occupied the northern coast valleys from the Rimac to Payta, -and also the great valley of Huarca (the modern Cañete), where they had -Chincha enemies both to the north and south of them. These people were -called <i>Yuncas</i> by their Inca conquerors. Their own name was Chimu, and -the language spoken by them was called <i>Mochica</i>. But this question relating -to the early inhabitants of the coast valleys of Peru, their origin and -civilization, is the most difficult in ancient Peruvian history, and will require -separate consideration.<a name="FNanchor_1169_1169" id="FNanchor_1169_1169"></a><a href="#Footnote_1169_1169" class="fnanchor">[1169]</a></p> - -<div class="floatleft"> - <img src="images/ill-278a.jpg" width="250" height="252" id="i228a" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">INCA MANCO CCAPAC.</p> - <p class="pf250">[After a cut in Marcoy’s <i>South America</i>, i. 210 (also in <i>Tour du Monde</i>, 1863, p. 261), purporting to be -drawn from a copy of the taffeta roll containing the pedigree of the Incas, which, in evidence of their claims, -was sent by their descendants to the Spanish king in 1603. This genealogical record contained the likenesses -of the successive Incas and their wives, and the original is said to have disappeared. Mr. Markham supposes -this roll to have been the original of the portraits given in Herrera (see cut on p. 267 of the present volume); -but they are not the same, if Marcoy’s cuts are trustworthy. A set of likenesses appeared in Ulloa’s <i>Relacion -Histórica</i> (Madrid, 1748), iv. 604; and these were the originals of the series copied in the <i>Gentleman’s Mag.</i>, -1751-1752, and thence are copied those in Ranking. These do not correspond with those given by Marcoy. -See <i>post</i>, Vol. II., for a note on different series of portraits, and in the same volume, pp. 515, 516, are portraits -of Atahualpa. A portrait of Manco Inca, killed 1546, is given in A. de Beauchamp’s <i>Histoire de la Conquête -du Pérou</i> (Paris, 1808).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>North of the Huanca nation, along the basin of the Marañon, there were -tribes which were known to the Incas by their head-dresses. These were -the Conchucus, Huamachucus, and Huacrachucus.<a name="FNanchor_1170_1170" id="FNanchor_1170_1170"></a><a href="#Footnote_1170_1170" class="fnanchor">[1170]</a> Still further north, in -the region of the equator, was the powerful nation of Quitus.</p> - -<p>All these nations of the Peruvian Andes appear to have once formed part -of the mighty prehistoric empire of the Pirhuas, and to have retained much -of the civilization of their ancestors during the subsequent centuries of -separate existence and isolation. This probably accounts for the ease with -which the Incas established their system of religion and government -throughout their new empire, after the conquests were completed. The -subjugated nations spoke dialects of the same language, and inherited many -of the usages and ideas of their conquerors. For the same reason they were -pretty equally matched as foes, and the Incas secured the mastery only by -dint of desperate fighting and great political sagacity. But finally they did -establish their superiority, and founded a second great empire in Peru.</p> - -<p>The history of the rise and progress of Inca power, as recorded by native<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> -historians in their <i>quipus</i>, and retailed to us by Spanish writers, is, on the -whole, coherent and intelligible. -Many blunders were inevitable in -conveying the information from the -mouths of natives to the Spanish inquirers, -who understood the language -imperfectly, and whose objects often -were to reach foregone conclusions. -But certain broad historical facts are -brought out by a comparison of the -different authorities, the succession -of the last ten sovereigns is determined -by a nearly complete consensus -of evidence, and we can now relate -the general features of the rise -of Inca ascendency in Peru with a -certain amount of confidence.</p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-278b.jpg" width="250" height="246" id="i228b" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">INCA YUPANQUI.</p> - <p class="pf250">[After a cut in Marcoy, i. 214.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The Inca people were divided into small <i>ayllus</i>, or lineages, when Manco -Ccapac advanced down the -valley of the Vilcamayu, from -Paccari-tampu, and forced the -<i>ayllu</i> of Alcaviza and the <i>ayllu</i> -of Antasayac to submit to -his sway. He formed the nucleus -of his power at Cuzco, -the land of these conquered -<i>ayllus</i>, and from this point his -descendants slowly extended -their dominion. The chiefs of -the surrounding <i>ayllus</i>, called -<i>Sinchi</i> (literally, “strong”), -either submitted willingly to -the Incas, or were subjugated. -Sinchi Rocca, the son, and -Lloque Yupanqui, the grandson, -of Manco, filled up a -swamp on the site of the present cathedral of Cuzco, planned out the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> -city,<a name="FNanchor_1171_1171" id="FNanchor_1171_1171"></a><a href="#Footnote_1171_1171" class="fnanchor">[1171]</a> and their reigns were mainly occupied in consolidating the small -kingdom founded by their predecessor. Mayta Ccapac, the fourth Inca, was -also occupied in consolidating his power round Cuzco; but his son, Ccapac -Yupanqui, subdued the Quichuas to the westward, and extended his sway as -far as the pass of Vilcañota, overlooking the Collao, or basin of Lake Titicaca. -Inca Rocca, the next sovereign, made few conquests, devoting his -attention to the foundation of schools, the organization of festivals and administrative -government, and to the construction of public works. His son, -named Yahuar-huaccac, appears to have been unfortunate. One authority -says that he was surprised and killed, and all agree that his reign was disastrous. -For seven generations the power and the admirable internal polity -of the Incarial government had been gradually organized and consolidated -within a limited area. The succeeding -sovereigns were great -conquerors, and their empire was -rapidly extended to the vast area -which it had reached when the -Spaniards first appeared on the -scene.</p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-279.jpg" width="250" height="184" id="i229" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">CUZCO.</p> - <p class="pf250">[One of the cuts which did service in the Antwerp editions of Cieza de Leon. There are various views in -Squier’s <i>Peru</i>, pp. 427-445.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The son of Yahuar-huaccac assumed -the name of the Deity, -and called himself Uira-cocha.<a name="FNanchor_1172_1172" id="FNanchor_1172_1172"></a><a href="#Footnote_1172_1172" class="fnanchor">[1172]</a> -Intervening in a war between the -two principal chiefs of the Collas, -named Cari and Zapaña, Uira-cocha -defeated them in detail, -and annexed the whole basin of Lake Titicaca to his dominions. He also -conquered the lovely valley of Yucay, on the lower course of the Vilcamayu, -whither he retired to end his days. The eldest son of Uira-cocha, named -Urco, was incompetent or unworthy, and was either obliged to abdicate<a name="FNanchor_1173_1173" id="FNanchor_1173_1173"></a><a href="#Footnote_1173_1173" class="fnanchor">[1173]</a> in -favor of his brother Yupanqui, the favorite hero of Inca history, or was -slain.<a name="FNanchor_1174_1174" id="FNanchor_1174_1174"></a><a href="#Footnote_1174_1174" class="fnanchor">[1174]</a> It was a moment when the rising empire needed the services of her -ablest sons. She was about to engage in a death-struggle with a neighbor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> -as powerful and as civilized as herself. The kingdom of the Chancas, commencing -on the banks of the Apurimac, extended far to the east and north, -including many of the richest valleys of the Andes. Their warlike king, -Uscavilca, had already subdued the Quichuas, who dwelt in the upper valleys -of the Apurimac tributaries to the southward, and was advancing on -Cuzco, when Yupanqui pushed aside the imbecile Urco, and seized the helm. -The fate of the Incas was hanging on a thread. The story is one of thrilling -interest as told in the pages of Betanzos, but all authorities dwell more -or less on this famous Chanca war. The decisive battle was fought outside -the Huaca-puncu, the sacred gate of Cuzco. The result was long doubtful. -Suddenly, as the shades of evening were closing over the Yahuar-pampa,—“the -field of blood,”—a fresh army fell upon the right flank of the Chanca -host, and the Incas won a great victory. So unexpected was this onslaught -that the very stones on the mountain sides were believed to have been -turned into men. It was the armed array of the insurgent Quichuas who -had come by forced marches to the help of their old masters. The memory -of this great struggle was fresh in men’s minds when the Spaniards -arrived, and as the new conquerors passed over the battlefield, on their way -to Cuzco, they saw the stuffed skins of the vanquished Chancas set up as -memorials by the roadside.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-280.jpg" width="400" height="165" id="i230" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">WARRIORS OF THE INCA PERIOD.</p> - <p class="pf400">[After a cut given by Ruge, and showing figures from an old Peruvian painting.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The subjugation of the Chancas, with their allies the Huancas, led to a -vast extension of the Inca empire, which now reached to the shores of the -Pacific; and the last years of Yupanqui were passed in the conquest of the -alien coast nation, ruled over by a sovereign known as the Chimu. Thus -the reign of the Inca Yupanqui marks a great epoch. He beat down all -rivals, and converted the Cuzco kingdom into a vast empire. He received -the name of Pachacutec, or “he who changes the world,” a name which, -according to Montesinos, had on eight previous occasions been conferred -upon sovereigns of the more ancient dynasties.</p> - -<p>Tupac Inca Yupanqui, the son and successor of Pachacutec, completed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> -the subjugation of the coast valleys, extended his conquests beyond Quito -on the north and to Chile as far as the river Maule in the south, besides -penetrating far into the eastern forests.</p> - -<p>Huayna Ccapac, the son of Tupac Inca Yupanqui, completed and consolidated -the conquests of his father. He traversed the valleys of the coast, -penetrated to the southern limit of Chile, and fought a memorable battle -on the banks of the “lake of blood” (Yahuar-cocha), near the northern -frontier of Quito. After a long reign,<a name="FNanchor_1175_1175" id="FNanchor_1175_1175"></a><a href="#Footnote_1175_1175" class="fnanchor">[1175]</a> the last years of which were passed -in Quito, Huayna Ccapac died in November, 1525. His eldest legitimate -son, named Huascar, succeeded him at Cuzco. But Atahualpa, his father’s -favorite, was at Quito with the most experienced generals. Haughty messages -passed between the brothers, which were followed by war. Huascar’s -armies were defeated in detail, and eventually the generals of Atahualpa -took the legitimate Inca prisoner, entered Cuzco, and massacred the family -and adherents of Huascar.<a name="FNanchor_1176_1176" id="FNanchor_1176_1176"></a><a href="#Footnote_1176_1176" class="fnanchor">[1176]</a> The successful aspirant to the throne was on -his way to Cuzco, in the wake of his generals, when he encountered Pizarro -and the Spanish invaders at Caxamarca. This war of succession would not, -it is probable, have led to any revolutionary change in the general policy of -the empire. Atahualpa would have established his power and continued to -rule, just as his ancestor Pachacutec did, after the dethronement of his -brother Urco.<a name="FNanchor_1177_1177" id="FNanchor_1177_1177"></a><a href="#Footnote_1177_1177" class="fnanchor">[1177]</a></p> - -<p>The succession of the Incas from Manco Ccapac to Atahualpa was evidently -well known to the Amautas, or learned men of the empire, and was -recorded in their <i>quipus</i> with precision, together with less certain materials -respecting the more ancient dynasties. Many blunders were committed by -the Spanish inquirers in putting down the historical information received -from the Amautas, but on the whole there is general concurrence among -them.<a name="FNanchor_1178_1178" id="FNanchor_1178_1178"></a><a href="#Footnote_1178_1178" class="fnanchor">[1178]</a> Practically the Spanish authorities agree, and it is clear that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> -native annalists possessed a single record, while the apparent discrepancies -are due to blunders of the Spanish transcribers. The twelve Incas from -Manco Ccapac to Huascar may be received as historical personages whose -deeds were had in memory at the time of the Spanish invasion, and were -narrated to those among the conquerors who sought for information from -the Amautas.</p> - -<table id="t01" summary="t01"> - - <tr> - <td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">a.d.</span><br /> - 1240—Manco Ccapac.<br /> - 1260—Sinchi Rocca.<br /> - 1280—Lloque Yupanqui.<br /> - 1300—Mayta Ccapac.<br /> - 1320—Ccapac Yupanqui.<br /> - 1340—Inca Rocca.</td> - - <td class="tdl2"><span class="smcap">a.d.</span><br /> - 1360—Yahuar-huaccac.<br /> - 1380—Uira-cocha.<br /> - 1400—Pachacutec Yupanqui.<br /> - 1440—Tupac Yupanqui.<br /> - 1480—Huayna Ccapac.<br /> - 1523—Inti Cusi Hualpa, or Huascar.</td> - </tr> - -</table> - -<p class="p1">The religion of the Incas consisted in the worship of the supreme being -of the earlier dynasties, the Illa Ticsi Uira-cocha of the Pirhuas. This simple -faith was overlaid by a vast mass of superstition, represented by the -cult of ancestors and the cult of natural objects. To this was superadded -the belief in the ideals or souls of all animated things, which ruled and -guided them, and to which men might pray for help. The exact nature of -this belief in ideals, as it presented itself to the people themselves, is not at -all clear. It prevailed among the uneducated. Probably it was the idea to -which dreams give rise,—the idea of a double nature, of a tangible and a -phantom being, the latter mysterious and powerful, and to be propitiated. -The belief in this double being was extended to all animated nature, for -even the crops had their spiritual doubles, which it was necessary to worship -and propitiate.</p> - -<p>But the religion of the Incas and of learned men, or Amautas, was a worship -of the Supreme Cause of all things, the ancient God of the Titicaca -myth, combined with veneration for the sun<a name="FNanchor_1179_1179" id="FNanchor_1179_1179"></a><a href="#Footnote_1179_1179" class="fnanchor">[1179]</a> as the ancestor of the reigning -dynasty, for the other heavenly bodies, and for the <i>malqui</i>, or remains -of their forefathers. This feeling of veneration for the sun, closely connected -with the beneficent work of the venerated object as displayed in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> -the course of the seasons, led to the growth of an elaborate ritual and to -the celebration of periodical festivals.</p> - -<p>The weight of evidence is decisively in the direction of a belief on the -part of the Incas that a Supreme Being existed, which the sun must obey, -as well as all other parts of the universe. This subordination of the sun to -the Creator of all things was inculcated by successive Incas. Molina says, -“They did not know the sun as their Creator, but as created by the Creator.” -Salcamayhua tells us how the Inca Mayta Ccapac taught that the sun -and moon were made for the service of men, and that the chief of the Collas, -addressing the Inca Uira-cocha, exclaimed, “Thou, O powerful lord of -Cuzco, dost worship the teacher of the universe, while I, the chief of the -Collas, worship the Sun.” The evidence on the subject of the religion of -the Incas, collected by the Viceroy Toledo, showed that they worshipped -the Creator of all things, though they also venerated the sun; and Montesinos -mentions an edict of the Inca Pachacutec, promulgated with the object -of enforcing the worship of the Supreme God above all other deities. The -speech of Tupac Inca Yupanqui, showing that the sun was not God, but -was obeying laws ordained by God, is recorded by Acosta, Blas Valera, and -Balboa, and was evidently deeply impressed on the minds of their Inca informers. -This Inca compared the sun to a tethered beast, which always -makes the same round; or to a dart, which goes where it is sent, and not -where it wishes. The prayers from the Inca ritual, given by Molina, are -addressed to the god Ticsi Uira-cocha; the Sun, Moon, and Thunder being -occasionally invoked in conjunction with the principal deity.</p> - -<p>The worship of this creating God, the Dweller in Space, the Teacher and -Ruler of the Universe, was, then, the religion of the Incas which had been -inherited from their distant ancestry of the cyclopean age. Around this -primitive cult had grown up a supplemental worship of creatures created by -the Deity, such as the heavenly bodies, and of objects supposed to represent -the first ancestors of <i>ayllus</i>, or tribes, as well as of the prototypes of -things on whom man’s welfare depended, such as flocks and animals of the -chase, fruit and corn. It has been asserted that the Deity, the Uira-cocha -himself, did not generally receive worship, and that there was only one temple -in honor of God throughout the empire, at a place called Pachacamac, -on the coast. But this is clearly a mistake. The great temple at Cuzco, -with its gorgeous display of riches, was called the “Ccuri-cancha Pacha-yachachicpa -huasin,” which means “the place of gold, the abode of the -Teacher of the Universe.” An elliptical plate of gold was fixed on the wall -to represent the Deity, flanked on either side by metal representations of -his creatures, the Sun and Moon. The chief festival in the middle of the -year, called Ccapac Raymi, was instituted in honor of the supreme Creator, -and when, from time to time, his worship began to be neglected by the people, -who were apt to run after the numerous local deities, it was again and -again enforced by their more enlightened rulers. There were Ccuri-canchas<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> -for the service of God, at Vilca and in other centres of vice-regal rule, besides -the grand fane of Cuzco.<a name="FNanchor_1180_1180" id="FNanchor_1180_1180"></a><a href="#Footnote_1180_1180" class="fnanchor">[1180]</a></p> - -<div class="floatleft"> - <img src="images/ill-284.jpg" width="250" height="400" id="i234" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">TEMPLE OF THE SUN.</p> - <p class="pf250">[After a cut in Marcoy, i. p. 234, where it is said to be drawn from existing remains and printed and manuscript -authorities. The modern structure of the convent of Santo Domingo, built in 1534, is at A, which contains -in its construction some remains of the walls of the older edifice. B is a cloister. C, an outer court. D, -fountains for purification. E are streets leading to the great square of Cuzco. F, the garden where golden -flowers were once placed; now used as a kitchen garden. G, the chapel dedicated to the moon. H, chapel -dedicated to Venus and the Milky Way. I, chapel dedicated to thunder and lightning. J, chapel dedicated -to the rainbow. K, council hall of the grand pontiff and priests of the sun. L, the apartments of the priests -and servants. See the view of the temple from Montanus in Vol. II. p. 555, and a modern view in Wiener’s. -<i>Pérou et Bolivie</i>, p. 318. Other plans and views are in Squier’s <i>Peru</i>, pp. 430-445.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Although the first and principal invocations -were addressed to the Creator, -prayers were also offered up to -the Sun and Moon, to the Thunder, -and to ancestors who were called -upon to intercede with the Deity.<a name="FNanchor_1181_1181" id="FNanchor_1181_1181"></a><a href="#Footnote_1181_1181" class="fnanchor">[1181]</a> -The latter worship formed a very distinctive -feature in the religious observances -of nearly all the Incarial -tribes. The <i>Paccarina</i>, or forefather -of the <i>ayllu</i>, or lineage, was often -some natural object converted into a -<i>huaca</i>, or deity. The <i>Paccarina</i> of -the Inca family was the Sun; with his -sister and spouse, the Moon. A vast -hierarchy was set apart to conduct -the ceremonies connected with their -worship, and hundreds of virgins, -called <i>Aclla-cuna</i>, were secluded and -devoted to duties relating to the observances -in the Sun temples. Worship -was also offered to the actual -bodies of the ancestors, called <i>malqui</i>, -which were preserved with the greatest care, in caves called <i>machay</i>. On -solemn festivals each <i>ayllu</i> assembled with its <i>malqui</i>. The bodies of the -Incas were all preserved, clothed as when alive, and surrounded by their -special furniture and utensils. Three of these Inca mummies, with two -mummies of queens, were discovered by Polo de Ondegardo, then corregidor -of Cuzco, in 1559, and were sent by him to Lima for interment. Those -who saw them<a name="FNanchor_1182_1182" id="FNanchor_1182_1182"></a><a href="#Footnote_1182_1182" class="fnanchor">[1182]</a> reported that they were so well preserved that they appeared -to be alive; that they were in a sitting posture; that the eyes were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> -made of gold, and that they were arrayed in the insignia of their rank.<a name="FNanchor_1183_1183" id="FNanchor_1183_1183"></a><a href="#Footnote_1183_1183" class="fnanchor">[1183]</a> The -<i>Paccarina</i>, or founder of the family, and the <i>malquis</i>, or mummies of ancestors, -thus formed the objects of a distinct belief and religion, based undoubtedly -on the conviction that every human being has a spiritual as well -as a corporeal existence; that the former is immortal, and that it is represented -by the <i>malqui</i>. The appearance of the departed in dreams and -visions was not an unreasonable ground for this belief, which certainly was -the most deeply rooted of all the religious ideas of the Peruvian people. -The <i>paccarina</i>, or ancestral deities, were innumerable. There was one or -more that received worship in every <i>tribe</i>, and was represented by a rock, -or some other natural object. Many were believed to be oracles. Some, -such as <i>Catequilla</i>, or <i>Apu-catequilla</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1184_1184" id="FNanchor_1184_1184"></a><a href="#Footnote_1184_1184" class="fnanchor">[1184]</a> the oracle of the Conchucu tribe, have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> -been brought into undue prominence through being mentioned by Spanish -writers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-285.jpg" width="400" height="387" id="i235" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">ZODIAC OF GOLD FOUND AT CUZCO.</p> - <p class="pf400">[After a drawing by Mr. Markham of the plate itself, made at Lima in 1853. Mr. Markham’s drawing is -reproduced in Bollaert’s <i>Antiquarian Researches</i>, p. 146. The disk is 5<span class="reduct"><sup>3</sup>/<sub>10</sub></span> inches in diameter. The signs -in the outer ring are supposed to represent the months.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Religious ceremonials were closely connected with the daily life of the -people, and especially with the course of the seasons and the succession of -months, as they affected the operations of agriculture. It was important to -fix the equinoxes and solstices, and astronomical knowledge was a part of -the priestly office. There were names for many of the stars; their motions -were watched as well as those of the sun and moon; and though a record of -the extent of the astronomical knowledge of the Incas has not been preserved, -it is certain that they watched the time of the solstices and equinoxes -with great care, and that they distinguished between the lunar and -solar years. Pillars were erected to determine the time of the solstices, -eight on the east and eight on the west side of Cuzco, in double rows, four -and four, two low between two higher ones, twenty feet apart. They were -called <i>Sucanca</i>, from <i>suca</i>, a ridge or furrow, the alternate light and shade -between the pillars appearing like furrows. A stone column in the centre -of a level platform, called <i>Inti-huatana</i>, was used to ascertain the time of the -equinoxes. A line was drawn across the platform from east to west, and -watch was kept to observe when the shadow of the pillar was on this line -from sunrise to sunset, and there was no shadow at noon. The principal -<i>Inti-huatana</i> was in the square before the great temple at Cuzco; but -there are several others in different parts of Peru. The most perfect of -these observatories is at Pissac, in the valley of Vilcamayu.<a name="FNanchor_1185_1185" id="FNanchor_1185_1185"></a><a href="#Footnote_1185_1185" class="fnanchor">[1185]</a> There is -another at Ollantay-tampu, a fourth near Abancay, and a fifth at Sillustani -in the Collao.</p> - -<p>There is reason to believe that the Incas used a zodiac with twelve signs, -corresponding with the months of their solar year. The gold plates which -they wore on their breasts were stamped with features representing the sun, -surrounded by a border of what are probably either zodiacal signs or signs -for the months. Whether the ecliptic, or <i>huatana</i>, was thus divided or not, -it is certain that the sun’s motion was observed with great care, and that -the calendar was thus fixed with some approach to accuracy.<a name="FNanchor_1186_1186" id="FNanchor_1186_1186"></a><a href="#Footnote_1186_1186" class="fnanchor">[1186]</a> The year, or -<i>Huata</i>, was divided into twelve <i>Quilla</i>, or moon revolutions, and these were -made to correspond with the solar year by adding five days, which were -divided among the twelve months. A further correction was made every -fourth year. Solar observations were taken and recorded every month.</p> - -<p>The year commenced on the 22d of June, with the winter solstice, and -there were four great festivals at the occurrence of the solstices and equinoxes.<a name="FNanchor_1187_1187" id="FNanchor_1187_1187"></a><a href="#Footnote_1187_1187" class="fnanchor">[1187]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span></p> - -<p>The celebrations of the solar year and of the seasons, in their bearings -on agriculture, were identical with the chief religious observances. The -Raymi, or festival of the winter solstice, in the first month, when the granaries -were filled after harvest, was established in special honor of the Sun. -Sacrifices of llamas and lambs, and of the first-fruits of the earth, were -offered up to the images of the Supreme Being, of the Sun, and of Thunder, -which were placed in the open space in front of the great temple; as -well as to the <i>huaca</i>, or stone representing the brother of Manco Ccapac, on -the hill of Huanacauri. There was also a procession of the priests and people -as far as the pass of Vilcañota, leading into the basin of Lake Titicaca, -sacrifices being offered up at various spots on the road. The sacrifices were -accompanied by prayers, and concluded with songs, called <i>huayllina</i>, and -dancing. Then followed the ploughing month, when it is said that the Inca -himself opened the season by ploughing a furrow with a golden plough in -the field behind the Colcampata palace, on the height above Cuzco.</p> - -<p>The question here arises whether human sacrifices were offered up, in the -Inca ritual. This has been stated by Molina, Cieza de Leon, Montesinos, -Balboa, Ondegardo, and Acosta, and indignantly denied by Garcilasso de la -Vega. Cieza de Leon admits that there were occasional human sacrifices, -but adds that their numbers and the frequency of such offerings have been -grossly exaggerated by the Spaniards. If the sacrifices had been offered -under the idea of atonement or expiation, it might well be expected that -human sacrifices would be included. Under such ideas, men offered up -what they valued most, just as Abraham was prepared to sacrifice his son, -as Jephthah dedicated his daughter as a burnt-offering to Jehovah, and as -the king of Moab sacrificed his eldest son to Chemosh.<a name="FNanchor_1188_1188" id="FNanchor_1188_1188"></a><a href="#Footnote_1188_1188" class="fnanchor">[1188]</a> But, except in the -Situa, when the idea was to efface sins by washing, the sacrifices of the Incas -were offerings of thanksgiving, not of expiation or atonement. The mistake -of the five writers who supposed that the Incas offered human sacrifices -was due to their ignorance of the language.<a name="FNanchor_1189_1189" id="FNanchor_1189_1189"></a><a href="#Footnote_1189_1189" class="fnanchor">[1189]</a> The perpetration of human<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> -sacrifice was opposed to the religious ideas of the ancient Peruvians, and -formed no part of their ceremonial worship. Their ritual was almost exclusively -devoted to thanksgiving and rejoicings over the beneficence of their -Deity. The notion of expiation formed no part of their creed, while the -destruction involved in such a system was opposed to their economic and -carefully regulated civil polity.<a name="FNanchor_1190_1190" id="FNanchor_1190_1190"></a><a href="#Footnote_1190_1190" class="fnanchor">[1190]</a></p> - -<p>The second great festival, called Situa, was celebrated at the vernal equinox. -This was the commencement of the rainy season, when sickness prevailed, -and the object of the ceremony was to pray to the Creator to drive -diseases and evils from the land. In the centre of the great square of Cuzco -a body of four hundred warriors was assembled, fully armed for war. One -hundred faced towards the Chincha-suyu road, one hundred faced towards -Anti-suyu, one hundred towards Colla-suyu, and one hundred towards Cunti-suyu,—the -four great divisions of the empire. The Inca and the high-priest, -with their attendants, then came from the temple, and shouted, “Go -forth all evils!” On the instant the warriors ran at great speed towards -the four quarters, shouting the same sentence as they went, until they each -came to another party, which took up the cry, and the last parties reached -the banks of great rivers, the Apurimac or Vilcamayu, where they bathed -and washed their arms. The rivers were supposed to carry the evils away to -the ocean. As the warriors ran through the streets of Cuzco, all the people -came to their doors, shaking their clothes, and shouting, “Let the evils be -gone!” In the evening they all bathed; then they lighted great torches of -straw, called <i>pancurcu</i>, and, marching in procession out of the city, they -threw them into the rivers, believing that thus nocturnal evils were banished. -At night, each family partook of a supper consisting of pudding made of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> -coarsely ground maize, called <i>sancu</i>, which was also smeared over their -faces and the lintels of their doorways, then washed off and thrown into the -rivers with the cry, “May we be free from sickness, and may no maladies -enter our houses!” The <i>huacas</i> and <i>malquis</i> were also bathed at the feast -of Situa. In the following days all the malquis were paraded, and there -were sacrifices, with feasting and dancing. A stone fountain, plated with -gold, stood in the great square of Cuzco, and the Inca, on this and other -solemn festivals, poured <i>chicha</i> into it from a golden vase, which was conducted -by subterranean pipes to the temple.</p> - -<p>The third great festival at the summer solstice, called <i>Huaracu</i>, was the -occasion on which the youths of the empire were admitted to a rank equivalent -to knighthood, after passing through a severe ordeal. The Inca and -his court were assembled in front of the temple. Thither the youths were -conducted by their relations, with heads closely shorn, and attired in shirts -of fine yellow wool edged with black, and white mantles fastened round -their necks by woollen cords with red tassels. They made their reverences -to the Inca, offered up prayers, and each presented a llama for sacrifice.<a name="FNanchor_1191_1191" id="FNanchor_1191_1191"></a><a href="#Footnote_1191_1191" class="fnanchor">[1191]</a> -Proceeding thence to the hill of Huanacauri, where the venerated <i>huaca</i> to -Ayar Uchu was erected, they there received <i>huaras</i>, or breeches made of -aloe fibres, from the priest. This completed their manly attire, and they -returned home to prepare for the ordeal. A few days afterwards they were -assembled in the great square, received a spear, called <i>yauri</i>, and <i>usutas</i> or -sandals, and were severely whipped to prove their endurance. The young -candidates were then sent forth to pass the night in a desert about a league -from Cuzco. Next day they had to run a race. At the farther end of the -course young girls were stationed, called <i>ñusta-calli-sapa</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1192_1192" id="FNanchor_1192_1192"></a><a href="#Footnote_1192_1192" class="fnanchor">[1192]</a> with jars of chicha, -who cried, “Come quickly, youths, for we are waiting!” but the course -was a long one, and many fell before they reached the goal. They also had -to rival each other in assaults and feats of arms. Finally their ears were -bored, and they received ear-pieces of gold and other marks of distinction -from the Inca. The last ceremony was that of bathing in the fountain -called Calli-puquio. About eight hundred youths annually passed through -this ordeal, and became adult warriors, at Cuzco, and similar ceremonies -were performed in all the provinces of the empire.</p> - -<p>In the month following on the summer solstice, there was a curious religious -ceremony known as the water sacrifice. The cinders and ashes of all -the numerous sacrifices throughout the year were preserved. Dams were -constructed across the rivers which flow through Cuzco, in order that the -water might rush down with great force when they were taken away. -Prayers and sacrifices were offered up, and then a little after sunset all the -ashes were thrown into the rivers and the dams were removed. Then the -burnt-sacrifices were hurried down with the stream, closely followed by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> -crowds of people on either bank, with blazing torches, as far as the bridge -at Ollantay-tampu. There two bags of coca were offered up by being -hurled into the river, and thence the sacrifices were allowed to flow onwards -to the sea. This curious ceremony seems to have been intended not only -as a thank-offering to the Deity, but as an acknowledgment of his omnipresence. -As the offerings flowed with the stream, they knew not whither, yet -went to Him, so his pervading spirit was everywhere, alike in parts unknown -as in the visible world of the Incas.</p> - -<p>A sacred fire was kept alive throughout the year by the virgins of the -sun, and the ceremony of its annual renewal at the autumnal equinox was -the fourth great festival, called <i>Mosoc-nina</i>, or the “new fire.” Fire was -produced by collecting the sun’s rays on a burnished metal mirror, and the -ceremony was the occasion of prayers and sacrifices. The year ended with -the rejoicing of the harvest months, accompanied by songs, dances, and -other festivities.</p> - -<p>Besides the periodical festivals, there were also religious observances -which entered into the life of each family. Every household had one or -more <i>lares</i>, called <i>Conopa</i>, representing maize, fruit, a llama, or other object -on which its welfare depended. The belief in divination and soothsaying, -the practice of fasting followed by confession, and worship of the family -malqui, all gave employment to the priesthood.</p> - -<p>The complicated religious ceremonies connected with the periodical festivals, -the daily worship, and the requirements of private families gave rise -to the growth of a very numerous caste of priests and diviners. The pope -of this hierarchy, the chief pontiff, was called <i>Uillac Umu</i>, words meaning -“The head which gives counsel,” he who repeats to the people the utterances -of the Deity. He was the most learned and virtuous of the priestly -caste, always a member of the reigning family, and next in rank to the Inca. -The <i>Villcas</i>, equivalent to the bishops of a Christian hierarchy, were the -chief priests in the provinces, and during the greatest extension of the empire -they numbered ten. The ordinary ministers of religion were divided -into sacrificers, worshippers and confessors, diviners, and recluses.<a name="FNanchor_1193_1193" id="FNanchor_1193_1193"></a><a href="#Footnote_1193_1193" class="fnanchor">[1193]</a> It was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> -indeed inevitable that, with a complicated ritual and a gorgeous ceremonial -worship, a populous class of priests and their assistants, of numerous grades -and callings, should come into existence.<a name="FNanchor_1194_1194" id="FNanchor_1194_1194"></a><a href="#Footnote_1194_1194" class="fnanchor">[1194]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">But the intellectual movement and vigor of the Incas were not confined -to the priesthood. The Amautas or learned men, the poets and reciters of -history, the musical and dramatic composers, the Quipu-camayoc, or recorders -and accountants, were not necessarily, nor indeed generally, of the -priestly caste. It is probable that the Amautas, or men of learning, formed -a separate caste devoted to the cultivation of literature and the extension -of the language. Our knowledge of their progress and of the character of -their traditions and poetic culture is very limited, owing to the destruction -of records and the loss of oral testimony. The language has been preserved, -and that will tell us much; but only a few literary compositions have been -saved from the wreck of the Inca empire. Quichua was the name given to -the general language of the Incas by Friar Domingo de San Tomas, the -first Spaniard who studied it grammatically, possibly owing to his having -acquired it from people belonging to the Quichua tribe. The name continued -to be used, and has been generally adopted.<a name="FNanchor_1195_1195" id="FNanchor_1195_1195"></a><a href="#Footnote_1195_1195" class="fnanchor">[1195]</a> Garcilasso de la Vega -speaks of a separate court language of the Incas, but the eleven words he -gives as belonging to it are ordinary Quichua words, and I concur with Hervas -and William von Humboldt in the conclusion that this court language<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> -of Garcilasso had no real existence.<a name="FNanchor_1196_1196" id="FNanchor_1196_1196"></a><a href="#Footnote_1196_1196" class="fnanchor">[1196]</a> It is not mentioned by any other -authority.</p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-293.jpg" width="250" height="314" id="i243" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">THE QUIPUS.</p> - <p class="pf250">[Following a sketch in Rivero and Tschudi, as reproduced by Helps. It shows a quipu found in an -ancient cemetery near Pachacamac. There are other cuts in Wiener’s <i>Pérou et Bolivie</i>, p. 777; Tylor’s -<i>Early Hist. Mankind</i>, 156; Kingsborough’s <i>Mexico</i>, vol. iv.; Silvestre’s <i>Universal Palæography</i>; and -Léon de Rosny’s <i>Écritures figuratives</i>, Paris, 180. Cf. Acosta, vi. cap. 8, and other early authorities mentioned -in Prescott (Kirk’s ed. i. 125); Markham’s <i>Cieza</i>, 291; D. Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, ii. ch. 18; <i>Fourth -Rept. Bureau of Ethnology</i> (Washington), p. 79; Bollaert’s description in <i>Memoirs read before the Anthropological -Society of London</i>, i. 188, and iii. 351; A. Bastian’s <i>Culturländer des alten America</i>, iii. 73; -Brasseur de Bourbourg’s <i>MS. Troano</i>, i. 18; Stevens’s <i>Flint Chips</i>, 465; T. P. Thompson’s “Knot Records -of Peru” in <i>Westminster Review</i>, xi. 228; but in the separate print called <i>History of the Quipos, or Peruvian -Knot-records, as given by the early Spanish Historians, with a Description of a supposed Specimen</i>, assigned -to Al. Strong by Leclerc, No. 2413. The description in Frezier’s <i>Voyage to the South Sea</i> (1717) is one of -the earliest among Europeans. Leclerc, No. 2412, mentions a <i>Letter a apologetica</i> (Napoli, 1750), pertaining -to the quipus, but seems uncertain as to its value.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>It was the custom for the Yaravecs or Bards to recite the deeds of former -Incas on public occasions, and these rhythmical narratives were orally preserved -and handed down by the learned men. Cieza de Leon tells us that -“by this plan, from the mouths of one generation the succeeding one was -taught, and they could relate what took place five hundred years ago as if -only ten years had passed. This was the order that was taken to prevent -the great events of the empire from falling into oblivion.” These historical -recitations and songs must have formed the most important part of Inca -literature. One specimen of imaginative poetry has been preserved by Blas -Valero, in which the thunder, followed by rain, is likened to a brother breaking -his sister’s pitcher; just as in the Scandinavian mythology the legend -which is the original source of our nursery rhyme of Jack and Jill employs -the same imagery. Pastoral duties are embodied in some of the later Quichuan -dramatic literature, and numerous love songs and <i>yaravies</i>, or elegies, -have been handed down orally, or preserved in old manuscripts. The -dances were numerous and complicated, and the Incas had many musical -instruments.<a name="FNanchor_1197_1197" id="FNanchor_1197_1197"></a><a href="#Footnote_1197_1197" class="fnanchor">[1197]</a> Dramatic representations, both of a tragic and comic character, -were performed before the Inca court. The statement of Garcilasso -de la Vega to this effect is supported by the independent evidence of Cieza -de Leon and of Salcamayhua, and is placed beyond a doubt by the sentence -of the judge, Areche, in 1781, who prohibited the celebration of these dramas -by the Indians. Father Iteri also speaks of the “Quichua dramas -transmitted to this day (1790) by an unbroken tradition.” But only one -such drama has been handed down to our own time. It is entitled Ollantay, -and records an historical event of the time of Yupanqui Pachacutec. -In its present form, as regards division into scenes and stage directions, it -shows later Spanish manipulation. The question of its antiquity has been -much discussed; but the final result is that Quichua scholars believe most -of its dialogues and speeches and all the songs to be remnants of the Inca -period.</p> - -<div class="floatleft"> - <img src="images/ill-294.jpg" width="250" height="306" id="i244" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">INCA SKULL.</p> - <p class="pf250">[After the plate in the <i>Contrib. to N. Am. Ethnology</i>, vol. v. (Powell’s survey, 1882), showing the trephined -skull brought from Peru by Squier, in the Army Med. Museum, Washington. Squier in his <i>Peru</i>, -p. 457, gives another cut, with comments of Broca and others in the appendix. Cf. in the same volume a paper -on “Prehistoric Trephining and Cranial Amulets,” by R. Fletcher, and a paper on “Trephining in the Neolithic -Period,” in the <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, Nov., 1887. Cf. on Peruvian skulls Rudolf -Virchow, in the third volume of the <i>Necropolis of Ancon</i>; T. J. Hutchinson in the <i>Journal of the Anthropological -Institute</i>, iii. 311; iv. 2; Busk and Davis in <i>Ibid.</i> iii. 86, 94; Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, ii. ch. 20; C. -C. Blake, in <i>Transactions Ethnolog. Soc.</i>, n. s., ii. There are two collections of Peruvian skulls in the Peabody -Museum at Cambridge, Mass.,—one presented by Squier, the other secured by the Haasler Expedition. (Cf. -<i>Reports</i> VII. and IX. of the museum.) Wiener (<i>L’Empire des Incas</i>, p. 81) cites a long list of writers on the -artificial deforming of the skull.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The system of record by the use of <i>quipus</i>, or knots, was primarily a -method of numeration and of keeping accounts. To cords of various colors -smaller lines were attached in the form of fringe, on which there were -knots in an almost infinite variety of combination. The <i>Quipu-camayoc</i>, or -accountant, could by this means keep records under numerous heads, and -preserve the accounts of the empire. The <i>quipus</i> represented a far better -system of keeping accounts than the exchequer tallies which were used in -England for the same purpose as late as the early part of the present century. -But the question of the extent to which historical events could be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> -recorded by this system of knots is a difficult one. We have the direct -assertions of Montesinos, Salcamayhua, the anonymous Jesuit, Blas Valera, -and others, that not only narratives, but songs, were preserved by means of -the <i>quipus</i>. Von Tschudi believed that by dint of the uninterrupted studies of -experts during several generations, -the power of expression -became developed more and -more, and that eventually the -art of the <i>Quipu-camayoc</i> -reached a high state of perfection. -It may reasonably be -assumed that with some help -from oral commentary, codes -of laws, historical events, and -even poems were preserved in -the <i>quipus</i>. It was through -this substitute for writing that -Montesinos and the anonymous -Jesuit received their lists -of ancient dynasties, and Blas -Valera distinctly says that the -poem he has preserved was -taken from <i>quipus</i>. Still it -must have been rather a system -of mnemonics than of complete -record. Molina tells us -that the events in the reigns of all the Incas, as well as early traditions, -were represented by paintings on boards, in a temple near Cuzco, called -<i>Poquen cancha</i>.</p> - -<p>The diviners used certain incantations to cure the sick, but the healing -art among the Incas was really in the hands of learned men. Those <i>Amautas</i> -who devoted themselves to the study of medicine had, as Acosta bears -testimony, a knowledge of the properties of many plants. The febrifuge -virtues of the precious <i>quinquina</i> were, it is true, unknown, or only locally -known. But the <i>Amautas</i> used plants with tonic properties for curing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> -fevers; and they were provided with these and other drugs by an itinerant -caste, called Calahuayas or Charisanis, who went into the forests to procure -them. The descendants of these itinerant doctors still wander over -South America, selling drugs.<a name="FNanchor_1198_1198" id="FNanchor_1198_1198"></a><a href="#Footnote_1198_1198" class="fnanchor">[1198]</a> The discovery of a skull in a cemetery -at Yucay, which exhibits clear -evidence of a case of trepanning -before death, proves the -marvellous advances made by -the Incas in surgical science.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-295.jpg" width="400" height="185" id="i245" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">RUINS AT CHUCUITO.</p> - <p class="pf400">[After a drawing in Squier’s <i>Primeval Monuments of Peru</i>, p. 17, showing a wall of hewn stones, with -an entrance. The enclosed rectangle is 65 feet on each side,—“a type of an advanced class of megalithic -monuments by no means uncommon in the highlands of Peru.” Cf. Squier’s <i>Peru</i>, p. 354.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The sovereign was the centre -of all civilization and all knowledge. -All literary culture, all -the religious ceremonial which -had grown up with the extension -of the empire, had the Inca for -their centre, as well as all the -military operations and all laws -connected with civil administration. -Originally but the <i>Sinchi</i>, -or chief of a small <i>ayllu</i>, the -greatness of successive Incas -grew with the extension of their -power, until at last they were -looked upon almost as deities -by their subjects. The greatest -lords entered their presence in -a stooping position and with a small burden on their backs. The imperial -family rapidly increased. Each Inca left behind him numerous -younger sons, whose descendants formed an <i>ayllu</i>, so that the later sovereigns -were surrounded by a numerous following of their own kindred, -from among whom able public servants were selected. The sovereign was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> -the “<i>Sapallan Inca</i>,” the sole and sovereign lord, and with good reason he -was called <i>Huaccha-cuyac</i>, or friend of the poor.</p> - -<p>Enormous wealth was sent to Cuzco as tribute from all parts of the empire, -for the service of the court and of the temples. The special insignia -of the sovereign were the <i>llautu</i>, or crimson fringe round the forehead, the -wing feathers (black and white) of the alcamari, an Andean vulture, on the -head, forming together the <i>suntu paucar</i> or sacred head-dress; the <i>huaman -champi</i>, or mace, and the <i>ccapac-yauri</i>, or sceptre. His dress consisted of -shirts of cotton, tunics of dyed cotton in patterns, with borders of small gold -and silver plates or feathers, and mantles of fine vicuña wool woven and -dyed. The Incas, as represented in the pictures at Cuzco,<a name="FNanchor_1199_1199" id="FNanchor_1199_1199"></a><a href="#Footnote_1199_1199" class="fnanchor">[1199]</a> painted soon -after the conquest, wore golden breastplates suspended round their necks, -with the image of the sun stamped upon them;<a name="FNanchor_1200_1200" id="FNanchor_1200_1200"></a><a href="#Footnote_1200_1200" class="fnanchor">[1200]</a> and the <i>Ccoya</i>, or queen, -wore a large golden <i>topu</i>, or pin, with figures engraved on the head, which -secured her <i>lliclla</i>, or mantle. All the utensils of the palace were of gold; -and so exclusively was that precious metal used in the service of the court -and the temple that a garden outside the Ccuri-cancha was planted with -models of leaves, fruit, and stalks made of pure gold.<a name="FNanchor_1201_1201" id="FNanchor_1201_1201"></a><a href="#Footnote_1201_1201" class="fnanchor">[1201]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-296.jpg" width="400" height="341" id="i246" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">TITICACA.</p> - <p class="pf400">[After a cut in Ruge’s <i>Gesch. des Zeital. der Entdeckungen</i>. Squier explored the lake with Raimond -in 1864-65, and bears testimony to the general accuracy of the survey by J. B. Pentland, British consul in Bolivia -(1827-28 and 1837), published by the British admiralty; but Squier points out some defects of his survey -in his <i>Remarques sur la Géog. du Pérou</i>, p. 14, and in <i>Journal Amer. Geog. Soc.</i>, iii. There is another view -in Wiener’s <i>Pérou et Bolivie</i>, p. 441. Cf. Markham’s <i>Cieza de Leon</i>, 370; Marcoy’s Voyage; Baldwin’s <i>Ancient -America</i>, 228; and Philippson’s <i>Gesch. des neu. Zeit.</i>, i. 240. Squier in his <i>Peru</i> (pp. 308-370) gives -various views, plans of the ruins, and a map of the lake.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Two styles are discernible in Inca architecture. The earliest is an imitation -of the cyclopean works of their ancestors on a smaller scale. The -walls were built with polygonal-shaped stones with rough surfaces, but the -stones were much reduced in size. Rows of doorways with slanting sides<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> -and monolithic lintels adorn the façades; while recesses for <i>huacas</i>, shaped -like the doorways, occur in the interior walls. Part of the palace called the -Collcampata, at the foot of the Cuzco fortress, the buildings which were -added to the cyclopean work at Ollantay tampu, the older portion of the -Ccuri-cancha temple at Cuzco, the palaces at Chinchero and Rimac-tampu, -are in this earlier style. The later style is seen mainly at Cuzco, where -the stones are laid in regular courses. No one has described this superb -masonry better than Squier.<a name="FNanchor_1202_1202" id="FNanchor_1202_1202"></a><a href="#Footnote_1202_1202" class="fnanchor">[1202]</a> No cement or mortar of any kind was used, -the edifices depending entirely on the accuracy of their stone-fitting for their -stability. The palaces and temples were built round a court-yard, and a -hall of vast dimensions, large enough for ceremonies on an extensive scale, -was included in the plan of most of the edifices. These halls were 200 paces -long by 50 to 60 broad. The dimensions of the Ccuri-cancha temple were -296 feet by 52, and the southwest end was apsidal. Serpents are carved in -relief on some of the stones and lintels of the Cuzco palaces. Hence the palace -of Huayna Ccapac is called Amaru-cancha.<a name="FNanchor_1203_1203" id="FNanchor_1203_1203"></a><a href="#Footnote_1203_1203" class="fnanchor">[1203]</a> At Hatun-colla, near Lake -Titicaca, there are two sandstone pillars, probably of Inca origin, which are -very richly carved. They are covered with figures of serpents, lizards, and -frogs, and with elaborate geometrical patterns. The height of the walls of -the Cuzco edifices was from 35 -to 40 feet, and the roofs were -thatched. One specimen of the -admirable thatching of the Incas -is still preserved at Azangaro.</p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-297.jpg" width="250" height="187" id="i247" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">LAKE TITICACA.</p> - <p class="pf250">[One of the cuts which did service in the Antwerp editions of Cieza de Leon.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>There are many ruins throughout -Peru both in the earlier and -later styles; some of them, such -as those at Vilcashuaman and -Huanuco el viejo, being of great -interest. The Inca palace on the -island in Lake Titicaca is a rectangular -two-storied edifice, with -numerous rooms having ceilings formed of flat overlapping stones, laid with -great regularity. With its esplanade, beautiful terraced gardens, baths, -and fountains, this Titicaca palace must have been intended for the enjoyment -of beautiful scenery in comparative seclusion, like the now destroyed -palace at Yucay, in the valley of the Vilcamayu.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span></p> - -<p>An example of the improvement of architecture after Inca subjugation is -shown in the curious burial-places, or <i>chulpas</i>, of the Collao, in the basin of -Lake Titicaca. The earliest, as seen at Acora near the lake, closely resemble -the rude cromlechs of Brittany. Next, roughly built square towers -are met with, with vaults inside. Lastly, the <i>chulpas</i> at Sillustani are well-built -circular towers, about 40 feet high and 16 feet in diameter at the base, -widening as they rise. A cornice runs round each tower, about three -fourths of the distance from the base to the summit. The stones are admirably -cut and fitted in nearly even courses, like the walls at Cuzco. The -interior circular vaults, which contained the bodies, were arched with overlapping -stones, and a similar dome formed the roof of the towers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-298.jpg" width="400" height="400" id="i248" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">MAP OF TITICACA, WITH WIENER’S ROUTE.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The architectural excellence reached by the Incas, their advances in the -other arts and in literature, and the imperial magnificence of their court and -religious worship, imply the existence of an orderly and well-regulated administrative<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> -system. An examination of their social polity will not disappoint -even high expectations. The Inca, though despotic in theory, was -bound by the complicated code of rules and customs which had gradually -developed itself during the reigns of his ancestors. In his own extensive -family, composed of Auqui<a name="FNanchor_1204_1204" id="FNanchor_1204_1204"></a><a href="#Footnote_1204_1204" class="fnanchor">[1204]</a> and Atauchi,<a name="FNanchor_1205_1205" id="FNanchor_1205_1205"></a><a href="#Footnote_1205_1205" class="fnanchor">[1205]</a> Palla<a name="FNanchor_1206_1206" id="FNanchor_1206_1206"></a><a href="#Footnote_1206_1206" class="fnanchor">[1206]</a> and Ñusta,<a name="FNanchor_1207_1207" id="FNanchor_1207_1207"></a><a href="#Footnote_1207_1207" class="fnanchor">[1207]</a> to the number -of many hundreds,<a name="FNanchor_1208_1208" id="FNanchor_1208_1208"></a><a href="#Footnote_1208_1208" class="fnanchor">[1208]</a> and in the Curacas<a name="FNanchor_1209_1209" id="FNanchor_1209_1209"></a><a href="#Footnote_1209_1209" class="fnanchor">[1209]</a> and Apu-curacas<a name="FNanchor_1210_1210" id="FNanchor_1210_1210"></a><a href="#Footnote_1210_1210" class="fnanchor">[1210]</a> of the conquered -tribes, he had a host of able public servants to govern provinces, -enter the priesthood, or command armies.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-299a.jpg" width="400" height="196" id="i249a" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">PRIMEVAL TOMB, ACORA.</p> - <p class="pf400">[After a sketch in Squier’s <i>Primeval Monuments of Peru</i>, Salem, 1870. He considers it an example of -some of the oldest of human monuments, and is inclined to believe these chulpas, or burial monuments, to have -been built by the ancestors of the Peruvians of the conquest in their earliest development.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-299b.jpg" width="400" height="158" id="i249b" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">RUINS AT QUELLENATA.</p> - <p class="pf400">[Reduced from a sketch in Squier’s <i>Primeval Monuments of Peru</i>, p. 7. They are situated in Bolivia, -northeast of Lake Titicaca, and the cut shows a hill-fortress (pucura) and the round, flaring-top burial towers -(chulpas). Cf. cut in Wiener’s <i>Pérou et Bolivie</i>, p. 538.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The empire was marked out into four great divisions, corresponding with -the four cardinal points of a compass placed at Cuzco. To the north was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> -Chinchaysuyu, to the east Anti-suyu, to the west Cunti-suyu, and to the -south Colla-suyu.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-300a.jpg" width="400" height="311" id="i250a" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">RUINS AT ESCOMA, BOLIVIA.</p> - <p class="pf400">[After a cut in Squier’s <i>Primeval Monuments of Peru</i>, p. 9,—a square two-storied burial tower (chulpa) -with hill-fortress (pucura) in the distance, situated east of Lake Titicaca. Cf. Squier’s <i>Peru</i>, p. 373.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-300b.jpg" width="400" height="222" id="i250b" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">SILLUSTANI, PERU.</p> - <p class="pf400">[Sun-circles (Inti-huatana, where the sun is tied up), after a cut in Squier’s <i>Primeval Monuments of Peru</i>, -p. 15. The nearer circle is 90 feet; the farther, which has a grooved outlying platform, is 150 feet in diameter. -Cf. plan and views in Squier’s <i>Peru</i>, ch. 20.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The whole empire was called Ttahuantin-suyu, or the -four united provinces. Each great province was governed by an Inca viceroy, -whose title was <i>Ccapac</i>, or <i>Tucuyricoc</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1211_1211" id="FNanchor_1211_1211"></a><a href="#Footnote_1211_1211" class="fnanchor">[1211]</a> The latter word means “He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> -who sees all.” Garcilasso describes the office as merely that of an inspector, -whose duty it was to visit the province and report. Under the viceroy -were the native <i>Curacas</i>, who governed the <i>ayllus</i>, or lineages. Each <i>ayllu</i> -was divided into sections of ten families, under an officer called <i>Chunca</i> (10) -<i>camayu</i>. Ten of these came under a <i>Pachaca</i> (100) <i>camayu</i>. Ten <i>Pachacas</i> -formed a <i>Huaranca</i> (1,000) <i>camayu</i>, and the <i>Hunu</i> (10,000) <i>camayu</i> ruled -over ten <i>Huarancas</i>. The <i>Chunca</i> of ten families was the unit of government, -and each <i>Chunca</i> formed a complete community.<a name="FNanchor_1212_1212" id="FNanchor_1212_1212"></a><a href="#Footnote_1212_1212" class="fnanchor">[1212]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-301.jpg" width="400" height="131" id="i251" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">RUINS OF AN INCARIAL VILLAGE.</p> - <p class="pf400">[Situated on the road from Milo to Huancayo. Reduced from an ink drawing given by Wiener in his -<i>L’Empire des Incas</i>, pl. v.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The cultivable land belonged to the people in their <i>ayllus</i>, each <i>Chunca</i> -being allotted a sufficient area to support its ten <i>Purics</i> and their dependants.<a name="FNanchor_1213_1213" id="FNanchor_1213_1213"></a><a href="#Footnote_1213_1213" class="fnanchor">[1213]</a> -The produce was divided between the government (<i>Inca</i>), the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> -priesthood (<i>Huaca</i>), and the cultivators or poor (<i>Huaccha</i>), but not in equal -shares.<a name="FNanchor_1214_1214" id="FNanchor_1214_1214"></a><a href="#Footnote_1214_1214" class="fnanchor">[1214]</a> In some parts the three shares were kept apart in cultivation, but -as a rule the produce was divided at harvest time. The flocks of llamas -were divided into <i>Ccapac-llama</i>, belonging to the state, and <i>Huaccha-llama</i>, -owned by the people. Thus the land belonged to the <i>ayllu</i>, or tribe, and -each <i>puric</i>, or able-bodied man, had a right to his share of the crop, provided -that he had been present at the sowing. All those who were absent must -have been employed in the service of the Inca or Huaca, and subsisted on -the government or priestly share. Shepherds and mechanics were also dependent -on those shares. Officers called <i>Runay-pachaca</i> annually revised -the allotments, made the census, prepared statistics for the <i>Quipu-camayoc</i>, -and sent reports to the <i>Tucuyricoc</i>. The <i>Llacta-camayoc</i>, or village overseer, -announced the turns for irrigation and the fields to be cultivated when the -shares were grown apart. These daily notices were usually given from a -tower or terrace. There were also judges or examiners, called <i>Taripasac</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1215_1215" id="FNanchor_1215_1215"></a><a href="#Footnote_1215_1215" class="fnanchor">[1215]</a> -who investigated serious offences and settled disputes. Punishments for -crimes were severe, and inexorably inflicted. It was also the duty of these -officers, when a particular <i>ayllu</i> suffered any calamity through wars or natural -causes, to allot contingents from surrounding <i>ayllus</i> to assist the neighbor -in distress. There were similar arrangements when the completion or -repair of any public work was urgent. The most cruel tax on the people -consisted in the selection of the <i>Aclla-cuna</i>, or chosen maidens for the service -of the Inca, and the church, or <i>Huaca</i>. This was done once a year by -an ecclesiastical dignitary called the <i>Apu-Panaca</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1216_1216" id="FNanchor_1216_1216"></a><a href="#Footnote_1216_1216" class="fnanchor">[1216]</a> or, according to one -authority, the <i>Hatun-uilca</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1217_1217" id="FNanchor_1217_1217"></a><a href="#Footnote_1217_1217" class="fnanchor">[1217]</a> who was deputy of the high-priest. Service -under the Inca in all other capacities was eagerly sought for.</p> - -<p>The industry and skill of the Peruvian husbandmen can scarcely alone -account for the perfection to which they brought the science of agriculture. -The administrative system of the Incas must share the credit. Not a spot -of cultivable land was neglected. Towns and villages were built on rocky -ground. Even their dead were buried in waste places. Dry wastes were -irrigated, and terraces were constructed, sometimes a hundred deep, up the -sides of the mountains. The most beautiful example of this terrace cultivation -may still be seen in the “Andeneria,” or hanging gardens of the valley -of Vilcamayu, near Cuzco. There the terraces, commencing with broad -fields at the edge of the level ground, rise to a height of 1,500 feet, narrowing -as they rise, until the loftiest terraces against the perpendicular mountain -side are not more than two feet wide, just room for three or four rows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> -of maize. An irrigation canal, starting high up some narrow ravine at the -snow level, is carried along the mountain side and through the terraces, -flowing down from one to another.</p> - -<p>Irrigation on a larger scale was employed not only on the desert coast, -but to water the pastures and arable lands in the mountains, where there is -rain for several months in the year. The channels were often of considerable -size and great length. Mr. Squier says that he has followed them for -days together, winding amidst the projections of hills, here sustained by -high masonry walls, there cut into the living rock, and in some places conducted -in tunnels through sharp spurs of an obstructing mountain. An -officer knew the space of time necessary for irrigating each <i>tupu</i>, and each -cultivator received a flow of water in accordance with the requirements of -his land. The manuring of crops was also carefully attended to.<a name="FNanchor_1218_1218" id="FNanchor_1218_1218"></a><a href="#Footnote_1218_1218" class="fnanchor">[1218]</a></p> - -<p>The result of all this intelligent labor was fully commensurate with the -thought and skill expended. The Incas produced the finest potato crops -the world has ever seen. The white maize of Cuzco has never been -approached in size or in yield. Coca, now so highly prized, is a product -peculiar to Inca agriculture, and its cultivation required extreme care, especially -in the picking and drying processes. Ajï, or Chile pepper, furnished -a new condiment to the Old World. Peruvian cotton is excelled only by -Sea Island and Egyptian in length of fibre, and for strength and length of -fibre combined is without an equal. Quinua, oca, aracacha, and several -fruits are also peculiar to Peruvian agriculture.<a name="FNanchor_1219_1219" id="FNanchor_1219_1219"></a><a href="#Footnote_1219_1219" class="fnanchor">[1219]</a></p> - -<p>The vast flocks of llamas<a name="FNanchor_1220_1220" id="FNanchor_1220_1220"></a><a href="#Footnote_1220_1220" class="fnanchor">[1220]</a> and alpacas supplied meat for the people, dried -<i>charqui</i> for soldiers and travellers, and wool for weaving cloth of every degree -of fineness. The alpacas, whose unrivalled wool is now in such large -demand, may almost be said to have been the creation of the Inca shepherds. -They can only be reared by the bestowal on them of the most constant -and devoted care. The wild <i>huanacus</i> and <i>vicuñas</i> were also sources -of food and wool supply. No man was allowed to kill any wild animal in -Peru, but there were periodical hunts, called <i>chacu</i>, in the different provinces, -which were ordered by the Inca. On these occasions a wide area -was surrounded by thousands of people, who gradually closed in towards the -centre. They advanced, shouting and starting the game before them, and -closed in, forming in several ranks until a great bag was secured. The -females were released, with a few of the best and finest males. The rest -were then shorn and also released, a certain proportion being killed for the -sake of their flesh. The <i>huanacu</i> wool was divided among the people of the -district, while the silky fleeces of the <i>vicuña</i> were reserved for the Inca. -The <i>Quipu-camayoc</i> kept a careful record of the number caught, shorn, and -killed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-304.jpg" width="400" height="518" id="i254" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">FROM HELPS.</p> - <p class="pf400">[Cf. Humboldt’s account in <i>Views of Nature</i>, English transl., 393-95, 407-9, 412. Marcoy says the usual -descriptions of the ancient roads are exaggerations (vol. i. 206).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The means of communication in so mountainous a country were an important -department in the administration of the Incas. Excellent roads for -foot passengers radiated from Cuzco to the remotest portions of the empire. -The Inca roads were level and well paved, and continued for hundreds of -leagues. Rocks were broken up and levelled when it was necessary, ravines -were filled, and excavations were made in mountain sides. Velasco measured -the width of the Inca roads, and found them to be from six to seven -yards, sufficiently wide when only foot passengers used them. Gomara gives -them a breadth of twenty-five feet, and says that they were paved with -smooth stones. These measurements were confirmed by Humboldt as -regards the roads in the Andes. The road along the coast was forty feet -wide, according to Zarate. The Inca himself travelled in a litter, borne by -mountaineers from the districts of Soras and Lucanas. <i>Corpa-huasi</i>, or rest-houses, -were erected at intervals, and the government messengers, or <i>chasquis</i>, -ran with wonderful celerity from one of these stations to another, where -he delivered his message, or <i>quipu</i>, to the next runner. Thus news was -brought to the central government from all parts of The empire with extraordinary -rapidity, and the Inca ate fresh fish at Cuzco which had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> -caught in the Pacific, three hundred miles away, on the previous day. Store-houses, -with arms, clothing, and provisions for the soldiers, were also built -at intervals along the roads, so that an army could be concentrated at any -point without previous preparation.</p> - -<p>Closely connected with the facilities for communication, which were so -admirably established by the Incas, was the system of moving colonies from -one part of the empire to another. The evils of minute subdivision were -thus avoided, political objects were often secured, and the comfort of the -people was increased by the exchange of products. The colonists were -called <i>mitimaes</i>. For example, the people of the Collao, round Lake Titicaca, -lived in a region where corn would not ripen, and if confined to the -products of their native land they must have subsisted solely on potatoes, -quinua, and llama flesh. But the Incas established colonies from their villages -in the coast valleys of Tacna and Moquegua, and in the forests to the -eastward. There was constant intercourse, and while the mother country -supplied <i>chuñus</i> or preserved potatoes, <i>charqui</i> or dried meat, and wool to -the colonists, there came back in return, corn and fruits and cotton cloth -from the coast, and the beloved coca from the forests.</p> - -<p>Military colonies were also established on the frontiers, and the armies of -the Incas, in their marches and extensive travels, promoted the circulation -of knowledge, while this service also gave employment to the surplus agricultural -population. Soldiers were brought from all parts of the empire, -and each tribe or <i>ayllu</i> was distinguished by its arms, but more especially by -its head-dress. The Inca wore the crimson <i>llautu</i>, or fringe; the <i>Apu</i>, or -general, wore a yellow <i>llautu</i>. One tribe wore a puma’s head; the Cañaris -were adorned with the feathers of macaws, the Huacrachucus with the -horns of deer, the Pocras and Huamanchucus with a falcon’s wing feathers. -The arms of the Incas and Chancas consisted of a copper axe, called -<i>champi</i>; a lance pointed with bronze, called <i>chuqui</i>; and a pole with a -bronze or stone head in the shape of a six-pointed star, used as a club, -called <i>macana</i>. The Collas and Quichuas came with slings and <i>bolas</i>, the -<i>Antis</i> with bows and arrows. Defensive armor consisted of a <i>hualcanca</i> or -shield, the <i>umachucu</i> or head-dress, and sometimes a breastplate. The -perfect order prevailing in civil life was part of the same system which -enforced strict discipline in the army; and ultimately the Inca troops were -irresistible against any enemy that could bring an opposing force into the -field. Only when the Incas fought against each other, as in the last civil -war, could the result be long doubtful.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-306a.jpg" width="400" height="346" id="i256a" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">PERUVIAN METAL WORKERS.</p> - <p class="pf400">[Reproduction of a cut in Benzoni’s <i>Historia del Mondo Nuovo</i> (1565). Cf. D. Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric -Man</i>, i. ch. 9, on the Peruvian metal-workers.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-306b.jpg" width="400" height="148" id="i256b" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">PERUVIAN POTTERY.</p> - <p class="pf400">[The tripod in this group is from Panama, the others are Peruvian. This cut follows an engraving in -Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, ii. 41. There are numerous cuts in Wiener, p. 589, etc. Cf. Stevens’s <i>Flint -Chips</i>, p. 271.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-307.jpg" width="250" height="347" id="i257" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">PERUVIAN DRINKING VESSEL.</p> - <p class="pf250">[After a cut in Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, ii. 45; showing a cup of the Beckford collection. “There is -an individuality in the head, at once suggestive of portraiture.”—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The artificers engaged in the numerous arts and on public works subsisted -on the government share of the produce. The artists who fashioned the -stones of the Sillustani towers or of the Cuzco temple with scientific accuracy -before they were fixed in their places, were wholly devoted to their -art. Food and clothing had to be provided for them, and for the miners, -weavers, and potters. Gold was obtained by the Incas in immense quantities -by washing the sands of the rivers which flowed through the forest-covered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> -province of Caravaya. Silver was extracted from the ore by means -of blasting-furnaces called <i>huayra</i>; for, although quicksilver was known -and used as a coloring material, its properties for refining silver do not appear -to have been discovered. Copper was abundant in the Collao and in -Charcas, and tin was found in the hills on the east side of Lake Titicaca, -which enabled the Peruvians to use bronze very extensively.<a name="FNanchor_1221_1221" id="FNanchor_1221_1221"></a><a href="#Footnote_1221_1221" class="fnanchor">[1221]</a> Lead was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> -also known to them. Skilful workers in metals fashioned the vases and -other utensils for the use of the Inca and of the temples, forged the arms of -the soldiers and the implements of husbandry, and stamped or chased the -ceremonial breastplates, <i>topus</i>, girdles, and chains. The bronze and copper -warlike instruments, which were star-shaped and used as clubs, fixed at -the ends of staves, were cast in moulds. One of these club-heads, now in -the Cambridge collection, has six rays, broad and flat, and terminating in -rounded points. Each ray represents a human head, the face on one surface -and the hair and back of the head on the other. This specimen was -undoubtedly cast in a mould. “It is,” says Professor Putnam, “a good illustration -of the knowledge which the ancient Peruvians had of the methods -of working metals and of the difficult art of casting copper.”<a name="FNanchor_1222_1222" id="FNanchor_1222_1222"></a><a href="#Footnote_1222_1222" class="fnanchor">[1222]</a></p> - -<div class="floatleft"> - <img src="images/ill-308.jpg" width="250" height="476" id="i258" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">UNFINISHED CLOTH FOUND AT PACHACAMAC.</p> - <p class="pf250">[After a cut in Wiener, <i>Pérou et Bolivie</i>, p. 65.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Spinning, weaving, and dyeing were arts which were sources of employment -to a great number of people, owing to the quantity and variety of the -fabrics for which there was a demand. There were rich dresses interwoven -with gold or made of gold thread; fine -woollen mantles, or tunics, ornamented -with borders of small square gold and -silver plates; colored cotton cloths -worked in complicated patterns; and -fabrics of aloe fibre and sheeps’ sinews -for breeches. Coarser cloths of llama -wool were also made in vast quantities. -But the potters art was perhaps the -one which exercised the inventive faculties -of the Peruvian artist to the greatest -extent. The silver and gold utensils, -with the exception of a very few -cups and vases, have nearly all been -melted down. But specimens of pottery, -found buried with the dead in great -profusion, are abundant. They are to -be seen in every museum, and at Berlin -and Madrid the collections are very -large.<a name="FNanchor_1223_1223" id="FNanchor_1223_1223"></a><a href="#Footnote_1223_1223" class="fnanchor">[1223]</a> Varied as are the forms to be -found in the pottery of the Incas, and elegant as are many of the designs, -it must be acknowledged that they are inferior in these respects to the -specimens of the plastic art of the Chimu and other people of the Peruvian -coast. The Incas, however, displayed a considerable play of fancy in their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> -designs. Many of the vases were moulded into forms to represent animals, -fruit, and corn, and were used -as <i>conopas</i>, or household -gods. Others took the shape -of human heads or feet, or -were made double or quadruple, -with a single neck -branching from below. -Some were for interment -with the <i>malquis</i>, others for -household use.<a name="FNanchor_1224_1224" id="FNanchor_1224_1224"></a><a href="#Footnote_1224_1224" class="fnanchor">[1224]</a> Professor -Wilson, who carefully examined -several collections of -ancient Peruvian pottery, -formed a high opinion of -their merit. “Some of the -specimens,” he wrote, “are -purposely grotesque, and by -no means devoid of true -comic fancy; while, in the -greater number, the endless -variety of combinations -of animate and inanimate -forms, ingeniously rendered -subservient to the requirements -of utility, exhibit fertility -of thought in the designer, -and a lively perceptive -faculty in those for -whom he wrought.”<a name="FNanchor_1225_1225" id="FNanchor_1225_1225"></a><a href="#Footnote_1225_1225" class="fnanchor">[1225]</a></p> - -<p>There is a great deal more -to learn respecting this marvellous -Inca civilization. -Recent publications have, -within the last few years, -thrown fresh and unexpected -light upon it. There may be more information still undiscovered or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> -inedited. As yet we can understand the wonderful story only imperfectly, -and see it by doubtful lights. Respecting some questions, even of the first -importance, we are still able only to make guesses and weigh probabilities. -Yet, though there is much that is uncertain as regards historical and other -points, we have before us the clear general outlines of a very extraordinary -picture. In no other part of America had civilization attained to such a -height among indigenous races. In no other part of the world has the -administration of a purely socialistic government been attempted. The -Incas not only made the attempt, but succeeded.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/d2.jpg" width="200" height="63" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<h3 class="p2"><a name="c259" id="c259">CRITICAL ESSAY ON THE SOURCES OF INFORMATION.</a></h3> - -<p class="drop-cap04">THE student of Inca civilization will first seek -for information from those Spanish writers who -lived during or immediately after the Spanish -conquest. They were able to converse with natives -who actually flourished before the disruption -of the Inca empire, and who saw the working -of the Inca system before the destruction -and ruin had well commenced. He will next -turn to those laborious inquirers and commentators -who, although not living so near the time, -were able to collect traditions and other information -from natives who had carefully preserved -all that had been handed down by their fathers.<a name="FNanchor_1226_1226" id="FNanchor_1226_1226"></a><a href="#Footnote_1226_1226" class="fnanchor">[1226]</a> -These two classes include the writers of the sixteenth -and seventeenth centuries. The authors -who have occupied themselves with the Quichua -language and the literature of the Incas have -produced works a knowledge of which is essential -to an adequate study of the subject.<a name="FNanchor_1227_1227" id="FNanchor_1227_1227"></a><a href="#Footnote_1227_1227" class="fnanchor">[1227]</a> Lastly, -a consideration of the publications of modern -travellers and scholars, who throw light on the -writings of early chroniclers, or describe the present -appearance of ancient remains, will show -the existing position of a survey still far from -complete, and the interest and charm of which -invite further investigation and research.</p> - -<p>Foremost in the first class of writers on Peru -is Pedro de Cieza de Leon. A general account -of his works will be found elsewhere,<a name="FNanchor_1228_1228" id="FNanchor_1228_1228"></a><a href="#Footnote_1228_1228" class="fnanchor">[1228]</a> and the -present notice will therefore be confined to an -estimate of the labors of this author, so far as -they relate to Inca history and civilization. -Cieza de Leon conceived the desire to write an -account of the strange things that were to be -seen in the New World, at an early period of his -service as a soldier. “Neither fatigue,” he tells -us, “nor the ruggedness of the country, nor the -mountains and rivers, nor intolerable hunger and -suffering, have ever been sufficient to obstruct -my two duties, namely, writing and following my -flag and my captain without fault.” He finished -the First Part of his chronicle in September, -1550, when he was thirty-two years of age. It is -mainly a geographical description of the country, -containing many pieces of information, such -as the account of the Inca roads and bridges, -which are of great value. But it is to the Second -Part that we owe much of our knowledge of Inca -civilization. From incidental notices we learn -how diligently young Cieza de Leon studied the -history and government of the Incas, after he -had written his picturesque description of the -country in his First Part. He often asked the -Indians what they knew of their condition before -the Incas became their lords. He inquired into -the traditions of the people from the chiefs of -the villages. In 1550 he went to Cuzco with the -express purpose of collecting information, and -conferred diligently with one of the surviving descendants -of the Inca Huayna Ccapac. Cieza -de Leon’s plan, for the second part of his work, -was first to review the system of government of -the Incas, and then to narrate the events of the -reign of each sovereign. He spared no pains to -obtain the best and most authentic information, -and his sympathy with the conquered people, and -generous appreciation of their many good and -noble qualities, give a special charm to his narrative. -He bears striking evidence to the historical -faculty possessed by the learned men at -the court of the Incas. After saying that on the -death of a sovereign the chroniclers related the -events of his reign to his successor, he adds: -“They could well do this, for there were among<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> -them some men with good memories, sound -judgments, and subtle genius, and full of reasoning -power, as we can bear witness who have heard -them even in these our days.” Cieza de Leon -is certainly one of the most important authorities -on Inca history and civilization, whether we consider -his peculiar advantages, his diligence and -ability, or his character as a conscientious historian.</p> - -<p>Juan José de Betanzos, like Cieza de Leon, -was one of the soldiers of the conquest. He -married a daughter of Atahualpa, and became -a citizen at Cuzco, where he devoted his time -to the study of Quichua. He was appointed -official interpreter to the Audience and to successive -viceroys, and he wrote a <i>Doctrina</i> and -two vocabularies which are now lost. In 1558 -he was appointed by the viceroy Marquis of -Cañete, to treat with the Inca Sayri Tupac,<a name="FNanchor_1229_1229" id="FNanchor_1229_1229"></a><a href="#Footnote_1229_1229" class="fnanchor">[1229]</a> who -had taken refuge in the fastness of Vilcabamba; -and by the Governor Lope Garcia de Castro, -to conduct a similar negotiation with Titu Cusi -Yupanqui, the brother of Sayri Tupac. He was -successful in both missions. He wrote his most -valuable work, the <i>Suma y Narracion de los -Incas</i>, which was finished in the year 1551, by -order of the Viceroy Don Antonio de Mendoza, -but its publication was prevented by the death -of the viceroy. It remained in manuscript, and -its existence was first made known by the Dominican -monk Gregorio Garcia in 1607, whose -own work will be referred to presently. Garcia -said that the history of Betanzos relating to the -origin, descent, succession, and wars of the Incas -was in his possession, and had been of great use -to him. Leon Pinelo and Antonio also gave -brief notices of the manuscript, but it is only -twice cited by Prescott. The great historian -probably obtained a copy of a manuscript in the -Escurial, through Obadiah Rich. This manuscript -is bound up with the second part of Cieza -de Leon. It is not, however, the whole work -which Garcia appears to have possessed, but -only the first eighteen chapters, and the last incomplete. -Such as it is, it was edited and -printed for the <i>Biblioteca Hispano-Ultramarina</i>, -by Don Márcos Jiménez de la Espada, in 1880.<a name="FNanchor_1230_1230" id="FNanchor_1230_1230"></a><a href="#Footnote_1230_1230" class="fnanchor">[1230]</a></p> - -<p>The work of Betanzos differs from that of -Cieza de Leon, because while the latter displays -a diligence and discretion in collecting information -which give it great weight as an authority, -the former is imbued with the very spirit of the -natives. The narrative of the preparation of -young Yupanqui for the death-struggle with the -Chancas is life-like in its picturesque vigor. -Betanzos has portrayed native feeling and character -as no other Spaniard has, or probably -could have done. Married to an Inca princess, -and intimately conversant with the language, -this most scholarly of the conquerors is only -second to Cieza de Leon as an authority. The -date of his death is unknown.</p> - -<p>Betanzos and Cieza de Leon, with Pedro Pizarro, -are the writers among the conquerors -whose works have been preserved. But these -three martial scholars by no means stand alone -among their comrades as authors. Several other -companions of Pizarro wrote narratives, which -unfortunately have been lost.<a name="FNanchor_1231_1231" id="FNanchor_1231_1231"></a><a href="#Footnote_1231_1231" class="fnanchor">[1231]</a> It is indeed surprising -that the desire to record some account of -the native civilization they had discovered should -have been so prevalent among the conquerors. -The fact scarcely justifies the term “rude soldiery,” -which is so often applied to the discoverers -of Peru.</p> - -<p>The works of the soldier conquerors are certainly -not less valuable than those of the lawyers -and priests who followed on their heels. -Yet these latter treat the subject from somewhat -different points of view, and thus furnish supplemental -information. The works of four lawyers -of the era of the conquest have been preserved, -and those of another are lost. Of these, the -writings of the Licentiate Polo de Ondegardo are -undoubtedly the most important. This learned -jurist accompanied the president, La Gasca, in -his campaign against Gonzalo Pizarro, having -arrived in Peru a few years previously, and he -subsequently occupied the post of corregidor at -Cuzco. Serving under the Viceroy Don Francisco<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> -de Toledo, he was constantly consulted by -that acute but narrow-minded statesman. His -duties thus led Polo de Ondegardo to make diligent -researches into the laws and administration -of the Incas, with a view to the adoption of all -that was applicable to the new régime. But his -knowledge of the language was limited, and it is -necessary to receive many of his statements with -caution. His two <i>Relaciones</i>, the first dedicated -to the Viceroy Marques de Cañete (1561), and -the second finished in 1570,<a name="FNanchor_1232_1232" id="FNanchor_1232_1232"></a><a href="#Footnote_1232_1232" class="fnanchor">[1232]</a> are in the form of -answers to questions on financial revenue and -other administrative points. They include information -respecting the social customs, religious -rites, and laws of the Incas. These <i>Relaciones</i> -are still in manuscript. Another report by Polo de -Ondegardo exists in the National Library at Madrid,<a name="FNanchor_1233_1233" id="FNanchor_1233_1233"></a><a href="#Footnote_1233_1233" class="fnanchor">[1233]</a> -and has been translated into English for -the Hakluyt Society.<a name="FNanchor_1234_1234" id="FNanchor_1234_1234"></a><a href="#Footnote_1234_1234" class="fnanchor">[1234]</a> In this treatise the learned -corregidor describes the principles on which the -Inca conquests were made, the division and tenures -of land, the system of tribute, the regulations -for preserving game and for forest conservancy, -and the administrative details. Here and -there he points out a way in which the legislation -of the Incas might be imitated and utilized -by their conquerors.<a name="FNanchor_1235_1235" id="FNanchor_1235_1235"></a><a href="#Footnote_1235_1235" class="fnanchor">[1235]</a></p> - -<p>Agustin de Zarate, though a lawyer by profession, -had been employed for some years in the -financial department of the Spanish government -before he went out to Peru with the Viceroy -Blasco Nuñez to examine into the accounts of -the colony. On his return to Spain he was entrusted -with a similar mission in Flanders. His -<i>Provincìa del Peru</i> was first published at Antwerp -in 1555.<a name="FNanchor_1236_1236" id="FNanchor_1236_1236"></a><a href="#Footnote_1236_1236" class="fnanchor">[1236]</a> Unacquainted with the native -languages, and ignorant of the true significance -of much that he was told, Zarate was yet a -shrewd observer, and his evidence is valuable as -regards what came under his own immediate -observation. He gives one of the best descriptions -of the Inca roads.</p> - -<p>The <i>Relacion</i> of Fernando de Santillan is a -work which may be classed with the reports of -Polo de Ondegardo, and its author had equal advantages -in collecting information. Going out -to Peru as one of the judges of the Audiencia in -1550,<a name="FNanchor_1237_1237" id="FNanchor_1237_1237"></a><a href="#Footnote_1237_1237" class="fnanchor">[1237]</a> Santillan was for a short time at the head -of the government, after the death of the Viceroy -Mendoza, and he took the field to suppress -the rebellion of Giron. He afterwards served in -Chile and at Quito, where he was commissioned -to establish the court of justice. Returning to -Spain, he took orders, and was appointed Bishop -of the La Plata, but died at Lima, on his way to -his distant see, in 1576. The <i>Relacion</i> of Santillan -remained in manuscript, in the library of the -Escurial, until it was edited by Don Márcos -Jiménez de la Espada in 1879. This report appears -to have been prepared in obedience to a -decree desiring the judges of Lima to examine -aged and learned Indians regarding the administrative -system of the Incas. The report of Santillan -is mainly devoted to a discussion of the -laws and customs relating to the collection of -tribute. He bears testimony to the excellence -of the Inca government, and to the wretched -condition to which the country had since been -reduced by Spanish misrule.</p> - -<p>The work of the Licentiate Juan de Matienzo, -a contemporary of Ondegardo, entitled <i>Gobierno -de el Peru</i>, is still in manuscript. Like Santillan -and Ondegardo, Matienzo discusses the ancient -institutions with a view to the organization of -the best possible system under Spanish rule.<a name="FNanchor_1238_1238" id="FNanchor_1238_1238"></a><a href="#Footnote_1238_1238" class="fnanchor">[1238]</a></p> - -<p>Melchor Bravo de Saravia, another judge of -the Royal Audience at Lima, and a contemporary -of Santillan, is said to have written a work on -the antiquities of Peru; but it is either lost or -has not yet been placed within reach of the student. -It is referred to by Velasco. Cieza de -Leon mentions, at the end of his Second Part, -that his own work had been perused by the -learned judges Hernando de Santillan and Bravo -de Saravia.</p> - -<p>While the lawyers turned their attention chiefly -to the civil administration of the conquered people, -the priests naturally studied the religious -beliefs and languages of the various tribes, and -collected their historical traditions. The best -and most accomplished of these sacerdotal authors -appears to have been Blas Valera, judging -from the fragments of his writings which have -escaped destruction. He was a native of Peru, -born at Chachapoyas in 1551, where his father, -Luis Valera,<a name="FNanchor_1239_1239" id="FNanchor_1239_1239"></a><a href="#Footnote_1239_1239" class="fnanchor">[1239]</a> one of the early conquerors, had -settled. Young Blas was received into the Company -of Jesus at Lima when only seventeen years -of age, and, as he was of Inca race on the mother’s -side, he soon became useful at the College in -Cuzco from his proficiency in the native languages. -He did missionary work in the surrounding -villages, and acquired a profound -knowledge of the history and institutions of the -Incas. Eventually he completed a work on the -subject in Latin, and was sent to Spain by his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> -Jesuit superiors with a view to its publication. -Unfortunately the greater part of his manuscript -was burnt at the sack of Cadiz by the Earl of -Essex in 1596, and Blas Valera himself died -shortly afterwards. The fragments that were -rescued fell into the hands of Garcilasso de la -Vega, who translated them into Spanish, and -printed them in his <i>Commentaries</i>. It is to Blas -Valera that we owe the preservation of two specimens -of Inca poetry and an estimate of Inca -chronology. He has also recorded the traditional -sayings of several Inca sovereigns, and -among his fragments there are very interesting -chapters on the religion, the laws and ordinances, -and the language of the Incas, and on the vegetable -products and medicinal drugs of Peru. -These fragments are evidence that Blas Valera -was an elegant scholar, a keen observer, and -thoroughly master of his subject. They enhance -the feeling of regret at the irreparable loss that -we have sustained by the destruction of the rest -of his work.</p> - -<p>Next to Blas Valera, the most important authority -on Inca civilization, among the Spanish -priests who were in Peru during the sixteenth -century, is undoubtedly Christoval de Molina. -He was chaplain to the hospital for natives at -Cuzco, and his work was written between 1570 -and 1584, the period embraced by the episcopate -of Dr. Sebastian de Artaun, to whom it is dedicated. -Molina gives minute and detailed accounts -of the ceremonies performed at all the -religious festivals throughout the year, with the -prayers used by the priests on each occasion. -Out of the fourteen prayers preserved by Molina, -four are addressed to the Supreme Being, two to -the sun, the rest to these and other deities combined. -His mastery of the Quichua language, -his intimacy with the native chiefs and learned -men, and his long residence at Cuzco give Molina -a very high place as an authority on Inca -civilization. His work has remained in manuscript,<a name="FNanchor_1240_1240" id="FNanchor_1240_1240"></a><a href="#Footnote_1240_1240" class="fnanchor">[1240]</a> -but it has been translated into English -and printed for the Hakluyt Society.<a name="FNanchor_1241_1241" id="FNanchor_1241_1241"></a><a href="#Footnote_1241_1241" class="fnanchor">[1241]</a></p> - -<p>Molina, in his dedicatory address to Bishop -Artaun, mentions a previous narrative which he -had submitted, on the origin, history, and government -of the Incas. Fortunately this account -was preserved by Miguel Cavello Balboa, an author -who wrote at Quito between 1576 and 1586. -Balboa, a soldier who had taken orders late in -life, went out to America in 1566, and settled at -Quito, where he devoted himself to the preparation -and writing of a work which he entitled -<i>Miscellanea Austral</i>. It is in three parts; but -only the third, comprising about half the work, -relates to Peru. Balboa tells us that his authority -for the early Inca traditions and history was -the learned Christoval de Molina, and this gives -special value to Balboa’s work. Moreover, Balboa -is the only authority who gives any account -of the origin of the coast people, and he also -supplies a detailed narrative of the war between -Huascar and Atahualpa. The portion relating -to Peru was translated into French and published -by Ternaux Compans in 1840.<a name="FNanchor_1242_1242" id="FNanchor_1242_1242"></a><a href="#Footnote_1242_1242" class="fnanchor">[1242]</a></p> - -<p>The Jesuits who arrived in Peru during the -latter part of the sixteenth century were devoted -to missionary labors, and gave an impetus to -the study of the native languages and history. -Among the most learned was José de Acosta, -who sailed for Peru in 1570. At the early age -of thirty-five, Acosta was chosen to be Provincial -of the Jesuits in Peru, and his duties required -him to travel over every part of the country. -His great learning, which is displayed in -his various theological works, qualified him for -the task of writing his <i>Natural and Moral History -of the Indies</i>, the value of which is increased -by the author’s personal acquaintance with the -countries and their inhabitants. Acosta went -home in the Spanish fleet of 1587, and his first -care, on his return to Spain, was to make arrangements -for the publication of his manuscripts. -The results of his South American researches -first saw the light at Salamanca, in Latin, in 1588 -and 1589. The complete work in Spanish, <i>Historia -Natural y Moral de las Indias</i>, was published -at Seville in 1590. Its success was never -doubtful.<a name="FNanchor_1243_1243" id="FNanchor_1243_1243"></a><a href="#Footnote_1243_1243" class="fnanchor">[1243]</a> In his latter years Acosta presided -over the Jesuits’ College at Salamanca, where -he died in his sixtieth year, on February 15, -1600.<a name="FNanchor_1244_1244" id="FNanchor_1244_1244"></a><a href="#Footnote_1244_1244" class="fnanchor">[1244]</a> In spite of the learning and diligence of -Acosta and of the great popularity of his work, -it cannot be considered one of the most valuable -contributions towards a knowledge of Inca civilization. -The information it contains is often -inaccurate, the details are less complete than in -most of the other works written soon after the -conquest,<a name="FNanchor_1245_1245" id="FNanchor_1245_1245"></a><a href="#Footnote_1245_1245" class="fnanchor">[1245]</a> and a want of knowledge of the language<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> -is frequently made apparent. The best -chapters are those devoted to the animal and -vegetable products of Peru; and Feyjoo calls -Acosta the Pliny of the New World.<a name="FNanchor_1246_1246" id="FNanchor_1246_1246"></a><a href="#Footnote_1246_1246" class="fnanchor">[1246]</a></p> - -<p>The Licentiate Fernando Montesinos, a native -of Osuna, was one of the most diligent of all -those who in early times made researches into -the history and traditions of the Incas. Montesinos -went out in the fleet which took the Viceroy -Count of Chinchon to Peru, arriving early -in the year 1629. Having landed at Payta, -Montesinos travelled southwards towards the -capital until he reached the city of Truxillo. At -that time Dr. Carlos Marcelino Corni was Bishop -of Truxillo.<a name="FNanchor_1247_1247" id="FNanchor_1247_1247"></a><a href="#Footnote_1247_1247" class="fnanchor">[1247]</a> Hearing of the virtue and learning -of Montesinos, Dr. Corni begged that he might -be allowed to stop at Truxillo, and take charge -of the Jesuits’ College which the good bishop -had established there. Montesinos remained -at Truxillo until the death of Bishop Corni, in -October, 1629,<a name="FNanchor_1248_1248" id="FNanchor_1248_1248"></a><a href="#Footnote_1248_1248" class="fnanchor">[1248]</a> and then proceeded to Potosi, -where he gave his attention to improvements in -the methods of extracting silver. He wrote a -book on the subject, which was printed at Lima, -and also compiled a code of ordinances for mines -with a view to lessening disputes, which was -officially approved. Returning to the capital, -he lived for several years at Lima as chaplain of -one of the smaller churches, and devoted all his -energies to the preparation of a history of Peru. -Making Lima his headquarters, the indefatigable -student undertook excursions into all parts of -the country, wherever he heard of learned natives -to be consulted, of historical documents to -be copied, or of information to be found. He -travelled over 1,500 leagues, from Quito to Potosi. -In 1639 he was employed to write an -account of the famous Auto de Fé which was -celebrated at Lima in that year. His two great -historical works are entitled <i>Memorias Antiguas -Historiales del Peru</i>, and <i>Anales ó Memorias -Nuevas del Peru</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1249_1249" id="FNanchor_1249_1249"></a><a href="#Footnote_1249_1249" class="fnanchor">[1249]</a> From Lima Montesinos proceeded -to Quito as “Visitador General,” with -very full powers conferred by the bishop.</p> - -<p>The work of Montesinos remained in manuscript -until it was translated into French by M. -Ternaux Compans in 1840, with the title <i>Mémoires -Historiques sur l’ancien Pérou</i>. In 1882 -the Spanish text was very ably edited by Don -Márcos Jiménez de la Espada.<a name="FNanchor_1250_1250" id="FNanchor_1250_1250"></a><a href="#Footnote_1250_1250" class="fnanchor">[1250]</a> Montesinos -gives the history of several dynasties which preceded -the rise of the Incas, enumerating upwards -of a hundred sovereigns. He professes to have -acquired a knowledge of the ancient records -through the interpretations of the <i>quipus</i>, communicated -to him by learned natives. It was -long supposed that the accounts of these earlier -sovereigns received no corroboration from any -other authority. This furnished legitimate -grounds for discrediting Montesinos. But a -narrative, as old or older than that of the licentiate, -has recently been brought to light, in which -at least two of the ancient sovereigns in the lists -of Montesinos are incidentally referred to. This -circumstance alters the aspect of the question, -and places the <i>Memorias Antiquas del Peru</i> in a -higher position as an authority; for it proves -that the very ancient traditions which Montesinos -professed to have received from the natives -had previously been communicated to one other -independent inquirer at least.</p> - -<p>This independent inquirer is an author whose -valuable work has recently been edited by Don -Márcos Jiménez de la Espada.<a name="FNanchor_1251_1251" id="FNanchor_1251_1251"></a><a href="#Footnote_1251_1251" class="fnanchor">[1251]</a> His narrative -is anonymous, but internal evidence establishes -the fact that he was a Jesuit, and probably one -of the first who arrived in Peru in 1568, although -he appears to have written his work many years<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> -afterwards. The anonymous Jesuit supplies information -respecting works on Peruvian civilization -which are lost to us. He describes the temples, -the orders of the priesthood, the sacrifices -and religious ceremonies, explaining the origin -of the erroneous statement that human sacrifices -were offered up. He also gives the code of -criminal law and the customs which prevailed -in civil life, and concludes his work with a short -treatise on the conversion of the Indians.</p> - -<p>The efforts of the viceroys and archbishops of -Lima during the early part of the seventeenth -century to extirpate idolatry, particularly in the -province of Lima, led to the preparation of reports -by the priests who were entrusted with the -duty of extirpation, which contain much curious -information. These were the Fathers Hernando -de Avendaño, Francisco de Avila, Luis de Teruel, -and Pablo José de Arriaga. Avendaño, in -addition to his sermons in Quichua, wrote an account -of the idolatries of the Indians,—<i>Relacion -de las Idolatrias de los Indios</i>,—which is still in -manuscript. Avila was employed in the province -of Huarochiri, and in 1608 he wrote a report -on the idols and superstitions of the people, including -some exceedingly curious religious legends. -He appears to have written down the -original evidence from the mouths of the Indians -in Quichua, intending to translate it into Spanish. -But he seems to have completed only six -chapters in Spanish; or perhaps the translation -is by another hand. There are still thirty-one -chapters in Quichua awaiting the labors of some -learned Peruvian scholar. Rising Quichua students, -of whom there are not a few in Peru, could -undertake no more useful work. This important -report of Avila is comprised in a manuscript -volume in the National Library at Madrid, and -the six Spanish chapters have been translated -and printed for the Hakluyt Society.<a name="FNanchor_1252_1252" id="FNanchor_1252_1252"></a><a href="#Footnote_1252_1252" class="fnanchor">[1252]</a> Teruel -was the friend and companion of Avila. He -also wrote a treatise on native idolatries,<a name="FNanchor_1253_1253" id="FNanchor_1253_1253"></a><a href="#Footnote_1253_1253" class="fnanchor">[1253]</a> and -another against idolatry,<a name="FNanchor_1254_1254" id="FNanchor_1254_1254"></a><a href="#Footnote_1254_1254" class="fnanchor">[1254]</a> in which he discusses -the origin of the coast people. Arriaga wrote a -still more valuable work on the extirpation of -idolatry, which was printed at Lima in 1621, and -which relates the religious beliefs and practices -of the people in minute detail.<a name="FNanchor_1255_1255" id="FNanchor_1255_1255"></a><a href="#Footnote_1255_1255" class="fnanchor">[1255]</a></p> - -<p>Antiquarian treasures of great value are buried -in the works of ecclesiastics, the principal -objects of which are the record of the deeds of -one or other of the religious fraternities. The -most important of these is the <i>Coronica Moralizada -del orden de San Augustin en el Peru; -del Padre Antonio de la Calancha</i> (1638-1653),<a name="FNanchor_1256_1256" id="FNanchor_1256_1256"></a><a href="#Footnote_1256_1256" class="fnanchor">[1256]</a> -which is a precious storehouse of details respecting -the manners and customs of the Indians and -the topography of the country. Calancha also -gives the most accurate Inca calendar. Of less -value is the chronicle of the Franciscans, by Diego -de Cordova y Salinas, published at Madrid -in 1643.</p> - -<p>A work, the title of which gives even less -promise of containing profitable information, is -the history of the miraculous image of a virgin -at Copacabana, by Fray Alonso Ramos Gavilan. -Yet it throws unexpected light on the movements -of the <i>mitimaes</i>, or Inca colonists; it gives -fresh details respecting the consecrated virgins, -the sacrifices, and the deities worshipped in the -Collao, and supplies another version of the Inca -calendar.<a name="FNanchor_1257_1257" id="FNanchor_1257_1257"></a><a href="#Footnote_1257_1257" class="fnanchor">[1257]</a></p> - -<p>The work on the origin of the Indians of the -New World, by Fray Gregorio Garcia,<a name="FNanchor_1258_1258" id="FNanchor_1258_1258"></a><a href="#Footnote_1258_1258" class="fnanchor">[1258]</a> who -travelled extensively in the Spanish colonies, is -valuable, and to Garcia we owe the first notice -of the priceless narrative of Betanzos. His separate -work on the Incas is lost to us.<a name="FNanchor_1259_1259" id="FNanchor_1259_1259"></a><a href="#Footnote_1259_1259" class="fnanchor">[1259]</a> Friar -Martin de Múrua, a native of Guernica, in Biscay, -was an ecclesiastic of some eminence in -Peru. He wrote a general history of the Incas, -which was copied by Dr. Muñoz for his collection, -and Leon Pinelo says that the manuscript -was illustrated with colored drawings of insignia -and dresses, and portraits of the Incas.<a name="FNanchor_1260_1260" id="FNanchor_1260_1260"></a><a href="#Footnote_1260_1260" class="fnanchor">[1260]</a></p> - -<p>The principal writers on Inca civilization in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> -the century immediately succeeding the conquest, -of the three different professions,—soldiers, -lawyers, and priests,—have now been passed -in review. Attention must next be given to -the native writers who followed in the wake -of Blas Valera. First among these is the Inca -Garcilasso de la Vega, an author whose name -is probably better known to the general reader -than that of any other who has written on the -same subject. Among the Spanish conquerors -who arrived in Peru in 1534 was Garcilasso -de la Vega, a cavalier of very noble -lineage,<a name="FNanchor_1261_1261" id="FNanchor_1261_1261"></a><a href="#Footnote_1261_1261" class="fnanchor">[1261]</a> who settled at Cuzco, and was married -to an Inca princess named Chimpa Ocllo, -niece of the Inca Huayna Ccapac. Their son, -the future historian, was born at Cuzco in -1539, and his earliest recollections were connected -with the stirring events of the civil -war between Gonzalo Pizarro and the president -La Gasca, in 1548. His mother died -soon afterwards, probably in 1550, and his -father married again. The boy was much in -the society of his mother’s kindred, and he -often heard them talk over the times of the -Incas, and repeat their historical traditions. -Nor was his education neglected; for the -good Canon Juan de Cuellar read Latin with -the half-caste sons of the citizens of Cuzco -for nearly two years, amidst all the turmoil -of the civil wars. As he grew up, he was employed -by his father to visit his estates, and he -travelled over most parts of Peru. The elder -Garcilasso de la Vega died in 1560, and the -young orphan resolved to seek his fortune in -the land of his fathers. On his arrival in Spain -he received patronage and kindness from his paternal -relatives, became a captain in the army -of Philip II, and when he retired, late in life, he -took up his abode in lodgings at Cordova, and -devoted himself to literary pursuits. His first -production was a translation from the Italian of -“The Dialogues of Love,” and in 1591 he completed -his narrative of the expedition of Hernando -de Soto to Florida.<a name="FNanchor_1262_1262" id="FNanchor_1262_1262"></a><a href="#Footnote_1262_1262" class="fnanchor">[1262]</a></p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-315.jpg" width="250" height="316" id="i265" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">HOUSE IN CUZCO IN WHICH GARCILASSO -WAS BORN.</p> - <p class="pf250">[After a cut in Marcoy, i. 219. Cf. Squier’s <i>Peru</i>, p. 449.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>As years rolled on, the Inca began to think -more and more of the land of his birth. The -memory of his boyish days, of the long evening -chats with his Inca relations, came back to him -in his old age. He was as proud of his maternal -descent from the mighty potentates of Peru as -of the old Castilian connection on his father’s -side. It would seem that the appearance of -several books on the subject of his native land -finally induced him to undertake a work in which, -while recording its own reminiscences and the -information he might collect, he could also comment -on the statements of other authors. Hence -the title of <i>Commentaries</i> which he gave to his -work. Besides the fragments of the writings of -Blas Valera, which enrich the pages of Garcilasso, -the Inca quotes from Acosta, from Gomara, -from Zarate, and from the First Part of -Cieza de Leon.<a name="FNanchor_1263_1263" id="FNanchor_1263_1263"></a><a href="#Footnote_1263_1263" class="fnanchor">[1263]</a> He was fortunate in getting -possession of the chapters of Blas Valera rescued -from the sack of Cadiz. He also wrote to all -his surviving schoolfellows for assistance, and -received many traditions and detailed replies on -other subjects from them. Thus Alcobasa forwarded -an account of the ruins at Tiahuanacu, -and another friend sent him the measurements -of the great fortress at Cuzco.</p> - -<p>The Inca Garcilasso de la Vega is, without -doubt, the first authority on the civilization of -his ancestors; but it is necessary to consider his -qualifications and the exact value of his evidence. -He had lived in Peru until his twentieth year; -Quichua was his native language, and he had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> -constantly heard the traditions of the Incas related -and discussed by his mother’s relations. -But when he began to write he had been separated -from these associations for upwards of -thirty years. He received materials from Peru, -enabling him to compose a connected historical -narrative, which is not, however, very reliable. -The true value of his work is derived from his -own reminiscences, aroused by reading the books -which are the subjects of his Commentary, and -from his correspondence with friends in Peru. -His memory was excellent, as is often proved -when he corrects the mistakes of Acosta and -others with diffidence, and is invariably right. -He was not credulous, having regard to the age -in which he lived; nor was he inclined to give -the rein to his imagination. More than once we -find him rejecting the fanciful etymologies of the -authors whose works he criticises. His narratives -of the battles and conquests of the early -Incas often become tedious, and of this he is -himself aware. He therefore intersperses them -with more interesting chapters on the religious -ceremonies, the domestic habits and customs, -of the people, and on their advances in poetry, -astronomy, music, medicine, and the arts. He -often inserts an anecdote from the storehouse -of his memory, or some personal reminiscence -called forth by the subject on which he happens -to be writing. His statements frequently receive -undesigned corroboration from authors whose -works he never saw. Thus his curious account -of the water sacrifices, not mentioned by any -other published authority, is verified by the full -description of the same rite in the manuscript of -Molina. On the other hand, the long absence of -the Inca from his native country entailed upon -him grave disadvantages. His boyish recollections, -though deeply interesting, could not, from -the nature of the case, provide him with critical -knowledge. Hence the mistakes in his work are -serious and of frequent occurrence. Dr. Villar -has pointed out his total misconception of the -Supreme Being of the Peruvians, and of the significance -of the word “Uira-cocha.”<a name="FNanchor_1264_1264" id="FNanchor_1264_1264"></a><a href="#Footnote_1264_1264" class="fnanchor">[1264]</a> But, with -all its shortcomings,<a name="FNanchor_1265_1265" id="FNanchor_1265_1265"></a><a href="#Footnote_1265_1265" class="fnanchor">[1265]</a> the work of the Inca Garcilasso -de la Vega must ever be the main source -of our knowledge, and without his pious labors -the story of the Incas would lose more than half -its interest.</p> - -<p>The first part of his <i>Commentarios Reales</i>, -which alone concerns the present subject, was -published at Lisbon in 1607.<a name="FNanchor_1266_1266" id="FNanchor_1266_1266"></a><a href="#Footnote_1266_1266" class="fnanchor">[1266]</a> The author died -at Cordova at the age of seventy-six, and was -buried in the cathedral in 1616. He lived just -long enough to accomplish his most cherished -wish, and to complete the work at which he had -steadily and lovingly labored for so many years.</p> - -<p>Another Indian author wrote an account of -the antiquities of Peru, at a time when the grandchildren -of those who witnessed the conquest -by the Spaniards were living. Unlike Garcilasso, -this author never left the land of his birth, -but he was not of Inca lineage. Don Juan de -Santacruz Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamayhua was -a native of the Collao, and descended from a -family of local chiefs. His work is entitled <i>Relacion -de Antigüedades deste Reyno del Peru</i>. It -long remained in manuscript in the National -Library at Madrid, until it was edited by Don -Márcos Jiménez de la Espada in 1879. It had -previously been translated into English and edited -for the Hakluyt Society.<a name="FNanchor_1267_1267" id="FNanchor_1267_1267"></a><a href="#Footnote_1267_1267" class="fnanchor">[1267]</a> Salcamayhua -gives the traditions of Inca history as they were -handed down to the third generation after the -conquest. Intimately acquainted with the language, -and in a position to converse with the -oldest recipients of native lore, he is able to -record much that is untold elsewhere, and to -confirm a great deal that is related by former -authors. He has also preserved two prayers in -Quichua, attributed to Manco Ccapac, the first -Inca, and some others, which add to the number -given by Molina. He also corroborates the important -statement of Molina, that the great gold -plate in the temple at Cuzco was intended to -represent the Supreme Being, and not the sun. -Salcamayhua is certainly a valuable addition to -the authorities on Peruvian history.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-317.jpg" width="400" height="602" id="i267" - alt="" - title="" /> - <p class="pf400"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The title-page of the fifth decade Herrera, showing the Inca portraits, is given above. Cf. the -plate in Stevens’s English translation of Herrera, vol. iv., London, 1740, 2d edition.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span></p> - -<p>While so many soldiers and priests and lawyers -did their best to preserve a knowledge of -Inca civilization, the Spanish government itself -was not idle. The kings of Spain and their official -advisers showed an anxiety to prevent the -destruction of monuments and to collect historical -and topographical information which is -worthy of all praise. In 1585, orders were given -to all the local authorities in Spanish America -to transmit such information, and a circular, containing -a series of interrogatories, was issued for -their guidance. The result of this measure was, -that a great number of <i>Relaciones descriptivas</i> -were received in Spain, and stored up in the archives -of the Indies. Herrera had these reports -before him when he was writing his history, but -it is certain that he did not make use of half the -material they contain.<a name="FNanchor_1268_1268" id="FNanchor_1268_1268"></a><a href="#Footnote_1268_1268" class="fnanchor">[1268]</a> Another very curious -and valuable source of information consists of -the reports on the origin of Inca sovereignty, -which were prepared by order of the Viceroy -Don Francisco de Toledo, and forwarded to the -council of the Indies. They consist of twenty -documents, forming a large volume, and preceded -by an introductory letter. The viceroy’s -object was to establish the fact that the Incas -had originally been usurpers, in forcibly acquiring -authority over the different provinces of the -empire, and dispossessing the native chiefs. His -inference was, that, as usurpers, they were rightfully -dethroned by the Spaniards. He failed to -see that such an argument was equally fatal to a -Spanish claim, based on anything but the sword. -Nevertheless, the traditions collected with this -object, not only from the Incas at Cuzco, but -also from the chiefs of several provinces, are -very important and interesting.<a name="FNanchor_1269_1269" id="FNanchor_1269_1269"></a><a href="#Footnote_1269_1269" class="fnanchor">[1269]</a></p> - -<p>The Viceroy Toledo also sent home four -cloths on which the pedigree of the Incas was -represented. The figures of the successive sovereigns -were depicted, with medallions of their -wives, and their respective lineages. The events -of each reign were recorded on the borders, the -traditions of Paccari-tampu, and of the creation -by Uira-cocha, occupying the first cloth. It is -probable that the Inca portraits given by Herrera -were copied from those on the cloths sent -home by the viceroy. The head-dresses in Herrera -are very like that of the high-priest in the -<i>Relacion</i> of the anonymous Jesuit. A map seems -to have accompanied the pedigree, which was -drawn under the superintendence of the distinguished -sailor and cosmographer, Don Pedro -Sarmiento de Gamboa.<a name="FNanchor_1270_1270" id="FNanchor_1270_1270"></a><a href="#Footnote_1270_1270" class="fnanchor">[1270]</a></p> - -<p>Much curious information respecting the laws -and customs of the Incas and the beliefs of the -people is to be found in ordinances and decrees -of the Spanish authorities, both civil and ecclesiastical. -These ordinances are contained in the -<i>Ordenanzas del Peru</i>, of the Licentiate Tomas -de Ballesteros, in the <i>Politica Indiana</i> of Juan -de Solorzano (Madrid, 1649),<a name="FNanchor_1271_1271" id="FNanchor_1271_1271"></a><a href="#Footnote_1271_1271" class="fnanchor">[1271]</a> in the <i>Concilium -Limense</i> of Acosta, and in the <i>Constituciones -Synodales</i> of Dr. Lobo Guerrero, Archbishop of -Lima, printed in that city in 1614, and again in -1754.</p> - -<p>The kingdom of Quito received attention from -several early writers, but most of their manuscripts -are lost to us. Quito was fortunate, however, -in finding a later historian to devote himself -to the work of chronicling the story of his native -land. Juan de Velasco was a native of Riobamba. -He resided for forty years in the kingdom -of Quito as a Jesuit priest, he taught and -preached in the native language of the people, -and he diligently studied all the works on the -subject that were accessible to him. He spent -six years in travelling over the country, twenty -years in collecting books and manuscripts; and -when the Jesuits were banished he took refuge -in Italy, where he wrote his <i>Historia del Reino -de Quito</i>. Velasco used several authorities which -are now lost. One of these was the <i>Conquista -de la Provincia del Quito</i>, by Fray Marco de -Niza, a companion of Pizarro. Another was -the <i>Historia de las guerras civiles del Inca Atahualpa</i>, -by Jacinto Collahuaso. He also refers -to the <i>Antigüedades del Peru</i> by Bravo de Saravia. -As a native of Quito, Velasco is a strong -partisan of Atahualpa; and he is the only historian -who gives an account of the traditions respecting -the early kings of Quito. The work -was completed in 1789, brought from Europe, -and printed at Quito in 1844, and M. Ternaux -Compans brought out a French edition in 1840.<a name="FNanchor_1272_1272" id="FNanchor_1272_1272"></a><a href="#Footnote_1272_1272" class="fnanchor">[1272]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span></p> - -<p>Recent authors have written introductory essays -on Peruvian civilization to precede the story -of the Spanish conquest, have described the -ruins in various parts of the country after personal -inspection, or have devoted their labors to -editing the early authorities, or to bringing previously -unknown manuscripts to light, and thus -widening and strengthening the foundation on -which future histories may be raised.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-319.jpg" width="400" height="471" id="i269" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">WILLIAM ROBERTSON.</p> - <p class="pf400">[After a print in the <i>European Mag.</i> (1802), vol. xli.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Robertson’s excellent view of the story of the -Incas in his <i>History of America</i><a name="FNanchor_1273_1273" id="FNanchor_1273_1273"></a><a href="#Footnote_1273_1273" class="fnanchor">[1273]</a> was for many -years the sole source of information on the subject -for the general English public; but since -1848 it has been superseded by Prescott’s charming -narrative contained in the opening book of -his <i>Conquest of Peru</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1274_1274" id="FNanchor_1274_1274"></a><a href="#Footnote_1274_1274" class="fnanchor">[1274]</a> The knowledge of the -present generation on the subject of the Incas is -derived almost entirely from Prescott, and, so -far as it goes, there can be no better authority. -But much has come to light since his time. -Prescott’s narrative, occupying 159 pages, is -founded on the works of Garcilasso de la Vega, -who is the authority most frequently cited by -him, Cieza de Leon, Ondegardo, and Acosta.<a name="FNanchor_1275_1275" id="FNanchor_1275_1275"></a><a href="#Footnote_1275_1275" class="fnanchor">[1275]</a> -Helps, in the chapter of his <i>Spanish Conquest</i> on -Inca civilization, which covers forty-five pages,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> -only cited two early authorities not used by Prescott,<a name="FNanchor_1276_1276" id="FNanchor_1276_1276"></a><a href="#Footnote_1276_1276" class="fnanchor">[1276]</a> -and his sketch is much more superficial -than that of his predecessor.<a name="FNanchor_1277_1277" id="FNanchor_1277_1277"></a><a href="#Footnote_1277_1277" class="fnanchor">[1277]</a></p> - -<p>The publication of the <i>Antigüedades Peruanas</i> -by Don Mariano Eduardo de Rivero (the director -of the National Museum at Lima) and -Juan Diego de Tschudi at Vienna, in 1851, -marked an important turning-point in the progress -of investigation. One of the authors was -himself a Peruvian, and from that time some of -the best educated natives of the country have -given their attention to its early history. The -<i>Antigüedades</i> for the first time gives due prominence -to an estimate of the language and literature -of the Incas, and to descriptions of ruins -throughout Peru. The work is accompanied by -a large atlas of engravings; but it contains grave -inaccuracies, and the map of Pachacamac is a -serious blemish to the work.<a name="FNanchor_1278_1278" id="FNanchor_1278_1278"></a><a href="#Footnote_1278_1278" class="fnanchor">[1278]</a> The <i>Antigüedades</i> -were followed by the <i>Annals of Cuzco</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1279_1279" id="FNanchor_1279_1279"></a><a href="#Footnote_1279_1279" class="fnanchor">[1279]</a> and in -1860 the <i>Ancient History of Peru</i>, by Don Sebastian -Lorente, was published at Lima.<a name="FNanchor_1280_1280" id="FNanchor_1280_1280"></a><a href="#Footnote_1280_1280" class="fnanchor">[1280]</a> In a series -of essays in the <i>Revista Peruana</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1281_1281" id="FNanchor_1281_1281"></a><a href="#Footnote_1281_1281" class="fnanchor">[1281]</a> Lorente -gave the results of many years of further study -of the subject, which appear to have been the -concluding labors of a useful life. When he -died, in November, 1884, Sebastian Lorente had -been engaged for upwards of forty years in the -instruction of the Peruvian youth at Lima and -in other useful labors. A curious genealogical -work on the Incarial family was published at -Paris in 1850, by Dr. Justo Sahuaraura Inca, a -canon of the cathedral of Cuzco, but it is of no -historical value.<a name="FNanchor_1282_1282" id="FNanchor_1282_1282"></a><a href="#Footnote_1282_1282" class="fnanchor">[1282]</a></p> - -<p>Several scholars, both in Europe and America, -have published the results of their studies relating -to the problems of Inca history. Ernest -Desjardins has written on the state of Peru before -the Spanish conquest,<a name="FNanchor_1283_1283" id="FNanchor_1283_1283"></a><a href="#Footnote_1283_1283" class="fnanchor">[1283]</a> J. G. Müller on the -religious beliefs of the people,<a name="FNanchor_1284_1284" id="FNanchor_1284_1284"></a><a href="#Footnote_1284_1284" class="fnanchor">[1284]</a> and Waitz on -Peruvian anthropology.<a name="FNanchor_1285_1285" id="FNanchor_1285_1285"></a><a href="#Footnote_1285_1285" class="fnanchor">[1285]</a> The writings of Dr. -Brinton, of Philadelphia, also contain valuable -reflections and useful information respecting the -mythology and native literature of Peru.<a name="FNanchor_1286_1286" id="FNanchor_1286_1286"></a><a href="#Footnote_1286_1286" class="fnanchor">[1286]</a> Mr. -Bollaert had been interested in Peruvian researches -during the greater part of his lifetime -(b. 1807; d. 1876), and had visited several provinces -of Peru, especially Tarapaca. He accumulated -many notes. His work, at first sight, -appears to be merely a confused mass of jottings, -and certainly there is an absence of method and -arrangement; but closer examination will lead -to the discovery of many facts which are not to -be met with elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_1287_1287" id="FNanchor_1287_1287"></a><a href="#Footnote_1287_1287" class="fnanchor">[1287]</a></p> - -<p>A critical study of early authorities and a -knowledge of the Quichua language are two essential -qualifications for a writer on Inca civilization. -But it is almost equally important that -he should have access to intelligent and accurate -descriptions of the remains of ancient edifices -and public works throughout Peru. For this he -is dependent on travellers, and it must be confessed -that no descriptions at all meeting the -requirements were in existence before the opening -of the present century. Humboldt was the -first traveller in South America who pursued his -antiquarian researches on a scientific basis. His -works are models for all future travellers. It -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>is to Humboldt,<a name="FNanchor_1288_1288" id="FNanchor_1288_1288"></a><a href="#Footnote_1288_1288" class="fnanchor">[1288]</a> and his predecessors the Ulloas,<a name="FNanchor_1289_1289" id="FNanchor_1289_1289"></a><a href="#Footnote_1289_1289" class="fnanchor">[1289]</a> -that we owe graphic descriptions of Inca -ruins in the kingdom of Quito and in northern -Peru as far as Caxamarca. French travellers -have contributed three works of importance to -the same department of research. M. Alcide -D’Orbigny examined and described the ruins of -Tiahuanacu with great care.<a name="FNanchor_1290_1290" id="FNanchor_1290_1290"></a><a href="#Footnote_1290_1290" class="fnanchor">[1290]</a> M. François de -Castelnau was the leader of a scientific expedition -sent out by the French government, and his -work contains descriptions of ruins illustrated -by plates.<a name="FNanchor_1291_1291" id="FNanchor_1291_1291"></a><a href="#Footnote_1291_1291" class="fnanchor">[1291]</a> The work of M. Wiener is more -complete, and is intended to be exhaustive. He -was also employed by the French government -on an archæological and ethnographic mission -to Peru, from 1875 to 1877, and he has performed -his task with diligence and ability, while -no cost seems to have been spared in the production -of his work.<a name="FNanchor_1292_1292" id="FNanchor_1292_1292"></a><a href="#Footnote_1292_1292" class="fnanchor">[1292]</a> The maps and illustrations -are numerous and well executed, and M. -Wiener visited nearly every part of Peru where -archæological remains are to be met with. There -is only one fault to be found with the praiseworthy -and elaborate works of D’Orbigny and -Wiener. The authors are too apt to adopt theories -on insufficient grounds, and to confuse -their otherwise admirable descriptions with imaginative -speculations. An example of this kind -has been pointed out by the Peruvian scholar -Dr. Villar, with reference to M. Wiener’s erroneous -ideas respecting <i>Culte de l’eau ou de la -pluie, et le dieu Quonn</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1293_1293" id="FNanchor_1293_1293"></a><a href="#Footnote_1293_1293" class="fnanchor">[1293]</a> M. Wiener is the only -modern traveller who has visited and described -the interesting ruins of Vilcashuaman.</p> - -<p>The present writer has published two books -recording his travels in Peru. In the first he -described the fortress of Hervay, the ancient -irrigation channels at Nasca on the Peruvian -coast, and the ruins at and around Cuzco, including -Ollantay-tampu.<a name="FNanchor_1294_1294" id="FNanchor_1294_1294"></a><a href="#Footnote_1294_1294" class="fnanchor">[1294]</a> In the second there -are descriptions of the <i>chulpas</i> at Sillustani in -the Collao, and of the Inca roof over the Sunturhuasi -at Azangaro.<a name="FNanchor_1295_1295" id="FNanchor_1295_1295"></a><a href="#Footnote_1295_1295" class="fnanchor">[1295]</a></p> - -<p>The work of E. G. Squier is, on the whole, the -most valuable result of antiquarian researches in -Peru that has ever been presented to the public.<a name="FNanchor_1296_1296" id="FNanchor_1296_1296"></a><a href="#Footnote_1296_1296" class="fnanchor">[1296]</a> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>Mr. Squier had special qualifications for -the task. He had already been engaged on -similar work in Nicaragua, and he was well -versed in the history of his subject. He visited -nearly all the ruins of importance in the country, -constructed plans, and took numerous photographs. -Avoiding theoretical disquisitions, he -gives most accurate descriptions of the architectural -remains, which are invaluable to the student. -His style is agreeable and interesting, -while it inspires confidence in the reader; and -his admirable book is in all respects thoroughly -workmanlike.<a name="FNanchor_1297_1297" id="FNanchor_1297_1297"></a><a href="#Footnote_1297_1297" class="fnanchor">[1297]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-322.jpg" width="400" height="428" id="i272" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM.</p> - <p class="pf400">[After a photograph kindly furnished by himself at the editor’s request.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Tiahuanacu is minutely described by D’Orbigny,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> -Wiener, and Squier, and the famous ruins -have also been the objects of special attention -from other investigators. Mr. Helsby of Liverpool -took careful photographs of the monolithic -doorway in 1857, which were engraved and published, -with a descriptive article by Mr. Bollaert.<a name="FNanchor_1298_1298" id="FNanchor_1298_1298"></a><a href="#Footnote_1298_1298" class="fnanchor">[1298]</a> -Don Modesto Basadre has also written an account -of the ruins, with measurements.<a name="FNanchor_1299_1299" id="FNanchor_1299_1299"></a><a href="#Footnote_1299_1299" class="fnanchor">[1299]</a> But -the most complete monograph on Tiahuanacu -is by Mr. Inwards, who surveyed the ground, -photographed all the ruins, made enlarged drawings -of the sculptures on the monolithic doorway, -and even attempted an ideal restoration of -the palace. In the letter-press, Mr. Inwards -quotes from the only authorities who give any -account of Tiahuanacu, and on this particular -point his monograph entitles him to be considered -as the highest modern authority.<a name="FNanchor_1300_1300" id="FNanchor_1300_1300"></a><a href="#Footnote_1300_1300" class="fnanchor">[1300]</a></p> - -<p>Another special investigation of equal interest, -and even greater completeness, is represented -by the superb work on the burial-ground of Ancon, -being the results of excavations made on -the spot by Wilhelm Reiss and Alphonso Stübel. -The researches of these painstaking and -talented antiquaries have thrown a flood of light -on the social habits and daily life of the civilized -people of the Peruvian coast.<a name="FNanchor_1301_1301" id="FNanchor_1301_1301"></a><a href="#Footnote_1301_1301" class="fnanchor">[1301]</a></p> - -<p>The great work of Don Antonio Raimondi on -Peru is still incomplete. The learned Italian -has already devoted thirty-eight years to the -study of the natural history of his adopted country, -and the results of his prolonged scientific -labors are now gradually being given to the public. -The plan of this exhaustive monograph is -a division into six parts, devoted to the geography, -geology, mineralogy, botany, zoölogy, and -ethnology of Peru. The geographical division -will contain a description of the principal ancient -monuments and their ruins, while the ethnology -will include a treatise on the ancient races, their -origin and civilization. But as yet only three -volumes have been published. The first is entitled -<i>Parte Preliminar</i>, describing the plan of -the work and the extent of the author’s travels -throughout the country. The second and third -volumes comprise a history of the progress of -geographical discovery in Peru since the conquest -by Pizarro. The completion of this great -work, undertaken under the auspices of the government -of Peru, has been long delayed.<a name="FNanchor_1302_1302" id="FNanchor_1302_1302"></a><a href="#Footnote_1302_1302" class="fnanchor">[1302]</a></p> - -<p>The labors of explorers are supplemented by -the editorial work of scholars, who bring to light -the precious relics of early authorities, hitherto -buried in scarcely accessible old volumes or in -manuscript. First in the ranks of these laborers -in the cause of knowledge, as regards ancient -Peruvian history, stands the name of M. Ternaux -Compans. He has furnished to the student -carefully edited French editions of the narrative -of Xeres, of the history of Peru by Balboa, of the -<i>Mémoires Historiques</i> of Montesinos, and of the -history of Quito by Velasco.<a name="FNanchor_1303_1303" id="FNanchor_1303_1303"></a><a href="#Footnote_1303_1303" class="fnanchor">[1303]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></p> - -<p>The present writer has translated into English -and edited the works of Cieza de Leon, Garcilasso -de la Vega, Molina, Salcamayhua, Avila, -Xeres, Andagoya, and one of the reports of Ondegardo, -and has edited the old translation of -Acosta.</p> - -<p>Dr. M. Gonzalez de la Rosa, an accomplished -Peruvian scholar, brought to light and edited, in -1879, the curious <i>Historia de Lima</i> of Father -Bernabé Cobo. It was published in successive -numbers of the <i>Revista Peruana</i>, at Lima.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-324.jpg" width="400" height="512" id="i274" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">MÁRCOS JIMÉNEZ DE LA ESPADA.</p> - <p class="pf400">[After a photograph, kindly furnished by himself, at the editor’s request.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>But in this department students are most indebted -to the learned Spanish editor, Don Márcos -Jiménez de la Espada; for he has placed -within our reach the works of important authorities, -which were previously not only inaccessible, -but unknown. He has edited the second -part of Cieza de Leon, the anonymous Jesuit, -Montesinos, Santillana, the reports to the Viceroy -Toledo, the <i>Suma y Narracion</i> of Betanzos, -and the <i>War of Quito</i>, by Cieza de Leon. Moreover, -there is every reason to hope that his -career of literary usefulness is by no means -ended.</p> - -<p>Although so much has been accomplished in -the field of Peruvian research, yet much remains -to be done, both by explorers and in the study. -The Quichua chapters of the work of Avila, -containing curious myths and legends, remain -untranslated and in manuscript. A satisfactory -text of the Ollantay drama, after collation of all -accessible manuscripts, has not yet been secured. -Numerous precious manuscripts have -yet to be unearthed in Spain. Songs of the -times of the Incas exist in Peru, which should -be collected and edited. There are scientific -excavations to be undertaken, and secluded districts -to be explored. The Yunca grammar of -Carrera requires expert comparative study, and -comparison with the Eten dialect. Remnants of -archaic languages, such as the Puquina of the -Urus, must be investigated. When all this, and -much more, has been added to existing means -of knowledge, the labors of pioneers will approach<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> -completion. Then the time will have -arrived for the preparation of a history of ancient -Peruvian civilization which will be worthy -of the subject.<a name="FNanchor_1304_1304" id="FNanchor_1304_1304"></a><a href="#Footnote_1304_1304" class="fnanchor">[1304]</a></p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-325.jpg" width="300" height="51" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<p class="vh">———————————————</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/d2.jpg" width="200" height="63" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<h3 class="p2"><a name="c275" id="c275">NOTES.</a></h3> - -<p class="p1"><b><a name="n275" id="n275">I.</a></b> <span class="smcap">Ancient People of the Peruvian Coast.</span>—There was a civilized people on the coast of Peru, -but not occupying the whole coast, which was distinctly different, both as regards race and language, from the -Incas and their cognate tribes. This coast nation was called <i>Chimu</i>, and their language <i>Mochica</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1305_1305" id="FNanchor_1305_1305"></a><a href="#Footnote_1305_1305" class="fnanchor">[1305]</a></p> - -<p>The numerous valleys on the Peruvian coast, separated by sandy deserts of varying width, required only -careful irrigation to render them capable of sustaining a large population. The aboriginal inhabitants were -probably a diminutive race of fishermen. Driven southwards by invaders, they eventually sought refuge in -Arica and Tarapaca. D’Orbigny described their descendants as a gentle, hospitable race of fishermen, never -exceeding five feet in height, with flat noses, fishing in boats of inflated sealskins, and sleeping in huts of -sealskin on heaps of dried seaweed. They are called Changos. Bollaert mentions that they buried their -dead lengthways. Bodies found in this unusual posture near Cañete form a slight link connecting the Changos -to the south with the early aboriginal race of the more northern valleys.</p> - -<p>The <i>Chimu</i> people drove out the aborigines and occupied the valleys of the coast from Payta nearly to -Lima, forming distinct communities, each under a chief more or less independent. The <i>Chimu</i> himself ruled -over the five valleys of Parmunca, Hualli, Huanapu, Santa, and Chimu, where the city of Truxillo now -stands. The total difference of their language from Quichua makes it clear that the Chimus did not come -from the Andes or from the Quito country. The only other alternative is that they arrived from the sea. -Balboa, indeed, gives a detailed account of the statements made by the coast Indians of Lambayeque, at the -time of the conquest. They declared that a great fleet arrived on the coast some generations earlier, commanded -by a chief named Noymlap, who had with him a green-stone idol, and that he founded a dynasty of -chiefs.</p> - -<p>The <i>Chimu</i> and his subjects, let their origin be what it may, had certainly made considerable advances in -civilization. The vast palaces of the Chimu near the seashore, with a surrounding city, and great mounds or -artificial hills, are astonishing even in their decay. The principal hall of the palace was 100 feet long by 52. -The walls are covered with an intricate and very effective series of arabesques on stucco, worked in relief. A -neighboring hall, with walls stuccoed in color, is entered by passages and skirted by openings leading to small -rooms seven feet square, which may have been used as dormitories. A long corridor leads from the back of -the arabesque hall to some recesses where gold and silver vessels have been found. At a short distance from -this palace there is a sepulchral mound where many relics have been discovered. The bodies were wrapped in -cloths woven in ornamental figures and patterns of different colors. On some of the cloths plates of silver -were sewn, and they were edged with borders of feathers, the silver plates being occasionally cut in the shapes -of fishes and birds. Among the ruins of the city there are great rectangular areas enclosed by massive walls, -containing buildings, courts, streets, and reservoirs for water.<a name="FNanchor_1306_1306" id="FNanchor_1306_1306"></a><a href="#Footnote_1306_1306" class="fnanchor">[1306]</a> The largest is about a mile south of the palace, -and is 550 yards long by 400. The outer wall is about 30 feet high and 10 feet thick at the base, with sides -inclining towards each other. Some of the interior walls are highly ornamented in stuccoed patterns; and in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> -one part there is an edifice containing 45 chambers or cells, which is supposed to have been a prison. The -enclosure also contained a reservoir 450 feet long by 195, and 60 feet deep.</p> - -<p>The dry climate favored the adornment of outer walls by color, and those of the Chimu palaces were covered -with very tasteful sculptured patterns. Figures of colored birds and animals are said to have been -painted on the walls of temples and palaces. Silver and gold ornaments and utensils, mantles richly embroidered, -robes of feathers, cotton cloths of fine texture, and vases of an infinite variety of curious designs, are -found in the tombs.</p> - -<p>Cieza de Leon gives us a momentary glimpse at the life of the Chimu chiefs. Each ruler of a valley, he -tells us, had a great house with adobe pillars, and doorways hung with matting, built on extensive terraces. -He adds that the chiefs dressed in cotton shirts and long mantles, and were fond of drinking-bouts, dancing -and singing. The walls of their houses were painted with bright colored patterns and figures. Such places, -rising out of the groves of fruit-trees, with the Andes bounding the view in one direction and the ocean -in the other, must have been suitable abodes for joy and feasting. Around them were the fertile valleys, -peopled by industrious cultivators, and carefully irrigated. Their irrigation works were indeed stupendous. -“In the valley of Nepeña the reservoir is three fourths of a mile long by more than half a mile broad, and consists -of a massive dam of stone 80 feet thick at the base, carried across a gorge between two rocky hills. It -was supplied by two canals at different elevations; one starting fourteen miles up the valley, and the other -from springs five miles distant.”<a name="FNanchor_1307_1307" id="FNanchor_1307_1307"></a><a href="#Footnote_1307_1307" class="fnanchor">[1307]</a></p> - -<div class="floatleft"> - <img src="images/ill-326.jpg" width="250" height="412" id="i276" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">SECTION OF A MUMMY-CASE FROM ANCON.</p> - <p class="pf250">[After a cut given by Ruge, following a plate in <i>The Necropolis of Ancon</i>. Wiener (p. 44) gives a section of one of -the Ancon tombs. See a cut in Squier’s <i>Peru</i>, p. 73.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The custom prevalent among the Chimus of depositing with their dead all objects of daily use, as well as -ornaments and garments worn by them during life, -has enabled us to gain a further insight into the -social history of this interesting people. The researches -of Reuss and Stübel at the necropolis of Ancon, -near Lima, have been most important. Numerous -garments, interwoven with work of a decorative -character, cloths of many colors and complicated -patterns, implements used in spinning and sewing, -work-baskets of plaited grass, balls of thread, fingerrings, -wooden and clay toys, are found with the mummies. -The spindles are richly carved and painted, -and attached to them are terra cotta cylinders aglow -with ornamental colorings which were used as wheels. -Fine earthenware vases of varied patterns, and -wooden or clay dishes, also occur.</p> - -<p>Turning to the language of the coast people, we -find that no Mochica dictionary was ever made; but -there is a grammar and a short list of words by -Carrera, and the Lord’s prayer in Mochica, by Bishop -Oré. The grammar was composed by a priest who -had settled at Truxillo, near the ruins of the Chimu -palace, and who was a great-grandson of one of the -first Spanish conquerors. It was published at Lima -in 1644. At that time the Mochica language was -spoken in the valleys of Truxillo, Chicama, Chocope, -Sana, Lambayeque, Chiclayo, Huacabamba, Olmos, -and Motupè. When the <i>Mercurio Peruano</i><a name="FNanchor_1308_1308" id="FNanchor_1308_1308"></a><a href="#Footnote_1308_1308" class="fnanchor">[1308]</a> was -published in 1793, this language is said to have entirely -disappeared. Father Carrera tells us that the -Mochica was so very difficult that he was the only -Spaniard who had ever been able to learn it. The -words bear no resemblance whatever to Quichua. -Mochica has three different declensions, Quichua -only one. Mochica has no transitive verbs, and no -exclusive and inclusive plurals, which are among the chief characteristics of Quichua. The Mochica conjugations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> -are formed in quite a different way from those in the Quichua language. The Mochica system of -numerals appears to have been very complete. With the language, the people have now almost if not entirely -disappeared. Possibly the people of Eten, south of Lambayeque, who still speak a peculiar language, may -be descendants of the Chimus.</p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-327.jpg" width="250" height="282" id="i277" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">MUMMY FROM A HUACA AT PISCO.</p> - <p class="pf250">[After a cut in T. J. Hutchinson’s <i>Two Years in Peru</i> (London, 1873), vol. i. p. 113. The Peruvian mummies are -almost invariably simply desiccated. Only the royal personages were embalmed (Markham’s <i>Cieza de Leon</i>, 226). Cf. -Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, ii. 135.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The Chimu dominion extended probably from Tumbez, in the extreme north of the Peruvian coast, to -Ancon, north of Lima. The Chimus also had a -strong colony in the valley of Huarcu, now called -Cañete. But the valleys of the Rimac, of Lurin, -Chilca, and Mala, north of Cañete; and those of -Chincha, Yca, and Nasca, south of Cañete; were -not Chimu territory. The names of places in those -valleys are all Quichua, as well as the names of -their chiefs, as recorded by Garcilasso de la Vega -and others. The inhabitants were, therefore, of -Inca race, probably colonists from the Huanca nation. -Their superstitions as told by Arriaga, and -the curious mythological legends recorded by -Avila as being believed by the people of Huarochiri -and the neighboring coast, all point to an Inca -origin. These Inca coast people are said to have -had a famous oracle near the present site of Lima, -called “Rimac,” or “He who speaks.” But more -probably it was merely the name given to the noisy -river Rimac, babbling over its stones. It is true -that there was a temple on the coast with an oracle, -the fame of which had been widely spread. The -idol called Pachacamac, or “The world-creator,” -was described by the first Spanish visitor, Miguel -Estete, as being made of wood and very dirty. -The town was then half in ruins, for the worship of -this local deity was neglected after the conquest by the Incas. These coast people of Inca race were as -industrious as their Chimu neighbors. In the Nasca valley there is a complete network of underground watercourses -for irrigation. At Yca “they removed the sand from vast areas, until they reached the requisite moisture, -then put in guano from the islands, and thus formed sunken gardens of extraordinary richness.”<a name="FNanchor_1309_1309" id="FNanchor_1309_1309"></a><a href="#Footnote_1309_1309" class="fnanchor">[1309]</a> Similar -methods were adopted in the valleys of Pisco and Chilca.</p> - -<p>When the Inca Pachacutec began to annex the coast valleys, he met with slight opposition only from the -people of Inca origin, who soon submitted to his rule. But the Chimus struggled hard to retain their independence. -Those of the Huarcu (<i>Cañete</i>) valley made a desperate and prolonged resistance. When at -length they submitted, the Inca built a fortress and palace on a rocky eminence overlooking the sea to overawe -them. The ruins now called Hervai are particularly interesting, because they are the principal and -most imposing example of Inca architecture in which the building material is adobes and not stone. The -conquest of the valleys to the north of Lima and of the grand Chimu himself was a still more difficult undertaking, -necessitating more than one hard-fought campaign. When it was completed, great numbers of the -best fighting-men among the Chimus were deported to the interior as <i>mitimaes</i>. More than a century had -elapsed since this conquest when the Spaniards arrived, so that there was but slight chance of the history of the -Chimus being even partially preserved. Cieza de Leon and Balboa alone supply us with notices of any value.<a name="FNanchor_1310_1310" id="FNanchor_1310_1310"></a><a href="#Footnote_1310_1310" class="fnanchor">[1310]</a> -The southern valleys of the coast, Arequipa, Moquegua, and Tacna, were occupied by <i>mitimaes</i> or colonists -from the Collao. The Incas gave the general name of <i>yuncas</i>, or dwellers in the warm valleys, to all the -people of the coast.</p> - -<p>Much mystery surrounds the history and origin of the <i>Chimu</i> people. That they were wholly separate and -unconnected with the other races of Peru seems almost certain. That they were far advanced in civilization -is clear. Difficulties surround any further prosecution of researches concerning them. They have themselves -disappeared from the face of the earth. Their language has gone with them. But there are the magnificent -ruins of their palaces and temples. There are numerous tombs and cemeteries which have never been scientifically -examined. There is a grammar and a small vocabulary of words calling for close comparative examination. -There are crania awaiting similar comparative study. There is a possibility that further information<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> -may be gleaned from inedited Spanish manuscripts. The subject is a most interesting one, and it is by no -means exhausted.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-328.jpg" width="400" height="484" id="i278" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">TAPESTRY FROM THE GRAVES OF ANCON.</p> - <p class="pf400">[After a cut in Ruge’s <i>Geschichte des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen</i>, p. 429, following the colored plate in <i>The Necropolis -of Ancon</i>. Wiener reproduces in black and white many of the Ancon specimens.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p><b><a name="n278" id="n278">II.</a></b> <span class="smcap">The Quichua Language and Literature</span>.—No real progress can be made in the work of elucidating -the ancient history of Peru, and in unravelling the interesting but still unsolved questions relating to -the origin and development of Inca civilization, without a knowledge of the native language. The subject -has accordingly received the close attention of laborious students from a very early period, and the present -essay would be incomplete without appending an enumeration of the Quichua grammars and vocabularies, -and of works relating to Inca literature.</p> - -<p>Fray Domingo de San Tomas, a Dominican monk, was the first author who composed a grammar and -vocabulary of the language of the Incas. He gave it the name of Quichua, probably because he had studied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> -with members of that tribe, who were of pure Inca race, and whose territory lies to the westward of Cuzco. -The name has since been generally adopted for the language of the Peruvian empire.<a name="FNanchor_1311_1311" id="FNanchor_1311_1311"></a><a href="#Footnote_1311_1311" class="fnanchor">[1311]</a></p> - -<p>Diego de Torres Rubio was born in 1547, in a village near Toledo, became a Jesuit at the age of nineteen, and -went out to Peru in 1577. He studied the native languages with great diligence, and composed grammars and -vocabularies. His grammar and vocabulary of Quichua first appeared at Saville in 1603, and passed through -four editions.<a name="FNanchor_1312_1312" id="FNanchor_1312_1312"></a><a href="#Footnote_1312_1312" class="fnanchor">[1312]</a> A long residence in Chuquisaca enabled him to acquire the Aymara language, and in 1616 he -published a short grammar and vocabulary of Aymara. In 1627 he also published a grammar of the Guarani -language. Torres Rubio was rector of the college at Potosi for a short time, but his principal labors were -connected with missionary work at Chuquisaca. He died in that city at the great age of ninety-one, on the -13th of April, 1638. Juan de Figueredo, whose Chinchaysuyu vocabulary is bound up with later editions of -Torres Rubio, was born at Huancavelica in 1648, of Spanish parents, and after a long and useful missionary -life he died at Lima in 1724.</p> - -<p>The most voluminous grammatical work on the language of the Incas had for its author the Jesuit Diego -Gonzales Holguin. This learned missionary was the scion of a distinguished family in Estremadura, and -was befriended in his youth by his relation, Don Juan de Obando, President of the Council of the Indies. -After graduating at Alcalá de Henares he became a member of the Society of Jesus in 1568, and went out -to Peru in 1581. He resided for several years in the Jesuit college at Juli, near the banks of Lake Titicaca, -where the fathers had established a printing-press, and here he studied the Quichua language. He was entrusted -with important missions to Quito and Chili, and was nominated interpreter by the Viceroy Toledo. -His later years were passed in Paraguay, and when he died at the age of sixty-six, in 1618, he was rector of -the college at Asuncion. His Quichua dictionary was published at Lima in 1586, and a second edition appeared -in 1607,<a name="FNanchor_1313_1313" id="FNanchor_1313_1313"></a><a href="#Footnote_1313_1313" class="fnanchor">[1313]</a> the same year in which the grammar first saw the light.<a name="FNanchor_1314_1314" id="FNanchor_1314_1314"></a><a href="#Footnote_1314_1314" class="fnanchor">[1314]</a> The Quichua grammar of Holguin -is the most complete and elaborate that has been written, and his dictionary is also the best in every respect.</p> - -<p>While Holguin was studiously preparing these valuable works on the Quichua language in the college at -Juli, a colleague was laboring with equal zeal and assiduity at the dialect spoken by the people of the Collao, -to which the Jesuits gave the name of Aymara. Ludovico Bertonio was an Italian, a native of the marches of -Ancona. Arriving in Peru in 1581, he resided at Juli for many years, studying the Aymara language, until, -attacked by gout, he was sent to Lima, where he died at the age of seventy-three, in 1625. His Aymara -grammar was first published at Rome in 1603,<a name="FNanchor_1315_1315" id="FNanchor_1315_1315"></a><a href="#Footnote_1315_1315" class="fnanchor">[1315]</a> but a very much improved second edition,<a name="FNanchor_1316_1316" id="FNanchor_1316_1316"></a><a href="#Footnote_1316_1316" class="fnanchor">[1316]</a> and a large dictionary -of Aymara,<a name="FNanchor_1317_1317" id="FNanchor_1317_1317"></a><a href="#Footnote_1317_1317" class="fnanchor">[1317]</a> were products of the Jesuit press at Juli in 1612. Bertonio also wrote a catechism and -a life of Christ in Aymara, which were printed at Juli.</p> - -<p>A vocabulary of Quichua by Fray Juan Martinez was printed at Lima in 1604, and another in 1614. Four -Quichua grammars followed during the seventeenth century. That of Alonso de Huerta was published at -Lima in 1616; the grammar of the Franciscan Diego de Olmos appeared in 1633; Don Juan Roxo Mexia y -Ocon, a native of Cuzco, and professor of Quichua at the University of Lima, published his grammar in 1648; -and the grammar of Estevan Sancho de Melgar saw the light in 1691.<a name="FNanchor_1318_1318" id="FNanchor_1318_1318"></a><a href="#Footnote_1318_1318" class="fnanchor">[1318]</a> Leon Pinelo also mentions a Quichua -grammar by Juan de Vega. The anonymous Jesuit refers to a Quichua dictionary by Melchior Fernandez, -which is lost to us.</p> - -<p>In 1644 Don Fernando de la Carrera, the Cura of Reque, near Chiclayo, published his grammar of the Yunca -language, at Lima. This is the language which was once spoken in the valleys of the Peruvian coast by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> -civilized people whose ruler was the grand Chimu. Now the language is extinct, or spoken only by a few -Indians in the coast village of Eten. The work of Carrera is therefore important, as, with the exception of -a specimen of the language preserved by Bishop Oré, it is the only book in which the student can now obtain -any linguistic knowledge of the lost civilization. The Yunca grammar was reprinted in numbers in the -<i>Revista de Lima</i> of 1880 and following years.<a name="FNanchor_1319_1319" id="FNanchor_1319_1319"></a><a href="#Footnote_1319_1319" class="fnanchor">[1319]</a></p> - -<p>There was a professorial chair for the study of Quichua in the University of San Márcos at Lima, and the -language was cultivated, during the two centuries after the conquest, as well by educated natives as by many -Spanish ecclesiastics. The sermons of Dr. Don Fernando de Avendaño have already been referred to.<a name="FNanchor_1320_1320" id="FNanchor_1320_1320"></a><a href="#Footnote_1320_1320" class="fnanchor">[1320]</a> -Dr. Lunarejo, of Cuzco, was another famous Quichuan preacher, and the <i>Confesionarios</i> and catechisms in -the language were very numerous. Bishop Louis Geronimo Oré, of Guamanga, in his ritualistic manual, gives -the Lord’s prayer and commandments, not only in Quichua and Aymara, but also in the Puquina language -spoken by the Urus on Lake Titicaca, and in the Yunca language of the coast, which he calls Mochica.<a name="FNanchor_1321_1321" id="FNanchor_1321_1321"></a><a href="#Footnote_1321_1321" class="fnanchor">[1321]</a></p> - -<p>A very curious book was published at Lima in 1602, which, among other things, treats of the Quichua -language and of the derivations of names of places. The author, Don Diego D’Avalos y Figueroa, appears to -have been a native of La Paz. He was possessed of sprightly wit, was well read, and a close observer of -nature. We gather from his <i>Miscelanea Austral</i><a name="FNanchor_1322_1322" id="FNanchor_1322_1322"></a><a href="#Footnote_1322_1322" class="fnanchor">[1322]</a> the names of birds and animals, and of fishes in Lake Titicaca, -as well as the opinions of the author on the cause of the absence of rain on the Peruvian coast, on the -lacustrine system of the Collao, and on other interesting points of physical geography.<a name="FNanchor_1323_1323" id="FNanchor_1323_1323"></a><a href="#Footnote_1323_1323" class="fnanchor">[1323]</a></p> - -<p>In modern times the language of the Incas has received attention from students of Peruvian history. The -joint authors, Dr. Von Tschudi and Don Mariano Eduardo de Rivero, in their work entitled <i>Antigüedades -Peruanas</i>, published at Vienna in 1851, devote a chapter to the Quichua language. Two years afterwards -Dr. Von Tschudi published a Quichua grammar and dictionary, with the text of the Inca drama of Ollantay, -and other specimens of the language.<a name="FNanchor_1324_1324" id="FNanchor_1324_1324"></a><a href="#Footnote_1324_1324" class="fnanchor">[1324]</a> The present writer’s contributions towards a grammar and dictionary -of Quichua were published by Trübner in 1864, and a few years previously a more complete and elaborate -work had seen the light at Sucre, the capital of Bolivia. This was the grammar and dictionary by Father -Honorio Mossi, of Potosi, a large volume containing thorough and excellent work.<a name="FNanchor_1325_1325" id="FNanchor_1325_1325"></a><a href="#Footnote_1325_1325" class="fnanchor">[1325]</a> Lastly a Quichua grammar -by José Dionisio Anchorena was published at Lima in 1874.<a name="FNanchor_1326_1326" id="FNanchor_1326_1326"></a><a href="#Footnote_1326_1326" class="fnanchor">[1326]</a></p> - -<p>The curious publication of Don José Fernandez Nodal in 1874 is not so much a grammar of the Quichua -Language as a heterogeneous collection of notes on all sorts of subjects, and can scarcely take a place among -serious works. The author was a native of Arequipa, of good family, but he was carried away by enthusiasm -and allowed his imagination to run riot.<a name="FNanchor_1327_1327" id="FNanchor_1327_1327"></a><a href="#Footnote_1327_1327" class="fnanchor">[1327]</a></p> - -<p>The gospel of St. Luke, with Aymara and Spanish in parallel columns, was translated from the vulgate by -Don Vicente Pazos-kanki, a graduate of the University of Cuzco, and published in London in 1829;<a name="FNanchor_1328_1328" id="FNanchor_1328_1328"></a><a href="#Footnote_1328_1328" class="fnanchor">[1328]</a> and more -recently a Quichua version of the gospel of St. John, translated by Mr. Spilsbury, an English missionary, -has appeared at Buenos Ayres.<a name="FNanchor_1329_1329" id="FNanchor_1329_1329"></a><a href="#Footnote_1329_1329" class="fnanchor">[1329]</a> These publications and others of the same kind have a tendency to preserve -the purity of the language, and are therefore welcome to the student of Incarial history.</p> - -<p>Quichua has been the subject of detailed comparative study by more than one modern philologist of eminence. -The discussion of the Quichua roots by the learned Dr. Vicente Fidel Lopez is a most valuable -addition to the literature of the subject; while the historical section of his work is a great aid to a critical consideration -of Montesinos and other early authorities. Whatever may be thought of his theoretical opinions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> -and of the considerations by which he maintains them, there can be no doubt that Dr. Lopez has rendered -most important service to all students of Peruvian history.<a name="FNanchor_1330_1330" id="FNanchor_1330_1330"></a><a href="#Footnote_1330_1330" class="fnanchor">[1330]</a> The theoretical identification of Quichuan roots -with those of Turanian and Iberian languages, as it has been elaborated by Mr. Ellis, is also not without its -use, quite apart from the truth or otherwise of any linguistic theory.<a name="FNanchor_1331_1331" id="FNanchor_1331_1331"></a><a href="#Footnote_1331_1331" class="fnanchor">[1331]</a></p> - - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-331.jpg" width="200" height="513" id="i281" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc200">FROM TIMANÁ.</p> - <p class="pf200">[After a cut in William Bollaert’s <i>Antiquarian Researches</i>, etc., p. 41, showing a stone figure from Timana in New -Granada, an antiquity of the Muiscas, found in a dense forest, with no tradition attached.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Editorial labors connected with the publication of the text and of translations of the Inca drama of Ollantay -have recently conduced, in an eminent degree, to the scholarly study -of Quichua, while they have sensibly contributed to a better knowledge -of the subject. Von Tschudi was the first to publish the text of -Ollantay, in the second part of his <i>Kechua Sprache</i>, having given -extracts from the drama in the chapter on the Quichua language in -the <i>Antigüedades Peruanas</i>. After a long interval he brought out -a revised text with a parallel German translation,<a name="FNanchor_1332_1332" id="FNanchor_1332_1332"></a><a href="#Footnote_1332_1332" class="fnanchor">[1332]</a> from his former -manuscript, collated with another bearing the date of La Paz, 1735.</p> - -<p>The drama, in the exact form that it existed when represented before -the Incas, is of course lost to us. It was handed down by tradition -until it was arranged for representation, divided into scenes, and -supplied with stage directions in Spanish times. Several manuscripts -were preserved, which differ only slightly from each other; and they -were looked upon as very precious literary treasures by their owners. -The drama was first publicly brought to notice by Don Manuel Palacios, -in the <i>Museo Erudito</i>, a periodical published at Cuzco in 1837; -but it was not until 1853 that the text was printed by Von Tschudi. -His manuscript was copied from one preserved in the Dominican -monastery at Cuzco by one of the monks. The transcription was -made between 1840 and 1845 for the artist Rugendas, of Munich, who -gave it to Von Tschudi. There was another old manuscript in the -possession of Dr. Antonio Valdez, the priest of Sicuani, who lived in -the last century, and was a friend of the unfortunate Tupac Amaru. -Dr. Valdez died in 1816; and copies of his manuscript were possessed -by Dr. Pablo Justiniani, the aged priest of Laris, a village in the -heart of the eastern Andes, and by Dr. Rosas, the priest of Chinchero. -The present writer made a copy of the Justiniani manuscript at -Laris, which he collated with that of Dr. Rosas. In 1871 he published -the text of his copy, with an attempt at a literal English translation.<a name="FNanchor_1333_1333" id="FNanchor_1333_1333"></a><a href="#Footnote_1333_1333" class="fnanchor">[1333]</a> -In 1868 Dr. Barranca published a Spanish translation from the text -of Von Tschudi, now called the Dominican text.<a name="FNanchor_1334_1334" id="FNanchor_1334_1334"></a><a href="#Footnote_1334_1334" class="fnanchor">[1334]</a> The Peruvian poet -Constantino Carrasco afterwards brought out a version of the drama -of Ollantay in verse, paraphrased from the translation of Barranca.<a name="FNanchor_1335_1335" id="FNanchor_1335_1335"></a><a href="#Footnote_1335_1335" class="fnanchor">[1335]</a> -The enthusiastic Peruvian student, Dr. Nodal, printed a different -Quichua text with a Spanish translation, in parallel columns, in 1874.<a name="FNanchor_1336_1336" id="FNanchor_1336_1336"></a><a href="#Footnote_1336_1336" class="fnanchor">[1336]</a></p> - -<p>There are other manuscripts, and a text has not yet been derived -from a scholarly collation of the whole of them. There is one in the -possession of Dr. Gonzalez de la Rosa, which belonged to Dr. Justo -Sahuaraura Inca, Archdeacon of Cuzco, and descendant of Paullu, the younger son of Huayna Ccapac. In -1878 the Quichua scholar and native of Cuzco, Don Gavino Pacheco Zegarra, published the text of Ollantay at -Paris, from a manuscript found among the books of his great-uncle, Don Pedro Zegarra. He added a very -free translation in French, and numerous valuable notes. The work of Zegarra is by far the most important -that has appeared on this subject, for the accomplished Peruvian has the great advantage of knowing Quichua<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> -from his earliest childhood. With this advantage, not possessed by any previous writer, he unites extensive -learning and considerable critical sagacity.<a name="FNanchor_1337_1337" id="FNanchor_1337_1337"></a><a href="#Footnote_1337_1337" class="fnanchor">[1337]</a></p> - -<p>The reasons for assigning an ancient date to this drama of Ollantay are conclusive in the judgment of all -Quichua scholars. On this point there is a consensus of opinion. But General Mitre, the ex-President of the -Argentine Republic, published an essay in 1881, to prove that Ollantay was of Spanish origin and was written -in comparatively modern times.<a name="FNanchor_1338_1338" id="FNanchor_1338_1338"></a><a href="#Footnote_1338_1338" class="fnanchor">[1338]</a> The present writer replied to his arguments in the introduction (p. xxix) -to the English translation of the second part of <i>Cieza de Leon</i> (1883), and this reply was translated into -Spanish and published at Buenos Ayres in the same year, by Don Adolfo F. Olivares, accompanied by a critical -note from the pen of Dr. Vicente Lopez.<a name="FNanchor_1339_1339" id="FNanchor_1339_1339"></a><a href="#Footnote_1339_1339" class="fnanchor">[1339]</a> The latest publication on the subject of Ollantay consists of a -series of articles in the <i>Ateneo de Lima</i>, by Don E. Larrabure y Unanue, the accomplished author of a -history of the conquest of Peru, not yet published. The general conclusion which has been arrived at by -Quichua scholars, after this thorough sifting of the question, is that, although the division into scenes and -the stage directions are due to some Spanish hand, and although some few Hispanicisms may have crept -into some of the texts, owing to the carelessness or ignorance of transcribers, yet that the drama of Ollantay, in -all essential points, is of Inca origin. Several old songs are imbedded in it, and others have been preserved -by Quichua scholars at Cuzco and Ayacucho, and in the neighborhood of those cities. The editing of these -remains of Inca literature will, at some future time, throw further light on the history of the past. There are -several learned Peruvians who devote themselves to Incarial studies, besides Señor Zegarra, who now resides -in Spain. Among them may be mentioned Dr. Villar of Cuzco, a ripe scholar, who has recently published -a closely reasoned essay on the word <i>Uira-cocha</i>, Don Luis Carranza, and Don Martin A. Mujica, a native of -Huancavelica.</p> - - -<p class="p1"><b><a name="n282" id="n282">III.</a></b> <span class="smcap">The New Granada Tribes.</span>—The incipient civilization of the Chibchas or Muiscas of New Granada -was first made generally known by Humboldt (<i>Vues des Cordillères</i>, octavo ed., ii. 220-67; <i>Views of -Nature</i>, Eng. trans., 425). Cf. also, E. Uricoechea’s <i>Memorias sobre las Antigüedades néo-granadinas</i> -(Berlin, 1854); Bollaert; Rivero and Von Tschudi; Nadaillac, 459; and Joseph Acosta’s <i>Compendio historico -del Descubrimiento de la Nueva Granada</i> (Paris, 1848; with transl. in Bollaert).</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="p4">CHAPTER V.</h2> - -<p class="pch">THE RED INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA IN CONTACT -WITH THE FRENCH AND ENGLISH.</p> - -<p class="pc">BY GEORGE E. ELLIS, D. D., LL. D.</p> - -<p class="pc reduct"><i>President of the Massachusetts Historical Society.</i></p> - -<p class="drop-cap04">THE relations into which the first Europeans entered with the aborigines -in North America were very largely influenced, if not wholly -decided, by the relations which they found to exist among the tribes on -their arrival here. Those relations were fiercely hostile. The new-comers -in every instance and in every crisis found their opportunity and their -immunity in the feuds existing among tribes already in conflict with each -other. This state of things, while it gave the whites enemies, also furnished -them with allies. So far as the whites could learn in their earliest -inquiries, internecine strife had been waging here among the natives from -an indefinite past.</p> - -<p>Starting, then, from this hostile relation between the native tribes of -the northerly parts of the continent, we may trace the development of our -subject through five periods:—</p> - -<p>1. The first period, a very brief one, is marked by the presence of a -single European nationality here, the French, for whom, under stringency -of circumstance that he might be in friendly alliance with one tribe, Champlain -was compelled to espouse its existing feud with other tribes.</p> - -<p>2. The next period opens with the appearance and sharp rivalry here -of a second European nationality, the English, the hereditary foe of the -French, transferring hither their inherited animosities, amid which the -Indians were ground as between two mill-stones.</p> - -<p>3. Upon the extinction of French dominion on the continent by the -English, the former red allies of the French, with secret prompting and -help from the dispossessed party, were stirred with fresh animosities against -the victors.</p> - -<p>4. Yet again the open hostilities of contending Indian tribes were largely -turned to account, to their own harm, in their respective alliances with the -English colonies or with the mother-country in the War of Independence.</p> - -<p>5. The closing period is that which is still in progress as covering the -relations with them of the United States government. The old hostilities -between those tribes have been steadily of less account in affecting their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> -later fortunes; and our government has not found it essential or expedient -to aggravate its own severity against its Indian subjects, or “wards,” by -availing itself of the feuds between them.</p> - -<p>The same antagonisms which had kept the Indian tribes in hostility with -each other prevented their effective alliance among themselves against the -whites, and also embarrassed the English and French rivals, who sought to -engage them on their respective sides. Many attempts were made by -master chiefs among the savages, from the first intrusion of the Europeans, -to organize combinations, or what we call “conspiracies,” of formerly contending -tribes against the common foe. The first of them, formidable -though limited in its consequences, was made in Virginia in 1622. Only -two of these schemes proved otherwise than wholly abortive. That of -King Philip in New England, in 1675, was effective enough to show what -havoc such a combination might work. That of Pontiac, in 1763, was vastly -more formidable, and was thwarted only by a resistance which engaged at -several widely severed points all the warlike resources of the English. -But the inherent difficulties, both of combining the Indian tribes among -themselves, and of engaging some of them in alliance on either side with -the French and the English contestants, were vastly increased by the seeds -of sharp dissension sown among them through the rivalries in trade and -temptations offered in the fluctuating prices of peltries. Even the long-standing -league of the Five Nations was ruptured by the resolute English -agent Johnson. He succeeded so far as to secure a promise of neutrality -from some of them, and a promise of friendly help from one of them. -There were some in each of the tribes falling not one whit behind the -sharpest of the whites in skilled sagacity and calculation, who were swift -to mark and to interpret the changes in the balance of fortune, as one or -the other of the parties of their common enemies made a successful stroke -for ascendency.</p> - -<p>The facilities for alliance with one or another native tribe against its -enemies made for the Europeans a vast difference in the results of their -warfare with the aborigines. One might venture positively to assert that -the occupancy of this continent by Europeans would have been indefinitely -deferred and delayed had all its native tribes, in amity with each other, or -willing for the occasion to arrest their feuds, made a bold and united front -to resist the first intrusion upon their common domains. Certainly the -full truth of this assertion might be illustrated as applicable to many -incidents and crises in the first feeble and struggling fortunes of our -original colonists in various exposed and inhospitable places. In many -cases absolute starvation was averted only by the generous hospitality of -the Indians. Taking into view the circumstances under which, from the -first, tentative efforts were made for a permanent occupancy by the whites -on our whole coast from Nova Scotia to Florida, and along the lakes and -great western valleys, we must admit that their fortunes had more of peril -than of promise. While, of course, we must refer their success and security<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> -in large measure to the forbearance, tolerance, and real kindliness of the -natives, yet it was well proved that as soon as the jealousy of these natives -was stirred at any threatened encroachment, only their own feuds disabled -them from any united opposition, and gave to one or another tribe the alternative -of fighting the white intruders or of an alliance with them against -their neighbor enemies. The whole series of the successive encroachments -of Europeans on this continent is a continuous illustration of the successful -turning to their own account of the strife of Indians against Indians. -And when two rival European nationalities opened their two centuries of -warfare for dominion on this continent, each party at once availed itself of -red allies ready to renew or prolong their own previous hostilities.</p> - -<p>The French Huguenots in Florida and the Spaniards who massacred -them had each of them allies among the tribes which were in mutual hostility. -Champlain was grievously perplexed by the pressure, to which none -the less he yielded, that if he would be in amity with the Hurons he must -espouse their deadly enmity with the Iroquois. Even the poor remnants of -the tribe with which the Pilgrims of Plymouth made their treaty of peace, -which lasted for fifty years, were the vanquished and tributary representatives -of a broken people. A sharp war and a more deadly plague had made -that colony a possibility.</p> - -<p>And so it comes to pass that, if we attempt to define at any period during -the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the conflicts between the savages -and Europeans on this continent, we have to look for the explanation -of any special change in the relations of the Indian tribes to the varying -interests and collisions of the different foreign nationalities in rivalry -here. The hostilities between the French and the English were chronic -and continuous. Frenchman’s Bay, at Mt. Desert, preserves the memorial -of the first collision, when Argall, from Virginia, broke up the attempted -settlement of Saussaye.<a name="FNanchor_1340_1340" id="FNanchor_1340_1340"></a><a href="#Footnote_1340_1340" class="fnanchor">[1340]</a> As to the later developments of the antagonism, -resulting in the extinction of French possession here, we are to refer them -in about equal measure to two main causes,—the jealousy of the home -governments, and the keen rivalry of the respective colonists for the lucrative -spoils of the fur trade. The profit of traffic may be regarded as -furnishing the prompting for strife on this side of the water, while the -passion for territorial conquest engaged the intrigues and the armies of -foreign courts in the stakes of wilderness warfare.</p> - -<p>In tracing the course of such warfare we must take into our view two very -effective agencies, which introduced important modifications in the methods -and results of that warfare. In its progress these two agencies became -more and more chargeable with very serious consequences. The first of -these is the change induced in the warfare of the Indians by their possession -of, leading steadily to a dependence upon, the white man’s firearms and -supplies. The second is the usage, which the Indians soon learned to be -profitable, of reserving their white prisoners for ransom, instead of subjecting -them to death or torture.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span></p> - -<p>When we read of some of the earliest so-called “deeds” by which the -English colonists obtained from the sachems wide spaces of territory on -the consideration of a few tools, hatchets, kettles, or yards of cloth, we -naturally regard the transaction as simply illustrating the white man’s -rapacity and cunning in tricking the simplicity of the savage. But we may -be sure that in many such cases the Indian secured what was to him a full -equivalent for that with which he parted. For, as the whites soon learned -by experience, the savages supposed that in such transactions they were -not alienating the absolute ownership of their lands, but only covenanting -for the right of joint occupancy with the English. And then the coveted -tools or implements obtained by them represented a value and a use not -measurable by any reach of wild territory. A metal kettle, a spear, a -knife, a hatchet, transformed the whole life of a savage. A blanket was to -him a whole wardrobe. When he came to be the possessor of firearms and -ammunition, having before regarded himself the equal of the white man, -he at once became his superior. We shall see how the rivalry between the -French and the English for traffic with the Indians, the enterprise of traders -in pushing into the wilderness with pack-horses, the establishment of trucking -houses, the facility with which the natives could obtain coveted goods -from either party, and the occasional failure of supplies in the contingencies -of warfare, were on many occasions the turning-points in the fights in -the wilderness, and in the shifting of savage partisanship from one side to -the other, as the fickle allies found their own interests at stake.</p> - -<p>It was in 1609, when Champlain invaded the Iroquois country, on the -lake that bears his name, that the astounded savages first saw the flash and -marked the deadly effect of his arquebuse. But the shock soon spent itself. -The weapon was found to be a terrestrial one, made and put to service by -a man. The Dutch on the Hudson very soon supplied the Mohawks with -this effective instrument for prosecuting the fur trade. The French began -the general traffic with the Indians near the St. Lawrence, in metal vessels, -knives, hatchets, awls, cotton and woollen goods, blankets, and that most -coveted of all the white man’s stores, the maddening “fire-water.” But -farther north and west for full two hundred years, from 1670 quite down to -our own time, annual cargoes of these commodities were imported through -Hudson Bay by the chartered company, and had been distributed by its -agents among those who paid for them in peltries, in such abundance that -the savages became really dependent upon them, and gradually conformed -their habits to the use of them. Of course, in their raids upon English outposts, -the spoils of war in the shape of such supplies added rapacity to their -ferocity. It was with a proud flourish that Indian warriors, enriched by -the plunder on the field of Braddock’s disastrous defeat, strutted before the -walls of Fort Duquesne, arrayed in the laced hats, sashes, uniform, and -gorgets of British officers.</p> - -<p>When Céloron was sent, in 1749, by the governor of Canada, to take possession -of interior posts along the Alleghanies, he found at each of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> -Indian villages, as at Logstown, a chief centre, from a single to a dozen -English traders, well supplied with goods for a brisk peltry traffic. He -required the chiefs, on the threat of the loss of his favor, to expel them and -to forbid their return. But the Indians insisted that they needed the goods. -Some of these traders were worthless reprobates, mostly Scotch-Irish, from -the frontiers of Pennsylvania. When Christopher Gist was sent, the next -year, by the Ohio Land Company, to follow Céloron and to thwart his -schemes, he complained strongly of these demoralized and demoralizing -traders. In the evidence given before the British House of Commons on -the several occasions when the monopoly and the mode of business of the -Hudson Bay Company were under question, the extent to which the natives -had come to depend upon European supplies was very strongly brought -into notice. It was urged that some of the tribes had actually, by disuse, -lost their skill in their old weapons. It was even affirmed that in some of -the tribes multitudes had died by freezing and starvation, because their -recent supplies had failed them. This dependence of the natives upon the -resources of civilization, observable from the opening of their intercourse -with the whites, has been steadily strengthening for two hundred years, till -now it has become an absolute and heavy exaction upon our national -treasury.</p> - -<p class="p2">The custom which soon came in, to soften the atrocities of Indian warfare -by the holding of white prisoners for ransom, was grafted upon an earlier -usage among the natives of adopting prisoners or captives. There was a -formal ceremonial in such cases, and after its performance those who would -otherwise have been victims were treated with all kindness. The return -of a war-party to its own village was attended with widely different manifestations -according to the fortune which had befallen it. If it consisted -only of a baffled and flying remnant that had failed in its hazardous enterprise, -its coming was announced, and received by the old men, women, and -youths in the village with howls and lamentations. If, however, it had been -successful, as proved by rich plunder, reeking scalp-locks, and prisoners, -some runners were sent in advance to announce its approach. Then -began a series of orgies, in which the old squaws were the most demonstrative -and hideous. While the scalp-locks were displayed and counted, the -well-guarded prisoners were exultingly escorted by their captors, the squaws -gathering around them with taunts and petty tormentings. The woful -fate which was waiting these prisoners was foreshadowed in prolonged -rehearsals for its final horrors. One by one they were forced to run the -gauntlet from goal to goal, between lines of yelping fiends, under blows -and missiles, stones, sticks, and tomahawks, while efforts were made to trip -them in their course, that they might be pounded in their helplessness when -maddened with pain. Any exhibition of weakness or dread did but intensify -the malignant frenzy of their tormentors. Those who lived through -this ordeal, which was intended to be but a preliminary in the barbaric<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> -entertainment, and to stop short of the actual extinction of life, were -afterwards, by deliberate preparations made in full view of the prisoners, -subjected to all the ingenuities of rage and cruelty which untamed savage -fiendishness could devise. The hero who bore the trial without flinching, -singing his song of defiance, and in his turn mocking his tormentors -because they failed to break his spirit, was most likely to find mercy in a -finishing stroke dealt by a magnanimous foe.</p> - -<p>Anything like an alleviation of these dread revenges of savage warfare -being unallowable, there was open one way of complete relief in the usage -of adoption, just referred to. This, however, was never available to the -prisoner from his own first motion or prompting. He was wholly passive -in the matter. It came solely from the inclination of any one in the village, -a warrior or a squaw who, having recently lost a relative, or one whose service -was necessary, might select a prisoner from the group as desirable to -supply a place that was vacant. There would seem to have been a large -liberty allowed in the exercise of this privilege, especially for those who -were mourning for a relative lost in the encounter in which the prisoner -was taken. Sometimes the merest caprice might prompt the selection. -Scarcely, except in the rare case of some proud captive who would haughtily -scorn to avail himself of a seeming affinity with the tribe of a hated or -abject enemy, would the offered privilege of adoption be refused. For, in -any case, an ultimate escape from an enforced durance might be looked -to. Of course those who were thus adopted were mostly the young and -vigorous. The little children were not especially favored in the process,—except, -as soon to be noted, the children of the whites. The ceremonial -for adoption was traditional. Beginning generally with somewhat rough -and intimidating treatment, the captive was for a while left in suspense as -to his fate. When at length the intent of the arbiter of his life was made -known to him, the method pursued has been very frequently described to -us in detail by the whites who were the subjects of it.<a name="FNanchor_1341_1341" id="FNanchor_1341_1341"></a><a href="#Footnote_1341_1341" class="fnanchor">[1341]</a> The candidate was -plunged and thoroughly soused in a stream to rinse out his white blood; -the hair of his head, saving the scalp-lock, was plucked out; and after some -mouthings and incantations, completing the initiation, all winning blandishments, -arts, and appliances were engaged to secure the confidence of the -adopted captive, and to draw from him some responsive sign of affection. -He was arrayed in the choicer articles of forest finery, and nestled in the -family lodge. The father, the squaw, or the patron, in whatever relation, to -whom he henceforward belonged, spared no effort to engage and comfort -him. Watchful eyes, of course, jealously guarded any restless motions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span> -looking towards an escape. The final aim was to secure a fully nationalized -and acclimated new member of a tribe, ready to share all its fortunes in -peace and war.</p> - -<p>Naturally there were differences in this whole process and its results, as -they concerned these attempted affiliations between the members of Indian -tribes and in the adoption of white captives.<a name="FNanchor_1342_1342" id="FNanchor_1342_1342"></a><a href="#Footnote_1342_1342" class="fnanchor">[1342]</a></p> - -<p>In their early conflicts with the whites, the Indians generally practised an -indiscriminate slaughter. There were a few exceptions to the rule in King -Philip’s war.<a name="FNanchor_1343_1343" id="FNanchor_1343_1343"></a><a href="#Footnote_1343_1343" class="fnanchor">[1343]</a> In the raids of the French, with their Indian allies, upon the -English settlements, prisoners taken on either side came gradually to have -the same status as in civilized warfare, and to be held for exchange. This, -however, would proceed upon the supposition that both parties had prisoners. -But before there was anything like equality in this matter, the captives -were for the most part such as had been seized from among the whites -in inroads upon their settlements, not in the open field of warfare. A midnight -assault upon some frontier cabins, or upon the lodge of some lonely -settler, left the savages to choose between a complete massacre or upon -a selection of some of their victims for leading away with them to their -own haunts, if not too cumbersome or dangerous for the wilderness journey. -It soon came to be understood among the raiding parties of Indians in -alliance with the French in Canada that white captives had a ransom value. -Contributions were often gathered up in neighborhoods that had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> -raided, and in the meeting-houses of New England on Sundays, for redeeming -such captives as were known to be in Canada. And, curiously enough, -Judge Sewall in his journal records appeals for charity in the same form for -the redemption of captives in the hands of our own savages, and for the -ransom of our seamen and traders who were kept in durance by African -corsairs.</p> - -<p>In the raids of desolation on either side of the Alleghanies and along -the sources of the Susquehannah and the Ohio, from the outbreak of the -French and Indian war, down to and even after the crushing of Pontiac’s -conspiracy, while more than a thousand cabins of the borderers were burned -and their inmates mostly slaughtered, several hundred captives were borne -off by the Indians and distributed among their villages. The ultimate fate -of these captives always hung in dread uncertainty. If a panic arose -among the lodges in apprehension of an onset from a war-party of the -whites, the captives might be massacred. But the force of circumstances -and the urgency of interested motives steadily made it an object for their -captors to retain their prisoners unharmed, and even to make captivity tolerable -to them. The alternative of death or life to them generally depended -upon whether they might escape or be released by an avenging party without -compensation, or could be held for redemption through a ransom. The -knowledge that the Indians retained such captives of course became a very -effective motive in inducing their relatives in the settlements to gather parties -of neighbors for following the victims into the forest depths. Temporary -truces also, when made by victorious parties of the whites, were conditioned -upon the surrender of all their surviving countrymen who were supposed to -be in duress. The savages practised all their artifices and subterfuges in -concealing some of their prisoners, alleging that they had been carried deeper -into the country by new masters, or by positively denying all knowledge of -their whereabouts. But the persistency and threats of those who had -learned how to deal with these red diplomates, with a few resolute strokes -generally brought about their surrender. When Bouquet had secured possession -of Fort Duquesne with his army of 1,500 men, he stoutly followed -up his success beyond the Ohio to the Indian settlements near the Muskingum, -and with his sturdy pluck and strong force he overawed the representatives -of the neighboring tribes which he had summoned to meet him. -He insisted, as the first condition of a truce, upon the delivery of all the -white prisoners secluded among them, not only without the payment of any -ransom, but upon their being brought in with a protecting escort and with -means of sustenance. Of course there was always ignorance or doubt as -to the number of captives in any particular place, and as to the hands into -which any individual known or supposed to be in durance might have fallen. -The word of an Indian on these points was worthless unless backed by -other testimony. A stimulating of the tongue into unguarded speech by a -dram of rum might in some cases serve the purpose of the rack or the -thumb-screw in more civilized cross-examinations. An uncertainty of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> -course always hung over the survival or the whereabouts of individuals or -members of a family whose bodies had not been found on the scene of an -Indian frontier raid. Bouquet was accompanied by friends and relatives of -supposed survivors held in captivity as the spoils of some massacre, and -these might be depended upon to circumvent the falsehoods and cunning of -the captors, and to insist upon their giving up their prizes. The persistency -and the plain evidence of resolved purpose manifested by Bouquet finally -compelled from the representatives of the tribes in council a pledge to surrender -all the prisoners in their hands, and messengers were sent out to -gather and bring them in, though with some plausible excuses for delay, -and the grudging return of only a part of them. But those who were -given up became the best witnesses as to the deception practised by the -cunning culprits in holding back others. Only after repeated exposures of -falsehood by those so grudgingly surrendered, asserting of their own knowledge -that there were others held in durance, whom they might even -know by name, was there brought about a full deliverance, saving that, -whether truly or falsely, in the case of a few individuals demanded the excuse -was alleged that they belonged to some chief or tribe absent at a distance -on a hunt, and so not to be reached by a summons. Bouquet was -also absolute in his demand for all such white captives, young or old, as -were alleged to have been adopted or married among the tribes. His firmly -insisting upon this, and the compliance with it in many cases, led to some -scenic manifestations in the wilderness, of a highly dramatic character, full -of the matter of romance in their revelations of the working of human -nature under novel and strange conditions. Such manifestations often -attended similar scenes in the ransom or forced surrender of whites who -had been in captivity among the Indians. But in this special instance of -Bouquet’s resolute course with the Ohio tribes, numbers, variety, picturesqueness -in those manifestations, gave to the bringing in and the reception -of captives features and incidents which strongly engage alike the -sympathies and antipathies of human nature. Some of those brought into -Bouquet’s camp, who had once at least been whites, came with full as much -reluctance on their part as that which was felt by those who gave them up. -Indeed, several of them could be secured only by being bound and guarded.</p> - -<p>Approximation in all degrees to the manners and habits of Indian life -and to all the qualities of Indian nature had been realized by Europeans -from the first contact of the races on this continent. Of course the instances -were numerous and very decisive in which this approximation was -completed, and resulted in a substitution of all the ways and habits of savagery -for those of civilization. Many of those who were forced back into -Bouquet’s camp clung to their Indian friends, and repelled all the manifestations -of joy and affection of their own nearest kin by blood. They positively -refused to return to the settlements. They had been won by preference -to the fascinations and license of a life in the wilderness. This -preference was by no means inexplicable, even for some full-grown men and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> -women who had been reared in the white settlements. Life in scattered -cabins on the frontiers had more points of resemblance than of difference -in hard conditions and privations, when compared with savage life in the -woods. Such society as these scattered cabins afforded was rude and -rough, all experiences were precarious, daily drudgery was severe, the solitary -homes were gloomy, and only exceptional cases of early domestic and -mental training alleviated the stern exigencies of the condition of the first -generation of the settlers. For women and children especially, the outlook -and the routine of life were dismal enough. As for the men, the more -they conformed themselves in many respects to the actual habits and resources -of the Indians in the training of their instincts, in their garb, -their food, their adaptation of themselves to the ways and resources -of nature, the easier was their lot. Many women, likewise made captives -by the savages, in some cases of mature age, and having looked forward to -the usual lot of marriage, found an Indian to be preferable, or at all events -tolerable, as a husband. Children who preserved but a faint remembrance -of home and parents very readily adopted savage tastes, and testified by -their shrieks and struggles their unwillingness to part from their red friends. -Specimens from each of these classes were the most marked and demonstrative -among the groups brought in to Bouquet from Indian lodges, being -in number more than two hundred. Doubtless, however, the majority of -them had had enough of the experiences of savage life to make a return to -the settlements a welcome release. Such persons thenceforward constituted -a useful class as interpreters, mediators, and messengers between the -contending parties. Their knowledge of Indian character, superstitions, -limitations, weak and strong points, impulsive excitability, stratagems, and -adaptability to circumstance proved on many emergent occasions of good -account. Such of these returned captives as had had the rudiments of an -education, and were trustworthy as narrators, have made valuable contributions -to local history.</p> - -<p>Among many such intelligent and trustworthy reporters was Col. James -Smith, captured on the borders of Pennsylvania in 1755, when eighteen -years of age, and kept in captivity five years. Another was John McCullough, -taken at about the same time and from the near neighborhood, when -eight years old. He was retained eight years, and, being a quick-witted and -observing youth, he kept his eyes and ears open to all that he could learn. -From such sources we derive the most authentic information we possess of -that transition period in the condition and fortunes of many of our aboriginal -tribes when the intrusion of Europeans upon them with their tempting -goods and their rival schemes, which equally tended to dispossess them of -their heritage, introduced among them so many novel complications. Some -of the narratives of the whites, who, under the conditions just referred to, -lived for years and were assimilated with the Indians, present us occasionally -by no means unattractive pictures of the ordinary tenor of life among -them. In the brief intervals of peace, and in some favored recesses where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> -game abounded and the changing seasons brought round festivals, plays, -and scenes of jollity, there were even fascinations to delight one of simple -tastes, who could enjoy the aspects of nature, share the easy tramp over -mossy trails, content himself with the viands of the wilderness, employ -the long hours of laziness in easy handiwork, delight in basking beneath -the soft hazes of the Indian summer, or listening to the traditional lore of -the winter wigwam. The forests very soon began to be the shelter and the -roving haunts of a crew of renegades and outlaws from the settlements, -who assimilated at all points with the savages, and often used what remained -to them of the knowledge and arts of civilization for ingenious -purposes of mischief. It has always proved a vastly more easy and rapid -process for white men to fall back into barbarism than for an Indian to conform -himself to civilization. Wild life brought out all reversionary tendencies, -and revived primitive qualities and instincts. It gave those who shared -it a full opportunity to become oblivious of all fastidious tastes and of all -the squeamishness of over-delicacy. The promiscuous contents of the -camp-kettle, with its deposits and incrustations from previous banquets, -were partaken of with a zestful appetite. The circumstances of warfare in -the woods quickened all the faculties of watchfulness, made even the natural -coward brave, imparted endurance, and multiplied all the ingenuities of -resource and stratagem. There is something that surpasses the merely -marvellous in the feats of sturdy and persevering scouts, escaped captives, -remnants of a butchery, messengers sent to carry intelligence in supreme -peril, and lonely wayfarers treading the haunted forests, or creeping stealthily -through ambushed defiles, penetrating marshes, using the sky and their -woodcraft for guidance, fording or swimming choked or icy streams, climbing -high tree-tops for a wider survey from the closed woods and thickets, -subsisting on roots and berries and moss, and yielding to the exhaustion -of nature only when all perils were passed and the refuge was reached. -Alike on the march of armies and in the siege of some little forest stronghold -surrounded by yelping savages, it was necessary from time to time to -send out a single plucky hero to carry or to obtain intelligence. When -such a messenger was not designated by the commander, and the extremity -of the emergency left the dismal honor to a volunteer, such was never found -to be lacking. It confounds all calculations of the law of chances to learn -how, even in the majority of such dire enterprises as are on record, fortune -favored the brave. Narratives there are which for ages to come will -gather all the exciting elements of tragedy and romance, and occasionally -even of comedy, as, set down in the language of the woods, without the -constraints of art or grammar, they make us for the moment companions of -some imperilled man or woman who borrowed of the bear, the deer, the -fox, or the beaver, their several instincts and stratagems for outwitting -pursuit and clinging to dear life. Rare, it may be, but still well authenticated, -are cases of victims with a strong tenacity of vitality, who, left as -dead, mutilated and scalped, reasserted themselves when the foe had gone,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> -found their way back to their homes, and, after such reconstruction as the -art of the time would allow, enjoyed a long life afterwards.</p> - -<p>The conditions attending the entrance of European war-parties, with -their necessary supplies, into the depths of the wilderness were of the most -severe and exacting character. They involved equally the outlay of toil -and an exposure to perils requiring the most watchful vigilance. Well-worn -trails made by the natives, and always sufficiently travelled to keep -them open, had long been in use for such purposes as were needed in primitive -conditions. These were very narrow, necessitating that progress -should be made through them singly, in “Indian file.” At portages or carrying-places, -burdens were borne on the back from one watercourse to -another, round a rapid or across an elevation. Some of these trails are -even now traceable in the oldest settled portions of the country, where the -woods have never been wholly cleared. Part of that which was availed of -by the whites two hundred and fifty years ago between Plymouth and Boston, -and others in untilled portions of the Old Colony, are clearly discernible. -The thickets and undergrowths came close to the borders of these -trails, and the overhanging branches of the trees were found a grievous -annoyance when the earliest traders with pack-horses traversed them. In -a large part of our present national domain and in Canada, it may safely -be said that nineteen twentieths of all movement from place to place was -made by the savages by the watercourses of lake and stream, and the same -was done by the Europeans till they brought into use horses first, and then -carts. These were first put to service by the traders from the English settlements -on the frontiers of Pennsylvania and Virginia. The pack-horses, -heavily laden, trained to their rough service for rocky and marshy grounds, -as well as for the thick and stifling depths of the forest, and able to subsist -on very poor forage, carried goods most prized by the natives, and generally -in inverse ratio to their real worth. They returned to the settlements -from the Indian villages with a burden of precious furs, the traffickers -mutually finding their account in their respective shares in barter and profit. -These traders with their pack-horses were for a long time the pioneers of -the actual settlers. The methods and results of their traffic, trifling as they -may seem to be, had the two leading consequences of critical importance: -first, they made the Indians acquainted with and dependent upon the white -man’s goods, and then they provoked and embittered the rival competition -between the French and the English for the considerable profits.</p> - -<p>What we now call a military road was first undertaken on a serious scale -in the advance of the disastrous expedition of General Braddock, in 1755, -over the Alleghanies to the forks of the Ohio. The incumbrances with -which he burdened himself might wisely have been greatly reduced in kind -and in amount. But the exigencies of the service in which he was engaged -were but poorly apprehended by him. As in the case of the even more -disastrous campaign of General Burgoyne, twenty-two years later, (1777) -though his route was mainly by water, the camp was lavishly supplied with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span> -appliances of luxury and sensuality. Braddock’s way for his cattle, carts, -and artillery was slowly and poorly prepared by pioneers in advance, levelling -trees, stiffening marshy places, removing rocks and bushes, and then -leaving huge stumps in the devious track to rack the wagons and torment -the draught animals. It is not without surprise that we read of the presence -of domestic cattle far off in the extreme outposts of single persevering settlers. -But when, on the first extensive military expeditions for building a -fort on the shore of a lake, at river forks, or to command a portage, we find -mention of cannon and heavy ammunition, we marvel at the perseverance -involved in their transportation. The casks of liquor, of French brandy -and of New England rum, which generally, without stint, formed a part -of the stores of each military enterprise, furnished in themselves a motive -spirit which facilitated their transport. Flour and bread could, with -many risks from stream and weather, be carried in sacks. But pork and -beef in pickle, the mainstay in garrisons which could not venture out to -hunt or fish, required to be packed in wood. After all the persevering toil -engaged in this transportation, the dire necessities of warfare under these -stern conditions often compelled the destruction of the stores, every article -of which had tasked the strained muscles and sinews of the hard-worked -campaigners. When it was found necessary to evacuate a forest post, the -stockade was set on fire, the magazine was exploded, the cannon spiked, -the powder thrown into the water, and everything that could not be carried -off in a hasty retreat was, if possible, rendered useless as booty. As the -French and English military movements steadily extended over a wider -territory and at more numerous points, with increased forces, the waste and -havoc caused by disasters on either side involved an enormous destruction of -the materials of war. Vessels constructed with incredible labor on the lakes, -anvils, cordage, iron, and artillery having been gathered for their building -and arming by perilous ocean voyages and by transit through inner waters -and portages, and thousands of bateaux for Lakes Champlain and George, -now lie sunken in the depths, most of them destroyed by those in whose -service they were to be employed. The “Griffin,” the first vessel on Lake -Erie, built by La Salle in 1679, disappeared on her second voyage, and lies -beneath the waters still. After Braddock’s defeat, when the fugitive remnant -of his army had reached Dunbar’s camp, a hundred and fifty wagons -were burned, and fifty thousand pounds of powder were emptied into a -creek, after the incredible toil by which they had been drawn over the -mountains and morasses.</p> - -<p>There were many occasions and many reasons which prompted the -Europeans to weigh the gain or loss which resulted to them from the employment -of Indian allies, who were always an incalculable element in any -enterprise. They could never be depended upon for constancy or persistency. -A bold stroke, followed, if successful, with butchery, and a rush to -the covert of the woods if a failure, was the sum of their strategy. They -had a quick eye in watching the turning fortunes and the probable issue of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> -a venture, and they acted accordingly. They were wholly disinclined for -any protracted siege operations. In the weary months of the investment -of Detroit, the only enterprise of the sort engaged in by large bodies of -savages acting in concert, we find a single exceptional case of their uniform -impatience of such prolonged strategy. And even in that case there were -intervals when the imperilled and starving garrison had breathing-spells for -recuperation. Charges and counter-charges, pleas and criminations of every -kind, plausible, false, or sincere, are found in the journals and reports of -English and French officers, prompted by accusations and vindications of -either party, called out by the atrocities and butcheries wrought by their -savage allies in many of the conflicts of the French and Indian war. In -vain did the commanders of the white forces on either side promise that -their red allies should be restrained from plunder and barbarity against the -defeated party. It was an attempt to bridle a storm. From the written -opinions expressed by various civil and military officials during all our Indian -wars one might gather a list of judgments, always emphatically worded, -as to the qualities of the red men as allies. Governor Dinwiddie, writing -in May 28, 1756, to General Abercrombie, on his arrival here to hold the -chief command till the coming of Lord Loudon, expresses himself thus: -“I think we have secured the Six Nations to the Northward to our Interest -who, I suppose, will join your Forces. They are a very awkward, dirty sett -of People, yet absolutely necessary to attack the Enemy’s Indians in their -way of fighting and scowering the Woods before an Army. I am perswaded -they will appear a despicable sett of People to his Lordship and -you, but they will expect to be taken particular Notice of, and now and -then some few Presents. I fear General Braddock despised them too -much, which probably was of Disservice to him, and I really think without -some of them any engagement in the Woods would prove fatal, and if -strongly attached to our Interest they are able in their way to do more than -three Times their Number. They are naturally inclined to Drink. It will -be a prudent Stepp to restrain them with Moderation, and by some of your -Subalterns to shew them Respect.”<a name="FNanchor_1344_1344" id="FNanchor_1344_1344"></a><a href="#Footnote_1344_1344" class="fnanchor">[1344]</a> Baron Dieskau, in 1755, had abundant -reason for expressing himself about his savage auxiliaries in this fashion: -“They drive us crazy from morning to night. One needs the patience -of an angel to get on with these devils, and yet one must always force -himself to seem pleased with them.”<a name="FNanchor_1345_1345" id="FNanchor_1345_1345"></a><a href="#Footnote_1345_1345" class="fnanchor">[1345]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">It would seem as if the native tribes, when Europeans first secured a -lodgment, were beguiled by a fancy which in most cases was very rudely -dispelled. This fancy was that the new-comers might abide here without -displacing them. The natives in giving deeds of lands, as has been -said, had apparently no idea that they had made an absolute surrender of -territory. They seem to have imagined that something like a joint occupancy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> -was possible, each of the parties being at liberty to follow his own -ways and interests without molesting the other. So the Indians did not -move off to a distance, but frequented their old haunts, hoping to derive -advantage from the neighborhood of the white man. King Philip in 1675 -discerned and acutely defined the utter impracticability of any such joint -occupancy. He indicated the root of the impending ruin to his own race, -and he found a justification of the conspiracy which he instigated in pointing -to the white man’s clearings and fences, and to the impossibility of -joining planting with hunting, and domestic cattle with wild game.</p> - -<p>The history of the Hudson Bay Company and that of the enterprises conducted -by the French for more than a century, when set in contrast with -the steady development of colonization by English settlers and by the people -of the United States succeeding to them, brings out in full force the -different relations into which the aborigines have always been brought by -the presence of Europeans among them, either as traders or possessors of -territory. The Hudson Bay Company for exactly two centuries, from 1670 -to 1870, held a charter for the monopoly of trade with the Indians here over -an immense extent of territory, and in the later portion of that period held -an especial grant for exclusive trade over an even more extended region, -further north and west. The company made only such a very limited occupancy -of the country, at small and widely distant posts, as was necessary -for its trucking purposes and the exchange of European goods for peltries. -During that whole period, allowing for rare casualties, not a single -act of hostility occurred between the traders and the natives. A large -number of different tribes, often at bitter feud with each other, were all -kept in amity with the official residents of the company, and each party -probably found as much satisfaction in the two sides of a bargain as is -usual in such transactions. Deposits of goods were securely gathered in -some post far off in the depths of the wilderness, under the care of two or -three young apprentices of the company, and here bands of Indians at the -proper season came for barter. Previous to the operations of this company, -beginning as early as 1620, large numbers of Frenchmen, singly or -in parties, ventured deep into the wilderness in company with savage -bands, for purposes of adventure or traffic, and very rarely did any of them -meet a mishap or fail to find a welcome. Such adventurers in fact became -in most cases Indians in their manner of life. Nor did the jealousy of -the savages manifest itself in a way not readily appeased when they found -the French priests planting mission stations and truck-houses. In no case -did the French intruders ask, as did the English colonists, for deeds of territory. -It was understood that they held simply by sufferance, and with a -view to mutual advantage for both parties, with no purpose of overreaching. -The relations thus established between the French and the natives -continued down till even after the extinction of the territorial claims of -France. And when, just before the opening of the great French and Indian -hostilities with the English colonists, the French had manifested their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span> -purpose to get a foothold on the heritage of the savages by pushing a line -of strongly fortified posts along their lakes and rivers, the apprehensions of -the savages were craftily relieved by the plea that these securities were -designed only to prevent the encroachment of the English.</p> - -<p>A peaceful traffic with the Indians, like that of the Hudson Bay Company -and the French, had been from the first but a subordinate object of the English -colonists. These last, while for a period they confined themselves to the -seaboard, supplemented their agricultural enterprise by the fishery and by -a very profitable commerce. As soon as they began to penetrate into the -interior they took with them their families and herds, made fixed habitations, -put up their fences and dammed the streams. Instead of fraternizing -with the Indians, they warned them off as nuisances. We must also -take into view the fact that this steadily advancing settlement of the Indian -country directly provoked and encouraged the resolute though baffled -opposition of the savages. They could match forces with these scattered -pioneers, even if, as was generally the case, a few families united in constructing -a palisadoed and fortified stronghold to which they might gather -for refuge. If a body of courageous men had advanced together well prepared -for common defence, it is certain the warfare would not have been -so desultory as it proved to be. All the wiles of the Indians in conducting -their hostilities gave them a great advantage. They thought that the -whites might be dislodged effectually from further trespasses if once and -again they were visited by sharp penalties for their rash intrusion. It was -plain that they were long in coming to a full apprehension of the pluck of -their invaders, of their recuperative energies, and of the reserved forces -which were behind them. From the irregular base line of the coast the -English advanced into the interior, not by direct parallel lines, but rather -by successive semicircles of steadily extending radii. The advances from -the middle colonies of Pennsylvania and Virginia marked the farthest -reaches in this curvature. The French, in the mean while, aimed from the -start for occupying the interior.</p> - -<p class="p2">The period which we have here under review is one through which the -savages, for the most part, were but subordinate agents, the principals being -the French and the English. So far as the diplomatic faculties of the -savages enabled them to hold in view the conditions of the strife, there were -doubtless occasions in which they thought they held what among civilized -nations is called the balance of power. Nor would it have been strange if, -at times, their chiefs had imagined that, though it might be impossible for -them again to hold possession of their old domains free from the intrusion -of the white man, they might have power to decide which of the two nationalities -should be favored above the other. In that case the French -doubtless would have been the favored party. We have, however, to take -into view the vast disproportion between the numbers, if not of the resources, -of these two foreign nationalities, when the struggle between them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span> -earnestly began. In 1688 there were about eleven thousand of the French -in America, and nearly twenty times as many English. The French were -unified under the control of their home government. Its resources were -at their call: its army and navy, its arsenals and treasury, its monarch and -ministers, might be supposed to be serviceable and engaged for making its -mastery on this continent secure. The English, however, were only nominally, -and as regards some of the colonies even reluctantly and but truculently, -under the control of their home government. It had been the -jealous policy of the New England colonists, from their first planting, to -isolate themselves from the mother-country, and to make self-dependence -the basis of independence. Their circumstances had thrown them on their -own resources, and made them feel that as their foreign superiors could -know very little of their emergencies, it was not wise or even right in -them to interpose in their affairs. Indeed, it is evident that all the -British colonists felt themselves equal, without advice or help from abroad, -to take care of themselves, if they had to contend only against the savages. -But when the savages had behind them the power of the French monarch, -it was of necessity that the English should receive a reinforcement -from their own countrymen. In the altercations with the British -ministry which followed very soon after the close of the French and Indian -war, a keenly argued question came under debate as to the claim -which the mother-country had upon the gratitude of her colonists for coming -to their rescue when threatened with ruin from their red and white -enemies. And the answer to this question was judged to depend upon -whether, in sending hither her fleets and armies, Britain had in view an extension -of her transatlantic domains or the protection of her imperilled subjects. -At any rate, there were jealousies, cross-purposes, and an entire lack -of harmony between the direct representatives of English military power -and the coöperating measures of the colonial government. Never, under -any stress of circumstances, was England willing to raise even the most -serviceable of the officers of the provincial forces to the rank of regulars -in her own army. The youthful Washington, whose sagacity and prowess -had proved themselves in field and council where British officers were so -humiliated, had to remain content with the rank of a provincial colonel. -Nor did the provincial legislatures act in concert either with each other, or -with the advice and appeals of their royal governors in raising men, money -or supplies for combined military operations against common enemies. -Each of the colonies thought it sufficient to provide for itself. Each was -even dilatory and backward when its own special peril was urgent. These -embarrassments of the English did very much to compensate the French -for their great inferiority in numerical strength. We are again to remind -ourselves of the fact that the French, alike from their temperament and -their policy, were always vastly more congenial and influential with the -savages.</p> - -<p>The French in Canada from the first adopted the policy of alliance with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> -native tribes. Though their warfare with the English was hardly intermittent, -there were several occasions when it was specially active. Beginning -with the first invasion of the Iroquois territory by Champlain, in 1609, -already mentioned, under the plea of espousing the side of his friends and -allies, the Hurons and Algonquins, other like enterprises were later pursued. -Courcelles, in 1666, made a wild and unsuccessful inroad upon the -Iroquois. Tracy made a more effective one in the same year. De la -Barre in 1684, Denonville in 1687, and Frontenac in 1693 and 1696, repeated -these onsets. The last of these invasions of what is now Central -New York was intended to effect the complete exhaustion of the Indian -confederacy. Its havoc was indeed well-nigh crushing, but there was a -tenacity and a recuperative power in that confederacy of savages which -yielded only to a like desolating blow inflicted by Sullivan, under orders -from Washington, in our Revolutionary War.</p> - -<p>This formidable league of the Five Nations, when first known to Europeans, -claimed to have obtained by conquest the whole country from the -lakes to the Carolinas, and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. France, -as against other Europeans, though not against the Indians, claimed the -same territory. Great Britain claimed the valley of the Ohio and its tributaries, -first against the French as being merely the longitudinal extension -of the line of seacoast discovered by English navigators, and then through -cessions from and treaties with the Five Nations. The first of these -treaties was that made at Lancaster, Pa., in June, 1744. But the Indians -afterwards complained that they had been overreached, and had not intended -to cede any territory west of the Alleghanies. Here, of course, -with three parties in contention, there was basis enough for struggles in -which the prize, all considerations of natural justice being excluded, was to -be won only by superior power. Neither of the rivals and intruders from -across the ocean dealt with the Indians as if even they had any absolute -right to territory from which they claimed to have driven off former possessors. -So the Indian prerogative was recognized by the French and the -English as available only on either side for backing up some rival claim of -the one or the other nation; though when the mother-countries were at -peace in Europe, their subjects here by no means felt bound even to a -show of truce, and they were always most ready to avail themselves of a -declaration of war at home to make their wilderness campaigns. It is -curious to note that in all the negotiations between the Indians and Europeans, -including those of our own government, the only landed right recognized -as belonging to the savages was that of giving up territory. The -prior right of ownership by the tenure of possession was regarded as invalidated -both by the manner in which it had been acquired and by a lack to -make a good use of it.</p> - -<p>It was in the closing years of the seventeenth century and in those opening -the eighteenth that the military and the priestly representatives of -France in Canada resolutely advised and undertook the measures which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span> -promised to give them a secure and extended possession of the whole north -of the continent, excepting only the strip on the Atlantic seaboard then -firmly held by the English colonists. Even this excepted region of territory -was by no means, however, regarded as positively irreclaimable, and -military enterprises were often planned with the aim of a complete extinction -of English possession. The French in their earliest explorations, in -penetrating the country to the west and to the south, had been keenly -observant in marking the strategic points on lake and river for strongholds -which should give them the advantage of single positions and secure a -chain of posts for easy and safe communications. Their leading object was -to gain an ascendency over the native tribes; and as they could not expect -easily and at once to get the mastery over them all, policy dictated such -a skilful turning to account of their feuds among themselves as would -secure strong alliances of interest and friendship with the more powerful -ones. The French did vastly more than the English to encourage the -passions of the savages for war and to train them in military skill and artifice, -leaving them for the most part unchecked in the indulgence of their -ferocity. It is true that the Dutch and the English had the start in supplying -the savages with firearms, under the excuse that they were needed by -the natives for the most effective support of the rapidly increasing trade in -peltries. But the French were not slow to follow the example, as it presented -to them a matter of necessity. And through the long and bloody -struggle between the two European nationalities with their red allies, it may -be safely affirmed that the frontier warfare of the English colonists was -waged against savages armed as well as led on by the French.</p> - -<p>Two objects, generally harmonious and mutually helpful of each other, -inspired the activity of the French in taking possession successively of -posts in the interior of the continent. The first of these was the establishment -of mission stations for the conversion of the savages. The other -object of these wilderness posts was to secure the lucrative gains of the fur -trade from an ever-extending interior. Though, as was just said, these two -objects might generally be harmoniously pursued, it was not always found -easy or possible to keep them in amity, or to prevent sharp collisions between -them. There was a vigorous rivalry in the fur trade between the -members of an associated company, with a government monopoly for the -traffic, and very keenly enterprising individuals who pursued it, with but -little success in concealing their doings, in defiance of the monopolists. -The burden of the official correspondence between the authorities in Canada -and those at the French court related to the irregularities and abuses of -this traffic. Incident to these was a lively plying of the temptations of that -other traffic which poured into the wilderness floods of French brandy. -The taste of this fiery stimulant once roused in a savage could rarely afterwards -be appeased. The English colonists soon gained an advantage in -this traffic in their manufacture of cheap rum. It is easy to see how this -rivalry between monopolists and individuals in the fur trade, aided by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> -stimulant for which the Indian was most craving, would impair the spiritual -labors of the priests at their wild stations. Nor were there lacking -instances in which the priests themselves were charged with sharing not -only the gains of the fur trade, but also those of the brandy traffic, either -in the interests of the monopolists or of individuals.</p> - -<p>The earliest extended operations of the French fur trade with the Indians -were carried on by the northerly route to Lake Huron by the Ottawa River. -The French had little to apprehend from English interference by this difficult -route with its many portages. But it soon became of vital necessity -to the French to take and hold strong points on the line of the Great Lakes. -These were on the narrow streams which made the junctions between -them. So a fort was to be planted at Niagara, between Ontario and Erie; -another at Detroit, between Erie and Huron; another at Michilimackinac, -between Michigan and Huron; another at the fall of the waters of Superior -into Huron; and Fort St. Joseph, near the head of Lake Michigan, facilitated -communication with the Illinois and the Miami tribes; the Ojibwas, -Ottawas, Wyandots, and Pottawattomies having their settlements around -the westernmost of the lakes, the Sioux being still beyond. South of -Lake Erie, in the region afterwards known as the Northwest Territory, -between the Alleghanies, the Ohio, and the Mississippi, were the Delawares, -the Shawanees, and the Mingoes. It is to be kept in view that this territory, -though formally ceded by France to England in the treaty of 1762-63, -had previously been claimed by the English colonists as rightfully belonging -to their monarch, it being merely the undefined extension of the seacoast -held by virtue of the discovery of the Cabots.</p> - -<p>The fifth volume of the <i>Mémoires</i> published by Margry gives us the original -documents, dating 1683-1695, relating to the first project for opening a -chain of posts to hold control of, and to facilitate communication between, -Canada and the west and south of the continent. The project was soon -made to extend its purpose to the Gulf of Mexico. The incursions of the -Iroquois and the attempted invasions of the English, with a consequent -drawing off of trade from the French, had obliged the Marquis Denonville -to abandon some of the posts that had been established. In spite of the -opposition of Champigny, Frontenac vigorously urged measures for the repossession -and strengthening of these posts. The Jesuits were earnest in -pressing the measure upon the governors of Canada. In pushing on the -enterprise, the French had sharp experience of the intense hostility of the -inner tribes who were to be encountered, and who were to be first conciliated. -The French followed a policy quite unlike that of the English in -the method of their negotiations for the occupancy of land. The colonists -of the latter aimed to secure by treaty and purchase the absolute fee and -ownership of a given region. They intended to hold it generally for cultivation, -and they expected the Indians then claiming it to vacate it. The -French beguiled the Indians by asserting that they had no intention either -of purchasing or forcibly occupying, as if it were their own, any spot where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span> -they established a stronghold, a trucking or a mission station. They professed -to hold only by sufferance, and that, too, simply for the security and -benefit of the natives, in furnishing them with a better religion than their -own and with the white man’s goods. The Iroquois, finding the hunting -and trapping of game for the English so profitable on their own territory, -were bent on extending their field. They hoped, by penetrating to Michilimackinac, -to make themselves the agents or medium for the trade with the -tribes near it, so that they could control the whole southern traffic. So -they had declared war against the Illinois, the Miamis, the Ottawas, and the -Hurons. It was of vital importance to the French to keep firm hold of -Lakes Ontario and Erie, and to guard their connections. The Iroquois -were always the threatening obstacle. It was affirmed that they had become -so debauched by strong drink that their squaws could not nourish their few -children, and that they had availed themselves of an adoption of those -taken from their enemies. As they obtained their firearms with comparative -cheapness from the English on the Hudson and Mohawk, they used -them with vigor against the inner tribes with their primitive weapons, and -were soon to find them of service against the English on the frontiers of -Virginia. So keenly did the English press their trade as to cause a wavering -of the loyalty of those Indian tribes who had been the first and the fast -friends of the French. Thus it was but natural that the Iroquois should -be acute enough to oppose the building of a French stronghold at any of -the selected posts.</p> - -<p>In 1699,<a name="FNanchor_1346_1346" id="FNanchor_1346_1346"></a><a href="#Footnote_1346_1346" class="fnanchor">[1346]</a> La Mothe Cadillac proposed to assemble their red allies, then -much dispersed, and principally the Ottawas, at Detroit, and there to construct -both a fort and a village. At the bottom of this purpose, and of the -opposition to it, was a contention between rival parties in the traffic. The -favorers and the opponents of the design made their respective representations -to the French court. De Callières objected to the plan because of the -proximity of the hostile Iroquois, who would prefer to turn all the trade to -the English, and his preference was to reëstablish the old posts. The real -issue to be faced was whether the Indians now, and ultimately, were to be -made subjects of the English or of the French monarch. Cadillac combated -the objections of Callières, and succeeded in effecting his design at Detroit. -The extension of the traffic was constantly bringing into the field tribes -heretofore too remote for free intercourse. In each such case it depended -upon various contingencies to decide whether the French or the English -would find friends or foes in these new parties, and the alternative would -generally rest, temporarily at least, upon which party was most accessible -and most profitable for trade. It would hardly be worth the while for an -historian, unless dealing with the special theme of the rivalries involved -in the fur trade as deciding with which party of the whites one or another -tribe came into amity, to attempt to trace the conditions and consequences -of such diplomacy in inconstant negotiators.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span></p> - -<p>The English began the series of attempts to bind the Five, afterwards -the Six, Nations into amity or neutrality by treaty in 1674. These treaties -were wearisome in their formalities, generally unsatisfactory in their terms -of assurance, and so subject to caprice and the changes of fortune as to need -confirmation and renewal, as suspicion or alleged treachery on either side -made them practically worthless. There were two ends to be gained by -these treaties of the English with the confederated tribes. The one was -to avert hostilities from the English and to secure them privileges of transit -for trade. The other object, not always avowed, but implied as a -natural consequent of the first, was to alienate the tribes from the French, -and if possible to keep them in a state of local or general conflict. Each -specification of these treaties was to be emphasized by the exchange of a -wampum belt. Then a largess of presents, always including rum, was the -final ratification. These goods were of considerable cost to the English, -but always seemed a niggard gift to the Indians, as there were so many to -share in them.</p> - -<p>The first of this series of treaties was that made in 1674, at Albany, by -Col. Henry Coursey, in behalf of the colonists of Virginia. It was of little -more service than as it initiated the parties into the method of such proceedings.</p> - -<p>In the middle of July, 1684, Lord Howard, governor of Virginia, summoned -a council of the sachems of the Five Nations to Albany. He was -attended by two of his council and by Governor Dongan of New York, -and some of the magistrates of Albany. Howard charged upon the savages -the butcheries and plunderings which they had committed seven years -previous in Virginia and Maryland, “belonging to the great king of England.” -He told the sachems that the English had intended at once to -avenge those outrages, but through the advice of Sir Edmund Andros, -then governor-general of the country, had sent peaceful messengers to -them. The sachems had proved perfidious to the pledges they then gave, -and the governor, after threatening them, demanded from them conditions -of future amity. After their usual fashion of shifting responsibility and -professions of regret and future fidelity, the sachems renewed their covenants. -Under the prompting of Governor Dongan they asked that the -Duke of York’s arms should be placed on the Mohawk castles, as a protection -against their enemies, the French. Doubtless the Indians, in desiring, -or perhaps only assenting to, the affixing of these English insignia to their -strongholds, might have had in view only the effect of them in warning off -the French. They certainly did not realize that their English guests -would ever afterwards, as they did, regard this concession of the tribes as -an avowal of allegiance to the king of Great Britain, and as adopting for -themselves the relation of subjects of a foreign monarch.</p> - -<p>The experience gained by many previous attempts to secure the fidelity -of the tribes, thenceforward known as the Six Nations by the incorporation -into the confederacy of the remnant of the Tuscaroras, was put to service<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span> -in three succeeding councils for treaty-making, held respectively at Philadelphia -in 1742, in Lancaster, Pa., in 1744,<a name="FNanchor_1347_1347" id="FNanchor_1347_1347"></a><a href="#Footnote_1347_1347" class="fnanchor">[1347]</a> and at Albany in 1746.<a name="FNanchor_1348_1348" id="FNanchor_1348_1348"></a><a href="#Footnote_1348_1348" class="fnanchor">[1348]</a> Much -allowance is doubtless to be made in the conduct of the earlier treaties -for the lack of competent and faithful interpreters in councils made up -of representatives of several tribes, with different languages and idioms. -Interpreters have by no means always proved trustworthy, even when -qualified for their office.<a name="FNanchor_1349_1349" id="FNanchor_1349_1349"></a><a href="#Footnote_1349_1349" class="fnanchor">[1349]</a> The difficulty was early experienced of putting -into our simple mother-tongue the real substance of an Indian harangue, -which was embarrassed and expanded by images and flowers of native -rhetoric, wrought from the structure of their symbolic language, but adding -nothing to the terms or import of the address. It was observed that often -an interpreter, anxious only to state the gist of the matter in hand, would -render in a single English sentence an elaborately ornate speech of an -orator that had extended through many minutes in its utterance. The -orator might naturally mistrust whether full justice had been done to his -plea or argument. There is by no means a unanimity in the opinions or -the judgments of those of equal intelligence, who have reported to us the -harangues of Indians in councils, as to the qualities of their eloquence or -rhetoric. The entire lack of terms for the expression of abstract ideas -compelled them to draw their illustrations from natural objects and relations. -Signs and gestures made up a large part of the significance of a -discourse. Doubtless the cases were frequent in which the representation -of a tribe in a council was made through so few of its members that there -might be reasonable grounds for objection on the part of a majority to the -terms of any covenant or treaty that had been made by a chief or an orator. -Of one very convenient and plausible subterfuge, or honest plea,—whichever -in any given case it might have been,—our native tribes have -always been skilful in availing themselves. The assumption was that the -elder, the graver, wiser representatives of a tribe were those who appeared -on its behalf at a council. When circumstances afterwards led the whites -to complain of a breach of the conditions agreed on, the blame was always -laid by the chiefs on their “young men,” whom they had been unable to -restrain.</p> - -<p>During the long term of intermittent warfare of the French and English -on this continent, with native tribes respectively for their foes or allies, the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span>conditions of the conflict, as before hinted, were in general but slightly -affected by the alternative of peace or war as existing at any time between -their sovereigns and people in Europe. Some of the fiercest episodes of -the struggle on this soil took place during the intervals of truce, armistice, -and temporary treaty settlements between the leading powers in the old -world. When, in the treaties closing a series of campaigns, the settlement -in the articles of peace included a restoration of the territory which had -been obtained by either party by conquest, no permanent result was really -secured. These restitutions were always subject to reclamation. Valuable -and strategic points of territory merely changed hands for the time being; -Acadia, for example, being seven times tossed as a shuttlecock between -the parties to the settlement. The trial had to be renewed and repeated -till the decision was of such a sort as to give promise of finality. The -prize contended for here was really the mastery of the whole continent, -though the largeness of the stake was not appreciated till the closing years -of the struggle. Indeed, the breadth and compass of the field were then unknown -quantities. Those closing years of stratagem and carnage in our forests -correspond to what is known in history as the “Seven Years’ War” in -Europe, in which France, as a contestant, was worsted in the other quarters -of the globe, as in this. Clive broke her power in India, as the generals of -Britain discomfited her here. The French, in 1758, held a profitable mercantile -settlement on five hundred miles of coast in Africa, between Cape -Blanco and the river Gambia. It is one of the curious contrarieties in -the workings of the same avowed principles under different conditions, -that just at the time that the pacific policy of the Pennsylvania Quakers -forbade their offering aid to their countrymen under the bloody work going -on upon their frontiers, an eminent English Quaker merchant, Thomas -Cumming, framed the successful scheme of conquest over this French -settlement in Africa.<a name="FNanchor_1350_1350" id="FNanchor_1350_1350"></a><a href="#Footnote_1350_1350" class="fnanchor">[1350]</a></p> - -<p>The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, seemed to promise a breathing-time -in the strife between the French and English here. In fact, however, -so far from there being even a smouldering of the embers on our soil, that -date marks the kindling of the conflagration which, continuing to blaze for -fifteen years onward, comprehended all the decisive campaigns. The -earliest of these were ominous and disheartening to the English, but they -closed with the fullness of triumph. We must trace with conciseness the -more prominent acts and incidents in which the natives, with the French -and English, protracted and closed the strife.</p> - -<p>When Europeans entered upon the region now known as Pennsylvania, -though its well-watered and fertile territory and its abounding game would -seem to have well adapted it to the uses of savage life, it does not appear -that it was populously occupied. The Delawares, which had held it at an -earlier period, had, previously to the coming of the whites, been subjugated -by the more warlike tribes of the Five Nations, or Iroquois. Some of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span> -vanquished had passed to the south or west, to be merged in other bands of -the natives. Such of them as remained in their old haunts were humiliated -by their masters, despised as “women,” and denied the privileges of warriors. -While the Five Nations were thus potent in the upper portion of -Pennsylvania, around the sources of the Susquehanna, its southern region -was held by the Shawanees. The first purchase near the upper region -made by Europeans of the natives was by a colony of Swedes, under Governor -John Printz, in 1643. This colony was subdued, though allowed to -remain on its lands, by the Dutch, in 1655. In 1664, the English took -possession of all Pennsylvania, and of everything that had been held by the -Dutch. Penn founded his province in 1682, by grant from Charles II., -and in the next year made his much-lauded treaty of peace and purchase -with the Indians for lands west and north of his city. The attractions of -the province, and the easy opening of its privileges to others than the -Friends, drew to it a rapid and enterprising immigration. In 1729 there -came in, principally from the north of Ireland, 6,207 settlers. In 1750 -there arrived 4,317 Germans and 1,000 English. The population of the -province in 1769 was estimated at 250,000. The Irish settlers were mostly -Presbyterians, the Germans largely Moravians. It soon appeared, especially -when the ravages of the Indians on the frontiers were most exasperating -and disastrous, that there were elements of bitter discord between -these secondary parties in the province and the Friends who represented -the proprietary right. And this suggests a brief reference to the fact that, -as a very effective agent entering into the imbittered conflicts of the time -and scene, we are to take into the account some strong religious animosities. -The entailed passions and hates of the peoples of the old world, as Catholics -and Protestants, and even of sects among the latter, were transferred here to -inflame the rage of combatants in wilderness warfare.<a name="FNanchor_1351_1351" id="FNanchor_1351_1351"></a><a href="#Footnote_1351_1351" class="fnanchor">[1351]</a> The zeal and heroic -fidelity of the French priests in making a Christian from a baptized and -untamed savage had realized, under rude yet easy conditions, a degree of -success. In and near the mission stations, groups of the natives had been -trained to gather around the cross, and to engage with more or less response -in the holy rites. Some of them could repeat, after a fashion, the -Pater Noster, the Ave Maria, and the Creed. Some had substituted a -crucifix or a consecrated medal for their old pagan charm, to be worn on -the breast. When about to go forth on the war-path, their priests would -give them shrift and benediction. But, as has been said, it was no part or -purpose of this work of christianizing savages to impair their qualities as -warriors, to dull their knives or tomahawks, to quench their thirst for blood, -or to restrain the fiercest atrocities and barbarities of the fight or the victory. -On the well-known experience that fresh converts are always the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span> -most ardent haters of heresy, these savage neophytes were initiated into -some of the mysteries of the doctrinal strife between the creed of their -priests and the abominated infidelity and impiety of the English Protestants. -Some of the savages were by no means slow to learn the lesson. -Mr. Parkman’s brilliant and graphic pages afford us abounding illustrations -of the part which priestly instructions and influence had in adding to savage -ferocity the simulation of religious hate for heresy. With whatever degree -of understanding or appreciation of the duty as it quickened the courage or -the ferocity of the savage, there were many scenes and occasions in which -the warrior added the charge of heretic to that of enemy, when he dealt -his blow.<a name="FNanchor_1352_1352" id="FNanchor_1352_1352"></a><a href="#Footnote_1352_1352" class="fnanchor">[1352]</a></p> - -<p>Almost as violent and exasperating were the animosities engendered -between the disciples of different Protestant fellowships. The Quakers, -backed by proprietary rights, by the prestige of an original peace policy -and friendly negotiations with the Indians, and for the most part secure and -unharmed in the centralized homes of Philadelphia and its neighborhood, -imagined that they might refuse all participation in the bloody work enacting -on their frontiers. The adventurous settlers on the borders were largely -Presbyterians. The course of non-interference by the Quakers, who controlled -the legislature, seemed to those who were bearing the brunt of -savage warfare monstrously selfish and inhuman. There was a fatuity in -this course which had to be abandoned. When a mob of survivors from -the ravaged fields and cabins of the frontiers, bringing in cartloads of the -bones gathered from the ashes of their burned dwellings, thus enforced -their remonstrances against the peace policy of the legislature, the Quakers -were compelled to yield, and to furnish the supplies of war.<a name="FNanchor_1353_1353" id="FNanchor_1353_1353"></a><a href="#Footnote_1353_1353" class="fnanchor">[1353]</a> But sectarian -hatred hardly ever reached an intenser glow than that exhibited between -the Pennsylvania Quakers and Presbyterians. Meanwhile, the mild and -kindly missionary efforts of the Moravians, in the same neighborhood, were -cruelly baffled. Their aim was exactly the opposite of that which guided -the Jesuit priests. They sought first to make their converts human beings, -planters of the soil, taught in various handicrafts, and weaned from the -taste of war and blood.</p> - -<p>When the frontier war was at its wildest pitch of havoc and fury, the -Moravian settlements, which had reached a stage giving such promise of -success as to satisfy the gentle and earnest spirit of the missionaries who -had planted them, were made to bear the brunt of the rage of all the parties -engaged in the deadly turmoil. The natives timidly nestling in their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span> -settlements were regarded as an emasculated flock of nurslings, mean and -cowardly, lacking equally the manhood of the savage and the pride and -capacity of the civilized man. Worse than this, their pretended desire to -preserve a neutrality and to have no part in the broil was made the ground -of a suspicion, at once acted upon as if fully warranted, that they were -really spies, offering secret information and even covert help as guides and -prompters in the work of desolation among the scattered cabins of the -whites. So a maddened spirit of distrust, inflamed by false rumors and -direct charges of complicity, brought upon the Moravian settlers the hate -and fury of the leading parties in the conflict.<a name="FNanchor_1354_1354" id="FNanchor_1354_1354"></a><a href="#Footnote_1354_1354" class="fnanchor">[1354]</a></p> - -<p>It is noteworthy that the most furious havoc of savage warfare should have -been wreaked on the frontiers of Pennsylvania, the one of all the English -colonies in America whose boast was, and is, that there alone the entrance -of civilized men upon the domains of barbarism was marked and initiated by -the Christian policy of peace and righteousness. Penn and his representatives -claimed that they had twice paid the purchase price of the lands covered -by the proprietary charter to the Indian occupants of them,—once to -the Delawares residing upon them, and again to the Iroquois who held -them by conquest. The famous “Walking Purchase,” whether a fair or a -fraudulent transaction, was intended to follow the original policy of the -founder of the province.<a name="FNanchor_1355_1355" id="FNanchor_1355_1355"></a><a href="#Footnote_1355_1355" class="fnanchor">[1355]</a></p> - -<p>In the inroads made upon the English settlements by Frontenac and his -red allies, New York and New England furnished the victims. The middle -colonies, so far as then undertaken, escaped the fray. Trouble began for -them in 1716, when the French acted upon their resolve to occupy the -valley of the Ohio. The Ohio Land Company was formed in 1748 to -advance settlements beyond the Alleghanies, and surveys were made as -far as Louisville. This enterprise roused anew the Indians and the French. -The latter redoubled their zeal in 1753 and onward, south of Lake Erie -and on the branches of the Ohio. The English found that their delay and -dilatoriness in measures for fortifying the frontiers had given the French -an advantage which was to be recovered only with increased cost and -enterprise. In an earlier movement, had the English engaged their efforts -when it was first proposed to them, they might have lessened, at least, -their subsequent discomfiture. Governor Spotswood, of Virginia, in 1720 -had urged on the British government the erection of a chain of posts beyond -the Alleghanies, from the lakes to the Mississippi. But his urgency -had been ineffectual. The governor reported that there were then “Seven -Tributary Tribes” in Virginia, being seven hundred in number, with two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span> -hundred and fifty fighting-men, all of whom were peaceful. His only -trouble was from the Tuscaroras on the borders of Carolina.<a name="FNanchor_1356_1356" id="FNanchor_1356_1356"></a><a href="#Footnote_1356_1356" class="fnanchor">[1356]</a></p> - -<p>The erection of Fort Duquesne may be regarded as opening the decisive -struggle between the French and the English in America, which reached -its height in 1755, and centred around the imperfect chain of stockades -and blockhouses on the line of the frontiers then reached by the English -pioneers.</p> - -<p>About the middle of the eighteenth century the number of French subjects -in America, including Acadia, Canada, and Louisiana, was estimated -at about eighty thousand. The subjects of England were estimated at -about twelve hundred thousand. But, as before remarked, this vast disparity -of numbers by no means represented an equal difference in the -effectiveness of the two nationalities in the conduct of military movements. -The French were centralized in command. They had unity of purpose -and in action. In most cases they held actual defensive positions at points -which the English had to reach by difficult approaches; and more than all, -till it became evident that France was to lose the game, the French received -much the larger share of aid from the Indians. Pennsylvania and -Virginia were embarrassed in any attempt for united defensive operations -on the frontiers by their own rival claims to the Ohio Valley. The English, -however, welcomed the first signs of vacillation in the savages. When -Céloron, in 1749, had sent messengers to the Indians beyond the Alleghanies -to prepare for the measures he was about to take to secure a firm foothold -there, he reported that the natives were “devoted entirely to the -English.” This might have seemed true of the Delawares and Shawanees, -though soon afterwards these were found to be in the interest of the -French. In fact, all the tribes, except the Five Nations, may be regarded -as more or less available for French service up to the final extinction of -their power on the continent. Indeed, as we shall see, the mischievous -enmity of the natives against the English was never more vengeful than -when it was goaded on by secret French agency after France had by -treaty yielded her claims on this soil. Nor could even the presumed neutrality -of the Five Nations be relied upon by the English, as there were -reasons for believing that many among them acted as spies and conveyed -intelligence. Till after the year 1754 so effective had been the activity of -the French in planting their strongholds and winning over the savages -that there was not a single English post west of the Alleghanies.</p> - -<p>At the same critical stage of this European rivalry in military operations, -the greed for the profits of the fur trade was at its highest pitch. The -beavers, as well as the red men, should be regarded as essential parties to -the struggle between the French and the English. The latter had cut very -deep into the trade which had formerly accrued wholly to the French at -Oswego, Toronto, and Niagara.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span></p> - -<p>Up to the year 1720 there had come to be established a mercantile -usage which had proved to be very prejudicial to the English, alike in their -Indian trade and in their influence over the Indians. The French had -been allowed to import goods into New York to be used for their Indian -trade. Of course this proved a very profitable business, as it facilitated -their operations and was constantly extending over a wider reach their -friendly relations with the farther tribes. Trade with Europe and the -West Indies and Canada could be maintained only by single voyages in a -year, through the perilous navigation of the St. Lawrence. With the English -ports on the Atlantic, voyages could be made twice or thrice a year. -A few merchants in New York, having a monopoly of supplying goods to -the French in Canada, with their principals in England, had found their -business very profitable. Goods of prime value, especially “strouds,” a -kind of coarse woollen cloth highly prized by the Indians, were made in -and exported from England much more cheaply than from France. The -mischief of this method of trade being realized, an act was passed by the -Assembly in New York, in 1720, which prohibited the selling of Indian -goods to the French under severe penalties, in order to the encouragement -of trade in general, and to the extension of the influence of the English -over the Indians to counterbalance that of the French. Some merchants -in London, just referred to, petitioned the king against the ratification -of this act. By order in council the king referred the petition to the -Lords of Trade and Plantations. A hearing, with testimonies, followed, in -which those interested in the monopoly made many statements, ignorant -or false, as to the geography of the country, and the method and effects of -the advantage put into the hands of the French. But the remonstrants -failed to prevent the restricting measure. From that time New York -vastly extended its trade and intercourse with the tribes near and distant, -greatly to the injury of the French.<a name="FNanchor_1357_1357" id="FNanchor_1357_1357"></a><a href="#Footnote_1357_1357" class="fnanchor">[1357]</a></p> - -<p>The first white man’s dwelling in Ohio was that of the Moravian missionary, -Christian Frederic Post.<a name="FNanchor_1358_1358" id="FNanchor_1358_1358"></a><a href="#Footnote_1358_1358" class="fnanchor">[1358]</a> He was a sagacious and able man, and -had acquired great influence over the Indians, which he used in conciliatory -ways, winning their respect and confidence by the boldness with which he -ventured to trust himself in their villages and lodges, as if he were under -some magical protection. He went on his first journey to the Ohio in -1758, by request of the government of Pennsylvania, on a mission to the -Delawares, Shawanees, and Mingoes. These had once been friendly to the -English, but having been won over by the French, the object was to regain -their confidence. The tribes had at this time come to understand, in -a thoroughly practical way, that they were restricted to certain limited conditions -so far as they were parties to the fierce rivalry between the Europeans.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span> -The issue was no longer an open one as to their being able to -reclaim their territory for their own uses by driving off all these pale-faced -trespassers. It was for them merely to choose whether they would henceforward -have the French or the English for neighbors, and, if it must be -so, for masters. Nor were they left with freedom or power to make a deliberate -choice. But Post certainly stretched a point when he told the -Indians that the English did not wish to occupy their lands, but only to -drive off the French.</p> - -<p>As Governor Spotswood, in the interest of Virginia, had attempted, in -1716, to break the French line of occupation by promoting settlements in -the west, Governor Keith, of Pennsylvania, followed with a similar effort -in 1719. Both efforts could be only temporarily withstood, and if baffled -at one point were renewed at another. The English always showed a -tenacity in clinging to an advance once made, and were inclined to change -it only for a further advance. Though Fort Duquesne was blown up when -abandoned by the French, with the hope of rendering it useless to the -English, the post was too commanding a one to be neglected. After it -had been taken by General Forbes in November, 1758, and had been -strongly reconstructed by General Stanwix, though it was then two hundred -miles distant from the nearest settlement, the possession of it was to -a great extent the deciding fact of the advancing struggle. Colonel Armstrong -had taken the Indian town of Kittanning in 1756.</p> - -<p>The treaty negotiations between English and French diplomates at a -foreign court, in 1763, which covenanted for the surrender of all territory -east of the Mississippi and of all the fortified posts on lake and river to -Great Britain, was but a contract on paper, which was very long in finding -its full ratification among the parties alone interested in the result here. -There were still three of these parties: the Indians; the French, who were -in possession of the strongholds in the north and west; and the English -colonists, supported by what was left of the British military forces, skeleton -regiments and invalided soldiers, who were to avail themselves of their acquired -domain. During the bloody and direful war which had thus been -closed, the Indians had come to regard themselves as holding the balance -of power between the French and the English. Often did the abler savage -warriors express alike their wonder and their rage that those foreign -intruders should choose these wild regions for the trial of their fighting -powers. “Why do you not settle your fierce quarrels in your own land, -or at least upon the sea, instead of involving us and our forests in your -rivalry?” was the question to the officers and the file of the European -forces. Though the natives soon came to realize that they would be the -losers, whichever of the two foreign parties should prevail, their preferences -were doubtless on the side of the French; and by force of circumstances -easily explicable, after the English power, imperial and provincial, -had obtained the mastery of the territory, the sympathies and aid of the -natives went with the British during the rebellion of the colonies. But<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span> -before this result was reached England won its ascendency at a heavy -sacrifice of men and money, in a series of campaigns under many different -generals. The general peace between England, France, and Spain, secured -by the treaty of 1763, and involving the cession of all American territory -east of the Mississippi by France to Britain, was naturally expected to -bring a close to savage warfare against the colonists. The result was quite -the contrary, inasmuch as the sharpest and most desolating havoc was -wrought by that foe after the English were nominally left alone to meet -the encounter. The explanation of this fact was that the French, though -by covenant withdrawn from the field, were, hardly even with a pretence -of secrecy, perpetuating and even extending their influence over their -former wild allies in embarrassing and thwarting all the schemes of the -English for turning their conquests to account. General Amherst was -left in command here with only enfeebled fragments of regiments and -with slender ranks of provincials. The military duty of the hour was for -the conquerors to take formal possession of all the outposts still held by -French garrisons, announcing to those in command the absolute conditions -of the treaty, and to substitute the English for the French colors, henceforward -to wave over them. This humiliating necessity was in itself -grievous enough, as it forced upon the commanders of posts which had -not then been reached by the war in Canada, a condition against which no -remonstrance would avail. But beyond that, it furnished the occasion for -the most formidable savage conspiracy ever formed on this continent, -looking to the complete extinction of the English settlements here. The -French in those extreme western posts had been most successful in securing -the attachment of the neighboring Indian tribes, and found strong -sympathizers among them in their discomfiture. At the same time those -tribes had the most bitter hostility towards the English with whom they -had come in contact. They complained that the English treated them -with contempt and haughtiness, being niggard of their presents and sharp -in their trade. They regarded each advanced English settlement on their -lands, if only that of a solitary trader, as the germ of a permanent colony. -Under these circumstances, the French still holding the posts, waiting only -the exasperating summons to yield them up, found the temptation strong -and easy of indulgence to inflame their recent allies, and now their sympathizing -friends, among the tribes, with an imbittered rage against their new -masters. Artifice and deception were availed of to reinforce the passions -of savage breasts. The French sought to relieve the astounded consternation -of their red friends on finding that they were compelled to yield the -field to the subjects of the English monarch, by beguiling them with the -fancy that the concession was but a temporary one, very soon to be set -aside by a new turn in the wheel of fortune. Their French father had -only fallen asleep while his English enemies had been impudently trespassing -upon the lands of his red children. He would soon rouse himself to -avenge the insult, and would reclaim what he had thus lost. Indeed, on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span> -principle that the size and ornamentings of a lie involved no additional -wrong in the telling it, the Indians were informed that a French army was -even then preparing to ascend the Mississippi with full force, before which -the English would be crushed.</p> - -<p>There was then in the tribe of Ottawas, settled near Detroit, a master -spirit, who, as a man and as a chief, was the most sagacious, eloquent, bold, -and every way gifted of his race that has ever risen before the white man -on this continent to contest in the hopeless struggle of barbarism with -civilization. That Pontiac was crafty, unscrupulous, relentless, finding a -revel in havoc and carnage, might disqualify him for the noblest epithets -which the white man bestows on the virtues of a military hero. But he -had the virtues of a savage, all of them, and in their highest range of -nature and of faculty. He was a stern philosopher and moralist also, of -the type engendered by free forest life, unsophisticated and trained in the -school of the wilderness. He knew well the attractions of civilization. He -weighed and compared them, as they presented themselves before his eyes -in full contrast with savagery, in the European and in the Indian, and in -those dubious specimens of humanity in which the line of distinction was -blurred by the Indianized white man, the “Christian” convert, and the -half-breed. Deliberately and, we may say, intelligently, he preferred for his -own people the state of savagery. Intelligently, because he gave grounds -for his preference, which, from his point of view and experience, had weight -in themselves, and cannot be denied something more than plausibility even -in the judgment of civilized men, for idealists like Rousseau and the Abbé -Raynal have pleaded for them. Pontiac was older in native sagacity and -shrewdness than in years. He had evidence enough that his race had -suffered only harm from intercourse with the whites. The manners and -temptations of civilization had affected them only by demoralizing influences. -All the elements of life in the white man struck at what was -noblest in the nature of the Indian,—his virility, his self-respect, his proud -and sufficing independence, his content with his former surroundings and -range of life. With an earnest eloquence Pontiac, in the lodges and at -the council fires of his people, whether of his own immediate tribe or of -representative warriors of other tribes, set before them the demonstration -that security and happiness, if not peace, depended for them on their -renouncing all reliance upon the white man’s ways and goods, and reverting -with a stern stoicism to the former conditions of their lot. He told -his responsive listeners that the Great Spirit, in pouring the wide salt -waters between the two races of his children, meant to divide them and to -keep them forever apart, giving to each of them a country which was their -own, where they were free to live after their own method. The different -tinting of their skin indicated a variance which testified to a rooted divergence -of nature. For his red children the Great Spirit had provided the -forest, the meadow, the lake, and the river, with fish and game for food -and clothing. The canoe, the moccasin, the snow-shoe, the stone axe, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span> -hide or bark covered lodge, the fields of golden maize, the root crops, the -vines and berries, the waters of the cold crystal spring, made the inventory -of their possessions. They belonged to nature, and were of kin to all its -other creatures, which they put freely to their use, holding everything in -common. The changing moons brought round the seasons for planting -and hunting, for game, festivity, and religious rite. Their old men preserved -the sacred traditions of their race. Their braves wore the scars and -trophies of a noble manhood, and their young men were in training to be -the warriors of their tribes in defence or conquest.</p> - -<p>These, argued Pontiac, were the heritage which the Great Spirit had assigned -to his red children. The spoiler had come among them from across -the salt sea, and woe and ruin for the Indian had come with him. The -white man could scorn the children of the forest, but could not be their -friend or helper. Let the Indian be content and proud to remain an Indian. -Let him at once renounce all use of the white man’s goods and implements -and his fire-water, and fall back upon the independence of nature, -fed on the flesh and clothed with the skins secured by bow and arrow and -his skill of woodcraft.</p> - -<p>Such was the pleading of the most gifted chieftain and the wisest patriot, -the native product of the American wilderness. There was a nobleness in -him, even a grandeur and prescience of soul, which take a place now on the -list of protests that have poured from human breasts against the decrees of -fate. Pontiac followed up his bold scheme by all the arts and appliances -of forest diplomacy. He formed his cabinet, and sent out his ambassadors -with their credentials in the reddened hatchet and the war-belt. They -visited some of even the remoter tribes, with appeals conciliatory of all -minor feuds and quarrels. Their success was qualified only by the inveteracy -of existing enmities among some of these tribes. It would be difficult -to estimate, even if only approximately, the number of the savages who -were more or less directly engaged in the conspiracy of Pontiac. A noted -French trader, who had resided many years among the Indians, and who -had had an extended intercourse with the tribes, stayed at Detroit during -the siege, having taken the oath of allegiance to the king of Great Britain. -Largely from his own personal knowledge, he drew up an elaborate list of -the tribes, with the number of warriors in each. The summing up of these -is 56,500. In the usual way of allowing one to five of a whole population -for able-bodied men, this would represent the number of the savages as -about 283,000, which slightly exceeds the number of Indians now in our -national domain.<a name="FNanchor_1359_1359" id="FNanchor_1359_1359"></a><a href="#Footnote_1359_1359" class="fnanchor">[1359]</a></p> - -<p>The lake and river posts which had been yielded up by the French, on -the summons, were occupied by slender and poorly supplied English garrisons, -unwarned of the impending concentration. The scheme of Pontiac -involved two leading acts in the drama: one was the beleaguerment of all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> -the fortified lake and river garrisons; the other was an extermination by -fire and carnage of all the isolated frontier settlements at harvest time, -so as to cause general starvation. The plan was that all these assaults, -respectively assigned to bodies of the allies, should be made at the same -time, fixed by a phase of the moon. Scattered through the wilderness -were many English traders, in their cabins and with their packh-orses and -goods. These were plundered and massacred.<a name="FNanchor_1360_1360" id="FNanchor_1360_1360"></a><a href="#Footnote_1360_1360" class="fnanchor">[1360]</a> The assailed posts were -slightly reinforced by the few surviving settlers and traders who escaped -the open field slaughter. The conspiracy was so far effective as to paralyze -with dismay the occupants of the whole region which it threatened. But -pluck and endurance proved equal to the appalling conflict. Nearly all the -posts, after various alternations of experience, succumbed to the savage foe. -Such was the fate of Venango, Le Bœuf, Presqu’ Isle, La Bay, St. Joseph, -Miamis, Ouachtanon, Sandusky, and Michilimackinac. Detroit alone held -out. The fort at Niagara, being very strong, was not attacked. The -Shawanees and Delawares were active agents in this conspiracy. The -English used all their efforts and appliances to keep the Six Nations neutral. -The French near the Mississippi were active in plying and helping -the tribes within their reach. The last French flag that came down on our -territory was at Fort Chartres on the Mississippi.<a name="FNanchor_1361_1361" id="FNanchor_1361_1361"></a><a href="#Footnote_1361_1361" class="fnanchor">[1361]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/d2.jpg" width="200" height="63" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<h3 class="p2"><a name="c316" id="c316">CRITICAL ESSAY ON THE SOURCES OF INFORMATION.</a><a name="FNanchor_1362_1362" id="FNanchor_1362_1362"></a><a href="#Footnote_1362_1362" class="fnanchor"><span class="small">[1362]</span></a></h3> - -<p class="pc"><i>By Dr. Ellis and the Editor.</i></p> - -<p class="drop-cap06">ON some few historical subjects we have volumes -so felicitously constructed as to combine -all that is most desirable in original materials -with a judicious digest of them. Of such -a character is Francis Parkman’s <i>France and -England in North America, A Series of Historical -Narratives</i>. So abundant, authentic, and intelligently -gathered are his citations from and references -to the journals, letters, official reports, and -documents, often in the very words of the actors, -that, through the writer’s luminous pages, we -are, for all substantial purposes, made to read -and listen to their own narrations. Indeed, we -are even more favored than that. So comprehensive -have been his researches, and so full -and many-sided are the materials which he has -digested for us, that we have all the benefit of -an attendance on a trial in a court or a debate -in the forum, where by testimony and cross-examination -different witnesses are made to verify -or rectify their separate assertions. The official -representatives of France, military and civil, on -this continent, like their superiors and patrons -at home, were by no means all of one mind. -They had their conflicting interests to serve. -They made their reports to those to whom they -were responsible or sought to influence, and so -colored them by their selfishness or rivalry. -These communications, gathered from widely -scattered repositories, are for the first time<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span> -brought together and made to confront each -other in Mr. Parkman’s pages. Allowing for a -gap covering the first half of the eighteenth -century, which is yet to be filled, Mr. Parkman’s -series of volumes deals with the whole period of -the enterprise of France in the new world to its -cession of all territory east of the Mississippi to -Great Britain. His marvellously faithful and -skilful reproduction of the scenic features of the -continent, in its wild state, bears a fit relation -to his elaborate study of its red denizens. His -wide and arduous exploration in the tracks of -the first pioneers, and his easy social relations -with the modern representatives of the aboriginal -stock, put him back into the scenes and -companionship of those whose schemes and -achievements he was to trace historically. After -identifying localities and lines of exploration -here, he followed up in foreign archives the missives -written in these forests, and the official -and confidential communications of the military -and civic functionaries of France, revealing the -joint or conflicting schemes and jealousies of -intrigue or selfishness of priests, traders, monopolists, -and adventurers. The panorama that -is unrolled and spread before us is full and -complete, lacking nothing of reality in nature -or humanity, in color, variety, or action. The -volumes rehearse in a continuous narrative the -course of French enterprise here, the motives, -immediate and ultimate, which were had in view, -the progress in realizing them, the obstacles and -resistance encountered, and the tragic failure.<a name="FNanchor_1363_1363" id="FNanchor_1363_1363"></a><a href="#Footnote_1363_1363" class="fnanchor">[1363]</a></p> - -<p>The references in Parkman show that he -depends more upon French than upon English -sources, and indeed he seems to give the chief -credit for his drawing of the early Indian life -and character to the <i>Relations</i> of the French -and Italian Jesuits,<a name="FNanchor_1364_1364" id="FNanchor_1364_1364"></a><a href="#Footnote_1364_1364" class="fnanchor">[1364]</a> during their missionary -work in New France.</p> - -<p>We must class with these records of the -Jesuits, though not equalling them in value, -the volumes of Champlain, Sagard, Creuxius, -Boucher,<a name="FNanchor_1365_1365" id="FNanchor_1365_1365"></a><a href="#Footnote_1365_1365" class="fnanchor">[1365]</a> and the later Lafitau and Charlevoix. -Parkman<a name="FNanchor_1366_1366" id="FNanchor_1366_1366"></a><a href="#Footnote_1366_1366" class="fnanchor">[1366]</a> tells us that no other of these early -books is so satisfactory as Lafitau’s <i>Mœurs des -Sauvages</i> (1724); and Charlevoix gave similar -testimony regarding his predecessor.<a name="FNanchor_1367_1367" id="FNanchor_1367_1367"></a><a href="#Footnote_1367_1367" class="fnanchor">[1367]</a> For -original material on the French side we have -nothing to surpass in interest the <i>Mémoires et -documents</i>, published by Pierre Margry, of -which an account has been given elsewhere,<a name="FNanchor_1368_1368" id="FNanchor_1368_1368"></a><a href="#Footnote_1368_1368" class="fnanchor">[1368]</a> as -well as of the efforts of Parkman and others in -advancing their publication.<a name="FNanchor_1369_1369" id="FNanchor_1369_1369"></a><a href="#Footnote_1369_1369" class="fnanchor">[1369]</a> There is but little -matter in these volumes relating to the military -operations which make the subject of this chapter, -though jealousy and rivalry of the schemes -of the English, and the necessity of efforts to -thwart them in their attempts to gain influence -and to open trade with the Indians, are constantly -recognized. In the diplomatic and military -movements which opened on this continent -the Seven Years’ War, the English, who had substantially -secured the alliance of the Iroquois, -or the Six Nations, insisted that they had obtained -by treaties with them the territory between -the Alleghanies and the Ohio, which the -Six Nations on their part claimed to have gained -by conquest and cession of the tribes that had -previously occupied it. But when the English -vindicated their entrance on the territory on the -basis of these treaties with the Six Nations, the -Shawanees and the Delawares, having recuperated -their courage and vigor, denied this right -by conquest. The French could not claim a -right either by conquest or by cession. Their -assumed occupancy and tenure through mission -stations and strongholds were maintained simply -and wholly on grounds of discovery and exploration. -Margry’s volumes furnish the abundant -and all-sufficient evidence of the priority of the -French in this enterprise. The official documents -interchanged with the authorities at home -are all engaged with advice and promptings and -measures for making good the claim to dominion -founded on discovery. These volumes also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span> -are of the highest value as presenting to us from -the first explorers, every way intelligent and -competent as observers and reporters, the scenes -and tenants of the interior of the continent. -Here we have the wilderness, its primeval forests, -its sea-like lakes, its threading rivers, -shrunken or swollen, its cataracts and its confluent -streams, its marshy expanses, bluffs, and -plains, and its resources, abundant or scant, for -sustaining life of beasts or men, all touched in -feature or full portrayal by the charming skill of -those to whom the sight was novel and bewildering.<a name="FNanchor_1370_1370" id="FNanchor_1370_1370"></a><a href="#Footnote_1370_1370" class="fnanchor">[1370]</a> -These French explorers will henceforth -serve for all time as primary authorities on the -features and resources of the interior of this -continent just before it became the prize in contest -between rival European nationalities. That -contest undoubtedly had more to do in deciding -the fate of the savage tribes from that time to -our own. There are many reasons for believing -that if the French had been able to hold alone -an undisputed dominion in the interior of the -continent, their relations with the Indian tribes, -if not wholly pacific, would have been far more -amicable than those which followed upon the -hot rivalry with the English for the possession -of their territories. The French were the wiser, -the more tolerant and friendly of the two, in -their intercourse with and treatment of the savages, -with whom they found it so easy to affiliate. -Under other circumstances the Indians might -have come to hold the relation of <i>wards</i> to the -French in a sense far more applicable than that -in which the term has been used by the government -of the United States.</p> - -<p>Of the early English material there is no -dearth, but it hardly has the same stamp of -authority. The story of the Moravian and other -missions on the Protestant and English side has -less of such invariable devotedness and success -than is recorded in the general summaries of the -Jesuit and Recollet missions, like Shea’s <i>History -of the Catholic Missions</i>, 1529-1854 (N. Y., 1855).<a name="FNanchor_1371_1371" id="FNanchor_1371_1371"></a><a href="#Footnote_1371_1371" class="fnanchor">[1371]</a> -The <i>Indian Nations</i> of Heckewelder,<a name="FNanchor_1372_1372" id="FNanchor_1372_1372"></a><a href="#Footnote_1372_1372" class="fnanchor">[1372]</a> the service -of the United Brethren, and the labors instituted -by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel,<a name="FNanchor_1373_1373" id="FNanchor_1373_1373"></a><a href="#Footnote_1373_1373" class="fnanchor">[1373]</a> -are records not without significance; but -they yield to the superior efficacy of the French.<a name="FNanchor_1374_1374" id="FNanchor_1374_1374"></a><a href="#Footnote_1374_1374" class="fnanchor">[1374]</a> -Among the English administrative officers, the -lead must doubtless be given to Sir William -Johnson, for his personal influence over the Indian -mind, winning their full confidence by fair -and generous treatment of them, by a free hospitality, -by assimilating with their habits even in -his array, and by mastering their language. His -deputy, Col. George Croghan, as interpreter and -messenger, was kept busily employed in constant -tramps through the woods, and in fearless -errands to parties of vacillating or hostile tribes, -to hold or win them to the English interest. -The principal and the deputy, in this hazardous -diplomacy, were specially qualified for their office -by having mastered the gift and qualities -of Indian oratory, by a familiarity with Indian -character in its strength and weakness, and by -endeavoring to keep faith with them, and to -imitate the adroit methods of the French rather -than the contemptuous hauteur of most of the -English in intercourse with them.<a name="FNanchor_1375_1375" id="FNanchor_1375_1375"></a><a href="#Footnote_1375_1375" class="fnanchor">[1375]</a></p> - -<p>The reader will naturally go to the biographies -of Johnson, Washington, and the other -military leaders of their time, to those of a few -civilians, like Franklin, and to the general histories -of the French and Indian wars and of -their separate campaigns, for much light upon -the Indian in war; and these materials have -been sufficiently explored in another volume of -the present History.<a name="FNanchor_1376_1376" id="FNanchor_1376_1376"></a><a href="#Footnote_1376_1376" class="fnanchor">[1376]</a> These more general accounts -are easily supplemented in the narratives -of adventures and sufferings by a large -class of persons who fell captive to the Indians, -and lived to tell their tales.<a name="FNanchor_1377_1377" id="FNanchor_1377_1377"></a><a href="#Footnote_1377_1377" class="fnanchor">[1377]</a></p> - -<p>The earlier travellers, like P. E. Radisson,<a name="FNanchor_1378_1378" id="FNanchor_1378_1378"></a><a href="#Footnote_1378_1378" class="fnanchor">[1378]</a> -Richard Falconer,<a name="FNanchor_1379_1379" id="FNanchor_1379_1379"></a><a href="#Footnote_1379_1379" class="fnanchor">[1379]</a> Le Beau,<a name="FNanchor_1380_1380" id="FNanchor_1380_1380"></a><a href="#Footnote_1380_1380" class="fnanchor">[1380]</a> and Jonathan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span> -Carver,<a name="FNanchor_1381_1381" id="FNanchor_1381_1381"></a><a href="#Footnote_1381_1381" class="fnanchor">[1381]</a> not to name others; the later ones, like -Prinz Maximilian;<a name="FNanchor_1382_1382" id="FNanchor_1382_1382"></a><a href="#Footnote_1382_1382" class="fnanchor">[1382]</a> the experiences of various -army officers on the frontiers, like Randolph B. -Marcy<a name="FNanchor_1383_1383" id="FNanchor_1383_1383"></a><a href="#Footnote_1383_1383" class="fnanchor">[1383]</a> and J. B. Fry,<a name="FNanchor_1384_1384" id="FNanchor_1384_1384"></a><a href="#Footnote_1384_1384" class="fnanchor">[1384]</a>—all such books fill in -the picture in some of its details.</p> - -<p>The early life in the Ohio Valley was particularly -conducive to such auxiliary helps in -this study, and we owe more of this kind of -illustration to Joseph Doddridge<a name="FNanchor_1385_1385" id="FNanchor_1385_1385"></a><a href="#Footnote_1385_1385" class="fnanchor">[1385]</a> than to any -other. He was a physician and a missionary of -the Protestant Episcopal Church, and in both -his professions a man highly esteemed. He was -born in Maryland in 1769, and in his fourth year -removed with his family to the western border -of the line between Pennsylvania and Virginia. -With abundant opportunities in his youth of -familiarity with the rudest experiences of frontier -life near hostile Indians, he was a keen observer, -a skilful narrator, and a diligent gatherer-up -of historical and traditional lore from the -hardy and well-scarred pioneers. He had received -a good academic and medical education, -and was a keen student of nature as well as of -humanity. His pages give us most vivid pictures -of life under the stern and perilous conditions; -not, however, without their fascinations, -of forest haunts, of rude and scattered cabins, of -domestic and social relations, of the resources -of the heroic whites, and of the qualities of Indian -warfare in the desperate struggle with the -invaders.<a name="FNanchor_1386_1386" id="FNanchor_1386_1386"></a><a href="#Footnote_1386_1386" class="fnanchor">[1386]</a></p> - -<p>Another early writer in this field was Dr. S. P. -Hildreth of Ohio, who published his <i>Pioneer -History</i> (Cincinnati, 1848) while some of the -pioneers of the Northwest were still living, and -the papers of some of them, like Col. George -Morgan, could be put to service.<a name="FNanchor_1387_1387" id="FNanchor_1387_1387"></a><a href="#Footnote_1387_1387" class="fnanchor">[1387]</a> Dr. Hildreth, -in his <i>Biographical and Historical Memoirs of -the early Pioneer Settlers of Ohio</i> (Cincinnati, -1852), included a Memoir of Isaac Williams, -who at the age of eighteen began a course of -service and adventure in the Indian country, -which was continued till its close at the age of -eighty-four. When eighteen years of age he -was employed by the government of Pennsylvania, -being already a trained hunter, as a spy and -ranger among the Indians. He served in this -capacity in Braddock’s campaign, and was a -guard for the first convoy of provisions, on pack-horses, -to Fort Duquesne, after its surrender to -General Forbes in 1758. He was one of the -first settlers on the Muskingum, after the peace -made there with the Indians, in 1765, by Bouquet. -His subsequent life was one of daring -and heroic adventure on the frontiers.<a name="FNanchor_1388_1388" id="FNanchor_1388_1388"></a><a href="#Footnote_1388_1388" class="fnanchor">[1388]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">Passing to the more general works, the earliest -treatment of the North American Indians, -of more than local scope, was the work of -James Adair, first published in 1775, a section -of whose map, showing the position of the Indian -tribes within the present United States at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> -that time, is given elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_1389_1389" id="FNanchor_1389_1389"></a><a href="#Footnote_1389_1389" class="fnanchor">[1389]</a> This <i>History of -the American Indians</i> was later included by -Kingsborough in <i>Antiquities of Mexico</i> (vol. viii. -London, 1848).<a name="FNanchor_1390_1390" id="FNanchor_1390_1390"></a><a href="#Footnote_1390_1390" class="fnanchor">[1390]</a> At just about the same time -(1777), Dr. Robertson, in his <i>America</i> (book -iv.), gave a general survey, which probably represents -the level of the best European knowledge -at that time.</p> - -<p>It was not till well into the present century -that much effort was made to summarize the -scattered knowledge of explorers like Lewis and -Clarke and of venturesome travellers. In 1819, -we find where we might not expect it about as -good an attempt to make a survey of the subject -as was then attainable, in Ezekiel Sanford’s -<i>History of the United States before the Revolution</i>,—a -book, however, which was pretty roundly -condemned for its general inaccuracy by Nathan -Hale in the <i>North American Review</i>. The next -year the Rev. Jedediah Morse made <i>A report to -the secretary of war, on Indian affairs, comprising -a narrative of a tour in 1820, for ascertaining -the actual state of the Indian tribes in our -country</i> (New Haven, 1822), which is about the -beginning of systematized knowledge, though -the subject in its scientific aspects was too new -for well-studied proportions. The <i>Report</i>, however, -attracted attention and instigated other -students. De Tocqueville, in 1835, took the Indian -problem within his range.<a name="FNanchor_1391_1391" id="FNanchor_1391_1391"></a><a href="#Footnote_1391_1391" class="fnanchor">[1391]</a> Albert Gallatin -printed, the next year, in the second volume -of the <i>Archæologia Americana</i> (Cambridge, 1836), -his <i>Synopsis of the Indian Tribes within the -United States east of the Rocky Mountains</i>; and -though his main purpose was to explain the linguistic -differences, his introduction is still a valuable -summary of the knowledge then existing.</p> - -<p>There were at this time two well-directed -efforts in progress to catch the features and life -of the Indians as preserving their aboriginal -traits. Between 1838 and 1844 Thomas L. McKenney -and James Hall published at Philadelphia, -in three volumes folio, their <i>History of the -Indian tribes of North America, with biographical -sketches of the principal chiefs. With 120 portrs. -from the Indian gallery of the Department of war, -at Washington</i>;<a name="FNanchor_1392_1392" id="FNanchor_1392_1392"></a><a href="#Footnote_1392_1392" class="fnanchor">[1392]</a> and in 1841 the public first got -the fruits of George Catlin’s wanderings among -the Indians of the Northwest, in his <i>Letters and -notes on the manners, customs and condition of the -North American Indians, written during eight -years’ travel among the wildest tribes of Indians -in North America, in 1832-39</i> (N. Y., 1841), in -two volumes. The book went through various -editions in this country and in London.<a name="FNanchor_1393_1393" id="FNanchor_1393_1393"></a><a href="#Footnote_1393_1393" class="fnanchor">[1393]</a> It -was but the forerunner of various other books -illustrative of his experience among the tribes; -but it remains the most important.<a name="FNanchor_1394_1394" id="FNanchor_1394_1394"></a><a href="#Footnote_1394_1394" class="fnanchor">[1394]</a> The sufficient -summary of all that Catlin did to elucidate -the Indian character and life will be found in -Thomas Donaldson’s <i>George Catlin’s Indian -Gallery in the U. S. Nat. Museum, with memoirs -and statistics</i>, being part v. of the <i>Smithsonian -Report</i> for 1885.<a name="FNanchor_1395_1395" id="FNanchor_1395_1395"></a><a href="#Footnote_1395_1395" class="fnanchor">[1395]</a></p> - -<p>The great work of Schoolcraft has been elsewhere -described in the present volume.<a name="FNanchor_1396_1396" id="FNanchor_1396_1396"></a><a href="#Footnote_1396_1396" class="fnanchor">[1396]</a></p> - -<p>The agencies for acquiring and disseminating -knowledge respecting the condition, past and -present, of the red race have been and are much -the same as those which improve the study of -the archæological aspects of their history: such -publications as the <i>Transactions of the American -Ethnological Society</i> (1845-1848); the <i>Reports</i> -of the governmental geological surveys, -and those upon trans-continental railway routes; -those upon national boundaries; those of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span> -Smithsonian Institution, with its larger <i>Contribution</i>s, -and of late years the <i>Reports of the -Bureau of Ethnology</i>; the reports of such institutions -as the Peabody Museum of Archæology; -and those of the Indian agents of the Federal -government, of chief importance among which -is Miss Alice C. Fletcher’s <i>Indian Education -and Civilization</i>, published by the Bureau of -Education (Washington, 1888). To these must -be added the great mass of current periodical -literature reached through <i>Poole’s Index</i>, and -the action and papers of the government, not -always easily discoverable, through Poore’s <i>Descriptive -Catalogue</i>.</p> - -<p>The maps of the seventeenth and eighteenth -centuries are, in addition to the reports of traders, -missionaries, and adventurers, the means which -we have of placing the territories of the many -Indian tribes which, since the contact of Europeans, -have been found in North America; but -the abiding-places of the tribes have been far -from permanent. Many of these early maps are -given in other volumes of the present History.<a name="FNanchor_1397_1397" id="FNanchor_1397_1397"></a><a href="#Footnote_1397_1397" class="fnanchor">[1397]</a> -Geographers like Hutchins and military men -like Bouquet found it incumbent on them to -study this question.<a name="FNanchor_1398_1398" id="FNanchor_1398_1398"></a><a href="#Footnote_1398_1398" class="fnanchor">[1398]</a> Benjamin Smith Barton -surveyed the field in 1797; but the earliest of -special map seems to have been that compiled -by Albert Gallatin, who endeavored to place the -tribes of the Atlantic slope as they were in 1600, -and those beyond the Alleghanies as they were -in 1800. The map in the <i>American Gazetteer</i> -(London, 1762) gives some information,<a name="FNanchor_1399_1399" id="FNanchor_1399_1399"></a><a href="#Footnote_1399_1399" class="fnanchor">[1399]</a> and that -of Adair in 1775 is reproduced elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_1400_1400" id="FNanchor_1400_1400"></a><a href="#Footnote_1400_1400" class="fnanchor">[1400]</a> In -1833, Catlin endeavored to give a geographical -position to all the tribes in the United States on -a map, given in his great work and reproduced in -the <i>Smithsonian Report</i>, part v. (1885). In 1840 -compiled maps were given on a small scale in -George Bancroft’s third volume of his <i>United -States</i>, and another in Marryat’s <i>Travels</i>, vol. ii. -The government has from time to time published -maps showing the Indian occupation of territory, -and the present reservations are shown on maps -in Donaldson’s <i>Public Domain</i> and in the <i>Smithsonian -Report</i>, part v. (1885).<a name="FNanchor_1401_1401" id="FNanchor_1401_1401"></a><a href="#Footnote_1401_1401" class="fnanchor">[1401]</a></p> - -<p>The migrations and characteristics of the Eskimos -have already been discussed,<a name="FNanchor_1402_1402" id="FNanchor_1402_1402"></a><a href="#Footnote_1402_1402" class="fnanchor">[1402]</a> and the -journals of the Arctic explorers will yield light -upon their later conditions. We find those of -the Hudson Bay region depicted in all the books -relating to the life of the Company’s factors.<a name="FNanchor_1403_1403" id="FNanchor_1403_1403"></a><a href="#Footnote_1403_1403" class="fnanchor">[1403]</a> -The Beothuks of Newfoundland, which are -thought to have become extinct in 1828,<a name="FNanchor_1404_1404" id="FNanchor_1404_1404"></a><a href="#Footnote_1404_1404" class="fnanchor">[1404]</a> are -described in Hatton and Harvey’s <i>Newfoundland</i>; -by T. G. B. Lloyd in the <i>Journal of the -Anthropological Institute</i> (London), 1874, p. 21; -1875, p. 222; by A. S. Gatschet in the <i>American -Philosophical Society’s Transactions</i> (Philad., -1885-86, vols. xxii. xxiii.); and in the <i>Nineteenth -Century</i>, Dec., 1888. Leclercq in his <i>Nouvelle -Relation de la Gaspésie</i> (Paris, 1691) gives us an -account of the natives on the western side of the -gulf.<a name="FNanchor_1405_1405" id="FNanchor_1405_1405"></a><a href="#Footnote_1405_1405" class="fnanchor">[1405]</a></p> - -<p>The Micmacs of Nova Scotia are considered -in Lescarbot and the later histories and in the -documentary collections of that colony; and as -they played a part in the French wars, the range -of that military history covers some material -concerning them.<a name="FNanchor_1406_1406" id="FNanchor_1406_1406"></a><a href="#Footnote_1406_1406" class="fnanchor">[1406]</a></p> - -<p>For the aborigines of Canada, we easily revert -to the older writers, like Champlain, Sagard, -Creuxius, Boucher, Leclercq, Lafitau; the <i>Voyage -curieux et nouveau parmi les sauvages</i> of Le Beau -(Amsterdam, 1738); the <i>Nouvelle France</i> of -Charlevoix; the <i>Histoire de l’Amérique Septentrionale</i> -(Paris, 1753) of Bacqueville de la -Potherie;<a name="FNanchor_1407_1407" id="FNanchor_1407_1407"></a><a href="#Footnote_1407_1407" class="fnanchor">[1407]</a> and to the later historians, like Fernald<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> -(ch. 7, 8), Garneau (2d book), and Warburton’s -<i>Conquest of Canada</i> (ch. 6, 7, 8). The -Abenaki, which lay between the northeastern -settlements of the English and the French, are -specially treated by Bacqueville (vol. iv.), in the -<i>Maine Hist. Soc. Collection</i>s, vol. vi., and in Maurault’s -<i>Histoire des Abenakis</i> (1866).<a name="FNanchor_1408_1408" id="FNanchor_1408_1408"></a><a href="#Footnote_1408_1408" class="fnanchor">[1408]</a></p> - -<p>The rich descriptive literature of the early -days of New England gives us much help in understanding -the aboriginal life. We begin with -John Smith, and come down through a long -series of writers like Governor Bradford and -Edward Winslow for Plymouth; Gorges, Morton, -Winthrop, Higginson, Dudley, Johnson, -Wood, Lechford, and Roger Williams for other -parts. These are all characterized in another -place.<a name="FNanchor_1409_1409" id="FNanchor_1409_1409"></a><a href="#Footnote_1409_1409" class="fnanchor">[1409]</a> The authorities on the early wars with -the Pequots and with Philip, the accounts of -Daniel Gookin, who knew them so well,<a name="FNanchor_1410_1410" id="FNanchor_1410_1410"></a><a href="#Footnote_1410_1410" class="fnanchor">[1410]</a> and -chance visits like those of Rawson and Danforth,<a name="FNanchor_1411_1411" id="FNanchor_1411_1411"></a><a href="#Footnote_1411_1411" class="fnanchor">[1411]</a> -furnish the concomitants needful to the -recital. The story of the labors of Eliot, Mayhew, -and others in urging the conversion of the -natives is based upon another large range of -material, in which much that is merely exhortative -does not wholly conceal the material for the -historian.<a name="FNanchor_1412_1412" id="FNanchor_1412_1412"></a><a href="#Footnote_1412_1412" class="fnanchor">[1412]</a> Here too the chief actors in this -work help us in their records. We have letters -of Eliot, and we have the tracts which he was -instrumental in publishing.<a name="FNanchor_1413_1413" id="FNanchor_1413_1413"></a><a href="#Footnote_1413_1413" class="fnanchor">[1413]</a> There is also a letter -of Increase Mather to Leusden on the Indian -missions (1688).<a name="FNanchor_1414_1414" id="FNanchor_1414_1414"></a><a href="#Footnote_1414_1414" class="fnanchor">[1414]</a> Gookin tells us of the sufferings -of the Christian Indians during the war of -1675,<a name="FNanchor_1415_1415" id="FNanchor_1415_1415"></a><a href="#Footnote_1415_1415" class="fnanchor">[1415]</a> and he gives also reports of the speeches -of the Indian converts.<a name="FNanchor_1416_1416" id="FNanchor_1416_1416"></a><a href="#Footnote_1416_1416" class="fnanchor">[1416]</a> The Mayhews of Martha’s -Vineyard, Thomas, Matthew, and Experience, -have left us records equally useful.<a name="FNanchor_1417_1417" id="FNanchor_1417_1417"></a><a href="#Footnote_1417_1417" class="fnanchor">[1417]</a></p> - -<p>The principal student of the literature, mainly -religious, produced in the tongue of the natives, -has been Dr. James Hammond Trumbull, of -Hartford, and he has given us the leading accounts -of its creation and influence.<a name="FNanchor_1418_1418" id="FNanchor_1418_1418"></a><a href="#Footnote_1418_1418" class="fnanchor">[1418]</a> It was -this propagandist movement that led Eleazer -Wheelock into establishing (1754) an Indian -Charity School at Lebanon, Connecticut, which -finally removed to Hanover, in New Hampshire, -and became (1769) Dartmouth College.<a name="FNanchor_1419_1419" id="FNanchor_1419_1419"></a><a href="#Footnote_1419_1419" class="fnanchor">[1419]</a></p> - -<p>The New England tribes have produced a -considerable local illustrative literature. The -Kennebecs and Penobscots in Maine are noticed -in the histories of that State, and in many -of the local monographs.<a name="FNanchor_1420_1420" id="FNanchor_1420_1420"></a><a href="#Footnote_1420_1420" class="fnanchor">[1420]</a> For New Hampshire, -beside the state histories,<a name="FNanchor_1421_1421" id="FNanchor_1421_1421"></a><a href="#Footnote_1421_1421" class="fnanchor">[1421]</a> the Pemigewassets -are described in Wm. Little’s <i>Warren</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span> -(Concord, 1854), and the Pemicooks in the -<i>N. H. Hist. Collections</i>, i.; Bouton’s <i>Concord</i>, -Moore’s <i>Concord</i>, and Potter’s <i>Manchester</i>.</p> - -<p>The Archives of Massachusetts yield a large -amount of material respecting the relations of -the tribes to the government, particularly at the -eastward, while Maine was a part of the colony;<a name="FNanchor_1422_1422" id="FNanchor_1422_1422"></a><a href="#Footnote_1422_1422" class="fnanchor">[1422]</a> -and the large mass of its local histories, -as well as those of the State,<a name="FNanchor_1423_1423" id="FNanchor_1423_1423"></a><a href="#Footnote_1423_1423" class="fnanchor">[1423]</a> supply even better -than the other New England States material -for the historian.<a name="FNanchor_1424_1424" id="FNanchor_1424_1424"></a><a href="#Footnote_1424_1424" class="fnanchor">[1424]</a></p> - -<p>The Indians of Rhode Island are noted by -Arnold in his <i>Rhode Island</i> (ch. 3), and some -special treatment is given to the Narragansetts -and the Nyantics.<a name="FNanchor_1425_1425" id="FNanchor_1425_1425"></a><a href="#Footnote_1425_1425" class="fnanchor">[1425]</a> Those of Connecticut have -a monographic record in De Forest’s <i>Indians of -Connecticut</i>, as well as treatment otherwise.<a name="FNanchor_1426_1426" id="FNanchor_1426_1426"></a><a href="#Footnote_1426_1426" class="fnanchor">[1426]</a></p> - -<p>Palfrey (<i>Hist. New England</i>, i. ch. 1, 2), in his -general survey of the Indians of New England, -delineates their character with much plainness -and discrimination, and it is perhaps as true a -piece of characterization as any we have.<a name="FNanchor_1427_1427" id="FNanchor_1427_1427"></a><a href="#Footnote_1427_1427" class="fnanchor">[1427]</a></p> - -<p>The Iroquois of New York have probably -been the subject of a more sustained historical -treatment than any other tribes. We have the -advantage, in studying them, of the observations -of the Dutch,<a name="FNanchor_1428_1428" id="FNanchor_1428_1428"></a><a href="#Footnote_1428_1428" class="fnanchor">[1428]</a> as well as of the French and English. -The French priests give us the earliest accounts, -particularly the relations of Jogues and -Milet.<a name="FNanchor_1429_1429" id="FNanchor_1429_1429"></a><a href="#Footnote_1429_1429" class="fnanchor">[1429]</a></p> - -<p>The story of the French missions in New -York is told elsewhere;<a name="FNanchor_1430_1430" id="FNanchor_1430_1430"></a><a href="#Footnote_1430_1430" class="fnanchor">[1430]</a> those of the Protestant -English yield us less.<a name="FNanchor_1431_1431" id="FNanchor_1431_1431"></a><a href="#Footnote_1431_1431" class="fnanchor">[1431]</a></p> - -<p>We have another source in the local histories -of New York.<a name="FNanchor_1432_1432" id="FNanchor_1432_1432"></a><a href="#Footnote_1432_1432" class="fnanchor">[1432]</a> The earliest of the general -histories of the Iroquois is that of Cadwallader<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span> -Colden, and the best edition is <i>The history of the -five Indian nations depending on the province of -New-York. Reprinted exactly from Bradford’s -New York edition, 1727; with an introduction -and notes by J. G. Shea</i> (New York, 1866).<a name="FNanchor_1433_1433" id="FNanchor_1433_1433"></a><a href="#Footnote_1433_1433" class="fnanchor">[1433]</a> The -London reprints of 1747, and later, unfortunately -added to the title <i>Five Indian Nations</i> [<i>of -Canada</i>] the words in brackets. This was the -very point denied by the English, who claimed -that the French had no territorial rights south -of the lakes. Otherwise his title conveys two -significant facts: first, that the English had -come to regard the Five Nations as their “dependants”; -and second, that these Indians actually -were a barrier between them and the -French. There was something farcical in the -formula used by Sir Wm. Johnson in a letter -to the ministry: “The combined tribes have -taken arms against his Britannic Majesty.” The -Mohawks had been induced to ask that the -Duke of York’s arms should be attached to -their castles. This had been assented to, and -allowed as a security against the inroads of the -French—a sort of talismanic charm which might -be respected by European usage. But those -ducal bearings did not have their full meaning -to the Iroquois as binding their own allegiance, -nor were the Six Nations ever the gainers by -being thus constructively protected.</p> - -<p>Colden was born in Scotland in 1688, and -died on Long Island in 1776. He was a physician, -botanist, scholar, and literary man, able -and well qualified in each pursuit. The greater -part of his long life was spent in this country. -As councillor, lieutenant-governor, and acting -governor, he was in the administration of New -York from 1720 till near his death. He was a -most inquisitive and intelligent investigator and -observer of Indian history and character. In -dedicating his work to General Oglethorpe, he -claims to have been prompted to it by his interest -in the welfare of the Five Nations. He is -frank and positive in expressing his judgment -that they had been degraded and demoralized -by their intercourse with the whites. He says -that he wrote the former part of his history in -New York, in 1727, to thwart the manœuvres -of the French in their efforts to monopolize -the western fur trade. They had been allowed -to import woollen goods for the Indian traffic -through New York. Governor Burnet advised -that a stop be put to this abuse. The New -York legislature furthered his advice, and built -a fort at Oswego for three hundred traders. -When the Duke of York was represented here -by Governor Dongan, and “Popish interests” -were allowed sway,—there being at the time a -mean pretence of amity between England and -France,—the interests of the former were sacrificed -to those of the latter. This, of course, had -a bad influence on the Five Nations, as leading -them to regard the French as masters. The -whole of the first part of Colden’s History deals -with the Iroquois as merely the centre of the -rivalry between the French and the English -with their respective savage allies. The English -had the advantage at the start, because -from the earliest period when Champlain made -a hostile incursion into the country of the Iroquois, -attended by their Huron enemies, the relations -of enmity were decided upon, and afterwards -were constantly imbittered by a series of -invasions. The French sought to undo their -own influence of this sort when it became necessary -for them to try to win over the Iroquois to -their own interest in the fur traffic. The Confederacy -which existed among the Five, and -afterwards the Six, Nations was roughly tried -when there was so sharp a bidding for alliances -between one or another of the tribes by their -European tempters. An incidental and very -embarrassing element came in to complicate the -relations of the parties, English, French, and Indians, -on the grounds of the claim advanced by -the English to hold the region beyond the Alleghanies -by cession from the Iroquois in a council -in 1726. The question was whether the Iroquois -had previous to that time obtained tenable -possession of the Ohio region, by conquest of -the former occupants. It would appear that -after that conquest that region was for a time -well-nigh deserted. When it was to some extent -reoccupied, the subsequent hunters and tenants -of it denied the sovereignty of the Iroquois -and the rights of the English intruders who relied -upon the old treaty of cession.</p> - -<p>The rival French history while Colden was in -vogue was the third volume of Bacqueville de -la Potherie’s <i>Hist. de l’Amérique Septentrionale</i> -(Paris, 1753); and another contemporary English -view appeared in Wm. Smith’s <i>Hist. of the -Province of New York</i> (1757).<a name="FNanchor_1434_1434" id="FNanchor_1434_1434"></a><a href="#Footnote_1434_1434" class="fnanchor">[1434]</a> Nothing appeared -after this of much moment as a general -account of the Six Nations till Henry R. Schoolcraft -made his <i>Report</i> to the New York authorities -in 1845, which was published in a more -popular form in his <i>Notes on the Iroquois, or -Contributions to American history, antiquities,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span> -and general ethnology</i> (Albany, 1847), a book not -valued overmuch.<a name="FNanchor_1435_1435" id="FNanchor_1435_1435"></a><a href="#Footnote_1435_1435" class="fnanchor">[1435]</a></p> - -<p>Better work was done by J. V. H. Clark in -what is in effect a good history of the Confederacy, -in his <i>Onondaga</i> (Syracuse, 1849). The -series of biographies by W. L. Stone, of Sir -William Johnson, Brant, and Red Jacket, form -a continuous history for a century (1735-1838).<a name="FNanchor_1436_1436" id="FNanchor_1436_1436"></a><a href="#Footnote_1436_1436" class="fnanchor">[1436]</a> -The most carefully studied work of all has been -that of Lewis H. Morgan in his <i>League of the -Iroquois</i> (1851), a book of which Parkman says -(<i>Jesuits</i>, p. liv) that it commands a place far in -advance of all others, and he adds, “Though -often differing widely from Mr. Morgan’s conclusions, -I cannot bear too emphatic testimony to the -value of his researches.”<a name="FNanchor_1437_1437" id="FNanchor_1437_1437"></a><a href="#Footnote_1437_1437" class="fnanchor">[1437]</a> The latest scholarly -treatment of the Iroquois history is by Horatio -Hale in the introduction to <i>The Iroquois Book of -Rites</i> (Philad., 1883), which gives the forms of -commemoration on the death of a chief and upon -the choice of a successor.<a name="FNanchor_1438_1438" id="FNanchor_1438_1438"></a><a href="#Footnote_1438_1438" class="fnanchor">[1438]</a></p> - -<p>Moving south, the material grows somewhat -scant. There is little distinctive about the New -Jersey tribes.<a name="FNanchor_1439_1439" id="FNanchor_1439_1439"></a><a href="#Footnote_1439_1439" class="fnanchor">[1439]</a> For the Delawares and the -Lenni Lenape, the main source is the native -bark record, which as Walam-Olum was given -by Squier in his <i>Historical and Mythological -Traditions of the Algonquins</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1440_1440" id="FNanchor_1440_1440"></a><a href="#Footnote_1440_1440" class="fnanchor">[1440]</a> as translated by -Rafinesque,<a name="FNanchor_1441_1441" id="FNanchor_1441_1441"></a><a href="#Footnote_1441_1441" class="fnanchor">[1441]</a> while a new translation is given in -D. G. Brinton’s <i>Lenâpé and their legends; with -the complete text and symbols of the Walam Olum, -a new translation, and an inquiry into its authenticity</i> -(Philadelphia, 1885), making a volume of -his <i>Library of aboriginal American literature</i>; -and the book is in effect a series of ethnological -studies on the Indians of Pennsylvania, New -Jersey, and Maryland.<a name="FNanchor_1442_1442" id="FNanchor_1442_1442"></a><a href="#Footnote_1442_1442" class="fnanchor">[1442]</a></p> - -<p>In addition to some of the early tracts<a name="FNanchor_1443_1443" id="FNanchor_1443_1443"></a><a href="#Footnote_1443_1443" class="fnanchor">[1443]</a> on -Maryland<a name="FNanchor_1444_1444" id="FNanchor_1444_1444"></a><a href="#Footnote_1444_1444" class="fnanchor">[1444]</a> and Virginia and the general histories, -like those of Beverly, and Stith for Virginia, and -particularly Bozman for Maryland, with Henning’s -<i>Statutes</i>, and some of the local histories,<a name="FNanchor_1445_1445" id="FNanchor_1445_1445"></a><a href="#Footnote_1445_1445" class="fnanchor">[1445]</a> -we have little for these central coast regions.<a name="FNanchor_1446_1446" id="FNanchor_1446_1446"></a><a href="#Footnote_1446_1446" class="fnanchor">[1446]</a> -In Carolina we must revert to such early books -as Lawson and Brickell; to Carroll’s <i>Hist. Collections -of South Carolina</i>, and to occasional -periodic papers.<a name="FNanchor_1447_1447" id="FNanchor_1447_1447"></a><a href="#Footnote_1447_1447" class="fnanchor">[1447]</a></p> - -<p>Farther south, we get help from the early<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> -Spanish and French,—Herrera, Barcia, the -chroniclers of Florida, Davilla Padilla, Laudonnière, -the memorials of De Soto’s march, the -documents in the collections of Ternaux, Buckingham -Smith, and B. F. French, all of which -have been characterized elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_1448_1448" id="FNanchor_1448_1448"></a><a href="#Footnote_1448_1448" class="fnanchor">[1448]</a></p> - -<p>The later French documents in Margry and -the works of Dumont and Du Pratz give us -additional help.<a name="FNanchor_1449_1449" id="FNanchor_1449_1449"></a><a href="#Footnote_1449_1449" class="fnanchor">[1449]</a> On the English side we find -something in Coxe’s <i>Carolana</i>, in Timberlake, -in Lawson,<a name="FNanchor_1450_1450" id="FNanchor_1450_1450"></a><a href="#Footnote_1450_1450" class="fnanchor">[1450]</a> in the Wormsloe quartos on Georgia -and South Carolina,<a name="FNanchor_1451_1451" id="FNanchor_1451_1451"></a><a href="#Footnote_1451_1451" class="fnanchor">[1451]</a> and in later books like -Filson’s <i>Kentucke</i>, John Haywood’s <i>Nat. and -Aborig. Hist. Tennessee</i> (down to 1768), Benjamin -Hawkins’s <i>Sketch of the Creek Country</i> -(1799), and Jeffreys’ <i>French Dominion in America</i>. -Brinton, in <i>The National Legend of the -Chata-Mus-ko-kee tribes</i> (in the <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, Feb., -1870), printed a translation of “What Chekilli -the head chief of the upper and lower Creeks -said in a talk held at Savannah in 1735,” which -he derived from a German version preserved in -<i>Herrn Philipp Georg Friederichs von Reck Diarium -von seiner Reise nach Georgien im Jahr 1735</i> -(Halle, 1741).<a name="FNanchor_1452_1452" id="FNanchor_1452_1452"></a><a href="#Footnote_1452_1452" class="fnanchor">[1452]</a> This legend is taken by Albert -S. Gatschet, in his <i>Migration Legend of the -Creek Indians, with a linguistic, historic, and ethnographic -introduction</i> (Philad., 1884), as a centre -round which to group the ethnography of the -whole gulf water-shed of the Southern States, -wherein he has carefully analyzed the legend -and its language, and in this way there is formed -what is perhaps the best survey we have of the -southern Indians.</p> - -<p>This we may supplement by Pickett’s <i>Alabama</i>. -Col. C. C. Jones, Jr., has given us a -sketch (1868) of Tomo-chi-chi, the chief who -welcomed Oglethorpe.<a name="FNanchor_1453_1453" id="FNanchor_1453_1453"></a><a href="#Footnote_1453_1453" class="fnanchor">[1453]</a></p> - -<p>C. C. Royce has given us glimpses of the relations -of the Cherokees and the whites in the -<i>Fifth Report, Bureau of Ethnology</i>. A recent -book is G. E. Foster’s <i>Se-Quo-Yah, the American -Cadmus and modern Moses. A biography of the -greatest of redmen, around whose life has been -woven the manners, customs and beliefs of the -early Cherokees, with a recital of their wrongs -and progress toward civilization</i> (Philadelphia, -etc., 1885.)<a name="FNanchor_1454_1454" id="FNanchor_1454_1454"></a><a href="#Footnote_1454_1454" class="fnanchor">[1454]</a> Gatschet cites the <i>Mémoire</i> of Milfort, -a war chief of the Creeks.<a name="FNanchor_1455_1455" id="FNanchor_1455_1455"></a><a href="#Footnote_1455_1455" class="fnanchor">[1455]</a> The Chippewas -are commemorated in a paper in Beach’s -<i>Indian Miscellany</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1456_1456" id="FNanchor_1456_1456"></a><a href="#Footnote_1456_1456" class="fnanchor">[1456]</a> The Seminole war produced -a literature<a name="FNanchor_1457_1457" id="FNanchor_1457_1457"></a><a href="#Footnote_1457_1457" class="fnanchor">[1457]</a> bearing on the Florida tribes. -Bernard Romans’ <i>Florida</i> (1775) gave the comments -of an early English observer of the natives -of the southeastern parts of the United -States. Dr. Brinton’s <i>Floridian Peninsula</i> and -the paper of Clay Maccauley on the Seminoles -in the <i>Fifth Rept. Bureau of Ethnology</i> help out -the study. The Natchez have been considered -as allied with the races of middle America,<a name="FNanchor_1458_1458" id="FNanchor_1458_1458"></a><a href="#Footnote_1458_1458" class="fnanchor">[1458]</a> and -we may go back to Garcilasso de la Vega and -the later Du Pratz for some of the speculations -about them, to be aided by the accounts we get -from the French concerning their campaigns -against them.<a name="FNanchor_1459_1459" id="FNanchor_1459_1459"></a><a href="#Footnote_1459_1459" class="fnanchor">[1459]</a></p> - -<p>The placing of the tribes in the Ohio Valley is -embarrassed by their periodic migrations.<a name="FNanchor_1460_1460" id="FNanchor_1460_1460"></a><a href="#Footnote_1460_1460" class="fnanchor">[1460]</a> Brinton -follows the migrations of the Shawanees,<a name="FNanchor_1461_1461" id="FNanchor_1461_1461"></a><a href="#Footnote_1461_1461" class="fnanchor">[1461]</a> -and C. C. Royce seeks to identify them in their -wanderings.<a name="FNanchor_1462_1462" id="FNanchor_1462_1462"></a><a href="#Footnote_1462_1462" class="fnanchor">[1462]</a> O. H. Marshall tracks other tribes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> -along the Great Lakes.<a name="FNanchor_1463_1463" id="FNanchor_1463_1463"></a><a href="#Footnote_1463_1463" class="fnanchor">[1463]</a> Hiram W. Beckwith -places those in Illinois and Indiana.<a name="FNanchor_1464_1464" id="FNanchor_1464_1464"></a><a href="#Footnote_1464_1464" class="fnanchor">[1464]</a> The -Wyandots<a name="FNanchor_1465_1465" id="FNanchor_1465_1465"></a><a href="#Footnote_1465_1465" class="fnanchor">[1465]</a> have been treated, as affording a -type for a short study of tribal society, by Major -Powell in the <i>Bureau of Ethnology, First Report</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1466_1466" id="FNanchor_1466_1466"></a><a href="#Footnote_1466_1466" class="fnanchor">[1466]</a> -G. Gale’s <i>Upper Mississippi</i> (Chicago, 1867) gives -us a condensed summary of the tribes of that -region, and Miss Fletcher’s <i>Report</i> will help us -for all this territory. Use can be also made of -Caleb Atwater’s <i>Indians of the Northwest, or a -Tour to Prairie du Chien</i> (Columbus, 1850). Dr. -John G. Shea and others have used the <i>Collections -of the Wisconsin Historical Society</i> to make -known their studies of the tribes of that State.<a name="FNanchor_1467_1467" id="FNanchor_1467_1467"></a><a href="#Footnote_1467_1467" class="fnanchor">[1467]</a> -One of the most readable studies of the Indians -in the neighborhood of Lake Superior is John -G. Kohl’s <i>Kitchi-Gami</i> (1860). The authorities -on the Black Hawk war throw light on the Sac -and Fox tribes.<a name="FNanchor_1468_1468" id="FNanchor_1468_1468"></a><a href="#Footnote_1468_1468" class="fnanchor">[1468]</a> Pilling’s <i>Bibliography of the -Siouan Languages</i> (1887) affords the readiest key -to the mass of books about the Sioux or Dacotah -stocks from the time of Hennepin and the -early adventurers in the Missouri Valley. The -travellers Carver and Catlin are of importance -here. Mrs. Eastman’s <i>Dacotah, or life and legends -of the Sioux</i> (1849) is an excellent book that has -not yet lost its value; and the same can be said -of Francis Parkman’s <i>California and the Oregon -Trail</i> (N. Y., 1849), which shows that historian’s -earliest experience of the wild camp life. -Miss Alice C. Fletcher is the latest investigator -of their present life.<a name="FNanchor_1469_1469" id="FNanchor_1469_1469"></a><a href="#Footnote_1469_1469" class="fnanchor">[1469]</a> Of the Crows we have -some occasional accounts like Mrs. Margaret J. -Carrington’s <i>Absaraka</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1470_1470" id="FNanchor_1470_1470"></a><a href="#Footnote_1470_1470" class="fnanchor">[1470]</a> On the Modocs we -have J. Miller’s <i>Life among the Modocs</i> (London, -1873). J. O. Dorsey has given us a paper on -the Omaha sociology in the <i>Third Rept. Bureau -of Ethnology</i> (p. 205); and we may add to this -some account in the <i>Transactions</i> (vol. i.) of the -Nebraska State Hist. Society, and a tract by -Miss Fletcher on the <i>Omaha tribe of Indians in -Nebraska</i> (Washington, 1885). The Pawnees -have been described by J. B. Dunbar in the <i>Mag. -Amer. Hist.</i> (vols. iv., v., viii., ix.) The Ojibways -have had two native historians,—Geo. Copway’s -<i>Traditional Hist. of the Ojibway Nation</i> (London, -1850), and Peter Jones’ <i>Hist. of the Ojibway Indians, -with special reference to their conversion to -Christianity</i> (London, 1861). The <i>Minnesota -Hist. Soc. Collections</i> (vol. v.) contain other historical -accounts by Wm. W. Warren and by -Edw. D. Neill,—the latter touching their connection -with the fur-traders. Miss Fletcher’s -<i>Report</i> (1888) will supplement all these accounts -of the aborigines of this region.</p> - -<p>Our best knowledge of the southwestern Indians, -the Apaches, Navajos, Utes, Comanches, -and the rest, comes from such government observers -as Emory in his <i>Military Reconnaissance</i>; -Marcy’s <i>Exploration of the Red River in 1852</i>; -J. H. Simpson in his <i>Expedition into the Navajo -Country</i> (1856); and E. H. Ruffner’s <i>Reconnoissance -in the Ute Country</i> (1874). The fullest -references are given in Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1471_1471" id="FNanchor_1471_1471"></a><a href="#Footnote_1471_1471" class="fnanchor">[1471]</a> -with a map.</p> - -<p>We may still find in Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i> -(i. ch. 2, 3) the best summarized statement with -references on the tribes of the upper Pacific -coast, and follow the development of our knowledge -in the narratives of the early explorers of -that coast by water, in the account of Lewis and -Clark and other overland travels, and in such -tales of adventures as the <i>Journal kept at Nootka -Sound by John R. Jewitt</i>, which has had various -forms.<a name="FNanchor_1472_1472" id="FNanchor_1472_1472"></a><a href="#Footnote_1472_1472" class="fnanchor">[1472]</a></p> - -<p>The earliest of the better studied accounts of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span> -these northwestern tribes was that of Horatio -Hale in the volume (vi.) on ethnography, of the -Wilkes’ <i>United States Exploring Expedition</i> -(Philad., 1846), and the same philologist’s paper -in the <i>Amer. Ethnological Society’s Transactions</i> -(vol. ii.). Recent scientific results are found in -<i>The North-West Coast of America, being Results -of Recent Ethnological Researches, from the Collections -of the Royal Museums at Berlin, published -by the Directors of the Ethnological Department, -by Herr E. Krause, and partly by Dr. Grunwedel, -translated from the German, the Historical -and Descriptive Text by Dr. Reiss</i> (New -York, 1886), and in the first volume of the <i>Contributions -to North Amer. Ethnology</i> (Powell’s -Survey), in papers by George Gibbs on the tribes -of Washington and Oregon, and by W. H. Dall -on those of Alaska.<a name="FNanchor_1473_1473" id="FNanchor_1473_1473"></a><a href="#Footnote_1473_1473" class="fnanchor">[1473]</a></p> - -<p>For the tribes of California, Bancroft’s first -volume is still the useful general account; but -the Federal government have published several -contributions of scientific importance: that of -Stephen Powers in the <i>Contributions to No. Amer. -Ethnology</i> (vol. iii., 1877);<a name="FNanchor_1474_1474" id="FNanchor_1474_1474"></a><a href="#Footnote_1474_1474" class="fnanchor">[1474]</a> the ethnological -volume (vii.) of <i>Wheeler’s Survey</i>, edited by -Putnam; and papers in the <i>Smithsonian Reports</i>, -1863-64, and in Miss Fletcher’s <i>Report</i>, -1888.<a name="FNanchor_1475_1475" id="FNanchor_1475_1475"></a><a href="#Footnote_1475_1475" class="fnanchor">[1475]</a></p> - -<p>This survey would not be complete without -some indication of the topical variety in the consideration -of the native peoples, but we have -space only to mention the kinds of special treatment, -shown in accounts of their government -and society, their intellectual character, and of -some of their customs and amusements.<a name="FNanchor_1476_1476" id="FNanchor_1476_1476"></a><a href="#Footnote_1476_1476" class="fnanchor">[1476]</a> Their -industries, their linguistics, and their myths have -been considered with wider relations in the appendixes -of the present volume.</p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-378.jpg" width="400" height="193" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="p4">CHAPTER VI.</h2> - -<p class="pch">THE PREHISTORIC ARCHÆOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA.</p> - -<p class="pc">BY HENRY W. HAYNES,</p> - -<p class="pc reduct"><i>Archæological Institute of America.</i></p> - -<p class="drop-cap08">BY the discovery of America a new continent was brought to light, inhabited -by many distinct tribes, differing in language and in customs, -but strikingly alike in physical appearance. All that can be learned in -regard to their condition, and that of their ancestors, prior to the coming of -Columbus, falls within the domain of the prehistoric archæology of America. -This recent science of Prehistoric Archæology deals mainly with -facts, not surmises. In studying the past of forgotten races, “hid from -the world in the low-delved tomb,” her chief agent is the spade, not the -pen. Her leading principles, the lamps by which her path is guided, are -superposition, association, and style. Does this new science teach us that -the tribes found in possession of the soil were the descendants of its original -occupants, or does she rather furnish reasons for inferring that these -had been preceded by some extinct race or races? The first question, -therefore, that presents itself to us relates to the antiquity of man upon -this continent; and in respect to this the progress of archæological investigation -has brought about a marked change of opinion. Modern speculation, -based upon recent discoveries, inclines to favor the view that this -continent was inhabited at least as early as in the later portion of the -quaternary or pleistocene period. Whether this primitive people was autochthonous -or not, is a problem that probably will never be solved; but it -is now generally held that this earliest population was intruded upon by -other races, coming either from Asia or from the Pacific Islands, from whom -were descended the various tribes which have occupied the soil down to the -present time.</p> - -<p>The writer believes also that the majority of American archæologists -now sees no sufficient reason for supposing that any mysterious, superior -race has ever lived in any portion of our continent. They find no archæological -evidence proving that at the time of its discovery any tribe had -reached a stage of culture that can properly be called civilization. Even if -we accept the exaggerated statements of the Spanish conquerors, the most -intelligent and advanced peoples found here were only semi-barbarians, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span> -the stage of transition from the stone to the bronze age, possessing no written -language, or what can properly be styled an alphabet, and not yet having -even learned the use of beasts of burden.</p> - -<p>By a large and growing school of archæologists, moreover, it is maintained -that all the various tribes upon this continent, notwithstanding their -different degrees of advancement, were living under substantially similar -institutions; and that even the different forms of house construction practised -by them were only stages in the development of the same general -conceptions. Without attempting to dogmatize about such difficult problems, -the object of this chapter is to set forth concisely such views as -recommend themselves to the writer’s judgment. He is profoundly conscious -of the limitations of his knowledge, and fully aware that his opinions -will be at variance with those of other competent and learned investigators. -<i>Non nostrum tantas componere lites.</i></p> - -<p>The controversy in regard to the antiquity of man in the old world may -be regarded as substantially settled. Scarcely any one now denies that -man was in existence there during the close of the quaternary or pleistocene -period; but there is a great difference of opinion as to the sufficiency -of the evidence thus far brought forward to prove that he had made his -appearance in Europe in the previous tertiary period, or even in the earlier -part of the quaternary. What is the present state of opinion in regard to -the correlative question about the antiquity of man in America? Less than -ten years ago the latest treatise published in this country, in which this -subject came under discussion, met the question with the sweeping reply -that “no truly scientific proof of man’s great antiquity in America exists.”<a name="FNanchor_1477_1477" id="FNanchor_1477_1477"></a><a href="#Footnote_1477_1477" class="fnanchor">[1477]</a> -But we think if the author of that thorough and “truly scientific” work -were living now his belief would be different. After a careful consideration -of all the former evidence that had been adduced in proof of man’s -early existence upon this continent, none of which seemed to him conclusive, -he goes on to state that “Dr. C. C. Abbott has unquestionably discovered -many palæolithic implements in the glacial drift in the valley of the -Delaware River, near Trenton, New Jersey.”<a name="FNanchor_1478_1478" id="FNanchor_1478_1478"></a><a href="#Footnote_1478_1478" class="fnanchor">[1478]</a> Now a single discovery of -this character, if it were unquestionable, or incapable of any other explanation, -would be sufficient to prove that man existed upon this continent in -quaternary times. The establishment, therefore, of the antiquity of man -in America, according to this latest authority, seems to rest mainly upon -the fact of the discovery by Dr. Abbott of palæolithic implements in the -valley of the Delaware. To quote the language of an eminent European -man of science, “This gentleman appears to stand in a somewhat similar -relation to this great question in America as did Boucher de Perthes in -Europe.”<a name="FNanchor_1479_1479" id="FNanchor_1479_1479"></a><a href="#Footnote_1479_1479" class="fnanchor">[1479]</a> The opinion of the majority of American geologists upon this -point is clearly indicated in a very recent article by Mr. W. J. McGee, of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span> -the U. S. Geological Survey: “But it is in the aqueo-glacial gravels of the -Delaware River, at Trenton, which were laid down contemporaneously -with the terminal moraine one hundred miles further northward, and which -have been so thoroughly studied by Abbott, that the most conclusive proof -of the existence of glacial man is found.”<a name="FNanchor_1480_1480" id="FNanchor_1480_1480"></a><a href="#Footnote_1480_1480" class="fnanchor">[1480]</a> It will accordingly be necessary -to give in considerable detail an account of the discovery of palæolithic implements -by Dr. Abbott in the Delaware valley, and of its confirmation by -different investigators, as well as of such other discoveries in different parts -of our country as tend to substantiate the conclusions that have been drawn -from them by archæologists.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-381.jpg" width="400" height="298" id="i331" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">PALÆOLITHIC IMPLEMENT FROM THE TRENTON GRAVELS.</p> - <p class="pf400">Side and edge view, of natural size. From the <i>Peabody Museum Reports</i>, vol. ii. p. 33.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>By the term palæolithic implements we are to understand certain rude -stone objects, of varying size, roughly fashioned into shape by a process of -chipping away fragments from a larger mass so as to produce cutting edges, -with convex sides, massive, and suited to be held at one end, and usually -pointed at the other. These have never afterwards been subjected to any -smoothing or polishing process by rubbing them against another stone. -But it is only when such rude tools have been found buried in beds of -gravel or other deposits, which have been laid down by great floods towards -the close of what is known to geologists as the quaternary or pleistocene<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span> -period, that they can be regarded as really palæolithic.<a name="FNanchor_1481_1481" id="FNanchor_1481_1481"></a><a href="#Footnote_1481_1481" class="fnanchor">[1481]</a> At that epoch -which immediately preceded the present period, certain rivers flowed with a -volume of water much greater than now, owing to the melting of the thick -ice-cap once covering large portions of the northern hemisphere, which was -accompanied by a climate of great humidity. Vast quantities of gravels -were washed down from the débris of the great terminal moraine of this -ice-sheet, and were accumulated in beds of great thickness, extending in -some instances as high as two hundred feet up the slopes of the river valleys. -In such deposits, side by side with the rude products of human industry -we have thus described, and deposited by the same natural forces, -are found the fossil remains of several species of animals, which have -subsequently either become extinct, like the mammoth and the tichorhine -rhinoceros, or, driven southwards by the encroaching ice, have since its -disappearance migrated to arctic regions, like the musk-sheep and the reindeer, -or to the higher Alpine slopes, like the marmot. Such a discovery -establishes the fact that man must have been living as the contemporary of -these extinct animals, and this is the only proof of his antiquity that is at -present universally accepted.</p> - -<p>There has been much discussion among geologists in regard to both -the duration and the conditions of the glacial period, but it is now the -settled opinion that there have been two distinct times of glacial action, -separated by a long interval of warmer climate, as is proved by the occurrence -of intercalated fossiliferous beds; this was followed by the final -retreat of the glacier.<a name="FNanchor_1482_1482" id="FNanchor_1482_1482"></a><a href="#Footnote_1482_1482" class="fnanchor">[1482]</a> The great terminal moraine stretching across the -United States from Cape Cod to Dakota, and thence northward to the -foot of the Rocky Mountains, marks the limit of the ice invasion in the -second glacial epoch. South of this, extending in its farthest boundary -as low as the 38th degree of latitude, is a deposit which thins out as we go -west and northwest, and which is called the drift-area. The drift graduates -into a peculiar mud deposit, for which the name of “loess” has been -adopted from the geologists of Europe, by whom it was given to a thick -alluvial stratum of fine sand and loam, of glacial origin. This attenuated -drift represents the first glacial invasion. From Massachusetts as far as -northern New Jersey, and in some other places, the deposits of the two -epochs seem to coalesce.<a name="FNanchor_1483_1483" id="FNanchor_1483_1483"></a><a href="#Footnote_1483_1483" class="fnanchor">[1483]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span></p> - -<p>The interval of time that separated the two glacial periods can be best -imagined by considering the great erosions that have taken place in the -valleys of the Missouri and of the upper Ohio. “Glacial river deposits of -the earlier epoch form the capping of fragmentary terraces that stand 250 -to 300 feet above the present rivers;” while those of the second epoch -stretch down through a trough excavated to that depth by the river through -these earlier deposits and the rock below.<a name="FNanchor_1484_1484" id="FNanchor_1484_1484"></a><a href="#Footnote_1484_1484" class="fnanchor">[1484]</a></p> - -<p>As to the probable time that has elapsed since the close of the glacial -period, the tendency of recent speculation is to restrict the vast extent that -was at first suggested for it to a period of from twenty thousand to thirty -thousand years. The most conservative view maintains that it need not -have been more than ten thousand years, or even less.<a name="FNanchor_1485_1485" id="FNanchor_1485_1485"></a><a href="#Footnote_1485_1485" class="fnanchor">[1485]</a> This lowest -estimate, however, can only be regarded as fixing a minimum point, and an -antiquity vastly greater than this must be assigned to man, as of necessity -he must have been in existence long before the final events occurred in -order to have left his implements buried in the beds of débris which they -occasioned.</p> - -<p>In April, 1873, Dr. C. C. Abbott, who was already well known as an -investigator of the antiquities of the Indian races, which he believed had -passed from “a palæolithic to a neolithic condition” while occupying the -Atlantic seaboard, published an article on the “Occurrence of implements in -the river-drift at Trenton, New Jersey.”<a name="FNanchor_1486_1486" id="FNanchor_1486_1486"></a><a href="#Footnote_1486_1486" class="fnanchor">[1486]</a> In this he described and figured -three rude implements, which he had found buried at a depth as great in one -instance as sixteen feet in the gravels of a bluff overlooking the Delaware -River. He argued that these must be of greater antiquity than relics -found on the surface, from the fact of their occurring <i>in place</i> in undisturbed -deposits; that they could not have reached such a depth by any natural -means; and that they must be of human origin, and not accidental formations, -because as many as three had been discovered of a like character. -His conclusion is that they are “true drift implements, fashioned and -used by a people far antedating the people who subsequently occupied this -same territory.”</p> - -<p>After two years of further research he returned to the subject, publishing -in the same journal, in June, 1876, an account of the discovery of seven -similar objects near the same locality. Of these he said: “My studies of -these palæolithic specimens and of their positions in the gravel-beds and -overlying soil have led me to conclude that not long after the close of the -last glacial epoch man appeared in the valley of the Delaware.”<a name="FNanchor_1487_1487" id="FNanchor_1487_1487"></a><a href="#Footnote_1487_1487" class="fnanchor">[1487]</a></p> - -<p>Most of these specimens were deposited by Dr. Abbott in the Peabody -Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology at Cambridge, Massachusetts; -and the curator of that institution, Professor Frederick W.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span> -Putnam, in September, 1876, visited the locality in company with Dr. -Abbott. Together they succeeded in finding two examples <i>in place</i>. -Having been commissioned to continue his investigations, Dr. Abbott -presented to the trustees, in November of the same year, a detailed report -<i>On the Discovery of Supposed Palæolithic Implements from the Glacial -Drift in the Valley of the Delaware River, near Trenton, New Jersey</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1488_1488" id="FNanchor_1488_1488"></a><a href="#Footnote_1488_1488" class="fnanchor">[1488]</a> -In this, three of the most characteristic specimens were figured, which had -been submitted to Mr. M. E. Wadsworth of Cambridge, to determine their -lithological character. He pronounced them to be made of argillite, and -declared that the chipping upon them could not be attributed to any -natural cause, and that the weathering of their surfaces indicated their very -great antiquity. The question “how and when these implements came to -be in the gravel” is discussed by Dr. Abbott at some length. He argued -that the same forces which spread the beds of gravel over the wide area -now covered carried them also; and he predicted that they will be met with -wherever such gravels occur in other parts of the State. He specially dwells -upon the circumstances that the implements were found in <i>undisturbed</i> -portions of the freshly exposed surface of the bluff, and not in the mass of -talus accumulated at its base, into which they might have fallen from the -surface; and that they have been found at great depths, “varying from five -to over twenty feet below the overlying soil.” He also insisted upon the -marked difference between their appearance and the materials of which -they are fashioned and the customary relics of the Indians. The conditions -under which the gravel-beds were accumulated are then studied in connection -with a report upon them by Professor N. S. Shaler, which concludes, -from the absence of stratification and of pebbles marked with glacial -scratches, that they were “formed in the sea near the foot of the retreating -ice-sheet, when the sub-glacial rivers were pouring out the vast quantities -of water and waste that clearly were released during the breaking up of the -great ice-time.” This view regards the deposits as of glacial origin, and as -laid down during that period, but considers that they were subsequently -modified in their arrangement by the action of water. In such gravel-beds -there have also been found rolled fragments of reindeer-horns, and skulls of -the walrus, as well as the relics of man. Dr. Abbott accordingly drew the -conclusion that “man dwelt at the foot of the glacier, or at least wandered -over the open sea, during the accumulation of this mass of gravel;” that -he was contemporary of these arctic animals; and that this early race was -driven southward by the encroaching ice, leaving its rude implements -behind. Thus it will be seen that Dr. Abbott no longer considers man in -this country as belonging to post-glacial, but to interglacial times.</p> - -<p>Continuing his investigations, in the following year Dr. Abbott gave a -much more elaborate account of his work and its results, in which he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> -announced his discovery of some sixty additional specimens.<a name="FNanchor_1489_1489" id="FNanchor_1489_1489"></a><a href="#Footnote_1489_1489" class="fnanchor">[1489]</a> To the -objection that had been raised, that these supposed implements might have -been produced by the action of frost, he replied that a single fractured -surface might have originated in that way or from an accidental blow; but -when we find upon the same object from twenty to forty planes of cleavage, -all equally weathered (which shows that the fragments were all detached -at or about the same time), it is impossible not to recognize in this the -result of intentional action. Four such implements are described and -figured, of shapes much more specialized than those previously published, -and resembling very closely objects which European archæologists style -stone axes of “the Chellean type,” whose artificial origin cannot be -doubted.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-385.jpg" width="400" height="249" id="i335" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">THE TRENTON GRAVEL BLUFF.</p> - <p class="pf400">From a photograph kindly furnished by Professor F. W. Putnam, showing the Delaware and its bluff of -gravel, where many of the rude implements have been found.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>As some geologists were still inclined to insist upon the post-glacial -character of the débris in which the implements were found, Dr. Abbott, -admitting that the great terminal moraine of the northern ice-sheet does -not approach nearer than forty miles to the bluff at Trenton, nevertheless -insists that the character of the deposits there much more resembles a -mass of material accumulated in the sea at the foot of the glacier than it -does beds that have been subjected to the modifying arrangement of -water. He finds an explanation of this condition of things in a prolongation -of the glacier down the valley of the Delaware as far as Trenton, at a -time when the lower portions of the State had suffered a considerable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span> -depression, and before the retreat of the ice-sheet. But besides the -comparatively unmodified material of the bluff, in which the greater portion -of the palæolithic implements has been found, there also occur limited -areas of stratified drift, such as are to be seen in railway cuttings near -Trenton, in which similar implements are also occasionally found. These, -however, present a more worn appearance than the others. But it will be -found that these tracts of clearly stratified material are so very limited -in extent that they seem to imply some peculiar local condition of the -glacier. This position is illustrated by certain remarkable effects once -witnessed after a very severe rainfall, by which two palæolithic implements -were brought into immediate contact with ordinary Indian relics such as -are common on the surface. This leads to an examination of the question -of the origin of this surface soil, and a discussion of the problem how true -palæolithic implements sometimes occur in it. This soil is known to be a -purely sedimentary deposit, consisting almost exclusively of sand, or of -such finely comminuted gravels as would readily be transported by rapid -currents of water. But imbedded in it and making a part of it are numerous -huge boulders, too heavy to be moved by water. Dr. Abbott accounted -for their presence from their having been dropped by ice-rafts, while the -process of deposition of the soil was going on. The same sort of agency -could not have put in place both the soil and the boulders contained in it, -and the same force which transported the latter may equally well have -brought along such implements as occur in the beds of clearly stratified -origin. The wearing effect upon these of gravels swept along by post-glacial -floods will account for that worn appearance which sometimes -almost disguises their artificial origin.</p> - -<p>In conclusion Dr. Abbott attempted to determine what was the early -race which preceded the Indians in the occupation of this continent. -From the peculiar nature and qualities of palæolithic implements he argues -that they are adapted to the needs of a people “living in a country of -vastly different character, and with a different fauna,” from the densely -wooded regions of the Atlantic seaboard, where the red man found his -home. The physical conditions of the glacial times much more nearly resembled -those now prevailing in the extreme north. Accordingly he finds -the descendants of the early race in the Eskimos of North America, driven -northwards after contact with the invading Indian race. In this he is following -the opinion of Professor William Boyd Dawkins, who considers that -people to be of the same blood as the palæolithic cave-dwellers of southern -France, and that of Mr. Dall and Dr. Rink, who believed that they once -occupied this continent as far south as New Jersey. In confirmation of -this view he asserts that the Eskimos “until recently used stone implements -of the rudest patterns.” But unfortunately for this theory the implements -of the Eskimos bear no greater resemblance to palæolithic -implements than do those of any other people in the later stone age; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span> -subsequent discoveries of human crania in the Trenton gravels have led -Dr. Abbott to question its soundness.<a name="FNanchor_1490_1490" id="FNanchor_1490_1490"></a><a href="#Footnote_1490_1490" class="fnanchor">[1490]</a></p> - -<p>These discoveries of Dr. Abbott are not liable to the imputation of possible -errors of observation or record, as would be the case if they rested -upon the testimony of a single person only. As has been already stated, -in September, 1876, Professor Putnam was present at the finding <i>in place</i> -of two palæolithic implements, and in all has taken five with his own hands -from the gravel at various depths.<a name="FNanchor_1491_1491" id="FNanchor_1491_1491"></a><a href="#Footnote_1491_1491" class="fnanchor">[1491]</a> Mr. Lucien Carr also visited the locality -in company with Professor J. D. Whitney, in September, 1878, and found -several <i>in place</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1492_1492" id="FNanchor_1492_1492"></a><a href="#Footnote_1492_1492" class="fnanchor">[1492]</a> Since then Professors Shaler, Dawkins, Wright, Lewis, -and others, including the writer, have all succeeded in finding specimens -either in place or in the talus along the face of the bluff, from which they -had washed out from freshly exposed surfaces of the gravel.<a name="FNanchor_1493_1493" id="FNanchor_1493_1493"></a><a href="#Footnote_1493_1493" class="fnanchor">[1493]</a> The whole -number thus far discovered by Dr. Abbott amounts to about four hundred -specimens.<a name="FNanchor_1494_1494" id="FNanchor_1494_1494"></a><a href="#Footnote_1494_1494" class="fnanchor">[1494]</a> Meanwhile, the problem of the conditions under which the -Trenton gravels had been accumulated was made the subject of careful -study by other competent geologists, besides Professor Shaler, to whose -opinion reference has already been made. In October, 1877, the late -Thomas Belt, F. G. S., visited the locality, and shortly afterwards published -an account of Dr. Abbott’s discoveries, illustrated by several geological -sections of the gravel. His conclusion is, “that after the land-ice -retired, or whilst it was retiring, and before the coast was submerged to -such a depth as to permit the flotation of icebergs from the north, the -upper pebble-beds containing the stone implements were formed.”<a name="FNanchor_1495_1495" id="FNanchor_1495_1495"></a><a href="#Footnote_1495_1495" class="fnanchor">[1495]</a> The -geologists of the New Jersey Survey had already recognized the distinction -between the drift gravels of Trenton and the earlier yellow marine gravels -which cover the lower part of the State. But it was the late Professor -Henry Carvill Lewis, of Philadelphia, who first accurately described the -character and limits of the Trenton gravels.<a name="FNanchor_1496_1496" id="FNanchor_1496_1496"></a><a href="#Footnote_1496_1496" class="fnanchor">[1496]</a> This he had carefully -mapped before he was informed of Dr. Abbott’s discoveries, and it has -been found (with only one possible very recent exception) that the implements -occur solely in these newer gravels of the glacial period.</p> - -<p>Professor Lewis’s matured conclusions in regard to the geological character -and the age of the Trenton gravel cliff are thus expressed: “The presence -of large boulders in the bluff at Trenton, and the extent and depth of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span> -gravel at this place, have led to the supposition that there was here the -extremity of a glacial moraine. Yet the absence of ‘till’ and of scratched -boulders, the absence of glacial striæ upon the rocks of the valley, and -the stratified character of the gravel, all point to water action alone as -the agent of deposition. The depth of the gravel and the presence of the -bluff at this point are explained by the peculiar position that Trenton occupies -relatively to the river, ... in a position where naturally the largest -amount of a river gravel would be deposited, and where its best exposures -would be exhibited.... Any drift material which the flooded river swept -down its channel would here, upon meeting tide-water, be in great part -deposited. Boulders which had been rolled down the inclined floor of the -upper valley would here stop in their course, and all be heaped up with the -coarser gravel in the more slowly flowing water, except such as cakes of -floating ice could carry oceanward.... Having heaped up a mass of detritus -in the old river channel as an obstruction at the mouth of the gorge, -the river, so soon as its volume diminished, would immediately begin wearing -away a new channel for itself down to ocean level. This would be -readily accomplished through the loose material, and would be stopped only -when rock was reached.... It has been thought that to account for the -high bank at Trenton an elevation of the land must have occurred.... -An increase in the volume of the river will explain all the facts. The -accompanying diagram will render this more clear.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-388.jpg" width="400" height="156" id="i338" - alt="" - title="" /> - <p class="pf400">Section of bluff two miles south of Trenton, New Jersey. <i>a b</i>, <span class="smcap">Trenton gravel</span>; Implements—<i>a</i>, -fine gray sand (boulder); <i>b</i>, coarse sandy gravel; <i>c</i>, red gravel; <i>d</i>, yellow gravel (pre-glacial); <i>e</i>, plastic clay -(Wealden); <i>f</i>, fine yellow sand (Hastings?); <i>g</i>, gneiss; <i>h</i>, alluvial mud; <i>i</i>, Delaware River.</p> - <p class="pf400">A From a cut in <i>Primitive Industry</i>, p. 535.</p> -</div> - -<p>“The Trenton gravel, now confined to the sandy flat borders of the river, -corresponds to the ‘intervale’ of New England rivers, ... and exhibits -a topography peculiar to a true river gravel. Frequently instead of forming -a flat plain it forms higher ground close to the present river channel -than it does near its ancient bank. Moreover, not only does the ground -thus slope downward on retreating from the river, but the boulders become -smaller and less abundant. Both of these facts are in accordance with the -facts of river deposits. In time of flood the rapidly flowing water in the -main channel, bearing detritus, is checked by the more quiet waters at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span> -the side of the river, and is forced to deposit its gravel and boulders as a -kind of bank.... Having shown that the Trenton gravel is a true river -gravel of comparatively recent age, it remains to point out the relation it -bears to the glacial epoch.... Two hypotheses only can be applied to the -Trenton gravel. It is either <i>post</i>-glacial, or it belongs to the very last portion -of the glacial period. The view held by the late Thomas Belt can no -longer be maintained.... He fails to recognize any distinction between -the gravels. As we have seen, the Trenton gravel is truly post-glacial. It -only remains to define more strictly the meaning of that term. There is -evidence to support both of these hypotheses.”<a name="FNanchor_1497_1497" id="FNanchor_1497_1497"></a><a href="#Footnote_1497_1497" class="fnanchor">[1497]</a></p> - -<p>After discussing them both at considerable length, he concludes as follows: -“A second glacial period in Europe, known as the ‘Reindeer Period,’ -has long been recognized. It appears to have followed that in which the -clays were deposited and the terraces formed, and may therefore correspond -with the period of the Trenton gravel. If there have been two glacial -epochs in this country, the Trenton gravel cannot be earlier than the close -of the later one. If there has been but one, traces of the glacier must -have continued into comparatively recent times, or long after the period of -submergence. The Trenton gravel, whether made by long-continued floods -which followed a first or second glacial epoch,—whether separated from all -true glacial action or the result of the glacier’s final melting,—is truly a -post-glacial deposit, but still a phenomenon of essentially glacial times,—times -more nearly related to the Great Ice Age than to the present.”</p> - -<p>He then goes on to consider the bearings of the age of this gravel upon -the question of the antiquity of man. “When we find that the Trenton -gravel contains implements of human workmanship so placed with reference -to it that it is evident that at or soon after the time of its deposition -man had appeared on its borders, and when the question of the antiquity -of man in America is thus before us, we are tempted to inquire still further -into the age of the deposit under discussion. It has been clearly shown -by several competent archæologists that the implements that have been -found are a constituent part of the gravel, and not intrusive objects. It -was of peculiar interest to find that it has been only within the limits of -the Trenton gravel, precisely traced out by the writer, that Dr. Abbott, -Professor F. W. Putnam, Mr. Lucien Carr, and others, have discovered -these implements <i>in situ</i>.... At the localities on the Pennsylvania Railroad, -where extensive exposures of these gravels have been made, the deposit -is undoubtedly undisturbed. No implements could have come into -this gravel except at a time when the river flowed upon it, and when they -might have sunk through the loose and shifting material. All the evidence -points to the conclusion that at the time of the Trenton gravel flood man -... lived upon the banks of the ancient Delaware, and lost his stone implements -in the shifting sands and gravel of the bed of that stream.... -The actual age of the Trenton gravel, and the consequent date to which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span> -the antiquity of man on the Delaware should be assigned, is a question -which geological data alone are insufficient to solve. The only clew, and -that a most unsatisfactory one, is afforded by calculations based upon the -amount of erosion. This, like all geological considerations, is relative -rather than absolute, yet several calculations have been made, which, based -either upon the rate of erosion of river channels or the rate of accumulation -of sediment, have attempted to fix the date of the close of the glacial -epoch. By assuming that the Trenton gravel was deposited immediately -after the close of this epoch, an account of such calculations may be of -interest. If the Trenton gravel is <i>post</i>-glacial in the widest acceptation of -the term, a yet later date must be assigned to it.”</p> - -<p>After going carefully through them all, he concludes: “Thus we find -that if any reliance is to be placed upon such calculations, even if we -assume that the Trenton gravel is of glacial age, it is not necessary to -make it more than ten thousand years old. The time necessary for the -Delaware to cut through the gravel down to the rock is by no means great. -When it is noted that the gravel cliff at Trenton was made by a side wearing -away at a bank, and when it is remembered that the erosive power of -the Delaware River was formerly greater than at present, it will be conceded -that the presence of the cliff at Trenton will not necessarily infer its high -antiquity; nor in the character of the gravel is there any evidence that the -time of its deposition need have been long. It may be that, as investigations -are carried further, it will result not so much in proving man of very -great antiquity as in showing how much more recent than usually supposed -was the final disappearance of the glacier.”</p> - -<p>Professor Lewis’s studies of the great terminal moraine of the northern -ice-sheet were still further prosecuted in conjunction with Professor George -Frederick Wright, of Oberlin, Ohio, whose labors have been of the highest -importance in shedding light upon the question of the antiquity of man in -America.<a name="FNanchor_1498_1498" id="FNanchor_1498_1498"></a><a href="#Footnote_1498_1498" class="fnanchor">[1498]</a> Together they traced the southern boundary of the glacial region -across the State of Pennsylvania, and subsequently Professor Wright -has continued his researches through the States of Ohio, Indiana, and -Kentucky, as far as the Mississippi River and even beyond. He has found -that glacial floods similar to those of the Delaware valley have deposited -similar beds of drift gravel in the valleys of all the southerly flowing rivers, -and he has called attention to the importance of searching in them for -palæolithic implements. As early as March, 1883, he predicted that traces -of early man would be found in the extensive terraces and gravel deposits -of the southern portion of Ohio.<a name="FNanchor_1499_1499" id="FNanchor_1499_1499"></a><a href="#Footnote_1499_1499" class="fnanchor">[1499]</a> This prediction was speedily fulfilled, -and upon November 4, 1885, Professor Putnam reported to the Boston -Society of Natural History that Dr. C. L. Metz, of Madisonville, Ohio, had -found in the gravels of the valley of the Little Miami River, at that place,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span> -eight feet below the surface, a rude implement made of black flint, of about -the same size and shape as one of the same material found by Dr. Abbott -in the Trenton gravels. This was followed by the announcement from Dr. -Metz that he had discovered another specimen (a chipped pebble) in the -gravels at Loveland, in the same valley, at a depth of nearly thirty feet -from the surface. Professor Wright has visited both localities, and given -a detailed description of them, illustrated by a map. He finds that the -deposit at Madisonville clearly belongs to the glacial-terrace epoch, and is -underlain by “till,” while in that at Loveland it is known that the bones -of the mastodon have been discovered. He closes his account with these -words: “In the light of the exposition just given, these implements will -at once be recognized as among the most important archæological discoveries -yet made in America, ranking on a par with those of Dr. Abbott at -Trenton, New Jersey. They show that in Ohio, as well as on the Atlantic -coast, man was an inhabitant before the close of the glacial period.”<a name="FNanchor_1500_1500" id="FNanchor_1500_1500"></a><a href="#Footnote_1500_1500" class="fnanchor">[1500]</a> -Further confirmation of these predictions was received at the meeting of -the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Cleveland, -Ohio, in August, 1888, when Mr. Hilborne T. Cresson reported his discovery -of a large flint implement in the glacial gravels of Jackson County, -Indiana, as well as of two chipped implements made of argillite, which he -had found <i>in place</i> at a depth of several feet in the ancient terrace of the -Delaware River, in Claymont, Newcastle County, Delaware.<a name="FNanchor_1501_1501" id="FNanchor_1501_1501"></a><a href="#Footnote_1501_1501" class="fnanchor">[1501]</a></p> - -<p>This discovery of Mr. Cresson’s has assumed a great geological importance, -and it is thus reported by him: “Toward midday of July 13, 1887, -while lying upon the edge of the railroad cut, sketching the boulder line, -my eye chanced to notice a piece of steel-gray substance, strongly relieved -in the sunlight against the red-colored gravel, just above where it joined -the lower grayish-red portion. It seemed to me like argillite, and being -firmly imbedded in the gravel was decidedly interesting. Descending the -steep bank as rapidly as possible, the specimen was secured.... Upon -examining my specimen I found that it was unquestionably a chipped implement. -There is no doubt about its being firmly imbedded in the gravel, for -the delay I made in extricating it with my pocket-knife nearly caused me -the unpleasant position of being covered by several tons of gravel.... -Having duly reported my find to Professor Putnam, I began, at his request, -a thorough examination of the locality, and on May 25, 1888, the year -following, discovered another implement four feet below the surface, at a -place about one eighth of a mile from the first discovery.... The geological -formation in which the implement was found seems to be a reddish -gravel mixed with schist.”<a name="FNanchor_1502_1502" id="FNanchor_1502_1502"></a><a href="#Footnote_1502_1502" class="fnanchor">[1502]</a></p> - -<p>Professor Wright thus comments upon these discoveries and their geological<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span> -situation: “The discovery of palæolithic implements, as described -by Mr. Cresson, near Claymont, Del., unfolds a new chapter in the history -of man in America. It was my privilege in November last to visit the spot -with him, and to spend a day examining the various features of the locality.... -The cut in the Baltimore and Ohio railroad in which this implement -was found is about one mile and a half west of the Delaware River, and -about one hundred and fifty feet above it. The river is here quite broad. -Indeed, it has ceased to be a river, and is already merging into Delaware -Bay; the New Jersey shore being about three miles distant from the Delaware -side. The ascent from the bay at Claymont to the locality under consideration -is by three or four well-marked benches. These probably are -not terraces in the strict sense of the word, but shelves marking different -periods of erosion when the land stood at these several levels, but now -thinly covered with old river deposits. Upon reaching the locality of Mr. -Cresson’s recent discovery, we find a well-marked superficial water deposit -containing pebbles and small boulders up to two or three feet in diameter, -and resting unconformably upon other deposits, different in character, and -in some places directly upon the decomposed schists which characterize the -locality. This is without question the Philadelphia Red Gravel and Brick -Clay of Lewis. The implement submitted to us was found near the bottom -of this upper deposit, and eight feet below the surface.... As Mr. -Cresson was on the ground when the implement was uncovered, and took -it out with his own hands, there would seem to be no reasonable doubt that -it was originally a part of the deposit; for Mr. Cresson is no novice in these -matters, but has had unusual opportunities, both in this country and in the -old world, to study the localities where similar discoveries have heretofore -been made. The absorbing question concerning the age of this deposit is -therefore forced upon our attention as archæologists.... The determination -of the age of these particular deposits at Claymont involves a discussion -of the whole question of the Ice Age in North America, and especially -that of the duality of the glacial epoch. At a meeting of this society -on January 19, 1881, I discussed the age of the Trenton gravel, in which -Dr. Abbott has found so many palæoliths, and was led also incidentally at -the same time to discuss the relative age of what Professor Lewis called the -Philadelphia Red Gravel. I had at that time recently made repeated trips -to Trenton, and with Professor Lewis had been over considerable portions of -the Delaware valley for the express purpose of determining these questions. -The conclusions to which we—that is, Professor Lewis and myself—came -were thus expressed in the paper above referred to (<i>Proc. Boston Soc. of -Nat. Hist.</i>, vol. xxi. pp. 137-145), namely, that the Philadelphia Brick Clay -and Red Gravel (which are essentially one formation) marked the period -when the ice had its greatest extension, and when there was a considerable -depression of the land in that vicinity; perhaps, however, less than a hundred -feet in the neighborhood of the moraine, though increasing towards -the northwest. During this period of greatest extension and depression,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span> -the Philadelphia Red Gravel and Brick Clay were deposited by the ice-laden -floods which annually poured down the valley in the summer seasons. As -the ice retreated towards the headwaters of the valley, the period was -marked also by a reëlevation of the land to about its present height, when -the later deposits of gravel at Trenton took place. Dr. Abbott’s discoveries -at Trenton prove the presence of man on the continent at that -stage of the glacial epoch. Mr. Cresson’s discoveries prove the presence -of man at a far earlier stage. How much earlier, will depend upon our interpretation -of the general facts bearing on the question of the duality of -the glacial epoch.</p> - -<p>“Mr. McGee, of the United States Geological Survey, has recently published -the results of extensive investigations carried on by him respecting -the superficial deposits of the Atlantic coast. (See <i>Amer. Jour. of Science</i>, -vol. xxxv., 1888.) He finds that on all the rivers south of the Delaware -there are deposits corresponding in character to what Professor Lewis had -denominated Philadelphia Red Gravel and Brick Clay.... From the extent -to which this deposit is developed at Washington, in the District of -Columbia, Mr. McGee prefers to designate it the Columbia formation. But -the period is regarded by him as identical with that of the Philadelphia Red -Gravel and Brick Clay, which Professor Lewis had attributed to the period -of maximum glacial development on the Atlantic coast.</p> - -<p>“It is observable that the boulders in this Columbia formation belong, so -far as we know, in every case, to the valleys in which they are now found.... -It is observable also that it is not necessary in any case to suppose -that these deposits were the direct result of glacial ice. Mr. McGee does -not suppose that glaciers extended down these valleys to any great distance. -Indeed, so far as we are aware, there is no evidence of even local glaciers -in the Alleghany Mountains south of Harrisburg. But it is easy to see -that an incidental result of the glacial period was a great increase of ice -and snow in the headwaters of all these streams, so as to add greatly to -the extent of the deposits in which floating ice is concerned. And this -Columbia formation is, as we understand it, supposed by Mr. McGee to -be the result of this incidental effect of the glacial period in increasing the -accumulations of snow and ice along the headwaters of all the streams that -rise in the Alleghanies. In this we are probably agreed. But Mr. McGee -differs from the interpretation of the facts given by Professor Lewis and -myself, in that he postulates, largely, however, on the basis of facts outside -of this region, two distinct glacial epochs, and attributes the Columbia formation -to the first epoch, which he believes to be from three to ten times as -remote as the period in which the Trenton gravels were deposited. If, therefore, -Dr. Abbott’s implements are, as from the lowest estimate would seem -to be the case, from ten thousand to fifteen thousand years old, the implements -discovered by Mr. Cresson in the Baltimore and Ohio cut at Claymont, -which is certainly in Mr. McGee’s Columbia formation, would be -from thirty thousand to one hundred and fifty thousand years old.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span></p> - -<p>“But as I review the evidence which has come to my knowledge since -writing the paper in 1881, I do not yet see the necessity of making so -complete a separation between the glacial epochs as Mr. McGee and others -feel compelled to do. But, on the other hand, the unity of the epoch (with, -however, a marked period of amelioration in climate accompanied by extensive -recession of the ice, and followed by a subsequent re-advance over -a portion of the territory) seems more and more evident. All the facts -which Mr. McGee adduces from the eastern side of the Alleghanies comport, -apparently, as readily with the idea of one glacial period as with that -of two.... Until further examination of the district with these suggestions -in view, or until a more specific statement of facts than we find in -Mr. McGee’s papers, it would therefore seem unnecessary to postulate a -distinct glacial period to account for the Columbia formation.... But no -matter which view prevails, whether that of two distinct glacial epochs, or -of one prolonged epoch with a mild period intervening, the Columbia deposits -at Claymont, in which these discoveries of Mr. Cresson have been -made, long antedate (perhaps by many thousand years) the deposits at -Trenton, N. J., at Loveland and Madison, Ohio, at Little Falls, Minn., ... -and at Medora, Ind.... Those all belong to the later portion of the -glacial period, while these at Claymont belong to the earlier portion of that -period, if they are not to be classed, according to Mr. McGee, as belonging -to an entirely distinct epoch.”<a name="FNanchor_1503_1503" id="FNanchor_1503_1503"></a><a href="#Footnote_1503_1503" class="fnanchor">[1503]</a></p> - -<p>The objects discovered by both Dr. Metz and Mr. Cresson have been -deposited in the Peabody Museum at Cambridge, and their artificial character -cannot be disputed.</p> - -<p>At nearly the same date at which Dr. Abbott published the account of -his discoveries, Col. Charles C. Jones, of Augusta, Georgia, recorded the -finding of “some rudely-chipped, triangular-shaped implements in Nacoochee -valley under circumstances which seemingly assign to them very remote -antiquity. In material, manner of construction, and in general appearance, -so nearly do they resemble some of the rough, so-called flint -hatchets belonging to the drift type, as described by M. Boucher de Perthes, -that they might very readily be mistaken the one for the other.”<a name="FNanchor_1504_1504" id="FNanchor_1504_1504"></a><a href="#Footnote_1504_1504" class="fnanchor">[1504]</a> -They were met with in the course of mining operations, in which a cutting -had been made through the soil and the underlying sands, gravels, and -boulders down to the bedrock. Resting upon this, at a depth of some nine -feet from the surface, were the three implements described. But it is plain -that this deposit can scarcely be regarded as a true glacial drift, since the -great terminal moraine lies more than four hundred miles away to the -north, and the region where it occurs does not fall within the drift area. -It must be of local origin, and few geologists would be willing to admit the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span> -existence of local glaciers in the Alleghanies so far to the south during the -glacial period. Consequently these objects do not fall within our definition -of true palæolithic implements.</p> - -<p>The same thing may be said in a less degree of the implements discovered -by C. M. Wallace, in 1876, in the gravels and clays of the valley of -the James River.<a name="FNanchor_1505_1505" id="FNanchor_1505_1505"></a><a href="#Footnote_1505_1505" class="fnanchor">[1505]</a></p> - -<p>A different character attaches to certain objects discovered in 1877 by -Professor N. H. Winchell, at Little Falls, Minnesota, in the valley of the -Mississippi River.<a name="FNanchor_1506_1506" id="FNanchor_1506_1506"></a><a href="#Footnote_1506_1506" class="fnanchor">[1506]</a> These consisted mainly of pieces of chipped white -quartz, perfectly sharp, although occurring in a water-worn deposit, and -they were found to extend over quite a large area. Their artificial character -has been vouched for by Professor Putnam, and among them were a -few rude implements which are well represented in an accompanying plate. -A geological section given in the report shows that they occur in the terrace -some sixty feet above the bank of the river, and were found to extend about -four feet below the surface. In the words of Professor Winchell: “The -interest that centres in these chips ... involves the question of the age of -man and his work in the Mississippi Valley.... The chipping race ... -preceded the spreading of the material of the plain, and must have been -pre-glacial, since the plain was spread out by that flood stage of the Mississippi -River that existed during the prevalence of the ice-period, or resulted -from the dissolution of the glacial winter.... The wonderful abundance -of these chips indicates an astonishing amount of work done, as if there -had been a great manufactory in the neighborhood, or an enormous lapse -of time for its performance.”</p> - -<p>This discovery of Professor Winchell was followed up by researches -prosecuted in 1879 in the vicinity of Little Falls by Miss F. E. Babbit, of -that place.<a name="FNanchor_1507_1507" id="FNanchor_1507_1507"></a><a href="#Footnote_1507_1507" class="fnanchor">[1507]</a> She discovered a similar stratum of chipped quartz in the -ancient terrace, of a mile or more in width, about forty rods to the east of -the river, and elevated some twenty-five feet above it. This had been -brought to light by the wearing of a wagon track, leading down a natural -drainage channel, which had cut through the quartz stratum down to a -level below it. The result of her prolonged investigations showed that “the -stratum of quartz chips lay at a level some twelve or fifteen feet lower than -the plane of the terrace top.”<a name="FNanchor_1508_1508" id="FNanchor_1508_1508"></a><a href="#Footnote_1508_1508" class="fnanchor">[1508]</a> While the quartz chips discovered by Professor -Winchell were contained in the upper surface of the terrace plain,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span> -these were strictly confined to a lower level, and cannot be synchronous -with them. They must be older “by at least the lapse of time required -for the deposition of the twelve or fifteen feet of modified drift forming -the upper part of the terrace plain above the quartz-bearing stratum.”</p> - -<p>This conclusion is abundantly confirmed by Mr. Warren Upham, of the -U. S. Geological Survey, in his study of “The recession of the ice-sheet -in Minnesota in its relation to the gravel deposits overlying the quartz implements -found by Miss Babbit at Little Falls, Minnesota.”<a name="FNanchor_1509_1509" id="FNanchor_1509_1509"></a><a href="#Footnote_1509_1509" class="fnanchor">[1509]</a> The great -ice-sheet of the latest glacial epoch at its maximum extension pushed out -vast lobes of ice, one of which crossed western and central Minnesota and -extended into Iowa. Different stages of its retreat are marked by eleven -distinct marginal moraines, and this deposit of modified drift at Little Falls -Mr. Upham believes occurred in the interval between the formation of the -eighth and the ninth. “It is,” he says, “upon the till, or direct deposit of -the ice, and forms a surface over which the ice never re-advanced.” An -examination of the terraces and plains of the Mississippi Valley from St. -Paul to twenty-five miles above Little Falls shows them to be similar in -composition and origin to the terraces of modified drift in the river valleys -of New England. In his judgment, “the rude implements and fragments -of quartz discovered at Little Falls were overspread by the glacial flood-plain -of the Mississippi River, while most of the northern half of Minnesota -was still covered by the ice.... It may be that the chief cause -leading men to occupy this locality so soon after it was uncovered from -the ice was their discovery of the quartz veins in the slate there, ... affording -suitable material for making sharp-edged stone implements of the best -quality. Quartz veins are absent, or very rare and unsuitable for this, in -all the rock outcrops of the south half of Minnesota, that had become uncovered -from the ice, as well as of the whole Mississippi basin southward, -and this was the first spot accessible whence quartz for implement-making -could be obtained.”</p> - -<p>According to this view the upper deposit at Little Falls would appear to -be more recent than those laid down by the immediate wasting of the -great terminal moraine at Trenton and in Ohio; but the occupation of -the spot by man upon the lower terrace may well have been at a much -earlier time.</p> - -<p>Many of the objects discovered by Miss Babbitt have been placed in the -Peabody Museum, and as their artificial character has been questioned, the -writer wishes to repeat his opinion, formed upon the study of numerous -specimens that have been submitted to him, but not the same as those upon -which Professor Putnam based his similar conclusions, that they are undoubtedly -of human origin.</p> - -<p>Implements of palæolithic form have been discovered in several other -localities, but as none of them have been found <i>in place</i>, in undisturbed -gravel-beds, either those which have been derived from the terminal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span> -moraine of the second extension of the great northern ice-sheet, or those -which are included within the drift area, they cannot be considered as -proved to be true palæolithic implements, although it is highly probable -that many of them are such.<a name="FNanchor_1510_1510" id="FNanchor_1510_1510"></a><a href="#Footnote_1510_1510" class="fnanchor">[1510]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">We have now to consider the claim to high antiquity of objects which -have been discovered in several places in certain deposits, equally regarded -as of glacial origin, which occur in the central and western portions of the -United States. These are the so-called “lacustrine deposits,” which are -believed to have had their origin from the former presence of vast lakes, -now either extinct or represented by comparatively small bodies of water. -The largest of such lakes occupied a great depression which once existed -between the Rocky Mountains and the chain of the Sierra Nevada during -the quaternary period. The existing lakes represent the lowest part of two -basins, into which this depression was divided; of these, the western one, -represented by certain smaller lakes, has received the name of Lake Lahontan. -This never had any communication with the sea, and its deposits -consequently register the greater or less amount of rain and snow during -the period of its existence. To the eastern the name of Lake Bonneville -has been given, and it is at present represented by the Great Salt Lake in -Utah. This formerly had an outlet through the valley of the Columbia -River. These lakes are believed to have been produced by the melting of -local glaciers existing during the quaternary times in the above-named -mountains; and similar consequences seem to have followed from the like -presence of ancient glaciers in the Wahsatch and Uintah mountains, where -no lake now exists.</p> - -<p>In the ancient deposits of such an immense fresh-water lake, derived -from the melting of glaciers in the last-mentioned mountains, which once -existed in southern Wyoming, Professor Joseph Leidy first reported, in -1872, the discovery near Fort Bridger of “mingled implements of the rudest -construction, together with a few of the highest finish.... Some of the -specimens are as sharp and fresh in appearance as if they had been but -recently broken from the parent block. Others are worn and have their -sharpness removed, and are so deeply altered in color as to look exceedingly -ancient.”<a name="FNanchor_1511_1511" id="FNanchor_1511_1511"></a><a href="#Footnote_1511_1511" class="fnanchor">[1511]</a> The plates accompanying the report show that some of these -objects are of palæolithic form, but as no further information is given in -regard to the conditions under which they were discovered, we cannot pronounce -them to be really palæolithic.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span></p> - -<p>In 1874, Dr. Samuel Aughey made known the existence in Nebraska of -“hundreds of miles of similar lacustrine deposits, almost level or gently -rolling.”<a name="FNanchor_1512_1512" id="FNanchor_1512_1512"></a><a href="#Footnote_1512_1512" class="fnanchor">[1512]</a> To these the name of “loess” has also been given, as well as to -the mud deposits derived from the northern drift. Aughey states that -these beds are perfectly homogeneous throughout, and of almost uniform -color, ranging in thickness from five to one hundred and fifty feet. Generally -they lie above a true drift formation derived from glaciers in the Black -Hills, and represent “the final retreat of the glaciers, and that era of depression -of the surface of the State when the greater part of it constituted -a great fresh-water lake, into which the Missouri, the Platte, and the Republican -rivers poured their waters.” The Missouri and its tributaries, -flowing for more than one thousand miles through these deposits, gradually -filled up this great lake with sediment. The rising of the land by -degrees converted the lake-bottom into marshes, through which the rivers -began to cut new channels, and to form the bluffs which now bound them. -“The Missouri, during the closing centuries of the lacustrine age, must -have been from five to thirty miles in breadth, forming a stream which for -size and majesty rivalled the Amazon.” Many remains of mastodons and -elephants are found in this so-called loess, as well as those of the animals -now living in that region, together with the fresh-water and land shells -peculiar to it. In it Aughey has also discovered an arrow-point and a -spear-head, of which he gives well-executed figures. Both are excellent -examples of those well-chipped implements which are regarded as typical -of the Neolithic age or the age of polished stone, and are absolutely different -from the palæolithic implements of which we have hitherto spoken. -They were both found in railroad cuttings on the Iowa side of the Missouri -River, and within three miles of it. The first lay at a depth of fifteen feet -below the top of the deposit. Of the second he says it was “twenty feet -below the top of the loess, and at least six inches from the edge of the cut, -so that it could not have slid into that place.... Thirteen inches above -the point where it was found, and within three inches of being on a line -with it, in undisturbed loess, there was a lumbar vertebra of an elephant.”<a name="FNanchor_1513_1513" id="FNanchor_1513_1513"></a><a href="#Footnote_1513_1513" class="fnanchor">[1513]</a></p> - -<p>This intermingling in these deposits of the bones of extinct and living -animals appears to have been brought about by the shifting of the beds of -the vast rivers he has described, which have been flowing for ages through -the slight and easily moved material. It seems to be analogous to what -has taken place in recent times in the valley of the Mississippi and in its -delta. The finding, therefore, of arrow-heads of recent Indian type, even <i>in -place</i> under twenty feet of loess and below a fossil elephant-bone, cannot -be considered as affording any stronger proof of the antiquity of man than -the oft-cited instances of the discovery of basket-work and pottery underneath -similar fossils at Petite Anse Island in Louisiana, or of pottery and -mastodon-bones on the banks of the Ashley River in South Carolina. No -such discovery can be considered of consequence as bearing upon the -question of palæolithic man.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span></p> - -<p>The late Thomas Belt wrote to Professor Putnam, in 1878, that he had -discovered “a small human skull in an undisturbed loess in a railway cutting -about two miles from Denver (Colorado). All the plains are covered with -a drift deposit of granitic and quartzose pebbles overlaid by a sandy and -calcareous loam closely resembling the diluvial clay and the loess of -Europe. It was in the upper part of the drift series that I found the skull. -Just the tip of it was visible in the cutting about three and one half feet -below the surface.”<a name="FNanchor_1514_1514" id="FNanchor_1514_1514"></a><a href="#Footnote_1514_1514" class="fnanchor">[1514]</a> Not long after this Mr. Belt died, and we are without -further information in regard to the locality. It would seem, however, -that the loess in which the skull occurred belongs to the latest in the -lacustrine series, and consequently does not imply any very great antiquity -for it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-399.jpg" width="400" height="139" id="i349" - alt="" - title="" /> -<p class="pc400">OBSIDIAN SPEAR-HEAD</p> - <div class="caption"><p class="pf400">Found in the Lahontan sediments,—from a cut in Russell’s <i>Lake Lahontan</i>, monograph xi. of Powell’s -<i>U. S. Geological Survey</i>, p. 247.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>In 1882 Mr. W. J. McGee, of the U. S. Geological Survey, obtained -from the upper lacustral clays of the basin of the ancient Lake Lahontan, -where they are exposed in the walls of Walker River Cañon, a spear-head, -made of obsidian, beautifully chipped, and perfectly resembling those found -on the surface throughout the southwest. “It was discovered projecting -point outwards from a vertical scarp of lacustral clays twenty-five feet below -the top of the section, at a locality where there were no signs of recent -disturbance.”<a name="FNanchor_1515_1515" id="FNanchor_1515_1515"></a><a href="#Footnote_1515_1515" class="fnanchor">[1515]</a> This is said to have been “associated in such a manner -with the bones of an elephant or mastodon as to leave no doubt of their -having been buried at approximately the same time.” But we are also told -that these lakes are of very recent date, and that they have “left the very -latest of all the complete geological records to be observed in the Great -Basin.”<a name="FNanchor_1516_1516" id="FNanchor_1516_1516"></a><a href="#Footnote_1516_1516" class="fnanchor">[1516]</a> The fossil shells obtained from these deposits all belong to -living species; while the mammalian remains, which have been found in -only very limited numbers, and all, with a single exception, in the upper -beds, “are the same as occur elsewhere in tertiary or quaternary strata.” -Mr. McGee says: “If the obsidian implement ... was really <i>in situ</i> (as -all appearances indicated), it must have been dropped in a shallow and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span> -quiet bay of the saline and alkaline Lake Lahontan, and gradually buried -beneath its fine mechanical deposits and chemical precipitates.”<a name="FNanchor_1517_1517" id="FNanchor_1517_1517"></a><a href="#Footnote_1517_1517" class="fnanchor">[1517]</a></p> - -<p>In Mr. Russell’s opinion, this single implement, although supported by -no other finds of a similar character, is sufficient to prove that “man -inhabited this continent during the last great rise of the former lake.” -But if this last great rise occurred in recent times, the presence of the -bones of tertiary mammals in the upper beds shows that great natural -forces must have been in operation at that time to have washed these out -of their original place of deposit. The principal organic remains found, we -are told, are those of living shells, and the intermingling of these with -the bones of tertiary mammals could scarcely have taken place in “shallow -and quiet bays.” To the writer this discovery seems rather to prove that -an Indian spear-head was in some manner washed down and buried in the -clays of the Walker River Cañon than that man was the contemporary -there of the tertiary or quaternary mammalia. This fairly seems to be a -case where, in the language of Dr. Brinton, “Archæology may at times -correct Geology.”<a name="FNanchor_1518_1518" id="FNanchor_1518_1518"></a><a href="#Footnote_1518_1518" class="fnanchor">[1518]</a></p> - -<p>It is almost paralleled by the discovery made by Mr. P. A. Scott, in -Kansas, of a broken knife or lance-head, measuring in its present condition -two inches and one eighth in length. Sir Daniel Wilson, who reports it, -says: “The spot where the discovery was made is in the Blue Range of the -Rocky Mountains, in an alluvial bottom, and distant several hundred feet -from a small stream called Clear Creek. A shaft was sunk, passing through -four feet of rich, black soil, and below this through upward of ten feet of -gravel, reddish clay, and rounded quartz. Here the flint was found.... -The actual object corresponds more to the small and slighter productions -of the modern Indian tool-maker than to the rude and massive drift implement.” -But this most careful and conscientious observer goes on to -remark, “Under any circumstances it would be rash to build up comprehensive -theories on a solitary case like this.”<a name="FNanchor_1519_1519" id="FNanchor_1519_1519"></a><a href="#Footnote_1519_1519" class="fnanchor">[1519]</a></p> - -<p>If the discovery by Mr. McGee of this spear-head be insisted upon as -establishing that man inhabited this continent during the last great rise -of the lake, it would be easier to believe that that event occurred in -recent and not in quaternary times, than to admit that the distinction -between palæolithic and neolithic implements, established by so many -discoveries in this country and in Europe, is thereby utterly overthrown.</p> - -<p>The only alternative left is to believe that neolithic man was the contemporary -of the tertiary mammals. To this conclusion we are asked to come -by Professor Josiah D. Whitney, on account of the discovery of the remains -of man and of his works in the auriferous gravels of California. The -famous “Calaveras skull” is figured upon another page of this volume,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span> -where the circumstances attending its discovery are briefly referred to.<a name="FNanchor_1520_1520" id="FNanchor_1520_1520"></a><a href="#Footnote_1520_1520" class="fnanchor">[1520]</a> -It is astonishing to see how frail is the foundation upon which such a -surprising superstructure has been raised, as it is found set forth in detail -in the section entitled <i>Human remains and works of art of the gravel series</i>, -in the third chapter of Professor Whitney’s memoir on <i>The auriferous -gravels of the Sierra Nevada of California</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1521_1521" id="FNanchor_1521_1521"></a><a href="#Footnote_1521_1521" class="fnanchor">[1521]</a> All is hearsay testimony, and -entirely uncontrolled by any such careful scrutiny as marks the work of -the British Association in the explorations carried on for fifteen years at -Kent’s Hole, near Torquay. There can be no question that human bones -and human implements have often been discovered in these gravels, but -according to the accounts as given these are mingled in them in inextricable -confusion. What is the character of these objects of human workmanship? -So far are they from being, as Professor Whitney describes them, “always -the same kind of implements, ... namely, the coarsest and the least -finished which one would suppose could be made and still be implements.” -One account speaks of “a spear or lance head of obsidian, five inches long -and one and a half broad, quite regularly formed.” Others mention “spear -and arrow heads made of obsidian;” or “certain discoidal stones from -three to four inches in diameter, and about an inch and a half thick, concave -on both sides, with perforated centre.” Still another witness speaks -of “a large stone bead, made perhaps of alabaster, about one and a half -inches long and about one and one fourth inches in diameter, with a hole -through it one fourth of an inch in size.” We are also told of a “stone -hatchet of a triangular shape, with a hole through it for a handle, near the -middle. Its size was four inches across the edge, and length about six -inches.” So also oval stones with continuous “grooves cut around them,” -and “grooved oval disks,” are more than once mentioned. We think these -quotations will be sufficient to convince the archæologist that here is no -question of palæolithic implements, but that we have to do simply with the -common Indian objects found on the surface all over our country. Besides -the rude cuts in Bancroft,<a name="FNanchor_1522_1522" id="FNanchor_1522_1522"></a><a href="#Footnote_1522_1522" class="fnanchor">[1522]</a> I know of only one example of these California -discoveries which has been figured. This is the “beautiful relic” described -by Mr. J. W. Foster, of which he says: “When we consider its symmetry -of form ... and the delicate drilling of the hole through a material so -liable to fracture, we are free to say it affords an exhibition of the lapidary’s -skill superior to anything yet furnished by the Stone age of either continent.”<a name="FNanchor_1523_1523" id="FNanchor_1523_1523"></a><a href="#Footnote_1523_1523" class="fnanchor">[1523]</a> -Mr. Foster doubtfully suggests that this object was “used as a -plummet for the purpose of determining the perpendicular to the horizon.” -It has been shown, however, by Mr. W. H. Henshaw, that among the -Indians of Southern California similar objects have long been used by -their medicine-men as “medicine or sorcery stones.”<a name="FNanchor_1524_1524" id="FNanchor_1524_1524"></a><a href="#Footnote_1524_1524" class="fnanchor">[1524]</a> Whichever may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span> -be held to be the true explanation of its use, either is more likely to be a -characteristic of the Indian race than of primitive man.</p> - -<p>But the objects whose presence in the gravels is most repeatedly spoken -of are stone mortars, which Professor Whitney supposes were “used by -the race inhabiting this region in prehistoric times ... for providing food.” -One of these is stated to have been “found standing upright, and the -pestle was in it, in its proper place, apparently just as it had been left by -the owner.” It was taken out of a shaft, according to the testimony, -twelve feet underneath undisturbed strata. This was certainly a very -marvellous thing to have happened if all the objects found in the gravels -are supposed to have been brought there by the action of floods of water. -But it is a very simple matter, if the supposition of Mr. Southall be correct, -who thinks that “these mortars have been left in these positions by the -ancient inhabitants in their search for <i>gold</i>.”<a name="FNanchor_1525_1525" id="FNanchor_1525_1525"></a><a href="#Footnote_1525_1525" class="fnanchor">[1525]</a> The Spaniards found gold -in abundance in Mexico, and the locality from which it came is believed by -Mr. Southall to be indicated by a discovery made in 1849 by some gold-diggers -at one of the mountain diggings called Murphy’s, in the region in -which Professor Whitney’s discoveries have taken place. In examining a -high barren district of mountain, they were surprised to come upon the -abandoned site of an ancient mine. At the bottom of a shaft two hundred -and ten feet deep a human skeleton was found, with an altar for worship -and other evidences of ancient labor by the aborigines.<a name="FNanchor_1526_1526" id="FNanchor_1526_1526"></a><a href="#Footnote_1526_1526" class="fnanchor">[1526]</a> Mr. Southall -believes that these mortars were used “for crushing the cemented gravel -of the auriferous beds.” Some corroboration is afforded for this suggestion -by the fact that stone mortars of a like character are found in the ancient -gold mines, worked by the early Egyptian monarchs, in the Gebel Allakee -Mountains near the Red Sea, which were used in pulverizing the gold-bearing -quartz.</p> - -<p>As to the authenticity of the “Calaveras skull,”</p> - -<p class="pp6 p1">“Great contest followed and much learned dust.”</p> - -<p class="pn1">The probabilities seem in favor of its being a genuine human fossil, and the -question recurs as to its character and the presumable age of the deposits -from which it came. The latest geologist who has studied the locality, so -far as the writer is aware, says of these deposits: “Even before visiting -California I had suspected these old river gravels might be contemporaneous -with the glacial epoch, and I still think this possible. This area was not -glaciated, and these old gravels, hundreds of feet in thickness, may very -well represent that great interval of time occupied in other regions by the -glacial periods.”<a name="FNanchor_1527_1527" id="FNanchor_1527_1527"></a><a href="#Footnote_1527_1527" class="fnanchor">[1527]</a> In discussing this question from the point of view of the -character of the fossil animal remains contained in the gravels, we must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span> -continually bear in mind what Professor E. D. Cope says of the <i>Mesozoic -and Cænozoic of North America</i>: “The faunæ of these periods have not yet -been discriminated.... Many questions of the exact contemporaneity of -these different beds are as yet unsettled.”<a name="FNanchor_1528_1528" id="FNanchor_1528_1528"></a><a href="#Footnote_1528_1528" class="fnanchor">[1528]</a> Professor Cope has previously -pointed out how marked a difference there is between the quaternary fauna -of North America and that of Europe; we have no Hippopotamus or -Rhinoceros Tichorinus, and they no Megatherium, Megalonyx, and other -species. Under the varying conditions of animal existence thus implied, -to assail established ideas upon the sequence in man’s development, or to -maintain that he has had a long career on the Pacific slope of our continent -before he had made his appearance in Western Europe, seems to the writer -to be an attempt to explain “<i>ignotum per ignotius</i>.”</p> - -<p>What is really to be understood by the assumption that man existed in -tertiary times? So profound a palæontologist as Professor William Boyd -Dawkins thinks “it is impossible to believe that man should have been an -exception to the law of change. In the Pliocene age we cannot expect to -find traces of man upon the earth. The living placental mammals had only -then begun to appear, and seeing that the higher animals have invariably -appeared in the rocks according to their place in the zoölogical scale, fishes, -amphibians, reptiles, placental mammals, it is hardly reasonable to suppose -that the highest of all should then have been upon the earth.”<a name="FNanchor_1529_1529" id="FNanchor_1529_1529"></a><a href="#Footnote_1529_1529" class="fnanchor">[1529]</a> When, -therefore, some of the geologists of our country support Professor Whitney’s -claim that these discoveries of human fossils have actually proved -man’s existence in the Pliocene period, by arguments mainly based upon the -effects of erosion and the immense periods of time which these imply, or -favor his inference from the animal fossils contained in these deposits that -there has been “a total change in the fauna and flora of the region,” and -that “the fauna of the gravel deposits is almost exclusively made up of -extinct species,” we may well insist, with Dawkins, that the human remains -should not be regarded as standing upon a different basis from those of -the horse, since both occur under similar conditions. Dr. Leidy reports -the finding of remains of four different species of fossil <i>Equus</i>. But among -them “we may note the skull of a mustang, identical with that of Mexico -and California, which could not have been buried in the gravels of Sierra -County before the time of the Spanish Conquest, when the living race of -horses was introduced.” Professor Jeffries Wyman says of the Calaveras -skull: “Any conclusions based upon a single skull are liable to prove erroneous, -unless we have sufficient grounds for the belief that such a skull is -a representative one of the race to which it belongs.... We have no sufficient -reason for assuming in the present instance that the skull is a representative -one.... The skull presents no signs of having belonged to an -inferior race. In its breadth it agrees with the other crania from California, -except those of the Diggers, but surpasses them in the other particulars<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span> -in which comparisons have been made.”<a name="FNanchor_1530_1530" id="FNanchor_1530_1530"></a><a href="#Footnote_1530_1530" class="fnanchor">[1530]</a> As, therefore, what appear to be -the skulls of a California Indian and that of a Mexican mustang have been -found to occur in the same deposits, this circumstance, instead of proving -that man was an inhabitant of pliocene America, would seem to the writer -to imply either that these deposits are comparatively recent, or that the -fossil bones found in them are so commingled that arguments based upon -purely palæontological considerations can be regarded as entitled to very -little weight.</p> - -<p>But although some American palæontologists are inclined to argue that -these deposits belong to the Pliocene, on account of the character of the -vertebrate fossils found in them, it must not be forgotten that geologists -generally prefer to refer them to the Pleistocene. They believe that even -the superimposition of lava beds upon the gravels does not establish a very -high antiquity for them, and question whether the time that has elapsed -since the outflow of the lava, as measured by the amount of erosion that has -taken place in the gravels, is to be regarded as much greater than can properly -be assigned to the Pleistocene period elsewhere. Professor Whitney -himself admits the difficulty of distinguishing whether “deposits have been -accumulated in the place where we find them previous to the cessation of -the period of volcanic activity. The gravels which have not been protected -by a capping of basalt, or only thinly or not at all covered by erupted materials, -may in some places have been overlain by recent deposits in such a -way that the line between volcanic and post-volcanic cannot be distinctly -drawn.... It must not unfrequently have happened that fossils have been -washed out of the less coherent detrital beds belonging to the volcanic -series, carried far from their original resting-place, and deposited in such a -position that they seem to belong to the present epoch.”<a name="FNanchor_1531_1531" id="FNanchor_1531_1531"></a><a href="#Footnote_1531_1531" class="fnanchor">[1531]</a> In one of the -reports of Hayden’s survey can be seen a plate representing “Modern -Lake Deposits capped with Basalt.”<a name="FNanchor_1532_1532" id="FNanchor_1532_1532"></a><a href="#Footnote_1532_1532" class="fnanchor">[1532]</a> There is sufficient ground for believing -that the volcanic activity of the regions of the Sierras has continued -down to very recent times, geologically speaking, and that there is no such -great difference of age between the lava-cappings and the other beds as -Professor Whitney supposes. Hayden thinks “the main portion of the -volcanic material of the West has been thrown out at a comparatively -modern date.”<a name="FNanchor_1533_1533" id="FNanchor_1533_1533"></a><a href="#Footnote_1533_1533" class="fnanchor">[1533]</a> Undoubtedly the amount of erosion that has taken place -in these river gravels implies a great lapse of time, but so do the other facts -of physical geography which have been employed as chronometers by which -to measure the time since the close of the quaternary period. To carry -this erosion back to the tertiary times, and to assign man his place in the -world then on that ground, in face of the arguments to the contrary drawn -from archæology, palæontology, and geology, in view of the essential weakness -of the testimony upon which the arguments in its favor are based,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span> -would seem to be a most hazardous assumption. It is only equalled by the -statement that “the discoveries made in Europe, which have already obtained -general credence, carry man close to the verge of the tertiary; if not, -indeed, a little the other side of the line.”<a name="FNanchor_1534_1534" id="FNanchor_1534_1534"></a><a href="#Footnote_1534_1534" class="fnanchor">[1534]</a> In the writer’s opinion, this is -the belief of only a small number of the most extreme evolutionists in -Europe, while the great body of cautious and critical observers think that -it has not been proved, and a few are willing to hold their judgment in -suspense.</p> - -<p>Professor Whitney’s conclusions, however, are supported by Mr. Wallace -in the article quoted at the beginning of this chapter, in his character as -an evolutionist of the most advanced school. He says: “Believing that -the whole bearing of the comparative anatomy of man and of the anthropoid -apes, together with the absence of indications of any essential change in -his structure during the quaternary period, lead to the conclusion that he -<i>must</i> have existed, as man, in pliocene times, and that the intermediate -forms connecting him with the higher apes probably lived during the early -pliocene or the miocene period, it is urged that all such discoveries ... -are in themselves probable and such as we have a right to expect.”<a name="FNanchor_1535_1535" id="FNanchor_1535_1535"></a><a href="#Footnote_1535_1535" class="fnanchor">[1535]</a> In -such a frame of mind it is very easy for him to wave aside every objection -raised by the archæologist to the character of the evidence brought forward -to sustain the alleged discoveries. To the objection that the objects accompanying -the human remains, for which such a great antiquity is claimed, -are too similar to those of comparatively recent times, he has a ready answer: -“The same may be said of the most ancient bow and spear-heads -and those made by modern Indians. The use of the articles has in both -cases been continuous, and the objects themselves are so necessary and so -comparatively simple that there is no room for any great modification of -form.” The writer can only state here that no archæologist holds this -opinion, and will refer for a detailed statement of his reasons for the contrary -view to an article by him upon <i>The Bow and Arrow unknown to -Palæolithic Man</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1536_1536" id="FNanchor_1536_1536"></a><a href="#Footnote_1536_1536" class="fnanchor">[1536]</a></p> - -<p>It is not easy to believe that so vast a difference in age can be attributed -to the deposits upon the opposite sides of the chain of the Sierra Nevada, -as would follow if we are to hold that the auriferous gravels belong to the -tertiary, while the Lahontan deposits belong to the quaternary period. -Far more reasonable does it seem to suppose that they both fall within the -two divisions into which we have seen that the pleistocene has been divided. -To the writer it appears, from what study he has made of the evidences -alleged of man’s existence in North America in early times, that proof is -wanting that he made his appearance here earlier than in interglacial times. -Dr. Abbott’s discoveries seem to be worthy of all the importance which has -been assigned to them, and the more so from the fact that they are in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span> -accord with similar discoveries made in the Old World. The evidence -adduced appears to be altogether too fragmentary and strained to warrant -the conclusion that has been drawn that there is no proper correlation -between the geological calendars of the two hemispheres.</p> - -<p>Besides the numerous palæolithic implements which the Trenton gravels -have yielded, there have been found in them three human crania, more -or less complete, and portions of others.<a name="FNanchor_1537_1537" id="FNanchor_1537_1537"></a><a href="#Footnote_1537_1537" class="fnanchor">[1537]</a> Professor Putnam is inclined -to the opinion that these may be veritable remains of the makers of the -palæolithic implements. But it is difficult to conceive how such fragile -objects as human skulls, in this period and at this locality, could have -survived the destructive forces to which they must have been subjected. -We must recollect that the bones of man are very seldom met with in -the river gravels of the Old World, and such crania as are accepted -as belonging to these deposits are dolichocephalic, and not, like these, -brachycephalic.<a name="FNanchor_1538_1538" id="FNanchor_1538_1538"></a><a href="#Footnote_1538_1538" class="fnanchor">[1538]</a> The circumstances under which these three have been -found are not reported with sufficient detail to enable us to account satisfactorily -for their presence, nor can we admit that the fact that they -“are not of the Delaware Indian type” affords any adequate criterion for -our judgment. It is well established that “in America we find extreme -brachycephaly, as well among the prehistoric as among the historic peoples -from British America to Patagonia. At the same time, dolichocephaly is -found, besides among the Eskimos, throughout the American Indian tribes -from north to south; but it cannot be considered an American craniologic -characteristic.”<a name="FNanchor_1539_1539" id="FNanchor_1539_1539"></a><a href="#Footnote_1539_1539" class="fnanchor">[1539]</a> The various forms of skulls, moreover, are found to be so -intermingled that they have been compared to “what might be looked for -in a collection made from the potter’s field of London or New York.”<a name="FNanchor_1540_1540" id="FNanchor_1540_1540"></a><a href="#Footnote_1540_1540" class="fnanchor">[1540]</a> -The problem is still further complicated by the widespread custom among -the American tribes of altering the natural shape of the skull, sometimes -by flattening it, sometimes by making it as round as possible.<a name="FNanchor_1541_1541" id="FNanchor_1541_1541"></a><a href="#Footnote_1541_1541" class="fnanchor">[1541]</a> Taking all -these matters into consideration, we are compelled to regard craniology by -itself as an insufficient guide.</p> - -<p>We have now passed in review such evidences of man’s early existence -in North America as seem to be sufficiently substantiated by satisfactory -proof, and have intentionally left out of consideration many former examples, -which were accustomed to be cited before the science of prehistoric -archæology had formulated her laws and established her general conclusions, -as well as some more recent ones in which the evidence seems to be -weak.</p> - -<p>It only remains for the writer to express his own conclusions on the -question. But first let him draw attention to the state of public opinion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span> -upon this subject as it is well expressed by an English writer: “The evidence -for the existence of palæolithic man in America has been more fiercely -contested even than in Europe, and the problem there is certainly more -complicated. In Europe we can test the age of the remains not merely by -their actual character, but also by the presence or absence of associated -domestic animals. In America this test is absent, for there were virtually -no domestic animals save the dog known to the pre-European inhabitants. -We are therefore remitted to less direct evidence, namely, the provenance -of the remains from beds of distinctly Pleistocene age, the fabric of the -remains, and their association with animals, we have reason to believe, -become extinct at the termination of that period.”<a name="FNanchor_1542_1542" id="FNanchor_1542_1542"></a><a href="#Footnote_1542_1542" class="fnanchor">[1542]</a></p> - -<p>As an example of the spirit in which this “fierce contest” is waged in -America, it will be sufficient to quote a few passages from a work by one -of her most eminent men of science. He is speaking of “what seems to -be a village site in Europe, of far greater antiquity than the Swiss lake-villages, -and which may be a veritable ‘Palæolithic’ antediluvian town. It -occurs at Solutré, near Mâcon, in eastern France, and has given rise to -much discussion and controversy, as described by Messrs. De Ferry and -Arcelin.... It destroys utterly the pretension that the men of the mammoth -age were an inferior race, or ruder than their successors in the later -stone age.... Lastly, many of the flint weapons of Solutré are of the -palæolithic type characteristic of the river gravels, ... while other implements -and weapons are as well worked as those of the later stone age. -Thus this singular deposit connects these two so-called ages, and fuses -them into one.”<a name="FNanchor_1543_1543" id="FNanchor_1543_1543"></a><a href="#Footnote_1543_1543" class="fnanchor">[1543]</a> The only comment the writer will make upon this statement -is to say that he has twice visited the station at Solutré in company -with M. Arcelin; that he has examined the collection of the late M. De -Ferry at his house; and that he has before him the work which is supposed -to be quoted from,<a name="FNanchor_1544_1544" id="FNanchor_1544_1544"></a><a href="#Footnote_1544_1544" class="fnanchor">[1544]</a> and he accordingly feels warranted in asserting -with confidence that not one “flint implement of the palæolithic type characteristic -of the river gravels” was ever found at Solutré. A note appended -to Sir J. W. Dawson’s rash statement adds: “Recent discoveries -by M. Prunières, in caves at Beaumes Chaudes, seem to show that the -older cave-men were in contact with more advanced tribes, as arrow-heads -of the so-called neolithic type are found sticking in their bones, or associated -with them. This would form another evidence of the little value to -be attached to the distinction of the two ages of stone.” The writer has -already indicated his conviction that palæolithic man had not advanced -sufficiently to invent the bow and arrow, and he wishes to add here that -“arrow-heads of the so-called neolithic type” continued to be ordinary -weapons employed during the Age of Bronze. He is only surprised that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span> -Dr. Prunières’ discoveries are not quoted to prove that there is no distinction -between the Age of Stone and the Age of Bronze.</p> - -<p>Tested by the canons of prehistoric archæology, superposition, association, -and style, in the judgment of the writer the fact of the existence of -palæolithic man upon this continent, and the distinction between the rude -palæolithic implement and the skilfully chipped obsidian objects which belong -to what is called in Europe the Solutré type (a development of the -later period in the early stone age, which cannot be overlooked in discussing -the question of the antiquity of man), are truths as firmly established -as any taught by modern science. The small minority who refuse to admit -the last stated proposition are laggards in her march, and the few -doubters who still question the genuineness of the palæolithic implements -from the Trenton gravels are not entitled by their knowledge of the processes -of manufacturing stone implements to have much weight attached -to their opinions.</p> - -<p>Regarding, then, the existence of palæolithic man as established by the -finding of four hundred of his relics in the Delaware valley near Trenton, -we have next to inquire whether there is evidence that in that region man -made any progress towards the neolithic condition. For an answer to this -question we have only to study the immense collection of objects gathered -by Dr. Abbott, and now deposited in the Peabody Museum at Cambridge. -This seems to warrant a conclusion exactly the opposite to Professor Whitney’s, -who states that “so far as California is concerned ... the implements, -tools, and works of art obtained are throughout in harmony with -each other, all being the simplest and least artistic of which it is possible -to conceive;” and his further statement that the “rude tools required but -little more skill than is indicated by the chipped obsidian implements which -are now, and have been from all time, in use among the aborigines of this -continent.”<a name="FNanchor_1545_1545" id="FNanchor_1545_1545"></a><a href="#Footnote_1545_1545" class="fnanchor">[1545]</a></p> - -<p>We have already seen that Professor Whitney’s inferences about the -relics of man occurring in the gravels of California are not at all justified -by the facts relating to their discovery as reported by him; and as he -offers no proof of his other assertion that “chipped obsidian implements -have been <i>for all time</i> in use among the aborigines of this continent,” we -will venture to question its accuracy, even should he argue that his loose -statement was intended to apply only to the aborigines of California. Consequently -we are somewhat at a loss to understand why Dr. Abbott should -feel called upon to refute his conclusions. He does this, however, successfully -in his <i>Primitive Industry</i>, which is so largely based upon this great -collection as to answer satisfactorily as a catalogue for it. In his own -words, “the careful and systematic examination of the surface geology of -New Jersey, of itself, it is believed, shows as abundant and unmistakable -evidence of the transition from a true palæolithic to a neolithic condition as -is exhibited in the traces of human handiwork found in the valley of any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span> -European river.”<a name="FNanchor_1546_1546" id="FNanchor_1546_1546"></a><a href="#Footnote_1546_1546" class="fnanchor">[1546]</a> The arguments upon which this conclusion is based are -drawn from each of the three canons of prehistoric archæology. A certain -class of objects, superior in form and finish to the rude palæolithic implement, -but decidedly inferior in every respect to the common types of -Indian manufacture, with which collectors of such objects all over our -country are perfectly familiar, is found occurring <i>principally</i> in deposits -which occupy a position intermediate between the drift gravels, from which -come the palæolithic implements, and the cultivable surface-soil, in which -the former implements of the Indians are constantly brought to light by the -ordinary operations of agriculture. In other instances, where these peculiar -objects are found on or near the surface, not only do they not always -occur there in association with the common Indian relics, but the material -of which they are made, argillite, is the same as that out of which all the -four hundred palæolithic implements are fabricated, with the exception of -“two of quartz, one of quartzite, and one made from a black chert pebble.”<a name="FNanchor_1547_1547" id="FNanchor_1547_1547"></a><a href="#Footnote_1547_1547" class="fnanchor">[1547]</a> -This peculiar material occurs <i>in place</i> only a few miles north of Trenton, -and as the ice-sheet withdrew it afforded “the first available mineral for -effective implements other than pebbles, and these were largely covered -with water, and not so readily obtained as at present; while the dry land -of that day, the Columbia gravel, contained almost exclusively in this -region small quartzite pebbles an inch or two in length.”<a name="FNanchor_1548_1548" id="FNanchor_1548_1548"></a><a href="#Footnote_1548_1548" class="fnanchor">[1548]</a> The objects -thus referred to exhibit only a few simple types. There is a rudely chipped -spear-head, about three or four inches in length and from one to two in -breadth, characterized by the same kind of decomposition of the surface -which is seen upon the palæolithic implements. These occur in large -numbers; “as many as a thousand have been found in an area of fifty -acres.... A peculiarity ... is their frequent occurrence ... at a depth -that suggests that they were lost when the face of the country was different -from what it now is.”<a name="FNanchor_1549_1549" id="FNanchor_1549_1549"></a><a href="#Footnote_1549_1549" class="fnanchor">[1549]</a> An implement is often found which was -probably used as a knife, also very rudely chipped, and shaped somewhat -like a spear-head, but never having a sharp point. The argillite, of which -these are made, “is very hard and susceptible of being brought to a very -sharp edge,” but they are now all much decomposed upon the surface, and -“are frequently brought to light through land-slides and the uprooting of -trees from depths greater than it is usual to find jasper implements”<a name="FNanchor_1550_1550" id="FNanchor_1550_1550"></a><a href="#Footnote_1550_1550" class="fnanchor">[1550]</a> of -the Indians.</p> - -<p>The most common object of all, however, and one that occurs in very -large numbers, is a slender argillite spear-point, about three inches in -length, of nearly uniform size, and having little or no finish at the base. -These are found at various depths up to five feet, principally in the alluvial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span> -mud that has accumulated upon the meadows skirting the Delaware -River, that are liable to be overflowed occasionally by the tide. From this -circumstance, in addition to their shape, Dr. Abbott has conjectured that -they were used as fish-spears.<a name="FNanchor_1551_1551" id="FNanchor_1551_1551"></a><a href="#Footnote_1551_1551" class="fnanchor">[1551]</a> “This deposit of mud is of a deep blue-black -color, stiff in consistency, and almost wholly free from pebbles. It -is composed of decomposed vegetable matter and a large percentage of -very fine sand. It varies in depth from four to twenty feet, and rests on an -old gravel of an origin antedating the river gravels that contain palæolithic -implements. This mud is the geological formation next succeeding the -palæolithic implement-bearing gravels.... A careful survey of this mud -deposit, made at several distant points, leads to the conclusion that its formation -dates from the exposure of the older gravel upon which it rests, -through the gradual lessening of the bulk of the river, until it occupied only -its present channel.... The indications are that the present volume and -channel of the river have been essentially as they now are for a very long -period; and the character of the deposit is such that its accumulation, if -principally from decomposition of vegetable matter, must necessarily be -very gradual. Since its accumulation to a depth sufficient to sustain tree -growth, forests have grown, decayed, and been replaced by a growth of -other timber. While so recent in origin that it seems scarcely to warrant -the attention of the geologist, its years of growth are nevertheless to be -numbered by centuries, and the traces of man found at all depths through -it hint of a distant, shadowy past that is difficult to realize.</p> - -<p>“The same objection, it may be, will be urged in this instance as in others -where the comparative antiquity of man is based upon the depth at which -stone implements are found,—that all these traces have been left upon the -present surface of the ground, and subsequently have gotten, by unexplained -means, to the various depths at which they now occur. It is, indeed, -difficult to realize how some of these argillite spear-points have -finally sunk through a compact peaty mass until they have reached the very -base of the deposit. For those who urge that this sinking process explains -the occurrence of implements at great depths, it remains to demonstrate -that the people who made these argillite fish-spears either made only these, -or were careful to take no other evidences of their handicraft with them -when they wandered about these meadows; for certainly nothing else appears -to have shared the fate of sinking deeply into the mud. In fact, the -objection mentioned is met in this case, as in that of the palæolithic implements, -that if these fish-spears are of the same age and origin as the ordinary -Indian relics of the surface, then all alike should be found at great depths. -This, we know, is not the case. Furthermore, the character of the deposit -is not that of a loose mud or quicksand, but more like that of peat. It has -a close texture, is tough and unyielding to a degree, and offers decided -resistance to the sinking of comparatively light objects deeply into it. This -is, of course, lessened when the deposit is subject to tidal overflows, and in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span> -the immediate vicinity of springs, which, bubbling through it, have caused -a deposit of quicksand. While here an object sinks instantly out of sight, -it is not here that we must judge of the character of the formation as a -whole; and over the greater portion of its area we find no evidence of -objects disappearing beneath the surface at a more rapid rate than the -accumulation of decomposing vegetable matter would explain. Efforts -have been made to determine the rate of progress of this growth of mould, -but they are not wholly satisfactory; nevertheless the indications are sufficient -to warrant our belief that the rate is so gradual as to invest with great -archæological interest the characteristic traces of man found in these alluvial -deposits.”</p> - -<p>Although these argillite spear-points seem <i>principally</i> to occur, as has -been stated, in the alluvial mud along the banks of the Delaware, yet they -are often found upon the surface, and associated with objects of Indian -origin. This circumstance Dr. Abbott attempts to explain by the following -considerations: “One marked result of the deforesting of the country and -its constant cultivation has been to remove in great part the many inequalities -of the surface and to dry up many of the smaller brooks. The hillocks -have been worn down, the valleys filled up, and this of course has resulted -in bringing to the surface, on the higher ground, the argillite implements -which were at considerable depths, and in burying in the valleys the more -recent jasper and quartz implements of Indian origin that were left upon -the soil when lost or discarded by the red man. In the remnants of forests -still remaining, where no such disturbance of the soil has occurred, the -relative depths at which argillite and jasper respectively occur indicate the -greater age of the former.”<a name="FNanchor_1552_1552" id="FNanchor_1552_1552"></a><a href="#Footnote_1552_1552" class="fnanchor">[1552]</a></p> - -<p>He recurs to this subject in another place:<a name="FNanchor_1553_1553" id="FNanchor_1553_1553"></a><a href="#Footnote_1553_1553" class="fnanchor">[1553]</a> “The telling fact with reference -to these argillite spear-points is that they are not, in the same sense -as jasper arrow-heads, surface-found implements. They occur also, and -even more abundantly, beneath the surface-soil. The celebrated Swedish -naturalist, Peter Kalm, travelled throughout central and southern New -Jersey in 1748-50, and in his description of the country remarks: ‘We -find great woods here, but when the trees in them have stood a hundred -and fifty or a hundred and eighty years, they are either rotting within or -losing their crown, or their wood becomes quite soft, or their roots are no -longer able to draw in sufficient nourishment, or they die from some other -cause. Therefore, when storms blow, which sometimes happens here, the -trees are broken off either just above the roots, or in the middle, or at the -summit. Several trees are likewise torn out with their roots by the power -of the winds.... In this manner the old trees die away continually, and -are succeeded by a younger generation. Those which are thrown down lie -on the ground and putrefy, sooner or later, and by that means increase the -<i>black soil</i>, into which the leaves are likewise finally changed, which drop -abundantly in autumn, are blown about by the winds for some time, but are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span> -heaped up and lie on both sides of the trees which are fallen down. It -requires several years before a tree is entirely reduced to dust.’<a name="FNanchor_1554_1554" id="FNanchor_1554_1554"></a><a href="#Footnote_1554_1554" class="fnanchor">[1554]</a> This -quotation has a direct bearing on that which follows. It is clear that the -surface-soil was forming during the occupancy of the country by the Indians. -The entire area of the State was covered with a dense forest, which -century after century was increasing the <i>black soil</i> to which Kalm refers. -If, now, an opportunity occurs to examine a section of virgin soil and underlying -strata, as occasionally happens on the bluffs facing the river, the -limit in depth of this black soil may be approximately determined. An -average derived from several such sections leads me to infer that the depth -is not much over one foot, and the proportion of vegetable matter increases -as the surface is approached. Of this depth of superficial soil probably not -over one half has been derived from decomposition of vegetable growths. -While no positive data are determinable in this matter beyond the naked -fact that rotting trees increase the bulk of top-soil, one archæological -fact that we do derive is that <i>flint implements</i> known as Indian relics -belong to this superficial or ‘black soil,’ as Kalm terms it. Abundantly -are they found on the surface; more sparingly are they found near the -surface; more sparingly still the deeper we go; while at the base of this -deposit of soil the <i>argillite</i> implements occur in greatest abundance. Here, -then, we have the whole matter in a nut-shell. The two forms were dissociated -until by the deforesting of the country and subsequent cultivation of -the soil, except in a few instances, they became commingled.”</p> - -<p>A further argument in respect to the relation which argillite implements -bear to those made of jasper and quartz is derived from the relative proportion -in which they occur in localities which are believed to have been occupied -first by the users of argillite, and subsequently by the Indians. “Of -a series of twenty thousand objects gathered in Mercer County, New Jersey, -forty-four hundred were of argillite, and of such rude forms and in such -limited varieties as would be expected of the productions of a less cultured -people than the Indian of the stone age. Of this series of forty-four hundred, -two hundred and thirty-three are well-designed drills or perforators and -scrapers; the others being spear-points, fishing-spears, arrow-heads, and -knife-like implements.”<a name="FNanchor_1555_1555" id="FNanchor_1555_1555"></a><a href="#Footnote_1555_1555" class="fnanchor">[1555]</a> This is supplemented by negative evidence drawn -from “the character of the sites of arrow-makers’ open-air workshops, or -those spots whereon the professional chipper of flint pursued his calling. -In the locality where I have pursued my studies several such sites have -been discovered and carefully examined. In no one of these workshop -sites has there been found any trace of argillite mingled with the flint-chips -that form the characteristic feature of such spots. On the other hand, no -similar sites have been discovered, to my knowledge, where argillite was -used exclusively. The absence of this mineral cannot be explained on the -ground that it was difficult to procure, for such is not the case. It constitutes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span> -in fact, a considerable percentage of the pebbles and boulders of -the drift from which the Indians gathered their jasper and quartz pebbles -for working into implements and weapons. If the absence of argillite from -such heaps of selected stones is explained by the assertion that the Indians -had recognized the superiority of jasper, then the belief that argillite was -used prior to jasper receives tacit assent. If, however, it was the earlier -<i>Indians</i> who used argillite, and gradually discarded it for the various forms -of flint, then we ought to find workshop sites older than the time of <i>flint</i>-chipping, -and others where the two minerals are associated. This, as has -been stated, has not been done.”<a name="FNanchor_1556_1556" id="FNanchor_1556_1556"></a><a href="#Footnote_1556_1556" class="fnanchor">[1556]</a></p> - -<p>Professor Putnam has found a confirmation of these views of Dr. Abbott -in the contents of a great shell-heap at Keyport, in New Jersey, investigated -over thirty years ago by Rev. Samuel Lockwood, and now placed -in the Peabody Museum at Cambridge. “As the shell-heap at Keyport, -once covering a mile or more in length along a narrow strip bordered upon -one side by the ocean and on the other by Raritan Bay, is entirely obliterated, -it is of importance that the materials obtained from it are now in -the museum for comparison with our very extensive collections from the -shell-heaps of New England. The fact that at certain places on this -narrow strip between the bay and the sea the prevailing implements -were of argillite and of great antiquity has a peculiar significance in connection -with those from Trenton, and again points to an intermediate -period between the palæolithic and the late Indian occupation of New -Jersey.”<a name="FNanchor_1557_1557" id="FNanchor_1557_1557"></a><a href="#Footnote_1557_1557" class="fnanchor">[1557]</a></p> - -<p>To these various arguments the writer wishes to add the statement that -to his personal knowledge argillite spear-points, and especially those of -the fish-spear type, are occasionally found in other parts of our country -besides New Jersey. In his own researches, which have been principally -carried on upon the seacoast of New England, he has <i>never</i> found an -example of them in the shell-heaps proper, which are universally recognized -by archæologists as relics of the Indians. The few which he has -found himself, or has obtained from others, have come from meadows by -the side of rivers or ponds, where they might very well have been used as -fish-spears.</p> - -<p>A further confirmation of Dr. Abbott’s opinions in regard to the descendants -of palæolithic man is derived from certain discoveries made by Mr. -Hilborne T. Cresson in the alluvial deposits at Naaman’s Creek, in Delaware. -These were first made known in November, 1887, by a letter to the -editor of the American Antiquarian. “In 1870, a fisherman living in the -village of Marcus Hook, Pennsylvania, gave me some spear and arrow heads -flaked from a dense argillite, as well as other rude implements of a prehistoric -people, which he had found on some extensive mud flats near the -mouth of Naaman’s Creek, a small tributary of the Delaware. The finder<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span> -stated that while fishing ... he had noticed here and there the ends of logs -or stakes protruding from the mud, and that they seemed to him to have -been placed in rows.... A visit made a few days afterward to the place -... disclosed the ends of much-decayed stakes or piles protruding here -and there above the mud.... On my return from France in 1880 I again -visited the spot.... While abroad I studied in spare moments many -archæological collections, especially those from the Swiss Lake Dwellings, -and visited the various lake stations of Switzerland. The rude dressings of -the ends of the piles in some places were evidently made with blunt stone -implements, and recalled those I had seen on the ends of the posts in the -Delaware River marshes. Since 1880 I have quietly examined the remains, -excavating what pile ends remained <i>in situ</i> (preserving a few that did not -crumble to pieces), preserving careful notes of the dredging and excavations -(at low tides), carried on principally by myself, aided at times by interested -friends. The results so far seem to indicate that the ends of the piles imbedded -in the mud, judging from the implements and other débris scattered -around them, once supported shelters of early man that were erected a few -feet above the water,—the upper portion of the piles having disappeared -in the long lapse of time that must have ensued since they were placed -there. (The flats are covered by four and one half feet of water on the flood -tide; on the ebb the marsh is dry, and covered with slimy ooze several feet -in depth, varying in different places.) Three different dwellings have been -located, all that exist in the flats referred to, after a careful examination -within the last four years of nearly every inch of ground carefully laid off -and examined in sections. The implements found in two of ‘the supposed -river dwelling sites’ are very rude in type, and generally made of dense argillite, -not unlike the palæoliths found by my friend Dr. C. C. Abbott in the -Trenton gravels. The character of the implements from the other or third -supposed river dwelling on the Delaware marshes is better finished objects -made of argillite.”<a name="FNanchor_1558_1558" id="FNanchor_1558_1558"></a><a href="#Footnote_1558_1558" class="fnanchor">[1558]</a></p> - -<p>The greater portion of the objects obtained by Mr. Cresson has been -placed in the Peabody Museum, to which he is at present attached as a special -assistant; but he has also kindly sent to the writer a small illustrative -collection from each site, for his study.</p> - -<p>The writer would hesitate to draw the inference from this single discovery -that the custom of living in pile-dwellings ever prevailed in North -America, although there is evidence that such a practice was not unknown -in South America. This is to be found in the account of the voyage of -Alonso de Ojeda along the north coast of that country, in the year 1499, -in which he was accompanied by Vespucius.<a name="FNanchor_1559_1559" id="FNanchor_1559_1559"></a><a href="#Footnote_1559_1559" class="fnanchor">[1559]</a> I will quote the language of -Washington Irving: “Proceeding along the coast, he arrived at a vast, -deep gulf resembling a tranquil lake, entering which he beheld on the -eastern side a village whose construction struck him with surprise. It -consisted of twenty large houses, shaped like bells, and built on piles driven<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span> -into the bottom of the lake, which in this part was limpid and of but little -depth. Each house was provided with a drawbridge, and with canoes by -which the communication was carried on. From these resemblances to the -Italian city, Ojeda gave to the bay the name of the Gulf of Venice, and it is -called at the present day Venezuela, or Little Venice.”<a name="FNanchor_1560_1560" id="FNanchor_1560_1560"></a><a href="#Footnote_1560_1560" class="fnanchor">[1560]</a> There is no inherent -improbability that such a custom may have prevailed upon the shores -of Delaware Bay, and for the same reason that has caused it to be followed -elsewhere. “It has been stated that the natives living near Lake Maracaybo, -in South America, erect pile dwellings over the lake, to which they resort -in order to escape from the mosquitoes which infest the shore. Lord also -mentions that the Indians of the Suman prairie, British Columbia, on the -subsidence of the annual floods in May and June, build pile dwellings over -a lake there, to which they retire to escape from the mosquitoes which at -that period infest the prairie in dense clouds, but will not cross the -water.”<a name="FNanchor_1561_1561" id="FNanchor_1561_1561"></a><a href="#Footnote_1561_1561" class="fnanchor">[1561]</a></p> - -<p>But it would be safer, probably, to consider these discoveries of Mr. Cresson’s -as marking the site of ancient aboriginal fish-weirs, such as are described -by Captain Ribault and other early explorers as made by the natives.<a name="FNanchor_1562_1562" id="FNanchor_1562_1562"></a><a href="#Footnote_1562_1562" class="fnanchor">[1562]</a> -The writer agrees with Professor Putnam in thinking that “the -fact that at only one station pottery occurs, and, also, that at this station -the stone implements are largely of jasper and quartz, with few of argillite, -while at the two other stations many rude stone implements are associated -with chipped points of argillite, with few of jasper and other flint-like -material, is of great interest.”<a name="FNanchor_1563_1563" id="FNanchor_1563_1563"></a><a href="#Footnote_1563_1563" class="fnanchor">[1563]</a></p> - -<p>Still further confirmation of the progress of the palæolithic man in this -region is afforded by discoveries made in a rock-shelter near the headwaters -of Naaman’s Creek, as early as 1866, for an account of which, and the -preservation of the objects then found, we are also indebted to Mr. Cresson: -“The remains of the Naaman’s Creek rock-shelter luckily fell into hands -that have preserved them.... To give a detailed account of <i>how</i> the rock-shelter -was discovered would consume too much time. Let us rather consider -briefly the ... contents of the shelter’s various layers.... Fortunately -careful drawings of the shelter were made during its excavation -between the years 1866 and 1867.... A glance shows the outcrop of the -rock as it appeared before the excavations were begun in 1866. The trees -show that the ground was then covered by a thick wood.... From the -point that marks the innermost edge of the outcrop, overhanging the -hollow, a perpendicular line dropped to the ground would measure five and -one eighth feet, the height of the projection of the rock above the ground -before the excavations were commenced.</p> - -<p>“Twenty-two feet eight inches from the outcrop, measured from its inner -face, there is still another outcrop.... This marks the opposite side of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span> -the hollow.... It is evident how admirably the place was adapted to the -wants of the early hunters of the Delaware valley, whether it be as a -shelter, or as a place of defence against their enemies.... Let us look at -the layers of earth that filled it, these being intermingled with rude implements, -broken bones, and charcoal, indicating that man at times had resorted -to the spot.</p> - -<p>“Layer C [the lowest]. This was composed of schist, resting on the bedrock -of the shelter. A layer of aqueous gravel, of the same type as that -underlying Philadelphia, rested on the decomposed schist. The greatest -depth of the red gravel layer was four feet two and one fourth inches, -measured from the layer of decomposed schist. Least depth of gravel observed, -one foot three inches....</p> - -<p>“Layer A [next above]. This was a layer of grayish-white brick clay -mixed with yellow clay, similar to that underlying Philadelphia, on top of -which was a layer mixed with sand.... Stone implements were discovered -in this layer. They were but few in number and very rude, exclusively of -argillite, and palæolithic in type. Greatest depth of layer, two feet one and -one half inches. No implements of bone were found....</p> - -<p>“Layer T [next above]. This was of reddish gravel, intermingled with -decomposed schist, cinders, and broken bones of animals. Fragments of a -human skull were found ... in this layer. A fragment of a human rib -was also preserved. The fragments of the skull are covered here and there -by dendritic incrustations. Rude spears and implements of argillite were -found in this layer. Depth of layer, thirteen to eighteen inches.</p> - -<p>“Layer D [next above]. Composed of reddish-yellow clay. Depth, two -feet three inches. No implements.</p> - -<p>“Layer M [next above]. In this layer were numerous implements of -argillite and some of bone, intermingled with rude implements of quartzite -and jasper and fragments of rude pottery, with charcoal. Greatest depth, -one foot one and one half inches. Least depth, three inches.</p> - -<p>“Layer R [next above]. Yellow clay. Greatest depth, two feet one and -one half inches; least depth, eight inches. No implements.</p> - -<p>“Layer W [next above]. This contained chipped implements; those made -of jasper and quartzite predominating over those of argillite. In the lowest -part of this layer were fragments of rude pottery. In the upper portion of -the layer were potsherds decidedly superior in decoration and technique to -those from the lower portion. Geological composition of this layer, yellow -clay loam. Greatest depth, three feet four inches. Least depth, two and -one half inches.</p> - -<p>“Layer L [top]. This consists of leaf mould seven inches thick, converted -into swamp muck by decomposing action of water from springs. No implements.... -No remains of extinct animals were found.”<a name="FNanchor_1564_1564" id="FNanchor_1564_1564"></a><a href="#Footnote_1564_1564" class="fnanchor">[1564]</a></p> - -<p>Professor Putnam thus proceeded to comment upon these discoveries: -“We have a series of objects, taken from the several layers of the shelter,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span> -giving us a chronology of the utmost importance, as each period of occupation -of the shelter was followed by a natural deposition, separating the different -periods of occupation. The stone implements ... are taken from -the lowest layer, indicating the earliest period of occupation of the rock-shelter; -and ... they correspond in shape and rudeness of execution with -those taken from the gravel-bed at Trenton; and like most of the latter -they are all of argillite. The specimens from the second period are of -argillite, and while many are chipped into slender points, they are still of -very rude forms; and these in turn correspond with the argillite points -found by Dr. Abbott deep down in the black soil, or resting upon the -gravel, at Trenton. In the upper layers of the cave we observe ... the -gradual introduction of implements chipped from jasper and quartz, and -corresponding in form with those found upon the surface throughout the -valley. And as a further indication of this later development, it was only -in the upper layers that pottery, bone implements, and ornaments were -found; the three distinct periods of occupation of the Delaware valley are -thus distinctly shown; and this cave-shelter is a perfect exemplification of -the results which Dr. Abbott had obtained from a study of the specimens -which he has collected upon the surface, deep in the black soil, and in the -gravel, at Trenton.”</p> - -<p class="p2">From the accumulative force of these various lines of reasoning, the -writer thinks that there is a strong probability that here, on the waters of -the Delaware, man developed from the palæolithic to the neolithic stage of -culture. But we cannot follow Dr. Abbott in his further conclusion (if, -indeed, he still holds to it) that we are to seek the descendants of this -primitive population in the Eskimos, driven north after contact with the -Indians. We have failed to discover the slightest evidence to sustain -this position. The hereditary enmity existing between the Eskimos and -the Indians may be equally well explained upon the theory that the former -are later comers to this continent, and are therefore hated by the Indian -races as intruders. The two races are certainly markedly unlike.</p> - -<p>In the absence of any evidence tending to show the development of -the argillite-using people into the Indian races, with their perfected implements -and weapons of the age of polished stone, it seems more reasonable -to hold with Professor Dawkins that the earlier and ruder race perished -before or were absorbed by a people furnished with a better equipment in -the struggle for the “survival of the fittest.” The palæolithic man of the -river gravels of Trenton and his argillite-using posterity the writer believes -to be completely extinct.<a name="FNanchor_1565_1565" id="FNanchor_1565_1565"></a><a href="#Footnote_1565_1565" class="fnanchor">[1565]</a></p> - -<p>It only remains for the writer to express his regret that he has been prevented -from setting forth in detail, at the present time, the grounds upon -which he has come to other conclusions which were briefly indicated at the -beginning of this chapter. He can only repeat here his belief that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span> -so-called Indians, with their many divisions into numerous linguistic families, -were later comers to our shores than the primitive population, whose -development he has attempted to trace; that the so-called “moundbuilders” -were the ancestors of tribes found in the occupation of the soil; and that -the Pueblos and the Aztecs were only peoples relatively farther advanced -than the others.</p> - -<p>The writer further thinks that these are propositions capable, if not of -being demonstrated, at least of being made to appear in a very high degree -probable by means of authorities which will be found amply referred to in -other chapters of this volume.</p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-418.jpg" width="400" height="39" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/d2.jpg" width="200" height="63" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<h3 class="p2"><a name="c369" id="c369">THE PROGRESS OF OPINION RESPECTING THE ORIGIN -AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN AMERICA.</a></h3> - -<p class="pc1">BY THE EDITOR.</p> - -<p class="drop-cap04">THE literature respecting the origin and early condition of the American aborigines is very extensive; -and, as a rule, especially in the earlier period, it is not characterized by much reserve in connecting races by -historical analogies.<a name="FNanchor_1566_1566" id="FNanchor_1566_1566"></a><a href="#Footnote_1566_1566" class="fnanchor">[1566]</a> Few before Dr. Robertson, in discussing the problem, could say: “I have ventured to -inquire without presuming to decide.”</p> - -<p>The question was one that allured many of the earlier Spanish writers like Herrera and Torquemada. -Among the earlier English discussions is that of Wm. Bourne in his <i>Booke called the Treasure for Travellers</i> -(London, 1578), where a section is given to “The Peopling of America.” The most famous of the early -discussions of the various theories was that of Gregorio Garciá, a missionary for twenty years in South -America, who reviewed the question in his <i>Origen de los Indios de el Nuevo Mundo</i> (Valencia, 1607).<a name="FNanchor_1567_1567" id="FNanchor_1567_1567"></a><a href="#Footnote_1567_1567" class="fnanchor">[1567]</a> He -goes over the supposed navigations of the Phœnicians, the identity of Peru with Solomon’s Ophir, and the -chances of African, Roman, and Jewish migrations,—only to reject them all, and to favor a coming of Tartars -and Chinese. Clavigero thinks his evidences the merest conjectures. E. Brerewood, in his <i>Enquiries -touching the diversity of languages and religions</i> (London, 1632, 1635), claimed a Tartar origin. In New -England, where many were believers in the Jewish analogies, it is somewhat amusing to find not long after -this the quizzical Thomas Morton, with what seems like mock gravity, finding the aboriginal source in “the -scattered Trojans, after such time as Brutus departed from Latium.”<a name="FNanchor_1568_1568" id="FNanchor_1568_1568"></a><a href="#Footnote_1568_1568" class="fnanchor">[1568]</a> The reader, however, is referred to -other sections of the present volume for the literature bearing upon the distinct ethnical connections of the -early American peoples.</p> - -<p>The chief literary controversy over the question began in 1642, when Hugo Grotius published his <i>De -Origine Gentium Americanarum Dissertatio</i> (Paris and Amsterdam, 1642).<a name="FNanchor_1569_1569" id="FNanchor_1569_1569"></a><a href="#Footnote_1569_1569" class="fnanchor">[1569]</a> He argued that all North<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span> -America except Yucatan (which had an Ethiopian stock) was peopled from the Scandinavian North; that the -Peruvians were from China, and that the Moluccans peopled the regions below Peru. Grotius aroused an -antagonist in Johannes de Laet, whose challenge appeared the next year: <i>Joannis de Laet Antwerpiani -notae ad dissertationem Hugonis Grotii de origine gentium Americanarum: et observationes aliquot ad -meliorem indaginem difficillimæ illius quæstionis</i> (Amsterdam, 1643).<a name="FNanchor_1570_1570" id="FNanchor_1570_1570"></a><a href="#Footnote_1570_1570" class="fnanchor">[1570]</a> He combated his brother Dutchman -at all points, and contended that the Scythian race furnished the predominant population of America. -The Spaniards went to the Canaries, and thence some of their vessels drifted to Brazil. He is inclined to -accept the story of Madoc’s Welshmen, and think it not unlikely that the people of the Pacific islands may -have floated to the western coast of South America, and that minor migrations may have come from other -lands. He supports his views by comparisons of the Irish, Gallic, Icelandic, Huron, Iroquois, and Mexican -tongues.</p> - -<p>To all this Grotius replied in a second <i>Dissertatio</i>, and De Laet again renewed the attack: <i>Ioannis de Laet -Antwerpiani responsio ad dissertationem secundam Hvgonis Grotii, de origine gentium Americanarum. -Cum indice ad utrumque libellum</i> (Amsterdam, 1644).<a name="FNanchor_1571_1571" id="FNanchor_1571_1571"></a><a href="#Footnote_1571_1571" class="fnanchor">[1571]</a></p> - -<p>De Laet, not content with his own onset, incited another to take part in the controversy, and so George -Horn (Hornius) published his <i>De Originibus Americanis, libri quatuor</i> (Hagæ Comitis, <i>i. e.</i> The Hague, -1652; again, Hemipoli, <i>i. e.</i> Halberstadt, 1669).<a name="FNanchor_1572_1572" id="FNanchor_1572_1572"></a><a href="#Footnote_1572_1572" class="fnanchor">[1572]</a> His view was the Scythian one, but he held to later additions -from the Phœnicians and Carthaginians on the Atlantic side, and from the Chinese on the Pacific.</p> - -<p>For the next fifty years there were a number of writers on the subject, who are barely names to the present -generation;<a name="FNanchor_1573_1573" id="FNanchor_1573_1573"></a><a href="#Footnote_1573_1573" class="fnanchor">[1573]</a> but towards the middle of the eighteenth century the question was considered in <i>The American -Traveller</i> (London, 1741), and by Charlevoix in his <i>Nouvelle France</i> (1744). The author of an <i>Enquiry into -the Origin of the Cherokees</i> (Oxford, 1762) makes them the descendants of Meshek, son of Japhet. In 1767, -however, the question was again brought into the range of a learned and disputatious discussion, reviving all -the arguments of Grotius, De Laet, and Horn, when E. Bailli d’Engel published his <i>Essai sur cette question: -Quand et comment l’America a-t-elle été peuplée d’hommes et d’Animaux?</i> (5 vols., Amsterdam, 1767, 2d -ed., 1768). He argues for an antediluvian origin.<a name="FNanchor_1574_1574" id="FNanchor_1574_1574"></a><a href="#Footnote_1574_1574" class="fnanchor">[1574]</a> The controversy which now followed was aroused by C. De -Pauw’s characterization of all American products, man, animals, vegetation, as degraded and inferior to -nature in the old world, in an essay which passed through various editions, and was attacked and defended in -turn.<a name="FNanchor_1575_1575" id="FNanchor_1575_1575"></a><a href="#Footnote_1575_1575" class="fnanchor">[1575]</a> An Italian, Count Carli, some years later, controverted De Pauw, and using every resource of mythology, -tradition, geology, and astronomy, claimed for the Americans a descent from the Atlantides.<a name="FNanchor_1576_1576" id="FNanchor_1576_1576"></a><a href="#Footnote_1576_1576" class="fnanchor">[1576]</a> It was not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span> -till after reports had come from the Ohio Valley of the extensive earthworks in that region that the question -of the earlier peoples of America attracted much general attention throughout America; and the most conspicuous -spokesman was President Stiles of Yale College, in an address which he delivered before the General -Assembly of Connecticut, in 1783, on the future of the new republic.<a name="FNanchor_1577_1577" id="FNanchor_1577_1577"></a><a href="#Footnote_1577_1577" class="fnanchor">[1577]</a> In this, while arguing for the unity of -the American tribes and for their affinity with the Tartars, he held to their being in the main the descendants -of the Canaanites expelled by Joshua, whether finding their way hither by the Asiatic route and establishing -the northern Sachemdoms, or coming in Phœnician ships across the Atlantic to settle Mexico and Peru.<a name="FNanchor_1578_1578" id="FNanchor_1578_1578"></a><a href="#Footnote_1578_1578" class="fnanchor">[1578]</a> -Lafitau in 1724 (<i>Mœurs de Sauvages</i>) had contended for a Tartar origin. We have examples of the reasoning -of a missionary in the views of the Moravian Loskiel, and of a learned controversialist in the treatise of -Fritsch, in 1794 and 1796 respectively.<a name="FNanchor_1579_1579" id="FNanchor_1579_1579"></a><a href="#Footnote_1579_1579" class="fnanchor">[1579]</a></p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-421.jpg" width="250" height="248" id="i371" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc">BENJAMIN SMITH BARTON</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The earliest American with a scientific training to discuss the question was a professor in the University -of Pennsylvania, Benjamin Smith Barton, a man -who acquired one of the best reputations in his -day among Americans for studies in this and other -questions of natural history. His father was an -English clergyman settled in America, and his -mother a sister of David Rittenhouse. It was -while he was a student of medicine in Edinburgh -that he first approached the subject of the origin -of the Americans, in a little treatise on American -Antiquities, which he never completed.<a name="FNanchor_1580_1580" id="FNanchor_1580_1580"></a><a href="#Footnote_1580_1580" class="fnanchor">[1580]</a> His -<i>Papers relating to certain American Antiquities</i> -(Philad., 1796) consists of those read to the Amer. -Philos. Soc., and printed in their <i>Transactions</i> -(vol. iv.). They were published as the earnest of -his later work on American Antiquities. He -argues against De Pauw, and contends that the -Americans are descended—at least some of them—from -Asiatic peoples still recognized. The -<i>Papers</i> include a letter from Col. Winthrop Sargent, -Sept. 8, 1794, describing certain articles -found in a mound at Cincinnati, and a letter upon -them from Barton to Dr. Priestley. He in the -end gave more careful attention to the subject, -mainly on its linguistic side, and went farther than -any one had gone before him in his <i>New Views -of the Origin of the Tribes and Nations of America</i> (Philad., 1797; 2d ed., enlarged, 1798).<a name="FNanchor_1581_1581" id="FNanchor_1581_1581"></a><a href="#Footnote_1581_1581" class="fnanchor">[1581]</a> The book -attracted much notice, and engaged the attention in some degree of European philologists, and made Barton -at that time the most conspicuous student on these matters in America. Jefferson was at that time gathering -material in similar studies, but his collections were finally burned in 1801. Barton, in dedicating his -treatise to Jefferson, recognized the latter’s advance in the same direction. He believed his own gathering of -original MS. material to be at that time more extensive than any other student had collected in America. -His views had something of the comprehensiveness of his material, and he could not feel that he could point -to any one special source of the indigenous population.</p> - -<p>During the early years of the present century old theories and new were abundant. The powerful intellect -and vast knowledge of Alexander von Humboldt were applied to the problem as he found it in Middle America. -He announced some views on the primitive peoples in 1806, in the <i>Neue Berlinische Monatsschrift</i> (vol. -xv.); but his ripened opinions found record in his <i>Vues de Cordillères et monumens des peuples indigènes de -l’Amérique</i> (Paris, 1816), and the Asiatic theory got a conservative yet definite advocate.</p> - -<p>Hugh Williamson<a name="FNanchor_1582_1582" id="FNanchor_1582_1582"></a><a href="#Footnote_1582_1582" class="fnanchor">[1582]</a> thought he found traces of the Hindoo in the higher arts of the Mexicans, and marks of -the ruder Asiatics in the more northern American peoples. A conspicuous littérateur of the day, Samuel L. -Mitchell, veered somewhat wildly about in his notions of a Malay, Tartar, and Scandinavian origin.<a name="FNanchor_1583_1583" id="FNanchor_1583_1583"></a><a href="#Footnote_1583_1583" class="fnanchor">[1583]</a> Meanwhile -something like organized efforts were making. The American Antiquarian Society was formed in -1812.<a name="FNanchor_1584_1584" id="FNanchor_1584_1584"></a><a href="#Footnote_1584_1584" class="fnanchor">[1584]</a> Silliman began his <i>Journal of Arts and Sciences</i> in 1819, and both society and periodical proved<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span> -instruments of wider inquiry. In the first volume published by the Antiquarian Society, Caleb Atwater, in -his treatise on the Western Antiquities, gave the earliest sustained study of the subject, and believed in a -general rather than in a particular Asiatic source. The man first to attract attention for his grouping of ascertained -results, unaided by personal explorations, however, was Dr. James H. McCulloh, who published his -<i>Researches on America</i> at Baltimore in 1816. The book passed to a second edition the next year, but received -its final shape in the <i>Researches, philosophical and antiquarian, concerning the aboriginal history of -America</i> (1829), a book which Prescott<a name="FNanchor_1585_1585" id="FNanchor_1585_1585"></a><a href="#Footnote_1585_1585" class="fnanchor">[1585]</a> praised for its accumulated erudition, and Haven<a name="FNanchor_1586_1586" id="FNanchor_1586_1586"></a><a href="#Footnote_1586_1586" class="fnanchor">[1586]</a> ranked high for -its manifestations of industry and research, calling it encyclopædic in character. McCulloh examines the -native traditions, but can evolve no satisfactory conclusion from them as to the origin of the Americans. -The public mind, however, was not ripe for scholarly inquiry, and there was not that in McCulloh’s style to -invite attention; and greater popularity followed upon the fanciful and dogmatic confidence of John Haywood,<a name="FNanchor_1587_1587" id="FNanchor_1587_1587"></a><a href="#Footnote_1587_1587" class="fnanchor">[1587]</a> -upon the somewhat vivid if unsteady speculations of C. S. Rafinesque,<a name="FNanchor_1588_1588" id="FNanchor_1588_1588"></a><a href="#Footnote_1588_1588" class="fnanchor">[1588]</a> and even upon the itinerant -Josiah Priest, who boasted of the circulation of thousands of copies of his popular books.<a name="FNanchor_1589_1589" id="FNanchor_1589_1589"></a><a href="#Footnote_1589_1589" class="fnanchor">[1589]</a> John Delafield’s -<i>Inquiry into the Origin of the Antiquities of America</i> (N. Y., 1839) revived the theory, never quite dormant, -of the descent of the Mexicans from the riper peoples of Hindostan and Egypt; while the more barbarous -red men came of the Mongol stock. The author ran through the whole range of philology, mythology, and -many of the customs of the races, in reaching this conclusion. A little book by John McIntosh, <i>Discovery -of America and Origin of the North American Indians</i>, published in Toronto, 1836, was reissued in N. Y. -in 1843, and with enlargements in 1846, <i>Origin of the North American Indians</i>, continued down to 1859 to -be repeatedly issued, or to have a seeming success by new dates.<a name="FNanchor_1590_1590" id="FNanchor_1590_1590"></a><a href="#Footnote_1590_1590" class="fnanchor">[1590]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">When Columbus, approaching the main land of South America, imagined it a large island, he associated it -with that belief so long current in the Old World, which placed the cradle of the race in the Indian Ocean,—a -belief which in our day has been advocated by Haeckel, Caspari and Winchell,—and imagined he was on -the coasts, skirting an interior, where lay the Garden of Eden.<a name="FNanchor_1591_1591" id="FNanchor_1591_1591"></a><a href="#Footnote_1591_1591" class="fnanchor">[1591]</a> No one had then ventured on the belief that -the doctrine of Genesis must be reconciled with any supposed counter-testimony by holding it to be but the -record of the Jewish race. Columbus was not long in his grave when Theophrastus Paracelsus, in 1520, and -before the belief in the continuity of North America with Asia was dispelled, and consequently before the -question of how man and animals could have reached the New World was raised, first broached the heterodox -view of the plurality of the human race. All the early disputants on the question of the origin of the American -man looked either across the Atlantic or the Pacific for the primitive seed; nor was there any necessary -connection between the arguments for an autochthonous American man and a diversity of race, when Fabricius, -in 1721, published his <i>Dissertatio Critica</i><a name="FNanchor_1592_1592" id="FNanchor_1592_1592"></a><a href="#Footnote_1592_1592" class="fnanchor">[1592]</a> on the opinions of those who held that different races had -been created. From that day the old orthodox interpretation of the record in Genesis found no contestant -of mark till the question came up in relation to the American man, it being held quite sufficient to account -for the inferiority or other distinguishing characteristics of race by assigning them to the influence of climate -and physical causes.<a name="FNanchor_1593_1593" id="FNanchor_1593_1593"></a><a href="#Footnote_1593_1593" class="fnanchor">[1593]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-423.jpg" width="400" height="480" id="i373" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">LOUIS AGASSIZ.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a photograph, hanging in the Somerset Club, Boston; suggested to the editor by Mr. Alexander Agassiz as a -satisfactory likeness.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The strongest presentation of the case, in considering the American man a distinct product of the American -soil, with no connection with the Old World<a name="FNanchor_1594_1594" id="FNanchor_1594_1594"></a><a href="#Footnote_1594_1594" class="fnanchor">[1594]</a> except in the case of the Eskimos, was made when S. G. Morton, -in 1839, printed his <i>Crania Americana, or a comparative view of the skulls of various aboriginal nations of -North and South America</i>, of which there was a second edition in 1844.<a name="FNanchor_1595_1595" id="FNanchor_1595_1595"></a><a href="#Footnote_1595_1595" class="fnanchor">[1595]</a> Here was a new test, and applied, -very likely, in ignorance of the fact that Governor Pownal, in 1766, in Knox’s <i>New Collection of Voyages</i>, had -suggested it.<a name="FNanchor_1596_1596" id="FNanchor_1596_1596"></a><a href="#Footnote_1596_1596" class="fnanchor">[1596]</a> Dr. Morton had gathered a collection of near a thousand skulls from all parts of the world,<a name="FNanchor_1597_1597" id="FNanchor_1597_1597"></a><a href="#Footnote_1597_1597" class="fnanchor">[1597]</a> -and based his deductions on these,—a process hardly safe, as many of his successors have determined.<a name="FNanchor_1598_1598" id="FNanchor_1598_1598"></a><a href="#Footnote_1598_1598" class="fnanchor">[1598]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span> -The views of Morton respecting the autochthonous origin of the Indian found an able upholder when Louis -Agassiz, taking the broader view of the independent creation of higher and inferior races,<a name="FNanchor_1599_1599" id="FNanchor_1599_1599"></a><a href="#Footnote_1599_1599" class="fnanchor">[1599]</a> gave in his adhesion -to the original American man (<i>Christian Examiner</i>, July, 1850, vol. xlix. p. 110). These views got more extensive -expression in a publication which appeared in Philadelphia in 1854, in which some unpublished papers of -Morton are accompanied by a contribution from Agassiz, and all are grouped together and augmented by -material of the editors, Dr. Josiah Clark Nott<a name="FNanchor_1600_1600" id="FNanchor_1600_1600"></a><a href="#Footnote_1600_1600" class="fnanchor">[1600]</a> of Mobile, and Mr. George R. Gliddon, long a resident in -Cairo. The <i>Types of Mankind, or Ethnological Researches</i> (Philad., 1854, 1859, 1871), met with a divided -reception; the conservative theologians called it pretentious and false, and there was some color for their -detraction in some rather jejune expositions of the Hebrew Scriptures contained in the book. The physiologists<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span> -thought it brought new vigor to a question which properly belonged to science.<a name="FNanchor_1601_1601" id="FNanchor_1601_1601"></a><a href="#Footnote_1601_1601" class="fnanchor">[1601]</a> Other fresh material, -with some discussions, made up a new book by the same editors, published three years later, <i>Indigenous -Races of the Earth, or New Chapters of Ethnological Inquiry</i> (Philad. and London, 1857; 2d ed., 1857).<a name="FNanchor_1602_1602" id="FNanchor_1602_1602"></a><a href="#Footnote_1602_1602" class="fnanchor">[1602]</a></p> - -<p>The theological attacks were not always void of a contempt that ill befitted the work of refutation. The -most important of them were John Bachman’s <i>Doctrine of the Unity of the Human Race</i> (Charleston, S. C., -1850), with his <i>Notice of the Types of Mankind</i> (Charleston, 1854-55); and Thomas Smyth’s <i>Unity of the -Human Race proved by Scripture, Reason and Science</i> (N. Y., 1850).<a name="FNanchor_1603_1603" id="FNanchor_1603_1603"></a><a href="#Footnote_1603_1603" class="fnanchor">[1603]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-424.jpg" width="400" height="488" id="i374" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">SAMUEL FOSTER HAVEN.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a photograph. A heliotype of a portrait by Custer is in the <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, Ap., 1879. Haven’s -<i>Annual Reports</i>, as librarian of the Amer. Antiq. Soc., furnish a good chronological conspectus of the progress of -anthropological discovery.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The scientific attack on Morton and Agassiz, and the views they represented, was an active one, and embraced -such writers as Wilson, Latham, Pickering, and Quatrefages.<a name="FNanchor_1604_1604" id="FNanchor_1604_1604"></a><a href="#Footnote_1604_1604" class="fnanchor">[1604]</a> The same collection of skulls which -had furnished Morton with his proofs yielded exactly opposite evidence to Dr. J. A. Meigs in his <i>Observations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span> -upon the Cranial Forms of the American Aborigines</i> (Philad., 1866).<a name="FNanchor_1605_1605" id="FNanchor_1605_1605"></a><a href="#Footnote_1605_1605" class="fnanchor">[1605]</a> Two of the most celebrated of -the evolutionists reject the autochthonous view, for Darwin’s <i>Descent of Man</i> and Haeckel’s <i>Hist. of Creation</i> -consider the American man an emigrant from the old world, in whatever way the race may have -developed.<a name="FNanchor_1606_1606" id="FNanchor_1606_1606"></a><a href="#Footnote_1606_1606" class="fnanchor">[1606]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-425.jpg" width="400" height="488" id="i375" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">SIR DANIEL WILSON, LL. D., F.R.S.E.</p> - <p class="pf400">From a photograph kindly furnished, on request, by Professor Wilson’s family.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Of the leading historians of the early American peoples, Prescott, dealing with the Mexicans, is inclined -to agree with Humboldt’s arguments as to their primitive connection with Asia.<a name="FNanchor_1607_1607" id="FNanchor_1607_1607"></a><a href="#Footnote_1607_1607" class="fnanchor">[1607]</a> Geo. Bancroft, in the third -volume of his <i>Hist. of the United States</i> (1840), surveying the field, found little in the linguistic affinities, -little in what Humboldt gathered from the Mexican calendars and from other developments, nothing from -the Western mounds, which he was sure were natural earth-knobs and water-worn passages,<a name="FNanchor_1608_1608" id="FNanchor_1608_1608"></a><a href="#Footnote_1608_1608" class="fnanchor">[1608]</a> and decides upon -some transmission by the Pacific route from Asia, but so remote as to make the American tribes practically -indigenous, so far as their character is concerned.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span></p> - -<p>In 1843 another compiler of existing evidence appeared in Alexander W. Bradford in his <i>American -Antiquities, or Researches into the origin and history of the Red Race</i>. His views were new. He connects -the higher organized life of middle America with the corresponding culture of Southern Asia, the -Polynesian islands probably furnishing the avenue of migrations; while the ruder and more northern peoples -of both shores of the Pacific represent the same stock degraded by northern migrations.</p> - -<p>In 1845 the American Ethnological Society began its publications, and in Albert Gallatin it had a vigorous -helper in unravelling some of these mysteries. A few years later (1853) the United States government lent -its patronage and prestige to the huge conglomerate publication of Schoolcraft, his <i>Indian Tribes of the -United States</i>, which leaves the bewildered reader in a puzzling maze,—the inevitable result of a work undertaken -beyond the ambitious powers of an untrained mind. The work is not without value if the user of it has -more systematic knowledge than its compiler, to select, discard, and arrange, and if he can weigh the importance -of the separate papers.<a name="FNanchor_1609_1609" id="FNanchor_1609_1609"></a><a href="#Footnote_1609_1609" class="fnanchor">[1609]</a></p> - -<p>In 1856 Samuel F. Haven, the librarian and guiding spirit of the American Antiquarian Society, summed -up, as it had never been done before, for comprehensiveness, and with a striking prescience, the progress and -results of studies in this field, in his <i>Archæology of the United States</i> (<i>Smithsonian Contributions</i>, viii., -Washington, 1856).</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-426.jpg" width="400" height="488" id="i376" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">EDWARD B. TYLOR.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a photograph.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>In 1851 Professor Daniel Wilson, in his <i>Prehistoric Annals of Scotland</i>, first brought into use the designation -“prehistoric” as expressing “the whole period disclosed to us by means of archæological evidence, as -distinguished from what is known through written records; and in this sense the term was speedily adopted -by the archæologists of Europe.”<a name="FNanchor_1610_1610" id="FNanchor_1610_1610"></a><a href="#Footnote_1610_1610" class="fnanchor">[1610]</a> Eleven years later he published his <i>Prehistoric Man: Researches into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span> -origin of civilization in the old and new world</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1611_1611" id="FNanchor_1611_1611"></a><a href="#Footnote_1611_1611" class="fnanchor">[1611]</a> The book unfortunately is not well fortified with references, -but it is the result of long study, partly in the field, and written with a commendable reserve of judgment. It -is in the main concerned with the western hemisphere, which he assumes with little hesitation “began its -human period subsequent to that of the old world, and so started later in the race of civilization.” While -thus in effect a study of early man in America, its scope makes it in good degree a complement to the <i>Origin -of Civilization</i> of Lubbock.</p> - -<p>The comparative study of ethnological traces, to enable us to depict the earliest condition of human -society, owes a special indebtedness to Edward B. Tylor, among writers in English. It is nearly twenty-five -years since he first published his <i>Researches into the Early History of Mankind and the Development of -Civilization</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1612_1612" id="FNanchor_1612_1612"></a><a href="#Footnote_1612_1612" class="fnanchor">[1612]</a> the work almost, if not quite, of a pioneer in this interesting field, and he has supplied the -reader with all the references necessary to test his examples. Max Müller (<i>Chips</i>, ii. 262) has pointed out -how he has vitalized his vast accumulation of facts by coherent classifications instead of leaving them an -oppressive burden by simple aggregation, as his precursors in Germany, Gustav Klemm<a name="FNanchor_1613_1613" id="FNanchor_1613_1613"></a><a href="#Footnote_1613_1613" class="fnanchor">[1613]</a> and Adolf Bastian,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span> -had done; and it is remarked that while thus classifying, he has not been lured into pronounced theory, -which future accession of material might serve to modify or change. He shortly afterwards touched a -phase of the subject which he had not developed in his book in a paper on “Traces of the Early Mental -Condition of Man,”<a name="FNanchor_1614_1614" id="FNanchor_1614_1614"></a><a href="#Footnote_1614_1614" class="fnanchor">[1614]</a> and illustrated the methods he was pursuing in another on “The Condition of Prehistoric -Races as inferred from observations of modern tribes.”<a name="FNanchor_1615_1615" id="FNanchor_1615_1615"></a><a href="#Footnote_1615_1615" class="fnanchor">[1615]</a></p> - -<p>The postulate of which he has been a distinguished expounder, that man has progressed from barbarism to -civilization, was a main deduction to be drawn from his next sustained work, <i>Primitive Culture: researches -into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1616_1616" id="FNanchor_1616_1616"></a><a href="#Footnote_1616_1616" class="fnanchor">[1616]</a> The chief points of this further -study of the thought, belief, art, and custom of the primitive man had been advanced tentatively in various -other papers beside those already mentioned,<a name="FNanchor_1617_1617" id="FNanchor_1617_1617"></a><a href="#Footnote_1617_1617" class="fnanchor">[1617]</a> and in this new work he further acknowledges his obligations -to Adolf Bastian’s <i>Mensch in der Geschichte</i> and Theodor Waitz’s <i>Anthropologie der Naturvölker</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1618_1618" id="FNanchor_1618_1618"></a><a href="#Footnote_1618_1618" class="fnanchor">[1618]</a> He -still pursued his plan of collecting wide and minute evidence from the writers on ethnography and kindred -sciences, and from historians, travellers, and missionaries, as his foot-notes abundantly testify.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-428.jpg" width="400" height="439" id="i378" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">THEODOR WAITZ.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a likeness in Otto Caspari’s <i>Urgeschichte der Menschheit</i>, 2d ed., vol. i. (Leipzig, 1877).</p> -</div></div> - -<p>These studies of Professor Tylor abundantly qualified him to give a condensed exposition of the science of -anthropology, which he had done so much to place within the range of scientific studies, by a primary search -for facts and laws; and having contributed the article on that subject to the ninth edition of the <i>Encyclopædia -Britannica</i>, he published in 1881 his <i>Anthropology: an Introduction to the study of man and civilization</i> -(London and N. Y., 1881 and 1888). He maps out the new science, which has now received of late years -so many new students in the scientific method, without references, but with the authority of a teacher, tracing -what man has been and is under the differences of sex, race, beliefs, habits, and society.<a name="FNanchor_1619_1619" id="FNanchor_1619_1619"></a><a href="#Footnote_1619_1619" class="fnanchor">[1619]</a> Again, at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span> -Montreal meeting (August, 1884) of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, he set down in -an address the bounds of the “American Aspects of Anthropology.”<a name="FNanchor_1620_1620" id="FNanchor_1620_1620"></a><a href="#Footnote_1620_1620" class="fnanchor">[1620]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-429.jpg" width="400" height="557" id="i379" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">SIR JOHN LUBBOCK.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a photograph.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Closely following upon Tylor in this field, and gathering his material with much the same assiduity, and -presenting it with similar beliefs, though with enough individuality to mark a distinction, was another Englishman, -who probably shares with Tylor the leading position in this department of study. Sir John Lubbock, -in his <i>Prehistoric Times as illustrated by ancient remains, and the manners and customs of modern -savages</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1621_1621" id="FNanchor_1621_1621"></a><a href="#Footnote_1621_1621" class="fnanchor">[1621]</a> gathered the evidence which exists of the primitive condition of man, embracing some chapters on -modern savages so far as they are ignorant of the use of metals, as the best study we can follow, to fill out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span> -the picture of races only archæologically known to us. This study of modern savage life, in arts, marriages, -and relationships, morals, religion, and laws, is, as he holds, a necessary avenue to the knowledge of a condition -of the early man, from which by various influences the race has advanced to what is called civilization. -His result in this comparative study—not indeed covering all the phases of savage life—he made known in -his <i>Origin of Civilization and the Primitive Condition of Man</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1622_1622" id="FNanchor_1622_1622"></a><a href="#Footnote_1622_1622" class="fnanchor">[1622]</a> While referring to Tylor’s <i>Early Hist. -of Mankind</i> as more nearly like his own than any existing treatise, but showing, as compared with his own -book, “that no two minds would view the subject in the same manner,” he instanced previous treatments of -certain phases of the subject, like Müller’s <i>Geschichte der Amerikanischen Urreligionen</i>, J. F. M’Lennan’s -<i>Primitive Marriage</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1623_1623" id="FNanchor_1623_1623"></a><a href="#Footnote_1623_1623" class="fnanchor">[1623]</a> and J. J. Bachofen’s <i>Das Mutterrecht</i> (Stuttgart, 1861); and even Lord Kames’ <i>History -of Man</i>, and Montesquieu’s <i>Esprit des Lois</i>, notwithstanding the absence in them of much of the minute -knowledge now necessary to the study of the subject. These data, of course, are largely obtained from travellers -and missionaries, and Lubbock complains of their unsatisfactory extent and accuracy. “Travellers,” he -adds, “find it easier to describe the houses, boats, food, dress, weapons, and implements of savages than to -understand their thoughts and feelings.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-430.jpg" width="400" height="516" id="i380" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">SIR JOHN WILLIAM DAWSON.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a photograph.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The main controversial point arising out of all this study is the one already adverted to,—whether man has -advanced from savagery to his present condition, or has preserved, with occasional retrogressions, his original -elevated character; and this causes the other question, whether the modern savage is the degenerate descendant -of the same civilized first men. “There is no scientific evidence which would justify us,” says Lubbock (<i>Prehist.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span> -Times</i>, 417), “in asserting that this kind of degradation applies to savages in general.”<a name="FNanchor_1624_1624" id="FNanchor_1624_1624"></a><a href="#Footnote_1624_1624" class="fnanchor">[1624]</a> The most distinguished -advocate of the affirmative of this proposition is Richard Whately, Archbishop of Dublin, both in his -<i>Political Economy</i> and in his lecture on the <i>Origin of Civilization</i> (1855), in which he undertook to affirm -that no nation, unaided by a superior race, ever succeeded in raising itself out of savagery, and that nations -can become degraded. Lubbock, who, with Tylor, holds the converse of this proposition, answered Whately in -an appendix to his <i>Origin of Civilization</i>, which was originally given as a paper at the Dundee meeting of -the British Association.<a name="FNanchor_1625_1625" id="FNanchor_1625_1625"></a><a href="#Footnote_1625_1625" class="fnanchor">[1625]</a> The Duke of Argyle, while not prepared to go to the extent of Whately’s views, -attacked, in his <i>Primeval Man</i>, Lubbock’s argument,<a name="FNanchor_1626_1626" id="FNanchor_1626_1626"></a><a href="#Footnote_1626_1626" class="fnanchor">[1626]</a> and was in turn reviewed adversely by Lubbock, in a -paper read at the Exeter meeting of the same association (1869), which is also included in the appendix of -his <i>Origin of Civilization</i>. Lubbock seems to show, in some instances at least, that the duke did not possess -himself correctly of some of the views of his opponents.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-431.jpg" width="400" height="474" id="i381" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">MIGRATIONS.</p> - <p class="pf400">A sketch map given in Dawson’s <i>Fossil Men</i>, p. 48, showing his view of the probable lines of migration and distribution -of the American tribes. Morgan (<i>Ancient Society</i>) makes what he calls three centres of subsistence, whence the -migration proceeded which overran America. Cf. Hellwald in <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, 1866, p. 328. The question is more -or less discussed in Latham’s <i>Man and his migrations</i> (London, 1851); Chas. Pickering’s <i>Men and their geog. distribution</i>; -and Oscar Peschel’s <i>Races of Man</i> (Eng. transl., London, 1876). On the passage from the valley of the -Columbia to that of the Missouri, see Humboldt’s <i>Views of Nature</i>, 35. Morgan (<i>No. Am. Rev.</i>, cix.) supposes the -valley of the Columbia River to be the original centre where the streams diverged, and (<i>Systems of Consanguinity</i>, -251) says there are reasons for believing that the Shoshone migration was the last which left the Columbia valley, and -that it was pending at the epoch of European colonization. Morgan’s papers in the <i>No. Am. Rev.</i>, Oct. 1868 and Jan. -1870, are reprinted in Beach’s <i>Indian Miscellany</i>, p. 158. On a general belief in a migration from the north, see <i>Congrès -des Amér</i>. (1877), ii. 50, 51. L. Simonin, in “L’homme Américain, notes d’ethnologie et de linguistique sur les indiens -des Etats-Unis,” gives a map of the tribes of North America in the <i>Bull. de la Soc. de Géog.</i> Feb. 1870.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>In the researches of Tylor and Lubbock, and of all the others cited above, the American Indian is the source<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span> -of many of their illustrations. Of all writers on this continent, Sir John Wm. Dawson in his <i>Fossil Men</i>, and -Southall in his <i>Recent Origin of Man</i>, are probably the most eminent advocates of the views of Whately -and Argyle, however modified, and both have declared it an unfounded assumption that the primitive man -was a savage.<a name="FNanchor_1627_1627" id="FNanchor_1627_1627"></a><a href="#Footnote_1627_1627" class="fnanchor">[1627]</a> Morgan, in his <i>Ancient Society</i> (N. Y., 1877), has, on the other hand, sketched the lines of -human progress from savagery through barbarism to civilization.</p> - -<p>One of the defenders of the supposed Bible limits best equipped by reading, if not in the scientific spirit, -has been a Virginian, James C. Southall, who published a large octavo in 1875, <i>The Recent Origin of Man -as illustrated by geology and the modern science of prehistoric archæology</i> (Philad., 1875). Three years -later,—leaving out some irrelevant matters as touching the antiquity of man, condensing his collations of -detail, sparing the men of science an attack for what in his earlier volume he called their fickleness, and somewhat -veiling his set purpose of sustaining the Bible record,—he published a more effective little book, <i>The -Epoch of the Mammoth and the Apparition of Man upon Earth</i> (Philad., 1878). Barring its essentially -controversial character, and waiving judgment on its scientific decisions, it is one of the best condensed -accumulations of data which has been made. His belief in the literal worth of the Bible narrative is emphatic. -He thinks that man, abruptly and fully civilized, appeared in the East, and gave rise to the Egyptian and -Babylonian civilization, while the estrays that wandered westward are known to us by their remains, as the -early savage denizens of Europe. To maintain this existence of the hunter-man of Europe within historic -times, he rejects the prevailing opinions of the geologists and archæologists. He reverses the judgment that -Lyell expresses (<i>Student’s Elements of Geology</i>, Am. ed., 162) of the historical period as not affording any -appreciable measure for calculating the number of centuries necessary to produce so many extinct animals, -to deepen and widen valleys, and to lay so deep stalagmite floors, and says it does. He contends that the -stone age is not divided into the earlier and later periods with an interval, but that the mingling of the -kinds of flints shows but different phases of the same period,<a name="FNanchor_1628_1628" id="FNanchor_1628_1628"></a><a href="#Footnote_1628_1628" class="fnanchor">[1628]</a> and that what others call the palæolithic man -was in reality the quaternary man, with conditions not much different from now.<a name="FNanchor_1629_1629" id="FNanchor_1629_1629"></a><a href="#Footnote_1629_1629" class="fnanchor">[1629]</a> The time when the ice -retreated from the now temperate regions he holds to have been about 2000 b.c., and he looks to the proofs -of the action of which traces are left along the North American great lakes, as observed by Professor Edmund -Andrews<a name="FNanchor_1630_1630" id="FNanchor_1630_1630"></a><a href="#Footnote_1630_1630" class="fnanchor">[1630]</a> of Chicago, to confirm his judgment of the Glacial age being from 5,300 to 7,500 years ago.<a name="FNanchor_1631_1631" id="FNanchor_1631_1631"></a><a href="#Footnote_1631_1631" class="fnanchor">[1631]</a> -He claims that force has not been sufficiently recognized as an element in geological action, and that a great -lapse of time was not necessary to effect geological changes (<i>Ep. of the M.</i>, 194).<a name="FNanchor_1632_1632" id="FNanchor_1632_1632"></a><a href="#Footnote_1632_1632" class="fnanchor">[1632]</a> He thinks the present -drift of opinion, carrying back the appearance of man anywhere from 20,000 to 9,000,000 years, a mere -fashion. The gravel of the Somme has been, he holds, a rapid deposit in valleys already formed and not -necessarily old. The peat beds were a deposit from the flood that followed the glacial period, and accumulated -rapidly (<i>Ep. of the M.</i>, ch. 10). The extinct animals found with the tools of man in the caves simply -show that such beasts survived to within historic times, as seems everywhere apparent as regards the mastodon -when found in America. The stalagmites of the caves are of unequal growth, and it is an assumption to -give them uniformly great age. The finely worked flints found among those called palæolithic; the skilfully -free drawings of the cave-men; the bits of pottery discovered with the rude flints, and the great similarity of -the implements to those in use to-day among the Eskimos; the finding of Roman coin in the Danish shell -heaps and an English one in those of America (<i>Proc. Philad. Acad. Nat. Sci.</i>, 1866, p. 291),—are all parts -of the argument which satisfies him that the archæologists have been hasty and inconclusive in their deductions. -They in turn will dispute both his facts and conclusions.<a name="FNanchor_1633_1633" id="FNanchor_1633_1633"></a><a href="#Footnote_1633_1633" class="fnanchor">[1633]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span></p> - -<p>Southall’s arraignment of the opinions generally held may introduce us to a classification of the data -upon which archæologists rely to reach conclusions upon the antiquity of man, and over some of which there -is certainly no prevailing consensus of opinion. We may find a condensed summary of beliefs and data -respecting the antiquity of man in J. P. Maclean’s <i>Manual of the Antiquity of Man</i> (Cincinnati, revised -ed., 1877; again, 1880).<a name="FNanchor_1634_1634" id="FNanchor_1634_1634"></a><a href="#Footnote_1634_1634" class="fnanchor">[1634]</a> The independent view and conservative spirit are placed respectively in juxtaposition -in J. P. Lesley’s <i>Origin and Decline of Man</i> (ch. 3), and in Dawson’s <i>Fossil Men</i> (ch. 8).<a name="FNanchor_1635_1635" id="FNanchor_1635_1635"></a><a href="#Footnote_1635_1635" class="fnanchor">[1635]</a> The -opinions of leading English archæologists are found in Lubbock’s <i>Prehistoric Times</i> (ch. 12), Wallace’s <i>Tropical -Nature</i> (ch. 7), and Huxley’s “Distribution of Races in Relation to the Antiquity of Man,” in <i>Internat. -Cong. of Prehist. Archæol. Trans.</i> (1868). Dawkins has given some recent views in <i>The Nation</i>, xxvi. 434, -and in <i>Kansas City Review</i>, vii. 344.<a name="FNanchor_1636_1636" id="FNanchor_1636_1636"></a><a href="#Footnote_1636_1636" class="fnanchor">[1636]</a> Not to refer to special phases, the French school will be found represented -in Nadaillac’s <i>Les Premiers Hommes</i> (ii. ch. 13); in Gabriel de Mortillet’s <i>La préhistorique antiquité -de l’homme</i> (Paris, 1883); Hamy’s <i>Précis de paléontologie humaine</i>; Le Hon’s <i>L’homme fossile</i> (1867); -Victor Meunier’s <i>Les Ancêtres d’Adam</i> (Paris, 1875); Joly’s <i>L’homme avant métaux</i> (Eng. transl. <i>Man -before Metals</i>, N. Y., 1883); <i>Revue des Questions historiques</i> (vol. xvi.). The German school is represented -in Haeckel’s <i>Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte</i>; Waitz’s <i>Anthropologie</i>; Carl Vogt’s <i>Lectures on Man</i> (Eng. -transl., Lond., 1864); and L. Büchner’s <i>Der Mensch und seine Stellung in der Natur</i> (2d ed., Leipzig, 1872; -or W. S. Dallas’s Eng. translation, Lond., 1872). The history of the growth of geological antagonism to the -biblical record as once understood, and the several methods proposed for reconciling their respective teaching, -is traced concisely in the article on geology in M’Clintock and Strong’s <i>Cyclopædia</i>, with references for further -examination. The views there given are those propounded by Chalmers in 1804, that the geological -record, ignored in the account of Genesis, finds its place in that book between the first and second verses,<a name="FNanchor_1637_1637" id="FNanchor_1637_1637"></a><a href="#Footnote_1637_1637" class="fnanchor">[1637]</a> -which have no dependence on one another, and that the biblical account of creation followed in six literal -days. What may be considered the present theological attitude of churchmen may be noted in <i>The Speaker’s -Commentary</i> (N. Y. ed., 1871, p. 61).</p> - -<p class="p2">The question of the territorial connection of America with Asia under earlier geological conditions is -necessarily considered in some of the discussions on the transplanting of the American man from the side -of Asia.</p> - -<p>Otto Caspari in his <i>Urgeschichte der Menschheit</i> (Leipzig, 1873), vol. i., gives a map of Asia and America -in the post-tertiary period, as he understands it, which stretches the Asiatic and African continents over a -large part of the Indian Ocean; and in this region, now beneath the sea, he places the home of the primeval -man, and marks the lines of migration east, north, and west. This view is accepted by Winchell in his <i>Preadamites</i> -(see his map). Haeckel (<i>Nat. Schöpfungsgeschichte</i>, 1868, 1873; Eng. transl. 1876) calls this region -“Lemuria” in his map. Caspari places large continental islands between this region and South America, -which rendered migration to South America easy. The eastern shore of the present Asia is extended beyond -the Japanese islands, and similar convenient islands render the passage by other lines of immigration easy -to the regions of British Columbia and of Mexico. (Cf. Short, 507; Baldwin, App.) Howorth, <i>Mammoth and -the Flood</i>, supposes a connection at Behring’s Straits. The supposed similarity of the flora of the two shores -of the Pacific has been used to support this theory, but botanists say that the language of Hooker and Gray -has been given a meaning they did not intend. It is opposed by many eminent geologists. A. R. Wallace -(<i>Journal Amer. Geog. Soc.</i>, xix.) finds no ground to believe that any of the oceans contain sunken continents. -(Cf. his <i>Geographical Distribution of Animals</i> and his <i>Malay Archipelago</i>.) James Croll in his <i>Climate -and Cosmology</i> (p. 6) says: “There is no geological evidence to show that at least since Silurian times the -Atlantic and Pacific were ever in their broad features otherwise than they now are.”<a name="FNanchor_1638_1638" id="FNanchor_1638_1638"></a><a href="#Footnote_1638_1638" class="fnanchor">[1638]</a> Hyde Clarke has -examined the legend of Atlantis in reference to protohistoric communication with America, in <i>Royal Hist. -Soc. Trans.</i>, n. s., iii. p. 1.<a name="FNanchor_1639_1639" id="FNanchor_1639_1639"></a><a href="#Footnote_1639_1639" class="fnanchor">[1639]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">The arguments for the great antiquity of man<a name="FNanchor_1640_1640" id="FNanchor_1640_1640"></a><a href="#Footnote_1640_1640" class="fnanchor">[1640]</a> are deduced in the main from the testimony of the river<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span> -gravels, the bone caves, the peat deposits, the shell heaps, and the Lacustrine villages, for the mounds and -other relics of defence, habitation, and worship are very likely not the records of a great antiquity. The whole -field is surveyed with more fullness than anywhere else, and with a faith in the geological antiquity of the -race, in Sir Charles Lyell’s <i>Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1641_1641" id="FNanchor_1641_1641"></a><a href="#Footnote_1641_1641" class="fnanchor">[1641]</a> With as firm a belief in the -integrity of the biblical record, and in its not being impugned by the discoveries or inductions of science, we -find a survey in Southall’s <i>Recent Origin of Man</i>. These two books constitute the extremes of the methods, -both for and against the conservative interpretation of the Bible. The independent spirit of the scientist is -nowhere more confidently expressed than by J. P. Lesley (<i>Man’s Origin and Destiny</i>, Philad., 1868, p. 45), -who says: “There is no alliance possible between Jewish theology and modern science.... Geologists -have won the right to be Christians without first becoming Jews.” Southall<a name="FNanchor_1642_1642" id="FNanchor_1642_1642"></a><a href="#Footnote_1642_1642" class="fnanchor">[1642]</a> interprets this spirit in this -wise: “I do not recollect that the <i>Antiquity of Man</i> ever recognizes that the book of Genesis is in existence; -and yet every one is perfectly conscious that the author has it in mind, and is writing at it all the time.”<a name="FNanchor_1643_1643" id="FNanchor_1643_1643"></a><a href="#Footnote_1643_1643" class="fnanchor">[1643]</a> -The entire literature of the scientific interpretation shows that the canons of criticism are not yet secure -enough to prevent the widest interpretations and inferences.</p> - -<p>The intimations which are supposed to exist in the Bible of a race earlier than Adam have given rise to -what is called the theory of the Preadamites, and there is little noteworthy upon it in European literature -back of Isaac de La Peyrère’s <i>Praeadamitae</i> (Paris and Amsterdam, 1655), whose views were put into English -in <i>Man before Adam</i> (London, 1656).<a name="FNanchor_1644_1644" id="FNanchor_1644_1644"></a><a href="#Footnote_1644_1644" class="fnanchor">[1644]</a> The advocates of the theory from that day to this are enumerated -in Alexander Winchell’s <i>Preadamites</i> (Chicago, 1880), and this book is the best known contribution to the -subject by an American author. It is his opinion that the aboriginal American, with the Mongoloids in general, -comes from some descendant of Adam earlier than Noah, and that the black races come from a stock -earlier than Adam, whom Cain found when he went out of his native country.<a name="FNanchor_1645_1645" id="FNanchor_1645_1645"></a><a href="#Footnote_1645_1645" class="fnanchor">[1645]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">The investigations of the great antiquity of man in America fall far short in extent of those which have -been given to his geological remoteness in Europe; and yet, should we believe with Winchell that the American -man represents the pre-Adamite, while the European man does not, we might reasonably hope to find in -America earlier traces of the geological man, if, as Agassiz shows, the greater age of the American continent -weighs in the question.<a name="FNanchor_1646_1646" id="FNanchor_1646_1646"></a><a href="#Footnote_1646_1646" class="fnanchor">[1646]</a></p> - -<p>The explicit proofs, as advanced by different geologists, to give a great antiquity to the American man, and -perhaps in some ways greater than to the European man,<a name="FNanchor_1647_1647" id="FNanchor_1647_1647"></a><a href="#Footnote_1647_1647" class="fnanchor">[1647]</a> may now be briefly considered in detail.</p> - -<p>Oldest of all may perhaps be placed the gold-drift of California, with its human remains, and chief among -them the Calaveras skull, which is claimed to be of the Pliocene (tertiary) age; but it must be remembered -that Powell and the government geologists call it quaternary. It was in February, 1866, that in a mining -shaft in Calaveras County, California, a hundred and thirty feet below the surface, a skull was found imbedded -in gravel, which under the name of the Calaveras skull has excited much interest. It was not the first time -that human remains had been found in these California gravels, but it was the first discovery that attracted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385]</a></span> -notice. It was not seen <i>in situ</i> by a professional geologist, and a few weeks elapsed before Professor Josiah -Dwight Whitney, then state geologist of California, visited the spot, and satisfied himself that the geological -conditions were such as to make it certain that the skull and the deposition of the gravel were of the same -age. The relic subsequently passed into the possession of Professor Whitney, and the annexed cut is reproduced -from the careful drawing made of it for the <i>Memoirs of the Museum of Comp. Zoölogy</i> (Harvard -University), vol. vi. He had published earlier an account in the <i>Revue d’Anthropologie</i> (1872), p. 760.<a name="FNanchor_1648_1648" id="FNanchor_1648_1648"></a><a href="#Footnote_1648_1648" class="fnanchor">[1648]</a> -This interesting relic is now in Cambridge, coated with thin wax for preservation, but this coating interferes -with any satisfactory photograph. The volume of <i>Memoirs</i> above named is made up of Whitney’s -<i>Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada of California</i> (1880), and at p. ix he says: “There will undoubtedly -be much hesitancy on the part of anthropologists and others in accepting the results regarding the -Tertiary Age of man, to which our investigations seem so clearly to point.” He says that those who reject -the evidence of the Calaveras skull because it was not seen <i>in situ</i> by a scientific observer forget the evidence -of the fossil itself; and he adds that since 1866 the other evidence for tertiary man has so accumulated -that “it would not be materially weakened by dropping that furnished by the Calaveras skull itself.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-435.jpg" width="400" height="215" id="i385" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">CALAVERAS SKULL. <span class="wn">(<i>Front and side view.</i>)</span></p> -</div></div> - -<p>What Whitney says of the history and authenticity of the skull will be found in his paper on “Human -remains and works of art of the gravel series,” in <i>Ibid.</i> pp. 258-288. His conclusions are that it shows the -existence of man with an extinct fauna and flora, and under geographical and physical conditions differing -from the present,—in the Pliocene age certainly. This opinion has obtained the support of Marsh and Le -Conte and other eminent geologists. Schmidt (<i>Archiv für Anthropologie</i>) thinks it signifies a pre-glacial -man. Winchell (<i>Preadamites</i>, 428) says it is the best authenticated evidence of Pliocene man yet adduced. -On the contrary, there are some confident doubters. Dawkins (<i>No. Am. Rev.</i>, Oct., 1883) thinks that all but -a few American geologists have given up the Pliocene man, and that the chances of later interments, of accidents, -of ancient mines, and the presence of skulls of mustang ponies (introduced by the Spaniards) found -in the same gravels, throw insuperable doubts. “Neither in the new world nor the old world,” he says, -“is there any trace of Pliocene man revealed by modern discovery.” Southall and all the Bible advocates of -course deny the bearing of all such evidence. Dawson (<i>Fossil Men</i>, 345) thinks the arguments of Whitney -inconclusive. Nadaillac (<i>L’Amérique préhistorique</i>, 40, with a cut, and his <i>Les Premiers Hommes</i>, ii. 435) -hesitates to accept the evidence, and enumerates the doubters.<a name="FNanchor_1649_1649" id="FNanchor_1649_1649"></a><a href="#Footnote_1649_1649" class="fnanchor">[1649]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">Footprints have been found in a tufa bed, resting on yellow sand, in the neighborhood of an extinct volcano, -Tizcapa, in Nicaragua. One of the prints is shown in the annexed cut, after a representation given by -Dr. Brinton in the <i>Amer. Philosoph. Soc. Proc.</i> (xxiv. 1887, p. 437). Above this tufa bed were fourteen -distinct strata of deposits before the surface soil was reached. Geologists have placed this yellow sand, -bearing shells, from the post-Pliocene to the Eocene. The seventh stratum, going downwards, had remains of -the mastodon.<a name="FNanchor_1650_1650" id="FNanchor_1650_1650"></a><a href="#Footnote_1650_1650" class="fnanchor">[1650]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386]</a></span></p> - -<p>Some ancient basket work discovered at Petit Anse Island, in Louisiana, has been figured in the <i>Chicago -Acad. of Sciences, Transactions</i> (i. part 2). Cf. E. W. Hilgard, in <i>Smithsonian Contributions</i>, no. 248.</p> - -<p class="p2">Foster rather strikingly likens what we know of the history of the human race to the apex of a pyramid, of -which we know neither the height nor extent of base. Our efforts to trace man back to his beginning would -be like following down the sides of that pyramid till it reaches a firm base, we know not where. Many geologists -believe in a great ice-sheet which at one time had settled upon the northern parts of America, and -covered it down to a line that extends across Pennsylvania, Ohio, and westerly in a direction of some variableness. -There are some, like Sir William Dawson,<a name="FNanchor_1651_1651" id="FNanchor_1651_1651"></a><a href="#Footnote_1651_1651" class="fnanchor">[1651]</a> who reject the evidence that persuades others. Prof. -Whitney (<i>Climatic Changes</i>, 387) holds that it was a local phenomenon confined in America to the northeastern -parts. The advocates look to Dr. James Geikie<a name="FNanchor_1652_1652" id="FNanchor_1652_1652"></a><a href="#Footnote_1652_1652" class="fnanchor">[1652]</a> as having correlated the proofs of the proposition as -well as any, while writers like Howorth<a name="FNanchor_1653_1653" id="FNanchor_1653_1653"></a><a href="#Footnote_1653_1653" class="fnanchor">[1653]</a> trace the resulting phenomena largely to a flood.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-436.jpg" width="400" height="631" id="i386" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">ANCIENT FOOTPRINT FROM NICARAGUA.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>How long ago this was, the cautious geologist does not like to say;<a name="FNanchor_1654_1654" id="FNanchor_1654_1654"></a><a href="#Footnote_1654_1654" class="fnanchor">[1654]</a> nor is he quite ready to aver what it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387]</a></span> -all means.<a name="FNanchor_1655_1655" id="FNanchor_1655_1655"></a><a href="#Footnote_1655_1655" class="fnanchor">[1655]</a> Perhaps, as some theorize, this prevailing ice showed the long winter brought about by the precession -of the equinoxes, as has long been a favorite belief, with the swing of ten thousand years, more or less, from -one extreme to the other.<a name="FNanchor_1656_1656" id="FNanchor_1656_1656"></a><a href="#Footnote_1656_1656" class="fnanchor">[1656]</a></p> - -<p>Others believe that we must look back 200,000 years, as James Croll<a name="FNanchor_1657_1657" id="FNanchor_1657_1657"></a><a href="#Footnote_1657_1657" class="fnanchor">[1657]</a> and Lubbock do, or 800,000 and more, -as Lyell did at first, and find the cause in the variable eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, which shall account -for all the climatic changes since the dawn of what is called the glacial epoch, accompanying the deflection -of ocean currents, as Croll supposes, or the variations in the disposition of sea and land, as Lyell imagines.<a name="FNanchor_1658_1658" id="FNanchor_1658_1658"></a><a href="#Footnote_1658_1658" class="fnanchor">[1658]</a> -This great ice-sheet, however extensive, began for some reason to retreat, at a period as remote, according as -we accept this or the other estimate, as from ten thousand to a hundred thousand years.</p> - -<p class="p2">That the objects of stone, shaped and polished, which had been observed all over the civilized world, were -celestial in origin seems to have been the prevalent opinion,<a name="FNanchor_1659_1659" id="FNanchor_1659_1659"></a><a href="#Footnote_1659_1659" class="fnanchor">[1659]</a> when Mahudel in 1723 and even when Buffon -in 1778 ventured to assign to them a human origin.<a name="FNanchor_1660_1660" id="FNanchor_1660_1660"></a><a href="#Footnote_1660_1660" class="fnanchor">[1660]</a></p> - -<p>In the gravels which were deposited by the melting of this more or less extended ice-sheet, parts of the -human frame and the work of human hands have been found, and mark the anterior limit of man’s residence -on the globe, so far as we can confidently trace it.<a name="FNanchor_1661_1661" id="FNanchor_1661_1661"></a><a href="#Footnote_1661_1661" class="fnanchor">[1661]</a> Few geologists have any doubt about the existence of -human relics in these American glacial drifts, however widely they may differ about the age of them.<a name="FNanchor_1662_1662" id="FNanchor_1662_1662"></a><a href="#Footnote_1662_1662" class="fnanchor">[1662]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-439.jpg" width="400" height="389" id="i389" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">FROM DAWSON’S FOSSIL MEN.</p> - <p class="pf400">The outer outline is that of the skull found in the cave of Cro-magnon, in France, belonging, as Dawson says, p. 189, -to one of the oldest human inhabitants of western Europe, as shown in Lartet and Christy’s <i>Reliquiae Aquitanicae</i>. -The second outline is that of the Enghis skull; the dotted outline that of the Neanderthal skull. The shaded skull is on -a smaller scale, but preserving the true outline, and is one of the Hochelaga Indians (site of Montreal). Cuts of the Enghis -and Neanderthal skulls are given in Lubbock’s <i>Prehistoric Times</i>, pp. 328, 329. Dawkins (<i>Cave Hunters</i>, 235) thinks -the Enghis skull of doubtful age. On the Neanderthal skull see Quatrefages and Hamy, <i>Crania Ethnica</i> (Paris, -1873-75), and Dawkins (p. 240). Huxley gives it a great antiquity, and says it is the most ape-like one he ever saw. -Quatrefages, <i>Hommes fossiles</i>, etc. (1884), says it is not below some later men. Southall (<i>Epoch of the Mammoth</i>, 80) -says it has the average capacity of the negro, and double that of the gorilla, and doubts its antiquity.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>It was in the <i>American Naturalist</i> (Mar. and Ap., 1872) that Dr. C. C. Abbott made an early communication<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388]</a></span> -respecting the discovery of rude human implements in the glacial gravels<a name="FNanchor_1663_1663" id="FNanchor_1663_1663"></a><a href="#Footnote_1663_1663" class="fnanchor">[1663]</a> of the Delaware valley, and -since then the Trenton gravels have been the subject of much interest. The rudeness of the flints has -repeatedly raised doubts as to their artificial character; but Wilson (<i>Prehistoric Man</i>, i. 29) says that it is -impossible to find in flints broken for the road, or in any other accumulation of rocky débris, a single specimen -that looks like the rudest implement of the drift. Experts attest the exact correspondence of these Trenton -tools with those of the European river drift. Abbott has explained the artificial cleavages of stone in the -<i>American Antiquarian</i> (viii. 43). There are geologists like Shaler who question the artificial character of -the Trenton implements. From time to time since this early announcement, Dr. Abbott has made public -additional evidence as he has accumulated it, going to show, as he thinks, that we have in these deposits of the -glacial action the signs of men contemporary with the glacial flow, and earlier than the red Indian stock of historic -times.<a name="FNanchor_1664_1664" id="FNanchor_1664_1664"></a><a href="#Footnote_1664_1664" class="fnanchor">[1664]</a> He summarizes the matter in his “Palæolithic implements of a people on the Atlantic coast -anterior to the Indians,” in his <i>Primitive Industry</i> (1882).<a name="FNanchor_1665_1665" id="FNanchor_1665_1665"></a><a href="#Footnote_1665_1665" class="fnanchor">[1665]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">Some discoveries of human bones in the loess or loam of the Mississippi Valley have not been generally -accepted. Lyell (<i>Second Visit</i>, ii. 197; <i>Antiq. of Man</i>, 203) suspends judgment, as does Joseph Leidy in -his <i>Extinct Mammalia of North America</i> (p. 365).</p> - -<p class="p2">The existence of man in western Europe with extinct animals is a belief that, from the incredulity which -accompanied the discovery by Kemp in London, in 1714, of a stone hatchet lying in contiguity to some -elephant’s teeth,<a name="FNanchor_1666_1666" id="FNanchor_1666_1666"></a><a href="#Footnote_1666_1666" class="fnanchor">[1666]</a> has long passed into indisputable fact, settled by the exploration of cave and shell heaps.<a name="FNanchor_1667_1667" id="FNanchor_1667_1667"></a><a href="#Footnote_1667_1667" class="fnanchor">[1667]</a> -In North America, this conjunction of man’s remains with those of the mastodon is very widely spread.<a name="FNanchor_1668_1668" id="FNanchor_1668_1668"></a><a href="#Footnote_1668_1668" class="fnanchor">[1668]</a> The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389]</a></span> -geological evidence is quite sufficient without resorting to what has been called an Elephant’s head in the -architecture of Palenqué, the so-called Elephant Mound in Wisconsin, and the dubious if not fraudulent Elephant -Pipe of Iowa.<a name="FNanchor_1669_1669" id="FNanchor_1669_1669"></a><a href="#Footnote_1669_1669" class="fnanchor">[1669]</a> The positions of the skeletons have led many to believe that the interval since the -mastodon ceased to roam in the Mississippi Valley is not geologically great. Shaler (<i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, iv. -162) places it at a few thousand years, and there is enough ground for it perhaps to justify Southall (<i>Recent -Origin, etc.</i>, 551; <i>Ep. of the Mammoth</i>, ch. 8) in claiming that these animals have lived into historic times.</p> - -<p class="p2">A human skeleton was found sixteen feet below the surface, near New Orleans—(which is only nine feet -above the Gulf of Mexico), and under four successive growths of cypress forests. Its antiquity, however, is -questioned.<a name="FNanchor_1670_1670" id="FNanchor_1670_1670"></a><a href="#Footnote_1670_1670" class="fnanchor">[1670]</a> The belief in human traces in the calcareous conglomerate of Florida seems to have been based -(Haven, p. 87) on a misconception of Count Pourtalès’ statement (<i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, ii. 434), though it has -got credence in many of the leading books on this subject. Col. Whittlesey has reported some not very ancient -hearths in the Ohio Valley (<i>Am. Ass. Arts and Sciences, Proc., Chicago, 1868, Meeting</i>, vol. xvii. 268).</p> - -<p class="p2">The testimony of the caves to the early existence of man has never had the importance in America that it -has had in Europe.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390]</a></span></p> - -<p>It was in 1822 that Dr. Buckland, in his <i>Reliquiae diluvianae</i> (2d ed., 1824), first made something like a -systematic gathering of the evidence of animal remains, as shown by cave explorations; but he was not prepared -to believe that man’s remains were as old as the beasts. He later came to believe in the prehistoric -man. In 1833-34, Dr. Schmerling found in the cave of Enghis, near Liége, a highly developed skull, and published -his <i>Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles découverts dans les cavernes de la province de Liége</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1671_1671" id="FNanchor_1671_1671"></a><a href="#Footnote_1671_1671" class="fnanchor">[1671]</a></p> - -<p>In 1841, Boucher de Perthes began his discoveries in the valley of the Somme,<a name="FNanchor_1672_1672" id="FNanchor_1672_1672"></a><a href="#Footnote_1672_1672" class="fnanchor">[1672]</a> and finally discovered -among the animal remains some flint implements, and formulated his views of the great antiquity of man in -his <i>Antiquités Celtiques</i> (1847), rather for the derision than for the delectation of his brother geologists. In -1848, the Société Ethnographique de Paris ceased its sessions; but Boucher de Perthes had aroused a new -feeling, and while his efforts were still in doubt his disciples<a name="FNanchor_1673_1673" id="FNanchor_1673_1673"></a><a href="#Footnote_1673_1673" class="fnanchor">[1673]</a> gathered, and amid much ridicule founded the -Société d’Anthropologie de Paris, which has had so numerous a following in allied associations in Europe and -America.</p> - -<p>He tells us of the struggles he endured to secure the recognition of his views in his <i>De l’homme antédiluvien -et de ses œuvres</i> (Paris, 1860), and his trials were not over when, in 1863, he found at Moulin Quignon a -human jaw-bone,<a name="FNanchor_1674_1674" id="FNanchor_1674_1674"></a><a href="#Footnote_1674_1674" class="fnanchor">[1674]</a> which, as he felt, added much strength to the belief in the man of the glacial gravels.<a name="FNanchor_1675_1675" id="FNanchor_1675_1675"></a><a href="#Footnote_1675_1675" class="fnanchor">[1675]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">The existence of man in the somewhat later period of the caves<a name="FNanchor_1676_1676" id="FNanchor_1676_1676"></a><a href="#Footnote_1676_1676" class="fnanchor">[1676]</a> was also claiming constant recognition, -and the new society was broad enough to cover all. In 1857, Dr. Fuhlrott had discovered the Neanderthal -skull in a cave near Düsseldorf.</p> - -<p>In 1858, the discovery of flint tools in the Brixham cave, in Devonshire, was more effective in turning the -scientific mind to the proofs than earlier discoveries of much the same character by McEnery had been. In -March, 1872, Emile Rivière investigated the Mentone caves, and found a large skeleton, unmistakably human, -and the oldest yet found, supposed to be of the palæolithic period. (Cf. <i>Découverte d’un Squelette humain -de l’Epoque paléolithique</i>, Paris, 1873.) All this evidence is best set forth in the collection of his periodical -studies on the mammals of the Pleistocene, which were collected by William Boyd Dawkins in his <i>Cave Hunting: -researches on the evidence of caves, respecting the early inhabitants of Europe</i> (London, 1874),<a name="FNanchor_1677_1677" id="FNanchor_1677_1677"></a><a href="#Footnote_1677_1677" class="fnanchor">[1677]</a> a book -which may be considered a sort of complement to Lyell’s <i>Antiquity of Man</i> and Lubbock’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i>; -Dawkins (ch. 9, and <i>Address</i>, Salford, 1877, p. 3) and Lubbock (<i>Scientific Lectures</i>, 150) unite in holding -the modern Eskimos to be the representative of this cave folk. No argument is quite sufficient to convince -Southall that the archæologists do not place the denizens of the caves too far back (<i>Recent Origin of Man</i>, -ch. 13), and he rejects a belief in the steady slowness of the formation of stalagmites (<i>Epoch of the Mammoth</i>, -90), upon which Evans, Geikie, Wallace, Lyell, and others rest much of their belief in the great antiquity of -the remains found beneath the cave deposits.<a name="FNanchor_1678_1678" id="FNanchor_1678_1678"></a><a href="#Footnote_1678_1678" class="fnanchor">[1678]</a></p> - -<p>The largest development of cave testimony in America has been made by Dr. Lund,<a name="FNanchor_1679_1679" id="FNanchor_1679_1679"></a><a href="#Footnote_1679_1679" class="fnanchor">[1679]</a> a Danish naturalist, -who examined several hundred Brazilian caves, finding in them the bones of man in connection with those of -extinct animals.<a name="FNanchor_1680_1680" id="FNanchor_1680_1680"></a><a href="#Footnote_1680_1680" class="fnanchor">[1680]</a> The remains of a race, held to be Indians, found in the caves of Coahuila (Mexico) are -described by Cordelia A. Studley in the <i>Peabody Mus. Reports</i>, xv. 233. Edward D. Cope has studied the -contents of a bone cave in the island of Anguilla (West Indies), in the <i>Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge</i>, -no. 489 (1883). J. D. Whitney describes a cave in Calaveras County, in the <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i> (1887), -and Edward Palmer one in Utah (<i>Peab. Mus. Rept.</i>, xi. 269). Putnam explored some in Kentucky (<i>Ibid.</i> -viii.). Putnam’s first account of his cave work in Kentucky, showing the use of them as habitations and as -receptacles for mummies, is in the <i>Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.</i>, xvii. 319. J. P. Goodnow made similar explorations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[391]</a></span> -in Arizona (<i>Kansas City Rev</i>., viii. 647); E. T. Elliott in Colorado (<i>Pop. Sci. Mo.</i>, Oct., 1879), and Leidy -in the Hartman cave, in Pennsylvania (<i>Philad. Acad. Nat. Sci. Proc.</i>, 1880, p. 348). Cf. also Haldeman in -the <i>Am. Philos. Soc. Trans.</i> (1880) xv. 351. Col. Charles Whittlesey has discussed the “Evidences of the -antiquity of man in the United States,” in describing some cave remains of doubtful age.<a name="FNanchor_1681_1681" id="FNanchor_1681_1681"></a><a href="#Footnote_1681_1681" class="fnanchor">[1681]</a> W. H. Dall’s <i>On -the remains of later prehistoric man obtained from caves in the Catherine archipelago, Alaska territory, -and especially from the caves of the Aleutian islands</i> (Washington, 1878) is included in the <i>Smithsonian -contributions to knowledge</i>, xxii.</p> - -<p class="p2">Throughout the world, naturalists have found on streams and on the seacoast, heaps of the refuse of the -daily life of primitive peoples. Beneath the loam which has covered them there are found the shells of -edible mollusks and other relics of food, implements, ornaments and vessels, of stone, clay, and bone. Sometimes -it happens that natural superposed accumulations will mark them off in layers, and distinguish the -usages of successive periods.<a name="FNanchor_1682_1682" id="FNanchor_1682_1682"></a><a href="#Footnote_1682_1682" class="fnanchor">[1682]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-441.jpg" width="400" height="414" id="i391" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">OSCAR PESCHEL.</p> - <p class="pf400">From the engraving in the 1877 ed. of his <i>Gesch. des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen</i>. His <i>Abhandlungen zur -Erd-und Völker-Kunde</i>, continuing his contributions to <i>Das Ausland</i> and other periodicals, and edited by J. Löwenberg, -was published at Leipzig, in 3 vols. in 1877-79, the preface containing an account of Peschel’s services in this field.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>In the Old World such heaps upon the Danish coast have attracted the most attention under the name of -Kjœkkenmœddinger, or Kitchen-middens, and their teachings have enlivened the recitals of nearly all the -European archæologists who have sought to picture the condition of these early races.</p> - -<p>It seems to be the general opinion that in the Old World this shell-heap folk succeeded, if they do not in -part constitute the contemporaries of, the men of the caves.<a name="FNanchor_1683_1683" id="FNanchor_1683_1683"></a><a href="#Footnote_1683_1683" class="fnanchor">[1683]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-442.jpg" width="400" height="550" id="i392" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">JEFFRIES WYMAN.</p> - <p class="pf400">From a photograph taken in 1868, furnished by his family. The portrait in the <i>Peabody Museum Report</i>, no. viii., -represents him somewhat later in life, with a beard. He died Sept. 4, 1874. There are accounts of Wyman in the same -<i>Report</i>, by Asa Gray, who also made an address on Wyman before the Boston Society of Nat. Hist. (cf. <i>Pop. Science -Monthly</i>, Jan., 1875), with commemorations by O. W. Holmes (<i>Atlantic Monthly</i>, Nov., 1874, and <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. -Proc.</i>, xiv. 4), by F. W. Putnam in the <i>Proc. Amer. Acad.</i> with a list of his publications; by Packard in the <i>Mem. -Nat. Acad.</i>, and B. G. Wilder (<i>Old and New</i>, Nov., 1874).</p> -</div></div> - -<p>These accumulations are known usually in America as shell heaps, and it is generally characteristic of them -that, while they contain pottery and bone implements, the stone instruments are far less numerous, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[392]</a></span> -generally occur in the upper layers in those of Florida, but they are scattered through all the layers in those -of New England. Professor Jeffries Wyman, whose name is in this country particularly associated with -shell-heap investigations, could not find<a name="FNanchor_1684_1684" id="FNanchor_1684_1684"></a><a href="#Footnote_1684_1684" class="fnanchor">[1684]</a> that any one had in the scientific spirit called attention to the -subject in America earlier than Caleb Atwater in the <i>Archæologia Americana</i> (vol. i., 1820), who had observed -such deposits on the Muskingum River in Ohio. They had not passed unnoticed, however, by some of the -early explorers. Putnam (<i>Essex Inst. Bulletin</i>, xv. 86) notes that J. T. Ducatel observed those on the Chesapeake -in 1834. The earliest more particular mention of the inland mounds seem to have been made in -Prinz Maximilian’s <i>Travels in the United States</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1685_1685" id="FNanchor_1685_1685"></a><a href="#Footnote_1685_1685" class="fnanchor">[1685]</a> Foster, in his <i>Prehistoric Races of the U. S.</i> (ch. 4,—a -special survey of the American heaps), says that Professor Vanuxem was the first to describe the sea-side -mounds in 1841, in the <i>Proc. Amer. Asso. Geologists</i> (i. 22).<a name="FNanchor_1686_1686" id="FNanchor_1686_1686"></a><a href="#Footnote_1686_1686" class="fnanchor">[1686]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[393]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-443.jpg" width="400" height="387" id="i393" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">SHELL HEAPS ON CAPE COD.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>There has been as yet little found in America from which to develop the evidence of early man from any -lake or river dwellings, while so much has been done in Europe.<a name="FNanchor_1687_1687" id="FNanchor_1687_1687"></a><a href="#Footnote_1687_1687" class="fnanchor">[1687]</a> In some parts of Florida the Indians are -reported to have built houses on piles; and in South America tree-houses and those on platforms are well -known. Mr. Hilborne T. Cresson has reported (<i>Peabody Mus. Rept</i>., xxii. for 1888) the discovery of pile -ends in the Delaware River, and has shown that two of these river stations are earlier than the third, as is -evident from the rude implements of argillite found in the two when compared with those discovered in the -third, where implements of jasper and quartz and fragments of pottery were associated with those of argillite.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[394]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-444.jpg" width="400" height="267" id="i394" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">PUEBLO REGION.</p> - <p class="pf400">From a map, “Originalkarte der Urwohnsitze der Azteken und Verwandten Pueblos in New Mexico, zusammengestellt -von O. Loew,” in Petermann’s <i>Mittheilungen über wichtige neue Erforschungen auf dem Gesammtgebiete der -Geographie</i>, xxii. (1876), table xii. The small dotted circles stand for inhabited pueblos; those with a perpendicular line -attached are ruins; and when this perpendicular line is crossed it is a Mexicanized pueblo. See the map in Powell’s -<i>Second Rept. Bur. Ethnol.</i> (1880-81) p. 318, which marks the several classes: inhabited, abandoned, ruined pueblos, -cavate houses, cliff houses, and tower houses.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[395]</a></span></p> - -<p>The earliest discoveries of the cliff houses of the Colorado region were made by Lieut. J. H. Simpson, and -his descriptions appeared in his <i>Journal of a Military Reconnoissance</i>, in 1849.<a name="FNanchor_1688_1688" id="FNanchor_1688_1688"></a><a href="#Footnote_1688_1688" class="fnanchor">[1688]</a> No considerable addition -was made to our knowledge of the cliff dwellers till in 1874-75, when special parties of the Hayden Geological -Survey were sent to explore them (<i>Hayden’s Report</i>, 1876), whence we got accounts of those of southwestern -Colorado by W. H. Holmes, including the cavate-houses and cliff-dwellers of the San Juan, the Mancos, and -the ruins in the McElmo cañon.<a name="FNanchor_1689_1689" id="FNanchor_1689_1689"></a><a href="#Footnote_1689_1689" class="fnanchor">[1689]</a> W. H. Jackson gives a revised account of his 1874 expedition in the <i>Bulletin</i> -of the Survey (vol. ii. no. 1), adding thereto an account of his explorations of 1875. Jackson also gives a -chapter on the ruins of the Chaco cañon.<a name="FNanchor_1690_1690" id="FNanchor_1690_1690"></a><a href="#Footnote_1690_1690" class="fnanchor">[1690]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">In coming to the class of ruins lying in a few instances just within, but mostly to the north of, the Mexican -line, we encounter the Pueblo race, whose position in the ethnological chart is not quite certain, be their connection -with the Nahuas and Aztecs,<a name="FNanchor_1691_1691" id="FNanchor_1691_1691"></a><a href="#Footnote_1691_1691" class="fnanchor">[1691]</a> or with the moundbuilders,—red Indian if they be,—or with the cliff-dwellers, -as perhaps is the better opinion. Their connection with savage nations farther north is not wholly -determinable, as Morgan allows, on physical and social grounds, and perhaps not as definitely settled by their -architecture as Cushing seems to think.<a name="FNanchor_1692_1692" id="FNanchor_1692_1692"></a><a href="#Footnote_1692_1692" class="fnanchor">[1692]</a></p> - -<p>The Spaniard early encountered these ruins,<a name="FNanchor_1693_1693" id="FNanchor_1693_1693"></a><a href="#Footnote_1693_1693" class="fnanchor">[1693]</a> and perhaps the best summary of the growth of our knowledge -of them by successive explorations is in Bancroft’s <i>Nat. Races</i>, iv. ch. 11.<a name="FNanchor_1694_1694" id="FNanchor_1694_1694"></a><a href="#Footnote_1694_1694" class="fnanchor">[1694]</a> In the century after the Spanish -conquest, we have one of the best accounts in the <i>Memorial</i> of Fray Alonso Benavides, published at Madrid -in 1630.<a name="FNanchor_1695_1695" id="FNanchor_1695_1695"></a><a href="#Footnote_1695_1695" class="fnanchor">[1695]</a> The most famous of the ruins of this region, the Casa Grande of the Gila Valley in Arizona,<a name="FNanchor_1696_1696" id="FNanchor_1696_1696"></a><a href="#Footnote_1696_1696" class="fnanchor">[1696]</a> is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396]</a></span> -supposed to have been seen (1540) by Coronado, then in a state of ruin; but we get no clear description till -that given by Padre Mange, who accompanied Padre Kino to see the ruins in 1697.<a name="FNanchor_1697_1697" id="FNanchor_1697_1697"></a><a href="#Footnote_1697_1697" class="fnanchor">[1697]</a></p> - -<p>There are few descriptions<a name="FNanchor_1698_1698" id="FNanchor_1698_1698"></a><a href="#Footnote_1698_1698" class="fnanchor">[1698]</a> of the antiquities of this country previous to the military examination of it -which was made during the Mexican War. Such is recorded in W. H. Emory’s <i>Notes of a Military Reconnoissance -from Fort Leavenworth in Missouri to San Diego in California</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1699_1699" id="FNanchor_1699_1699"></a><a href="#Footnote_1699_1699" class="fnanchor">[1699]</a> which gives us some of the -earliest representations of these antiquities, including the ruins of Pecos.<a name="FNanchor_1700_1700" id="FNanchor_1700_1700"></a><a href="#Footnote_1700_1700" class="fnanchor">[1700]</a> In 1849, Col. Washington, the -governor of New Mexico, organized an expedition against the Navajos, and Lieut. James H. Simpson gives -us the first detailed account of the Chaco cañon in his <i>Journal of a Military Reconnoissance</i> (Philad., 1852).<a name="FNanchor_1701_1701" id="FNanchor_1701_1701"></a><a href="#Footnote_1701_1701" class="fnanchor">[1701]</a> -He also covered (p. 90), among the other ruins of this region, the old and present habitations of the Zuñi, but -these received in some respects more detailed examination in Capt. L. Sitgreave’s <i>Report of an Expedition -down the Zuñi and Colorado rivers</i> (Washington, 1853),<a name="FNanchor_1702_1702" id="FNanchor_1702_1702"></a><a href="#Footnote_1702_1702" class="fnanchor">[1702]</a> accompanied by a map and other illustrations.<a name="FNanchor_1703_1703" id="FNanchor_1703_1703"></a><a href="#Footnote_1703_1703" class="fnanchor">[1703]</a> -New channels of information were opened when the United States government undertook to make surveys -(1853) for a trans-continental line of railways; and a great deal of material is embodied in Whipple’s report on -the Indian tribes in the <i>Pacific R. R. Reports</i>, vol. iii. The running of the boundary line between the United -States and Mexico also contributed to our knowledge. The commissioner during 1850-53 was John Russell -Bartlett, who, on the failure of the government promptly to publish his report, printed his <i>Personal narrative -of explorations and incidents</i> (N. Y., 1854), and made in some parts of it an important contribution to -our knowledge of the antiquities of this region.<a name="FNanchor_1704_1704" id="FNanchor_1704_1704"></a><a href="#Footnote_1704_1704" class="fnanchor">[1704]</a></p> - -<p>No considerable advance was now made in this study for about a score of years. Major Powell first published -his account of his adventurous exploration (1869) of the Colorado cañon in <i>Scribner’s Monthly</i> (Jan., -Feb., Mar.) in 1875, and it was followed by his official <i>Exploration of the Colorado River</i> (Washington, -1875), making known the existence of ruins in the cañon’s gloomy depths. The <i>Reports</i> of the U. S. Geological -Survey, including the accounts by W. H. Jackson and W. H. Holmes, give much valuable and original -information; and a good deal of what has been included in the <i>Reports of the Chief of Engineers</i> (U. S. Army) -for 1875 and 1876 will also be found in the seventh volume, edited by F. W. Putnam, of <i>Wheeler’s Survey</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1705_1705" id="FNanchor_1705_1705"></a><a href="#Footnote_1705_1705" class="fnanchor">[1705]</a> -including the pueblos of Acoma, Taos, San Juan, and the ruin<a name="FNanchor_1706_1706" id="FNanchor_1706_1706"></a><a href="#Footnote_1706_1706" class="fnanchor">[1706]</a> on the Animas River.</p> - -<p>The latest examinations of these Pueblo remains, of which we have published accounts, are those made by -A. F. Bandelier for the Archæological Institute of America. He has given his results in his “Historical -introduction to studies among the sedentary Indians of New Mexico,” and in his “Report on the ruins of -Pecos,” which constitutes the initial volume of <i>Papers, American series</i>, of the Institute (Boston, 1881).<a name="FNanchor_1707_1707" id="FNanchor_1707_1707"></a><a href="#Footnote_1707_1707" class="fnanchor">[1707]</a> He -believes Pecos to be Cicuye, visited by Alvarado in 1541,—a huge pile with 585 compartments, finally -abandoned in 1840. In October, 1880, he examined the region west of Santa Fé (<i>Second Rept. Archæol. -Inst.</i>). His explorations also determined the eastern limits of the sedentary occupation of New Mexico<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[397]</a></span> -(<i>Fifth Report</i>). He renewed his studies in 1882 (<i>First Bull. Archæol. Inst.</i>, Jan., 1883), and thought the -ruins showed successive occupiers, and divides them into cave dwellings, cliff houses, one-story buildings, and -those of more than one, with each higher one retreating from the front of the next lower.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-447.jpg" width="400" height="325" id="i397" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">PUEBLO REGION.</p> - <p class="pf400">A reduction of the map accompanying Bandelier’s report on his investigations in New Mexico, in the <i>Fifth Rept. of -the Archæological Institute of America</i> (Cambridge, 1884).</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The most essential sources of information have thus been enumerated, but there is not a little fugitive and -comprehensive treatment of the subject worth the student’s attention who follows a course of investigation.<a name="FNanchor_1708_1708" id="FNanchor_1708_1708"></a><a href="#Footnote_1708_1708" class="fnanchor">[1708]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">The literature of the moundbuilders, and of the controversies arising out of the mysterious relics of their -life, is commensurate with the very wide extent of territory covered by their traces.<a name="FNanchor_1709_1709" id="FNanchor_1709_1709"></a><a href="#Footnote_1709_1709" class="fnanchor">[1709]</a> It was long before any -intelligent notice was taken of the mounds by those who traversed the wilderness. De Soto, in 1540,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[398]</a></span> -could get no traditions concerning them beyond the assurances that the peoples he encountered had built -them, or some of them. We read of them also in Garcilasso de la Vega, Biedma and the Knight of Elvas, on -the Spanish side; but on the French at a later day we learn little or nothing from Joutel, Tonti, and Hennepin, -though something from Du Pratz, La Harpe and some of the missionaries. Kalm,<a name="FNanchor_1710_1710" id="FNanchor_1710_1710"></a><a href="#Footnote_1710_1710" class="fnanchor">[1710]</a> the Swede, in 1749, was -about the first to make any note of them. Carver found them near Lake Pepin in 1768. In 1772 the missionary -David Jones<a name="FNanchor_1711_1711" id="FNanchor_1711_1711"></a><a href="#Footnote_1711_1711" class="fnanchor">[1711]</a> made observations upon those in Ohio. Adair did not wholly overlook them in his -<i>American Indians</i> in 1775. Prof. James Dunbar, of Aberdeen, in his <i>Essays on the history of mankind in -rude and uncultivated ages</i> (Lond., 1780), uses what little Kalm and Carver afforded. Jefferson in his <i>Notes -on Virginia</i> (1782) speaks of them as barrows “all over the country,” and “obvious repositories of the -dead.”<a name="FNanchor_1712_1712" id="FNanchor_1712_1712"></a><a href="#Footnote_1712_1712" class="fnanchor">[1712]</a> Arthur Lee makes reference to them in 1784. A map of the Northwest Territory, published by -John Fitch about 1785, places in the territory which is now Wisconsin the following legend: “This country -has once been settled by a people more expert in the art of war than the present inhabitants. Regular fortifications, -and some of these incredibly large, are frequently to be found. Also many graves and towers like -pyramids of earth.” In 1786 Franklin thought the works at Marietta might have been built by De Soto; -and Noah Webster, in a paper in Roberts’ <i>Florida</i>, assented.<a name="FNanchor_1713_1713" id="FNanchor_1713_1713"></a><a href="#Footnote_1713_1713" class="fnanchor">[1713]</a> B. S. Barton, in his <i>Observations in some -parts of Natural History</i> (London, 1787), credited the Toltecs with building them, whom he considered -the descendants of the Danes.</p> - -<p>As the century draws to a close, we find occasional and rather bewildered expression of interest in the -<i>Observations on the Ancient Mounds</i> by Major Jonathan Heart;<a name="FNanchor_1714_1714" id="FNanchor_1714_1714"></a><a href="#Footnote_1714_1714" class="fnanchor">[1714]</a> in the <i>Missions</i> of Loskiel; in the <i>New -Views</i> of Dr. Smith Barton; in the <i>Carolina</i> of William Bartram; and in the travels of Volney. In 1794 -Winthrop Sargent reported in the <i>Amer. Philos. Soc. Trans.</i>, iv., on the exploration of the mounds at Cincinnati. -The present century soon elicited a variety of observations, but there was little of practical exploration. -A New England minister, Thaddeus Mason Harris, passed judgment upon those in Ohio, when he -journeyed thither in 1803.<a name="FNanchor_1715_1715" id="FNanchor_1715_1715"></a><a href="#Footnote_1715_1715" class="fnanchor">[1715]</a> The commissioner of the United States to run the Florida boundary, Andrew -Ellicott, describes some near Natchez in his <i>Journal</i> (1803). Bishop Madison communicated through Professor -Barton some opinions about those in Western Virginia, which appear in the <i>Transaction</i> of the -American Philosophical Society, taking different grounds from Dr. Harris, who had thought them works of -defence. The explorations of Lewis and Clark (1804-6) up the Missouri, and of Pike (1805-7) up the Mississippi, -produced little. Robin, the French naturalist, in 1805,<a name="FNanchor_1716_1716" id="FNanchor_1716_1716"></a><a href="#Footnote_1716_1716" class="fnanchor">[1716]</a> Major Stoddard<a name="FNanchor_1717_1717" id="FNanchor_1717_1717"></a><a href="#Footnote_1717_1717" class="fnanchor">[1717]</a> and Breckenridge<a name="FNanchor_1718_1718" id="FNanchor_1718_1718"></a><a href="#Footnote_1718_1718" class="fnanchor">[1718]</a> later, -saw some in Louisiana, Missouri, and Illinois. A leading periodical, <i>The Portfolio</i>, contributed something -to the common stock in 1810 and 1814, giving plans of some of the mounds. Those in Ohio were again the -subject of inquiry by F. Cuming in his <i>Sketches of a Tour to the Western Country</i> (Pittsburg, 1810), and by -Dr. Daniel Drake in his <i>Picture of Cincinnati and the Miami Valley</i> (Cinn., 1815). John Heckewelder, the -Moravian missionary, accounted for the ancient fortifications through the traditions of the Delawares, who -professed once to have inhabited this country, but it has been suspected that the worthy missionary was imposed -upon.<a name="FNanchor_1719_1719" id="FNanchor_1719_1719"></a><a href="#Footnote_1719_1719" class="fnanchor">[1719]</a> DeWitt Clinton, in 1811, before the New York Historical Society, and again in 1817, before -the Literary and Philosophical Society of New York, had given some theories in which the Scandinavians -figured as builders of the mounds in that State.</p> - -<p>It was thus at a time when there was much speculation and not much real experimental knowledge respecting -these remains that, under the auspices of the then newly founded American Antiquarian Society, Mr. Caleb -Atwater, of Ohio, was employed to explore and survey a considerable number of these works. He embodied -his results in the initial volume of the publication of that society, the <i>Archæologia Americana</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1720_1720" id="FNanchor_1720_1720"></a><a href="#Footnote_1720_1720" class="fnanchor">[1720]</a> After -pointing out scattered evidences of the traces of European peoples, found in coins and other relics throughout -the country, Atwater proceeds to his description of the earthworks, mainly of Ohio; and beside giving many -plans,<a name="FNanchor_1721_1721" id="FNanchor_1721_1721"></a><a href="#Footnote_1721_1721" class="fnanchor">[1721]</a> he enters into the question of their origin, and expresses a belief in the Asiatic origin of their builders, -and in their subsequent migration south to lay, as he thinks, the foundations of the Mexican and Peruvian -civilizations.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[399]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-449.jpg" width="400" height="491" id="i399" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">COL. CHARLES WHITTLESEY.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a photograph kindly furnished by the Hon. C. C. Baldwin, of Cleveland, Ohio, who has printed a memorial of -his friend with a list of his writings in <i>Tract 68 of the Western Reserve Hist. Soc.</i></p> -</div></div> - -<p>During the next twenty-five years there cannot be said to have been much added to a real knowledge of the -subject. Yates and Moulton in their <i>Hist. New York</i> (1824) borrowed mainly from Kirkland (1788) the missionary. -Humboldt had no personal contact with the remains to give his views any value (1825). Warden -in his <i>Recherches</i> (1827) gave some new plans and rearranged the old descriptions. There was some sober -observation in M’Culloh’s <i>Researches</i> (3d ed., 1829); some far from sober in Rafinesque (1838); some compiled -descriptions with worthless comment in Josiah Priest’s <i>American Antiquities</i> (Albany, 1838); something -like scientific deductions in S. G. Morton’s study of the few moundbuilders’ skulls then known, in his -<i>Cranea Americana</i> (1839); with an attempt at summing up in Delafield (1839) and Bradford (1841). This -is about all that had been added to what Atwater did, when E. G. Squier and E. H. Davis eclipsed all labors -preceding theirs, and began the series of the <i>Smithsonian Contributions</i> with their <i>Ancient Monuments of -the Mississippi Valley</i> (Washington, 1847 and 1848).<a name="FNanchor_1722_1722" id="FNanchor_1722_1722"></a><a href="#Footnote_1722_1722" class="fnanchor">[1722]</a> During the preceding two years they had opened over -two hundred mounds, and explored about a hundred earthwork enclosures, and had gathered a considerable -collection of specimens of moundbuilders’ relics.<a name="FNanchor_1723_1723" id="FNanchor_1723_1723"></a><a href="#Footnote_1723_1723" class="fnanchor">[1723]</a> They had begun their work under the auspices of the -American Ethnological Society, but the cost of the production of the volume exceeded the society’s resources, -and the transfer was made to the Smithsonian Institution. The work took a commanding position at once, -and still remains of essential value, though some of the grounds of its authors are not acceptable to present -observers; and indeed in his work on the mounds of New York, which the Smithsonian Institution included -in the second volume of their <i>Contributions</i>, Squier found occasion to alter some of his opinions in his -earlier work, or at least to ascribe the mounds of that State to the Iroquois. The third volume of the same -<i>Contributions</i> (1852) introduces to us one of the ablest of the local investigators in a paper by Charles Whittlesey, -of “Descriptions of Ancient Works in Ohio,”—the forerunner of numerous papers which he has given<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[400]</a></span> -to the public in elucidation of the mounds.<a name="FNanchor_1724_1724" id="FNanchor_1724_1724"></a><a href="#Footnote_1724_1724" class="fnanchor">[1724]</a> Three years later (1855), in the seventh volume of the <i>Smithsonian -Contributions</i>, a new field in the emblematic and animal mounds of the northwest was for the first -time brought to any considerable extent to public -attention in the paper by Increase A. Lapham, -on the “Antiquities of Wisconsin.” Lapham had -made his explorations under the auspices of the -American Antiquarian Society,<a name="FNanchor_1725_1725" id="FNanchor_1725_1725"></a><a href="#Footnote_1725_1725" class="fnanchor">[1725]</a> and his manuscript -had been revised by Haven, when it was decided to -consign it for publication to the Smithsonian Institution.</p> - -<div class="floatleft"> - <img src="images/ill-450.jpg" width="250" height="306" id="i400" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc250">INCREASE A. LAPHAM.</p> - <p class="pf250">Engraved from a photograph dated 1863, kindly furnished by his friend, Prof. J. D. Whitney. Lapham died in 1875. -Cf. <i>Amer. Journal of Science</i>, x. 320; xi. 326, 333; <i>Trans. Wisc. Acad. Science</i>, iii. 264.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The animal mounds had been indeed earlier mentioned, -and the great serpent mound of Ohio had -long attracted attention; but it was in the territory -now known as Wisconsin that these mounds were -found chiefly to abound. Long, in 1823, speaks of -mounds in this region; but the forest coverings seem -to have prevented any observer detecting their -shapes till Lapham first noted this peculiarity in -1836. In April, 1838, R. C. Taylor was the earliest -to figure them in the <i>Amer. Journal of Science</i> -(Silliman’s), and again they were described by S. -Taylor in <i>Ibid.</i>, 1842. Prof. John Locke referred -to them in a <i>Report on the mineral lands of the -United States</i>, made to Congress in 1844. William -Pidgeon, who had been a trader among the Indians, -published in his <i>Traditions of De-coo-dah, and -Antiquarian researches: comprising extensive exploration, -surveys and excavations of the Mound -Builders in America; the traditions of the last -Prophet of the Elk Nation, relative to their origin -and use, and the evidences of an ancient population more numerous than the present Aborigines</i> (N. Y., -1853; again 1858) what he pretended was in large part the results of his intercourse with an Indian chief, involving -some theories as to the symbolism of the mounds. The book contained so many palpable perversions, -not to say undisguised fictions, that the Smithsonian Institution refused to publish it;<a name="FNanchor_1726_1726" id="FNanchor_1726_1726"></a><a href="#Footnote_1726_1726" class="fnanchor">[1726]</a> and the book -has never gained any credit, though some unguarded writers have unwittingly borrowed from it.<a name="FNanchor_1727_1727" id="FNanchor_1727_1727"></a><a href="#Footnote_1727_1727" class="fnanchor">[1727]</a></p> - -<p>In the eighth volume of the <i>Smithsonian Contributions</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1728_1728" id="FNanchor_1728_1728"></a><a href="#Footnote_1728_1728" class="fnanchor">[1728]</a> Haven, the librarian of the Amer. Antiq. Soc., -summed up the results of mound exploration as they then stood. The steady and circumspect habit of -Haven’s mind was conspicuous in his treatment of the mounds. It is to him that the later advocates of the -identity of their builders with the race of the red Indians look as the first sensibly to affect public opinion in -the matter.<a name="FNanchor_1729_1729" id="FNanchor_1729_1729"></a><a href="#Footnote_1729_1729" class="fnanchor">[1729]</a> He argued against their being a more advanced race (p. 154), and in his <i>Report</i> of the Am. -Antiq. Soc., in 1877 (p. 37), he held that it might yet be proved that the moundbuilders and red Indians -were one in race, as M’Culloh had already suggested.</p> - -<p>At the time when Haven was first intimating (1856) that this view might yet become accepted, it was -doubtless held to be best established that those who built the mounds were quite another race from those -who lived among them when Europeans first knew the country. The fact that the Indians had no tradition of -their origin was held to be almost conclusive, though it is alleged that the southern Indians in later times -retained no recollections of the expedition of De Soto, and Dr. Brinton thinks that it is common for Indian -traditions to die out.<a name="FNanchor_1730_1730" id="FNanchor_1730_1730"></a><a href="#Footnote_1730_1730" class="fnanchor">[1730]</a> It is not till recent years that any considerable number of moundbuilder skulls have -been known, and from the scant data which the early craniologists had, their opinion seems to have coincided -with those in favor of a vanished race.<a name="FNanchor_1731_1731" id="FNanchor_1731_1731"></a><a href="#Footnote_1731_1731" class="fnanchor">[1731]</a> It was a favorite theory, not yet wholly departed, that they were in -some way connected with the more southern peoples, the Pueblo Indians, the Aztecs, or the Peruvians; either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[401]</a></span> -that they came from them, or migrated south and became one with them.<a name="FNanchor_1732_1732" id="FNanchor_1732_1732"></a><a href="#Footnote_1732_1732" class="fnanchor">[1732]</a> The bolder theory, that we see -their descendants in the red Indians, is perhaps gaining ground, and it has had the support of the Bureau of -Ethnology and some able expounders.<a name="FNanchor_1733_1733" id="FNanchor_1733_1733"></a><a href="#Footnote_1733_1733" class="fnanchor">[1733]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-451.jpg" width="400" height="253" id="i401" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">THE GREAT SERPENT MOUND.</p> - <p class="pf400">This follows a survey given in Squier’s <i>Serpent Symbol</i> (N. Y., 1851), p. 137. It is criticised by Putnam in -<i>Peabody Museum Reports</i>, xviii. 348, and <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, Oct., 1883. Putnam has recently purchased over -sixty acres about the effigy, which is to be held by the trustees of the Peabody Museum as a park (<i>Repts.</i>, xxi. 14); -and his recent explorations show that the projections in the side of the head (shaded dark in the cut) are not a part of -the construction. He also finds two distinct periods of occupation in this region, to the oldest of which he attributes -this work (<i>Peab. Mus. Rept.</i> 1888). W. H. Holmes made a survey in 1886 (<i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, May, 1887, ix. 141; -<i>Science</i>, viii. 624, Dec. 31, 1886). Cf. J. P. MacLean, in <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, vii. 44, and his <i>Moundbuilders</i>, p. 56; -Baldwin’s <i>Anc. America</i>, 29. T. H. Lewis describes a snake mound in Minnesota (<i>Science</i>, ix. 393). On the serpent -symbol see S. D. Peet, in <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, viii. 197; ix. 13, where he manifests a somewhat omnivorous appetite.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[402]</a></span></p> - -<p>Of the opposing theory of a disappeared race, Capt. Heart in reply to Barton (<i>Amer. Philolog. Asso. Proc.</i> -iii.) gave, as Thomas thinks, “the earliest clear and distinct expression,” but Squier and Davis may be considered -as first giving it definite meaning; and though Squier does not seem to have actually revoked this judgment -as respects the mounds in the Mississippi valley, he finally reached the conclusion that those in New -York were really the work of the Iroquois.<a name="FNanchor_1734_1734" id="FNanchor_1734_1734"></a><a href="#Footnote_1734_1734" class="fnanchor">[1734]</a> This ancient-race theory, sometimes amounting to a belief in -their autochthonous origin, has impressed the public through some of the best known summaries of American -antiquities, like those of Baldwin, Wilson, and Short,<a name="FNanchor_1735_1735" id="FNanchor_1735_1735"></a><a href="#Footnote_1735_1735" class="fnanchor">[1735]</a> and has been adopted by men of such reputation -as Lyell.<a name="FNanchor_1736_1736" id="FNanchor_1736_1736"></a><a href="#Footnote_1736_1736" class="fnanchor">[1736]</a> The position taken by Professor F. W. Putnam, the curator of the Peabody Museum of Archæology -at Cambridge, is much like that taken earlier by Warden in his <i>Recherches</i>, that both views are, within -their own limitations, correct, and, as Putnam expresses it, “that many Indian tribes built mounds and earthworks -is beyond doubt; but that all the mounds and earthworks of North America are by these same tribes, -or their immediate ancestors, is not thereby proved.”<a name="FNanchor_1737_1737" id="FNanchor_1737_1737"></a><a href="#Footnote_1737_1737" class="fnanchor">[1737]</a> Thomas (<i>Fifth Report, Bureau Ethnol.</i>) holds this -statement to be too vague. It is certainly shown in the whole history of archæological study that uncompromising -demarcations have sooner or later to be abandoned.</p> - -<p>Morgan finds it difficult to dissociate the mounds with his favorite theory of communal life.<a name="FNanchor_1738_1738" id="FNanchor_1738_1738"></a><a href="#Footnote_1738_1738" class="fnanchor">[1738]</a> There is no -readier way of marking the development of opinion on this question than to follow the series of the <i>Annual -Reports</i> of the Smithsonian Institution, as hardly a year has passed since 1861 but these <i>Reports</i> have had in -them contributions on the subject.<a name="FNanchor_1739_1739" id="FNanchor_1739_1739"></a><a href="#Footnote_1739_1739" class="fnanchor">[1739]</a> Among periodicals, the more constant attention to the mounds is -conspicuous in the <i>American Antiquarian</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1740_1740" id="FNanchor_1740_1740"></a><a href="#Footnote_1740_1740" class="fnanchor">[1740]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[403]</a></span></p> - -<p>The basis for estimating the age of the mounds is threefold. In the first place, there are very few found on -the last of the river terraces to be reclaimed from the stream. In the second place, the decay of the skeletons -found in them can be taken as of some indication, if due regard be had to the kind of earth in which they -are buried. Third, the age of trees upon them has been accepted as carrying them back a certain period, at -least, though this may widely vary, if you assume their growth to be subsequent to the abandonment of the -mounds, or if, as Brinton holds,<a name="FNanchor_1741_1741" id="FNanchor_1741_1741"></a><a href="#Footnote_1741_1741" class="fnanchor">[1741]</a> the trees were planted immediately upon the building. The dependence -upon counting the rings is by no means a settled opinion as to all climes; but in the temperate zone the best -authorities place dependence upon it. Unfortunately it cannot carry us back much over 600 years.<a name="FNanchor_1742_1742" id="FNanchor_1742_1742"></a><a href="#Footnote_1742_1742" class="fnanchor">[1742]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">The early attempts to disclose the ethnological relations of the moundbuilders on cranial evidence were -embarrassed by the fewness of the skulls then known. Morton (<i>Crania Americana</i>) called the four examined -by him identical with those of the red Indian.<a name="FNanchor_1743_1743" id="FNanchor_1743_1743"></a><a href="#Footnote_1743_1743" class="fnanchor">[1743]</a> At present, considerable numbers are available; but still -Wilson (<i>Prehistoric Man</i>, ii. 128) holds that “we lack sufficient data,” and in the consideration of them -sufficient care has not always been taken to distinguish intrusive burials of a later date.<a name="FNanchor_1744_1744" id="FNanchor_1744_1744"></a><a href="#Footnote_1744_1744" class="fnanchor">[1744]</a></p> - -<p>J. W. Foster (<i>Prehist. Races</i>, ch. 8; <i>Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Trans.</i>, 1872; and <i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, vi. 738) -held to a lower type of skull, on this evidence, than Wilson (<i>Prehist. Man</i>, ii. ch. 20) contended for. There -are examples of the wide difference of views (MacLean, 142), when some, like Morgan, connect them with -the Pueblo skulls (<i>No. Amer. Rev.</i>, cix., Oct., 1869), and others, like Morton, Winchell, Wilson, Brasseur, -and Foster, find their correspondences in those of Mexico and Peru.<a name="FNanchor_1745_1745" id="FNanchor_1745_1745"></a><a href="#Footnote_1745_1745" class="fnanchor">[1745]</a> Putnam, whose experience with mound -skulls is greatest of all, holds to the southern short head and the northern long head (<i>Rept.</i> 1888). Probably -we have no better enumeration of the variety of objects and relics found in the mounds, though much has -since been added to the collection, than in Rau’s <i>Catalogue of the Archæological Collection of the National -Museum</i> (Washington, 1876).<a name="FNanchor_1746_1746" id="FNanchor_1746_1746"></a><a href="#Footnote_1746_1746" class="fnanchor">[1746]</a> Unfortunately he shows little or no discrimination between discoveries in -the mounds and those of the surface. The interest in such collections has naturally brought prominently to -the attention of every student of such collections the tricks of fraudulent imitators, and there are several well-known -instances of protracted controversies on the genuineness of certain relics.<a name="FNanchor_1747_1747" id="FNanchor_1747_1747"></a><a href="#Footnote_1747_1747" class="fnanchor">[1747]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[404]</a></span></p> - -<p>There remains in this survey of the literature of the mounds in all their varieties, to go over it, finally, in -relation to their geographical distribution:<a name="FNanchor_1748_1748" id="FNanchor_1748_1748"></a><a href="#Footnote_1748_1748" class="fnanchor">[1748]</a>—</p> - -<p>New England is almost destitute of these antiquities. The one that has attracted some attention is what -is described as a fortification in Sanbornton, in New Hampshire, which when found was faced with stone -externally, and the walls were six feet thick and breast-high, when described about one hundred and fifteen -years ago. There is a plan of it, with a descriptive account, preserved in the library of the American Antiq. -Society,<a name="FNanchor_1749_1749" id="FNanchor_1749_1749"></a><a href="#Footnote_1749_1749" class="fnanchor">[1749]</a> and another plan and description in M. T. Runnels’s <i>Hist. of Sanbornton</i> (Boston, 1882), i. ch. 4. -Squier also figured it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-454.jpg" width="400" height="241" id="i404" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">CINCINNATI TABLET.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a cut in Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, i. 274, engraved from a rubbing taken from the original. Wilson adds: -“Mr. Whittlesey has included this tablet among his Archæological Frauds; but the result of inquiries made by me has -removed from my mind any doubt of its genuineness.” Cf. other cuts in M. C. Read, <i>Archæol. of Ohio</i> (1888); Squier -and Davis, fig. 195; Short, p. 45; MacLean, 107; and <i>Second Rept. Bur. of Ethnol.</i>, pp. 133-34.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>As we move westward, the mounds begin to be numerous in the State of New York, and particularly in the -western part of it. One of the earliest descriptions of them, after that of the missionary Kirkland (about -1788), is in the “Journal of the Rev. John Taylor while on a mission through the Mohawk and Black River -Country in 1802,” which was first printed, with plans of the works examined, in the <i>Documentary Hist. New -York</i> (vol. iii. quarto ed.). In 1818 DeWitt Clinton published at Albany his <i>Memoir on the Antiquities of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[405]</a></span> -the western part of New York</i>, in which he attributes their origin to the Scandinavians.<a name="FNanchor_1750_1750" id="FNanchor_1750_1750"></a><a href="#Footnote_1750_1750" class="fnanchor">[1750]</a> They were again -described in David Thomas’s <i>Travels through the western country in 1816</i> (Auburn, 1819). There is not -much else to note for twenty-five years. In 1845, Schoolcraft made to the N. Y. Senate his <i>Report on the -Census of the Iroquois Indians</i> (Albany and N. Y., 1846, 1847, 1848), which is better known, perhaps, in the -trade edition, <i>Notes on the Iroquois; or Contributions to the Statistics, Aboriginal History, Antiquities and -General Ethnology of Western New York</i> (N. Y. 1846). In 1850, the <i>Third Report</i> of the Regents of the -University of the State of N. Y. contains F. B. Hough’s paper on the earthwork enclosures in the State, with -cuts. The same year (1850) came the essential authority on the New York mounds, E. G. Squier’s <i>Aboriginal -Monuments of the State of N. Y., comprising the results of original surveys and explorations, with an -illustrative appendix</i> (Washington, 1850), which the next year made part of the second volume of the <i>Smithsonian -Contributions</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1751_1751" id="FNanchor_1751_1751"></a><a href="#Footnote_1751_1751" class="fnanchor">[1751]</a> He enumerates in New York about 250 defensive structures, beside burial mounds -and in his appendix describes those in New Hampshire and some in Pennsylvania.<a name="FNanchor_1752_1752" id="FNanchor_1752_1752"></a><a href="#Footnote_1752_1752" class="fnanchor">[1752]</a> Some new explorations -of the New York mounds were made in 1859 by T. Apoleon Cheney, who describes them, giving plans -and cuts, in the <i>Thirteenth Report</i> of the Regents of the University.<a name="FNanchor_1753_1753" id="FNanchor_1753_1753"></a><a href="#Footnote_1753_1753" class="fnanchor">[1753]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-455.jpg" width="400" height="203" id="i405" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">ANCIENT WORKS ON THE MUSKINGUM.</p> - <p class="pf400">Reduced from an early engraving in T. M. Harris’s <i>Journal of a Tour into the territory northwest of the Alleghany, -1803</i> (Boston, 1805). Harris’s plan in relation to the new town of Marietta is given in Vol. VII. p. 540. To follow -down the plans chronologically, we find that of Winthrop Sargent, communicated to the Amer. Academy in 1787, reproduced -in their <i>Memoirs</i>, new ser. v. part i. The <i>Columbian Mag.</i>, May, 1787, vol. i. 425, and the <i>N. Y. Mag.</i> (1791) -had plans. One was in Schultz’s <i>Travels</i> (1807), 146. Atwater, of course, gave one in 1820. A survey by S. Dewitt, -1822, is in Josiah Priest’s <i>Amer. Antiquities</i>, 3d ed., Albany, 1833. Others are in the <i>Amer. Pioneer</i>, Oct., 1842, June -1843, and in S. P. Hildreth’s <i>Pioneer History</i>, 212 (Jan., 1843). Whittlesey made the survey in Squier and Davis (who -also give a colored view), and it is reduced in Foster. Cf. also <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, Jan., 1880; <i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, -1885, p. 547; Henry A. Shepard’s <i>Antiquities of Ohio</i> (Cinn., 1887); Nadaillac’s <i>L’Amérique préhistorique</i>, 105, and -<i>Les prem. Hommes</i>, ii. 33.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>It was, however, in Ohio that the interest in these mounds was first incited, and that the more thorough<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[406]</a></span> -exploration has been made.<a name="FNanchor_1754_1754" id="FNanchor_1754_1754"></a><a href="#Footnote_1754_1754" class="fnanchor">[1754]</a> The earliest pioneers reported upon them. Cutler described them in 1789 in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[407]</a></span> -letter to Jeremy Belknap.<a name="FNanchor_1755_1755" id="FNanchor_1755_1755"></a><a href="#Footnote_1755_1755" class="fnanchor">[1755]</a> Benj. S. Barton described a mound at Cincinnati in 1799.<a name="FNanchor_1756_1756" id="FNanchor_1756_1756"></a><a href="#Footnote_1756_1756" class="fnanchor">[1756]</a> Dr. Harris in 1805 -was seemingly the earliest traveller to note them in <i>Journal of a Tour</i>, where he gives one of the earliest -engravings. A plan of those at Circleville, with description by J. Kilbourne, is given in the <i>Ohio Gazetteer</i> -(Columbus, 1817). Caleb Atwater, in 1820, was more familiar with them than with others of his broader field. -Warden in his <i>Recherches</i> noted the early describers. Gen. Harrison discussed the mounds in his <i>Discourse -on the Aborigines of the Valley of the Ohio</i> (Cincinnati, 1838). Squier and Davis, of course, brought them -within their range,<a name="FNanchor_1757_1757" id="FNanchor_1757_1757"></a><a href="#Footnote_1757_1757" class="fnanchor">[1757]</a> and Col. Whittlesey supplemented their work in the third volume of the <i>Smithsonian -Contributions</i>. Whittlesey and Matthew C. Read contributed the Report on the Archæology of Ohio, which -forms the second portion of the <i>Final Report of the Ohio State Board of Centennial Managers</i> (Columbus, -1877), and in it is a list of the ancient enclosures, which is not, as Short says (p. 82), as complete as it should -be. A survey of the mounds was made by E. B. Andrews, and published in the <i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i> (no. -x.), 1877. The Ohio State Archæological and Historical Society started in June, 1887, the <i>Ohio archæological -and historical Quarterly</i>, which has vigorously entered the field, and in it (March, 1888) G. F. Wright -has reported on the present condition of the mounds. M. C. Read’s <i>Archæology of Ohio</i> (Cleveland, 1888) -was published by the Western Reserve Historical Society, whose series of Tracts is of importance for the -study of the mounds.<a name="FNanchor_1758_1758" id="FNanchor_1758_1758"></a><a href="#Footnote_1758_1758" class="fnanchor">[1758]</a> Henry A. Shepard’s <i>Antiquities of the State of Ohio</i> (Cincinnati, 1887) summarizes -the discoveries to date.<a name="FNanchor_1759_1759" id="FNanchor_1759_1759"></a><a href="#Footnote_1759_1759" class="fnanchor">[1759]</a> Thomas (<i>Fifth Rept. Bur. Ethnol.</i>) claims that the Ohio mounds were built by -Indians, but not by the Indians, nor by the ancestors of them, who inhabited this region at the coming of the -whites; but by an Indian race driven south, of whom he finds the modern representatives in the Cherokees.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-456.jpg" width="400" height="514" id="i406" - alt="" - title="" /> - <p class="pf400">From E. G. Squier’s <i>Aboriginal Monuments of the Mississippi Valley</i> (N. Y., 1847), taken from <i>Amer. Ethnol. -Soc. Trans.</i>, ii. The letters A, B, C, etc. mark the ancient works. Enclosures are shown by broken lines. The -mounds are designated by small dots. Some of the best maps which we have showing the geographical positions of -groups of mounds accompany Thomas’s paper in the <i>Fifth Rept., Bur. Ethnol.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>The works at Marietta, on the Muskingum River, were the earliest observed. Taking the southern and -southeastern counties, there are no very conspicuous examples elsewhere, though the region is well dotted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[408]</a></span> -with earthworks.<a name="FNanchor_1760_1760" id="FNanchor_1760_1760"></a><a href="#Footnote_1760_1760" class="fnanchor">[1760]</a> Those at Cincinnati were, after those at Marietta, the earliest to be noticed.<a name="FNanchor_1761_1761" id="FNanchor_1761_1761"></a><a href="#Footnote_1761_1761" class="fnanchor">[1761]</a> The adjacent -Little Miami Valley is the region which Professor Putnam and Dr. Metz have been of late so successfully -working.<a name="FNanchor_1762_1762" id="FNanchor_1762_1762"></a><a href="#Footnote_1762_1762" class="fnanchor">[1762]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-457.jpg" width="400" height="266" id="i407" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">THE WORKS AT NEWARK, OHIO.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a cut in Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, i. 269, made from surveys “executed while the chief earthworks could still -be traced in all their integrity;” and they “illustrate rites and customs of an ancient American people, without a parallel -among the monumental memorials of the old world.” Cf. Atwater, Warden, Squier and Davis, and MacLean.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Of all the works in the central portions of Ohio, and indeed of all in any region, those at Newark, in Licking -County, are the most extensive, and have been often described.<a name="FNanchor_1763_1763" id="FNanchor_1763_1763"></a><a href="#Footnote_1763_1763" class="fnanchor">[1763]</a> In the east<a name="FNanchor_1764_1764" id="FNanchor_1764_1764"></a><a href="#Footnote_1764_1764" class="fnanchor">[1764]</a> and west<a name="FNanchor_1765_1765" id="FNanchor_1765_1765"></a><a href="#Footnote_1765_1765" class="fnanchor">[1765]</a> there are other of -these earthworks; but those in the north have been particularly examined by Col. Whittlesey and others.<a name="FNanchor_1766_1766" id="FNanchor_1766_1766"></a><a href="#Footnote_1766_1766" class="fnanchor">[1766]</a> -The enclosure called Fort Azatlan, at Merom on the Wabash River, is the most noticeable in Indiana.<a name="FNanchor_1767_1767" id="FNanchor_1767_1767"></a><a href="#Footnote_1767_1767" class="fnanchor">[1767]</a> In -Illinois, the great Cahokia truncated pyramid, 700 feet long by 500 wide and 90 high, is the most important.<a name="FNanchor_1768_1768" id="FNanchor_1768_1768"></a><a href="#Footnote_1768_1768" class="fnanchor">[1768]</a></p> - -<p>Henry Gillman, of Detroit, has been the leading writer on the mounds of Michigan.<a name="FNanchor_1769_1769" id="FNanchor_1769_1769"></a><a href="#Footnote_1769_1769" class="fnanchor">[1769]</a> The supposed connection -of their builders with the ancient copper mines of Lake Superior is considered in another place. -Thomas (<i>Fifth Rept., Bur. Ethnol.</i>) contends that much of the copper found in the mounds was of European -make, and had no relation to any aboriginal mining.</p> - -<p>Wisconsin is the central region of what are known as the animal, effigy, symbolic, or emblematic mounds. -Mention has been made elsewhere of the earliest notices of this kind of earthwork. The most extensive -examination of them is the <i>Antiquities of Wisconsin as surveyed and described by I. A. Lapham</i> (Washington, -1855), with a map showing the sites.<a name="FNanchor_1770_1770" id="FNanchor_1770_1770"></a><a href="#Footnote_1770_1770" class="fnanchor">[1770]</a> The consideration of these effigy mounds has given rise to -various theories regarding their significance, whether as symbols or to totems.<a name="FNanchor_1771_1771" id="FNanchor_1771_1771"></a><a href="#Footnote_1771_1771" class="fnanchor">[1771]</a> It is Thomas’s conclusion that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[409]</a></span> -the effigy mounds and the burial mounds of Wisconsin were the work of the same people (<i>Fifth Rept., Bur. -Ethnol.</i>).</p> - -<p>The existence of what is called an elephant or mastodon mound in Grant County has been sometimes -taken to point to the age of those extinct animals as that of the erection of the mounds.<a name="FNanchor_1772_1772" id="FNanchor_1772_1772"></a><a href="#Footnote_1772_1772" class="fnanchor">[1772]</a> Putnam, referring -to the confined area in which these effigy mounds are found, says that the serpent mound, the alligator -mound,<a name="FNanchor_1773_1773" id="FNanchor_1773_1773"></a><a href="#Footnote_1773_1773" class="fnanchor">[1773]</a> and Whittlesey’s effigy mound in Ohio, and two bird mounds in Georgia,<a name="FNanchor_1774_1774" id="FNanchor_1774_1774"></a><a href="#Footnote_1774_1774" class="fnanchor">[1774]</a> are the only other works -in North America to which they are at all comparable.<a name="FNanchor_1775_1775" id="FNanchor_1775_1775"></a><a href="#Footnote_1775_1775" class="fnanchor">[1775]</a></p> - -<p>When Lewis and Clark explored the Missouri River in 1804-6, they discovered mounds in different parts of -its valley; but their statements were not altogether confirmed till the parties of the United States surveyors -traversed the region after the civil war, as is particularly shown in Hayden’s <i>Geological Survey, 6th Rept.</i>, -in 1872. Within the present State of Missouri the mounds which have attracted most notice are those near -the modern St. Louis.<a name="FNanchor_1776_1776" id="FNanchor_1776_1776"></a><a href="#Footnote_1776_1776" class="fnanchor">[1776]</a> In Iowa (Clayton County) there is said to be the largest group of effigy mounds west -of the Mississippi.<a name="FNanchor_1777_1777" id="FNanchor_1777_1777"></a><a href="#Footnote_1777_1777" class="fnanchor">[1777]</a> The mounds of Iowa and the neighboring region are also discussed by Thomas in the -<i>Fifth Rept. Bur. Ethnol.</i> O. H. Kelley has reported on the remains of an ancient town in Minnesota.<a name="FNanchor_1778_1778" id="FNanchor_1778_1778"></a><a href="#Footnote_1778_1778" class="fnanchor">[1778]</a> In -Kansas there is little noticeable,<a name="FNanchor_1779_1779" id="FNanchor_1779_1779"></a><a href="#Footnote_1779_1779" class="fnanchor">[1779]</a> and there is not much to record in Dacotah,<a name="FNanchor_1780_1780" id="FNanchor_1780_1780"></a><a href="#Footnote_1780_1780" class="fnanchor">[1780]</a> Utah,<a name="FNanchor_1781_1781" id="FNanchor_1781_1781"></a><a href="#Footnote_1781_1781" class="fnanchor">[1781]</a> California,<a name="FNanchor_1782_1782" id="FNanchor_1782_1782"></a><a href="#Footnote_1782_1782" class="fnanchor">[1782]</a> and -Montana.<a name="FNanchor_1783_1783" id="FNanchor_1783_1783"></a><a href="#Footnote_1783_1783" class="fnanchor">[1783]</a> We find scant accounts of the mounds in Oregon and Washington in the narrative of the Wilkes -Exploring Expedition and in the earlier story of Lewis and Clark. Some of the mounds are of doubtful -artificiality.<a name="FNanchor_1784_1784" id="FNanchor_1784_1784"></a><a href="#Footnote_1784_1784" class="fnanchor">[1784]</a></p> - -<p>Along the lower portion of the Mississippi, but not within three hundred miles of its mouth, we find in -Louisiana other mound constructions, but not of unusual significance.<a name="FNanchor_1785_1785" id="FNanchor_1785_1785"></a><a href="#Footnote_1785_1785" class="fnanchor">[1785]</a></p> - -<p>The first effigy mound, a bear, which was observed south of the Ohio, is near an old earthwork in Greenup -County, Kentucky.<a name="FNanchor_1786_1786" id="FNanchor_1786_1786"></a><a href="#Footnote_1786_1786" class="fnanchor">[1786]</a> The mounds of this State early attracted notice.<a name="FNanchor_1787_1787" id="FNanchor_1787_1787"></a><a href="#Footnote_1787_1787" class="fnanchor">[1787]</a> Bishop Madison<a name="FNanchor_1788_1788" id="FNanchor_1788_1788"></a><a href="#Footnote_1788_1788" class="fnanchor">[1788]</a> thought them -sepulchral rather than military. In the <i>Western Review</i> (Dec., 1819) one was described near Lexington. -Rafinesque added a not very sane account of them to Marshall’s <i>History of Kentucky</i>, in 1824, which was -also published separately, and since then all the general histories of Kentucky have given some attention to -these antiquities.<a name="FNanchor_1789_1789" id="FNanchor_1789_1789"></a><a href="#Footnote_1789_1789" class="fnanchor">[1789]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[410]</a></span></p> - -<p>In Tennessee we find in connection with the earthworks the stone graves, which the explorations of Putnam, -about ten years ago, brought into prominence.<a name="FNanchor_1790_1790" id="FNanchor_1790_1790"></a><a href="#Footnote_1790_1790" class="fnanchor">[1790]</a> The chief student of the aboriginal mounds in Georgia -has been Col. C. C. Jones, Jr., who has been writing on the subject for nearly forty years.<a name="FNanchor_1791_1791" id="FNanchor_1791_1791"></a><a href="#Footnote_1791_1791" class="fnanchor">[1791]</a> The mounds in the -State of Mississippi, as including the region of the Natchez Indians, derive some added interest because of -the connection sometimes supposed to exist between them and the race of the mounds.<a name="FNanchor_1792_1792" id="FNanchor_1792_1792"></a><a href="#Footnote_1792_1792" class="fnanchor">[1792]</a> The same characteristics -of the mounds extend into Alabama.<a name="FNanchor_1793_1793" id="FNanchor_1793_1793"></a><a href="#Footnote_1793_1793" class="fnanchor">[1793]</a> The mounds in Florida attracted the early notice of John and -William Bartram, and are described by them in their <i>Travels</i>, and have been dwelt upon by later writers.<a name="FNanchor_1794_1794" id="FNanchor_1794_1794"></a><a href="#Footnote_1794_1794" class="fnanchor">[1794]</a> -The seaboard above Georgia has not much of interest.<a name="FNanchor_1795_1795" id="FNanchor_1795_1795"></a><a href="#Footnote_1795_1795" class="fnanchor">[1795]</a> Concerning the mounds along the Canadian belt -there is hardly more to be said.<a name="FNanchor_1796_1796" id="FNanchor_1796_1796"></a><a href="#Footnote_1796_1796" class="fnanchor">[1796]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">Lubbock classes the signs of successive periods in North America thus: original barbarism, mounds, -garden beds, and then the relapse into barbarism of the red Indian. The agricultural age thus follows that -of the mound erection, in his view, though, as Putnam says, there seems enough evidence that the constructors -of the old earthworks were an agricultural race.<a name="FNanchor_1797_1797" id="FNanchor_1797_1797"></a><a href="#Footnote_1797_1797" class="fnanchor">[1797]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">There is another class of relics which, outside the hieroglyphics of Central America, has as yet had little -comprehensive study, though the general books on American archæology enumerate some of the inscriptions -on rocks, which are so widely scattered throughout the continent.<a name="FNanchor_1798_1798" id="FNanchor_1798_1798"></a><a href="#Footnote_1798_1798" class="fnanchor">[1798]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[411]</a></span></p> - -<p>Out of all this discussion has risen the new science of Anthropology, broad enough in its scope to include -not only archæology in its general acceptation, but to sweep into its range of observation various aspects of -ethnology and of geology. It is a new science as at present formulated; but under other conditions it is -traced from its origin with the ancients in a paper by T. Bendyshe in the <i>Memoirs of the Anthropological -Society of London</i> (vol. i. 335). Its progress in America is treated by O. T. Mason in the <i>American Naturalist</i> -(xiv. 348; xv. 616). The most approved methods of modern research are explained in Emil -Schmidt’s <i>Anthropologische Methoden; Anleitung zum beobachten und sammeln für Laboratorium und -Reise</i> (Leipzig, 1888). “The methods of archæological investigation are as trustworthy as those of any -natural science,” says Lubbock (<i>Scientific Lectures</i>, 139). Beside the publications of the various Archæological, -Anthropological, and Ethnological Societies and Congresses<a name="FNanchor_1799_1799" id="FNanchor_1799_1799"></a><a href="#Footnote_1799_1799" class="fnanchor">[1799]</a> of both hemispheres, we find for Europe -a considerable centre of information in the <i>Materiaux pour l’histoire primitive et naturelle (philosophique) -de l’homme</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1800_1800" id="FNanchor_1800_1800"></a><a href="#Footnote_1800_1800" class="fnanchor">[1800]</a> and for America in the publications of the Smithsonian Institution,<a name="FNanchor_1801_1801" id="FNanchor_1801_1801"></a><a href="#Footnote_1801_1801" class="fnanchor">[1801]</a> in the <i>Comptes rendus</i> of the -successive Congresses of Américanistes, and in such periodicals as the <i>American Antiquarian</i>, the <i>American -Anthropologist</i>, and the <i>Folk Lore Journal</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-461.jpg" width="400" height="522" id="i411" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">MAJOR POWELL.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[412]</a></span></p> - -<p>The broad subject of prehistoric archæology is covered in a paper by Lubbock, which is included in his -<i>Scientific Lectures</i> (Lond., 1879);<a name="FNanchor_1802_1802" id="FNanchor_1802_1802"></a><a href="#Footnote_1802_1802" class="fnanchor">[1802]</a> in H. M. Westropp’s <i>Prehistoric Phases, or Introductory Essays on Prehistoric -Archæology</i> (Lond., 1872); in Stevens’s <i>Flint Chips</i> (1870); by Dr. Brinton in the <i>Iconographic -Encyclopædia</i>, vol. ii.; and more popularly in Charles F. Keary’s <i>Dawn of History, an introd. to prehistoric -study</i> (N. Y., 1879), and in Davenport Adams’s <i>Beneath the Surface, or the Underground World</i>.</p> - -<p>The French have contributed a corresponding literature in Louis Figuier’s <i>L’Homme Primitif</i> (Paris, -1870);<a name="FNanchor_1803_1803" id="FNanchor_1803_1803"></a><a href="#Footnote_1803_1803" class="fnanchor">[1803]</a> in Zaborowski’s <i>L’homme préhistorique</i> (Paris, 1878); and in the Marquis de Nadaillac’s <i>Les premiers -hommes et les temps préhistoriques</i> (Paris, 1881), and his <i>Mœurs et monuments des peuples préhistoriques</i> -(Paris, 1888), not to mention others.<a name="FNanchor_1804_1804" id="FNanchor_1804_1804"></a><a href="#Footnote_1804_1804" class="fnanchor">[1804]</a></p> - -<p>The principal comprehensive works covering the prehistoric period in North America, are J. T. Short’s -<i>North Americans of Antiquity</i> (N. Y., 1879, and later); the <i>L’Amérique préhistorique</i> of Nadaillac (Paris, -1883);<a name="FNanchor_1805_1805" id="FNanchor_1805_1805"></a><a href="#Footnote_1805_1805" class="fnanchor">[1805]</a> Foster’s <i>Prehistoric Races of the United States</i> (Chicago, 1873; 6th ed., 1887); and the compact -popular <i>Ancient America</i> (N. Y., 1871) of John D. Baldwin. Beside Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i>, there are various -treatises of confined nominal scope, but covering in some degree the whole North American field, which -are noted in other pages.<a name="FNanchor_1806_1806" id="FNanchor_1806_1806"></a><a href="#Footnote_1806_1806" class="fnanchor">[1806]</a></p> - -<p>The purely ethnological aspects of the American side of the subject are summarily surveyed in A. H. Keane’s -“Ethnology of America,” appended to Stanford’s <i>Compendium of Geography, Cent. America</i>, etc. (London, -2nd ed., 1882), and there are papers on Ethnographical Collections in the <i>Smithsonian Report</i> (1862).<a name="FNanchor_1807_1807" id="FNanchor_1807_1807"></a><a href="#Footnote_1807_1807" class="fnanchor">[1807]</a> The -great repository of material, however, is in the <i>Contributions to North American Ethnology</i>, being a section -of Major Powell’s <i>Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region</i>, and in the <i>Annual Reports</i> of the Bureau of -Ethnology since 1879, made under Major Powell’s directions, and in the <i>Reports of the Peabody Museum</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1808_1808" id="FNanchor_1808_1808"></a><a href="#Footnote_1808_1808" class="fnanchor">[1808]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[413]</a></span></p> - -<p class="pc4 elarge">APPENDIX.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/d1.jpg" width="100" height="56" - alt="" - title="" /> -</div> - -<h3 class="p2"><a name="a413" id="a413">I.</a></h3> - -<p class="pc1 lmid">BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ABORIGINAL AMERICA.</p> - -<p class="pc reduct"><i>By the Editor.</i></p> - -<p class="p2"><span class="smcap">The</span> student will find a general survey of “Les Sources de l’histoire anté-Colombienne du nouveau monde, -par Léon de Rosny,” in the <i>Revue Orientale et Américaine</i> (<i>Mém. de la soc. d’ethnographie</i>) <i>session de -1877</i> (p. 139). Bancroft in his <i>Native Races</i> (v. 136) makes a similar grouping of the classes of sources -relating to the primitive Americans.<a name="FNanchor_1809_1809" id="FNanchor_1809_1809"></a><a href="#Footnote_1809_1809" class="fnanchor">[1809]</a> These classes are defined in Daniel G. Brinton’s <i>Review of the data for -the study of the prehistoric chronology of America</i> (Salem, 1887), from the <i>Proceedings of the Amer. Asso. -for the Advancement of Science</i> (vol. xxxvi.), as conveniently divided into groups pertaining to legendary, -monumental, industrial, linguistic, physical, and geological phenomena.</p> - -<p>There have been given in the Introduction of the present volume the titles of general bibliographies of -American histories, most of which include more or less of the titles pertaining to aboriginal times. It is the -purpose of the present brief essay to enumerate, in an approximately chronological order, the titles of some -of those and of others which are useful to the archæologist. So far as they are of service to the student of -the American languages, an extended list will be found prefixed to Pilling’s <i>Proof-Sheets</i> (p. xi).</p> - -<p>The earliest American bibliography was that of Antonio de Leon, usually called Pinelo,—<i>Epitome de la -Biblioteca oriental y occidental náutica y Geográfica</i> (Madrid, 1629),—but which is usually found in the edition -of Gonzales de Barcía, “Añadido y enmendado nuevamente” (Paris, 1737-1738), in which the American -titles, including numerous manuscripts, are given in the second volume.<a name="FNanchor_1810_1810" id="FNanchor_1810_1810"></a><a href="#Footnote_1810_1810" class="fnanchor">[1810]</a></p> - -<p>The <i>Bibliotheca Hispana Nova</i> of Nicolás Antonio was first published at Rome in 1672, but in a second -edition at Madrid in 1783-88.<a name="FNanchor_1811_1811" id="FNanchor_1811_1811"></a><a href="#Footnote_1811_1811" class="fnanchor">[1811]</a></p> - -<p>Passing by the <i>Bibliotheca Mexicana</i> of Eguiara y Eguren,<a name="FNanchor_1812_1812" id="FNanchor_1812_1812"></a><a href="#Footnote_1812_1812" class="fnanchor">[1812]</a> and the early edition of Beristain, we note the -new edition of the latter, prepared not by Juan Evangelista Guadalajara, as Brasseur notes,<a name="FNanchor_1813_1813" id="FNanchor_1813_1813"></a><a href="#Footnote_1813_1813" class="fnanchor">[1813]</a> but by another, as -the title shows,—<i>Biblioteca Hispano-Americana Septentrional, ó catalogo y noticia de los Literatos que ó -nacidos, ó educados, ó florecientes en la America Septentrional Española, han dado á luz algun escrito ó lo -han dexado preparado para la prensa por José Mariano Beristain y Martin de Souza. Segunda edicion, -por Fortino Hipólito Vera</i> (Amecameca, 1883).</p> - -<p>Dr. Robertson intimates that the lists of books which writers of the seventeenth century had been in the -habit of prefixing to their books as evidence of their industry had come to be regarded as an ostentatious expression -of their learning, and with some hesitancy he counted out to the reader his 717 titles; but Clavigero, -as elsewhere pointed out,<a name="FNanchor_1814_1814" id="FNanchor_1814_1814"></a><a href="#Footnote_1814_1814" class="fnanchor">[1814]</a> was richer in such resources. Humboldt, in his <i>Vues</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1815_1815" id="FNanchor_1815_1815"></a><a href="#Footnote_1815_1815" class="fnanchor">[1815]</a> gives a list of the authors -which he cites.</p> - -<p>The class of dealers’ catalogues—we cite only such as have decided bibliographical value—begins to be -conspicuous in Paul Trömel’s <i>Bibliothèque Américaine</i> (Leipzig, 1861), the best of the German ones, and in -Charles Leclerc’s <i>Bibliotheca Americana</i> (Paris, 1867), much improved in his <i>Bibliotheca Americana. Histoire, -géographie, voyages, archéologie et linguistique des deux Amériques et des îles Philippines</i> (Paris, 1878), -with later supplements, constituting the best of the French catalogues, provided with an excellent index and -a linguistic table, rendered necessary by the classified plan of the list.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[414]</a></span></p> - -<p>The list formed by students in this field begins with the <i>Bibliotheca Americana Vetustissima</i> of Harrisse -(New York, 1866; additions, Paris, 1872), and includes the <i>Bibliothèque Mexico-Guatémalienne, précédée d’un -coup d’œil sur les études américaines dans leurs rapports avec les études classiques, et suivie du tableau, -par ordre alphabétique, des ouvrages de linguistique Américaine contenus dans le même volume</i> (Paris, -1871) of the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg, who at that time had been twenty-five years engaged in the studies -and travels which led to the gathering of his collection. The library, almost entire, was later joined to that of -Alphonse L. Pinart, and was included in the latter’s <i>Catalogue de livres rares et précieux, manuscrits et -imprimés</i> (Paris, 1883).</p> - -<p>In 1866, Icazbalceta published at Mexico his <i>Apuntes para un Catálogo de Escritores en lenguas indígenas -de América</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1816_1816" id="FNanchor_1816_1816"></a><a href="#Footnote_1816_1816" class="fnanchor">[1816]</a> but of his great bibliographical work only one volume has as yet appeared: <i>Bibliografía Américana -del Siglo xvi. Primera parte</i>. <i>Catálogo razonado de libros impresos en México de 1539 à 1600, con -biografías de autores y otras ilustraciones, precedido de una noticia acerca de la introducción de la imprenta -en México</i> (México, 1886).</p> - -<p>Bandelier has embodied some of the results of his study in his “Notes on the Bibliography of Yucatan and -Central America,” in the <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, n. s., i. pp. 82-118.</p> - -<p>The catalogues of collections having special reference to aboriginal America are the following:—</p> - -<p><i>Catalogue de la Bibliothèque de José Maria Andrade, 7,000 pièces et volumes, ayant rapport au Méxique -ou imprimés dans ce pays</i> (Leipzig, 1869).<a name="FNanchor_1817_1817" id="FNanchor_1817_1817"></a><a href="#Footnote_1817_1817" class="fnanchor">[1817]</a></p> - -<p><i>Bibliotheca Mejicana</i>: <i>Books and manuscripts almost wholly relating to the history and literature of -North and South America, particularly Mexico</i> (London, 1869). This collection was formed by Augustin -Fischer, chaplain to the Emperor Maximilian; but there were added to the catalogue some titles from the collection -of Dr. C. H. Berendt.</p> - -<p><i>Catalogue of the library of E. G. Squier, edited by Joseph Sabin</i> (N. Y., 1876).</p> - -<p><i>Bibliotheca Mexicana, or A Catalogue of the library of the rare books and important MSS. relating to -Mexico and other parts of Spanish America, formed by the late Señor Don José Fernando Ramirez</i> (London, -1880). This catalogue was edited by the Abbé Fischer.<a name="FNanchor_1818_1818" id="FNanchor_1818_1818"></a><a href="#Footnote_1818_1818" class="fnanchor">[1818]</a></p> - -<p>The most useful guides to the literature of aboriginal America, however, are some compiled in this country. -First, the comprehensive though not yet complete bibliography, Joseph Sabin’s <i>Dictionary of books relating -to America</i>, now being continued since Sabin’s death, and with much skill, by Wilberforce Eames. Second, -the voluminous <i>Proof-sheets of a Bibliography of the languages of the North American Indians</i> (Washington, -1885), prepared by James Constantine Pilling, tentatively, in a large quarto volume, distributed only to collaborators, -and out of which, with emendations and additions, he is now publishing special sections of it, of -which have already appeared those relating to the Eskimo and Siouan tongues. His enumeration so much -exceeds the range of purely linguistic monographs that the treatises become in effect general bibliographies of -aboriginal America.</p> - -<p>Third, <i>An Essay towards an Indian bibliography, being a Catalogue of books relating to the history, antiquities, -languages, customs, religion, wars, literature and origin of the American Indians, in the library -of Thos. W. Field, with bibliographical and historical notes and synopses of the contents of some of the -works least known</i> (N. Y., 1873). The sale of Mr. Field’s library took place in New York, May, 1875, from a -Catalogue not so elaborate, but still of use. These books are not so accurately compiled as to be wholly trustworthy -as final resorts.</p> - -<p>Finally, the list prefixed to Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i>, vol. i., and the references of his foot-notes, throughout -his five volumes (condensed often in Short’s <i>North Americans of Antiquity</i>), are on the whole the most serviceable -aids to the general student, but unfortunately the index of the set is of no use in searching for bibliographical -detail.</p> - -<p>The reader will remember that the bibliographies of sectional or partial import in the field of American -archæology are referred to elsewhere in the present volume.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[415]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="p2"><a name="a415" id="a415">II.</a></h3> - -<p class="pc1 lmid">THE COMPREHENSIVE TREATISES ON AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES.</p> - -<p class="pc reduct"><i>By the Editor.</i></p> - -<p class="p2"><span class="smcap">At</span> the time when Bancroft published his <i>Native Races</i> (1875), he referred to John D. Baldwin’s <i>Ancient -America</i> (N. Y., 1871) as the only preceding, comprehensive book on America before the Spaniards.<a name="FNanchor_1819_1819" id="FNanchor_1819_1819"></a><a href="#Footnote_1819_1819" class="fnanchor">[1819]</a> It still -remains a convenient book of small compass; but its absence of references to sources precludes its usefulness -for purposes of study, and it is not altogether abreast of the latest views. To the popular element a moderate -share of the indexical character, rendering the book passably serviceable to the average reader, has been -added in the somewhat larger <i>North Americans of Antiquity, their origin, migrations, and type of civilization -considered, by John T. Short</i> (N. Y., 1880,—somewhat improved in later editions), though it will be -observed that the Peruvian and other South American antiquities have not come within his plan. The -latest of these comprehensive books is the Marquis de Nadaillac’s (Jean F. A. du Pouget’s) <i>L’Amérique -préhistorique</i> (Paris, 1883), which in an English version by N. D’Anvers was published with the author’s -sanction in London in 1882. With revision and some modifications by W. H. Dall, which have not met the -author’s sanction, it was republished as <i>Prehistoric America</i> (N. Y., 1884). It is a work of more theoretical -tendency than the student wishes to find at the opening stage of his inquiry.</p> - -<p>But as a compend of every department of archæological knowledge up to about fifteen years ago no advance -has yet been made upon Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i> as indicative of every channel of investigation which the student -can pursue. Upon the monuments of the moundbuilders (iv. ch. 13) and the antiquities of Peru (iv. ch. -14) the treatment is condensed and without references, as occupying a field beyond his primary purpose of -covering the Pacific slope of North America and the immediately adjacent regions. Mention is made elsewhere -of Bancroft’s methods of compilation, and it may suffice to say that in the five volumes of his <i>Native -Races</i> he has drawn and condensed his matter from the writings of about 1200 writers, whose titles he gives -in a preliminary list.<a name="FNanchor_1820_1820" id="FNanchor_1820_1820"></a><a href="#Footnote_1820_1820" class="fnanchor">[1820]</a> The method of arranging the departments of the work is perhaps too far geographical -to be always satisfactory to the special student,<a name="FNanchor_1821_1821" id="FNanchor_1821_1821"></a><a href="#Footnote_1821_1821" class="fnanchor">[1821]</a> and he seems to be aware of it (for instance, i. ch. 2); -but it may be questioned if, while writing with, or engrafting upon, an encyclopædic system, what might pass -for a continuous narrative, any more scientific plan would have been more successful. Bancroft’s opinions -are not always as satisfactory as his material. The student who uses the <i>Native Races</i> for its groups and -references will accordingly find a complemental service in Sir Daniel Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i> (London, -1876), in which the Toronto professor conducts his “researches into the origin of civilization in the old and -the new world,” by primarily treating of the early American man, as the readiest way of understanding early -man in Europe. His system is to connect man’s development topically in the directions induced by his -habits, industries, dwellings, art, records, migrations, and physical characterizations.</p> - -<p>Another and older book, in some respects embodying like purposes, and though produced at a time when -archæological studies were much less advanced than at present, is Alexander W. Bradford’s <i>American Antiquities -and researches into the origin and history of the red race</i> (N. Y., 1841).<a name="FNanchor_1822_1822" id="FNanchor_1822_1822"></a><a href="#Footnote_1822_1822" class="fnanchor">[1822]</a> The first section of the -book is strictly a record of results; but in the final portion the author indulges more in speculative inquiry. -Even in this he has not transcended the bounds of legitimate hypothesis, though some of his postulates will -hardly be accepted nowadays, as when he contends that the red Indians are the degraded descendants of the -people who were connected with the so-called civilization of Central America.<a name="FNanchor_1823_1823" id="FNanchor_1823_1823"></a><a href="#Footnote_1823_1823" class="fnanchor">[1823]</a></p> - -<p>The periodical literature of a comprehensive sort is not so -extensive as treatments of special aspects; but the student -will find Poole’s <i>Index</i> and Rhee’s <i>Catalogue and Index -of the Smithsonian publications</i> serviceable.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[416]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="p2"><a name="a416" id="a416">III.</a></h3> - -<p class="pc1 lmid">BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON THE INDUSTRIES AND TRADE OF -THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES.</p> - -<p class="pc reduct"><i>By the Editor.</i></p> - -<p class="p2"><span class="smcap">While</span> we have a moderate list of works on the general subject of prehistoric art and industries,<a name="FNanchor_1824_1824" id="FNanchor_1824_1824"></a><a href="#Footnote_1824_1824" class="fnanchor">[1824]</a> we lack -any comprehensive survey of the subject as respects the American continent, and must depend on sectional and -local treatment. Humboldt in the introduction to his <i>Atlas</i> of his <i>Essai politique</i> (Paris, 1813) was among -the earliest to grasp the material which illustrates the origin and first progress of the arts in America. The -arts of the southern regions and western coasts of North America are best followed in those portions of the -chapters on the Wild Tribes, devoted to the subject, which make up the first volume of Bancroft’s <i>Native -Races</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1825_1825" id="FNanchor_1825_1825"></a><a href="#Footnote_1825_1825" class="fnanchor">[1825]</a> and for Mexican and Maya productions some chapters (ch. 15, 24) in the second volume. Prescott’s -treatment of the more advanced peoples of this region is scant (<i>Mexico</i>, i., introd., ch. 5). The art in stone of -the Pueblo Indians is beautifully illustrated in Putnam’s portion of Wheeler’s <i>Report</i> of his survey, and comparison -may be made with Hayden’s <i>Annual Rept.</i> (1876) of the U. S. Geol. and Geographical Survey. The -work of Putnam and his collaborators in the archæological volume (vii.) of Wheeler’s <i>Survey</i> is probably -the most complete account of the implements, ornaments and utensils of any one people (those of Southern -California) yet produced; and its illustrations have not been surpassed. Passing north, we shall get some -help from E. L. Berthoud’s paper on the “Prehistoric human art from Wyoming and Colorado,” in his -“Journal of a reconnaissance in Creek Valley, Col.,” published by the Colorado Acad. of Nat. Sciences (<i>Proceedings</i>, -1872, p. 46). In the <i>Pacific Rail Road Reports</i> (vol. iii. in 1856) there is a paper by Thomas -Ewbank in “Illustrations of Indian antiquities and arts.” S. S. Haldeman has described the relics of human -industry found in a rock shelter in southeastern Pennsylvania (<i>Compte Rendu, Cong. des Amér.</i>, Luxembourg, -ii. 319; and <i>Transactions Amer. Philos. Soc.</i>, 1878). The best of all the more comprehensive monographs -is Charles C. Abbott’s <i>Primitive industry: or illustrations of the handiwork, in stone, bone and clay, of the -native races of the Northern Atlantic seaboard of America</i> (Salem, 1881). Morgan’s <i>League of the Iroquois</i> -touches in some measure of the arts of that confederacy, his earliest study being in the <i>Fifth Report of the -Regents of the State of New York</i> (1852).</p> - -<p>For the Canada regions, the <i>Annual Reports of the Canadian Institute</i>, appended to the <i>Reports</i> of the -Minister of Education, Ontario, contain accounts of the discovery of objects of stone, horn, and shell. (See -particularly the sessions of 1886-87.) Dawson in his <i>Fossil men</i> (ch. 6) considers what he accounts the lost -arts of the primitive races of North America. On the other hand, Professor Leidy found still in use among -the present Shoshones split pebbles resembling the rudest stone implements of the palæolithic period (<i>U. S. -Geological Survey</i>, 1872, p. 652).</p> - -<p>Many archæologists have remarked on the uniform character of many prehistoric implements, wherever -found, as precluding their being held as ethnical evidences. The system of quarrying<a name="FNanchor_1826_1826" id="FNanchor_1826_1826"></a><a href="#Footnote_1826_1826" class="fnanchor">[1826]</a> for flint best fitted for -the tool-maker’s art has been observed by Wilson (<i>Prehistoric man</i>, i. 68) both in the old and new world, and -in his third chapter (vol. i.) we have a treatise on the ancient stone-worker’s art.<a name="FNanchor_1827_1827" id="FNanchor_1827_1827"></a><a href="#Footnote_1827_1827" class="fnanchor">[1827]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[417]</a></span></p> - -<p>Treating the subject topically, we find the late Charles Rau making some special studies of the implements -used in native agriculture<a name="FNanchor_1828_1828" id="FNanchor_1828_1828"></a><a href="#Footnote_1828_1828" class="fnanchor">[1828]</a> in the <i>Smithsonian Reports</i> for 1863, 1868, and 1869.<a name="FNanchor_1829_1829" id="FNanchor_1829_1829"></a><a href="#Footnote_1829_1829" class="fnanchor">[1829]</a> The agriculture of the -Aztecs and Mayas is treated in Max Steffen’s <i>Die Landwirtschaft bei den altamerikanischen Kulturvölkern</i> -(Leipzig, 1883).<a name="FNanchor_1830_1830" id="FNanchor_1830_1830"></a><a href="#Footnote_1830_1830" class="fnanchor">[1830]</a></p> - -<p>The working of flint or obsidian into arrowpoints or cutting implements is a process by pressure that has -not been wholly lost. Old workshops, or the chips of them, have been discovered, and they are found in -numerous localities (Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, i. 75, 79; Abbott’s <i>Primitive Industry</i>, and Putnam in the -<i>Bull. Essex Institute</i>), but Powell in his <i>Report of Explorations of the Colorado of the West</i> (1873) does not, -as Wilson says he does, describe the present ways.<a name="FNanchor_1831_1831" id="FNanchor_1831_1831"></a><a href="#Footnote_1831_1831" class="fnanchor">[1831]</a></p> - -<p>Wilson (<i>Prehistoric Man</i>, i. ch. 4 and 7) in an essay on the bone and ivory workers substitutes for the corresponding -words usually employed in classifying stone implements the terms palæotechnic and neotechnic, -as indicating periods of progress, in order that the art of making tools in horn, bone, shell, and ivory might -have a better recognition, as of equal importance with that of making such in stone. Separate treatises are -few. Morgan has a paper on the bone implements of the Arickarees in the <i>21st Rept. of the Regents of the -University of the State of N. Y.</i> (1871), and Rau’s monograph on <i>Prehistoric fishing in Europe and North -America, one of the Smithsonian Contributions</i> (1884), involves the making of fish-hooks of bone. See also -Putnam in the <i>Peabody Museum Reports</i>, and in <i>Wheeler’s Survey</i>, vol. vii.; Wyman’s contributions on the -shell heaps, and the <i>Journal of the Cincinnati Soc. of Nat. Hist</i>. for such as have been found in the ash-pits -of Madisonville. On shell-work there is a section in Foster’s <i>Prehistoric Races</i> (p. 234); a paper by W. H. -Holmes in the <i>Second Rept. of the Bureau of Ethnology</i> (p. 179); and one on American shell-work and its -affinities by Miss Buckland in the <i>Journal Anthropol. Inst.</i>, xvi. 155.</p> - -<p>From the primitive materials of stone, bone, horn, or shell, we pass to metals; but as Wilson (i. p. 174) says, -“if metal could be found capable of being wrought and fashioned without smelting or moulding, its use was -perfectly compatible with the simple arts of the stone period, as a mere malleable stone;” and to the present -day, he adds, the rude American race has no knowledge of working metal, except by pounding or grinding -it cold.<a name="FNanchor_1832_1832" id="FNanchor_1832_1832"></a><a href="#Footnote_1832_1832" class="fnanchor">[1832]</a> The story which Brereton tells in his account of Gosnold’s visit (1602) to New England, about the -finding of abundant metal implements in use among the natives, is questioned (Baldwin’s <i>Ancient America</i>, -p. 62). We have the evidences of the early mining<a name="FNanchor_1833_1833" id="FNanchor_1833_1833"></a><a href="#Footnote_1833_1833" class="fnanchor">[1833]</a> of copper extending for over a hundred miles along the -southern shores of Lake Superior and on Isle Royale, in the abandoned trenches and tools first discovered -in 1847; and in one case there was found a mass of native copper (ten feet by three and two, and weighing -over six tons) which had been elevated on a wooden frame prior to removal, and was discovered in this condition.<a name="FNanchor_1834_1834" id="FNanchor_1834_1834"></a><a href="#Footnote_1834_1834" class="fnanchor">[1834]</a> -There are also indications that the manufacture of copper tools was carried on in the neighborhood of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[418]</a></span> -the mines (Wilson, i. 213); and chemical tests have shown that a popular belief in the tempering of metal -by these early peoples is without foundation.<a name="FNanchor_1835_1835" id="FNanchor_1835_1835"></a><a href="#Footnote_1835_1835" class="fnanchor">[1835]</a></p> - -<p>It seems to be a fact that while in the use of metals an intermediate stage of pure copper, as coming -between the use of bone and stone and the use of alloyed metals, was not until comparatively recently suspected -in Great Britain, the “peculiar interest attaches to the metallurgy of the new world that there all -the earlier stages are clearly defined: the pure native metal wrought by the hammer without the aid of fire; -the melted and moulded copper; the alloyed bronze; and the smelting, soldering, graving, and other processes -resulting from accumulating experience and matured skill” (Wilson, i. 230). It is in the regions extending -from Mexico to Peru that the art of alloying introduces us to the American bronze age. Columbus in his -fourth voyage found in a vessel which had come alongside from Yucatan crucibles to melt copper, as Herrera -tells us; and Humboldt was among the earliest to discover tools alloyed of copper and tin, and many such -alloys have since been recognized among Peruvian bronzes (Wilson, i. 239). In Mexico, metallurgic arts were -carried perhaps even farther in casting and engraving, and not only the results but the evidences of their -mining places have remained to our day (<i>Ibid.</i> i. 248). It seems evident, however, that experimenting with -them had not carried them so near the perfect combination for tool-making (one part tin to nine parts copper) -as the bronze people of Europe had reached, though they fell considerably short of the exact standard (<i>Ibid.</i> -i. 234). Doubt has sometimes been expressed of Mexican mining for copper, as by Frederick von Hellwald -(<i>Compte Rendu, Cong. des Américanistes</i>, 1877, i. 51); but Rau indicated the references<a name="FNanchor_1836_1836" id="FNanchor_1836_1836"></a><a href="#Footnote_1836_1836" class="fnanchor">[1836]</a> to Short -(p. 94), which forcibly led him to the conclusion that the Mexicans mined copper to turn into tools.<a name="FNanchor_1837_1837" id="FNanchor_1837_1837"></a><a href="#Footnote_1837_1837" class="fnanchor">[1837]</a> Among -the Mayas, Nadaillac (p. 269) contends that only copper and gold were in use. Bancroft (ii. 749) thinks the -use of copper doubtful, and if used, that it must have been got from the north. He cites the evidences of the -use of gold. William H. Holmes discusses <i>The use of gold and other metals among the ancient inhabitants -of Chiriqui, Isthmus of Darien</i> (Washington, 1887). As to iron, that found in the Ohio mounds, only of late -years, has been proved to be meteoric iron by Professor Putnam (<i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, Apr., 1883). Bancroft -(i. 164) says iron was in use among the British Columbian tribes before contact with the whites, but it was -probably derived through some indirect means from the whites. Though iron ore abounds in Peru, and the -character of the Peruvian stone-cutting would seem to indicate its use, and though there is a native word for -it, no iron implements have been found.<a name="FNanchor_1838_1838" id="FNanchor_1838_1838"></a><a href="#Footnote_1838_1838" class="fnanchor">[1838]</a> There is not much recorded of the use of silver. It has been found -by Putnam in the mounds in thin sheets, used as plating for other metals.<a name="FNanchor_1839_1839" id="FNanchor_1839_1839"></a><a href="#Footnote_1839_1839" class="fnanchor">[1839]</a> He has also found native silver -in masses, and in one case a small bit of hammered gold.</p> - -<p class="p2">Wilson, in 1876, while regretting the dispersion of the William Bullock collection of pottery, the destruction -of that formed by Stephens and Catherwood, and the transference to an English museum of most of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[419]</a></span> -specimens gathered by Squier and Davis, lamented that no American collection<a name="FNanchor_1840_1840" id="FNanchor_1840_1840"></a><a href="#Footnote_1840_1840" class="fnanchor">[1840]</a> had been yet formed adequate -to the requirements of the students of American archæology and ethnology. Since that date, however, the -collections in the National Museum (Smithsonian Institution) at Washington and in the Peabody Museum at -Cambridge have largely grown; and especially for the fictile art and work in stone of Spanish North America -the Museo Nacional in Mexico has assumed importance. The collection in the possession of the American -Philosophical Society in Philadelphia,<a name="FNanchor_1841_1841" id="FNanchor_1841_1841"></a><a href="#Footnote_1841_1841" class="fnanchor">[1841]</a> since transferred to the Philadelphia Academy, is also of value for the -study of the pottery of middle America.</p> - -<p>Rau has supplied a leading paper on American pottery in the <i>Smithsonian Report</i>, 1866; and E. A. Barber -has touched the subject in papers at the Copenhagen, Luxembourg, and Madrid meetings of the Congrès des -Américanistes, and in the <i>American Antiquarian</i> (viii. 76).<a name="FNanchor_1842_1842" id="FNanchor_1842_1842"></a><a href="#Footnote_1842_1842" class="fnanchor">[1842]</a> W. H. Holmes has a paper on the origin and -development of form and of ornament in ceramic art in the <i>Fourth Report, Bureau of Ethnology</i>, p. 437.</p> - -<p>For local characters there are various monographs.<a name="FNanchor_1843_1843" id="FNanchor_1843_1843"></a><a href="#Footnote_1843_1843" class="fnanchor">[1843]</a></p> - -<p>There is no satisfactory evidence that the potter’s wheel was known to -any American tribe; but Wilson, in his chapter on ceramic art (<i>Prehistoric -Man</i>, ii. ch. 16), feels convinced that the early potter employed -some sort of mechanical process, giving a revolving motion to his clay.</p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/ill-469.jpg" width="200" height="303" id="i419" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc200">MEXICAN CLAY MASK.</p> - <p class="pf200">After a cut in <i>Wilson’s Prehistoric Man</i>, ii. p. 33, of an example in the collections of the American Philosophical -Society, in a totally different style from the usual Mexican terra-cottas; and Wilson remarks of it that one will look in -vain in it for the Indian physiognomy. Tyler, <i>Anahuac</i>, 230, considers it a forgery.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Modelling in clay for other purposes than the making of vessels is also -considered in this same seventeenth chapter of Wilson, and the subject -runs, as respects masks, figurines, and general ornamentation, into the wide -range of aboriginal art, which necessarily makes part of all comprehensive -histories of art. W. H. Dall has a paper on Indian masks in the <i>Third -Report, Bureau of Ethnology</i>, p. 73. The subject is further treated by -Wilson in a paper on “The artistic faculty in the aboriginal races,” in the -<i>Proceedings</i> (iii., 2d part, 67, 119) of the Royal Society of Canada, and -again in a general way by Nadaillac on <i>L’art préhistorique en Amérique</i> (Paris, 1883), -taken from the <i>Revue des deux Mondes</i>, Nov. 1, 1883.<a name="FNanchor_1844_1844" id="FNanchor_1844_1844"></a><a href="#Footnote_1844_1844" class="fnanchor">[1844]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">As regards the textile art in prehistoric times, see for a general view -W. H. Holmes in the <i>American Antiquarian</i>, viii. 261; and the same -archæologist has treated the subject on the evidences of the impression -of textures as preserved in pottery, in the <i>Third Rept. Bur. of Ethnology</i>, -p. 393. Cf. Sellers in <i>Popular Science Journal</i>, and Wyman in <i>Peabody -Museum Reports</i>.</p> - -<p>J. W. Foster first made (1838) the discovery of relics of textile fabrics of the moundbuilders; but he did -not announce his discovery till at the Albany meeting (1851) of the American Association for the Advancement -of Science (<i>Transactions</i>, 1852, vol. vi. p. 375). He tells the story in his <i>Prehistoric Races</i>, p. 222, and -figures the implements, found in the mounds, supposed to be employed in the making their cloth with warp<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[420]</a></span> -and woof. Putnam has since made similar discoveries (<i>Peabody Museum Reports</i>). The subject is also -treated in the <i>Proceedings</i> of the Davenport Academy and of the American Association for the Advancement -of Science. The fabrics were preserved by being placed in contact with copper implements.</p> - -<p>The Indians of New Mexico were found by the Spaniards in possession of the art of weaving. Cf. Washington -Matthews on the Navajo weavers, in the <i>Third Rept. Bur. of Ethnology</i>, p. 371, and Bancroft (i. 582), -who also records the making of fabrics by the wild tribes of Central America (<i>Ibid.</i> i. 766-67). He also notes -the references to the textile manufactures of the Nahuas and Mayas (ii. 484, 752). The richest accumulation -of graphic data relative to the fabrics of Peru is contained in the great work on the <i>Necropolis of Ancon</i>.</p> - -<p>Feather-work was an important industry in some parts of the continent. The subject is studied in Ferdinand -Denis’ <i>Arte plumaria: Les plumes, leur valeur et leur emploi dans les arts au Méxique, au Pérou, -au Brésil et dans les Indes et dans l’Océanie</i> (Paris, 1875).<a name="FNanchor_1845_1845" id="FNanchor_1845_1845"></a><a href="#Footnote_1845_1845" class="fnanchor">[1845]</a></p> - -<p>Lewis H. Morgan’s <i>Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines</i> (Washington, 1881) is the completest -study of the habitations of the early peoples; but it is written too exclusively in the light of universal -communal custom, and this must be borne in mind in using it. The edifices of middle America and Peru -have been given a bibliographical apparatus in another part of the present volume; but references may be -made to Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i> (ii. ch. 16), Viollet le Duc’s <i>Habitations of Man</i>, translated by R. Bucknall -(Boston, 1876), and to Bandelier’s <i>Archæological Tour</i>, 226, where he quotes as typical the description of -a native house in 1583, drawn by Juan Bautista Pomar.</p> - -<p>There is no good comprehensive account of American prehistoric trade. The T-shaped pieces of copper in -use by the Mexicans came nearest to currency as we understand it, unless it be the wampum of the North -American Indians, and the shell money in use on the Pacific coast; but it should be remembered that copper -axes and copper plates served such a purpose with some tribes.<a name="FNanchor_1846_1846" id="FNanchor_1846_1846"></a><a href="#Footnote_1846_1846" class="fnanchor">[1846]</a> The Peruvians used weights, but the Mexicans -did not. The latter had, however, a system of measures of length.<a name="FNanchor_1847_1847" id="FNanchor_1847_1847"></a><a href="#Footnote_1847_1847" class="fnanchor">[1847]</a> The canoe was a great intermediary -in the practice of barter.<a name="FNanchor_1848_1848" id="FNanchor_1848_1848"></a><a href="#Footnote_1848_1848" class="fnanchor">[1848]</a> The Peruvians alone understood the use of sails, and the earliest Spanish -navigators on the Pacific were surprised at what they thought were civilized predecessors in those seas when -they espied in the distance the large white sails of the Peruvian rafts of burden.<a name="FNanchor_1849_1849" id="FNanchor_1849_1849"></a><a href="#Footnote_1849_1849" class="fnanchor">[1849]</a> The chief source of trade -in such conditions was barter, and we know how the Mexican travelling merchants got information that was -availed of by the Mexican marauders in their invasions. Bandelier<a name="FNanchor_1850_1850" id="FNanchor_1850_1850"></a><a href="#Footnote_1850_1850" class="fnanchor">[1850]</a> gives us the references on the barter -system, the traders, and the currency in that country, and we need to consult Dr. W. Behrnauer’s <i>Essai sur le -Commerce dans l’ancien Méxique et en Pérou</i>, in the <i>Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France</i> (n. s., vol. i.).</p> - -<p>All the treatises on the mounds of the Ohio Valley derive illustrations of intertribal traffic from the shells -of the coast, the copper of Lake Superior, the mica of the Alleghanies, the obsidian of the Rocky Mountains -or of Mexico, and the unique figurines which the explorations of the mounds have disclosed. Charles -Rau has a paper on this aboriginal trade in North America, published in the <i>Archiv für Anthroplogie</i> (Braunschweig, -1872, vol. iv.), which was republished in English in the <i>Smithsonian Report</i>, 1872, p. 249. Bancroft’s -references under “Commerce” (v. p. 668) will help the student out in various particulars.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[421]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="p2"><a name="a421" id="a421">IV.</a></h3> - -<p class="pc1 lmid">BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON AMERICAN LINGUISTICS.</p> - -<p class="pc reduct"><i>By the Editor.</i></p> - -<p class="p2"><span class="smcap">It</span> cannot be said that the study of American linguistics has advanced to a position wholly satisfactory. It -is beset with all the difficulties belonging to a subject that has not been embraced in written records for long -periods, and it is open to the hazards of articulation and hearing, acting without entire mutual confidence. -And yet we may not dispute Max Müller’s belief,<a name="FNanchor_1851_1851" id="FNanchor_1851_1851"></a><a href="#Footnote_1851_1851" class="fnanchor">[1851]</a> that it is the science of language which has given the first -comprehensive impulse to the study of mankind.</p> - -<p>Out of the twenty distinct sounds which it is said the voice of man can produce,<a name="FNanchor_1852_1852" id="FNanchor_1852_1852"></a><a href="#Footnote_1852_1852" class="fnanchor">[1852]</a> there have been built up -from roots and combinations a great diversity of vocabularies. Comparisons of these, as well as of the -methods of forming sentences, have been much used in investigations of ethnical relations. Of these opposing -methods, neither is sufficiently strong, it is probable, to be pressed without the aid of the other, though the -belief of the Bureau of Ethnology at Washington, under the influence of Major Powell, practically discards all -tests but the vocabulary, in tracing ethnological relations. It is held that this one test of words satisfies, as to -customs, myths, and other ethnological traits, more demands of classifications than any other. Granted that it -does, there are questions yet unsolvable by it; and many ethnologists hold that there are still other tests, physiological, -for instance,<a name="FNanchor_1853_1853" id="FNanchor_1853_1853"></a><a href="#Footnote_1853_1853" class="fnanchor">[1853]</a> which cannot safely be neglected in settling such complex questions. The favorite claim -of the Bureau is that its officers are studying man as a human being, and not as an animal; but it is by no -means sure that the physical qualities of man are so disconnected with his mind and soul as to be unnecessary -to his interpretation. Even if language be given the chief place in such studies, there is still the doubt if the -vocabulary can in all ways be safely followed to the exclusion of the structure of the language; and it is not -to be forgotten, as Haven recognized thirty years ago, that “one of the greatest obstacles to a successful and -satisfactory comparison of Indian vocabularies is caused by the capricious and ever-varying orthography applied -by writers of different nations.” This is a chance of error that cannot be eliminated when we have to deal with -lists of words made in the past, by persons not to be communicated with, in whom both national and personal -peculiarities of ear and vocal organs may exist to perplex. A part of the difficulty is of course removed by -trained assistants acting in concert, though in different fields; but the individual sharpness or dulness of ear -and purity and obscurity of articulation will still cause diversity of results,—to say nothing of corresponding -differences in the persons questioned. There is still the problem, broader than all these divisionary tests, -whether language is at all a safe test of race, and on this point there is room for different opinions, as is shown -in the discussions of Sayce, Whitney, and others.<a name="FNanchor_1854_1854" id="FNanchor_1854_1854"></a><a href="#Footnote_1854_1854" class="fnanchor">[1854]</a> “Any attempt,” says Max Müller, “at squaring the classification -of races and tongues must necessarily fail.”<a name="FNanchor_1855_1855" id="FNanchor_1855_1855"></a><a href="#Footnote_1855_1855" class="fnanchor">[1855]</a> On the other hand, George Bancroft (Final revision, -ii. 90) says that “the aspect of the red men was so uniform that there is no method of grouping them into -families but by their languages.”</p> - -<p>It is the wide margin for error, already indicated, that vitiates much that has already been done in philological -comparisons, and the over-eager recognition at all times of what is thought to be the word-shunting of -“Grimm’s Law” has doubtless been responsible for other confusions.<a name="FNanchor_1856_1856" id="FNanchor_1856_1856"></a><a href="#Footnote_1856_1856" class="fnanchor">[1856]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[422]</a></span></p> - -<p>Most of the general philological treatises touch more or less intimately the question of language as a test -of race,<a name="FNanchor_1857_1857" id="FNanchor_1857_1857"></a><a href="#Footnote_1857_1857" class="fnanchor">[1857]</a> and all of them engage in tracing affinities, each with confidence in a method that others with equal -assurance may belittle.<a name="FNanchor_1858_1858" id="FNanchor_1858_1858"></a><a href="#Footnote_1858_1858" class="fnanchor">[1858]</a> Thus Bancroft,<a name="FNanchor_1859_1859" id="FNanchor_1859_1859"></a><a href="#Footnote_1859_1859" class="fnanchor">[1859]</a> reflecting an opinion long prevalent, says that “positive grammatical -rules carry with them much more weight than mere word likenesses,”<a name="FNanchor_1860_1860" id="FNanchor_1860_1860"></a><a href="#Footnote_1860_1860" class="fnanchor">[1860]</a> while, on the contrary, Dawson<a name="FNanchor_1861_1861" id="FNanchor_1861_1861"></a><a href="#Footnote_1861_1861" class="fnanchor">[1861]</a> -says that “grammar is, after all, only the clothing of language. The science consists in its root-words; and -multitudes of root-words are identical in the American languages over vast areas.” This last proposition is, -as we have seen, the principle on which this inquiry is now conducted with governmental patronage. “Each -American language,” says George Bancroft, in his chapter on the dialects of North America, “was competent -of itself, without improvement of scholars, to exemplify every rule of the logician and give utterance to every -passion.” In accordance with such perhaps extreme views, it has been usually said that the American languages -are in development in advance of aboriginal progress in other respects. It is another common observation -that while a certain resemblance runs through all the native tongues,<a name="FNanchor_1862_1862" id="FNanchor_1862_1862"></a><a href="#Footnote_1862_1862" class="fnanchor">[1862]</a> there is no such general resemblance -to the old-world languages;<a name="FNanchor_1863_1863" id="FNanchor_1863_1863"></a><a href="#Footnote_1863_1863" class="fnanchor">[1863]</a> but at the same time the linguistic proof of the unity of the American race is -not irrefragable,<a name="FNanchor_1864_1864" id="FNanchor_1864_1864"></a><a href="#Footnote_1864_1864" class="fnanchor">[1864]</a> and it would take tens of thousands of years, as Brinton holds, if there had been a single -source, for the eighty stocks of the North American and for the hundred South American speeches to have -developed themselves in all their varieties.<a name="FNanchor_1865_1865" id="FNanchor_1865_1865"></a><a href="#Footnote_1865_1865" class="fnanchor">[1865]</a> Proceeding beyond stocks to dialects, and counting varieties, -Ludewig, in his <i>Literature of the American Languages</i>, gave 1,100 different American languages; but an -alphabetical list given by H. W. Bates in his <i>Central America, West Indies and South America</i> (London, -1882, 2d ed.)<a name="FNanchor_1866_1866" id="FNanchor_1866_1866"></a><a href="#Footnote_1866_1866" class="fnanchor">[1866]</a> affords 1,700 names of such. The number, of course, depends on how exclusive we are in grouping -dialects. Squier, for instance, gives only 400 tongues for both North and South America; for, as -Nadaillac says, “philology has no precise definition of what constitutes a language.”<a name="FNanchor_1867_1867" id="FNanchor_1867_1867"></a><a href="#Footnote_1867_1867" class="fnanchor">[1867]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[423]</a></span></p> - -<p>The most comprehensive survey of the bibliography of American linguistics, excluding South America, is -in Pilling’s <i>Proof-sheets of a bibliography of the languages of the North American Indians</i> (Washington, -1885), a tentative issue of the Bureau of Ethnology, already mentioned. Pilling also earlier catalogued the -linguistic MSS. in the library of the Bureau of Ethnology, in Powell’s <i>First Report</i> of that Bureau (p. 553), -in which that bibliographer also gave a sketch of the history of gathering such collections. A section of the -<i>Bibliotheca Americana</i> of Charles Leclerc (Paris, 1878) is given to linguistics, and it affords by groups one of -the best keys to the literature of the aboriginal languages which we yet have, and it has been supplemented -by additional lists issued since by Maisonneuve of Paris. Ludewig’s <i>Literature of American Aboriginal -Languages, with additions by W. Turner</i> (London, 1858), was up to date, thirty years ago, a good list of -grammars and dictionaries, but the increase has been considerable in this field since then (Pilling’s <i>Eskimo -Languages</i>, p. 62). The libraries of collectors of Spanish-American history, as enumerated elsewhere,<a name="FNanchor_1868_1868" id="FNanchor_1868_1868"></a><a href="#Footnote_1868_1868" class="fnanchor">[1868]</a> have -usually included much on the linguistic history, and the most important of the printed lists for Mexico and -Central America is that of Brasseur de Bourbourg’s <i>Bibliothèque Mexico-Guatémalienne, précédée d’un -coup d’œil sur les études américaines dans leurs rapports avec les études classiques, et suivi du tableau, par -ordre alphabétique, des ouvrages de linguistique américaine contenus dans le même volume</i> (Paris, 1871). -This list is repeated with additions in the <i>Catalogue de Alphonse L. Pinart et ... de Brasseur de Bourbourg</i> -(Paris, 1883). Field’s <i>Indian Bibliography</i> characterizes some of the leading books up to 1873; but -the best source up to about the same date for a large part of North America is found in the notes in that -section of Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i>, vol. iii., given to linguistics.<a name="FNanchor_1869_1869" id="FNanchor_1869_1869"></a><a href="#Footnote_1869_1869" class="fnanchor">[1869]</a> The several <i>Comptes Rendus</i> of the Congrès -des Américanistes have sections on the same subject, and the second volume of the <i>Contributions to North -American Ethnology</i>, published by the U. S. Geological Survey (Powell’s), has been kept back for the completion -of the linguistic studies of the government officials, which will ultimately, under the care of A. S. -Gatschet, compose that belated volume. Major Powell, in his conduct of ethnological investigations for the -United States government, has found efficient helpers in James C. Pilling, J. Owen Dorsey, S. R. Riggs, -A. S. Gatschet, not to name others. Powell outlined some of his own views in an address on the evolution of -language before the Anthropological Society of Washington, of which there is an abstract in their <i>Transactions</i> -(1881), while the paper can be found in perfected shape as “The evolution of language from a study -of the Indian languages,” in the <i>First Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</i>.</p> - -<p>Among the earliest of the students of the native languages in the north were the Catholic missionaries in -Canada and in the northwest, and there is much of interest in their observations as recorded in the <i>Jesuit -Relations</i>. We find a <i>Dictionnaire de la langue huronne</i> in the <i>Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons</i> (Paris, -1632, etc.).</p> - -<p>The most conspicuous of the English publications of the seventeenth century was the Natick rendering of -the <i>Bible</i> for the Massachusetts Indians, undertaken by the Apostle John Eliot, as he was called, at the -expense of the London Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. Eliot also published a <i>Grammar of the -Massachusetts Indian Language</i> (Cambridge, 1666), which, with notes by Peter S. Duponceau and an introduction -by John Pickering, was printed for the Mass. Hist. Society in 1822, as was John Cotton’s <i>Vocabulary -of the Massachusetts Indian Language</i> (Cambridge, 1830). Roger Williams’ <i>Key into the language of -America</i> has been elsewhere referred to.<a name="FNanchor_1870_1870" id="FNanchor_1870_1870"></a><a href="#Footnote_1870_1870" class="fnanchor">[1870]</a> The Rev. Jonathan Edwards wrote a paper on the language of the -Mohegan Indians, which, with annotations by Pickering, was printed in the <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll.</i> in 1823, -and is called by Haven (<i>Archæol. U. S.</i>, 29) the earliest exposition of the radical connection of the American -languages. Dr. James Hammond Trumbull, the most learned of the students of these eastern languages, -has furnished various papers on them in the publications of the American Philological Association and of the -American Antiquarian Society,<a name="FNanchor_1871_1871" id="FNanchor_1871_1871"></a><a href="#Footnote_1871_1871" class="fnanchor">[1871]</a> and has summarized the literature of the subject, with references, in the -<i>Memorial Hist. of Boston</i> (vol. i.).</p> - -<p>In the eighteenth century there were several philological recorders among the missionaries. Sebastian -Rasle made a <i>Dictionary of the Abnake Language</i>, now preserved in MS. in Harvard College library, which, -edited by John Pickering, was published as a volume of the <i>Memoirs</i> of the Amer. Academy of Arts and -Sciences in 1833. A grammatical sketch of the Abnake as outlined in Rasle’s <i>Dictionary</i> is given by M. C. -O’Brien in the <i>Maine Hist. Soc. Coll.</i>, vol. ix. The publications of the American Philosophical Society in -Philadelphia have preserved for us the vocabularies and grammars of the Delaware language, collected and -arranged by John Heckewelder<a name="FNanchor_1872_1872" id="FNanchor_1872_1872"></a><a href="#Footnote_1872_1872" class="fnanchor">[1872]</a> and David Zeisberger, while the latter Moravian missionary collected a -considerable MS. store of linguistic traces of the Indian tongues, a part of which is now preserved in Harvard -College library.<a name="FNanchor_1873_1873" id="FNanchor_1873_1873"></a><a href="#Footnote_1873_1873" class="fnanchor">[1873]</a> One of this last collection, an <i>Indian Dictionary; English, German, Iroquois</i> (<i>the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[424]</a></span> -Onondaga</i>), <i>and Algonquin</i> (<i>the Delaware</i>) (Cambridge, 1887,) has been carefully edited for the press by -Eben Norton Horsford. Dr. John G. Shea published a <i>Dictionnaire Français-Onontagué, édité d’après un -manuscrit du 17<sup>e</sup> siècle</i> (N. Y., 1859), which is preserved in the Mazarin library in Paris.</p> - -<p>There was no attempt made to treat the study of the American languages in what would now be termed a -scientific spirit by any English scholar till towards the end of the eighteenth century. The whole question of -the origin of the Indians had for a long time been the subject of discussion, and it had of necessity taken more -or less of a philological turn from the beginning; but the inquiry had been simply a theoretical one, with -efforts to substantiate preconceived beliefs rather than to formulate inductive ones, as in such works as—not -to name others—Adair’s <i>American Indians</i> (London, 1775), where every trace was referable to the Jews, -and Count de Gebelin’s <i>Monde Primitif</i> (Paris, 1781), where a comparison of American and European -vocabularies is given.<a name="FNanchor_1874_1874" id="FNanchor_1874_1874"></a><a href="#Footnote_1874_1874" class="fnanchor">[1874]</a></p> - -<p>A much closer student appeared in Benjamin Smith Barton, of Philadelphia, though he was not wholly -emancipated from these same prevalent notions of connecting the Indian tongues with the old-world speeches. -He says that he was instigated to the study by Pallas’ <i>Linguarum totius orbis Vocabularia comparativa</i> -(Petropolis, 1786, 1789), and the result was his <i>New View of the Origin of the tribes and nations of America</i> -(Philad., 1797; again, 1798). He sets forth in his introduction his methods of study. Charlevoix had suggested -that the linguistic test was the only one in studying the ethnological connections of these peoples; -but Barton asserted that there were other manifestations, equally important, like the physical aspects, the -modes of worship, and the myths. He examined forty different Indian languages, and thinks they show a -common origin, and that remotely a connection existed between the old and new continents.</p> - -<p>The most eminent American student<a name="FNanchor_1875_1875" id="FNanchor_1875_1875"></a><a href="#Footnote_1875_1875" class="fnanchor">[1875]</a> of this field in the early half of this century was Albert Gallatin. -He began his observations in 1823, at the instance of Humboldt, and two years later he took advantage of a -representative convocation of Indian tribes, then held in Washington, to continue his studies of their speech. -In 81 tribes brought under his notice he found what he thought to be 27 or 28 linguistic families. This was -a wider survey than had before been made, and he regretted that he was not privileged to profit by the vocabularies -collected by Lewis and Clark, which had unfortunately been lost. At the request of the Amer. Antiquarian -Society, he wrote out and enlarged this study in the second volume of their <i>Collections</i> in 1836, and -advanced views that he never materially changed, believing in a very remote Asiatic origin of the tongues, and -without excepting the Eskimos from his conclusions. In 1845, in his <i>Notes on the semi-civilized nations of -Mexico</i>, his conclusions were much the same, but he made an exception in favor of the Otomis. At this time -he counted more than a hundred languages, similar in structure but different in vocabularies, and he argued -that a very long period was necessary thus to differentiate the tongues. At the age of eighty-seven Gallatin -gave his final results in vol. ii. of the <i>Transactions of the American Ethnological Society</i> (1848). Gallatin -published a review<a name="FNanchor_1876_1876" id="FNanchor_1876_1876"></a><a href="#Footnote_1876_1876" class="fnanchor">[1876]</a> of the volume on Ethnography and Philology, which had been prepared by Horatio Hale -as the seventh volume of the <i>Publications of the Wilkes United States Exploring Expedition</i> (1838-42), and -Hale himself, then in the beginning of his reputation as a linguistic scholar,<a name="FNanchor_1877_1877" id="FNanchor_1877_1877"></a><a href="#Footnote_1877_1877" class="fnanchor">[1877]</a> published some papers of his -own in the same volume of the <i>Transactions</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1878_1878" id="FNanchor_1878_1878"></a><a href="#Footnote_1878_1878" class="fnanchor">[1878]</a></p> - -<p>The two Americans who have done more than others, without the aid of the government, to organize -aboriginal linguistic studies are Dr. John Gilmary Shea of Elizabeth, New Jersey, and Dr. Daniel Garrison<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[425]</a></span> -Brinton of Philadelphia. Of <i>Shea’s Library of American Linguistics</i> he has given an account in the <i>Smithsonian -Rept.</i>, 1861.<a name="FNanchor_1879_1879" id="FNanchor_1879_1879"></a><a href="#Footnote_1879_1879" class="fnanchor">[1879]</a></p> - -<p>Dr. Brinton has set forth the purposes of his linguistic studies in an address before the Pennsylvania -Historical Society, <i>American Aboriginal Languages and why we should study them</i> (Philad., 1885,—from -the <i>Pennsylvania Magazine of History</i>, 1885, p. 15). In starting his <i>Library of Aboriginal American Literature</i>, -he announced his purpose to put within the reach of scholars authentic materials for the study of -the languages and culture of the native races, each work to be the production of the native mind, and to be -printed in the original tongue, with a translation and notes, and to have some intrinsic historical or ethnological -importance.<a name="FNanchor_1880_1880" id="FNanchor_1880_1880"></a><a href="#Footnote_1880_1880" class="fnanchor">[1880]</a></p> - -<p>The other considerable collections are both French. Alphonse L. Pinart published a <i>Bibliothèque de linguistique -et d’ethnographie Américaines</i> (Paris and San Francisco, 1875-82).<a name="FNanchor_1881_1881" id="FNanchor_1881_1881"></a><a href="#Footnote_1881_1881" class="fnanchor">[1881]</a></p> - -<p>The publishing house of Maisonneuve et Compagnie of Paris, which has done more than any other -business firm to advance these studies, has conducted a <i>Collection linguistique Américaine</i>, of much -value to American philologists.<a name="FNanchor_1882_1882" id="FNanchor_1882_1882"></a><a href="#Footnote_1882_1882" class="fnanchor">[1882]</a></p> - -<p>Other French studies have attracted attention. Pierre Etienne Duponceau published a <i>Mémoire sur le -système grammatical des langues de quelques nations indiennes de l’Amérique du Nord</i> (Paris, 1838).<a name="FNanchor_1883_1883" id="FNanchor_1883_1883"></a><a href="#Footnote_1883_1883" class="fnanchor">[1883]</a> He -conducted a correspondence with the Rev. John Heckewelder respecting the American tongues, which is published -in the <i>Transactions of the Amer. Philosophical Society</i> (Phil., 1819), and he translated Zeisberger’s -<i>Delaware Grammar</i>.</p> - -<p>The studies of the Abbé Jean André Cuoq have been upon the Algonquin dialects,<a name="FNanchor_1884_1884" id="FNanchor_1884_1884"></a><a href="#Footnote_1884_1884" class="fnanchor">[1884]</a> and published mainly -in the <i>Actes de la Société philologique</i> (Paris, 1869 and later). His monographic <i>Etudes philologiques sur -quelques langues sauvages de l’Amérique</i> was printed at Montreal, 1866. It was the result of twenty years’ -missionary work among the Iroquois and Algonquins, and besides a grammar contains a critical examination -of the works of Duponceau and Schoolcraft. Lucien Adam has been very comprehensive in his researches, -his studies being collected under the titles of <i>Etudes sur six langues Américaines</i> (Paris, 1878) and <i>Examen -grammatical comparé de seize langues Américaines</i> (Paris, 1878).<a name="FNanchor_1885_1885" id="FNanchor_1885_1885"></a><a href="#Footnote_1885_1885" class="fnanchor">[1885]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[426]</a></span></p> - -<p>The papers of the Count Hyacinthe de Charencey have been in the first instance for the most part printed -in the <i>Revue de Linguistique</i>, the <i>Annales de Philosophie Chrétienne</i>, and the <i>Mémoires de l’Académie de -Caen</i>, and have wholly pertained to the tongues south of New Mexico; but his principal studies are collected -in his <i>Mélanges de philologie et de paléographie Américaines</i> (Paris, 1883).<a name="FNanchor_1886_1886" id="FNanchor_1886_1886"></a><a href="#Footnote_1886_1886" class="fnanchor">[1886]</a></p> - -<p>The most distinguished German worker in this field, if we except the incidental labors of Alexander and -William von Humboldt,<a name="FNanchor_1887_1887" id="FNanchor_1887_1887"></a><a href="#Footnote_1887_1887" class="fnanchor">[1887]</a> is J. C. E. Buschmann, whose various linguistic labors cover the wide field of -the west coast of North America from Alaska to the Isthmus, with some of the regions adjacent on the east. -He published his papers in Berlin between 1853 and 1864, and many of them in the <i>Mémoires de l’Académie -de Berlin</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1888_1888" id="FNanchor_1888_1888"></a><a href="#Footnote_1888_1888" class="fnanchor">[1888]</a></p> - -<p>Dr. Carl Hermann Berendt has published his papers in Spanish, English, and German, and some of them -will be found in the <i>Smithsonian Reports</i>, in the Berlin <i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i>, and in the <i>Revista de -Mérida</i>. Under the auspices of the American Ethnological Society, a fac-simile reproduction of his graphic -<i>Analytical Alphabet for the Mexican and Central American languages</i> was published in 1869, the result of -twelve years’ study in those countries.<a name="FNanchor_1889_1889" id="FNanchor_1889_1889"></a><a href="#Footnote_1889_1889" class="fnanchor">[1889]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">The languages of what are called the civilized nations of the central regions of America deserve more -particular attention.</p> - -<p>In the Mexican empire the Aztec was largely predominant, but not exclusively spoken, for about twenty -other tongues were more or less in vogue in different parts. Humboldt and others have found occasional -traces in words of an earlier language than the Aztec or Nahua, but different from the Maya, which in Brasseur’s -opinion was the language of the country in those pre-Nahua days. Bancroft, contrary to some recent -philologists, holds the speech of the Toltec, Chichimec, and Aztec times to be one and the same.<a name="FNanchor_1890_1890" id="FNanchor_1890_1890"></a><a href="#Footnote_1890_1890" class="fnanchor">[1890]</a> It was -perhaps the most copious and most perfected of all the aboriginal tongues; and in proof of this are cited the -opinions of the early Spanish scholars, the successes of the missionaries in the use of it in imparting the -subtleties of their faith, and the literary use which was made of it by the native scholars, as soon as they -had adapted the Roman alphabet to its vocabulary and forms.<a name="FNanchor_1891_1891" id="FNanchor_1891_1891"></a><a href="#Footnote_1891_1891" class="fnanchor">[1891]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[427]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Maya has much the same prominence farther south that the Nahua has in the northerly parts of the -territory of the Spanish conquest, and a dialect of it, the Tzendal, still spoken near Palenqué, is considered -to be the oldest form of it, though probably this dialect was a departure from the original stock. It is one of -the evidences that the early Mayas may have come by way of the West India islands that modern philologists -say the native tongues of those islands were allied to the Maya. Bancroft (iii. 759, with other references, -760) refers to the list of spoken tongues given in Palacio’s <i>Carta al Rey de España</i> (1576) as the best enumeration -of the early Spanish writers.<a name="FNanchor_1892_1892" id="FNanchor_1892_1892"></a><a href="#Footnote_1892_1892" class="fnanchor">[1892]</a> For its literary value we must consult some of the authorities like -Orozco y Berra, mentioned in connection with the Aztec. Squier published a <i>Monograph of authors who -have written on the languages of Central America, and collected vocabularies and composed works in the -native dialects of that country</i> (Albany, 1861,—100 copies), in which he mentions 110 such authors, and -gives a list of their printed and MS. works. Those who have used these native tongues for written productions -are named in Ludewig’s <i>Literature of the Amer. Aborig. Languages</i> (London, 1858) and in Brinton’s -<i>Aboriginal American Authors</i> (Phila., 1883).<a name="FNanchor_1893_1893" id="FNanchor_1893_1893"></a><a href="#Footnote_1893_1893" class="fnanchor">[1893]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[428]</a></span></p> - -<p>The philology of the South American peoples has not been so well compassed as that of the northern -continent. The classified bibliographies show the range of it under such heads as Ande (or Campa), Araucanians -(Chilena), Arrawak, Aymara, Brazil (the principal work being F. P. von Martius’s <i>Beiträge zur -Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerika’s, zumal Brasiliens</i>, Leipzig, 1867, with a second part called -<i>Glossaria linguarum brasiliensium, Erlangen</i>, 1863), Chama, Chibcha (or Muysca, Mosca), Cumanagota, -Galibi, Goajira, Guarani, Kiriri (Kariri), Lule, Moxa, Paez, Quichua, Tehuelhet, Tonocote, Tupi, etc.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[429]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2><a name="a429" id="a429">V.</a></h2> - -<p class="pc1 lmid">BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON THE MYTHS AND RELIGIONS -OF AMERICA.</p> - -<p class="pc reduct"><i>By the Editor.</i></p> - -<p class="p2"><span class="smcap">The</span> earliest scholarly examination of the whole subject, which has been produced by an American author, -is Daniel G. Brinton’s <i>Myths of the New World, a treatise on the symbolism and mythology of the Red -Race of America</i> (N. Y., 1868; 2d ed., 1876). It is a comparative study, “more for the thoughtful general -reader than for the antiquary,” as the author says. “The task,” he adds, “bristles with difficulties. Carelessness, -prepossessions, and ignorance have disfigured the subject with false colors and foreign additions without -number” (p. 3). After describing the character of the written, graphic, or symbolic records, which the student -of history has to deal with in tracing North American history back before the Conquest, he adds, while he -deprives mythology of any historical value, that the myths, being kept fresh by repetition, were also nourished -constantly by the manifestations of nature, which gave them birth. So while taking issue with those who -find history buried in the myths, he warns us to remember that the American myths are not the reflections -of history or heroes. In the treatment of his subject he considers the whole aboriginal people of America -as a unit, with “its religion as the development of ideas common to all its members, and its myths as the -garb thrown around those ideas by imaginations more or less fertile; but seeking everywhere to embody the -same notions.”<a name="FNanchor_1894_1894" id="FNanchor_1894_1894"></a><a href="#Footnote_1894_1894" class="fnanchor">[1894]</a> This unity of the American races is far from the opinion of other ethnologists.</p> - -<p>Brinton gives a long bibliographical note on those who had written on the subject before him, in which he -puts, as the first (1819) to take a philosophical survey, Dr. Samuel Farmer Jarvis in a <i>Discourse on the religion -of the Indian tribes of North America</i>, printed in the <i>N. Y. Hist. Soc. Collections, iii.</i> (1821). Jarvis confined -himself to the tribes north of Mexico, and considered their condition, as he found it, one of deterioration -from something formerly higher. There had been, of course, before this, amassers of material, like the Jesuits -in Canada, as preserved in their <i>Relations</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1895_1895" id="FNanchor_1895_1895"></a><a href="#Footnote_1895_1895" class="fnanchor">[1895]</a> sundry early French writers on the Indians,<a name="FNanchor_1896_1896" id="FNanchor_1896_1896"></a><a href="#Footnote_1896_1896" class="fnanchor">[1896]</a> the English agents -of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England, and the Moravian missionaries in Pennsylvania -and the Ohio country, to say nothing of the historians, like Loskiel (<i>Geschichte der Mission</i>, 1789), -Vetromile (<i>Abnakis and their History</i>, New York, 1866), Cusick (<i>Six Nations</i>), not to mention local observers, -like Col. Benjamin Hawkins, <i>Sketch of the Creek Country (Georgia Hist. Soc. Collections</i>, 1848, but -written about 1800).</p> - -<p>If the placing of Brinton’s book as the earliest scholarly contribution is to be contested, it would be for -E. G. Squier’s <i>Serpent Symbol in America</i> (N. Y., 1851);<a name="FNanchor_1897_1897" id="FNanchor_1897_1897"></a><a href="#Footnote_1897_1897" class="fnanchor">[1897]</a> but the book is not broadly based, except so far -as such comprehensiveness can be deduced from his tendency to consider all myths as having some force of -nature for their motive, and that all are traceable to an instinct that makes the worship of fire or of the sun -the centre of a system.<a name="FNanchor_1898_1898" id="FNanchor_1898_1898"></a><a href="#Footnote_1898_1898" class="fnanchor">[1898]</a> With this as the source of life, Squier allies the widespread phallic worship. In -Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i> (iii. p. 501) there is a summary of what is known of this American worship of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[430]</a></span> -generative power. Brinton doubts (<i>Myths</i>, etc., 149) if anything like phallic worship really existed, apart -from a wholly unreligious surrender to appetite.</p> - -<p>Another view which Squier maintains is, that above all this and pervading all America’s religious views -there was a sort of rudimentary monotheism.<a name="FNanchor_1899_1899" id="FNanchor_1899_1899"></a><a href="#Footnote_1899_1899" class="fnanchor">[1899]</a></p> - -<p>When we add to this enumeration the somewhat callow and wholly unsatisfactory contributions of Schoolcraft -in the great work on the <i>Indian Tribes of the United States</i> (1851-59), which the U. S. government in -a headlong way sanctioned, we have included nearly all that had been done by American authors in this field -when Bancroft published the third volume of his <i>Native Races</i>. This work constitutes the best mass of material -for the student—who must not confound mythology and religion—to work with, the subject being -presented under the successive heads of the origin of myths and of the world, physical and animal myths, -gods, supernatural beings, worship and the future state; but of course, like all Bancroft’s volumes, it must be -supplemented by special works pertaining to the more central and easterly parts of the United States, and to -the regions south of Panama. The deficiency, however, is not so much as may be expected when we consider -the universality of myths. “Unfortunately,” says this author, “the philologic and mythologic material for -such an exhaustive synthesis of the origin and relations of the American creeds as Cox has given to the world -in the Aryan legends in his <i>Mythology of the Aryan Nations</i> (London, 1870) is yet far from complete.”</p> - -<p>In 1882 Brinton, after riper study, again recast his views of a leading feature of the subject in his <i>American -hero-myths; a study in the native religions of the western continent</i> (Philad., 1882), in which he endeavored -to present “in a critically correct light some of the fundamental conceptions in the native beliefs.” His purpose -was to counteract what he held to be an erroneous view in the common practice of considering “American -hero-gods as if they had been chiefs of tribes at some undetermined epoch,” and to show that myths of -similar import, found among different peoples, were a “spontaneous production of the mind, and not a reminiscence -of an historic event.” He further adds as one of the impediments in the study that he does “not know -of a single instance on this continent of a thorough and intelligent study of a native religion made by a Protestant -missionary.”<a name="FNanchor_1900_1900" id="FNanchor_1900_1900"></a><a href="#Footnote_1900_1900" class="fnanchor">[1900]</a> After an introductory chapter on the American myths, Brinton in this volume takes up -successively the consideration of the hero-gods of the Algonquins and Iroquois, the Aztecs, Mayas, and the -Quichuas of Peru. These myths of national heroes, civilizers, and teachers are, as Brinton says, the fundamental -beliefs of a very large number of American tribes, and on their recognition and interpretation depends -the correct understanding of most of their mythology and religious life,—and this means, in Brinton’s view, -that the stories connected with these heroes have no historic basis.<a name="FNanchor_1901_1901" id="FNanchor_1901_1901"></a><a href="#Footnote_1901_1901" class="fnanchor">[1901]</a></p> - -<p>The best known of the comprehensive studies by a European writer is J. G. Müller’s <i>Geschichte der Amerikanischen -Urreligionen</i> (Basle, 1855; again in 1867), in which he endeavors to work out the theory that at the -south there is a worship of nature, with a sun-worship for a centre, contrasted at the north with fetichism and -a dread of spirits, and these he considers the two fundamental divisions of the Indian worship. Bancroft finds -him a chief dependence at times, but Brinton, charging him with quoting in some instances at second-hand, -finds him of no authority whatever.</p> - -<p>One of the most reputable of the German books on kindred subjects is the <i>Anthropologie der Naturvölker</i> -(Leipzig, 1862-66) of Theodor Waitz. Brinton’s view of it is that no more comprehensive, sound, and critical -work on the American aborigines has been written; but he considers him astray on the religious phases, and -that his views are neither new nor tenable when he endeavors to subject moral science to a realistic philosophy.<a name="FNanchor_1902_1902" id="FNanchor_1902_1902"></a><a href="#Footnote_1902_1902" class="fnanchor">[1902]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[431]</a></span></p> - -<p>In speaking of the scope of the comprehensive work of H. H. Bancroft we mentioned that beyond the larger -part of the great Athapascan stock of the northern Indians his treatment did not extend. Such other general -works as Brinton’s <i>Myths of the New World</i>, the sections of his <i>American Hero-Myths</i> on the hero-gods of -the Algonquins and Iroquois, and the not wholly satisfactory book of Ellen R. Emerson, <i>Indian myths; or, -Legends, traditions, and symbols of the aborigines of America, compared with those of other countries, including -Hindostan, Egypt, Persia, Assyria, and China</i> (Boston, 1884), with aid from such papers as Major -J. W. Powell’s “Philosophy of the North American Indians” in the <i>Journal of the Amer. Geographical -Society</i> (vol. viii. p. 251, 1876), and his “Mythology of the North American Indians” in the <i>First Annual -Rept. of the Bureau of Ethnology</i> (1881), and R. M. Dorman’s <i>Origin of primitive superstition among the -aborigines of America</i> (Philad., 1881), must suffice in a general way to cover those great ethnic stocks of the -more easterly part of North America, which comprise the Iroquois, centred in New York, and surrounded -by the Algonquins, west of whom were the Dacotas, and south of whom were the Creeks, Choctaws, and -Chickasaws, sometimes classed together as Appalachians.<a name="FNanchor_1903_1903" id="FNanchor_1903_1903"></a><a href="#Footnote_1903_1903" class="fnanchor">[1903]</a></p> - -<p>The mythology of the Aztecs is the richest mine, and Bancroft in his third volume finds the larger part of -his space given to the Mexican religion.</p> - -<p>Brinton (<i>Amer. Hero Myths</i>, 73, 78), referring to the “Historia de los Méxicanos por sus Pinturas” of -Ramirez de Fuenleal, as printed in the <i>Anales del Museo Nacional</i> (ii. p. 86), says that in some respects it is -to be considered the most valuable authority which we possess,<a name="FNanchor_1904_1904" id="FNanchor_1904_1904"></a><a href="#Footnote_1904_1904" class="fnanchor">[1904]</a> as taken directly from the sacred books of the -Aztecs, and as explained by the most competent survivors of the Conquest.<a name="FNanchor_1905_1905" id="FNanchor_1905_1905"></a><a href="#Footnote_1905_1905" class="fnanchor">[1905]</a></p> - -<p>We must also look to Ixtlilxochitl and Sahagún as leading sources. From Sahagún we get the prayers which -were addressed to the chief deity, of various names, but known best, perhaps, as Tezcatlipoca; and these invocations -are translated for us in Bancroft (iii. 199, etc.), who supposes that, consciously or unconsciously, -Sahagún has slipped into them a certain amount of “sophistication and adaptation to Christian ideas.” From -the lofty side of Tezcatlipoca’s character, Bancroft (iii. ch. 7) passes to his meaner characteristics as the -oppressor of Quetzalcoatl.</p> - -<p>The most salient features of the mythology of the Aztecs arise from the long contest of Tezcatlipoca and -Quetzalcoatl, the story of which modified the religion of their followers, and, as Chavero claims, greatly affected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[432]</a></span> -their history.<a name="FNanchor_1906_1906" id="FNanchor_1906_1906"></a><a href="#Footnote_1906_1906" class="fnanchor">[1906]</a> This struggle, according as the interpreters incline, stands for some historic or physical rivalry, -or for one between St. Thomas and the heathen;<a name="FNanchor_1907_1907" id="FNanchor_1907_1907"></a><a href="#Footnote_1907_1907" class="fnanchor">[1907]</a> but Brinton explains it on his general principles as one -between the powers of Light and Darkness (<i>Am. Hero Myths</i>, 65).</p> - -<p>The main original sources on the character and career of Quetzalcoatl are Motolinía, Mendieta, Sahagún, -Ixtlilxochitl, and Torquemada, and these are all summarized in Bancroft (iii. ch. 7).</p> - -<p>It has been a question with later writers whether there is a foundation of history in the legend or myth of -Quetzalcoatl. Brinton (<i>Myths of the New World</i>, 180) has perhaps only a few to agree with him when he -calls that hero-god a “pure creature of the fancy, and all his alleged history nothing but a myth,” and he -thinks some confusion has arisen from the priests of Quetzalcoatl being called by his name.</p> - -<p>Bandelier (<i>Archæol. Tour</i>) takes issue with Brinton in deeming Quetzalcoatl on the whole an historical -person, whom Ixtlilxochitl connects with the pre-Toltec tribes of Olmeca and Xicalanca, and whom Torquemada -says came in while the Toltecs occupied the country. Bandelier thinks it safe to say that Quetzalcoatl -began his career in the present state of Hidalgo as a leader of a migration moving southward, with a principal -sojourn at Cholula, introducing arts and a purer worship. This is substantially the view taken by J. G. Müller, -Prescott, and Wuttke.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-482.jpg" width="400" height="439" id="i432" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">QUETZALCOATL.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a drawing in Cumplido’s Mexican ed. of Prescott’s <i>Mexico</i>, vol. iii. Images of him are everywhere (Nadaillac, -273-74). Cf. Eng. transl. of Charnay, p. 87.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Bancroft (iii. 273) finds the <i>Geschichte der Amer. Urreligionen</i> (p. 577) of Müller to present a more thorough -examination of the Quetzalcoatl myth than any other,<a name="FNanchor_1908_1908" id="FNanchor_1908_1908"></a><a href="#Footnote_1908_1908" class="fnanchor">[1908]</a> but since then it has been studied at length by -Bandelier in his <i>Archæological Tour</i> (p. 170 etc.), and by Brinton in his <i>Amer. Hero Myths</i>, ch. 3.<a name="FNanchor_1909_1909" id="FNanchor_1909_1909"></a><a href="#Footnote_1909_1909" class="fnanchor">[1909]</a></p> - -<p class="p2">What Tylor (<i>Primitive Culture</i>, ii. 279) calls “the inexplicable compound, parthenogenetic deity, the hideous, -gory Huitzilopochtli” (Huitziloputzli, Vitziliputzli), the god of war,<a name="FNanchor_1910_1910" id="FNanchor_1910_1910"></a><a href="#Footnote_1910_1910" class="fnanchor">[1910]</a> the protector of the Mexicans, was -considered by Boturini (<i>Idea</i>, p. 60) as a deified ancient war-chief. Bancroft in his narrative (iii. 289, 294;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[433]</a></span> -iv. 559) quotes the accounts in Sahagún and Torquemada, and (pp. 300-322) summarizes J. G. Müller’s monograph -on this god, which he published in 1847, and which he enlarged when including it in his <i>Urreligionen</i>.</p> - -<p>Acosta’s description of the Temple of Huitzilopochtli is translated in Bancroft (iii. 292). Solis follows -Acosta, while Herrera copies Gomara, who was not, as Solis contends, so well informed.</p> - -<p>As regards the Votan myth of Chiapas, Brinton tells us something in his <i>American Hero Myths</i> (212, with -references, 215); but the prime source is the Tzendal manuscript used by Cabrera in his <i>Teatro Critico-Americano</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1911_1911" id="FNanchor_1911_1911"></a><a href="#Footnote_1911_1911" class="fnanchor">[1911]</a> -No complete translation has been made, and the abstracts are unsatisfactory. Bancroft aids us in -this study of worship in Chiapas (iii. 458), as also in that of Oajaca (iii. 448), Michoacan<a name="FNanchor_1912_1912" id="FNanchor_1912_1912"></a><a href="#Footnote_1912_1912" class="fnanchor">[1912]</a> (iii. 445), and -Jalisco (iii. 447).</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-483.jpg" width="400" height="602" id="i433" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">THE MEXICAN TEMPLE.</p> - <p class="pf400">Reduced from a drawing in Icazbalceta’s <i>Coleccion de Documentos</i>, i. p. 384. There were two usual forms of the -Mexican temple: one of this type, and the other with two niche-like pavilions on the top. Cf. drawings in Clavigero -(Casena, 1780), ii. 26, 34; Eng. tr. by Cullen, i. 262, 373; Stevens’s Eng. tr. Herrera (London, 1740, vol. ii.).</p> -</div></div> - -<p>“The religion of the Mayas,” says Bancroft (iii. ch. 11), “was fundamentally the same as that of the Nahuas, -though it differed somewhat in outward forms. Most of the gods were deified heroes.... Occasionally we -find very distinct traces of an older sun-worship which has succumbed to later forms, introduced according to -vague tradition from Anahuac.” The view of Tylor (<i>Anahuac</i>, 191) is that the “civilization,” and consequently -the religions, of Mexico and Central America were originally independent, but that they came much -into contact, and thus modified one another to no small extent.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[434]</a></span></p> - -<p>Modern scholars are not by any means so much inclined as Las Casas and the other Catholic fathers were to -recognize the dogma of the Trinity and other Christian notions, which have been thought to be traceable in -what the Maya people in their aboriginal condition held for faith.</p> - -<p>The most popular of their deified heroes were Zamná and Cukulcan, not unlikely the same personage under -two names, and quite likely both are correspondences of Quetzalcoatl. We can find various views and alternatives -on this point among the elder and recent writers. The belief in community of attributes derives its -strongest aid from the alleged disappearance of Quetzalcoatl in Goazacoalco just at the epoch when Cukulcan -appeared in Yucatan. The centres of Maya worship were at Izamal, Chichen-Itza, and the island of -Cozumel.</p> - -<p>The hero-gods of the Mayas is the topic of Brinton’s fourth chapter in his <i>American Hero Myths</i>, with -views of their historical relations of course at variance with those of Bancroft. As respects the material, he -says that “most unfortunately very meagre sources of information are open to us. Only fragments of their -legends and hints of their history have been saved, almost by accident, from the general wreck of their civilization.” -The heroes are Itzamná, the leader of the first immigration from the east, through the ocean pathways; -and Kukulcan, the conductor of the second from the west. For the first cycle of myths Brinton refers -to Landa’s <i>Relation</i>, Cogolludo’s <i>Yucatan</i>, Las Casas’s <i>Historia Apologética</i>, involving the reports of the -missionary Francisco Hernandez, and to Hieronimo Roman’s <i>De la Republica de las Indias Occidentales</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-484.jpg" width="400" height="290" id="i434" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">THE TEMPLE OF MEXICO.</p> - <p class="pf400">After plate (reduced) in Herrera.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The Kukulcan legends are considered by Brinton to be later in date and less natural in character, and -Hernandez’s Report to Las Casas is the first record of them. Brinton’s theory of the myths does not allow -him to identify the Quetzalcoatl and Kukulcan hero-gods as one and the same, nor to show that the Aztec -and Maya civilizations had more correspondence than occasional intercourse would produce; but he thinks -the similarity of the statue of “Chac Mool,” unearthed by Le Plongeon at Chichen-Itza, to another found at -Tlaxcala compels us to believe that some positive connection did exist in parts of the country (<i>Anales del -Museo Nacional</i>, i. 270).<a name="FNanchor_1913_1913" id="FNanchor_1913_1913"></a><a href="#Footnote_1913_1913" class="fnanchor">[1913]</a> “The Nahua impress,” says Bancroft (iii. 490), “noticeable in the languages and -customs of Nicaragua, is still more strongly marked in the mythology. Instead of obliterating the older forms<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[435]</a></span> -of worship, as it seems to have done in the northern parts of Central America, it has here and there passed by -many of the distinct beliefs held by different tribes, and blended with the chief elements of a system which -is traced to the Muyscas in South America.”</p> - -<p>The main source of the Quiché myths and worship is the <i>Popul Vuh</i>, but Bancroft (iii. 474), who follows -it, finds it difficult to make anything comprehensible out of its confusion of statement. But prominent -among the deities seem to stand Tepeu or Gucumatz, whom it is the fashion to make the same with Quetzalcoatl, -and Hurakan or Tohil, who indeed stands on a plane above Quetzalcoatl. Brinton (<i>Myths</i>, 156), on the -contrary, connects Hurakan with Tlaloc, and seems to identify Tohil with Quetzalcoatl. Bancroft (iii. 477) -says that tradition, name, and attributes connect Tohil and Hurakan, and identify them with Tlaloc.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-485.jpg" width="400" height="595" id="i435" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">TEOYAOMIQUI.</p> - <p class="pf400">The idol dug up in the Plaza in Mexico is here presented, after a cut, following Nebel, in Tylor’s <i>Anahuac</i>, showing -the Mexican goddess of war, or death. Cf. cut in <i>American Antiquarian</i>, Jan., 1883; Powell’s <i>First Rept. Bur. -Ethn.</i>, 232; Bancroft, iv. 512, 513, giving the front after Nebel, and the other views after Léon y Gama. Bandelier -(<i>Arch. Tour</i>, pl. v) gives a photograph of it as it stands in the court-yard of the Museo Nacional.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Gallatin (<i>Am. Ethn. Soc. Trans.</i>, i. 338) describes Teoyaomiqui as the proper companion of Huitzilopochtli: “The -symbols of her attributes are found in the upper part of the statue; but those from the waist downwards relate to other -deities connected with her or with Huitzilopochtli.” Tylor (<i>Anahuac</i>, 222) says: “The antiquaries think that the figures -in it stand for different personages, and that it is three gods: Huitzilopochtli the god of war, Teoyaomiqui his wife, and -Mictlantecutli the god of hell.” Léon y Gama calls the statue Teoyaomiqui, but Bandelier, <i>Archæol. Tour</i>, 67, thinks -its proper name is rather Huitzilopochtli. Léon y Gama’s description is summarized in Bancroft, iii. 399, who cites also -what Humboldt (<i>Vues</i>, etc., ii. 153, and his pl. xxix) says. Bancroft (iii. 397) speaks of it as “a huge compound statue, -representing various deities, the most prominent being a certain Teoyaomiqui, who is almost identical with, or at least a -connecting link between, the mother goddess” and Mictlantecutli, the god of Mictlan, or Hades. Cf. references in Bancroft, -iv. 515.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[436]</a></span></p> - -<p>Brinton’s <i>Names of the gods in the Kiché myths, a monograph on Central American mythology</i> (Philad. -Am. Philos. Soc., 1881), is a special study of a part of the subject.</p> - -<p>Brinton (<i>Myths</i>, etc., 184) considers the best authorities on the mythology of the Muyscas of the Bogota -region to be Piedrahita’s <i>Historia de las Conquistas del Nuevo Reyno de Granada</i> (1668, followed by Humboldt -in his <i>Vues</i>) and Simm’s <i>Noticias historiales de las Conquistas de Tierra Firme en el Nuevo Reyno de -Granada</i>, given in Kingsborough, vol. viii.</p> - -<p>The mythology of the Quichuas in Peru makes the staple of chap. 5 of Brinton’s <i>Amer. Hero-Myths</i>. -Here the corresponding hero-god was Viracocha. Brinton depends mainly on the <i>Relacion Anónyma de -los Costumbres Antiguos de los Naturales del Piru, 1615</i> (Madrid, 1879); on Christoval de Molina’s account -of the fables and religious customs of the Incas, as translated by C. R. Markham in the Hakluyt Society -volume, <i>Narratives of the Rites and Laws of the Yncas</i> (London, 1873); on the <i>Comentarios reales</i> of -Garcilasso de la Vega; on the report made to the viceroy Francisco de Toledo, in 1571, of the responses to -inquiries made in different parts of the country as to the old beliefs which appear in the “Informacion de las -idolatras de los Incas é Indios,” printed in the <i>Coleccion de documentos ineditos del archivo de Indias</i>, xxi. -198; and in the <i>Relacion de Antigüedades deste Reyno del Piru</i>, by Juan de Santa Cruz Pachicuti.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/ill-486.jpg" width="400" height="217" id="i436" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="pc400">ANCIENT TEOCALLI, OAXACA, MEXICO.</p> - <p class="pf400">After a cut in Squier’s <i>Serpent Symbol</i>, p. 78.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Brinton dissents to D’Orbigny’s view in his <i>L’homme Américaine</i>, that the Quichua religion is mainly borrowed -from the older mythology of the Aymaras.</p> - -<p>Francisco de Avila’s “Errors and False Gods of the Indians of Huarochiri” (1608), edited by Markham -for the Hakluyt Society in the volume called <i>Narratives of the Rites and Laws of the Yncas</i>, is a treatment -of a part of the subject.</p> - -<p>Adolf Bastian’s <i>Ein Jahr auf Reisen—Kreuzfahrten zum Sammelbehuf aus Transatlantischen Feldern -der Ethnologie</i>, being the first volume of his <i>Die Culturländer des Alten America</i> (Berlin, 1878), has a -section “Aus Religion and Sitte des Alten Peru.”</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[437]</a></span></p> - -<h3 class="p2"><a name="a437" id="a437">VI.</a></h3> - -<p class="pc1 lmid">ARCHÆOLOGICAL MUSEUMS AND PERIODICALS.</p> - -<p class="pc reduct"><i>By the Editor.</i></p> - -<p class="p2"><span class="smcap">The</span> oldest of existing American societies dealing with the scientific aspects of knowledge is the American -Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, whose <i>Transactions</i> began in 1769, and made six volumes to 1809. -A second series was begun in 1818.<a name="FNanchor_1914_1914" id="FNanchor_1914_1914"></a><a href="#Footnote_1914_1914" class="fnanchor">[1914]</a> What are called the <i>Transactions of the Historical and Literary -Committee</i> make two volumes (1819, 1838), the first of which contains contributions by Heckewelder and P. S. -Duponceau on the history and linguistics of the Lenni Lenape. Its <i>Proceedings</i> began in 1838. The American -Academy of Arts and Sciences was instituted at Boston in 1780, a part of its object being “to promote -and encourage the knowledge of the antiquities of America,”<a name="FNanchor_1915_1915" id="FNanchor_1915_1915"></a><a href="#Footnote_1915_1915" class="fnanchor">[1915]</a> and its series of <i>Memoirs</i> began in 1783,<a name="FNanchor_1916_1916" id="FNanchor_1916_1916"></a><a href="#Footnote_1916_1916" class="fnanchor">[1916]</a> and -its <i>Proceedings</i> in 1846. These societies have only, as a rule, incidentally, and not often till of late years, -illustrated in their publications the antiquities of the new world; but the American Antiquarian Society was -founded in 1812 at Worcester, Mass., by Isaiah Thomas, with the express purpose of elucidating this department -of American history. It began the <i>Archæologia Americana</i> in 1820, and some of the volumes are still -valuable, though they chiefly stand for the early development by Atwater, Gallatin, and others of study in -this direction. In the first volume is an account of the origin and design of the society, and this is also set -forth in the memoir of Thomas prefixed to its reprint of his <i>History of Printing in America</i>, which is a part -of the series. The <i>Proceedings</i> of the society were begun in 1849, and they have contained some valuable -papers on Central American subjects. The Boston Society of Natural History<a name="FNanchor_1917_1917" id="FNanchor_1917_1917"></a><a href="#Footnote_1917_1917" class="fnanchor">[1917]</a> published the <i>Boston Journal -of Natural History</i> from 1834 to 1863, and in 1866 began its <i>Memoirs</i>. Col. Whittlesey gave in its first -volume a paper on the weapons and military character of the race of the mounds, and subsequent volumes -have had other papers of an archæological nature; but they have formed a small part of its contributions. -Its <i>Proceedings</i> have of late years contained some of the best studies of palæolithic man. The American -Ethnological Society, founded by Gallatin (New York), began its exclusive work in a series of <i>Transactions</i> -(1845-53, vols. i., ii., and one number of vol. iii.), but it was not of long continuance, though it embraced -among its contributors the conspicuous names of Gallatin, Schoolcraft, Catherwood, Squier, Rafn, S. G. -Morton, J. R. Bartlett, and others. Its <i>Bulletin</i> was not continued beyond a single volume (1860-61).<a name="FNanchor_1918_1918" id="FNanchor_1918_1918"></a><a href="#Footnote_1918_1918" class="fnanchor">[1918]</a> The -society was suspended in 1871.</p> - -<p>The American Association for the Advancement of Science began its publications with the <i>Proceedings</i> of -its Philadelphia meeting in 1848. Questions of archæology formed, however, but a small portion of its -inquiries<a name="FNanchor_1919_1919" id="FNanchor_1919_1919"></a><a href="#Footnote_1919_1919" class="fnanchor">[1919]</a> till the formation of a section on Anthropology a few years ago.</p> - -<p>The American Geographical Society has published a <i>Bulletin</i> (1852-56); <i>Journal</i> (or <i>Transactions</i>) (1859), -etc., and <i>Proceedings</i> (1862-64). Some of the papers have been of archæological interest.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[438]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Anthropological Institute of New York printed its transactions in a <i>Journal</i> (one vol. only, 1872-73).</p> - -<p>The Archæological Institute of America was founded in Boston in 1879, and has given the larger part of -its interest to classical archæology. The first report of its executive committee said respecting the field in -the new world: “The study of American archæology relates, indeed, to the monuments of a race that never -attained to a high degree of civilization, and that has left no trustworthy records of continuous history.... -From what it was and what it did, nothing is to be learned that has any direct bearing on the progress of -civilization. Such interest as attaches to it is that which it possesses in common with other early and undeveloped -races of mankind.” Appended to this report was Lewis H. Morgan’s “Houses of the American -Aborigines, with suggestions for the exploration of the ruins in New Mexico,” etc.,—advancing his well-known -views of the communal origin of the southern ruins. Under the auspices of the Institute, Mr. A. F. -Bandelier, a disciple of Morgan, was sent to New Mexico for the study of the Pueblos, and his experiences are -described in the second <i>Report</i> of the Institute. In their third <i>Report</i> (1882) the committee of the Institute -say: “The vast work of American archæology and anthropology is only begun.... Other nations, with more -or less of success, are trying to do our work on our soil. It is time that Americans bestir themselves in earnest -upon a field which it would be a shame to abandon to the foreigner.” Still under the pay of the Institute, Mr. -Bandelier, in 1881, devoted his studies to the remains at Mexico, Cholula, Mitla, and the ancient life of -those regions. At the same time, Aymé, then American consul at Merida, was commissioned to explore -certain regions of Yucatan, but the results were not fortunate.</p> - -<p>The Institute began in 1881 the publication of an <i>American Series</i> of its <i>Papers</i>, the first number of which -embodied Bandelier’s studies of the Pueblos, and the second covered his Mexican researches. In 1885 the -<i>American Journal of Archæology</i> was started at Baltimore as the official organ of the Institute, and occasional -papers on American subjects have been given in its pages. The editors were called upon to define more particularly -their relations to archæology in America in the number for Sept., 1888. In this they say: “The -archæology of America is busied with the life and work of a race or races of men in an inchoate, rudimentary, -and unformed condition, who never raised themselves, even at their highest point, as in Mexico and Peru, -above a low stage of civilization, and never showed the capacity of steadily progressive development.... -These facts limit and lower the interest which attaches ... to crude and imperfect human life.... A comparison -of their modes of life and thought with those of other races in a similar stage of development in other -parts of the world, in ancient and modern times, is full of interest as exhibiting the close similarity of primitive -man in all regions, resulting from the sameness of his first needs, in his early struggle for existence.” The -editors rest their reasons for giving prominence to classical archæology upon the necessity of affording by such -complemental studies the means of comparison in archæological results, which can but advance to a higher -plane the methods and inductions of the prehistoric archæology of America.</p> - -<p>The American Folk-Lore Society was founded in Jan., 1888, and <i>The Journal of American Folk-Lore</i> -was immediately begun. A large share of its papers is likely to cover the popular tales of the American -aborigines.</p> - -<p>The Anthropological Society of Washington is favorably situated to avail itself of the museums and -apparatus of the American government, and members of the Geological Survey and Ethnological Bureau have -been among the chief contributors to its <i>Transactions</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1920_1920" id="FNanchor_1920_1920"></a><a href="#Footnote_1920_1920" class="fnanchor">[1920]</a> which in January, 1888, were merged in a more general -publication, <i>The American Anthropologist</i>. A National Geographic Society was organized in Washington in -1888.</p> - -<p>There are numerous local societies throughout the United States whose purpose, more or less, is to cover -questions of archæological import. Those that existed prior to 1876 are enumerated in Scudder’s <i>Catalogue -of Scientific Serials</i>; but it was not easy always to draw the line between historical associations and those -verging upon archæological methods.<a name="FNanchor_1921_1921" id="FNanchor_1921_1921"></a><a href="#Footnote_1921_1921" class="fnanchor">[1921]</a></p> - -<p>The oldest of the scientific periodicals in the United States to devote space to questions of anthropology is -Silliman’s <i>American Journal of Science and Arts</i> (1818, etc.). The <i>American Naturalist</i>, founded in 1867, -also entered the field of archæology and anthropology. The same may be said in some degree of the <i>Popular<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[439]</a></span> -Science Monthly</i> (1877, etc.), <i>Science</i> (1883), and the <i>Kansas City Review</i>. The chief repository of such -contributions, however, since 1878, has been <i>The American Antiquarian</i> (Chicago), edited by Stephen D. -Peet. Its papers are, unluckily, of very uneven value.<a name="FNanchor_1922_1922" id="FNanchor_1922_1922"></a><a href="#Footnote_1922_1922" class="fnanchor">[1922]</a></p> - -<p>The best organized work has been done in the United States by the Peabody Museum of American Archæology -and Ethnology, in Cambridge, Mass., and by certain departments of the Federal government at Washington.</p> - -<p>The Peabody Museum resulted from a gift of George Peabody, an American banker living in London, who -instituted it in 1866 as a part of Harvard University.<a name="FNanchor_1923_1923" id="FNanchor_1923_1923"></a><a href="#Footnote_1923_1923" class="fnanchor">[1923]</a> It was fortunate in its first curator, Dr. Jeffries Wyman, -who brought unusual powers of comprehensive scrutiny to its work.<a name="FNanchor_1924_1924" id="FNanchor_1924_1924"></a><a href="#Footnote_1924_1924" class="fnanchor">[1924]</a> He died in 1874, and was succeeded by -one of his and of Agassiz’s pupils, Frederick W. Putnam, who was also placed in the chair of archæology in -the university in 1886. The <i>Reports</i>, now twenty-two in number, and the new series of <i>Special Papers</i> are -among the best records of progress in archæological science.</p> - -<p>The creation of the Smithsonian Institution in 1846, under the bequest of an Englishman, James Smithson, -and the devotion of a sum of about $31,000 a year at that time arising from that gift, first put the government -of the United States in a position “to increase and diffuse knowledge among men.”<a name="FNanchor_1925_1925" id="FNanchor_1925_1925"></a><a href="#Footnote_1925_1925" class="fnanchor">[1925]</a></p> - -<p>The second <i>Report</i> of the Regents in 1848 contains approvals of a manuscript by E. G. Squier and E. H. -Davis, which had been offered to the Institution for publication, and which had been commended by Albert -Gallatin, Edward Robinson, John Russell Bartlett, W. W. Turner, S. G. Morton, and George P. Marsh. -Thus an important archæological treatise, <i>The Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, comprising -the results of extensive original surveys and explorations</i> (Washington, 1848), became the first of the <i>Smithsonian -Contributions to Knowledge</i>. The subsequent volumes of the series have contained other important -treatises in similar fields. Foremost among them may be named those of Squier on the Aboriginal Monuments -of New York (vol. ii., 1851); Col. Whittlesey on <i>The Ancient Works in Ohio</i> (vol. iii., 1852); S. R. -Riggs’ <i>Dakota Grammar and Dictionary</i> (vol. iv., 1852); I. A. Lapham’s <i>Antiquities of Wisconsin</i> (vol. vii., -1855); S. F. Haven’s <i>Archæology of the United States</i> (vol. viii., 1856); Brantz Mayer’s <i>Mexican History -and Archæology</i> (vol. ix., 1857); Whittlesey on <i>Ancient Mining on Lake Superior</i> (vol. xiii., 1863); Morgan’s -<i>Systems of Consanguinity of the human family</i> (vol. xvii., 1871);—not to name lesser papers. To -supplement this quarto series, another in octavo was begun in 1862, called <i>Miscellaneous Collections</i>; and in -this form there have appeared J. M. Stanley’s <i>Catalogue of portraits of No. Amer. Indians</i> (vol. ii., 1862); a -<i>Catalogue of photographic portraits of the No. Amer. Indians</i> (vol. xiv., 1878).</p> - -<p>Of much more interest to the anthropologist has been the series of <i>Annual Reports</i> with their appended -papers,—such as Squier on <i>The Antiquities of Nicaragua</i> (1851); W. W. Turner on <i>Indian Philology</i> -(1852); S. S. Lyon on <i>Antiquities from Kentucky</i> (1858), and many others.</p> - -<p>The sections of correspondence and minor papers in these reports soon began to include communications -about the development of archæological research in various localities. They began to be more orderly arranged -under the sub-heading of Ethnology in the Report for 1867, and this heading was changed to Anthropology in -the <i>Report</i> for 1879. Charles Rau (d. 1887) had been a leading contributor in this department, and no. 440 of -the Smithsonian publications was made up of his <i>Articles on Anthropological Subjects, contributed from -1863 to 1877</i> (Washington, 1882). No. 421 is Geo. H. Boehmer’s <i>Index to Anthropological Articles in the -publications of the Smithsonian Institution</i> (Washington, 1881). Among the later papers those of O. T. -Mason of the Anthropological Department of the National Museum are conspicuous.</p> - -<p>The last series is the <i>Reports of the Bureau of Ethnology</i>, placed by Congress in the charge of the Smithsonian. -The <i>Reports of the American Historical Association</i> will soon be begun under the same auspices.</p> - -<p>Major J. W. Powell, the director of the Bureau of Ethnology, said that its purpose was “to organize -anthropologic research in America.”<a name="FNanchor_1926_1926" id="FNanchor_1926_1926"></a><a href="#Footnote_1926_1926" class="fnanchor">[1926]</a> It published its first report in 1881, and this and the later reports have -had for contents, beside the summary of work constituting the formal report, the following papers:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[440]</a></span></p> - -<p>Vol. i.: <span class="smcap">J. W. Powell.</span> The evolution of language.—Sketch of the mythology of the North American Indians.—Wyandot -government.—On limitations to the use of some anthropologic data.—<span class="smcap">H. C. Yarrow.</span> A further contribution -to the study of mortuary customs among the North American Indians.—<span class="smcap">E. S. Holden.</span> Studies in Central American -picture-writing.—<span class="smcap">C. C. Royce.</span> Cessions of land by Indian tribes to the United States: illustrated by those in -Indiana.—<span class="smcap">G. Mallery.</span> Sign language among North American Indians compared with that among other peoples and -deaf-mutes.—<span class="smcap">J. C. Pilling.</span> Catalogue of linguistic manuscripts in the library.—Illustration of the method of recording -Indian languages. From the manuscripts of J. O. Dorsey, A. S. Gatschet, and S. R. Riggs.</p> - -<p>Vol. ii.: <span class="smcap">F. H. Cushing</span>. Zuñi fetiches.—<i>Mrs.</i> <span class="smcap">E. A. Smith</span>. Myths of the Iroquois.—<span class="smcap">H. W. Henshaw.</span> Animal -carvings from mounds of the Mississippi Valley.—<span class="smcap">W. Matthews.</span> Navajo silversmiths.—<span class="smcap">W. H. Holmes.</span> Art in -shell of the ancient Americans.—<span class="smcap">J. Stevenson.</span> Illustrated catalogue of the collections obtained from the Indians of -New Mexico and Arizona in 1879;—Illustrated catalogue of the collections obtained from the Indians of New Mexico in -1880.</p> - -<p>Vol. iii.: <span class="smcap">Cyrus Thomas.</span> Notes on certain Maya and Mexican manuscripts.—<span class="smcap">W. (C.) H. Dall</span> On masks, -labrets, and certain aboriginal customs, with an inquiry into the bearing of their geographical distribution.—<span class="smcap">J. O. Dorsey.</span> -Omaha sociology.—<span class="smcap">Washington Matthews.</span> Navajo weavers.—<span class="smcap">W. H. Holmes.</span> Prehistoric textile fabrics -of the United States, derived from impressions on pottery;—Illustrated catalogue of a portion of the collections made -by the Bureau of Ethnology during the field season of 1881.—<span class="smcap">James Stevenson.</span> Illustrated catalogue of the collections -obtained from the Pueblos of Zuñi, New Mexico, and Wolpi, Arizona, in 1881.</p> - -<p>Vol. iv.: <span class="smcap">Garrick Mallery.</span> Pictographs of the North American Indians.—<span class="smcap">W. H. Holmes.</span> Pottery of the -ancient Pueblos;—Ancient pottery of the Mississippi Valley;—Origin and development of form and ornament in ceramic -art.—<span class="smcap">F. H. Cushing.</span>. A study of Pueblo pottery as illustrative of Zuñi culture growth.</p> - -<p>Vol. v.: <span class="smcap">Cyrus Thomas.</span> Burial mounds of the northern sections of the United States.—<span class="smcap">C. C. Royce.</span> The -Cherokee nation of Indians.—<span class="smcap">Washington Matthews.</span> The Mountain Chant: a Navajo ceremony.—<span class="smcap">Clay MacCauley.</span> -The Seminole Indians of Florida.—<i>Mrs.</i> <span class="smcap">Tilly E. Stevenson</span>. The religious life of the Zuñi child.</p> - -<p class="p2">What is known as the United States National Museum is also in charge of the Smithsonian Institution,<a name="FNanchor_1927_1927" id="FNanchor_1927_1927"></a><a href="#Footnote_1927_1927" class="fnanchor">[1927]</a> -and here are deposited the objects of archæological and historical interest secured by the government explorations -and by other means. The linguistic material is kept in the Bureau of Ethnology. The skulls and physiological -material, illustrative of prehistoric times, are deposited in the Army Medical Museum, under the -Surgeon-General’s charge.</p> - -<p>Major Powell, while in charge of the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, -had earlier prepared five volumes of <i>Contributions to Ethnology</i>, all but the second of which have been -published. The first volume (1877) contained W. H. Dall’s “Tribes of the Extreme Northwest” and -George Gibbs’ “Tribes of Western Washington and Northwestern Oregon.” The third (1877): Stephen -Powers’ “Tribes of California.” The fourth (1881): Lewis H. Morgan’s “Houses and house life of the -American Aborigines.” The fifth (1882): Charles Rau’s “Lapidarian sculpture of the Old World and in -America,” Robert Fletcher’s “Prehistoric trephining and cranial Amulets,” and Cyrus Thomas on the -Troano Manuscript, with an introduction by D. G. Brinton.</p> - -<p>Among the <i>Reports</i> of the geographical and geological explorations and surveys west of the 100th meridian -conducted by Capt. Geo. M. Wheeler, the seventh volume, <i>Report on Archæological and Ethnological Collections -from the vicinity of Santa Barbara, California, and from ruined pueblos of Arizona and New -Mexico and certain Interior Tribes</i> (Washington, 1879), was edited by F. W. Putnam, and contains papers -on the ethnology of Southern California, wood and stone implements, sculptures, musical instruments, beads, -etc.; the Pueblos of New Mexico, their inhabitants, architecture, customs, cliff houses and other ruins, skeletons, -etc.; with an <i>Appendix</i> on Linguistics, containing forty Vocabularies of Pueblo and other Western -Indian Languages and their classification into seven families.</p> - -<p>The <i>Reports</i> of the Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, under the charge of F. V. -Hayden, brought to us in those of 1874-76 the knowledge of the cliff-dwellers, and they contain among the -miscellaneous publications such papers as W. Matthews’ <i>Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa Indians</i> -and W. H. Jackson’s <i>Descriptive Catalogue of photographs of No. Amer. Indians</i>.</p> - -<p>There are other governmental documents to be noted: <i>The Exploration of the Red River of Louisiana in -1852</i>, by R. B. Marcy and G. B. McClellan (Washington, 1854), contains a vocabulary of the Comanches and -Witchitas, with some general remarks by W. W. Turner. There is help to be derived from the geographical -details, and from something on ethnology, in the <i>Reports of Explorations and Surveys for a Railroad from -the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean</i> (Washington, 1856-60, in 12 vols.); in W. H. Emory’s <i>Report -on the United States and Mexican Boundary Survey</i> (Washington, 1857-58, in 2 vols.); J. H. Simpson’s -<i>Report of Explorations across the great basin of the territory of Utah in 1859</i> (Washington, 1876); J. N. -Macomb’s <i>Report of the Exploring Expedition from Santa Fé to the Junction of the Grand and Green -Rivers of the Great Colorado of the West in 1859</i> (Washington, 1876).</p> - -<p>There were also published, under the auspices of the government, the conglomerate and very unequal work of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[441]</a></span> -Henry R. Schoolcraft, <i>Historical and Statistical Information respecting the history, conditions, and prospects -of the Indian Tribes of the United States, collected and prepared under the direction of the Bureau -of Indian Affairs</i> (Philad., 1851-57, in 6 vols., with a trade edition of the same date). An act of Congress -(March 3, 1847) authorized its publication. As reissued it is called <i>Archives of aboriginal knowledge, -containing original papers laid before Congress, respecting the Indian tribes of the United States</i> (Philadelphia, -1860, ’68, 6 vols.). It has the following divisions: General history.—Manners and customs.—Antiquities.—Geography.—Tribal -organization, etc.—Intellectual capacity.—Topical history.—Physical -type.—Language.—Art.—Religion and mythology.—Demonology, magic, etc.—Medical knowledge.—Condition -and prospects.—Statistics and population.—Biography.—Literature.—Post-Columbian history.—Economy -and statistics. An edition of vols. 1-5 (1856) is called <i>Ethnological researches respecting the Red -Men of America, Information respecting the history</i>, etc. The sixth volume is in effect a summary of the -preceding five.<a name="FNanchor_1928_1928" id="FNanchor_1928_1928"></a><a href="#Footnote_1928_1928" class="fnanchor">[1928]</a></p> - -<p>At a recent meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, a committee was charged -with preparing a memorial to Congress, urging action to insure the preservation of certain national monuments. -There is a summary of their report in <i>Science</i>, xii. p. 101.</p> - -<p class="p2">Of all European countries, the most has been done in France, by way of periodical system and corporate -organizations, to advance the study of American anthropology, ethnology, and archæology. The <i>Annales des -voyages, de la géographie et de l’histoire, traduits de toutes les langues Européennes; des relations originales, -inédites</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1929_1929" id="FNanchor_1929_1929"></a><a href="#Footnote_1929_1929" class="fnanchor">[1929]</a> the publication of which was begun by Malte-Brun in 1808 and continued to 1814, and the -<i>Nouvelles Annales des Voyages</i>, begun in 1819 and continued with a slightly varying title till 1870, are sources -occasionally of much importance. At a later day, Edouard Lartet and others have used the <i>Annales des -Sciences Naturelles</i> as a medium for their publications. We hardly trace here, however, any corporate movement -before the institution of the Société de Géographie de Paris in 1820. In 1824 it issued the first volume -of its <i>Recueil de Voyages et de Mémoires</i>, which reached seven volumes in 1864, and had included (vol. ii.) -an account of Palenqué and the researches of Warden on the antiquities of the United States. Since this -society began the issue of its <i>Bulletin</i> in 1827, it has occasionally given assistance in the study of American -archæology.</p> - -<p>The earliest distinctive periodical on the subject was the <i>Revue Américaine</i>, of which, in 1826-27, three -volumes, in monthly parts, were published in Paris.<a name="FNanchor_1930_1930" id="FNanchor_1930_1930"></a><a href="#Footnote_1930_1930" class="fnanchor">[1930]</a> In 1857 a movement was inaugurated which engaged -first and last the coöperation of some eminent scholars in these studies, like Aubin, Buschmann, V. A. Malte-Brun, -Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg, Jomard, Alphonse Pinart, Cortambert, Léon de Rosny, Waldeck, Abbé -Domenech, Charencey, etc. The active movers were first known as the Comité d’Archéologie Américaine, -and they issued an <i>Annuaire</i> (1863-67) and one volume, at least, of <i>Actes</i> (1865), as well as a collection of -<i>Mémoires sur l’archéologie Américaine</i> (1865). This organization soon became known as the Société Américaine -de France, and under the auspices of this name there has been a series of publications of varying -designation.<a name="FNanchor_1931_1931" id="FNanchor_1931_1931"></a><a href="#Footnote_1931_1931" class="fnanchor">[1931]</a> Its <i>Annuaire</i> began in 1868, and has been continued. The general name of <i>Archives de la -Société Américaine de France</i> covers its other publications, which more or less coincide with the <i>Revue -Orientale et Américaine par Léon de Rosny</i>, the first series of which appeared in Paris in 10 vols., in 1859-65, -followed by a second, the first volume of which (vol. xi. of the whole) is called <i>Revue Américaine, publié -sous les auspices de la Société d’Ethnographie et du Comité d’Archéologie Américaine</i>, and is at the same time -the fourth volume of the <i>Actes de la Société d’Ethnographie Américaine et Orientale</i>. The whole series is -sometimes cited as the <i>Mémoires de la Société d’Ethnographie</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1932_1932" id="FNanchor_1932_1932"></a><a href="#Footnote_1932_1932" class="fnanchor">[1932]</a> The series, already referred to, of the <i>Archives -de la Soc. Amér. de France</i> is made up thus: Première série: vol. i., <i>Revue Orientale et Américaine</i>; -ii., <i>Revue Américaine</i>; iii. and iv., <i>Revue Orientale et Américaine</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1933_1933" id="FNanchor_1933_1933"></a><a href="#Footnote_1933_1933" class="fnanchor">[1933]</a> The nouvelle série has no sub-titles, -and the three volumes bear date 1875, 1876, 1884.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[442]</a></span></p> - -<p>The student of comparative anthropology will resort to the <i>Materiaux pour l’histoire positive et philosophique</i> -(later <i>primitive et naturelle</i>) <i>de l’homme</i>, the publication of which was begun at Paris in 1864 by -Gabriel de Mortillet, and has been continued by Trutot, Cartailhac, Chautre, and others. This publication -has contained abstracts of the proceedings of an annual gathering in Paris, whose <i>Comptes rendu</i> have been -printed at length as of the <i>Congrès international d’anthropologie et d’archéologie préhistoriques</i> (1865, etc.).<a name="FNanchor_1934_1934" id="FNanchor_1934_1934"></a><a href="#Footnote_1934_1934" class="fnanchor">[1934]</a></p> - -<p>Léon de Rosny published but a single volume of a projected series, <i>Archives paléographiques de l’Orient -et de l’Amérique</i> (Paris, 1870-71), which contains some papers on Mexican picture-writing. Rosny and -others, who had been active in the movement begun by the Comité d’Archéologie Américaine, were now instrumental -in organizing the periodical gathering in different cities of Europe, which is known as the <i>Congrès -international des Américanistes</i>. The first session was held at Nancy in 1875, and its <i>Compte Rendu</i> -was published in two volumes (Nancy and Paris, 1876). The second meeting was at Luxembourg in 1877 -(<i>Compte Rendu</i>, Paris, 1878, in 2 vols.); the third at Brussels in 1879 (<i>Compte Rendu</i>); the fourth at Madrid -in 1881 (<i>Congreso internacional de Américanistas. Cuarta reunion</i>, Madrid, 1881); the fifth at Copenhagen -(<i>Compte Rendu</i>, Copenhagen, 1884); and others at Chalons-sur-Marne, Turin, and Berlin. The papers -are printed in the language in which they were read.</p> - -<p>The <i>Mémoires de la Société d’Ethnographie</i> (founded in 1859) began to appear in 1881, and its third volume -(1882) is entitled <i>Les Documents écrits de l’Antiquité Américaine, compte rendu d’une mission scientifique -en Espagne et en Portugal, par Léon de Rosny, avec une carte et 10 planches</i>. The fourth volume is P. de -Lucy-Fossarieu’s <i>Ethnographie de l’Amérique Antarctique</i> (Paris, 1884). In the second volume of a new -series there is an account by V. Devaux of the work in American ethnology done by Lucien de Rosny as a -preface to a posthumous work<a name="FNanchor_1935_1935" id="FNanchor_1935_1935"></a><a href="#Footnote_1935_1935" class="fnanchor">[1935]</a> of Lucien de Rosny, <i>Les Antilles, étude d’Ethnographie et d’Archéologique -Américaines</i> (Paris, 1886).</p> - -<p>Latterly there has been a consolidation of interests among kindred societies under the name of Institution -Ethnographique, whose initial <i>Rapport annuel sur les récompenses et encouragements décernés en 1883</i> was -published at Paris in 1883. This society now comprises the Société d’Ethnographie, Société Américaine de -France, Athénée Oriental, and Société des Etudes Japonaises.</p> - -<p class="p2">In England, organized efforts for the record of knowledge began with the creation of the Royal Society, -though certain sporadic attempts had earlier been known. America was represented among its founders in -the younger John Winthrop, and Cotton Mather was a contributor to its transactions, and there has occasionally -been a paper in its publications of interest to American archæologists.<a name="FNanchor_1936_1936" id="FNanchor_1936_1936"></a><a href="#Footnote_1936_1936" class="fnanchor">[1936]</a> The Society of Antiquaries -began to print its <i>Archæologia</i> in 1779 and its <i>Proceedings</i> in 1848, and the American student finds some -valuable papers in them. The British Association for the Advancement of Science began its <i>Reports</i> with -the meeting of 1831, and it has had among its divisions a section of anthropology. In 1830 the Royal Geographical -Society began its <i>Journal</i> with a preliminary issue (1830-31, in 2 vols.), though its regular series -first came out in 1832. Its <i>Proceedings</i> appeared in 1855, and both publications are a conspicuous source in -many ways relating to early American history.<a name="FNanchor_1937_1937" id="FNanchor_1937_1937"></a><a href="#Footnote_1937_1937" class="fnanchor">[1937]</a> Closely connected with its interest has been the publication -begun under the editing of C. R. Markham, and called successively <i>Ocean Highways</i> (1869-73, vol. i.-v.), -with an added title of <i>Geographical Review</i> (1873-74), and lastly as <i>The Geographical Magazine</i> (vol. i.-iii., -1874-76).</p> - -<p>The Ethnological Society published four volumes of a <i>Journal</i><a name="FNanchor_1938_1938" id="FNanchor_1938_1938"></a><a href="#Footnote_1938_1938" class="fnanchor">[1938]</a> between 1844 and 1856, and resuming published -two more volumes in 1869-70. Its contents are mainly of interest in comparative study, though there -are a few American papers, like D. Forbes’s on the Aymara Indians of Peru. This society’s <i>Transactions</i> -was issued in two volumes, 1859-60; and again in seven volumes, 1861-69.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, some gentlemen, not content with the restricted field of the Ethnological Society, founded in -London an Anthropological Society, which began the publication of <i>Memoirs</i> (1863-69, in 3 vols.); and in -this publication Bollaert issued his papers on the population of the new world, on the astronomy of the red -man, on American paleography, on Maya hieroglyphics, on the anthropology of the new world, on Peruvian -graphic records,—not to name other papers by different writers. The <i>Transactions</i> and <i>Journal</i> of the -society, as well as the <i>Popular Magazine of Anthropology</i> (1866), made part in one form or another of the -<i>Anthropological Review</i>, begun in 1863, and discontinued in 1870, when the <i>Journal of Anthropology</i> succeeded, -but ceased the next year. The <i>Proceedings</i> of the society make one volume, 1873-75, under the title -of <i>Anthropologia</i>, and the society also maintained a series of translations of foreign treatises, the first of which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[443]</a></span> -was Theodor Waitz’s <i>Introduction to Anthropology</i>, ed. from the German by J. F. Collingwood (1863); and -this was followed by a version by James Hunt, the president of the society, of Professor Carl Vogt’s <i>Lectures -on Man, his place in Creation and in the history of the Earth</i> (1864), and by other works of Broca, Pouchet, -Blumenbach, etc.</p> - -<p>What is known as the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland united some of these separate -endeavors and began its <i>Journal</i> in 1871. The <i>Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society</i> has also at times -been the channel by which some of the leading anthropologists have published their views, and a few papers -of archæological import have been given in the <i>Transactions</i> (1884, etc.) of the Royal Historical Society. -Professedly broader relations belong to the <i>Transactions</i> (<i>Comptes rendus</i>) of the International Congress of -prehistoric (anthropology and) archæology, which began its sessions in 1866.<a name="FNanchor_1939_1939" id="FNanchor_1939_1939"></a><a href="#Footnote_1939_1939" class="fnanchor">[1939]</a> The latest summary is the -<i>Archæological Review, a journal of historic and prehistoric antiquities</i>, edited by G. L. Gomme, of which -the first number appeared in March, 1888, which has for a main feature a bibliographical record of past and -current archæological literature.<a name="FNanchor_1940_1940" id="FNanchor_1940_1940"></a><a href="#Footnote_1940_1940" class="fnanchor">[1940]</a></p> - -<p>It is, however, in the volumes of the Hakluyt Society’s publications, beginning in 1847, in the annotated -reprint of the early writers on American nations and on the European contact with them, that the most -signal service has been done in England to the study of the early history of the new world. They are often -referred to in the present History.</p> - -<p class="p2">In Germany a <i>Magazin für die Naturgeschichte des Menschen</i> was published at Zittau as early as 1788-1791.</p> - -<p>Wagner published at Vienna, in 1794-96, two volumes of <i>Beiträge zur philosophischen Anthropologie</i>; -and Heynig’s <i>Psychologisches (zugleich Anthropologisches) Magazin</i> was published at Altenburg in 1796-97.</p> - -<p>The Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaft began its <i>Abhandlungen</i> in 1804, but it was not till long after -that date that Buschmann and others used it as a channel of their views.</p> - -<p>Vertuch’s <i>Archiv für Ethnographie und Linguistik</i> (Weimar, 1807) only reached a single number.</p> - -<p>The <i>Zeitschrift für physische Aerzte</i>, which was published by Nasse, at Leipzig, 1818-22, was succeeded -by the <i>Zeitschrift für die Anthropologie</i> (Leipzig, 1823-24), and this was followed by a single volume, <i>Jahrbücher -für Anthropologie</i> (Leipzig, 1830).</p> - -<p>Bran’s <i>Ethnographisches Archiv</i> was published at Jena from 1818 to 1829.</p> - -<p>It was not till after 1860 that the new interest began to manifest itself, though Fechner’s <i>Centralblatt für -Naturwissenschaften und Anthropologie</i> was published at Leipzig in 1853-54.</p> - -<p>Ecker’s <i>Archiv für Anthropologie</i> was published at Braunschweig in 1866-68, which came in 1870 under -the direction of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, which also began -a <i>Correspondenzblatt</i> in 1870, and a series, <i>Allgemeine Versammlung</i>, in 1873. This is the most important -of the German societies.</p> - -<p>Bastian’s <i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i> was begun at Berlin in 1869, and later added a <i>Supplement</i>.</p> - -<p>The Anthropologische Gesellschaft of Vienna began its <i>Mittheilungen</i> in 1870; and in 1887 the Prähistorische -Commission of the Kais. Akad. der Wissenschaften at Vienna printed the first number of its <i>Mittheilungen</i>.</p> - -<p>The <i>Verein für Anthropologie</i> in Leipzig published but a single number of a <i>Bericht</i> in 1871.</p> - -<p>The Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte continued its <i>Verhandlungen</i> -for 1871-72 only; and the Göttinger Anthropologischer Verein made but a bare beginning (1874) of its <i>Mittheilungen</i>.</p> - -<p>The <i>Bericht</i> of the Museum für Völkerkunde was begun in Leipzig in 1874.</p> - -<p>The Münchener Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte began the publication of -<i>Beiträge</i> in 1876.</p> - -<p>In all these publications there have been papers interesting to American archæologists, if only in a comparative -way, and at times American subjects have been frequent, especially in later years. The publications of -zoölogical and geographical societies have in some respects been at times of equal interest, but it has not -been thought worth while to enumerate them.<a name="FNanchor_1941_1941" id="FNanchor_1941_1941"></a><a href="#Footnote_1941_1941" class="fnanchor">[1941]</a></p> - -<p>The Königliche Museum at Berlin has a considerable collection of American antiquities, which has been -fostered by Humboldt and others, and the ethnological department has made some important publications like -those relating to <i>Amerika’s Nordwestküste</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1942_1942" id="FNanchor_1942_1942"></a><a href="#Footnote_1942_1942" class="fnanchor">[1942]</a></p> - -<p>Waitz in his <i>Anthropologie der Naturvölker</i> (vol. iii.; <i>Die Amerikaner</i>, Th. i., Leipzig, 1862) has enumerated -the literature of American anthropology upon which he depended.</p> - -<p class="p2">The interest in most of the other European countries is more remotely American. The Museum of Ethnography -at St. Petersburg is not without some objects of interest.<a name="FNanchor_1943_1943" id="FNanchor_1943_1943"></a><a href="#Footnote_1943_1943" class="fnanchor">[1943]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[444]</a></span></p> - -<p>In Sweden the Antropologiska Sällskapet of Stockholm began a <i>Tidsskrift</i> in 1875; but it affords little -assistance to the Americanist except in comparative study.<a name="FNanchor_1944_1944" id="FNanchor_1944_1944"></a><a href="#Footnote_1944_1944" class="fnanchor">[1944]</a></p> - -<p>The student will find some suggestions in a little tract by J. J. A. Worsaae, <i>De l’organisation des musées -historico-archéologiques dans le Nord et ailleurs. Traduit par E. Beauvois</i> (Copenhagen, 1885), which is -extracted from the <i>Mémoires de la société royale des antiquaires de Nord, 1885</i>.</p> - -<p>There has begun recently in Leyden an <i>Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie. Herausg. von Krist. -Bahnson, Guido Cora [etc.]</i> (Leiden, 1888).</p> - -<p>In Italy the <i>Archivio per l’Antropologia et la Etnologia</i> was begun at Florence in 1871, and was later -made the organ of the Società Italiana di Antropologia di Etnologia. There is an occasional paper in the -<i>Bollettino della Società Geografica Italiana</i>, published at Rome.</p> - -<p>In Spain the Sociedad Antropológica Española began at Madrid the publication of its <i>Revista de Antropologia</i> -in 1875.</p> - -<p>The session of the Congrès des Américanistes at Madrid in 1881 gave a new life in Spain to the study of -American archæology and history, and out of this impulse there was begun a <i>Biblioteca de los Americanistas, -publícala D. Justo Zaragoza; Editor D. Luis Navarro</i>; and the series has been begun with the <i>Recordacion -florida, discurso del reino de Guatemala</i>, an hitherto unpublished work (1690) of Francisco Antonio de -Fuentes y Guzmán, edited by Justo Zaragoza; and with the <i>Historia de Venezuela</i>, being a third edition of the -work of José de Oviedo y Baños, edited by C. F. Duro.</p> - -<p>The Museo Nacional in Mexico has grown to have a proper importance,<a name="FNanchor_1945_1945" id="FNanchor_1945_1945"></a><a href="#Footnote_1945_1945" class="fnanchor">[1945]</a> since the Mexican government has -prevented the further exportation of archæological relics. It was founded in 1824 by Fathers Icaza and -Gondra, but it owes its creation largely to the skill of Professor Gumesindo Mendoza, its curator, by whose -death it lost much.<a name="FNanchor_1946_1946" id="FNanchor_1946_1946"></a><a href="#Footnote_1946_1946" class="fnanchor">[1946]</a> There is a tendency to draw to it other collections. There was a beginning made to -publish illustrations of the relics in the museum sixty years ago, but it came to little,<a name="FNanchor_1947_1947" id="FNanchor_1947_1947"></a><a href="#Footnote_1947_1947" class="fnanchor">[1947]</a> and it was not until -recently the publication of <i>Anales del Museo Nacional de Méjico</i> was begun that there seemed to be a -proper effort made. The periodicals <i>Revista Mexicana</i> (1835), and <i>Museo Mexicano</i> (1843-45) have done -something to illustrate the subject,—not to name others of less importance. The principal periodical source -farther south, the <i>Registro Yucatéco</i>, only ran to four volumes, published at Merida in 1845-46.</p> - -<p>The most conspicuous archæological repository in South America is that of the National Museum at Rio de -Janeiro, whose published <i>Mémoires</i> contain important contributions to Brazilian Archæology.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>⁂ <i>The editor must be understood as approaching the purely archæological side of the study of Aboriginal -America, as a student of the literature pertaining to it, rather than as a critic of phenomena. He has not -proceeded even in this course without consultation with Professors Putnam, Haynes, and Brinton, with -Mr. Lucien Carr and with Señor Icazbalceta.</i></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[445]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="p4">INDEX.</h2> - -<hr class="d4" /> - -<p class="reduct">[Reference is commonly made but once to a book, if repeatedly mentioned in the text; but other references are -made when additional information about the book is conveyed.]</p> - -<hr class="d4" /> - -<p class="pni"><span class="smcap">Aa</span>, <span class="smcap">Van der</span>, <i>Voyagien</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Abancay, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Abbot, C. C., associates the rude implements of Trenton with Eskimos, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his discoveries in the Delaware gravels considered, <a href="#Page_330">330</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Implements in the river-drift at Trenton</i>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Supposed palæolithic implements from the valley of the Delaware</i>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the pre-Indian race, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">importance of his discoveries, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the tertiary man, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">researches in the Trenton gravels, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">finds a molar tooth, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">and a human jaw, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiq. of Man in the Delaware Valley</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Evidences of the Antiq. of Man</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on archæological frauds, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Primitive Industry</i>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Atlantic coast pottery, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Abbott, <i>Brief Description</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Abelin, J. P., <i>Theatrum Europeum</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Gottfried_J_L">Gottfried, J. L.</a></p> - -<p class="pni">Abenaki, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Abert, J. W., <i>Examination of New Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Acagchemem, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Acaltecs, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Achilles Tatius, <i>Isagoge</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Acolhua, forms a confederacy, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Acolhuacan conquered, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Acoma, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Acora, burial-tower at, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">cut, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Acosta, José de, in De Bry, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>East and West Indies</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Historia</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">corresponds with Tobar, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Peru, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Concilium Limense</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Nueva Granada</i>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Adair, Jas., <i>Amer. Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the lost tribes, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the mounds, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Adam, Lucien, on Fousang, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">opposes Irish connection with Mexico, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Eskimo language, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Quichua, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">criticises Horatio Hale, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">edits the Taensa grammar, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Le Taensa</i>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Etudes sur six langues</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Lengua Chiquita</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Examen grammatical</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Adam of Bremen on Vinland, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hist. Eccles.</i>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Adam, a race earlier than, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Adams, Davenport, <i>Beneath the Surface</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Adelung, J. C., xxxv, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Adhémer, <i>Rev. de la Mer</i>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Aelian, <i>Varia Historia</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Aeneas Silvius, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Æschylus, <i>Prometheus Bound</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Africa" id="Africa">Africa</a>, ancient views of its extension south of the equator, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">circumnavigated, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">migrations from, to America, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its people in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Agassiz, Alex., <i>Cruises of the Blake</i>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Agassiz, Louis, on the autochthonous American man, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his views attacked, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the earliest land above water, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Geol. Sketches</i>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Agatharcides, <i>Geography</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Agnese map (1554), <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Agnew, S. A., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Agriculture in pre-Spanish America, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Peru, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ahuitzotl, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Alabama, shell-heaps, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Alaguilac language, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Alaska, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">caves, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Indians, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Albany, treaty at (1674), <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">(1684), <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Albinus, P., <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Albornoz, J. de, <i>Lengua Chiapaneca</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Albyn, Cornelis, <i>Nieuwe Weerelt</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxv">xxv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Alcavisa, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Alcedo, Ant. de, <i>Bibl. Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_mii">ii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Alcobasa, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Aleutian islands, as a route from Asia, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">caves, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">shell-heaps, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Alexander, C. A., on the Royal Society, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Algonquins, trace of the Northmen among, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">hero-gods, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">legends of, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Allan, John, his library, <a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Allard, Latour, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Allday, Jacob, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Allen, Chas., <i>Stockbridge Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Allen, Edw. G., <a href="#Page_miv">iv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Allen, F. A., <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Polynesian Antiq.</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Allen, Harrison, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Allen, Joel A., <i>Works on the orders of Cete, etc.</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Allen, Zachariah, <i>Condition of Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Allibone, S. A., xii.</p> - -<p class="pni">Alligator mound, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Allouez, reference to copper mines, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Alloys of metals, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Almaraz, R., <i>Memoria</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Alpacas, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Alsop, Richard, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Alzate y Ramirez, J. A., <i>Xochicalco</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Amaquemecan, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Amat de San Filippo, Pietro, <i>Planisferio del 1436</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Amautas, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Amegluno, F., <i>La Antigüedad del Hombre en la Plata</i>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">America, early descriptions of, <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">early voyages to, <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">how far known to the ancients, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">held to be Atlantis, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">to be the land of Meropes, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">men supposed to reach Europe from, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">early references to, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Egyptian visits, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Phœnician, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Tyrian, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Carthaginian, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Asiatic connection, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Basques in, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">early visits by drifting vessels, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">voyage to Fousang, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">maps of routes from Asia, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by the Polynesian islands, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">state of culture reached in, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">origin of man in, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">climate, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">autochthonous man in, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">held to be, later than Europe, the home of man, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">stone age in, references, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ethnological maps, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">connections with Asia, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">earliest land above water, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">geological connection with Europe, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog. of its aboriginal aspects, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">comprehensive treatises on the antiquities, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">arts in, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="#Asia">Asia</a>, <a href="#Chinese">Chinese</a>, - <a href="#Jews">Jews</a>, <a href="#Madoc">Madoc</a>, <a href="#Man">Man</a>, <a href="#Northmen">Northmen</a>, - <a href="#Phoenicians">Phœnician</a>, <a href="#Scythian">Scythian</a>, <a href="#Tartar">Tartar</a>, <a href="#Zeni">Zeni</a>, <a href="#Vinland">Vinland</a>, etc.</p> - -<p class="pni">American Academy of Arts and Sciences, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">American Antiq. Soc. Catal., <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">founded, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Archæologia Americana</i>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>American Anthropologist</i>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>American Antiquarian</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">American Association for the Advancement of Science, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">would protect antiquities, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">American Ethnological Society, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its publications, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">American Folk-Lore Society, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>American Gazetteer</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">American Geographical Society, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">American Historical Association, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>American Journal of Archæology</i>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i><a name="American_Journal" id="American_Journal">American Journal</a> of Science and Arts</i>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>American Naturalist</i>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">American Philosophical Society, their publications, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>American Traveller</i> (1743), <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Americana, <a href="#Page_mi">i</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliographies, <a href="#Page_mi">i</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dealers in,<a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Americanism, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ammianus Marcellinus, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ampère, <i>Promenade en Amérique</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Anahuac" id="Anahuac">Anáhuac</a>, history of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map of, in Clavigero, in facs., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its limits, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[446]</a></span></p><p class="pni">Anaxagoras, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Anchorena, J. D., on the Quichua grammar, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ancients, their knowledge of America, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ancon, burials at, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">cut of mummy, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">of cloth, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ancona, Eligio, <i>Yucatan</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ande, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Anderson, Rasmus B., translates Horn’s <i>Lit. Scandin. North</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>America not discovered by Columbus</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Anderson, Winslow, on human bodies found in California, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Andrade, J. M., <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Catalogue</i>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Andree, Richard, <i>Ethnog. Parallelen</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Andrews, Edmund B., on geological evidence from the great lakes, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Ohio mounds, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Angliara, Johan von, <a href="#Page_mxxi">xxi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Angrand, L., on Waldeck, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les Antiquités de Tiaguanaco</i>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Anguilla island, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Animal mounds, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Animals, domestic, hardly known in pre-Spanish America, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Animas River, ruins, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Annales maritimos</i>, <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Annales Archéologiques</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Annals of Science</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Antarctic continent, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Anthropologia</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Anthropological Institute of Great Britain, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Journal</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Anthropological Institute of New York, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Anthropological Review</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Anthropological Society of Washington, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Anthropology and its method, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">hist. of, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Antichthones, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Antilles, remnants of Atlantis, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Antillia">Antillia</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Antillia" id="Antillia">Antillia</a>, island, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog. 48;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Bianco and Pizigani maps, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Antipodes, ancient views of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Antiquarisk Tidsskrift</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Antiquity of man. <i>See</i> Man.</p> - -<p class="pni">Antisell, Thos., <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Antonio, Nic., <i>Bibl. Hispaña nova</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Apaches, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Apalaches, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Apes, Wm., <i>Kingdom of Christ</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Son of the Forest</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Apianus’s map, xxi.</p> - -<p class="pni">Apollonius Rhodius, <i>Argonautica</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Apponyi, <i>Libraries of San Francisco</i>, <a href="#Page_mxviii">xviii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Aprositos, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arabian geographers, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arabic maps, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arabs, their knowledge of the Atlantic islands, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arana, D. B., <i>Notas</i>, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arana, <i>Bibliog. de obras anon.</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxiv">xxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Aratus, <i>Phaenomena</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Araucanians, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arcelin, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Archæological Institute of America, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Archæological Review</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Archer-Hind, Ed. Plato’s <i>Timæus</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Archimedes, his globe, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Architecture of Middle America, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Peru, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Archiv für Ethnographie</i>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Archivo des Açores</i>, <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Archivio per l’Anthropologia</i>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arctic peoples. <i>See</i> <a href="#Eskimos">Eskimos</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arequipa, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Argillite, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">spear-points, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">commonness of the mineral, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Argonauts, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Argyle, Duke of, <i>Primeval Man</i>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arica, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arickarees, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Aristotle on the form of the earth, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Meteorologia</i>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>De Mirab. Auscultationibus</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Atlantic, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his scientific treatises, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his influence in the West, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arizona, caves in, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ruins in, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Armin, <i>Heutige Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Armstrong, Col., <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Army Medical Museum, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arnold, Gov., his stone windmill at Newport, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arrawak, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arriaga, José de, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>La Idolatria del Peru</i>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arrow-heads, art of making, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arroyo de la Cuesta, F., <i>Mutsun language</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Artaun, S. de, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arthur, King, in Iceland, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arthur von Dartzig, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hist. Ind. orient.</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arts in America, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Arundel de Wardour, Lord, <i>Plato’s Atlantis</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Asguaws, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Asher, David, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ashtabula Co., Ohio, mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Asia" id="Asia">Asia</a>, emigration to America, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">similarity of flora, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">of physical appearance of peoples, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">migration to Fousang, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">maps of routes to America, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">supported by Humboldt, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">testimony of jade, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ancient views of its east coast, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Fousang">Fousang</a>, <a href="#Mongols">Mongols</a>, etc.</p> - -<p class="pni">Aspinwall, Thomas, his library, <a href="#Page_miv">iv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">burned, <a href="#Page_miv">iv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sold to S. L. M. Barlow, <a href="#Page_miv">iv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Assarigoa, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Astley, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Astor Library, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Astrolabe, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Astronomy among the Mexicans, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Atahualpa, his portrait, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his palace, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">meets Pizarro, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Atenco, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Atenco de Linia</i>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Athenæ Rauricæ</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxvi">xxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Atlantic islands, ancient names attached to, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">remnants of Atlantis, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">fabulous ones, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in maps, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">known to the Arabs, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></p> -<p class="pnii">as mapped by Gaffarel (<i>fac-simile</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Atlantic Ocean, contour of its bottom, map, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">depth of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its plateaus, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dreaded by the ancients, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">myths of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">soundings in, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Toscanelli’s ideas of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">early maps of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Arabs on, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Atlantis, story of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Plato, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">interpretations of it, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">held to be America, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">maps of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">merely a literary ornament, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">interest in it on the revival of learning, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">history of the belief, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">various identifications, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the Atlantic islands remnants, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Gaffarel’s map of the remnants, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Dawson’s views, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Atonaltzin, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Attu, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Atwater, Caleb, <i>Indians of the N. W.</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the shell-heaps of the Muskingum, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiquities in the State of Ohio</i>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Writings</i>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Tour to Prairie du Chien</i>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Aubin, his acc. of Boturini’s collection of MSS., <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">purchases what was left of it, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">aids in establishing the Soc. Américaine de France, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">describes his own collection, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">list of his MSS., <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mém. sur la peinture didactique</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Examen des anc. peintures fig. de l’anc. Méxique</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>La langue Méxicaine</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Aughey, Samuel, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Autochthonous theory, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>. <i>See</i> <a href="#Man">Man</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Avallon, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Avendaño, F. de, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Avendaño, H. de, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Idolatrios de los Indios</i>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Avienus, <i>Ora maritima</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Descriptio orbis terræ</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Avila, F. de, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his Indian mythology as translated by Markham, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his chapter on the Quichua, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Aviles, Estavan, <i>Guatemala</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Axapusco, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Axayacatl, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Axelsen, Otto, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Axon, W. E. A., on Trübner, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Aymara Indians, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">language, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Aymé, L. H., on Mitla, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Azangaro, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Azatlan, Fort, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Azcapuzalco, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Azores, known to the Arabs, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the early maps, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">statue in, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Aztecs" id="Aztecs">Aztecs</a>, origin of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">traces of their tongue in the north, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their migration maps, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their cradle in the north, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in the south, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">arrive in Mexico, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Ranking’s map of their dominion, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">divided into Mexicans and Tlatelulcas, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">confederation formed, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">laws and institutions, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mappe Tlotzin</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their profiles, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the curve of the nose helped by an ornament, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their military dress, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">picture-writing, <a href="#Page_197">197</a> (<i>see</i> <a href="#Hieroglyphics">Hieroglyphics</a>);</p> -<p class="pnii">Aubin’s studies of it, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their books described, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their paper, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">music of, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">language, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">hero-gods, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">alleged monotheism, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mythology, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">prayers, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">priesthood and festivals, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sacred buildings, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">goddess of war, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Mexico">Mexico</a>, <a href="#Nahuas">Nahua</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Aztlan, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">a myth, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its situation, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in the south, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Babbitt</span>, <span class="smcap">Miss F. E.</span>, <i>Ancient Quartz Workers</i>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Glacial Man in Minnesota</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Babel, dispersion of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bachiller y Morales, on the Northmen, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bachman, John, <i>Unity of the Human Race</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Backer, Louis de, <i>Saint Brandan</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Misc. Bibliog.</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Backofen, J. J., <i>Mutterrecht</i>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bacqueville de la Potherie, <i>Hist. de l’Amérique</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Baffin Land, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Baguet, M. A., <i>Races prim. des deux Amériques</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bahnson, K., <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Baily, John, <i>Cent. America</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Guatemala</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Baird, S. F., on shell-heaps, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bake, J., <i>Posidonii reliquiæ</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Balboa, M. C., <i>Miscellanea Austral.</i>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Baldwin, Cornelius, on burial cists, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Baldwin, C. C., <a href="#Page_399">399</a>; on the moundbuilders, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Relics of Moundbuilders</i>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Baldwin, E., <i>La Salle County, Ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Baldwin, John D., <i>Anc. America</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ballesteros, <i>Ordenanzas del Peru</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Baltic Sea, early maps, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Baltimore, libraries, <a href="#Page_mxviii">xviii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bamps, <i>L’homme blanc</i>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bancarel, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bancroft, Geo., his library, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Northmen, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his map of Indian tribes, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">believes in the unity of the race, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bancroft, H. H., aids to bibliog. of Indian languages, <a href="#Page_mxvii">vii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">buys the Squier MSS., <a href="#Page_mviii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[447]</a></span></p><p class="pnii">his library, <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_mix">ix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his <i>Native Races</i>, viii, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his lists and foot-note references, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Literary Undertakings</i>, <a href="#Page_mviii">viii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Works</i>, <a href="#Page_mviii">viii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his <i>Central America</i>, <a href="#Page_mix">ix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Early American Chroniclers</i>, <a href="#Page_mix">ix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">criticised, <a href="#Page_mix">ix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Essays and Miscellanies</i>, <a href="#Page_mix">ix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hist. of the Pacific States</i>, <a href="#Page_mix">ix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hist. of California</i>, <a href="#Page_mix">ix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Mexican history, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Sahagún, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Clavigero, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Maya history, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">condenses the <i>Popul Vuh</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the anc. Mexican magnificence, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on their warfare, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">attacks Morgan, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his estimate of Prescott, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the moundbuilders, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the general sources of aboriginal America, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his opinions, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the aboriginal arts, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on American myths, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bandelier, A. F., on early Mexican chronology, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Toltecs, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Aztec arrival, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Mexican confederacy, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Torquemada, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Ixtlilxochitl, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">promises an ed. of the <i>Codex Chimalpopoca</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">On the <i>Popul Vuh</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Sources of the Aborig. History of Spanish America</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Warfare of the Ancient Mexicans</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Tenure of lands</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mode of government</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Archæological Tour in Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Mexican civilization, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Morgan’s pupil, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his papers on Mexican life, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">admiration for Morgan, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on calendars, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Studies about Cholula</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Archæolog. Notes on Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Mitla, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Mexican paintings, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Pueblo ruins, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Sedentary Indians of New Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ruins of Pecos</i>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his use of sources, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bibliog. of Yucatan and Cent. America</i>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on American Monotheism, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Quetzalcoatl, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his labors in Mexico, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Baradère, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Barber, <i>Hist. Coll. Mass.</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Barber, E. A., <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les anciens pueblos</i>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Barcia, annotates Garcia, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bardsen, Ivan, his sailing directions, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Barentz, voyage, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Baring-Gould, Sabine, <i>Iceland</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Barlow, S. L. M., his library, <a href="#Page_miv">iv</a>, <a href="#Page_mxviii">xviii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Rough List</i>, <a href="#Page_miv">iv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bibl. Barlowiana</i>, <a href="#Page_mv">v</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Barnard, M. R., <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Barranca, J. S., <i>Ollanta</i>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Barrandt, A., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Barrientos, Luis, <i>Doct. Cristiana</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Barrow, John, <i>Voyages into the Polar Regions</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Barry, Wm., <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Barter, <i>See</i> <a href="#Trade">Trade</a>, <a href="#Traffic">Traffic</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bartlett, John R., edits the Murphy Catalogue, <a href="#Page_mx">x</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the Carter-Brown Catalogues, <a href="#Page_mxii">xii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bibliog. Notices</i>, <a href="#Page_mxii">xii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">drawing of Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Personal Narrative</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on rock inscriptions, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bartlett, S. C., on Dartmouth College, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bartoli, <i>Essai sur l’Atlantide</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Barton, Benj. Smith, <i>New Views</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Madoc voyage, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his linguistic studies, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the location of Indian tribes, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his career, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Amer. Antiq.</i>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Observations</i>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">thought the mounds built by the Toltecs, the descendants of the Danes, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Ohio mounds, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on affinities of Indian words, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bartram, John, <i>Travels</i>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bartram, Wm., <i>Travels</i>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Basadre, Modesto, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Riquezas Peruanas</i>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Tiahuanacu, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Basalenque, <i>San Augustin de Mechoacan</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Basques in America, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their language, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bassett, F. S., <i>Legends of the Sea</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bastian, Adolf, on Yucatan, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Geschichte des Alten Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Stein Sculpturen aus Guatemala</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Der Mensch in der Geschichte</i>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ein Jahr auf Reisen</i>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the religion of Peru, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Culturländer</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bates, H. W., <i>Ethnog. of America</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Cent. Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Baylies, Francis, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Beach, W. W., <i>Indian Miscellany</i>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Beamish, N. L., <i>Disc. of Amer. by the Northmen</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bear Mound, in Kentucky, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Beatty, Chas., <i>Tour in America</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the lost tribes, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Beauchamp, A. de, <i>Conquête du Pérou</i>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Beauchamp, W. W., <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Beaufoy, M., <i>Mex. Illustrations</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Beaumes Chaudes caves, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Beauvois, Eugène, <i>L’Elysée transatlantique</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>L’Eden</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on St. Malo’s voyage, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Irish discovery of America, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Markland et Escociland</i>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les relations des Gaels avec le Méxique</i>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ancien Evêché du Nouveau Découvertes des Scandinaves</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les derniers Vestiges du Christianisme dans le Markland</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les Colonies Européennes du Markland</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les Skrælings</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Beccario, his map, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Becher, H. C. R., <i>Trip to Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Becker, J. H., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Migrations des Nahuas</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Beckwith, H. W., <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Becmann, I. C.,<i> Hist. Orbis terrarum</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bede, <i>De Natura Rerum</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Beéche, G., his books, xiii.</p> - -<p class="pni">Behaim on the Seven Cities (island), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">globe (1492), <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Behring’s Straits, route by, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in quaternary times, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">once land, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Behrnauer, W., <i>Commerce dans l’ancien Méxique</i>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Belknap, Jeremy, on the Norse voyages, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bell, A. W., <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bell, J. S., <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bellegarde, Abbé, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Belt, Th., <i>Stone implements</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Beltran de Santa Rosa, P., <i>Idioma Maya</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Beltrami, J. C., <i>Pilgrimage</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Beloit, Wisc., mounds, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Belt, Thos., on the Trenton gravels, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">finds a skull in Colorado, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bembo, Cardinal, his history of Venice, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Benasconi, A., on Palenqué, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Benavides, Alonso, <i>Memorial</i>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bendyshe, T., <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Benes, J. B., <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Benincasa, Andreas, his map (1476), cut, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">other maps, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bennet and Wijk, <i>Nederl. Ontdekkingen</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvii">xxxvii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Zeereizen</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvii">xxxvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Benzoni, <i>New World</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">printed with Martyr, <a href="#Page_mxxiii">xxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Beothuks, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Berenger, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Berendt, C. H., his Maya collection bought by Brinton, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">memoir by Brinton, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Guatemala docs., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Centres of Anc. Civilization</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">notes on Central America, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his books, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his linguistic studies, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Analytical Alphabet</i>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his papers, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">memoir by Brinton, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Maya tongue, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ancient Civilizations in Cent. America</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bergen, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Berger, H., <i>Fragmente des Hipparchus</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>des Eratosthenes</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Gesch. der Wiss. Erdkunde</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Geographie</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Beristain de Souza, <i>Bibl. Hisp.-Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_mii">ii</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Berlin, A. F., <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Berlin, Akad. der Wissenschaft, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Königliche Museum, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Berlin tablet, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Berlioux, E. F., <i>Les Atlantes</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bernard, <i>Voiages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bernhardy, G., <i>Eratosthenica</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Berniggerus, <i>Questiones</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bernoulli, Dr., <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Berthelot, <i>Antiq. Canariennes</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Berthoud, E. L., <a href="#Page_397">397</a>; <i>Natchez Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on human relics in Wyoming, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Creek Valley, Colorado</i>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bertonio, L., his Aymara grammar, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bertran, Giacomo, map, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bertrand, <i>Mémoires</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Betanzos, J. J. de, <i>Doctrina</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Suma y Narracion de los Incas</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Betoner, Wm. (of Worcester), <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Beughem, C., <i>Bibl. Hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_mi">i</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bianco, Andreas, his map (1436), <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">cut of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">(1448), <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Carta Nautica, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">assists Fra Mauro, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Biart, Lucien, <i>Les Aztéques</i>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>The Aztecs</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bibliographies, Americana, <a href="#Page_mi">i</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Livres payés 1,000 francs et an dessus</i>, <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Biblioteca de los Americanistas</i>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Bibliothèque linguistique Amér.</i>, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Biddle, <i>Sebastian Cabot</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">believed the Zeni story a fraud, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Big Bone Lick, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bigelow, A., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bigelow, <i>Natick</i>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bigmore, <i>Bibliog. of Printing</i>, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Billaine, <i>Recueil de divers Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bimini island, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Birch, <i>Robt. Boyle</i>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Birchrod on Atlantis, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bird mounds, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Biscayans in America, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bjarni Asbrandson, his voyage, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Blackamoors found in Central America, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Blackett, W. S., <i>Lost Histories of America</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Blackmore collections, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Blade, J. F., <i>L’Origine des Basques</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Blake, C. C., on Peruvian skulls, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Blake, John H., his Peruvian collection, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Blenheim Library, <a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Blome, <i>Jamaica</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Blondel, S., <i>Recherches</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Boas, Franz, on the Eskimos, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his papers, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Boban, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bodfish, J. P., on the Northmen voyages, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bodleian Library, <i>Codex Mendoza</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Boehmer, Geo. H., <i>Index to Anthropol. Articles</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bohn, H. G., <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bolivia, map, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bollaert, Wm., on the Mexican calendars, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Amer. palæography, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Cent. Amer. hieroglyphics</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiq. Researches</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anc. Peruvian graphic records</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Incas, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Tiahuanacu, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anthropol. of the New World</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his publications, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bollandists, <i>Acta Sanctorum</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Boncourt, F., <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bone-workers, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bonneville, C. de, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Boon, E. P., his library, <a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bordone, B., his map of the Atlantic islands (1547), <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[448]</a></span></p><p class="pnii">map of Scandinavia, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">had access to the Zeno map, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Borgia, Cardinal, his museum, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bory de St. Vincent, J. B.,<i> Les Isles Fortunées</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Boscana, G., <i>Chinigchinich</i>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bossange, Hector, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Boston, private libraries, <a href="#Page_mx">x</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Public Library, its catalogues, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">as centre of study in American history, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its libraries, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Boston Athenæum, its catal., <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Boston Society of Natural History, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Botanical arguments for the connection of Asia and America, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Boturini, Beneduci, books on Indian tongues, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his collections in Mexican history, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its vicissitudes, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">described by Aubin, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Idea de una nueva Hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">facs. of title, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portraits, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his catalogue, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his collection suffers in government hands, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">contentions over it, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Boucher de Perthes, his discoveries, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiq. Celtiques</i>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>De l’homme antédiluvien</i>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bibl. Univ.</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Boucher de la Richarderie, <i>Bibl. Univ. des Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mii">ii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Boudinot, Elias, <i>Star in the West</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Boué, A., on the floras of the earth, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bouquet, Col., secures captives from the Indians, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bourgeois, Abbé, on tertiary man, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bourke, J. G., <i>Snake Dance</i>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bourne, Wm., <i>Treasure for Travellers</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bovallius, K., <i>Nicaraguan Antiq.</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bowen, B. F., <i>America discovered by the Welsh</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Boyle, Fred., <i>Ride across a Continent</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bracir (island). <i>See</i> <a href="#Brazil">Brazil</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Braddock, Gen., his march, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bradford, A. W., <i>Amer. Antiq.</i>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brahm, Ger. de, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brainerd, David, his <i>Life</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bran, <i>Ethnographisches Archiv</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bransford, J. F., <i>Antiq. at Pantaleon</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brasseur de Bourbourg, Abbé, his aids in linguistics, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his writings and career, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Coll. de docs. dans les langues Amér.</i>, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his library, <a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Egyptian traces in America, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Atlantis theory, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Fousang, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Northmen and their traces, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on scattered traces of the Jews, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Votan myth, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Chichimecs, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Nahua migrations, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his easy credence, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">begins Mexican hist. at <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> 955, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Sahagún, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Lettres au duc de Valmy</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Toltecs, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Nations civilisées du Méxique</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">chief sources of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">uses the <i>Codex Chimalpopoca</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the <i>Codex Gondra</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">describes Aubin’s collection, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his own collection, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">edits <i>Landa’s Relation</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mission scientifique au Méxique</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Yucatan history, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">edits the <i>Popul Vuh</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Dissert. sur les mythes de l’Antiq. Amér.</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his theory of cataclysms, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">a Quiché MS., <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">translates <i>Mem. Tecpan-Atitlan</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Oajaca, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Fuentes y Guzman, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hist. du Canada</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Mexico, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Esquisses l’histoire</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ruines de Mayapan</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Lettres pour servir l’introduction a l’histoire du Méxique</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">helped by Aubin, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">search for MSS., <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Quatre Lettres</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his <i>MS. Troano</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Chronol. hist. des Méxicains</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the ruins of Yucatan, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">at Uxmal, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">furnishes a text to Waldeck’s <i>Monuments Anc. du Méxique</i>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ruines de Palenqué</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Lettre à Léon de Rosny</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Landa’s alphabet explained, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">futile attempts at interpreting the hieroglyphics, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the <i>Codex Telleriano-Remensis</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Système graphique des Mayas</i>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Dict. de la Langue Maya</i>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his <i>Rapport</i> on the MS. Troano, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the <i>Codex Perezianus</i>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the moundbuilders, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bibl. Mex.-Guat.</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Mexican philology, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">finds Greek roots, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>La lengua Quiché</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Brazil" id="Brazil">Brazil</a> (country), rock inscriptions, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brazil (island), <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">origin of name, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on recent maps, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Bianco and Pizigani maps, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brébœuf, the best observer of Indian traits, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Breckenridge, H. H., on Indian populations, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Breckenridge, <i>Louisiana</i>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bredsdorff, T. H., on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Breed, E. E., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brenden. <i>See</i> <a href="#St_Brandan">St. Brandan</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brenner, Oskar, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Grönland</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his map of Olaus Magnus, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Die ächte Karte des O. Magnus</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brerewood, E., <i>Enquiries</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bretschneider, E., <i>Fusang</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bretton, Baron de, <i>Origines des peuples de l’Amérique</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Breusing, <i>Nautik der Alten</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brevoort, James C., his likeness, <a href="#Page_mx">x</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his library, x, <a href="#Page_mxviii">xviii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">supt. of Astor Library, <a href="#Page_mx">x</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Leclerc’s <i>Bib. Am.</i>, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Briganti, A., <a href="#Page_mxxix">xxix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brigham, W. T., <i>Guatemala</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brine, Lindesay, <i>Ruined Cities of Cent. Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brinley, Geo., his library, <a href="#Page_mxii">xii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brinton, D. G., <i>Abor. Amer. Authors</i>, vii, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Algonquin legends, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Aztlan, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">considers the Toltecs merely a dynasty, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Votanic Empire, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">owns Berendt’s collection, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Dr. Berendt, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Central American MSS., <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Books of Chilan Balam</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Chac-Xulub-Chen</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on editions of Landa, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the <i>Popul Vuh</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Names of the Gods in the Kiché myths</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Annals of the Cakchiquels</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the ethnology of the Cakchiquels, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Nicaraguan history, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Brasseur, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Landa’s alphabet, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anc. Phonetic Alphabet of Yucatan</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Graphic system of the Mayas</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Phonetic elements</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ikonomic method</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the <i>MS. Troano</i>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Peruvian myths and literature, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the effect of missions on the Indians, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">“Archæology corrects Geology”, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Theo. Waitz, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Nicaragua footprints, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Floridian Peninsula</i>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on shell heaps, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">opposes Carr’s views on the moundbuilders, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his own views, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Rev. of data for the study of prehist. Chronology</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Recent European Contributions</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Prehist. Archæology</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the use of mica, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Lineal measures of Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Language of the palæolithic man</i>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Polysyntheism of Amer. languages</i>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Amer. Aborig. languages</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Chronicles of the Mayas</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Gueguence</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the <i>Taensa Grammar</i>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Philos. Grammar of the Amer. languages</i>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Memoir of Berendt</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anc. Nahuatl Poetry</i>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Nahuatl language</i>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Cakchiquel language</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Xinca Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Alaguilac language</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Nicaragua tongues, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mangue dialect</i>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Lenape and their legends</i>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Nat. legend of the Chata-mus-ko-kee tribes</i>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Shawanees, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the mental capacity of the Indian, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Myths of the New World</i>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on sun-worship, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on phallic worship, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>American Hero-Myths</i>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on monotheism, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Religious sentiment</i>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Journey of the Soul</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Quetzalcoatl, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bristol, Eng., sends out expeditions westward, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Britain, the Island of the Blessed, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">British Assoc. for the Adv. of Science, <i>Reports</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">British Columbia mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>British Sailor’s Directory</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brixham cave, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Broadhead, G. C., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brocard, <i>Descriptio</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxi">xxi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brockhaus (Leipzig), <i>Bibl. Amér.</i>, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brocklehurst, T. U., <i>Mexico To-day</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brodbeck, J., <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bronze Age in America, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brooks, C. T., <i>Newport Mill</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brooks, Ch. W., on the emigrations to China, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Broughton, Richard, <i>Monasticon Brit.</i>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brown, Dewi, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brown, D., on Georgia shell heaps, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brown, G. S., <i>Yarmouth</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Brown_John_Carter" id="Brown_John_Carter">Brown, John Carter</a>, his library and its catalogues, <a href="#Page_mxii">xii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brown, J. Madison, on the ten lost tribes, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brown, Marie A., <i>Icelandic Discoverers</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brown, Nathan, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brown, Dr. Robt., on the Eskimos, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brown, Thomas J., <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Browne, J. M., <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Browne, J. Ross, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Apache Country</i>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bruff, J. G., on rock inscriptions, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brühl, Gustav, <i>Culturvölker</i>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brunet on De Bry, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brunn, <i>Bibl. Danica</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brunner, D. B., <i>Indians of Berks County</i>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brunson, Alfred, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bruyas, J., <i>Radices Verborum Iroquæorum</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bryce, Geo., on Manitoba mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Brynjalfson, G., on Scandin. polar explorations, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Buache, Philippe, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antillia</i>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map of the route to Fousang, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Sur Frisland</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Buchholtz, <i>Die Homerische Realien</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Büchner, L., <i>Der Mensch</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Man</i>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Buck, W. J., <i>Lappawinzo</i>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Buckland, Dr., <i>Reliq. Diluvianæ,</i> <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Buckland, Miss, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Buckle, <i>Hist. Civilization</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Buddhist priest in Fousang, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Buffon, <i>Epoques de la Nat.</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on stone implements, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on bones from the Big Bone Lick, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bull, Henry, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bull, Ole, and the statue of Leif Ericson, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bull, Mrs. Ole, on the Northmen, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Bulletin Archéologique Français</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bullock, Wm., collection of pottery, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bullock, W. H., <i>Six mos. in Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bumstead, Geo., <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[449]</a></span></p> - -<p class="pni">Bumstead, Jos. (Boston), <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bunbury, E. H., <i>Anc. Geog.</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Atlantis, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Burder, Geo., <i>Welsh Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bureau of Ethnology, <i>Reports</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Burge, Lorenzo, <i>Preglacial Man</i>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Burgoa, F. de, <i>Géog. Descripcion</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Burkart, J., <i>Reisen in Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Burke, L., <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Burke, J., at Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Burney, Jas., <i>Chron. History of Discovery</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Burns, C. R., <i>Missouri</i>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Burr, R. T., <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Burton, R. F., <i>Ultima Thule</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bus, land of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Buschmann, J. C. E., <i>Die Spuren der Aztekischen Sprache</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Die Lautveränderung Aztek. Wörter</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his linguistic studies, vii, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Die Aztekischen Ortsnamen</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Die Völker Neu-Mexicos</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bussière, Th. de, <i>Le Pérou</i>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Bustamante, C. M. de, edits Leon y Gama’s <i>Piedras</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mañanas de la Alameda</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Butler, Amos W., <i>Sacrificial Stone</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Butler, J. D., <i>Prehistoric Wisconsin</i>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on copper implements, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Copper Age in Wisconsin</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Butler County, Ohio, mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Butterfield, C. W., <a href="#Page_326">326</a>; on the mounds, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Buxton, <i>Migrations of the Ancient Mexicans</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Byles, Mather, <a href="#Page_mxxviii">xxviii</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Cabot</span>, <span class="smcap">John</span>, <a href="#Page_mxxviii">xxviii</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in De Bry, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bust of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cabot, J. Elliot, on the Northmen, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cabot, Sebastian, in Bristol, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cabrera, Felix, <i>Teatro Crit. Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cacama, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cæsar, Julius (Englishman), <a href="#Page_mxxiii">xxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cahokia mound, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Cakchiquels" id="Cakchiquels">Cakchiquels</a>, in Guatemala, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their geog. position, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their ethnog. relations, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their dialect, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Calancha, A. de la, <i>Coronica Moralizada</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hist. Peruanæ</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Calaveras skull, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">cut, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Calaveras County (Cal.) cave, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Calculiform characters, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Calderon, J. A., on Palenqué, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Calendar disks, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">stone of Mexico, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">California Acad. of Science, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">California, gold drift, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its Indians, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">an island in Sanson’s map, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">alleged tertiary relics, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the original home of the Nahuas, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">linguistic confusion in, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">pottery, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">shell heaps, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Callender, John, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Callières, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Camargo, D. M., <i>Tlaxcallan</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Campa, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Campanius on the Sagas, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Campbell, John, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Campbell, John, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the linguistic affiliations with Asia, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on traditions of Mexico and Peru, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Davenport tablet, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Camus, A. G., <i>De Bry</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Canaanites, ancestors of the Americans, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Canada, Indians, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their arts, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">library of Parliament, <a href="#Page_mxviii">xviii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Canadian Antiquarian</i>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Canadian Institute, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ann. Repts.</i>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Canadian Journal</i>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Canadian Monthly</i>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Canadian Naturalist</i>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Canaries" id="Canaries">Canaries</a>, called <i>Ins. Fortunæ</i>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">known to the Carthaginians, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> Fortunate Islands.</p> -<p class="pnii">Known to the Arabs, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">island seen from, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Noticias</i> by Viera y Clavijo, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in the Bianco map, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Sanuto’s map, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Pizigani’s map, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">relations with America, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> Guanches.</p> - -<p class="pni">Canas, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Candolle, De, <i>Géog. botanique</i>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Canepa map, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cañete, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Canfield, W. H., <i>Sauk County</i>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cannon, C. L., <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Canoes, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>; drifting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Canstadt, race of, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cantino map (1501-3), <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Canto, Ernesto do, <i>Archivo des Açores</i>, <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Os Corte-Reaes</i>, <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cape Cod, map of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ancient hearth on, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map of shell heaps, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cape Prince of Wales, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cape de Verde islands known to the ancients, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Capel, <i>Vorstellungen des Norden</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Capella, Marcianus, <i>De Nuptiis</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Caradoc, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cardiff giant a fraud, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Carelloy Ancona C., <i>La lengua Maya</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Carette, E., <i>Les temps antéhistoriques</i>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Carey, <i>Amer. Museum</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cari, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Caribs, origin of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">descendants of the Chichimecs, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Carignano map (xiv. cent.), <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Carleton, J. H., <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Carli, Count Carlo, <i>Briefe über Amerika</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">controverts DePauw, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Delle Lettere Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Carlson, F. F., <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Carolina, Indians of, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> North Carolina.</p> - -<p class="pni">Carolus, J., map of Greenland, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Carr, Lucien, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the position of Indian women, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Crania of No. Amer. Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the study of skulls, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Trenton implements, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mounds of the Mississippi Valley</i>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Virginia mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Carrasco, C., <i>Ollanta</i>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Carrenza, L., <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Carrera, F. de, <i>Yunca Grammar</i>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Carreri, G. F. G., <i>Giro del Mondo</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">attacked by Robertson and defended by Clavigero, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Carriedo, J. B., on Oajaca, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Los Palacios antiquos de Mitla</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Carrillo, Canon (now Bishop), Crescencio, his collection of MSS., <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Zumárraga, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Yucatan</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Geog. Maya</i>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>La langua Maya</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Carrington, Margaret J., <i>Absaraka</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cartailhac, E., <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>L’age de pierre</i>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Carter-Brown. <i>See</i> <a href="#Brown_John_Carter">Brown, J. C.</a></p> - -<p class="pni">Carver, Jona., on the mounds, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Carthaginian discoveries, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Casa Blanca, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Casa Grande of the Gila Valley, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Casas Grandes, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Caspari, Otto, <i>Urgeschichte der Menschheit</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Caspi, Marquis de, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cass, Lewis, on Heckewelder, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Casselius, <i>De nav. fortuitis in Americam</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cassell, J. P., <i>Observatio hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cassino, <i>Standard Nat. History</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Castaing, Alphonse, <i>Les fêtes dans l’antiq. peruvienne</i>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Système relig. dans l’antiq. peruvienne</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Castañeda, drawings of Palenqué, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Castell, <i>America</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Castelnau, F. de, <i>Expédition</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the antiquities of the Incas, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Castillo, G., <i>Dict. de Yucatan</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Castillo y Orozco, E., <i>Vocab. Paéz-Castellano</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cat, Edouard, <i>Découvertes Maritimes</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvii">xxxvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Catalan map (1375), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">cut, <a href="#Page_55">55</a> (xiv. cent.), <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">carta nautica (1487), <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Catcott, A., <i>Deluge</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Catecismo de la doctrina Cristiana</i> <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Catherwood, Frederick, <i>Anc. Mts. in Cent. Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Catlin, Geo., on the Welsh Indians, <a href="#Page_miii">iii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">finds analogies to Hebrew customs in the Indians, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Lifted and subsided rocks</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Life among the Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Last Rambles</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>North American Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his <i>Indian Gallery</i>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Illustrations of the Manners</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portraits, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map of the Indian tribes, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cauchis, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cavate dwellings, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cave-bear epoch, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cave man, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">held to be speechless, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">represented to-day by the Eskimos, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">drawings of, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cavendish, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in <i>De Bry</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in <i>Claesz</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Caves in America, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Caxamarca, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cayaron, <i>Chaumont</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Autobiographie</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Celedon, R., <i>Lengua gocejra</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cellarius, <i>Notit. orb. antiq.</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Céloron, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cenecu, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Central America, Scandinavians in, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map of, by Malte-Brun, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">notes on the ruins, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Yucatan">Yucatan</a>, <a href="#Guatemala">Guatemala</a>, <a href="#Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Central Ohio Scientific Assoc., <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Centralblatt für Bibliothekswesen</i>, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ceramic art. <i>See</i> <a href="#Pottery">Pottery</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chac-Mool, statue, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chaca, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ruins, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">described by Squier, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chaco Cañon, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chadbourne, P. A., on shell heaps, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chahta, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chalcedony, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chalco conquered, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Challenger ridge in the Atlantic, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chalmers, interpreting the geological record, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chama, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chamberlin, T. C., <i>Our glacial drift</i>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Champlain, his friendship with the Hurons, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chancas, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chanes, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Changos, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chapultepec, Aztecs at, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sculptured likeness on its cliff, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Charencey, H. de, <i>Mélanges</i>, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>La langue Basque</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mythe de Votan</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Djemschid et Quetzalcohuatl</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Myth d’Imos</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Civilisation du Méxique</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Maya hieroglyphics, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Fragment d’inscription palenquéens</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his linguistic studies, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mélanges</i>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Chrestomathie de la langue Maya</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Des mots en lengua Maya</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Le Déluge</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Charlevoix, <i>Nouv. France</i>, <a href="#Page_mii">ii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Amer. linguistics, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Charnay, Désiré, finds Buddhist traces in Mexico, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Toltecs, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Cités et Ruines Amér.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Le Méxique</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">papers in <i>No. Amer. Rev.</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in <i>Tour du Monde</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les Anc. Villes</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ancient Cities</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his route in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">at Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[450]</a></span></p><p class="pnii">at Palenqué, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Charton, Ed., <i>Voyageurs</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvii">xxxvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chase, A. W., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chata-mus-ko-kee tribes, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chatinos, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chautre, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chavanne, <i>Lit. Polar Regions</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chavero, A., <i>Sahagún</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>México á través de los Siglos</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Calendar Stone, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his old view of Mexico, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>La Piedra del Sol</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chaves, Francisco de, in Peru, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chekilli, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chellean period, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chelly, Cañon, cliff-houses, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cheney, T. A., <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chenooks, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Chinook">Chinook</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cherbonneau on Arab geographers, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cherokees, Timberlake on, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Enquiry into the origin</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">held to be moundbuilders, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">council-house, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sources of their history, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their case with Georgia, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cherry, P. P., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chert, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chesapeake Bay, shell heaps, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chevalier, Michel, <i>Du Méxique avant et pendant la Conquête</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Le Méxique</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chiapaneca language, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chiapas, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">MS. concerning, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sources of its history, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ruins in, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chibchas, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their language, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">origin of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">position of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chicama, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chi-Chen, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Chichimecs" id="Chichimecs">Chichimecs</a>, barbarians or a tribe, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">etymology, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Mexico, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">invade Anáhuac, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their stock, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">adopt the Nahua tongue, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">form alliances, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">authorities, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">anc. MS. on, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">MS. annals, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">genealogy of their chiefs, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their language, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">position of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Charnay at, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Le Plongeon at, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">accounts of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ornaments, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">statue of Chac-Mool, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">wall paintings, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">hieroglyphics at, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chiclayo, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chicomoztoc, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chil, Dr., on Atlantis, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chilca, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chillicothe, map, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chimalpain, Domingo, notes on Mexican history, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chimalpain, A. M., <i>Crónica Méx.</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chimborazo, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chimus, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">burial habits, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">character of the people, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chinantecs, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chinchas, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Chinese" id="Chinese">Chinese</a> emigration, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Peru, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Fousang">Fousang</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Chinese Recorder</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Chinook" id="Chinook">Chinook</a> jargon and language, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chippewas, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chiquimala, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chiquita language, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Christianity introduced into Greenland, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Christy collection, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chocope, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cholula, temple built by the Olmecs, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">a shrine, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">views, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">account of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">when built, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dimensions, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">arms of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">restorations, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">early mentions, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">maps, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">communal house at, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chontales, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chucuito, ruins at, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chumeto language, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chun-kal-cin, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Chuquisaca, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Churchhill’s <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cibola, seven cities of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">held to be Fousang, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cicero, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Tusculan Disputations</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Respublica</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on geog. questions, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dream of Scipio, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cicogna, <i>Bibl. Veneziana</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxix">xxix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cicuye (Pecos), <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cieza de Leon, P., as an authority on anc. Peruvian history, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cimmerians, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cincinnati, Nat. Hist. Soc., <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cincinnati tablet, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">cut, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Circleville, Ohio, mounds, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cisneros, Garcia de, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cisternay du Fay, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ciudad Rodrigo, A. de, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Civilization of the ancient nations of middle America, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Claesz, C., coll. of voyages, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Clallam language, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Clark, Gen. J. S., map of the Iroquois country, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Clark, J. V. H., <i>Onondaga</i>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Clark, W. P., <i>Indian Sign-language</i>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Clarke, Hyde, <i>Legend of Atlantis</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Khita-Peruvian Epoch</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Researches</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Clarke, P. D., <i>Wyandotts</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Clarke, Robt., his book-lists, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Cincinnati tablet, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Clarke County, Ohio, mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Claus, C., <i>Den Grölandske Chronica</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Clavigero, <i>Storia del Messico</i>, <a href="#Page_mii">ii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his beginning of Mexican hist., <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the sources of Mexican history, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">describes the material, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">belittled by Robertson, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his bibliog., <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Clavus, Claudius, his map, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">facs., <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Clay, moulding in, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">masks of, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Claymont, Del., deposits, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cleomedes, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cleomedes, <i>De sublimibus circulis</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Clermont, college of, <a href="#Page_mii">ii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cliff-dwellers’ pottery, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their houses, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Climate, influence on man, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">theories of changes in, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Clint, Wm., <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Clinton, De Witt, on the Northmen remains, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on mounds, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiq. of Western N. Y.</i>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Clodd, Edw., <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Childhood of the world</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cloth. <i>See</i> <a href="#Textile_arts">Textile arts</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cluverius, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Introd. in univ. geog.</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Coahuila cave, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Coate, B. H., <i>Discourse</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cobo, B., <i>Lima</i>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cochrane, J., <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cocomes, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Codex Chimalpopoca</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">named by Brasseur, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">acc. of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">copies, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hist. de los Reynos de Colhuacan</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anales de Cuauhtitlan</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">owned by Aubin, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Codex Cortesianus</i>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Codex Flatoyensis</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Codex Gondra</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Codex Mendoza</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Codex Mexicanus</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Codex Perezianus</i>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">cut, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Codex Troano</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ed. by Brasseur, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cogulludo, <i>Yucathan</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Los tres Siglos en Yucatan</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cohn, Albert, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cohuixcas, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Coins, Roman, found in America, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Colaeus at Gades, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Colden, Cadwallader, among the Mohawks, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Five Indian Nations</i>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">editions, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his career, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Colhuacan, founded, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">seat of power, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its league, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Colhuas, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">vassals of the Chichimecs, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Colijn, M., <i>Journalen</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Collahuaso, J., <i>Inca Atahualpa</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Collas, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Collingwood, J. F., <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Colorado Cañon, explored by Powell, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Colorado caves, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Colorado, expeditions in, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Columbia River Valley, centre of migrations, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Columbus, Christopher, acc. of his voyages, <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxiv">xxiv</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">believed he found Asia, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">inherited the idea of the sphericity of the earth, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">inspired by anc. writers, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his idea of the width of the Atlantic, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Toscanelli’s letter to him, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Iceland, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Tratado de las cinco zonas</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">supposed knowledge of the Norse discoveries, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">efforts to canonize him, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">attacks on his character, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">meets a Maya vessel, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his Garden of Eden, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Columbus, Ferd., his library, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">life of C. Columbus, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Comanches, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">vocabulary, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Comfort, A. J., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Comité d’Archéologie Américaine, its members, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Annuaire</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Actes</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mémoires</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Commelin, Isaac, <i>Oost-Indische Compagnie</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Communal customs, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">life, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Conant, A. J., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Footprints of a vanished race</i>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Conant, H. S., <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Concacha, ruins, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Conchucus, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Condamine, C. M. la, <i>Voyage</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Peruvian monuments, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Congrès International des Américanistes, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its sessions and <i>Comptes rendus</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Congrès Internat. d’Anthropologie, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Connecticut Acad. of Arts, etc., <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Connecticut Indians, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Conover, G. S., on the Seneca burial mound, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Contractus, H., <i>De util. astrolabii</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Conybeare, C. A. V., <i>Place of Iceland</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cook, G. H., <i>Reports</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cooke, J. J., his library, <a href="#Page_mxii">xii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cooley, W. D., <i>Maritime Discovery</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Copan (ruins), <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">position of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">plan, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">statues, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">early accounts, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">seen by Stephens, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">plans, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Copan (town), <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cope, Edw. D., Mesozoic and Cænozoic of N. America, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on cave deposits, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Copenhagen, Royal Soc. of Northern Antiquities, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its publications, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Copper, mining, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">tools of, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">moundbuilders’ use of, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Copway, Geo., <i>Ojibway nation</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cora, Guido, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Precursori di Colombo</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Coras, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cordeiro, L., <i>Les Portugais dans la découverte de l’Amérique</i>, <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cordoba, Andrés de, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cordova, H. de, first sees the Yucatan ruins, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cordova y Salinas, D. de, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Coreal, François, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Corlear, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cornelius E., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cornell University, Sparks’s library at, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Corni, C. M., <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Corroy, F., <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cortambert, Richard, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvii">xxxvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cortereal, John Vas Costá, at Newfoundland, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cortereal, Gasper, <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cortereals, the, <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cortés, his lost first letter, <a href="#Page_mxxi">xxi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his letters, <a href="#Page_mxxv">xxv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sought a passage to Asia, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">arrives on the coast (1579), <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">hailed as Quetzalcoatl, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[451]</a></span></p><p class="pnii">his statements about the native displays, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his knowledge of Palenqué, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sends feather work to Charles V, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Coruña, Martin de, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Corvo, equestrian statue, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Coryat, <i>Crudities</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cosmas, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cosmogonists, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cosmology of the Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Coursey, Col. Henry, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Court, Dr. J., his library, <a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cousin, on the So. Amer. coast, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cowles, Henry, <i>Pentateuch</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cox, <i>Mythology of the Aryan nations</i>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Coxe, Daniel, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Carolana</i>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cozumel, ruins in, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cozzen, <i>Marvellous Country</i>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Craniology" id="Craniology">Craniology</a>, diversified in America, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">science of, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">capacity no sure guide to intelligence, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">kinds of, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">long-headed, or dolichocephalic, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">short-headed, or brachycephalic, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">medium, or mesocephalic, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Cro-magnon skull, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Calaveras skull, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Trenton gravel skulls, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Enghis skull, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Neanderthal skull, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Hochelagan skull, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">moundbuilders’ skulls, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Crantor, commentator on Plato, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Crantz, David, <i>Grönland</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">editions, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Hans Egede, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Crates of Mallus, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his globe, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Crawford, Chas., <i>Indians descended from the Ten Tribes</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Crawford and Balcarres on De Bry, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Crawfordville, mounds, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cresson, H. T., finds palæolithic implements, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">discoveries at Naaman’s Creek, Del., <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">finds piles, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Aztec music</i>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Crevaux, J. (with P. Sagot and L. Adam), <i>Langues de la région des Guyanes</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Croghan, Col. George, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Croll, James, <i>Climate and Cosmology</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his theory of climatic changes, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Climate and Time</i>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">controversy with Newcomb, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cro-magnon skull, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">cut of, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">of the cave race, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cromlechs in Peru, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Crook, G., on making arrow-heads, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Crosby, Dr. Howard, on Geo. H. Moore, <a href="#Page_mxii">xii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cross, the, among the Mayas and Nahuas, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">held to be a symbolized fire drill, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the symbol of life, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Crow Indians, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Crowninshield, E. A., his library, <a href="#Page_mxii">xii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ctesias, <i>India</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cuella, Juan de, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cuesta, Fernandez, <i>Enciclopedia de viajes</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvii">xxxvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cuextecas, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cuitatecs, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cuitlahuac conquered, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Cukulcan" id="Cukulcan">Cukulcan</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cumanagota, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cuming, F., <i>Tour</i>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cumming, Thos., <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cuoq, J. A., on the Algonquin dialects, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Etudes</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>La langue Iroquoise</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Currency. <i>See</i> <a href="#Money">Money</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cuscatlan, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cushing, F. H., on the habitation of man as affected by surroundings, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Pueblo architecture, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Zuñi, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on N. Y. mounds, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Pueblo pottery</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Zuñi fetiches</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cushites of Egypt, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cusick, David, <i>Anc. History of the Six Nations</i>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cutler, Manasseh, on the Ohio mounds, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cutter, Chas. A., edits Sparks’s Catalogue, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on bibliog. of De Bry, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cutts, J. B., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cuvier opposes Lamarck, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cuyahoga Valley mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Cuzco, great wall in, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its fortress, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">plans of, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">old view, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">zodiac of gold found at, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">foundation of the city, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">D’Arbois de Jubainville, H.</span>, <i>Litt. Celtique</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Litt. Epique d’Irlande</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">D’Autun, Honoré, <i>Imago Mundi</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">D’Avalos y Figueroa, Diego, <i>Miscelanea Austral</i>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">D’Avezac, <i>Iles d’Afrique</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les iles de St. Brandan</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les iles fantastiques</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Laon globe, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Da Gama, <a href="#Page_mxxviii">xxviii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dabry de Thiersant, <i>Origine des Indiens</i>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Dacotahs" id="Dacotahs">Dacotahs</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mythology, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">linguistic connection with Asia, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Sioux">Sioux</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dahlman, F. C., <i>Dänemark</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dahlmann, <i>Forschungen</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dalin, Olaf von, <i>Svearikes Hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dall, W. H., on the peopling of America, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Polynesians, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Eskimos, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Alaska</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the origin of the Americans, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">against the autochthonous theory, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Alaska caves, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on shell heaps, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Aleutian islands, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">edits Nadaillac, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on prehistoric man, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Indian masks, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Alaska tribes, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dallas, W. S., <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dalrymple, Alex., <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dalrymple, <i>Bibl. Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_mii">ii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Daly, D., <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Damariscotta, Me., shell heap, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dammartin, <i>La Pierre de Taunston</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Danforth, Dr., on Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Danilsen, A. F., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Danish peat beds, man of, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Danmar" id="Danmar">Danmar</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dapper’s collection, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Daremburg and Saglio, <i>Dict. de l’Antiq.</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dartmouth College founded, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Darwin, Chas., <i>Descent of Man</i>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the degeneracy of the savage, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Darwinism, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dasent, G. W., <i>Burnt Njal</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Norsemen in Iceland</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">introd. to Vigfusson’s <i>Icelandic Dict.</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Daux, A., <i>Etudes préhistoriques</i>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Davenport Academy of Sciences, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Davenport tablets, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">controversy, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Davilla Padilla, <i>Prov. de Santiago</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Varia hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Davis, Asahel, <i>Antiq. of Cent. Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Davis, A. C., <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Davis, And. McF., on Indian games, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Davis, E. H. <i>See</i> Squier, E. G.</p> - -<p class="pni">Davis, Horace, <i>Japanese blood on our N. W. coast</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Davis, John (navigator), <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Davis Straits, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Davis, John (Judge), on the Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dawkins, W. B., on the Basques, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Eskimos, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the tertiary man, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Early man in No. America</i>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Early man in Britain</i>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on prehistoric study, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the antiquity of man, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Calaveras skull, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on man and extinct animals, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Cave Hunting</i>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dawson, Sir J. W., on the Skrælings, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the early migrations, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">follows Morgan in his communal theory, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the unity of the human race, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">believes the biblical account literally, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on No. Amer. migrations, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Fossil Men</i>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">advocates the theory of degeneracy, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Nature and the Bible</i>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Story of the Earth</i>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Origin of the World</i>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Calaveras skull, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the moundbuilders, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Day, St. John V., <i>Prehistoric Use of Iron</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dayton, E. A., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">De Brosses, <i>Hist. des Navigations</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">De Bry, Theodore, portrait, <a href="#Page_mxxx">xxx</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxi">xxxi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his heirs, <a href="#Page_mxxxi">xxxi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Collectiones peregrinationum</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxi">xxxi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Elenchus</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">counterfeit eds., <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his other publications, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">abridgments, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">original Wyth drawings, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">De Bure on De Bry, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">De Candolle, <i>Géog. botanique</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> Candolle.</p> - -<p class="pni">De Costa, B. F., <i>Pre-Columbian Discovery</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Notes on a Review</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Northmen in Maine</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Sailing Directions of Hudson</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Columbus and the geographers of the North</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Eskimos, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">De Courcy, <i>Hist. Chh. in America</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">De Ferry, H., <i>Le Maconnais préhistorique</i>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">De Forest, <i>Indians of Conn.</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">De Haas, W., <i>Archæology of the Mississippi Valley</i>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">De Hart, J. D., <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">De Hart, J. M., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">De la Porte, Abbé, <i>Voyageur Français</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">De Laet, on Madoc, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Laet">Laet</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">De Leyre, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="De_Pauw" id="De_Pauw">De Pauw</a>, C., his depreciation of American products, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Recherches Philos.</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">editions, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Defenses</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">De Tocqueville on the Indians, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dean, C. K., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Deane, Chas., his library, <a href="#Page_mx">x</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his likeness, <a href="#Page_mxi">xi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on James Lenox, <a href="#Page_mxi">xi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on E. A. Crowninshield, <a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Northmen, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Degrees, length of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Delafield, John, <i>Antiq. of Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Delamar, island, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Delaware" id="Delaware">Delaware</a> River gravels, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Trenton">Trenton</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Delawares" id="Delawares">Delawares</a>, in Penna., <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Pontiac’s conspiracy, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sources of their history, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their language, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their legends, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Deluge, myths of the, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Deman, island, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Demmin, A., <i>La Céramique</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Demons, isles of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Denis, Ferd., <i>Arte plumaria</i>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dennie, <i>Portfolio</i>, on the mounds, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Denton, <i>Desc. of N. Y.</i>, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Derby, J. C., <i>Fifty years</i>, <a href="#Page_mviii">viii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Desimoni, Cornelio, on the Atlantic islands, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Le carte nautiche del medio evo</i>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Desjardins, Ernest, <i>Rapport sur Harrisse</i>, <a href="#Page_v">v</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Pérou avant la conquête</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Desnoyers on tertiary man, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Desor, Ed., <i>Palafittes</i>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Deuber, F. X. A., <i>Gesch. der Schiffahrt im Atl. Ozean</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Deutsch, Manuel, <a href="#Page_mxxvii">xxvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Deutsche Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Correspondenzblatt</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Allgemeine Versammlung</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Devaux, V., <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Devereux on Arkansas pottery, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dewitt, S., <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[452]</a></span></p><p class="pni">Dexter, Henry M., his library, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>;</p> - -<p class="pnii">his bibliog. of Congregationalism, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dhoulcarnain, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dialects, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Linguistics">Linguistics</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Diaz, Bernal, his stories of regal pomp, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">as a chronicler, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">facs. of his MS., <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dibden on De Bry, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Didron, Aîné, <i>Annales Archéologiques</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dieskau, Baron, on his Indian allies, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dighton Rock, held to be Phœnician, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Rafn’s view of it, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">various drafts of its inscription, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">account of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">work of the Indians, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">of Siberians, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">of Northmen, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">of Roman Catholics, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dille, I., <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Diman, J. L., on the unhistoric quality of the sagas, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dimning, E. O., <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dinwiddie, Gov., on the Indians as allies, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dionne, N. E., <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Diodorus Siculus, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Diogenes Laertius, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">District Historical Soc., <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">D’Orbigny, A., <i>L’homme Americain</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the religion of the Quichuas, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Doddridge, Jos., <i>Settlement and Indian wars</i>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his career, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dodge, David, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dodge, J. R., <i>Red Man</i>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dodge, Wm. (Cincinnati), <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dodsley, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dolfus, Montserrat and Pavie, <i>Mémoires</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dolphin ridge in the Atlantic, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Domenech, Abbé, <i>Seven years’ residence</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Manuscrit pictographique</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the American man, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Donaldson, Thomas, <i>Geo. Catlin’s Indian Gallery</i>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Doncker, H., map of Greenland, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dongan, Gov., <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Donis, his Ptolemy map, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sketch of northern parts, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Donnelly, Ignatius, <i>Atlantis</i>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dorman, R. M., <i>Primitive Superstition</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dörpfeld, <i>Metrologie</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dorr, H. C., <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dorsey, J. O., <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Omahas, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Douglass, A. E., <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Doutrelaine, <i>Mitla</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Doyle, <i>English in America</i>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Drake, Daniel, <i>Cincinnati</i>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Drake, E. C., <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Drake, Sir Francis, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvii">xxxvii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on De Bry, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Claesz, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Drake, F. S., his deceptive <i>Indian Tribes</i>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Drake, Samuel G., dealer in Americana, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dies, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his library, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sold to Conn. Hist. Soc., <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sold coll. of school-books to the Brit. Mus. <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his books on the Indians, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Aborig. Races of No. America</i>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Draper, <i>Intellectual development of Europe</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Draudius, <i>Bibl. Classica</i>, <a href="#Page_mi">i</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Dresden Codex</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ed. by Förstemann, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Drogeo, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">D’Urban, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Du Perier, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Du Pré, L. J., on a prehistoric threshing floor, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ducatel, J. T., on shell heaps, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Duchateau, Julien, <i>L’écriture calculiforme des Mayas</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dufossé, <i>Americana</i>, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dunbar, Jas., <i>Hist. of Markland</i>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dunbar, J. B., <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dunbar, W., on the Indian sign language, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dunn, Oscar, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dunning, E. O., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dupaix, on Mitla and Palenqué, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiq. Méxicaines</i>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the monuments of New Spain, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Duponceau, P. E., <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mém. sur le système grammatical</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Durán, Diego, <i>Las Indias</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Duro, C. F., <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Duro, Ferd., <i>Disquis. Nauticas</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dury, John, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dussieux, L., <i>Hist. de la Géog.</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dutch, early, in Newfoundland, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Dwight, Theo. F., <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Eames</span>, <span class="smcap">Wilberforce</span>, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>; bibliog. of Ptolemy, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">continues <i>Sabin’s Dictionary</i>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Earl, title of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Earth, spherical theory, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the ancients’ notion of its size, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">measured, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">distribution of land and sea, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">shape of the part known, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">notions respecting the unknown parts, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">a supposed southern continent, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">size supposed in the Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">rectangular map of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sphericity taught in the Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the word “rotundus” as applied, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its sphericity ignored by the Church Fathers, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">acknowledged by others, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">theories respecting its form, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">a plane in Homer, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Easter Island, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Eastman, Mrs. Mary, <i>Dacotah</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ebeling, Professor, his likeness, <a href="#Page_miii">iii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">library, <a href="#Page_miii">iii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his own books on Amer. history, <a href="#Page_miii">iii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ebn Sáyd, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ecker, <i>Archiv</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ecuador, map, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Eden, Richard, <i>Decades</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxiii">xxiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hist. of Travayle</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxiii">xxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Eden, Garden of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Edkins, J., <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Edrisi, <i>Geography</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Arab voyages on the Atlantic, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his map, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Edwards, Jona., on the lost tribes, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on linguistic traces, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Muhhekaneew Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Mohegan language, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Effigy mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Egede, Hans, in Greenland, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Grönland</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">facs. of its title, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog. 108;</p> -<p class="pnii">his map, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Egede, Paul, in Greenland, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Grönland</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his map in facs., <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">acc. of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Eggers, H. P. von, <i>Om Grönlands österbygds</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ueber die wahre Lage des Ostgrönlands</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Egils saga</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Eguiara y Eguren, <i>Bibl. Mex.</i> <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Egyptian migrations, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">visits to America, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">analogies in Mexico, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">built the mounds, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Eichthal, Gustave de, on Fousang, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les origins Bouddhiques de la civilisation Amér.</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Races océaniennes</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">El-Ghanam, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Elephant mound, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Eliot, John, apostle, on Jews in America, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his letters, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Brief Narration</i>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Grammar Mass. Indian Language</i>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Eliot, Samuel, <i>Early relations with the Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Eliot, Samuel A., <a href="#Page_miii">iii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ellicott, Andrew, on mounds near Natchez, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Elliott, C. W., <i>New England</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Elliott, E. T., <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ellis, F. S., <i>Americana</i>, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ellis, Geo. E., on Sparks, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">“The Red Indian of North America”, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Red Man and White Man</i>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Indians of Mass., <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ellis, Robt., <i>Peruvia Scythica</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ellis and White, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Elton, C. A., <i>Remains of Hesiod</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Elysian Fields, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Emblematic mounds, <a href="#Page_400">400</a></p> -<p class="pni">Emerson, Ellen R., <i>Indian Myths</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Emery, Geo. E., on the Zeno map, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Emory, W. H., <i>Mil. Reconnoissance</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Mexican boundary survey, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Enciso, M. F. d’, <i>Suma de Geog.</i>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Engel, E. B. d’, <i>Essai</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Enghis skull, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">England, archæological studies in, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">English colonists in North America, their treatment of the Indians, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">compared with the French, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">exceed the French in number, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">number of, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Engroneland, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Greenland">Greenland</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Engronelant sometimes made distinct from Greenland, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Enriques, Martin, tries to gather Mexican relics, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ens, Gasper, <i>West-und-Ost Indischer Lustgart</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Eocene man, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Epstein, I., <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Equinoxes, precession of, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Eratosthenes, on the form of the earth, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">measured it, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hermes</i>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his view of the habitable earth, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">and the western passage, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his age, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Eric Upsi, Bishop, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Eric the Red, his career, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">saga, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Erizzo, <i>Le Scoperte Artiche</i>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Erslef, Ed., on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Erytheia, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Escoma (Bolivia) ruins, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Escudero, <i>Chihuahua</i>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Eskimos" id="Eskimos">Eskimos</a>, their boats drift to Europe, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">appear in Greenland, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">near Behring’s Straits, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">described by La Peyrère, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">known to the Northmen as Skrælings, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their former southern range, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their intellectual char., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their migrations, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their skulls, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bone implements, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their linguistic differences, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">missions among, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">De Pauw on, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">allied to the cave race of Europe, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">of the primitive race of America, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their stone implements, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Esparza, M. de, <i>Informe</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Espinosa, J. D., <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Essex Institute, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Estes, L. C., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Estete, M., <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Estienne, Jean d’, on Atlantis, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Estotiland, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">identification of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">not America, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">was America, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Eten, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Eternal Islands, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ethnographical collections, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Ethnological Journal</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ethnological Society, <i>Journal</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Transactions</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Etowah valley mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ettwein, <i>Traditions of the Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Etzel, Anton von, <i>Grönland</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Eudoxus, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Eumenius, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Euphemus in the Atlantic, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Euripides, <i>Helena</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hippolytus</i>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Euseues, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Euthymemes, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Evans, John, <i>Anc. stone implements</i>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Evans, A. S., <i>Our Sister Republic</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Everett, Alex. H., in Spain, <a href="#Page_miii">iii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Norse voyages, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[453]</a></span></p><p class="pni">Everett, Edw., on the Norse voyages, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Everett, Wm., on the Northmen, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Evers, E., <i>Archæology of Missouri</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ewbank, T., <i>Rock-writing</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Indian Antiq. and Arts</i>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Eyrbyggja Saga, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Fabricius</span>, <i>Dissert. Crit.</i>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fabulous islands, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> Atlantic islands.</p> - -<p class="pni">Faidherbe, Gen., <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fairfield County, Ohio, mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Falb, R., <i>Land der Inca</i>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Falconer, Hugh, <i>Palæontol. Memoirs</i>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Primeval Man</i>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Falconer, Richard, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Faliès, L., <i>Populations primitives de l’Amérique</i>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fall River, “Skeleton in Armor” found, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fancourt, C. G., <i>Yucatan</i>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Farcy, Ch., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiq. de l’Amérique</i>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Faria y Sousa, <i>Hist. Portuguezas</i>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Faribault, G. B., <i>Catalogue</i>, <a href="#Page_miv">iv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Farnham, Luther, <i>Private Libraries of Boston</i>, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Farnum, Alex., <i>Northmen in Rhode Island</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Faroe Islands, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Farquharson, R. J., <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Farrar, <i>Families of Speech</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Farrer, J. A., <i>Primitive Manners</i>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Favyn, Andre, <i>Navarre</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fay, Jos. S., <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fay, S. L., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Feather work, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fechner, <i>Centralblatt</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fegeux, <i>Quemada</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Fejérvary Codex</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fernandez, Melchior, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ferrer de Conto, José, <i>La Marina real</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvii">xxxvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Feudal system in anc. Mexico, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Feyerabend, Sigmund, portrait, <a href="#Page_mxxxi">xxxi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Field, Thomas W., <i>Ind. Bibliog.</i>, <a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his <i>Catalogue</i>, <a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Field of Delight, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fifteenth-century maps, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Figueredo, J. de, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Figuier, Louis, <i>L’homme primitif</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Human Race</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>World before the Deluge</i>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Finæus, Orontius, his map, <a href="#Page_mxxiv">xxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Finlay, J. B., <i>Wyandotte Mission</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Finley, E. B., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Finley, I. J., <i>Ross County, Ohio</i>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Finns build the mounds, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fiorin, Nic., his map, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fischer, Abbé, edits Ramirez’s Catalogue, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bibl. Mejicana</i>, <a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fischer, Theobald, edits Ongania maps, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fischer, <i>Origin des Américaines</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fish-hooks of bone, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fish-spears, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fish-weirs, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fiske, Moses, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fiske, Willard, <i>Bibliog. Notices</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fitch, John, his map on the mounds, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fitzer, W., <a href="#Page_mxxxi">xxxi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Orient. Indian</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Five Nations. <i>See</i> <a href="#Iroquois">Iroquois</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Flat-heads, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Flath Inis, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Flatoyensis Codex</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fleming, Abraham, <i>Registre of Hystorie</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fletcher, Alice C., <i>Indian Education and Civilization</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">her studies on the Sioux, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Omaha Tribe</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fletcher, Robt., <i>Prehist. trephining</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Flint, Earl, on the Nicaragua footprints, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Palenqué, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Flint chips, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Stone">Stone</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Flint folk, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in America, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Flora, that of South America connected with Polynesia, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Flores, I. J., <i>La lengua del Regno Cakchiquel</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Florida, calcareous conglomerate, reported human remains in, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">migration from, to Mexico, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">pile-houses in, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">pottery, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">shell heaps, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Flower, W. H., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the study of skulls, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Folsom, Geo., on the Northmen, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fondouce, C. de, <i>Les temps préhistoriques</i>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fontaine, Edw., <i>How the World was Peopled</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the recent origin of man, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fontpertuis, A. F. de, <i>Canaries</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the mounds, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Footprints in geological times, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">cut of one, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Forbes, D., <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Forbiger, <i>Handbuch der Alten Geog.</i>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Force, M. F., on the mounds, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Force, Col. Peter, his library, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dies, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">tributes to, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Forged relics made in Mexico, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Formaleoni, <i>Saggio sulla Nautica Ant. dei Veneziani</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Forrey, Samuel, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Forshey, C. G., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Förstemann, Ed., edits the <i>Dresden Codex</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Die Maya Handschrift</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Der Maya Apparat in Dresden</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Erläuterungen zur Mayahandschrift</i>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Forster, J. R., <i>Geschichte der Entd. und Schifffahrten</i> <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Entdeckungen im Norden</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fort Ancient, Ohio, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fort Chartres, last French flag at, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fort Duquesne, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fortia, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Fortunate_Islands" id="Fortunate_Islands">Fortunate Islands</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Canaries">Canaries</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fossey, M., <i>Le Méxique</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Foster, G. E., <i>Se-quo-yah</i>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Foster, J. W., <i>Prehistoric Races</i>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the moundbuilders, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">(with Whitney), <i>Geology of Lake Superior</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Four Worlds, doctrine of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fourteenth-century maps, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Fousang" id="Fousang">Fousang</a>, in Buache’s map, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">discussions on, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">voyage to, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fox, A. L., on early navigation, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fox, Luke, on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fraggia, <i>Coleccion de MSS.</i>, <a href="#Page_mii">ii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Frampton, John, translates Monardes, <a href="#Page_mxxix">xxix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">France, archæological efforts in, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Congrès archéologique, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Société Américaine, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Annuaire</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Archives</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Revue Américaine</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Actes de la Soc. d’Ethnographie</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Franciscans in Mexico, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Franciscus, E., <i>Ost- und West-Indischer Lustgarten</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Francisque, Michel, <i>Le Pays Basque</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Franco, Alonzo, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Franco, P., <i>Indios de Veragua</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Franklin, B., his papers in Henry Stevens’s hands, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Norse voyages, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the mounds, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Franklin Co., Ohio, mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Frantzius, A. von, <i>San Salvador</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fraser, W., <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Frassus, <i>Regio</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_ii">ii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Frauds, archæological, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Frazier, J. G., <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">French colonists in North America, their treatment of the Indians, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">compared with the English, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">aim to possess the Western country, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their forts along the lakes, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their use of Indian lands, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">numbers, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>; the testimony of their early explorers, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their manœuvres to monopolize the fur trade, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fresnoy, Lenglet du, <i>Méthode</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fréville, <i>Cosmog. du Moyen Age</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Commerce de Rouen</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Frey, S. L., <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Frezier, A. F., <i>Voyage</i>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Friederichsthal, Baron von, in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Friends. <i>See</i> <a href="#Quakers">Quakers</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Frisch, E. F., <i>Wikingzüge</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Frisius, Laurentius, map, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Frislanda, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">name used by Columbus, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">“Fixlanda”, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in maps, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in the Zeno map, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">different identifications, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Stephanus’s map, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fritsch, J. G., <i>Disputatio</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Frobisher, xxxiv;</p> -<p class="pnii">and the island of Bus, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Frode, Are, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Froebel, <i>Seven Years’ Travel</i>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fry, J. B., <i>Army Sacrifices</i>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fuenleal, Bishop, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fuensalida, Luis de, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fuentes y Guzman, F. A. de, <i>Guatemala</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Recordacion Florida</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fuhlrott, Dr., <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fur trade, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fusang. <i>See</i> <a href="#Fousang">Fousang</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Fustér, <i>Bibl. Valenciana</i>, <a href="#Page_mii">ii</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Gabriac</span>, <span class="smcap">Cte. de</span>, <i>Promenade à travers l’Amérique du Sud</i>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Gacetas de Literatura</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gadé, G., on an ancient Norse ship, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gades (Cadiz), <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gaffarel, Paul, <i>L’Atlantide</i>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les isles fantastiques</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Relations entre l’anc. monde et l’Amérique</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Etude sur les rapports de l’Amérique</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les Grecs ont-ils connu l’Amérique?</i> 40;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Phœnician visits to America, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Roman inscriptions in America, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Rapports de l’Atlantis</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his later studies of it, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog. of Atlantis, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Voyages de St. Brandan</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his map (<i>fac-simile</i>) of the Atlantic islands, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Arab voyages, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Vinland, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Newport mill, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Zeno voyage, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the lost tribes of Hebrews, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on blackamoors in America, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Galapagos, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gale, G., <i>Upper Mississippi</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his annotations on Lapham’s <i>Antiq. of Wisconsin</i>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Galibi, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Galicia, F. C., <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gallindo, J., <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gallæus, Ph., <i>Enchiridion</i>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>; map, in facs., <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gallatin, Albert, on Polynesian connections of the American man, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on pre-Spanish migrations, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Toltecs, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Notes on the semi-civilized nations of Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Synopsis of the Indian Tribes</i>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his map of the Indian tribes,321;</p> -<p class="pnii">a student of ethnology, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the pueblos, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on American languages, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">review of Hale’s work on the Wilkes Exped., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Teoyaomiqui, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">founds the American Ethnological Society, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">commends the work of Squier and Davis, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Galloway, W. B., <i>Science and Geology</i>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Galvano, xxxvi; on the seven cities, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gannett, H., <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Gante" id="Gante">Gante</a>, Pedro de, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Chronica Compend.</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Garcia y Cubas, <i>Ensayo</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Atlas de la Republica Mejicana</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[454]</a></span></p><p class="pnii"><i>Pirámides</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Garcia, Gregorio, <i>Origen de los Indios</i>, i, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his <i>Monarquia de los Incas</i> lost, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gardar, Cathedral, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Garden beds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Garden of Eden, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gardner, Job, on Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gardner, J. S., <i>Eocenes of England</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Garnier, Jules, <i>Les migrations polynésiennes</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Garnier, J. L., <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Garrigue and Christern, <i>Livres curieux</i>, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gass, Rev. J., <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gatschet, A. S., on the Beothuks, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Migration legend of the Creeks</i>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his linguistic studies, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gavarrete, Juan, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gavilan, A. R., <i>Hist. de Copacabana</i>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gay, Sydney H., on the Norse voyages, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gebelin, Count, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Monde primitif</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Geiger, Lazarus, <i>Development of the human race</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Geijer, E. J., <i>Hist. of Sweden</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Geikie, A., <i>Search for Atlantis</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Geikie, Jas., <i>Great Ice Age</i>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gelcich, E., <i>Fischgang des Gascogner</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Geminus, <i>Isagoge</i>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Elementa astron.</i> or <i>Isagoge</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gendron, <i>Pays des Hurons</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Genesis, a record of the Jews only, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Genesis of Earth and Man</i>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Geografisk Tidsskrift</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Geographi Græci minores</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Geographical Society of the Pacific, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Geological Society, <i>Quarterly Journal</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Geology as controverting theology, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">George, Wm., <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Georgia, case with the Cherokees, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds in, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Reck in, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">shell heaps, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Germany, archæological studies in, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gesner, W., <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Gesture-language" id="Gesture-language">Gesture-language</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ghetel, Henning, <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gheysmer abridges Saxo, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Giants in Mexico, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">references, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their bones proved to be mastodon’s, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the Toltecs, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gibbs, Geo., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Oregon tribes, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Chinook Dict.</i>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his linguistic studies, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">memoir of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Vocabularies of the Clallam and Lummi</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Chinook jargon</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Chinook language</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gila Valley, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gilbert, J. K., <i>Niagara falls</i>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gillies, John, <i>Hist. Collections</i>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gilliss, G. M., <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gillman, H., <i>Anc. men of the great lakes</i>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">papers on the mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anc. works at Isle Royale</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Giroldi map (1426), <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gist, Christopher, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Glacial age, how long ago, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in America, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">man in the, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Glacial gravels, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> Trenton.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gladiatorial stone, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gladstone, W. E., <i>Homer</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Glareanus, revised Strabo, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on early references to America, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Glass in pre-Spanish times, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gleeson, <i>Cath. Chh. in California</i>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gliddon, Geo. R. <i>See</i> <a href="#Nott_J_C">Nott, J. C.</a></p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Glorias del segundo siglo de la compañia de Jesus</i>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Goajira, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Goajira language, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gobineau, <i>Moral Diversity of Races</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Godron, A., on Fousang, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Godthaab, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gold found in the mounds, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Goldsmidt, Edmund, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gomez, Estevan, his voyage, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gomme, G. L., <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gonçalvez de Mattos Corrêa, <i>Descobertas</i>, <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gondra, Padre, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gonino, J., <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Goodell, A. C., jr., on the Norse voyages, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gooding, Jos., <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Goodnow, I. P., <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Goodrich, Aaron, <i>The So-called Columbus</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Goodrich, S. G., <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Goodson, <i>Straits of Anian</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gookin, Daniel, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Goranson, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gorgon islands, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gosnold found metal in use in New England, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gosse, L. A., <i>Déformations du crane</i>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gosselin, P. F. J., <i>Géog. des Grecs</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Recherches sur la géog.</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Iles de l’océan</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Atlantis, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Gottfried_J_L" id="Gottfried_J_L">Gottfried, J. L.</a>, <i>Neue Welt</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Göttingen, Anthropol. Verein, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Americana in, <a href="#Page_miii">iii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Götz, <i>Dresdener Bibliothek</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Goupil, René, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gowans, Wm., bookseller, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dealer in Americana, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Graah, W. A., <i>Reise till ostkysten af Gronland</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Grammar as an ethnical test, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Granados y Galvez, J. J., <i>Tardes Américanas</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Grant, E. M., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gratacap, L. P., <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Grave Creek mound, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">alleged Scandinavian inscription in, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gravier, Gabriel, <i>Les Normands</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Découverte de l’Amérique</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Norse civilization among the Aztecs, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Le Roc de Dighton</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Newport mill, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gray, Asa, on the flora of Japan, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in <i>Darwiniana</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Jeffries Wyman, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gray, D., <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gray, Thomas, his copy of the <i>Novus Orbis</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxv">xxv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Greek allied to the Maya, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Greeks, cosmography among, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in the Atlantic, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Green, John, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Green, Dr. S. A., <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Green rock (in the Atlantic), <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Greene, Albert G., his books, <a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Greenland" id="Greenland">Greenland</a>, in the Ptolemy of 1482, <a href="#Page_mxii">xii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its name, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">earliest people there, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its folk lore, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Norse visits in eighth century, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">churches in, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">East and West Bygd, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Norse occupation, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bishops of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">extinction of the colonists, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">efforts to learn their fate, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">climatic changes, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its colonists perhaps merged in the Eskimos, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ancient bishopric, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its ruins, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">runes in, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">seals of the bishops, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">voyages hence to Vinland, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiq. Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">a prolongation of Europe, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>. <i>See</i> <a href="#Eskimos">Eskimos</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii">Sometimes confounded with Spitzbergen, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog. of the lost colonies, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">voyages to discover them, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Hans Egede on, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sites of the colonies disputed, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">scant population on east coast, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the Zeni in, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">cartography of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">oldest map yet found, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in the Genovese portolano, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in the <i>Tab. Reg. Sept.</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">maps by Hans Egede, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by G. Fries, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Paul Egede, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Anderson, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Rafn, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Claudius Clavus, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Fra Mauro, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Behaim, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Sylvanus, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Waldseemüller, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Apian, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Frisius, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Olaus Magnus, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Münster, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Bordone, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Vopellio, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Gallæus, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">notions of Greenland in Columbus’ time, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Portuguese chart (1503), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Ruysch made it a part of Asia, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">made to stretch northerly from Europe, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">to connect Europe with America, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">called Labrador by Rotz, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">severed from Europe in the alteration of the Zeno map (1561), <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">made an island by Mercator and others, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">earliest Scandinavian maps to illustrate the sagas, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">maps of xvith cent., <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Moll’s confusion, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">maps by Hans Egede, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Paul Egede, in facs., <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Jovis Carolus, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by H. Doncker, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by J. Meyer, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">De la Martinière connects it with northern Asia, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">La Peyrère’s map in facs., <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Greenwood, Dr. Isaac, on Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Greg, R. P., <i>Fret ornament</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gregg, <i>Commerce des Prairies</i>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gregory IV., his bull, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Grenville, Thos., <i>Bibl. Grenvil.</i>, <a href="#Page_miv">iv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Griffis, W. E., <i>Arent van Curler</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Grijalva, Juan de, on the Mexican coast (1518), <a href="#Page_mxxi">xxi</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Grimm’s Law, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Grinlandia. <i>See</i> <a href="#Greenland">Greenland</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Griswold, Almon W., his library, <a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Grocland, a geographical misapprehension, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on maps, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gronland, or Gronlandia. <i>See</i> <a href="#Greenland">Greenland</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gros, <i>Sur les Monuments de Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Grossmann, F. E., <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Grote, A. R., <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Eskimos, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Grote, <i>Greece</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Grotius, Hugo, on Scandinavia blood in Central America, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>De Origine Americanarum</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his controversies, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Grotlandia. <i>See</i> <a href="#Greenland">Greenland</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gruppe, <i>Die Kosmischen Systeme der Griechen</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Grynæus, Simon, portrait, <a href="#Page_mxxiv">xxiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Novus Orbis</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxiv">xxiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Die neue Welt</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxv">xxv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map (1532), <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Guajiquero Indians, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Guanches in the Canaries, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Guano, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Guaranis, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Guarini language, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Guatemala" id="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>, linguistic evidence of Norse influence in, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">early hist. of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the ethnological connection of its people in dispute, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">native sources, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Popul Vuh</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Memorial de Tecpan Atitlan</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Quiches">Quichés</a>, <a href="#Cakchiquels">Cakchiquels</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Guatusos, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Guaxtecas, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Guazucupan, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gucumatz, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gudmund, Jonas, his Vinland map, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gudrid, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Guerrero, ruins in, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Guerrero, Lobo, <i>Constituciones Synodales</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Guest, Dr., <i>Origines Celticæ</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Guest, W. E., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Guignes, on the Arab voyages, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les navigations des Chinois</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Guillot, Paul, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Guimet, Emile, <i>Anc. peuples de Méxique</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Guiyard, <i>Géog. d’Abul-Fada</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[455]</a></span></p><p class="pni">Gumilla, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gunnbiorn, his voyage, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his Skerries, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Günther, Siegmund, <i>Hypothèse</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Die Lehre von der Erdrundung</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gurnet Head, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Gutierrez, Manuel, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Haas</span>, <span class="smcap">Wills de</span>, on the moundbuilders, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Habel, S., on sculptures in Guatemala, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Haeckel, <i>Hist. of Creation</i>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Natürl. Schöpfungsgesch.</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hakluyt, Richard, edits Peter Martyr, <a href="#Page_mxxiii">xxiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">used by Lok, <a href="#Page_mxxiii">xxiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Divers Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxix">xxix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Principall Navigations</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxix">xxix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Madoc, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hakluyt Soc. publications, <a href="#Page_mxxxvii">xxxvii</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Haldeman, S. S., <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">discovers rude implements, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on a Rock shelter, in Penna., <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hale, Capt. Chas. R., on the Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hale, E. E., on the Madoc voyage, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hale, Horatio, <i>Iroquois Book of Rites</i>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the tribes of the N. W. coast, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Origin of Language</i>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Cherokees, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Primitive money</i>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Indian migrations</i>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Wilkes’ Exploring Exped., <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his linguistic studies, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hale, Nathan, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Haliburton, R. G., on Bjarni’s voyage, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Norse voyages, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hall, Jacob, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hall, James, <i>Indian Tribes</i>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hall, Joshua, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hamconius, <i>Frisia</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hamlin, A. C., <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hampstead, G. S. B., <i>Portsmouth</i>, Ohio, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hamor in De Bry, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hamy, E. T., on a Chinese inscription at Copan, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Crania Ethica</i>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Précis de paléontologie humaine</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hanno, on the coast of Africa, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Periplus</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his voyage, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hanson, <i>Gardiner, Me.</i>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Norridgewock</i>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Happel, <i>Thesaurus</i>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hardiman, <i>Irish minstrelsy</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hardin Co., Ohio, mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hardy, Michel, <i>Les Scandinaves</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hariot, <i>Virginia</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxi">xxxi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Harrassowitz, Otto, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Harris, G. H., <i>Lower Genesee County</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Harris, John, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Harris, T. M., on the mounds, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Tour</i>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Harrison, Gen. W. H., on the mounds, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Harrison, <i>John Howard Payne</i>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Harrisse, Henry, <i>Bibl. Am. Vet.</i>, <a href="#Page_mv">v</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Notes on Columbus</i>, <a href="#Page_mv">v</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">controversy with Henry Stevens, <a href="#Page_v">v</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Sur la nouvelle France</i>, <a href="#Page_mv">v</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Additions</i>, <a href="#Page_v">v</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>La Colombine</i>, <a href="#Page_mv">v</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les Cortereal</i>, <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Peter Martyr, <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on early Basque voyages to America, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hartgers, Joost, <i>Voyagien</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hartman cave, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Harvard College library, rich in Americana, <a href="#Page_miii">iii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Sparks MSS. in, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its catalogue, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hassaurek, F., <i>Spanish Americans</i>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hassler, <i>Buchdruckergeschichte Ulms</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hatfield, R. G., on the Newport mill, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hatun-runas, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Haumonté, J. D., <i>La Langue Taensa</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Harard, V., <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Haven, S. F., on the Northmen, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his <i>Reports</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his career, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Archæology of the United States</i>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">revises Lapham’s <i>Antiq. of Wisconsin</i>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on mound exploration, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">believes in their Indian origin, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Prehist. Amer. Civilization</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Haven, S. F., jr., bibliography, <a href="#Page_mii">ii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hawkins, Benj., <i>Creek Country</i>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hawkins, <i>Voyage</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hay, <i>Texcoco</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hayden, F. V., <i>Ethnography and Philology of the Missouri Valley</i>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Survey of the territories</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">among the cliff houses, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hayes, I. I., <i>Land of Desolation</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Haynes, H. W., on runic frauds, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Vinland, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Monhegan runes, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">“The prehistoric Archæology of North America”, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">discovers rude implements in N. E., <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bow and arrow unknown to the palæolithic man</i>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">believes in interglacial man, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">at Solutré, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Eng. trans. of Grotius, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Trenton implements, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Copper implements</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Taensa fraud, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hayti held to be Ophir, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Haywood, John, <i>Tennessee</i>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Headlee, S. H., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Heart, Maj. Jona., <i>Ancient Mounds</i>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Heaviside, J. T. C., <i>Amer. Antiquities</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hecatæus, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Heckewelder, J., on Delaware names, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the mounds, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Delaware language, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">correspondence with Duponceau, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Heer, <i>Flora tert. Helv.</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Urwelt der Schweitz</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hegewisch, Prof., <a href="#Page_miii">iii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Heidenheimer, H., <i>Petrus Martyr</i>, <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Heimskringla</i>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Heller, C. B., on Uxmal, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Reisen</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Helluland, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hellwald, F. von, on Amer. migrations, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the autochthonous theory, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Naturgeschichte des Menschen</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Mexican mining, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Helps, Sir Arthur, <a href="#Page_mxii">xii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">gives the first English condensation of the <i>Popul Vuh</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Zumárraga, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Spanish Conquest</i>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Peru, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Realmah</i>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Henao, G. de, <i>Antig. de Cantabria</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Henderson, Ebenezer, <i>Iceland</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Henderson, Geo. F., <i>The Republic of Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Henotheism, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Henry, Alex., <i>Travels</i>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mentions copper mines, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Henry, David, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Henry, Joseph, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Lake Superior mining, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Henshaw, H. W., on the mounds, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Animal carvings</i>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on sinkers, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Herbert, Sir Thomas, <i>Travaile into Africa</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Herbrüger, E., <i>Album de Mitla</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Herckmann, <i>Der Zeevaert</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hercules’ twelve labors, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Heredra, J. M. de, ed. Bernal Diaz, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Heremite, J. d’, <i>Journael</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Herjulfson, Bjarni, his voyage, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hermes, K. H., <i>Entdeckung von America</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Herodotus, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Herr, Michael, <i>Die neue Welt</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxv">xxv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Herrera, H. A. de, <i>Disputatio</i>, <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Herrera in De Bry, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">made use of the <i>Relaciones descriptivas</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">title-page of his fifth book, showing portraits of Incas, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Historia</i>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hervai, ruins, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hervas, L., <i>Lenguas y naciones Americanas</i>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Catálogo de las Lenguas</i>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hervey de St. Denis, <i>Fou-Sang</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hesiod, <i>Theogony</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Elysian Fields, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Works and Days</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hesperides, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Heve language, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Heynig, <i>Psychologisches Magazin</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hidatsa language, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Hieroglyphics" id="Hieroglyphics">Hieroglyphics</a>, invented, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">of Yucatan, attempts to decipher, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Charencey, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">used by Spaniards in relig. instruction, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">stages of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">color and forms, elements, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">not easily read even by natives, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Mrs. Nuttall’s complemental signs, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">phonetic scale, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Landa’s Alphabet, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">general references, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on a Yucatan statue, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">early descriptions, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sculptured in wood, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">inscription on the Palenqué tablet, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">cut of the same, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">comparative age of those on stone and in MS., <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">rebus character, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Codex Mendoza</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">tribute rolls, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Dresden Codex</i>, plate of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">explained, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Codex Telleriano-Remensis</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Codex Vaticanus</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Fejérvary Codex</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">other Maya MSS., <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Codex Troano</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Codex Cortesianus</i>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">facs. of plate, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Codex Perezianus</i>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Higginson, T. W., <i>Larger Hist. U. S.</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Higginson, Waldo, <i>Memorials of Class of 1833</i>, H. C., <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Highland County, Ohio, mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hildebrand, H. O. H., <i>Island</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hilder, F. F., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hildreth, Richard, on the Northmen, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hildreth, Dr. S. P., <i>Pioneer History</i>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Pioneer Settlers</i>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hilgard, E. W., <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hill, G. W., <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hill, Horatio, <a href="#Page_miii">iii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hill, Ira, <i>Antiq. of America</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hill, S. S., <i>Peru and Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Himilko on the ocean, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hindoos, migrations, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hipkins, A. J., <i>Musical instruments</i>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hipparchus, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the form of the earth, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the oceans, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Hispanicarum rerum, Scriptores</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxix">xxix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Historical societies, their libraries, <a href="#Page_mxviii">xviii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hobbs, James, <i>Wild life</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hochelagan skull, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hochstetter, F. von, <i>Ueber Mex. Reliquien</i>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hodgson, Adam, <i>Letters</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hoei Shin, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hoffman, W. J., <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Holden, Edw. S., <i>Cent. Amer. Picture-writing</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Holden, Mrs. H. M., on Atlantis, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hole, the Norse Holl, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Holguin, D. G., his grammar, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Holm, Lieut., on the Greenland ruins, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Holmberg, A. E., <i>Nordbon</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Holmes, O. W., on Jeffries Wyman, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Holmes, W. H., on the sacrificial stone of Teotihuacan, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the cliff houses, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">survey of the serpent mound, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on shell work, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Use of gold in Chiriqui</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on textile art, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ceramic art</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on pottery in the Mississippi Valley, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Pueblo Pottery</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Homer, Arthur, <i>Bibl. Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_mii">ii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Homer, his World, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his ideas of the earth, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his geography, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hondt, F. de, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[456]</a></span></p><p class="pni">Honduras Indians, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hooker, J. D., <i>Botany of the Voyage of the Erebus</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Flora of Tasmania</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hopkins, A. G., <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hopkins, Samuel, <i>Housatunnuk Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Horace, and Atlantic islands, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Horn, F. W., <i>Lit. of the Scandinavian North</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Horn (Hornius), Geo., <i>Responsio ad diss. H. Grotii</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Madoc, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hornstone, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Horsford, E. N., <i>Disc. of America by Northmen</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">edits Zeisberger’s <i>Dictionary</i>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hosea, L. M., <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hospitality, laws of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hotchkiss, T. P., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hotten, J. C., <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hough, F. B., on the N. Y. Indians, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on mound in N. Y. State, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Houghton, Jacob, <i>Copper mines of Lake Superior</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Housatonics, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Houses of the American aborigines, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Howard, Lord, gov. of Virginia, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Howe, <i>Hist. Coll. Ohio</i>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Howell, G. R., on Munsell, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Howells, Jas., <i>Fam. letters</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Howgate polar exped., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Howland, H. R., <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Howley, M. F., <i>Eccles. Hist. Newfoundland</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Howorth, H. H., <i>Irish monks and Northmen</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mammoth and the Flood</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Genesis, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hoy, P. R., <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Copper implements</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hoyt, Epaphas, <i>Antiq. Researches</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huacabamba, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huacrachucus, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hualli, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huamachuchus, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huanacauri hill, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huanaco, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huanapu, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huancas, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">allies of the Chancas, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huanuco el viejo, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huaraz, ruins, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huarcu, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huarochiri, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huascar, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huastecs, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huayna Ccapac, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hubbard, Bela, <i>Mem. of half century</i>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hudson, Hendrick, voyage, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hudson Bay connected with the Great Lakes, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hudson Bay Company, its relations with the Indians, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hudson Bay Indians, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hudson, <i>Geog. vet. script. Græci minores</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hudson River Indians, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huebbe and Azuar, map of Yucatan, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huehue-Tlapallan, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huemac, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huerta, Alonso de, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huiñaque, ruins, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huitramannaland, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huitzillopochtli, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hulsius, bibliog., <a href="#Page_mxii">xii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hultsch, <i>Metrologie</i>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Human sacrifices, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Peru, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Mexico, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Humboldt, Alex. von, his library, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Examen Critique</i>, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Crit. Untersuchungen</i>, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Géog. du nouveau monde</i>, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Cosmos</i>, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his MSS., <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on early mentions of America, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Atlantis, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the fabulous islands, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Arab voyages in the Atlantic, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Asiatic origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Icelandic sagas, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Norse discovery, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Eskimos, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Aztec wanderings, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on their migration maps, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Carreri, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">buys some part of the Boturini collection, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the ruins of Middle America, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Cholula mound, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Mitla, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">describes Aztec MSS., <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the <i>Codex Telleriano</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in South America, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Vues de Cordillères</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Eng. transl., <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Voyage au régions équinoxiales</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ansichten der Natur</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Aspects of Nature</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Views of Nature</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Chibchas, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the origin of Mexicans, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his bibliog. in his <i>Vues</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on arts in America, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">(with Bonpland) <i>Voyage</i>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Humboldt, Wm. von, his linguistic studies, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Humphrey, D., <i>Soc. for propagating the Gospel</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Humphrey and Abbott, <i>Physics of the Mississippi Valley</i>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hunt, Jas., <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hurakan, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huron River, Ohio, mounds near, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hurons, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their language, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hutchinson, Thos., his library, <a href="#Page_mi">i</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hutchinson, T. J., on Peruvian skulls, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Two years in Peru</i>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Some fallacies about the Incas</i>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huttich, John, <i>Novus Orbis</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxiv">xxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Huxley, on cataclysmic force, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Distribution of Races</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Man’s place in nature</i>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hygden maps (1350), <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>; Polychronicon, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hyginus, on the form of the earth, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Poeticon astron.</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hyperboreans, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Hyrcanian ocean, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p> - - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Icaza</span>, Father, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Icazbalceta, J. G., on Indian languages, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Don Fray Zumárraga</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Sahagún, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ed. Mendieta, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Apuntes</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">prints the<i>Hist. de los Méxicanos por sus Pinturas</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">defends Zumárraga, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Destruccion de Antigüedades</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Las bibliotecas de Eguiara y de Beristain</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Cat. de escritores en lenguas indígenas</i>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bibl. Amér. del Siglo xvi.</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his MSS., <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Iceland" id="Iceland">Iceland</a>, visited by King Arthur, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Irish, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by the Norse, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">millennial celebration, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">books printed in, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiq. Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map, by Rafn, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Claudius Clavus, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">other maps, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Mauro’s map, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in map (1467), <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Martellus’ map, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Olaus Magnus, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Seb. Münster, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Zeno map, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Gallæus, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Icelandic language, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Icelandic sagas. <i>See</i> <a href="#Sagas">Saga</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ideler, J. I., <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Idols still preserved in Mexico, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Igh, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Il genio vagante</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Illinois, Indians, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Ilustracion Mexicana</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Imlay, G., <i>Western Territory</i>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Imox, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Inca civilization. <i>See</i> <a href="#Peru">Peru</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">India, supposed westerly route to, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Indian languages. <i>See</i> <a href="#Linguistics">Linguistics</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Indian Ocean once dry land, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Indian summer, origin of the term, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Indians, variety of complexion among, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Morgan on their houses, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their contact with the French and English, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their feuds, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">acquire firearms, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">deed lands, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">trade with the whites, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">lose skill with the bow, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">adoption of prisoners, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sell them for ransoms, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">treatment of captives, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">captives cling to them, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">life of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">trails, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">traders among, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">as allies, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">treaties with the English, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">French missionaries among, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">fur-hunters, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">attempts to christianize, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the French instigations, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">number of souls, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">character in war, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">government publications on, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their shifting locations, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">reservations for, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">life of, as depicted by Morgan, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">tribal society, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">position of women, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">medicine, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mortuary rites, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their games, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their mental capacity, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">myths, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">non-pastoral, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map of tribes, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">decay of tradition among them, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">degraded descendants of the higher races of middle America, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">industries and trade, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">lost arts, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">copper mining, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">influence of missions, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">belief in a future life, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">scope of Schoolcraft’s work, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Indiana, <i>Geol. Report</i>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Indians, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>; mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Indianapolis Acad. of Sciences, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Indio triste, statue, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Industries of the Amer. aborigines, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ingersoll, Ernest, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Village Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Indian money, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ingolf in Iceland, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ingolfshofdi, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ingram, Robert, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Institut Archéologique, <i>Annales</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Institution Ethnographique, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Rapport</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Insulae Fortunatae</i>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Fortunate_Islands">Fortunate Islands</a>, <a href="#Canaries">Canaries</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Interglacial man, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology, <i>Trans.</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Inwards, Richard, <i>Temple of the Andes</i>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Iowa mounds, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ireland the Great, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">references, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">variously placed, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Rafn’s map, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ireland, early map of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></p> - -<p class="pni">Irish legends about the island Brazil, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Irish in Iceland, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Irland it Mikla, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> Ireland the Great.</p> - -<p class="pni">Irminger, Admiral, on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Iron, meteoric, found in the mounds, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Iroquois" id="Iroquois">Iroquois</a>, held to be Turks, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Sir Wm. Johnson breaks their league,</p> -<p class="pnii">284, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">attacked by the French, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">extend their hunting grounds, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">war against the Illinois, etc., <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">addicted to rum, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">treaty with the English (1764), <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sources of their history, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map of their country, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Colden’s <i>Five Nations</i>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their cession of western lands to the English in 1726, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sacrifice of the white dog, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">build the mounds in New York, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their arts, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">hero-gods, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their monotheism, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">myths, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">language, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Irving, Washington, on O. Rich, <a href="#Page_miii">iii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Norse voyages, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Isla Verde, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Islands of the Blest, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Canaries">Canaries</a>, <a href="#Fortunate_Islands">Fortunate Islands</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Isle Royale, copper mines, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Islenzkir Annáler</i>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Israel, lost tribes. <i>See</i> <a href="#Jews">Jews</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Italy, anthropological studies in, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Itzamná, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Itzcohuatl, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ivory workers, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ixtlilxochitl (ruler), <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ixtlilxochitl (writer), <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">beginning of Mexican history, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">gathers records, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his character, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his MS. material, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">part secured by Aubin, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hist. Chichimeca</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[457]</a></span></p><p class="pnii">chief instigator of the feudal view of Mexican life, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his illusive character, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Izalco, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Izamal, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Iztachnexuca, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Iztcoatl, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Jacker</span>, E., <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jackson, C. T., <i>Geol. Report</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jackson, Jas., <i>Liste de bibliog. géog.</i>, <a href="#Page_mi">i</a>, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jackson, W. H., among the cliff dwellings, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in the Chaco cañon, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Photographs of N. Am. Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jacobs-Beeckmans, <i>Les iles Atlantique</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jacobs, <i>Praying Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jacquet Island, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jade, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Asia and America, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jadite, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Jahrbücher für Anthropologie</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jalisco, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">James, Capt. Thomas, his voyage, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Japan discovered, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">held to be Fusang, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jargons, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jarl, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jarvis, S. F., <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Religion of the Indian Tribes</i>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jarz, K., on the Homeric islands, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jasper, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jaubert, trans. of <i>Edrisi</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jay, John, early navigator, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jefferson, Thos., his anthropological collections, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the mounds, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Amer. linguistics, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his MSS. burned, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Notes on Va.</i>, ii.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jeffreys, <i>French Dominion</i>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jemez, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jeremias, <i>Die Babylon.—Assyr. Vorstellungen</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jesuits, their <i>Relations</i> as a source of Indian history, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their bibliog., xii;</p> -<p class="pnii">their missions, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">travels of their missionaries, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Peru, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jewitt, J. R., <i>Journal at Nootka Sound</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Jews" id="Jews">Jews</a>, Grave Creek tablet, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">migrations to America, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jiménes de la Espada, Márcos, <i>Biblioteca Hispano-ultramarina</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">edits Santillan, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">edits Montesinos, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">edits the <i>Relacion</i> of the Anonymous Jesuit, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Coleccion de libros Españoles raros</i>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Tres Relaciones</i>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">edits Salcamayhua, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">edits the <i>Informaciones por mandado de Don F. de Toledo</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his editorial labors, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">edits Cieza de Léon, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">edits Betanzos, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jogues, the missionary, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sources, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Johannes, Count. <i>See</i> <a href="#Jones">Jones, George</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Johnson, Elias, <i>Six Nations</i>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Johnson, G. H. M., <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Johnson, Sir William, and the Iroquois, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on his influence among the Indians, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jolibois, Abbé, on the anc. Mexicans, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Joly, <i>L’homme avant métaux</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Man before metals</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the moundbuilders, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jomard, <i>Les Antiq. Amér.</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</p> -<p class="pni"><i>Une pierre gravée</i>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jones, C. C., <i>Tomo-chi-chi</i>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">finds rude stone implements in Georgia, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiq. of No. Amer. Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the making of arrow-heads, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Georgia mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Indian Remains</i>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anc. tumuli</i>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiq. of Southern Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on effigy mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on bird-shaped mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on rock inscriptions, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jones, David, <i>Two visits</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Jones" id="Jones">Jones</a>, Geo., <i>Orig. Hist. of Ancient America</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jones, H. G., on Madoc’s voyage, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jones, Jos., <a href="#Page_419">419</a>; on the mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jones, J. M., on shell heaps, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jones, Morgan, on the Tuscaroras, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jones, Peter, <i>Ojibway Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jones, <i>Oneida County</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jones, <i>Stockbridge</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jónsson, Arngrimur, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Grönlandia</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jordan, Francis, <i>Aboriginal Encampment at Rehoboth, Del.</i>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jordan, Fr., jr., <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jorell, Otto, <i>Navires du Nord</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jotunheimer, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jourdain, A., <i>Traductions d’Aristote</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jourdain, Ch., <i>Influence d’Aristote</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Journal of American Folk Lore</i>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Journal of Anthropology</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jowett, B., <i>Dialogues of Plato</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Joyce, <i>Old Celtic Romances</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Juarros, Domingo, <i>Guatemala</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Jubinal, <i>Légendes de S. Brandaines</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Julianehaab district, maps, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Junks, drifting of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Junquera, S. P., <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Justiniani, Dr. Pablo, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Kabah</span>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kabah-Zayi, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kakortok, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kalbfleisch, C. H., his library, <a href="#Page_mxviii">xviii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kalm, Peter, on the Norse voyages, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Travels</i>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the mounds, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the formation of soil, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kames, Lord, <i>Hist. of Man</i>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kan-ay-ko, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kane, Paul, <i>Wanderings</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kansas Academy of Sciences, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Kansas City Review</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kansas mounds, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Keane, A. H., <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ethnology of America</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Keary, C. F., <i>Dawn of History</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Keller, Dr., on the Swiss lake dwellings, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kelley, O. H., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kemp’s discovery in London, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kendall, E. A., <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Travels</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kennebecs, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kennedy, James, <i>Origin Amer. Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kennedy, J., <i>Probable origin of the Amer. Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Essays</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kennett, White, <i>Bibl. Amer. Prim.</i>, <a href="#Page_mi">i</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his library, <a href="#Page_mi">i</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kennon, B., <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kentucky caves, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kentucky mounds, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Keppel, Gestalt, <i>Grösse, and Weltstellung der Erde</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kerr, Henry, <i>Travels</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kerr, Robert, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Keyport, N. Jersey, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Keyser, J. R., <i>Private life of the old Northmen</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Religion of the Northmen</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Keyser, K., <i>Norges Hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kich-Moo, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kiché, Brinton’s spelling of Quiché, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kidder, F., <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">King, Richard, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kingektorsoak stone, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kingsborough, Edward, Lord, his belief in the lost-tribe theory, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">acc. of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his MSS. in Rich’s hands, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Sir Thomas Philipps’, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiq. of Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">copies, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">finds no MSS. in Spain, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kingsley, Chas., <i>Lectures</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kingsley, J. S., <i>Standard Nat. Hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kino, Padre, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kircher, A., <i>Mundus Subterraneus</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Œdipus Ægypticus</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kiriri, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kirkland, the missionary, on the mounds, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kitchen-middens. <i>See</i> <a href="#Shell-heaps">Shell heaps</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kittanning, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Klaproth, J. H. von, <i>Fousang</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Klee, <i>Le Déluge</i>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Klemm, <i>Allgem. Culturgesch. der Menschheit</i>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Allgem. Culturwissenschaft</i>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kneeland, Samuel, <i>Amer. in Iceland</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the skeleton in armor, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kneip, C. H., <a href="#Page_miii">iii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Knight, Mrs. A. A., <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Knox, Robert, <i>Races of Men</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Knox, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Koch and the Missouri mastodon, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kohl, J. G., on the Northmen voyages, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Frislanda, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Kitchi-Gami</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kolaos, voyage, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kollmann, Dr., <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Kosmos</i>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Koriaks, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kramer, J., ed. Strabo, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Krarup, F., on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Krause, E., <i>Northwest Coast of America</i>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kristni Saga, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Krossanes, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kublai Khan, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kukulcan, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Cukulcan">Cukulcan</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kumlein, L., <i>Nat. Hist. Arctic America</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Kunstmann, <i>Mémoires</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">La Borde</span>, <i>Mer du Sud</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>L’origine des Caraibes</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">La Harpe, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">La Mothe Cadillac at Detroit, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">La Peyrère, map of Greenland, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Relation du Groenland</i>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">La Roquette on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">La Salle and the Indians, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Labarthe, Charles, <i>La civilisation péruvienne</i>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Doc. inédits sur l’Empire des Incas</i>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Labat, <i>Nouveau Voyage</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Labrador, name of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lacandons, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lacerda, José de, <i>Doutor Livingstone</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lachmann, <i>Sagenbibliothek</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lacustrine deposits, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">habitations, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Laet" id="Laet">Laet</a>, Joannes de, <i>Nieuwe Wereldt</i>, <a href="#Page_mi">i</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Notæ ad diss. H. Grotii</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">further controversy with Grotius, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lafieri, Geografia, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lafitau, on the Asiatic origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mœurs des Sauvages</i>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Tartar origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lagerbring, Sven, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Laguna, Col. de la, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Laing, Ed., <i>Heimskringla</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the sagas, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lake Bonneville, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lake Lahontan, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lake Superior, copper mines, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lamarck, J. B. A., his transformation theory, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Philosophie Zool.</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lambayeque, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lancaster, Pa., treaty at, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Landa, Bishop, <i>Relacion</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">edited by Brasseur, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Rada y Delgado, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">critical account of editions by Brinton, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his alphabet, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">facs. of part of it, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">exists only in a copy, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">pronounced a fabrication, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">analysis of, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">misleading, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his destruction of MSS., <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Landino, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Landnamabók</i>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>; editions, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Landry, S. F., <i>Moundbuilder’s Brain</i>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[458]</a></span></p><p class="pni">Lands, tenure of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lang, A., <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lang, J. D., <i>Polynesian Nations</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Langdon, F. W., <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Langebek, Jacobus, <i>Scriptores rerum Danicarum</i>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Langius, <i>Med. Epist. Misc.</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Langlet du Fresnoy, <i>Méthode</i>, <a href="#Page_mi">i</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Language, as a test of race, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">failed in the palæolithic man, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Linguistics">Linguistics</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Laon globe (1486), <a href="#Page_119">119</a>; cut, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lapham, I. A., on the Indians of Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiq. of Wisconsin</i>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lappawinzo, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Larenaudière, <i>Méxique</i>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Larkin, F., <i>Anc. man in America</i>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Larrabure y Unanue, E., on the Ollantay drama, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Larrainzar, M., <i>Estudios sobre la hist. de America</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Palenqué, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lartet, Ed., <i>Nouvelles Recherches</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Annales des Sciences</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lartet and Christy, <i>Reliq. Aquitanicæ</i>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Las Casas, <i>Narratio</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Apolog. hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Latham, <i>Nat. Hist. of Man</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Man and his migrations</i>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Latreille, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Latrobe, C. J., <i>Rambles in Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Laud, Archbp., <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Laurentian hills, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Laurenziano-Gaddiano portolano, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Law, A. E., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lawson, <i>Carolina</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">L’Estrange, Sir H., <i>Americans no Jewes</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Le Beau, <i>Voyage</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Le Hon, H., <i>Influence des lois Cosmiques</i>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>L’homme fossile</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Le Moyne, <i>Florida</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Le Noir on the <i>Dresden Codex</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Le Plongeon, Dr., on Atlantis, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the connection of the Maya and Asiatic races, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on traces of the Guanches in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his studies in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his discovery of the Chac-mool, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Sacred Mysteries</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his over-confidence, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">controversies, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">at Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Maya tongue, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Le Plongeon, Mrs. Alice, her studies on the Mayas, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Vestiges of the Mayas</i>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Here and There in Yucatan</i>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Leardo, Giovanni, map (1448), <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">(1452), <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Leclerc" id="Leclerc">Leclerc</a>, Ch., <i>Bibl. Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Leclercq, <i>Gaspésie</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Leconte, J. L., on the California Indians, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lee, Arthur, on the mounds, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lee, J. C. Y., <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lee, J. E., <i>Lake dwellings of Switzerland</i>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Leffler, O. P., <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Legendre, Napoleon, <i>Races de l’Amérique</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Legis-Glueckselig, <i>Die Runen</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Legrand d’Aussy, <i>Image du monde</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Leibnitz, <i>Opera philol.</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Leidy, Jos., <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">discovers rude implements in lacustrine deposits, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on a mustang skull found in the California gravels, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Extinct mammalia</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on shell-heaps, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Hartman cave, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Leif Ericson, his career, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his voyage to Vinland, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">described, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">statue in Boston, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Leipzig, Museum für Völkerkunde, <i>Bericht</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Verein für Anthropologie</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Leland, Ch. G., C<i>alifornia and Mexico in the Fift. Cent.</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Fusang</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mythology of the Algonquins</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Algonquin legends</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Norse spirit in Algonquin myths, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lelewel, on the Arab voyages, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Frislanda, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lemoine, J. M., on the Hurons, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Indian mortuary rites, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lemuria, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lenape stone, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lenni Lenape, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Delawares">Delawares</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lenoir, A., on Egyptian traces in America, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">compares Palenqué with Egyptian remains, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lenox Library, <a href="#Page_mxi">xi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its bibliographical contributions, <a href="#Page_mxi">xi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lenox, Jas., his library, <a href="#Page_mxi">xi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Recollections</i> by Stevens, <a href="#Page_mxi">xi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his De Brys, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Léon y Gama, A. de, <i>Desc. de las Dos Piedras</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">chronol. tables of Mexico, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Leon_y_Pinelo" id="Leon_y_Pinelo">Léon y Pinelo</a>, <i>Epitome</i>, <a href="#Page_mi">i</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Leone, Giovan, <i>Viaggio</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxix">xxix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lepsius, <i>Das Stadium</i>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lesage, S., <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lesley, J. P., <i>Origin and Destiny of Man</i>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his independent views, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lesson and Martinet, <i>Les Polynésiens</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Letheman on the Navajos, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Letronne, on the size of the earth, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the views of the extension of Africa, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Opinions Cosmog. des Pères</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Levinus printed with Martyr, <a href="#Page_mxxiii">xxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lévy-Bing on the Grave Creek mound tablet, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lewis, Sir Geo. C., <i>Astron. of the Ancients</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lewis, H. C., <i>Geol. Survey of Penna.</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Trenton gravels</i>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lewis, T. H., on the mounds, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on a snake mound, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Iowa mounds, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Kentucky mounds, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Red River mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Rock inscriptions, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lewis and Clarke, on the Indians, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">discover mounds, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their Indian vocabularies lost, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lexington, Ky., Indian fort, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Li Yan Tcheou, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Libraries, American, <a href="#Page_mi">i</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in New England, <a href="#Page_mi">i</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">private, of Americana, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Libretto de tutta la navigazione</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Libyan relic in America, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lick Creek mound, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lima, audience of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Linares on Teotihuacan, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lindenow, G., voyage to Greenland, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Linguistics" id="Linguistics">Linguistics</a>, American, bibliog. of, vii, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">affiliations with Asia, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">with China, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">used in studying ethnical relations, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">number of stocks, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dialects, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">maps of America, by languages, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">polysynthesis, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">collections, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">vocabularies in Wheeler’s Survey, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Linschoten, <a href="#Page_mxxxvii">xxxvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lisbon Academy, <i>Memorias da Litteratura</i>, <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Little, Wm., <i>Warren</i>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Little Falls, Minn., <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Little Miami valley, mounds in, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Littlefield, Geo. E., <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Livermore, Geo., on Henry Stevens, <a href="#Page_mxiv">xiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lizana, B., <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ljung, E. P., <i>Dissertatio</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Llamas of Peru, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>; cut of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Llanos, Adolfo, <i>Sahagún</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lloyd, Humphrey, <i>Cambria</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lloyd, H. E., <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lloyd, T. G. B., <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Loaysa, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Locke, Caleb, <i>Hist. de la navigation</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Locke, John, on the Wisconsin mounds, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mineral Lands</i>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Locket, S. H., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lockwood, Rev. Samuel, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">collection, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lodge, Henry Cabot, review of Gravier’s <i>Découverte par les Normands</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Loess, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">of the Mississippi Valley, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Loew, O., <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Löffler, E., on Vinland, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Logan, James, his position in Penna., <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Logstown, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">London Anthropological Society, <i>Memoirs</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Trans.</i> and <i>Journals</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">London Society of Antiquaries, <i>Archæologia</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Long, R. C., <i>Anc. Arch. of America</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Long, <i>Bibl. Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_mii">ii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Longfellow, H. W., <i>Skeleton in Armor</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Longperier, A. de, <i>Notice des Monuments</i>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bronzes Antiques</i>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Loo-choo Islands, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lopez, V. F., on Quichua roots, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les Races Aryennes du Pérou</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Ollantay drama, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>,</p> - -<p class="pni">Lorente, S., <i>Hist. Antiq. del Peru</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">papers in the <i>Revista Peruana</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Revista de Lima</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lorenzana, <i>Hist. Nueva España</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lorillard, Pierre, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lorillard City, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">situation, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lort, Michael, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Loskiel, G. H., <i>Mission</i>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lothrop, S. K., <i>Kirkland</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Loudon, Archibald, <i>Selection of narratives</i>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Louisiana, missions in, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Löw, Conrad, <i>Meer Buch</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Löwenstern, <i>Le Méxique</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lowndes, the bibliographer, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lubbock, Sir John, <i>Origin of Civilization</i>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">as an anthropologist, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Prehistoric Times</i>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on <i>No. Amer. Archæology</i>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the degeneracy of the savage, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Early Condition of Man</i>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Scientific Lectures</i>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on prehistoric archæology, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lucy-Fossarieu, P. de, <i>Ethnographie de l’Amérique Antarctique</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ludewig, Hermann E., <i>Amer. local History</i>, <a href="#Page_v">v</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Amer. Aborig. Linguistics</i>, <a href="#Page_mv">v</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Lit. of Amer. Aborig. Language</i>, vii, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lule, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lummi language, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lumnius, J. F., <i>De Extremo Dei Judicio</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lunarejo, Dr., <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lund, Dr., on caves in Brazil, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lurin, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lyctonia, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lydius, B., <a href="#Page_mxxv">xxv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lyell, Sir Charles, on Atlantis, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiquity of Man</i>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">eds., <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Second Visit</i>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the moundbuilders, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lykins, W. H. R., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lyman, Theodore, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lyó-Baa, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lyon, G. F., <i>Journal</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lyon, S. S., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiquities from Kentucky</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Lyon, W. B., <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Maccauley</span>, <span class="smcap">Clay</span>, on the Seminole Indians, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Macedo, Dr., on Inca and Aztec civilizations, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Machimus, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Maciana library (Venice), <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mackenna, B. V., his books, <a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Maclean, J. P., on Atlantis, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mastodon, Mammoth and Man</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Moundbuilders</i>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the serpent mound, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[459]</a></span></p><p class="pnii">on the Grave Creek tablet, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds in Butler County, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Maclovius, Bishop of Aleth, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Macomb, J. N., <i>Exploring Exped. from Santa Fé</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Macrobius, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Comm. in Somn. Scip.</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his maps, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Madeira, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">known to the ancients, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in the Bianco map, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Madier de Montjau, <i>Chronol. hiérog.</i>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Mexican MSS., <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Chronol. des rois Aztéques</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Madison, Bishop J., on the mounds, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on fortifications in the West, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Madisonville, Ohio, Archæolog. Soc., <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Madoc" id="Madoc">Madoc</a>, Prince, his voyage, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">linguistic traces of the Welsh in America, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">English eagerness to substantiate his voyage, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">some believe he went to Spain, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his people are the Mandans, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">possible, but not probable, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Madriga, P. de, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>; voyage to Peru, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Madrinanus, A., <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Maelduin, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mag Mell, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Magazin für die Naturgeschichte des Menschen</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Magellan, <a href="#Page_mxxviii">xxviii</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvii">xxxvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Magio, Ant., <i>Lengua de los Indios Baures</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Magnus, Olaus, <i>Hist. of the Goths</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">maps (1539), <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">(1555), <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">(1567), <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Historia</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Von dem alten Goettenreich</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Magnusen, Finn, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on <i>Scand. divisions of time</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">an instance of his over-eagerness, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Magnussen, Arne, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Magrurin, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mahudel on stone implements, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mailduin, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Maillard, Abbé, <i>Miconaque language</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Maine Indians, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Indian missions, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">shell heaps, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Maisonneuve, <i>Bibl. Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_mxiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_mvi">xvi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Collection linguistique</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Maisonneuve. <i>See</i> <a href="#Leclerc">Leclerc</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Maize in Peru, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Major, R. H., on the Atlantic islands, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Arab voyages in the Atlantic, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Northmen, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the sites of the Greenland colonies, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Madoc voyage, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">advocates the Zeni story, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mala, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Malay emigration to America, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Malay stock in America, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mallery, Col. Garrick, on the Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Indian inscriptions, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on pictographs, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on gesture language, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Study of Sign language</i>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mallet, P. H., <i>Dannemark</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Northern Antiq.</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Malte-Brun, <i>Annales des Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Nouvelles Annales</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Arab voyagers, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the sagas, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Précis de la géog.</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map of Central America, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map of Yucatan, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>L’époque des monumens de l’Ohio</i>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Nations et langues au Méxique</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mame-Huastèque language, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mamertinus, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mammoth, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Man_Satanaxio" id="Man_Satanaxio">Man Satanaxio</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Man" id="Man">Man</a>, origin and antiquity of, in America, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">plurality of origin, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">autochthonous, in America, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">references on, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">prehistoric, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">stages of prehistoric existence, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his progress from barbarism to civilization, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">influenced by climate, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">degenerate in the modern savage, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">controversy on this point, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">arguments against his antiquity, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">for it, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">English, French, and German schools of opinion, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">original home in the Indian Ocean, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his geological remoteness in Europe, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">references on his antiquity in America, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in the Glacial age, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">existence with extinct animals, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in American caves, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">scarcity of human remains of the palæolithic era, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">early man in So. America, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">as lake dweller, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">of the Danish peat beds, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">general references on prehistoric man, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">as a speaking animal, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">unity of the American race, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the thoughts of early man, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> Anthropology.</p> - -<p class="pni">Manasseh Ben Israel, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Manchester Geographical Society, <i>Journal</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Manco Ccapac, origin of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">at Cuzco, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mancos River, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mandans, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mange, Padre, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mangue dialect, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mangues, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mani, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">archives, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Manilius, on the form of the earth, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Astronomicon</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Manitoba Hist. Society, <i>Trans.</i>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Mapa de Cuauhtlantzinco</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marana, J. P., <i>Turkish Spy</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marçay, De, <i>Découvertes de l’Amérique</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marceau, E., <i>Les anc. peuples d’Amérique</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marcel de Serre, <i>Cosmog. de Moise</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marcellus, <i>Ethiopic History</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">March y Labores, José, <a href="#Page_mxxxvii">xxxvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marcoy, <i>Travels in So. Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Voyage</i>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marcy, R. B., <i>Border Reminiscences</i>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">(with G. B. McClellan) <i>Exploration of the Red River</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Margry, Pierre, <i>Mémoires</i>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Maricheets, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marietta, mounds, plan of, by W. Sargent, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Harris, view of the mounds, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds at, discovered, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marinelli, G., <i>Erdkunde bei den Kirchen-Vätern</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marinus of Tyre, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the size of the known earth, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Markham, C. R., on the Eskimos, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">“The Inca civilization in Peru”, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">translates Report of Ondegardo, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Molina’s <i>Rites of the Incas</i>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">translates Avila’s narrative, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">edits Salcamayhua, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Cuzco and Lima</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Travels in Peru and India</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Peru</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Tiahuanacu, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his editorial work, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Quichua language, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ollanta</i>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">reply to Mitre, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ocean Highways</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Geog. Review</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Geog. Mag.</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Markland, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marmier, X., <i>Island</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marmocchi, F. C., <i>Viaggi</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvii">xxxvii</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marquesas islands, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marquez, P., <i>Antichi mon. de Arch. Messicana</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marriott mound, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marryat’s <i>Travels</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marsh, Geo. P., <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marsh, O. C., on the Newark mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marshall, O. H., <i>Hist. Writings</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Ohio Valley Indians, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marson, Arc, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Martellus, H., <i>Insularium illustratum</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map sketched, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Marten, <i>Voyage to Greenland</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Martha’s Vineyard, tracts on the conversion of the Indians, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Martin, Félix, <i>Hurons et Iroquois</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Jogues</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Martin, Gabriel, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Martin, Henri, <i>Dissertation sur l’Atlantide</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Timée de Platon</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Martin, Luis, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Martin, T. H., his astron. papers, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Cosmog. Grecque</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Sur le Timée</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Martin of Valencia, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Martinez, J., Quichua vocabulary, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Martinière, map of Greenland, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Martius, F. P. von, <i>Sprachenkunde Amerikas</i>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Glossaria</i>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Beiträge</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Martyr, Peter, bibliog., <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his first decade, <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Legatio Babylonica</i>, <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">acc. by Harrisse, <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Schumacher, <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Heidenheimer, <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Die Schiffung</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxi">xxi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Poemata, <a href="#Page_mxxi">xxi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>De Nuper sub D. Carolo repertis insulis</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxi">xxi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">facs. of title, <a href="#Page_mxxii">xxii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>De orbe novo</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxi">xxi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Extrait ou Recueil</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxi">xxi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>De rebus oceanicis</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxiii">xxiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Summario</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxiii">xxiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">joined with Oviedo, <a href="#Page_mxxiii">xxiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Eden’s <i>Decades</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxiii">xxiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Willes’ <i>Hist. of Travayle</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxiii">xxiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">edited by Hakluyt, <a href="#Page_mxxiii">xxiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Lok, <a href="#Page_mxxiii">xxiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Opus Epistolarum</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxiv">xxiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Ethiopian origin of the tribes of Yucatan, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">describes the Maya and Nahua picture-writings, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Maryland, docs. in her Archives, <a href="#Page_mxiv">xiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Hist. Soc., xviii; Indians, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Masks, Mexican, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mason, Geo. C., on the Newport mill, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Rem. of Newport</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mason, O. T., on the mounds, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog. of anthropology, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on anthropology in the U. S., <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his anthropolog. papers, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Massachusetts Bay map, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Massachusetts Hist. Soc., Library Catalogue, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the statue of Leif Ericson, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Rafn’s over-confidence, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Massachusetts Indians, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Massachusetts Quart. Rev.</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Massachusetts State Library, xvii.</p> - -<p class="pni">Massilia founded, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mastodon, carvings of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mound, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">remains of man associated with the, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">how long disappeared, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Materiaux pour l’histoire primitive</i>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mather, Cotton, on Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Wonderful works of God</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Jews in New England, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on supposed remains of a giant, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">and the Royal Society, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mather, Increase, his letter to Leusden, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mather, Saml., <i>America known to the ancients</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mathers, their library, <a href="#Page_mi">i</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Matienzo, Juan de, <i>Gobierno de el Peru</i>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Matlaltzinca, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Matthews, W., <i>Language of the Hidatsa</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hidatsa Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Maudsley, A. P., <i>Guatemala</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Maurault, <i>Abenakis</i>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Maurer, Konrad, <i>Altnord. Sprache</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Island</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Isländische Volkssagen</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Rechtgesch. des Nordens</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mauro, Fra, map (1457), <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">facs. of northern parts, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Maury, Alfred, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mavor, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, his library, <a href="#Page_mviii">viii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Maximilian, Prince, <i>Reise</i>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Travels</i>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Maxtla, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Maya d’Ahkuil-Chel, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[460]</a></span></p><p class="pni">Mayapan, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>; deserted, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Mayas" id="Mayas">Mayas</a>, origin of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">name first heard, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">nations comprised, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">acc. of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">hieroglyphics, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Katunes, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">calendar, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">manuscripts, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Chilan Balam, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Popul Vuh</i>, their sacred book, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their last pueblo, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">picture-writing, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">metals among, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">languages of, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dialects, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">allied to the Greek, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">general references, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">religion of, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">hero-gods, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mayberry, S. P., on Florida shell heaps, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mayda, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mayer, Brantz, on Sparks, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Observations on Mex. hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mayhews, the Indian missionaries, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mayta, Ccapac, Inca, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mazahuas, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mazetecs, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McAdams, W., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anc. Races in the Mississippi Valley</i>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Cahokia</i>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McCaul, John, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McCharles, A., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McClellan, G. B., <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McClintock and Strong’s <i>Cyclop. bibl. lit.</i>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McClure and Parish, <i>Mem. of Wheeloch</i>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McCoy, Isaac, <i>Baptist Indian missions</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McCulloh, James H., <i>Researches on America</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the mounds, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McCullough, John, captive to the Indians, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McElmo cañon, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McFarland, R. W., <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McGee, W. J., <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on glacial man, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Columbia period, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his lacustrine explorations, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Iowa mounds, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McIntosh, John, <i>Disc. of America</i>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McKenney, T. L., <i>Memoirs</i>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his career, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">(with James Hall) <i>Indian Tribes</i>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McKinley, Wm., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McKinney, W. A., <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McLennan, J. F., <i>Primitive Marriage</i>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Studies in Anc. Hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McMaster, S. Y., <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McParlin, J. A., <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">McWhorter, T., <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Measures of length used by the Mexicans, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Medel on the Mex. hieroglyphics, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Megatherium, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Megiser, H., <i>Sept. Novantiquus</i>, xxxiv, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Meigs, J. A., on Morton’s collection, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Catal. human crania</i>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Obs. on the cranial forms</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Form of the occiput</i>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Meineke, A., ed. Strabo, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mela, Pomponius, his views of the extension of Africa, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">relations with Ptolemy, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on men supposed to be carried from America to Europe, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>De Situ Orbis</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Melgar, E. S. de, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Melgar, J. M., <i>De las Teogonias en los manuscritos Méxicanos</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Melgar, Señor, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Melkarth, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Melo, Garcia de, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Menana, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mendieta, <i>Hist. Eçcles. Ind.</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mendoza, Gumesindo, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">curator of Museo Nacional in Mexico, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Menendez, <i>Geog. del Peru</i>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mengarini, G., <i>Flat-head Grammar</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mentone caves, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Menzel, <i>Bibl. Hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_mii">ii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Menzies, Wm., his library and catalogue, <a href="#Page_mxii">xii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mer de l’Ouest, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mercator map (1538), <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mercer, H. G., <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Mercurio Peruano</i>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Meredith, a Welsh bard, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Merian, M., <a href="#Page_mxxxi">xxxi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Merida, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Meridian, the first, where placed by the ancients, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Merivale, C., <i>Conversion of the Northern Nations</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Merom, Ohio, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Meropes, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Merry Meeting Bay, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mesa, Alonso de, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anales del Cuzco</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Metal, use of, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">working in Peru, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">among the early Americans, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Metz, Dr. C. L., finds palæolithic implements in Ohio, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Prehist. Mts. Little Miami Valley</i>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Meunier, V., <i>Les ancêtres d’Adam</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mexia y Ocon, J. R., <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Mexico" id="Mexico">Mexico</a> (country), linguistics of, <a href="#Page_mviii">viii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">held to be Fousang, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">correspondences in languages with Chinese, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">with Sanskrit, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Asiatic origin of games, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">jade ornaments in, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Asiatic origin, references on, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">obscurities of its pre-Spanish history, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">early race of giants, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">chronologies, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the Toltecs arrive, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the confederacy growing, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its nature, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portraits of the kings, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sources of pre-Spanish history, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the early Spanish writers, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the courts and the natives, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">MS. annals, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">general accounts in English, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Archives de la Com. Scient. du Méxique</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ethnology of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">character of its civilization, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the confederacy, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">diverse views of the extent of the population, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">disappearance of their architecture, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map by Santa Cruz, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mode of government, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their palaces, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">notes on the ruins, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">astronomy in, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">idols still preserved, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">superstitions for writings, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">origin of the people, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">copper, use of, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">variety of tongues in, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">culture, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Toltecs">Toltecs</a>, <a href="#Nahuas">Nahuas</a>, <a href="#Anahuac">Anahuac</a>, <a href="#Aztecs">Aztecs</a>, <a href="#Chichimecs">Chichimecs</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Mexico_city" id="Mexico_city">Mexico (city)</a>, founded, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Clavigero’s map in facs., <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its lakes, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">other maps, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">facs. of the map in Coreal’s <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">a native acc. of the capture, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">calendar stone, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">used to regulate market days, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Museo Nacional, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its <i>Anales</i>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">view of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">forgeries in, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">no architectural remains, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the city gradually sinking, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">relics still beneath the soil, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Bandelier’s notes, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">old view of the city, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">early descriptions, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its military aspect, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">relics unearthed, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">temple of (views), <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Meye, Heinrich, <i>Copan und Quiriguá</i>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Meyer, A. B., <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Meyer, J., map of Greenland, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mica, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Michel, Francisque, <i>Saint Brandan</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Michigan mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Michinacas, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Michoacan, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Micmacs, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">language, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">legends, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">missions, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">traditions of white comers among, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mictlan, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mictlantecutli, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Middle Ages, geographical notions, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Miedna, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Migration of nations in pre-Spanish times, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">disputes over, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Gallatin’s view, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Dawson’s map of those in North America, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">generally from the north, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mil, A., <i>De origine Animalium</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Milfort, a creek, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Miller, J., <i>Modocs</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Miller, W. J., <i>Wampanoags</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mindeleff, V., on Pueblo architecture, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Minnesota mounds, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Minutoli, J. H. von, on Palenqué, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Stadt in Guatemala</i>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Miocene man, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Miquitlan, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Mirror of Literature</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Mission Scientifique au Méxique, Ouvrages</i>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Missions’ effect on the Indians, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mississippi Valley, loess of, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Missouri, mounds, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">pottery, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Missouri River, lacustrine age, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mitchell, S. L., on the Asiatic origin of the Americans, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Northmen, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mitchell, A., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mitchell, W. S., on Atlantis, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mitchener, C. H., <i>Ohio Annals</i>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mitla, ruins of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">plan, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mitre, Gen. B., <i>Ollantay</i>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Miztecs, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">subjugated, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mochica language, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Modocs, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mohawks put English arms on their castles, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mohegan Indians, their language, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Moke, H. T., <i>Hist. des peuples Américains</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Moletta (Moletius) on the Zeno map, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Molina, Alonzo de, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Molina, Christoval de, in Peru, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Fables and Rites of the Incas</i>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Incas, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Molina, <i>Vocabulario</i>, <a href="#Page_mviii">viii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Arte de la lengua Méx.</i>, <a href="#Page_mviii">viii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Möllhausen, Reisen, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Tagebuch</i>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Moluccan migration to South America, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Monardes, <i>Dos Libros</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxix">xxix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hist. Medicinal</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxix">xxix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">likeness, <a href="#Page_mxxix">xxix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Joyfull Newes</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxix">xxix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Monboddo, Lord, on Irish linguistic traces in America, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Moncacht-Ape, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Money" id="Money">Money</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mongolian stock on the Pacific coast, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Mongols" id="Mongols">Mongols</a> in Peru, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Monhegan, alleged runes on, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Monogenism, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Monotheism in America, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Monro, R., <i>Anc. Scotch lake dwelling</i>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Montalboddo, <i>Paesi Nov.</i>, <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Montana mounds, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Montanus, <i>Nieuwe Weereld</i>, i;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>America</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the sagas, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Madoc voyage, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Monte Alban, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Montelius, O., <i>Bibliog. de l’archéol. de la Suède</i>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Montémont, A., Voyages, <a href="#Page_mxxxvii">xxxvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Montesinos, F., in Peru, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Memorias antiguas</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anales</i>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mémoire historique</i>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Jews in Peru, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mémoires</i>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Montesquieu, <i>Esprit des Lois</i>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Montezuma (hero-god), <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Montezuma (first of the name), <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in power, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">various spelling of the name, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dies, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Montezuma (the last of the name), <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">forebodings of his fall, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">hears of the coming of the Spaniards, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his “Dinner”, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Montfaucon, <i>Collectio</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Montgomery, James, <i>Greenland</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Moore, Dr. Geo. H., at the Lenox Library, <a href="#Page_mxii">xii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">account of, <a href="#Page_mxii">xii</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[461]</a></span></p><p class="pni">Moore, Martin, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Moore, M. V., <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Moore, Thos., <i>Hist. Ireland</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Moosmüller, P. O., <i>Europäer in America</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Moquegua, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Moqui" id="Moqui">Moqui</a> Indians, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">representatives of the cliff dwellers, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Moravian missions, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Moravian Quarterly</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Morellet, Arthur, <i>Voyage</i>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Travels</i>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Morgan, Col. Geo., <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Morgan, L. H., his <i>Montezuma’s dinner</i>, ix, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">attacked by H. H. Bancroft, ix, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the cradle of the Mexicans, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his exaggerated depreciation of the Mexican civilization, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his relations with the Iroquois, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Houses and House life</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ancient Society</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">controverted, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his publications, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his death, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Rau’s views as respects the Tablet of the Cross, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on centres of migrations, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on human progress, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Pueblo race, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the ruins of the Chaco cañon, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the ruins on the Animas River, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the social condition of the Pueblos, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the moundbuilders, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">finds their life communal, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on their houses, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>League of the Iroquois</i>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on bone implements, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on linguistic divisions, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Indian life, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Iroquois laws of descent</i>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bestowing of Indian names</i>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Houses of American Aborigines</i>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Morgan, Thomas, on Vinland, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Morillot, Abbé, <i>Esquimaux</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Morisotus, C., <i>Epist. Cent. duæ</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Morlot, A., <a href="#Page_395">395</a>; on the Phœnicians in America, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mormon bible, its reference to the lost tribes, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Morris, C., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Morse, Abner, <i>Anc. Northmen</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Morse, Edw. S., <i>Arrow Release</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the tertiary man, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on prehistoric times, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Morse, Jed., <i>Report on Indian affairs</i>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mortillet, G. de, <i>Le Signe de la Cross</i>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiq. de l’homme</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">founds the <i>Materiaux</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>L’homme</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Dict. des Sciences Anthropologique</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Morton, S. G., <i>Inquiry into the distinctive characteristics of the aborig. race</i>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Crania Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his collection of skulls, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Physical type of the American Indian</i>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Aboriginal Race of America</i>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Some observations</i>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the moundbuilders’ skulls, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Morton, Thomas, <i>New English Canaan</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mossi, H., on the Quichua language, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Motolinía, <i>Historia</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Motupé, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Moulton, J. W., <i>New York</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Moulton, M. W., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Moundbuilders, connected with the Irish, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">with the Welsh, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">with the Jews, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">with the later peoples of Mexico, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Morgan on their houses, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Haynes’s views, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">literature of, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">early Spanish and French notices of, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">accounts by travellers, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">held to be ancestors of the Aztecs and other southern peoples, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">emblematic mounds, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the most ancient, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">believed to be of the Indian race, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">earliest advocates of this view, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">vanished race view, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Great Serpent mound, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">no clue to their language, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds in New York built by the Iroquois, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">date of their living, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">divisions of the United States by their characteristics, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">held to be Cherokees, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">agriculturalists, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sun-worshippers, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">age of, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">contents of the mounds, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">fraudulent relics, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">geographical distribution of their works, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">built by Finns, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Egyptians, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">maps, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">use of copper, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">pipes, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">military character, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">turned hunters, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their textile arts, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">cloth found, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">pottery, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Movers, <i>Die Phoenizier</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mowquas, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Moxa, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">M’Quy, Dr., <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mudge, B. F., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Muellenhof, <i>Alterthumskunde</i>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Muhkekaneew Indians, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mühlenpfordt, E. L., <i>Versuch</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Muiscas. <i>See</i> <a href="#Muyscas">Muyscas</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mujica, M. A., <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Müller, C., <i>Geog. Græci</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Müller, F., <i>Allgemeine Ethnographie</i>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Müller, J. G., on the Peruvian religion, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Amer. Urreligionen</i>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Quetzalcoatl, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Müller, J. W. von, <i>Reisen</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Müller, Max, on early Mexican history, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Ixtlilxochitl, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the <i>Popul Vuh</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on E. B. Tylor, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on American monotheism, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Müller, P. E., <i>Icelandic Hist. Lit.</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">(with Velchow, J.) ed. <i>Saxo Gram.</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Sagenbibliothek</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Müller, <i>Handbuch des klas. Alterth.</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Muller, Frederik, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mummies, in American caves, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">of Incas, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Peruvian, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Munch, P. A., <i>Det Norske Folks Hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Olaf Tryggvesön</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Norges Konge-Sagaer</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Munich, Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Muñoz, J. B., <a href="#Page_191">191</a>; <i>Historia</i>, <a href="#Page_mii">ii</a>; on the Norse voyages, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Munsell, Frank, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Munsell, Joel, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his publications, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sketch by G. R. Howell, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Münster, Sebastian, his map, <a href="#Page_mxxv">xxv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Cosmographia</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxv">xxv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">likeness, <a href="#Page_mxxvi">xxvi</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxvii">xxvii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Kosmograffia</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxviii">xxviii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">translations, <a href="#Page_mxxviii">xxviii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Greenland geography, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Murphy, H. C., his library, <a href="#Page_mix">ix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his <i>Catalogue</i>, <a href="#Page_mix">ix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dies, <a href="#Page_mix">ix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Murray, Andrew, <i>Geog. Distrib. Mammals</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Murray, Hugh, <i>Travels</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Disc. in No. America</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Northmen, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Múrua, M. de, <i>Hist. gen. del Peru</i>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Museo Erudico</i>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Museo Guatemalteco</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Museo Mexicano</i>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Music, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Musical instruments, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Mutsun language, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Muyscas" id="Muyscas">Muyscas</a>, myths of, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">idol, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">origin of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Myths, not the reflex of history, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">literature of American, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Naaman Creek</span>, rock shelter at, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nachan, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nadaillac, Marquis de, <i>L’Amérique préhistorique</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Prehistoric America</i>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the autochthonous theory, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>De la période glaciaire</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les prem. hommes</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mœurs des peuples préhistorique</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les pipes et le tabac</i>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>L’art préhist. en Amérique</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Nahuas" id="Nahuas">Nahuas</a>, origin of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">direction of their migration controverted, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">earliest comers, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">from the N. W., <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">date disputed, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their governmental organizations, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">places of their kings, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their buildings, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">picture-writing, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">myths, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Aztecs">Aztecs</a>, <a href="#Mexico">Mexico</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Narborough, <i>Magellan Straits</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Narragansetts, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nasca, Peru, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nasmyth, J., <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Natchez Indians, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">supposed descendants of Votanites, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Natchez, relics at, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Natick language, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">National Geographic Society, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Natural Hist. Soc. of Montreal, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Nature</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Naugatuck valley, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Naulette cave, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nauset, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Navajos, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">expedition against, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">weaving among, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Neanderthal, race, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">skull, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nebel, Carlos, <i>Viaje pintoresco</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Negro race, as primal stock, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">of a stock earlier than Adam, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nehring, A., on animals found in Peruvian graves, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Neill, E. D., on the Ojibways, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Neolithic Age, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">implements of, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Stone_Age">Stone Age</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nepeña, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Neue Berlinische Monatsschrift</i>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Neumann, K. F., <i>Amerika nach Chinesischen Quellen</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Névome language, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">New Brunswick shell heaps, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">New England Hist. Geneal. Society, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">New England Indians, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds in, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">visited by the Northmen, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">shell heaps, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">New Grenada, map, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">tribes of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">New Hampshire, bibliog., <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Indians, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="New_Jersey" id="New_Jersey">New Jersey</a>, copies of docs. in her Archives, <a href="#Page_mxiv">xiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Indians, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">shell heaps, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">New Mexico, map of ruins in, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">New Orleans, human skeleton found near, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">New York Acad. of Science, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">New York city, as a centre for the study of Amer. hist., <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its Hist. Soc. library, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Astor Library, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">private libraries, <a href="#Page_mx">x</a>, <a href="#Page_mxviii">xviii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">New York State, local history in, <a href="#Page_mv">v</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its library at Albany, <a href="#Page_mxviii">xviii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the French import goods into, for the Indian trade, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its trade with the Indians, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Indians, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">missions, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Newark, Ohio, map of mounds at, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">described, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Newcomb, Simon, opposes Croll’s theory, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Newfoundland" id="Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a>, early visited by the Basques, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in the early maps, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Eskimos in, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Indians of, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Newman, J. B., <i>Red Men</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Newport stone tower claimed to be Norse, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nezahualcoyotl, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dies, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nezahualpilli, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Nicaragua" id="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>, early footprint in, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">explorers of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mythology, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sources of its history, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nicholas V, alleged bull about Greenland, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nicholls and Taylor, <i>Bristol</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nienhof, <i>Brasil. Zee-en Lantreize</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nijhoff, Martin, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nilsson, <i>Stone Age</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Niza, Marco de, <i>Quito</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Noah, M. M., <i>American Indians descendants of the Lost tribes</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nodal, J. F., on the Quichua tongue, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ollanta</i>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nonohualcas, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nordenskjöld, A. E., <i>Exped. till Grönland</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his belief in a colony on east coast of Greenland, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bröderna Zenos</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Trois Cartes précolumbiennes</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[462]</a></span></p><p class="pnii"><i>Studienund Forschungen</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">finds the oldest maps of Greenland, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his projected <i>Atlas</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Olaus Magnus map (1567), <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Norman, B. M., <i>Rambles in Yucatan</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Norman sailors on the American coasts, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Norris, P. W., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Norse. <i>See</i> <a href="#Northmen">Northmen</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">North Carolina, antiquities, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">rock inscriptions, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Northmen" id="Northmen">Northmen</a>, cut of their ship, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">plan of same, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ship discovered at Gokstad, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">another at Tune, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">one used as a house, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">depicted in the Bayeux tapestry, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">flags, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">weapons, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">characteristics, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Greenland, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Iceland, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">alleged visits to America, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their voyages seldom recognized in the maps of the xvth cent., <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Northwest coast, the Berlin Museum’s <i>Nordwest Küste</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nortmanus, R. C., <i>De origine gent. Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Norton, Charles B., his <i>Lit. Letter</i>, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Norumbega held to be a corruption of Norvegia, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Norway" id="Norway">Norway</a>, early map, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Fra Mauro’s map, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Olaus Magnus, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Bordone, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Gallæus, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Nott_J_C" id="Nott_J_C">Nott, J. C.</a> (with Gliddon), <i>Types of Mankind</i>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Physical Hist. of the Jews</i>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Indigenous Races</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nova Scotia, Indians, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">shell-heaps, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nova Scotia Institute of Nat. Science, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Novo y Colson, D. P. de, and Atlantis, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Noyes, <i>New England’s Duty</i>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Noymlap, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Numismatic and Antiq. Soc. of Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nuttall, Thomas, <i>Arkansa Territory</i>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nuttall, Mrs. Zelia, on Mexican communal life, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the so-called Sacrificial Stone, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on complemental signs in the Mexican graphic system, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Mexican feather-work, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on terra cottas from Teotihuacan, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Nyantics, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">O’Brien</span>, M. C., grammatical sketch of the Abnake, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">O’Curry, Eugene, <i>Anc. Irish history</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">O’Flaherty, <i>Islands of Arran</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ogygia</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Oajaca, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sources of its history, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ruins in, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">teocalli at (view), <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Obando, Juan de, his Quichua dictionary, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">grammar, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ober, F. A., <i>Travels in Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anc. Cities of America</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Obsidian, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">implements, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ocean, ancient views of the, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">depth of, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Ocean Highways</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ococingo, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Odysseus, voyage of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his wanderings, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ogallala Sioux, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ogilby, <i>America</i>, <a href="#Page_mi">i</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ogygia, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Ohio Archæological and Hist. Quarterly</i>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ohio Land Company (1748), formation of the, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ohio, mounds in, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog. and hist., <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Centennial Report</i>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">pictographs, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">State Board of Centennial managers, <i>Final Report</i>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ohio Valley, ancient man in, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ancient hearths in, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">caves, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">English attempts to occupy, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">frontier life, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>; Indians, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ojeda, A. de, describes pile dwellings, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ojibways, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Olaf, Tryggvesson, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">saga, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">editions, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Olaus Magnus, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hist. de Gentibus Septent</i>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Olivarez, A. F., <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Ollantai</i> or <i>Ollantay</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">drama, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">different texts, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its age, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ollantay-tampu <i>or</i> tambo, ruins, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Olmecs, migration of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">earliest comers, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">overcame the giants, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Olmos, A. de, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Olosingo, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Omahas, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Onas, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ondegardo, Polo de, in Peru, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Relaciones</i>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Onderdonk, J. L., <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ongania, <i>Sammlung</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Onondaga language, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Onontio, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Ophir" id="Ophir">Ophir</a> of Solomon, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">found in Palenqué, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Orbigny, A. d’, <i>L’homme Américain</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his ethnographical map of South America, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Orcutt, S., <i>Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Stratford</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ordoñez, Ramon de, <i>La Creacion del Cielo</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Palenqué</i>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Oré, L. G. de, <i>Rituale</i>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Oregon, Indians, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">shell heaps, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Orozco y Berra, helped by the collections of Icazbalceta and Ramirez, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Geog. de las lenguas de México</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Dic. Universal de Hist</i>., <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>El Cuauhxicalli de Tizoc</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Códice Mendozino</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Orrio, F. X. de, <i>Solution</i>, <i>del gran problema</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ortega, C. F., ed. Veytia, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ortelius, on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">holds Plutarch’s continent to be America, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">believed Atlantis to be America, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map of the Atlantic Ocean (1587), <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map of Scandia, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">and the sagas, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Otomis, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their language, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Otompan, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Otté, E. C., <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Otumba, fight at, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Oviedo y Baños, J. de, <i>Venezuela</i>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Oxford Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Oztotlan, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Paccari-tampu</span>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pachacamac, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pachicuti, J. de S. C., <i>Reyno del Piru</i>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pachacutec, Inca, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pacific Ocean, great Japanese current, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its islands in geol. times, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">long voyages upon, in canoes, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pacific Railroad surveys, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Packard, A. S., on the Eskimos, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Padoucas, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Pæsi Novamente</i>, <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Newe unbek. landte</i>, <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">fac-simile of title, <a href="#Page_mxxi">xxi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Nye unbek. lande</i>, <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Itinerariū Portugal</i>, <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Sensuyt le nouveau monde</i>, <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Le nouv. monde</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxi">xxi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Paez, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Paéz-Castellano language, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Page, J. R., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Paijkull, C. W., <i>Summer in Iceland</i>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Paint Creek, map, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Painter, C. C., <i>Mission Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Palacio, Diego Garcia de, <i>Carta</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Palacio, M., <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Palæolithic age, named by Lubbock, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its implements, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">cut of, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">man in America, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">could he talk? <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">developments towards the neolithic state, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Stone_Age">Stone Age</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Palenqué, position of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ruins described, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">first discovered, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">age of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">restorations, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">tablet, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sculptures from the Temple of the Cross, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">seen by Waldeck, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">plans, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">views, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">statues, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Palfrey, J. G., on the Northmen, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Newport tower, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Indians, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Palin, Du, <i>Study of hieroglyphics</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pallas, <i>Vocab. comparativa</i>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Palmer, Edw., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on a cave in Utah, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Palmer, Geo., <i>Migrations from Shinar</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Palomino, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Palos, Juan de, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Palszky, F., <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Panchæa, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pandosy, M. C., <i>Yahama language</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Papabucos, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Papantla, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Paracelsus, Theoph., on the plurality of the human race, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Paradise, position of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Paraguay, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Paravey, C. H. de, <i>Fou-Sang</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Nouvelles preuves</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Plateau de Bogota</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">replies to Jomard, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pareja, F., <i>La Lengua Timuquana</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pareto, Bart. de, his map (1455), <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Paris, peace of (1763), <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Société de Géographie founded, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Recueil de Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bulletin</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Parkman, F., <i>California and the Oregon trail</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>France and England in North America</i>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Indian character, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>La Salle</i>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Parmenides, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Parmentier, Col., <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Parmunca, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Parsons, S. H., <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Parsons, Usher, on the Nyantics, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Passamaquoddy legends, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Patin, Ch., <a href="#Page_mxxiv">xxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pattison, S. R., <i>Age of Man</i>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Earth and the Word</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Patton, A., <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pauw., De, <i>Recherches</i>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#De_Pauw">De Pauw</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pawnees, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Paynal, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Payta, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pazos-kanki, V., his Quichua work, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Peabody, Geo., <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Peabody Academy of Science, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Peabody Institute (Balt.), <a href="#Page_mxviii">xviii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Peabody Museum of Archæology and Ethnology, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Reports</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Special Papers</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Peale, T. R., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pech, Nakuk, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Peck, W. F., <i>Rochester</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pecos, ruins, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pederson, Christiern, ed. of Saxo, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Peet, S. D., <i>The Pyramid in America</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Pueblo architecture, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the serpent symbol, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the moundbuilders, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on mounds as totems, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Saint Louis mounds, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on early agriculture, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">human faces in American art, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Religious beliefs of the Aborigines</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Animal worship and Sun worship</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Religion of the Moundbuilders</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">edits <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pégot-Ogier, E., <i>Archipel des Canaries</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[463]</a></span></p><p class="pni">Peirce, C. S., on the Newport mill, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pelaez, Paula G., <i>Guatemala</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pemicooks, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pemigewassets, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Penafiel, Antonio, <i>Nombres géog. de México</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Penn, Wm., on Jews in America, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pennant, <i>Tour of Wales</i>, <a href="#Page_miii">iii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pennock, B., <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pennsylvania, Indians in, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">settlers of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their treatment of the Indians, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Penobscots, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their legends, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pentland, J. B., map of Lake Titicaca, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pequods, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Percy, Bishop, ed. Mallet’s <i>Northern Antiquities</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Perdita, island, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Perez, José, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">preserver of Maya MSS., <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Perez, Pio, <i>Chron. Yucateca</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his notes, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Periegetes, D., <i>Periplus</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Peringskiöld, ed. <i>Heimskringla</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Perizonius, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Perkins, Fred. B., his sketch of Gowans, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Scrope</i>, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pernetty, D., controverts De Pauw, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Examen</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>De l’Amérique</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Perrine, T. M., <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Perrot, Nic., <i>Mémoires</i>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pertuiset, E., <i>Le Trésor des Incas</i>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pertz, G. H., <i>Mon. Germ. Hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Peru" id="Peru">Peru</a>, Mongols in, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">giants in, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the Ophir of Solomon, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Chinese in, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Jews in, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Votanites in, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">civilization in, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">evidences of it, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">maps, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bounds, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">length of the settled condition of the Inca race, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">plants and animals domesticated, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ancient burial-places, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">pre-Inca people, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">cyclopean remains, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">water sacrifices, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">deity of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Pirua dynasty, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its people, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Tampu Tocco, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Inca dynasty, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its duration, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">list of the kings, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">origin of the Incas, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their rise under Manco, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their original home, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their subjugation of the earlier peoples, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">establish their power at Cuzco, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portraits of the Incas, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">picture of warriors, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Chanca war, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Inca Yupanqui, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">war between Huascar and Atahualpa, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">names of the Incas, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">succession of the Incas, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their religion, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">belief in a Supreme Being, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sun-worship, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">plan of the Temple of the Sun, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">religious ceremonials, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">astronomical knowledge, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their months, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">festivals, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">human sacrifices, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">learned men, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the Quichua language, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the court language, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">references on the Inca civilization, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their bards, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dances, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">musical instruments, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dramas, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">quipus records, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">healing art, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the central sovereign, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">tributes, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the Inca insignia, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their architecture, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">two stages of it, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their thatching, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ruins, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">social polity, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the Inca family, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">divisions of the empire, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">provinces, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ruins of a village, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">laborers, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bringing up of children, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">land measure, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their agriculture, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">hanging gardens, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">irrigation, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">peculiar products, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their flocks, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their roads, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">travelling, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map of roads, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">colonial system, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">military system, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">arts, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">metal-workers, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">pottery, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">weapons, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">spinning, weaving, and dyeing, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">cloth-making, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">authorities on ancient Peruvian history, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the conquerors as authors, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">lawyers and priests, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">poetry, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">chronology, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">efforts to extirpate idolatry, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">native writers, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Relaciones descriptivas</i> filled out in Peru, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the <i>Informaciones</i> respecting the usurpation of the Incas, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">pedigrees of the Incas, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ordinances, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">works of travellers, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">origin of its civilization, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the great work of Raimondi, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the geography, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">editors of old works, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">songs of the Incas, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ancient people of the coasts, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">native language, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">iron in, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">cloths of, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mythology of, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Peschel, O., <i>Gesch. der Erdkunde</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Erd- und Völkerkunde</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Arab voyages, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Gesch. des Zeitalters der Entdeck.</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Abhandlungen</i>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">acc. of, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Polynesians, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Races of Men</i>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Orozco y Berra, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Petavius, Dionysius, <i>Uranologion</i>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Peter, R., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Peter of Ghent. <i>See</i> <a href="#Gante">Gante</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Peters, Richard, on the lost tribes, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Petersen, N. M., <i>Danmarks Hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Peterson, J. G., <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Peterson, <i>Rhode Island</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Petit Anse Island, basket-work discovered at, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pettitot, P. E., <i>Langue Dènè-Dindjie</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Vocab. Français-Esquimau</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Petzholdt, <i>Bibl. Bibliog.</i>, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Peyrère, Isaac de la, <i>Groenland</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">editions and translations, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Præadamitæ</i>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Man before Adam</i>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Peyster, J. W. de, <i>Miscellanies by an officer</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Phallic symbols, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Philadelphia libraries, <a href="#Page_mxviii">xviii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Philip, King, his war, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">prisoners in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Phillips, H., jr., <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the alleged Nova Scotia runes, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Phillips, J. S., <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Phillipps, Sir. Thomas, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">receives some of Kingsborough’s MSS., <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Catalogue</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his copy of Kingsborough’s book, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Philoponus, <i>Nova typis transacta navigatio</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Phoenicians" id="Phoenicians">Phœnicians</a> and maritime discovery, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Photography of the Yucatan ruins, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Picard, <i>Peuples idolatres</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pichardo, J. A., and the Boturini collection, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pickering, Chas., his ethnolog. map, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Races of Man</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Men and their geog. distribution</i>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pickering, John, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pickett, E., <i>Testimony of the Rocks</i>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pictographs, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Picture-writing, notes on, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">that of the Aztecs and Mayas early confounded, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a> (<i>see</i> <a href="#Hieroglyphics">Hieroglyphics</a>);</p> -<p class="pnii">recent sales of MSS., <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Maya method, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">P. Martyr’s descriptions, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Kingsborough’s work, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pidgeon, Wm., <i>Traditions of De-coo-dah</i>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Fort Azatlan, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Piedrahita, <i>Granada</i>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pierre, Henry, <a href="#Page_mxxviii">xxviii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pile dwellings, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pillars of Hercules, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pilling, Jas. C., <i>Bibliog. Indian Languages, Proof-sheets</i>, vii, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on linguistic MSS., <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pim, Bedford, <i>Dottings</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pima language, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pimentel, Antonio, <i>Relaciones</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pimentel, F., <i>Lenguas indigenas de México</i>, viii, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pinart, Alphonse, <i>Les Aléoutes</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Catalogue</i>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Coleccion de linguistica</i>, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bibl. de linguistique Amér.</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Pinart-Brasseur Catalogue</i>, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pindar on the Atlantic Ocean, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pinelo, Ant. de Léon, <i>Biblioteca</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Barcia’s ed., <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pinelo. <i>See</i> <a href="#Leon_y_Pinelo">Léon y Pinelo</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pinkerton, John, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pinzon’s voyages, acc. of, <a href="#Page_mxxiv">xxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pipart, Abbé J., <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Astronomie des Méxicaines</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pipe-stone quarries, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Piquet, Father, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pirinda-Othomi language, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Piruas, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pisco, valley, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mummy from, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pissac, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pizarro, Pedro, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pizigani, Fr., map (1367), <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">cut of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">(1373), <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Plato, on the form of the earth, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Phaedo</i>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Timaeus</i>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Atlantis story, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his works, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">editions, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Platzmann, Julius, <i>Grammatiken</i>, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Pleistocene" id="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> man in America, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> Tertiary and Quaternary man.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pliny on the form of the earth, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Nat. Hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his <i>Atlantis</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pliocene man, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Plummets, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Plurality of races, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Plutarch, <i>De Placitis Philosophorum</i>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his Saturnian continent, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Moralia</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Solon, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Poinsett, J. R., <i>Notes on Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Poisson, J. B., <i>Animadversiones</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Polo, Marco, <a href="#Page_mxxiv">xxiv</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxviii">xxviii</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Polybius, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>; on the branches of the ocean, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Polynesians, their relations to the Malays, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their route to America, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">migrations, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pomar, J. B., <i>Antigüedades de los Indios</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Memorias históricas</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on a Mexican house, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ponce, Father Alonzo, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pontanus, <i>Rerum et urbis Amst. hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pontiac’s conspiracy, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">number of warriors, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">posts captured, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pontoppidan, <i>Norway</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Poole, W. F., <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Donnelly’s <i>Atlantis</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Weise’s <i>Disc. of America</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Popular Mag. of Anthropology</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Popular Science Review</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Porcelain in pre-Spanish times, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Porcupine bank, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Portuguese discoveries in America, bibliog., <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the first explorers of the African coast, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">early views of the American coast, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Posidonius, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Post, C. F., in Ohio, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Potato in Peru, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Potter, W. P., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Potter, <i>Early Hist. Narragansett</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Potter’s wheel, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Pottery" id="Pottery">Pottery</a>, collections of, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">paper on, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Peru, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pourtalès, Count, on human remains in Florida, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Powell, David, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Powell, Maj. J. W., in the Colorado cañon, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Survey of the Rocky Mt. region</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ann. Reports Bur. Ethnol.</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the moundbuilders, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">views on language, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Evolution of language</i>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Wyandots, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on tribal society, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Philosophy of the No. Amer. Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mythology of the No. Amer. Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[464]</a></span></p><p class="pnii">director of Bureau of Ethnology, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his linguistic studies, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">edits <i>Contributions to Ethnology</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Powers, Stephen, on the California Indians, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Tribes of California</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pownal, Gov. Thomas, suggests the cranial test of race, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Prantl, <i>Aristoteles</i>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Himmelsgebäude</i>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pratt, W. H., <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Praying Indians, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Preadamites, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Preble, G. H., on Norse ships, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Precession of the equinoxes, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Prehistoric archæology, canons of, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Internat. Congresses, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Prehistoric time, usual divisions of, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">stages of development not decided by time, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Prescott, W. H., on the Northmen, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">notes on it by Ramirez, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Mexican civilization, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his relative use of early Spanish writers in his <i>Peru</i>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his library, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Mexican connection with Asia, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Prestwich, on cataclysmic force, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the age of man, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>On the drift containing implements</i>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Flint-implement-bearing beds</i>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Prevost, Abbé, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Price, E., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Price, J. E., <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Prichard, J. C., <i>Researches</i>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Priest, Josiah, <i>Amer. Antiq.</i>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Prime, W. C., on Gowans, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Prince, Thos., his library, <a href="#Page_i">i</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Prinz, R., <i>De Solonis Plutarchi fontibus</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pritt, Jos., <i>Olden Time</i>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Proclus, comment on Plato, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Comment. in Timaeum</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Proudfit, S. V., <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Prunières, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ptolemy, on the form of the earth, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the size of the known earth, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his system revived, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his influence, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">editions, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Almagest</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Atlantic islands, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pueblo Indians, arts of, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">pottery, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">connection with the Aztecs, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">general references, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their race, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ruins among them, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their connection with the moundbuilders, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Zuni">Zuñi</a>, <a href="#Moqui">Moqui</a>, etc.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pueblo region, maps of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pulgar, Fernando del, <a href="#Page_mxxix">xxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pullen, Clarence, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pulszky, F., <i>Human races and their art</i>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pumpelly, R., <i>Across America</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Puquina, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>; language, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Purchas, Samuel, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">buys the <i>Codex Mendoza</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Purpurariæ, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Putnam, C. E., <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Authenticity of the elephant pipes</i>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Putnam, F. W., on the California Indians, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Trenton implements, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Palæolithic implements</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Kentucky caves, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on shell heaps, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Jeffries Wyman, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Great Serpent mound, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his position on the question of moundbuilders, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on their skulls, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Fort Ancient, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in the Little Miami Valley, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Fort Azatlan, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on stone graves in Tennessee, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Kentucky mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Cassino’s <i>Standard Nat. Hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the arts of Southern California, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">edits the archæological part of <i>Wheeler’s Survey</i>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on soap-stone quarries, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on traces of stone-working, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on jade in America, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the melting of metal, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">finds meteoric iron in the mounds, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">silver, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">gold, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on copper objects, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Mexico, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on moundbuilders’ pottery, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Tennessee pottery, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Conventionalism in Anc. Amer. art</i>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on cloth in the mounds, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">as curator of Peabody Museum, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Amer. archæological collections, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his comments on the relics of the Naaman Creek rock shelter, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Putnam, Rufus, <i>Ross County, Ohio</i>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pyramids in America, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pythagoras, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Pytheas, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>; on the Atlantic, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">at Thule, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><a name="Quakers" id="Quakers"><span class="smcap">Quakers</span></a>, bibliog., <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Pennsylvania, oppose resistance to Indians, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">relation to the Indians, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quaritch, Bernard, the London bookseller, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his <i>Museum</i>, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his <i>General Catalogues</i>, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in the “Sett of Odd Volumes”, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sketch by W. H. Wyman, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quarry of pipe-stones, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quarrying stone, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quartz, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quartzite, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quaternary man, the earliest, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quatrefages de Bréan, A. de, <i>Les Polynésiens</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Crania Ethica</i>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Unité de l’espèce humaine</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Races humaines</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Human Species</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Nat. Hist. of Man</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les progrès de l’Anthropologie</i>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hommes fossiles</i>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Rapport sur le progrès de l’Anthropologie</i>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quauhnahuac conquered, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quauhtlatohuatzin, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Queh, F. G., <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quellenata, ruins, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quemada, ruins, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Querez, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Querlon, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quetzalcoatl (a king), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">discredited by Brinton, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quetzalcoatl (a divinity), a white-bearded man, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the myth, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">identified with Cortés, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Bastian on, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his mound, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">oppressed by Tezcatlipoca, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">references, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">historical basis of his story, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">effigy, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">under other names, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quiahuiztlan, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quiché-Cakchiquel peoples of Guatemala, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their geog. position, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Quiches" id="Quiches">Quichés</a>, language, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">myths, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">origin of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">traditions, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their power in Guatemala, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">warned of the Spaniards’ coming, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their geog. position, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quichuas, their language and literature, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">grammars, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">vocabularies, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">myths of, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">original home, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quignon, Mount, human jaw found at, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quinames, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quinantzin, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quincy, Josiah, <i>Hist. Harvard University</i>, <a href="#Page_miii">iii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quinsai, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quinté Bay mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quipus, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>; cut, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quiriguá, ruins, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">plan, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">references, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quito, Hassaurek on, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">early accounts lost, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">later histories, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quitus, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Quivira, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Races</span>, unity or plurality of, bibliog., <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rada, De la, on Rosny, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les Vases péruviennes</i>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rada y Delgado, J. D. de la, publishes Landa’s <i>Relacion</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Radisson, P. E., <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rae, John, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rafinesque, C. S., on Atlantis, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Delawares, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anc. Mts. of America</i>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the mounds, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his character, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">introd. to Marshall’s <i>Kentucky</i>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ancient History</i>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>The American Nations</i>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rafn, C. C., <i>Grönlands Hist. Mindesmaerker</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">autog., <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Americas Geog.</i>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ed. Olaf Tryggvesson’s Saga, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his career, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Cabinet d’Antiq. Amér.</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiq. Americanæ</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his lesser statements about the Northmen, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>L’ancienne géog. des régions arctiques</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiq. Américaines</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">influence of Rafn, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ragine, A., <i>Découv. de l’Amérique</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Raimondi, Ant., <i>El Peru</i>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rain-god, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Raleigh, Sir Walter, on De Bry, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ramirez, José F., edits Duran’s <i>Historia</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Sahagún, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his collection of MSS., <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">notes on Prescott, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bibl. Mex.</i>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ramirez de Fuenleal, <i>Hist. de los Méxicanos por sus Pinturas</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ramon de Ordoñez, <i>Hist. del Cielo</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> Ordoñez.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ramusio, edits P. Martyr and Oviedo, <a href="#Page_mxxiii">xxiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Navigazioni</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxiii">xxiii</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxviii">xxviii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Randolph, J. W., <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ranking, John, <i>Conquest of Peru by the Mongols</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rask, Erasmus, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Irish discovery of America, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rasle, S., <i>Abnake language</i>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rau, Chas., on Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Palenqué Tablet, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the progress of study in the hieroglyphics, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Catal. Nat. Museum</i>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Illinois mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Articles</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the aboriginal implements of agriculture, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Prehistoric fishing</i>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the stock in trade of an aboriginal lapidary, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">various papers on stone implements, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Amer. pottery, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Aboriginal Trade</i>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">thought the earliest man could not talk, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Articles on Anthropol. Subjects</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Archæolog. Coll. of the U. S.</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Lapidarian Sculpture</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rawlinson, Geo., <i>Antiq. of Man</i>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rawlinson, Sir H. C., on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ray, Luzerne, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rea, A. de la, <i>Mechoacan</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Read, Harvey, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Read, M. C., <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Archæology of Ohio</i>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Tennessee mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Reade, John, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Reck, P. G. F. von, <i>Diarium</i>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Recollects, missions, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Recueil de Voyages</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Red River of Louisiana, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Red River of the North, mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Red pipe-stone quarry, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Registro Yucatéco</i>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Reynolds, E. R., <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Shell-heaps at Newburg, Md.</i>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Reynolds, H. L., jr., <i>Metal Art of Anc. Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Reid, <i>Bibl. Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_mii">ii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Reikjavik, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Reillo, island, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Reinaud, <i>Relations de l’Empire Romaine avec l’Asie</i>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Géog. d’Abul-Fada</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Reindeer Period, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Reisch’s map, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Reiss, W., and A. Stübel, <i>Necropolis of Ancon</i>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Relics, spurious, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Remesal, Ant. de, <i>Hist. gen. de las Indias</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">praised by Helps, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Renard, on St. Paul’s Rocks in the Atlantic Ocean, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Repartimientos, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Retzius, A., <i>Present state of Ethnology</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[465]</a></span></p><p class="pnii">on the human skull, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the unity of man, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Guanche skulls, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Reusner, <i>Icones</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxiv">xxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Réville, Albert, <i>Origin and growth of religion</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Revista Méxicana</i>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Revista Peruana</i>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Revue Américaine</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Revue d’Anthropologie</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Revue d’Architecture</i>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Revue Ethnographique</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Revue des Soc. Savantes</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rhees, W. J., <i>History of the Smithsonian Institution</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rhode Island, docs. in her Archives, <a href="#Page_mxiv">xiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Indians, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rialle, G. de, <i>La Mythologie</i>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ribas, Juan de, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ricardo, Ant., <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Riccioli, <i>Geog.</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rice, A. T., <i>Essays from No. Amer. Rev.</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rich, Obadiah, his career, <a href="#Page_miii">iii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dies, <a href="#Page_miv">iv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his catalogues, <a href="#Page_miv">iv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">assists Kingsborough, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">obtains his MSS., <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">helped Prescott, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Richarderie. <i>See</i> Boucher.</p> - -<p class="pni">Richardson, J. M., <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Richardson, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Riggs, R. S., <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Dacota language</i>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Dacotah myths, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rigollet, convinced by De Perthes, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rikardsen, K., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rimac, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rink, Hinrich, <i>Eskimoiske Eventyr</i>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">best authority on the Eskimos, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his publications, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Tales of the Eskimo</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Danish Greenland</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Eskimo Tribes</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on their dialects, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their origin and descent, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their primitive abode, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their traditions, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ostgrönländerne</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Greenland">Greenland</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rio, Ant. del, at Palenqué, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ruins of an anc. city</i>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rio de Janeiro, Nat. Museum, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mémoires</i>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rios, P. de los, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Riseland, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">River drift, man of, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rivero, M. E. de, <i>Antigüedades Peruanas</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">translations, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rivera, P., <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rivière, E., in the Mentone caves, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Un Squelette humain</i>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Robertson, D. A., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Robertson, R. S., <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Robertson, Samuel, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Robertson, Wm., <i>America</i>, ii., <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Norse voyages, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his nearly correct view of the anc. Mexican civilization, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">severe on Clavigero, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">disbelieved in pre-Spanish ruins, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Incas, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Amer. Indians, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on seventeenth-century literature of Americana, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his bibliog., <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Robin, <i>Louisiane</i>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Robinson, Conway, <i>Disc. in the West</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Robinson, Edw., <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Robinson, <i>Life in California</i>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rocca, inca, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rock inscriptions of the Indians, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rock shelter at Naaman’s Creek, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rock-writing, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rocks, cup-like cavities in, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rockall, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rockford tablet, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Roehrig on the Sioux, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</p> -<p class="pni">Rogers, Horatio, <i>Private libraries of Providence</i>, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Roisel, <i>Etudes ante-historiques</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rojas, <i>Cholula</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Roman, G., <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Roman, H., <i>Republica de las Indias</i>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Roman coins, in the Danish shell-heaps, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">found in America, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Romans, Bernard, <i>Florida</i>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the autochthonous Amer. man, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Romans in the Atlantic, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rome, <i>Società Geog. Ital., Bollettino</i>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Romero on Mexican languages, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Roquefeuil, de, Voyage, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rosa, Gonzalez de la, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rosas, Dr., <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rosny, Léon de, <i>L’Atlantide</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Fousang, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Variétés Orientales</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les doc. écrit. de l’antiq. Amér.</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Sahagún, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">gives fac. of Aztec map, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Essai sur le déchiffrement</i>, etc. <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Landa’s Alphabet, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les écritures figuratives</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Archives paléographiques</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anc. textes Mayas</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Nouvelles Recherches</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his studies on Spain and Portugal, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les Sources d’histoire anté-Columbienne</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog. 201;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the <i>Codex Telleriano-Remensis</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Brasseur’s ed. of the <i>Codex Troano</i>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">discovers the <i>Codex Perezianus</i>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Manuscrit dit Méxicain, No. 2 de la bibl. impériale</i>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his works on Amer. archæology, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on jade industries, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Revue Orientale et Américaine</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rosny, Lucien de, <i>Les Antilles</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Le tabac</i>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>La Céramique</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ross, Thomasina, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rosse, Irving C., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rothelin, Abbé, De Bry, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rotz, his map of Greenland, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Roujow, <i>Races humaines</i>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rowbotham, J. F., <i>Hist. of Music</i>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Royal Geographical Society and its publications, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Royal Historical Soc. <i>Trans.</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Royal Society of Canada, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Royal Society, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Royce, C. C., on the Cherokees, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Indian Cessions of land</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Shawanees, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Royllo, island, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rucharner, <i>Newe unbek. landte</i>, <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rudbeck, on Atlantis, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ruffner, E. H., <i>Ute Country</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ruge, <i>Der Chaldäer Selenkos</i>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ruins in Middle America, notes on, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Runes, alleged ones in Nova Scotia, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">cuts of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">age of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">references, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Greenland, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Runnels, M. T., <i>Sanbornton, N. H.</i>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Rupertus, <i>Dissertationes</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Russell, I. C., <i>Lake Lahontan</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ruttenber, E. M., <i>Hudson River Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ruxton, <i>Life in Far West</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ruysch’s map, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Saabye</span>, <span class="smcap">Hans E.</span>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sabin, Jos., his publications, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Amer. Bibliopolist</i>, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Dictionary</i>, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Squier Catal.</i>, <a href="#Page_mviii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Menzies Catal.</i>, <a href="#Page_mxii">xii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sabine, Lorenzo, on the Indians in Maine, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sac and Fox tribes, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sacrificial Stone in Mexico, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sacsahuaman, ruins, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sagard, <i>Canada</i>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">reference to copper mines, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Sagas" id="Sagas">Sagas</a>, when written, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">credibility of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">fac-simile of script, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">largely myths, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">when put in writing, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Codex Flatoyensis</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">absurdities in, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">oldest maps in accordance with, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Northmen">Northmen</a>, <a href="#Iceland">Iceland</a>, etc.</p> - -<p class="pni">Saghalien, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sagot, P., <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sahagún, Father, as linguistic student, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his true name, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sahuaraura, inca, Dr. J., <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Recuerdos de la Monarquia Peruana</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Saint. <i>See</i> St.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sails used by the Peruvians, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Salcamayhua, J. de, S. P. Y., <i>Relacion</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Saldamando, E. T., <i>Los Antiquos Jesuitas del Peru</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sale, Ant. de la, <i>La Salade</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Salisbury, Stephen, jr., <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">assists Le Plongeon, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>The Mayas</i>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Terra Cottas of Isla Mujeres</i>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Salone on Atlantis, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Salter, John, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">San Juan, cliff houses on the, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">pueblo, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">San Miguel, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">San Tomas, his grammar, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sana, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sanborn, J. W., <i>Seneca Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sanbornton, N. H., Indian fortification, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sanford, Ezekiel, <i>Hist. United States</i>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sans, R., <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sanskrit roots in Mexican, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sanson, Guillaume, on Atlantis, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his map, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Santa, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Santarem, <i>Hist. de la Cosmog.</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his atlas, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Santillan, Fernando de, Relacion, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sanuto, Marino, his map (1306), <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">acc. of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a> (1320), <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Saravia, B. de, <i>Antig. del Peru</i>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sargasso Sea, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sargent, Winthrop, on the Cincinnati mounds, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">plan of the Marietta mounds, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sarmiento de Gamboa, P., discovers islands, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Viage al estrecho de Magellanes</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sars, J. E., <i>Norske Hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Satanagio. <i>See</i> <a href="#Man_Satanaxio">Man Satanaxio</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Satanaxio. <i>See</i> <a href="#Man">Man</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Saunders, Trelawny, map of Peru, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Saussure, H. de, <i>Ruines d’une anc. ville</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Savage, a.d., <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Savage, Jos., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sawkins, J. G., <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Saxe-Eisenach, Duke of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Saxenburg, island, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Saxo-Grammaticus, <i>Hist. Danica</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Scandinavia. <i>See</i> <a href="#Northmen">Northmen</a>, <a href="#Norway">Norway</a>, <a href="#Sweden">Sweden</a>, <a href="#Iceland">Iceland</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schaefer, <i>Entwicklung, etc.</i>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Gestalt und Grösse der Erde</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Philologus</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schaghticoke Indians, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schellhas, <i>Die Mayahandschrift</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Scherer, J. B., <i>Recherches</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Scherzer, K., <i>Wanderungen</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Las Hist. del Origen de los Indios</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Quiriguá</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schiern, F., <i>Un Enigme</i>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schlagintweit, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schmerling, Dr., <i>Recherches sur les ossemens</i>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schmidel, Brazil, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schmidt, E., <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Dissert. de America</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Die ältesten Spuren des Menschen</i>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anthropol. Methoden</i>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schmidt, Julius, <i>Copan and Quiriguá</i>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schneider, C. E. C., <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schoebel, C., among the pueblos, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schöning, Gerhard, <i>Norges Rigens Hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schonlandia, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schoolcraft, H. R., <i>Books in the Indian tongues</i>, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Northmen, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Grave Creek inscription, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Indian Tribes</i>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">opinions of it, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[466]</a></span></p><p class="pnii">otherwise called <i>Archives of Aboriginal Knowledge</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">and <i>Ethnological Researches</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">F. S. Drake’s ed., <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his notes on antiquities, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Grave Creek Mound</i>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Report on Iroquois</i>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Notes on the Iroquois</i>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Virginia mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Florida pottery, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his linguistic studies, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dies, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">rivalry of Catlin, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schouten in De Bry, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schrader, <i>Namen der Meere</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schultz-Sellack, Carl, <i>Die Amer. Götter</i>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schultz, <i>Travels</i>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schumacher, H. A., <i>Petrus Martyr</i>, <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schumacher, P., <a href="#Page_393">393</a>; on pottery making, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schwab, Moïse, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Schwatka, F., on the Eskimos, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Science</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Scioto Valley, map of mounds, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Scipio’s dream, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Scoffern, John, <i>Stray leaves</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Scolvus" id="Scolvus">Scolvus</a>, Jac., his landfall, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Skolno">Skolno</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Scott, P. A., <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Scott, Sir Walter, on the Sagas, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Scotland, early map of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Scudder, S. H., <i>Catal. of Scientific Serials</i>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Scull, G. D., edits Radisson, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Scylax on the Atlantic, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Periplus</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Scythian" id="Scythian">Scythian</a> migration to America, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sea of Darkness, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Seager, his drawing of the Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sebillot, Paul, <i>Légendes</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Seeman, B., <i>Dottings</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Selden collection, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Selish grammar, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sellers, on arrow points, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Seminole Indians, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Semites, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Seneca, L. A., <i>Questionum Nat.</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">works, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the westward passage, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his prophecy, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his “Ultima Thule”, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his <i>Medea</i>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Seneca Indians, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">origin of the name, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their burial mound, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Iroquois">Iroquois</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Septon, J., <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Se-quo-yah, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Serpent mound, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Serpent symbol, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Serpent, worship of, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sertorius, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Seven Caves, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Seven Cities, island of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sewall, Samuel, on Hornius, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Phænomena</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sewell, Stephen, on Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Shaler, N. S., on the New Jersey gravels, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their implements, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the disappearance of the mastodon, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Ohio Valley caves, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Kentucky Survey</i>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Shaw, J., <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Shawanees, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Pontiac’s conspiracy, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Shea, J. G., <i>Library of Amer. Linguistics</i>, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Catholic Missions</i>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Indians of Nova Scotia, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">translates Martin’s <i>Jogues</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Wisconsin Indians, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Dict. Français-Onontagué</i>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Lib. of Amer. Linguistics</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its contents, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>French Onondaga Dict.</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Shell-heaps" id="Shell-heaps">Shell-heaps</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">contemporary with the cave-men, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">contents of those in No. America, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">general references, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Shell-money, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Shell-work, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Shepard, H. A., Antiq. of Ohio, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sherman, D., <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sherwood, J. D., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sherwood, R. H., <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Shetimasha Indians, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ships, speed of ancient, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">of the fifteenth century, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">a British ship, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Northmen">Northmen</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Short, C. W., <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Short, J. T., <i>No. Amer. of Antiq.</i>, vii, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Fousang, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the antiquity of man in America, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Shoshones, arts of, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their migrations, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sierra, Justo, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sign-language. <i>See</i> <a href="#Gesture-language">Gesture language</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sigüenza y Gongora, C. de, his chronology of Mexico, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">collection of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Silenus, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Silliman, <i>Journal of Arts</i>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii">See <i><a href="#American_Journal">Amer. Journal of Science and Arts</a></i>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sillustani, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Chulpas at, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">cut, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Silver, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Silvestre, <i>Paléographie</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Siméon, Rémi, <i>Les Annales Méxicaines</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>La langue Méxicaine</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Sur la numération</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Simms, <i>Views and Reviews</i>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Simon, Mrs. B. A., <i>Hope of Israel</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ten Tribes</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Simonin, L., <i>L’homme Américain</i>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Simpson, H. F. M., <i>Prehist. of the North</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Simpson, J. H., <i>Navajo Country</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mil. Reconnaissance</i>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Explorations of Utah</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sinding, Paul K., <i>Scandinavia</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Scandin. Races</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sinkers, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Sioux" id="Sioux">Sioux</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Dacotahs">Dacotahs</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sitgreave, Capt. L., <i>Expedition</i>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sitjav, B., language of the San Antonio Mission, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Six Nations. <i>See</i> <a href="#Iroquois">Iroquois</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Skeleton in armor, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Skertchly, S. B. J., <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Skolno" id="Skolno">Skolno</a> on the Labrador coast, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Scolvus">Scolvus</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Skrælings, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Eskimos">Eskimos</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Skulls, trepanned, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">deforming of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Craniology">Craniology</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sladen, Von, <i>Brazil</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Slafter, E. F., <i>Voyages of the Northmen</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Small, John, on Thule, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Smedt, C. de, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Smith, Alf. R., <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Smith, B., <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Heve language</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Pima language</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Smith, C. D., <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Smith, C. H., <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Human Species</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Smith, Ethan, <i>View of the Hebrews</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Smith, Mrs. E. A., on the Iroquois, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Myths of the Iroquois</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Smith, Col. James, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Captivity</i>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Smith, John, in De Bry, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Smith, J. G., <i>Atla</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Smith, John Russell, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Smith, J. T., <i>Northmen in New England</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Disc. of America by the Northmen</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Smith, J. W. C., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Smith, J. Y., <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Smith, Jos., <i>Friends’ books</i>, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anti-quakeriana</i>, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bibl. Quakeristica</i>, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Smith, Wm., <i>New York</i>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Smithsonian Institution, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its publications, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Smucker, Isaac, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">archæology in Ohio, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Newark mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Alligator mound, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Smyth, Thos., <i>Unity of the Human Race</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Snorre Sturleson, <i>Heimskringla</i>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Snorre, ancestor of Thorwaldsen, the Danish sculptor, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Soap-stone quarries, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sobolewski, S., his catalogue, <a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his De Bry, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sobron, F. C. Y., <i>Los idiomas</i>, <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Société Americaine de France, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Société d’Anthropologie, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bulletin</i> and <i>Mémoires</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Société d’Ethnographie, <i>Mémoires</i>,442;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les Documents écrits de l’Antiquité Amér.</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Société Ethnographique, <i>Bulletin</i> and <i>Mémoires</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Soil formation in America, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Solberg, Th., bibliog. of Scandinavia, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Soldan, Paz., <i>Geog. del Peru</i>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Soligo, Christ., map (1487?), <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Solinus, <i>Polyhistor.</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sollars, W. J., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Solomon, his Ophir, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Ophir">Ophir</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Solon and Atlantis, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Solorano, Juan de, <i>Politica Indiana</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Soloutre, village, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Soltecos, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Soto, Francis de, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the mounds, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">South America, flora corresponds with African, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">prehistoric man in, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">languages, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Southall, Jas. C., on the Unity of Races, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">believes in the theory of degeneracy, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Recent origin of Man</i>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">biblical trust, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Epoch of the Mammoth</i>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his views, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">controversy with the archæologists, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on his opponents, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Southern States, Indians of, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Southey, Robert, <i>Madoc</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Spain, arms of, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">hieroglyphic MSS. in, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Sociedad Anthropológica Española, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Revista</i>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Spainhour, J. M., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Spanish America, writers of, <a href="#Page_ii">ii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sparks, Jared, his library, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his MSS., <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dies, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Speaker’s Commentary</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Speech wanting in the palæolithic man, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Speer, Wm., <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Spilbergen on De Bry, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Spilsbury, J. H. G., his Quichua work, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Spineto, <i>Hieroglyphics</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Spitzbergen sometimes called Greenland in early accounts, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Spizelius, Theoph., <i>Elevatio</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Sporting Review</i>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Spotswood, Gov., on the frontier posts, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sprengel, M. C., <i>Europäer in Nord Amerika</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Squier, E. G., on Zestermann’s <i>Colonization of America</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his publications and library, vii, viii, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Serpent Symbol</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">notes on Zestermann, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Grave Creek inscription, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Catalogue of his library</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Central America</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Collection of Docs.</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>The Great Calendar Stone</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">introd. to Morellet’s <i>Travels</i>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Central America ruins and their relative age, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Nicaragua</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Tenampua, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">criticised by Bovallius, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on a defect in the signatures of Kingsborough’s book, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Peru, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">at Chacha, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">at Lake Titicaca, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>La géog. du Pérou</i>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Primeval monuments of Peru</i>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Peru, incidents of Travel</i>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his mission and studies in Peru, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Les monuments du Pérou</i>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">death, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Traditions of the Algonquins</i>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on early notices of the Pueblo race, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Semi-civilized Nations of New Mexico and California</i>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">(with Davis), <i>Anc. Mts. of the Mississippi Valley</i>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">commended by Gallatin and others, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the New York mounds, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[467]</a></span></p><p class="pnii"><i>Observations onmounds</i>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">doubts the Grave Creek tablet, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Aborig. Mts. State of N. Y.</i>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiq. of N. Y. State</i>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Monograph of Authors</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Serpent Symbol</i>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Squier, Mrs. M. F., <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">St. Bonaventure, G. de, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>; <i>Grammaire Maya</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="St_Brandan" id="St_Brandan">St. Brandan</a>, island of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his story, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his island, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">St. Clement, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">St. Lawrence Island, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">St. Louis Academy of Science, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds near, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">St. Malo, legend of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">St. Patrick, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">St. Petersburg, Museum of Ethnography, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">St. Thomas in Central America, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">connected with Quetzalcoatl, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stadium, length of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stallbaum, ed. of Plato, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Phœnician knowledge of America, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stanford, <i>Compend. of Geog.</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stanley, J. M., <i>Portraits of No. Amer. Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Steenstrup, Japetus, on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Steenstrup, K., on Scandinavian ruins, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Osterbygden</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Greenland colonies, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Steffen, Max, <i>Landwirtschaft</i>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stein, Gerard, <i>Die Entdeckungsreisen</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Steiner, Abraham G., <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Steinthal, H., <i>Ursprung der Sprache</i>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stelle, J. P., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stenstrom, H., <i>De America</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stephens, Geo., <i>Oldest Doc. in Danish</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>No. Runic Mts.</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Runic Mts. of Scandinavia</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stephens, J. L., <i>Yucatan</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">prints a Maya doc., <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">held responsible by Morgan for exaggerated notions of the Maya splendor, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Central America</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>; map, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">at Uxmal, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">at Chichen-Itza, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his results in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">at Palenqué, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">at Copan, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stephens, <i>Lit. of the Cymry</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stephenson, Geo., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stephenson, M. F., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sterling, H. H., <i>Irish Minstrelsy</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stevens, E. T., <i>Flint Chips</i>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stevens, Henry, controversy with Harisse, <a href="#Page_mv">v</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">buys Humboldt’s library, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Humboldt, <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Recoll. of Lenox</i>, <a href="#Page_mxi">xi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bought Crowninshield library, <a href="#Page_mxii">xii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dealer in Americana, <a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Schedule of Nuggets</i>, <a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>, xiv;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bibl. Hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>, <a href="#Page_mxiv">xiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dies, <a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on De Bry, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">proposed <i>Bibl. Americana</i>, <a href="#Page_mxiv">xiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his transcripts of MSS., <a href="#Page_mxiv">xiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">agent of the Smithsonian Inst., the British Museum, the Bodleian, <a href="#Page_mxiv">xiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his <i>English Library</i>, <a href="#Page_mxiv">xiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Amer. Bibliographer</i>, <a href="#Page_mxiv">xiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Books in the Brit. Mus.</i>, <a href="#Page_mxiv">xiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hist. Nuggets</i>, <a href="#Page_mxiv">xiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bibl. Amér.</i>, <a href="#Page_mxiv">xiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hist. and Geog. Notes</i>, <a href="#Page_mxiv">xiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bibl. Geog. et Hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_mxiv">xiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Amer. books with tails</i>, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hist. Collections</i>, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">owns Franklin MSS., <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">list of his own publications, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bibliog. of New Hampshire</i>, <a href="#Page_mxv">xv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">buys the Brockhaus collection, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Zeni map, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stevens, H. N., <a href="#Page_mxiv">xiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stevens, John, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stevens, J. A., <i>Geo. Gibbs</i>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stevens, Simon, <a href="#Page_mxiv">xiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stevenson, Jas., on the cliff houses, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anc. habitations of the Southwest</i>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">catalogue of pottery, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">researches among the Pueblos, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stevenson, J. E., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>; <i>Zuñi</i>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stevenson, Mrs. T. E., <i>Religious life of the Zuñi child</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stevenson, W., on navigation, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stickney, C. E., <i>Minisink Region</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stiles, Dr. Ezra, on the Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>The United States elevated to glory</i>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the origin of the American, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on an Indian idol, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stockbridge Indians, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stoddard, Amos, <i>Louisiana</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stoddard, <i>Louisiana</i>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stoll, O., <i>Republik Guatemala</i>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stone, O. M., <i>Teneriffe</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stone, W. L., on the moundbuilders, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Uncas and Miantonomoh</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his lives of Johnson, Brant, and Red Jacket, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the N. Y. mounds, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Stone_Age" id="Stone_Age">Stone Age</a> in America, oldest implements yet found, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">different stones used, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> Palæolithic, Neolithic.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Stone" id="Stone">Stone</a>, artificial cleavages of, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">chipping, the process, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">work in, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Strabo, on the size of the known world, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his views of habitable parts, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Geographia</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">editions, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">translations, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Gosselin’s French transl., <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">translated by order of Nicholas V, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Strebel, H., <i>Alt-Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Strinhold, A. M., <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stroll, Otto, <i>Guatemala</i>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Strong, Moses, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Strutt, <i>Dict. Engravers</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxvii">xxvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stuart and Kuyper, <i>De Mensch</i>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Stübel, A., <i>Necropolis of Ancon</i>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ueber Altperuvianische Gewebemuster</i>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Studley, Cordelia A., <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sturleson, Snorro, <i>Heimskringla</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sulte, B., on the Iroquois, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sumner, Chas., <i>Prophetic voices concerning America</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sun, worship of, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sunderland library, <a href="#Page_mxiii">xiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Susquehanna Valley Indians, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sutcliffe, Thomas, <i>Chili and Peru</i>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sutherland, P. C., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Sweden" id="Sweden">Sweden</a>, anthropological studies in, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sweden, early map, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Swedes, their blinding patriotism, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Delaware, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sweetzer, Seth, on prehist. man, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Swinford, <i>Mineral Resources of Lake Superior</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Swiss lake dwellings, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">relics from, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">general references, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Switzler, W. F., <i>Missouri</i>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Sylvester, <i>Northern New York</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Tacitus</span>, <i>Germania</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tacna, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tamana, idol from, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tamoanchar, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">geog. position, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tanmar. <i>See</i> <a href="#Danmar">Danmar</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tanos, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Taos, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tapenecs. <i>See</i> <a href="#Tepanecs">Tepanecs</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tapijulapane-Mixe, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tarapaca, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tarascos, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tarayre, G., <i>L’Exploration mineralogique</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Targe, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Tartar" id="Tartar">Tartar</a> migrations to America, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">traces in N. W. America, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tassin, French geographer, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tayasàl, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Taylor, A. S., bibliog. of California, <a href="#Page_mix">ix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Taylor, Isaac, <i>Alphabets</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Taylor, Jeremy, <i>Dissuasive from Popery</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Taylor, John, on the N. Y. mounds, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Taylor, R. C., on the Wisconsin mounds, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Taylor, S., <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Taylor, Thomas, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Commentaries of Proclus</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Taylor, W. M., on mounds, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Techotl, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tecpan, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tecpaneca conquered, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tehna, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tehuelhet, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Telleriano-Remensis Codex</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Temple, Edw., <i>Travels in Peru</i>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Temple, <i>No. Brookfield</i>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tempsky, G. F. von, <i>Mitla</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ten Kate, H. F. C., <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Reizen</i>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tenampua, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tenayocan, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tennessee, aborig. remains, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">pottery, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">stone graves, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tenochtitlan. <i>See</i> <a href="#Mexico_city">Mexico (city)</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Teoamoxtli, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Teoculcuacan, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Teotihuacan, Olmecs at, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">a religious shrine, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ruins, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Teoyaomiqui, effigy, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Tepanecs" id="Tepanecs">Tepanecs</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tepechpan, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tepeu, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tepeyahualco, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Terceira, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ternaux-Compans, H., his library, <a href="#Page_miv">iv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bibl. Amér.</i>, <a href="#Page_miv">iv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvii">xxxvii</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his studies of Peru, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>La theogonie Méxicaine</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Terra cotta, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tertiary man, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">evidences, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tertullian, <i>De Pallio</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Teruel, Luis de, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">MSS. on the Peruvians, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Textile_arts" id="Textile_arts">Textile arts</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">impression preserved in pottery, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">of the moundbuilders, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tezcatlipoca, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">oppressor of Quetzalcoatl, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tezcuco, growth of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">alleged empire at, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">old bridge near, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">old buildings, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tezozomoc, H. de A., <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Crónica Méx.</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">MSS. on Mexican history, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Theopompus of Chios, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his continent, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thévenot, bibliog., <a href="#Page_mxii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thévet, A., on the Jewish migration to America, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thiersant, Dabry de, <i>Origine des Indiens</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thomas, Cyrus, on Mexican MSS., <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Mexican astronomy, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Landa’s alphabet, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>MS. Troano</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, his course of study, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Maya numerical signs, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the mounds, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Work on Mound Exploration</i>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Burial Mounds</i>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">disputes Putnam’s view of the mounds, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">presentations of his views on the moundbuilders, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the elephant pipes, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the builders of the mounds, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the effigy mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the stone graves of Tennessee, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Etowah mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">conducts mound explorations, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Maya and Mexican MSS.</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thomas, Mrs. Cyrus, bibliog. of Ohio mounds, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thomas, David, <i>Travels</i>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thomas, Isaiah, founds Amer. Antiq. Soc., <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thompson, E. H., <i>Atlantis not a Myth</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Yucatan, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the “Elephants’ trunks”, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thompson, G. A., <i>New Theory</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thompson, J., translates De Pauw, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thompson, T. P., <i>Knot Records of Peru</i>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hist. of the Quipus</i>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thompson, Waddy, <i>Recoll. of Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thomson, Chas., <i>Enquiry</i>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thorfinn Karlsefne, in Vinland, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Saga, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Thorlacius" id="Thorlacius">Thorlacius</a>, G., his map of Vinland, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thorlacius, Theod., <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thorlakssen. <i>See</i> <a href="#Thorlacius">Thorlacius</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thorndike, Col., Israel, <a href="#Page_miii">iii</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[468]</a></span></p><p class="pni">Thorne, Robt., his map, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thornton, J. W., <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thoron, Onffroy de, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thorowgood, Thomas, <i>Jewes in America</i>,115;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Vindiciæ Jud.</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Digitus Dei</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thorwald on Vinland, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Three Chimneys (islands), <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Thule" id="Thule">Thule</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>; discovered, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Seneca, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">varying position, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thurston, G. P., <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Thyle, on Macrobius’ map, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Thule">Thule</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tiahuanacu, position, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">architectural details, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ruins restored, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ruins described, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">doorway, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">seen by D’Orbigny, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">various descriptions, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Bollaert, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Basadie, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Inwards, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tibullus, <i>Elegies</i>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tides, Macrobius’ view of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tiele, P. A., <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tiguex, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tikal, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tilantongo, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tillinghast, W. H., “Geog. Knowledge of the Ancients”, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Timagenes, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Timber brought from Vinland, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Timberlake, Henry, on the Cherokees, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Timucua language, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Timuquana language, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tin mines, early, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tinneh, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tishcoban, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Titicaca, lake, seat of worship, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">its myth, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">seat of the Piruas, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">connected with the Inca myths, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dwellers near, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">views of lake and ruins, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Squier’s Explorations, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">surveyed by J. B. Pentland, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Inca palace, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tizoc, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tlacatecuhtli, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tlacopan forms a confederacy, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tlacutzin, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tlaloc, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">rain-god, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tlapallan, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tlapallanco, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tlascalans, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tobacco, mortars for pounding it, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Tobar" id="Tobar">Tobar</a>, Juan de, <i>Codex Ramirez</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Relacion</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">printed by Sir Thos. Phillipps, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hist. de los Indios</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">To-carryhogan, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tollan, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tollatzinco, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Toloom, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Toltecs" id="Toltecs">Toltecs</a>, descendants of the Atlantides, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">origin of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">from Tollan, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their appearance in Mexico, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">end of their power, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">a nation or a dynasty, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their story, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their later migrations, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Brinton and Charnay disagree on their status, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Bandelier considers them Maya, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Sahagún the “giants”, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Bandelier’s view, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sources of their history, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">MS. annals, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their astronomical ideas, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">build the ruins of Yucatan, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tomo-chi-chi, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tomlinson, A. B., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tonocote, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Topinard on the jaw-bone from the Naulette Cave, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Torfæus, <i>Hist. Gronlandiæ</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his character, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hist. Vinlandiæ</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">facs. of title, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">places Vinland in Newfoundland, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">gives maps, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Toribio de Benevente, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Torquemada, instructed by Ixtlilxochitl, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">MS. used by him, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Monarchia Ind.</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Torres Rubio, Irego de, in Peru, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his Quichua grammar, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Torrid zone, notions regarding it, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">they check exploration, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Toscanelli on Antillia, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his ideas of the Atlantic ocean, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">letter to Columbus, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">different texts of it, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his working papers, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his map, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Totems, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Totemism, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Totonacs, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Totul Xius, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>; sources, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Toulmin, Harry, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tovar, <i>See</i> <a href="#Tobar">Tobar</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Trabega, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Trade" id="Trade">Trade</a> of the Amer. Aborigines, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">no good acc. of, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Traffic" id="Traffic">Traffic</a>, intertribal, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Treaties with the Indians, methods of, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Trees, rings of, as signs of age, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Trenton" id="Trenton">Trenton</a> gravel bluff, view of, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the deposits described, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">skulls found in, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">gravels, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">traces of man in, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Delaware">Delaware</a>, <a href="#New_Jersey">New Jersey</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Trepanning in Peru, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Trephining, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Trigoso, S. F. M., <i>Descob. e Commercio dos Portuguezes</i>, <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Triquis, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tritemius, Joannes, <i>De Scriptoribus</i>, <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Trivizano, <i>Libretto</i>, <a href="#Page_mxx">xx</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Trivulgiana library (Milan), <a href="#Page_mvi">vi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tro y Ortolano, J., <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Trocadero Museum in Paris, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Troil, <i>Lettres sur l’Islande</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Trojans, ancestors of the Indians, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Trömel, Paul, <i>Bibl. Amér.</i>, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Troost, G., on Tennessee archeol. remains, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tross, Edwin, catalogues, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Trowbridge, D., <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Troyon, Prof., <i>Habitations lacustres</i>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Trübner, K. J., <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Trübner, Nic., <i>Bibl. Hisp. Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dies, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Trumbull, J. H., on Indian languages, <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">edits the Brinley library catalogue, <a href="#Page_mxii">xii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Indian Missions in New England</i>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his studies in the Indian languages, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Trutat, E., <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Trutot, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Truxillo, Diego de, <i>Relacion</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Truxillo, ruins near, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tschudi, J. D. von, on the llamas, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antig. Peruanas</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Reisen</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Travels</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ollanta</i>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Quichua language, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his grammar, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tula, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ruin at, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tulan, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tulan, Zuiva, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tumbez, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tungus, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tupac Inca Yupanqui, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tupis of South America, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Turnefort, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Turner, G., <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Turner, Sharon, <i>Anglo-Saxons</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Turner, W., <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Turner, W. W., <a href="#Page_mvii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Indian Philology</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tusayan, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tuscaroras, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tuttle, C. W., <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Two Sorcerers, island, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tylor, E. B., on Egyptian hieroglyphics, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Scandin. civilization among Eskimaux</i>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on connection of Asia and Mexico, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anáhuac</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">applauds Prescott’s view, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his rank as an anthropologist, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Early Hist. of Mankind</i>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Early Mental Condition of Man</i>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Condition of Prehist. Races</i>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on man’s progress from barbarism to civilization, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Primitive Culture</i>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anthropology</i>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Amer. aspects of Anthropology</i>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">acc. of, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the degeneracy of the savage, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tyrians on the Atlantic, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tzendal language, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tzequiles, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Tzetzes, <i>Scholia in Lycophron</i>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Ua Corra</span>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Uhde collection, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Uhle, Max, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Uira-cocha, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ukert, <i>Geog. der Griechen</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ule, Otto, <i>Die Erde</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ulloa, A., <i>Mémoires</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Voyage historique</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Not. Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ulloa, J. J., <i>Voyage</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ulloa, <i>Relacion Hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ulpius globe, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Uncpapas, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Unger, F., <i>Insel Atlantis</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">United States Army, <i>Reports of Chief Engineer</i>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">geological survey, <i>Reports</i>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">National Museum, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Upham, Warren, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>; <i>Recession of the ice sheet in Minnesota</i>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ohio gravel beds</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Urcavilca, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Urco, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Uricoechea, E., <i>Memorias</i>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Lengua Chibcha</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Urlsperger Tracts, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Urrabieta, <a href="#Page_mxxxvii">xxxvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ursel, Comte d’, <i>Sud Amérique</i>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ursúa, M., <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Urus, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Utah mounds, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Utes, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Utlatlan, position of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Uxmal, position of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Totul Xius in, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">communal house near, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">seen by Zavala, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Waldeck, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">by Charnay, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">descriptions, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>; so-called elephants’ trunks, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">early accounts, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">view of ruined temple, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">seen by Brasseur, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">inhabited when the Spaniards came, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">plans, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Uzielli, G., on Toscanelli, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Valades</span>, <span class="smcap">Didacus</span>, <i>Rhetorica Christ.</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Valdemar-Schmidt, <i>Voyages au Groenland</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Valdez, Ant., <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Valencia, Martin de, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Valentini, P. J. J., <i>Olmecas and Tultecas</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Calendar Stone, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Landa’s alphabet, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Mexican copper tools</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Katunes of Maya Hist.</i>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Valera, Blas, his work lost, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his career, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his MSS. used by Garcilasso, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Valera, Luis, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vallancey, Chas., <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Valmy, Duc de, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Valpy, <i>Panegyrici veteres</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Valsequa, Gabriell de, his map (1439), <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vancouver’s Island, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Van den Bergh, L. P. C., <i>Amerika voor Columbus</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Van den Bos, Lambert, <i>Zee-helden</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Van der Aa. <i>See</i> Aa.</p> - -<p class="pni">Van Noort, Olivier, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vanuxem, Professor, on shell heaps, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Varnhagen, F. de, <i>L’Origine touranienne des Américains</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vasquez, Francisco, <i>Guatemala</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vasquez, T., <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vater, J. S., <i>Ueber Amerikas Bevölkerung</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">(with Adelung), <i>Mithridates</i>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Analekten der Sprachenkunde</i>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vaugondy, <i>Atlantis</i>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Veer, G. de, <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vega, Father, his collection of MSS., <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vega, F. Nuñez de la, knew the Book of Votan, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Obispado de Chiappas</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vega, Garcilasso de la, in Peru, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[469]</a></span></p><p class="pnii">house in which he was born, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">son of an Inca princess, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his expedition of De Soto, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Commentarios Reales</i>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">used Blas Valera, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">wrote on Spain thirty years after leaving Peru, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">corrects Acosta, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">critics of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dies, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Velasco, Juan de, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Reino de Quito</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ventancurt, <i>Teatro Mex.</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vera, F. H., <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vera Cruz, ruins near, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Verneau, <i>Dans l’Archipel Canarienne</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Verreau, Abbé, on the beginnings of the Church in Canada, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vertuch, <i>Archiv für Ethnographie</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vespucius in De Bry, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">voyages, acc. of, <a href="#Page_mxxiv">xxiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mentioned, <a href="#Page_mxxviii">xxviii</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxv">xxxv</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map owned by him, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vetanzos, Juan de, used by Garcia, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> Betanzos.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vetromile, <i>Abnakis and their history</i>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Veytia, on the Toltecs, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hist. Antiq. de Mejico</i>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">better on the Tezcucans than on the Mexicans, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">begins Mexican history at <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 697, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">used Boturini’s collection, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">annotates Ixtlilxochitl’s MSS., <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">continues Boturini’s labors, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vicary, J. F., <i>Saga time</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Victor, J. D., <i>Disput. de America</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vicuña, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vienna, Anthropologische Gesellschaft, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Prähist. Commission, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Viera y Clavijo, J. de, <i>Islas de Canaria</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vigfússon, G., <i>Icelandic Eng. Dict.</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Icelandic Sagas</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vigil, José M., <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vikings, burial of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vilcashuaman, ruins, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Villacastin, F. de, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Villagutierre Soto-Mayor, <i>Conquista de Itza</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Villar, Dr., <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Uira-cocha</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Villar, Leonardo, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Villebrune, J. B. L., <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vincent, <i>Commerce of the Ancients</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vining, E. P., <i>An inglorious Columbus</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Vinland" id="Vinland">Vinland</a>, found and named, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">attempted identification, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">last ship to, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">probability of voyages to, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the sagas, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">put in writing, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">situated in Labrador, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Newfoundland, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Greenland, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in New York, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">not in America, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in New England, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Maine, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Rhode Island, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Africa, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">maps, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">those of Rafn reproduced, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">probability of the voyages to, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">linguistic proofs of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ethnographical proofs, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">physical and geographical proofs, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">tides in, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">length of summer day in, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Rafn’s attempts to identify it, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his map, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">held to be a prolongation of Africa, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">monumental proofs, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">has no frost, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">natives called Skrælings, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">held to be north of Davis’s Straits by the oldest Norse maps, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">that by Stephanius (1570) in facs., <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">separated from America, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vinson, Julien, <i>La langue basque</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Habitation humaine</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">belief in a yellow race in Central America, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Norse ceremonials in the south, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his text to Charnay, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">a restoration of Palenqué, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Viracocha, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Virchow, R., on Peruvian skulls, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on human remains found in Peruvian graves, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Virgil, <i>Georgics</i>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">prophecy of Anchises, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Virginia, docs. in her Archives, xiv;</p> -<p class="pnii">Indian conspiracy of. 1622, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Indians, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds in, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">graves, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Visconti, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map (1311), <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">(1318), <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vitalis, Ordericus, <i>Hist. Eccles.</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vitziliputzli, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vivien de St. Martin, <i>Hist. de la Géog.</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Fousang, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vocabularies, numerous, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">tests of ethnical relations, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">formed as tests, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> Linguistics.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vogel, Theo., <a href="#Page_mxxxvii">xxxvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vogeler, A. W., <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vogt, Carl, <i>Vorlesungen</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Lectures on Man</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Völcker, <i>Homersch. Geog.</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Volney on the mounds, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Von Baer, K. E., <i>Fahrten des Odysseus</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Voss, <i>Die Gestalt der Erde</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Votan, and his followers, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Book of Votan</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dim connection with Guatemala, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">with Yucatan, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">myth of, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Voyages, collections of, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">early ones to America, bibliog., <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vreeland, C. E., <i>Antiquities at Pantaleon</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Vries, voyage to Virginia, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Wadsworth, M. E.</span>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Microscopic evidence of a lost continent</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wagner, G., <i>De originibus Amer.</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Beiträge zur Anthropologie</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wahlstedt, J. J., <i>Iter in Americam</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Waiknas, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Waitz, T., on Peruvian anthropology, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Naturvölker</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anthropologie</i>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Die Amerikaner</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Introd. to Anthropology</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wake, C. S., <i>Chapters on Man</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Serpent Worship</i>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Walam-Olum, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Waldeck, Frederic de, buys some of the Boturini collection, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Voyage pittoresque</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">at Uxmal, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map of Yucatan, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in Yucatan, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Monuments Anc. du Méxique</i>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">liberties of his drawings, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Coleccion de las Antig. Mex.</i>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Walkenaer, C. A., <i>Voyages</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvii">xxxvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Walkendorf, Bishop Eric, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Walker, S. T., on Tampa Bay shell-heaps, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Walker, <i>Athens County, Ohio</i>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Walker River cañon, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wallace, A. R., <i>Antiq. of Man in America</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on climate and its influence on races, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Tropical Nature</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">does not believe in sunken continents, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Geog. Distribution of Animals</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Malay Archipelago</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the antiq. of man, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Island life</i>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wallace, C. M., <i>Flint implements</i>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wallace, Jas., <i>Orkney Islands</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wallbridge, T. C., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wampanoag Indians, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wampum, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">belts, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ward, H. G., <i>Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Warden, David B., his library, <a href="#Page_miii">iii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Art de vérifier des dates</i>, <a href="#Page_miii">iii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">dies, <a href="#Page_miii">iii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">translates Rio on Palenqué, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the mounds, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Recherches</i>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Warner, J., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Warren, Dr. J. C., on the mounds, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Warren, W. F., <i>Key to Anc. Cosmologies</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Homer’s earth, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>True Key</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Paradise Found</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Warren, W. W., <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Washington, Col., expedition against Navajos, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Washington, Geo., on the Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Washington, D. C., as a centre of study in Amer. history, <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Water, proportion of, on the globe, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Watkinson Library, <a href="#Page_mxii">xii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Watrin, F., <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Watson, P. B., <i>Bibliog. of Pre-Columbian Discoveries</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Watts, Robt., <a href="#Page_mi">i</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Weaving, art of, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Webb, Daniel, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Webb, Dr. T. H., <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Webster, Noah, on the mounds, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wedgwood, <i>Origin of language</i>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Weeden, W. B., <i>Indian money</i>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wegner, G., <i>De Nav. Solomonæis</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Weigel, T. O., <a href="#Page_mxvii">xvii</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on De Bry, <a href="#Page_mxxxii">xxxii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Weights used by the Peruvians, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Weise, A. J., <i>Disc. of America</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Atlantis, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Weiser, Conrad, interpreter, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his career, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his papers, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Welch, L. B., <i>Prehistoric Relics</i>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Welsh in America, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Madoc">Madoc</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">West India Island, Malay stock in, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Western Reserve Historical Soc., <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Westropp, H. M., <i>Prehistoric Phases</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Whately, Richard, <i>Polit. Economy</i>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Origin of Civilization</i>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wheaton, Henry, <i>Northmen</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">French version, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wheeler, G. M., on the <i>Pueblos</i>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>U. S. Geol. Survey</i>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wheelock, Eleazer, his charity school, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">founds Dartmouth College, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Indian Charity School</i>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">memoir, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Whipple, Report on the Indian tribes, in <i>Pacific R. R. Repts.</i>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">White’s drawings in Hariot’s <i>Virginia</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">White, John S., <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Whitney, J. D., <i>Climatic Changes</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">searches in the Trenton gravels, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the neolithic man in the tertiary gravels, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">views the Calaveras skull, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his accounts of it, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Auriferous Gravels</i>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Human remains of the Gravel series</i>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">disbelieves the precession of the equinoxes as affecting climate, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Trenton implements, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Geol. of Lake Superior</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Whitney, W. D., <i>Language</i>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bearing of language on the Unity of Man</i>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Testimony of language respecting the unity of the human race</i>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Whitney, W. F., <i>Bones of the native races</i>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Whittlesey, Col. Chas., on anc. hearths in the Ohio Valley, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Antiquity of Man in the U. S.</i>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portraits, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ancient Works in Ohio</i>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Weapons of the Race of the Mounds</i>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Grave Creek tablet, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Cincinnati tablet, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">surveys the Marietta mounds, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Ohio mounds, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Report</i> on the archæology of Ohio, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Fugitive Essays</i>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">surveys the Newark mounds, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Rock inscriptions, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Anc. mining at Lake Superior</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on anc. human remains in Ohio, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wicksteed, P. H., <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wiener, Charles, <i>Pérou et Bolivie</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Le communisme des Incas</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[470]</a></span></p><p class="pnii"><i>Les institutions de l’Empire des Incas</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wieser, F., on Zoana Mela, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wilde, Sir W. R., on lacustrine dwellings, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wilder, B. G., on Jeffries Wyman, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wilhelmi, K., <i>Island</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Willes, Richard, edits Eden, <a href="#Page_mxxiii">xxiii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">William of Worcester, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Williams, C. M., <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Williams, G., <i>Guatemala</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Williams, H. C., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Williams, H. L., <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Williams, Helen M., translates Humboldt’s <i>Vues</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Williams, Isaac, memoir, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Williams, John, <i>Prince Madog</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Williams, Roger, on the Jews in America, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Key</i>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Williams, S. W., on Fousang, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Williamson, Jos., on the Northmen in Maine, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Williamson, Peter, <i>Sufferings</i>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Williamson on the Asiatic origin of Americans, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Williamson, <i>No. Carolina</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Willson, Marcus, <i>American History</i>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wilson, Sir Daniel, <i>Lost Atlantis</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Vinland, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Historic Footprints in America</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the exaggeration of Mexican splendor, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on picture-writing, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Huron-Iroquois, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Canada tribes, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Certain Cranial Forms</i>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the unity of man, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>American Cranial Type</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Prehistoric Annals of Scotland</i>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">first used the word “prehistoric”, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Prehistoric Man</i>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Pre-Aryan Amer. Man</i>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Unwritten History</i>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Interglacial Man</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the moundbuilders, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Grave Creek tablet, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">accepts the Cincinnati tablet, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Canadian mounds, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on bone and ivory work, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on American pottery, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Artistic faculty in the aborig. races</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>American Crania</i>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wilson, R. A., <i>New Conquest of Mexico</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wimmer, L. F. A., <i>Runenskriftens</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Winchell, Alex., on Atlantis, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the retrocession of the falls of St. Anthony, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Preadamites</i>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Winchell, N. H., <i>Geol. of Minnesota</i>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">discovers rude implements, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on copper mining, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Winsor, Justin, “Americana”, <a href="#Page_mi">i</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">“Early Descriptions of America”, etc., <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ptolemy’s Geography</i>, <a href="#Page_mxxv">xxv</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">“Pre-Columbian Explorations”, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">“Cartography of Greenland”, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">“Mexico and Central America”, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sources of the history of the modern Indians, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">“Progress of Opinion respecting the Origin and Antiquity of Man in America”, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">“Bibliog. of Aboriginal America”, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">“Comprehensive treatises on Amer. Antiquities”, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">“Industries and Trade of the American Aborigines”, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">“American Linguistics”, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">“American Myths and Religions”, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">“Archæological Museums and Periodicals”, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Calendar of the Sparks MSS.</i>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Winthrop, Jas., on Dighton Rock, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Winthrop, John, the younger, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Winthrop, R. C., <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wisconsin Academy of Science, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wisconsin, Indians, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">mounds in, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wiseman, Cardinal, <i>Lectures</i>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Witchitas, vocabulary, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Withrow, W. H., on the last of the Hurons, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on Jogues, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Witsen, Nic., <i>Tartarye</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wittmack, L., on Peruvian plants found on graves, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wollheim, A. E., <i>Nat. lit. der Scand.</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Woodward, Ashbel, <i>Wampum</i>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Workshops of stone chipping, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wormskiold on the sites of the Greenland colonies, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Worsaae, J. A., <i>Vorgesch. des Nordens</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">acc. of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Prehistory of the North</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>L’organisation des Musées</i>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Danes in England</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Worsley, Israel, <i>View of the Amer. Indians</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Worthen, A. H., <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wright, B. M., <i>Gold ornaments from the graves</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wright, D. F., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wright, Geo. F., on the antiq. of man in America, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">examines deposits in Delaware, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Man and the glacial period</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Preglacial man in Ohio</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ohio gravel beds</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wright, Thomas, <i>St. Brandan</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wureland, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wuttke, H., <i>Erdkunde</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Atlantic islands, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wuttke, <i>Gesch. der Schrift</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wyandots, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wyhlandia, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wyman, Jeffries, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>; on the Calaveras skull, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">portrait, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">investigates shell-heaps, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">death, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>; accounts of, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the Florida shell heaps, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on the St. John River, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wyman, W. H., on Quaritch, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Bibliog. of Printing</i>, <a href="#Page_mxvi">xvi</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wynne, <i>Private Libraries of N. Y.</i>, <a href="#Page_mx">x</a>, <a href="#Page_mxviii">xviii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Wyoming Hist. and Geol. Soc., <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Xahila</span>, F. E. A., <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Xenophanes, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Xeres, on Peru, <a href="#Page_mxxxvii">xxxvii</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Xibalba, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>; held to be Palenqué, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Brinton’s view, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Xicalancas, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Xicaques, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ximenes, Francisco, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">finds the <i>Popul Vuh</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ximenes, <i>Gnomone fioretino</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Xinca Indians, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Xochicalco, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Xochimilca conquered, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Xoloc founded, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Xolotl, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Xuares, Juan, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Yahama Language</span>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Yahuar-huaccac, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Yaqui, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Yarrow, H. C., <i>Mortuary Customs</i>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on mound-burials, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Yates and Moulton, <i>New York</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Yca, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Youmans, Eliza H., <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Yucatan" id="Yucatan">Yucatan</a>.</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>See</i> <a href="#Mayas">Mayas</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">difficulty of the chronology, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the Perez MS., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">sources, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">scant material, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Barendt’s collection, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ruins, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">early described, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">seen by Stephens, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">ancient records, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">architecture, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">Charnay’s map, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">other maps, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">age of the ruins, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">types of heads, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bas-relief, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">had an Ethiopian stock, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">crucible for melting copper used, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">folk-lore, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Yucay, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Yuma language, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Yuncas, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">grammar of, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Yupanqui, Inca, his portrait, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">in power, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">called Pachacutec, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</p> - - -<p class="pni p2"><span class="smcap">Zaborowski</span>, <i>L’homme préhistorique</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zacatecas, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zach, <i>Correspondenz</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zachila, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zahrtmann on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zamná, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zani, Count V., <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zapaña, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zapata, MS. Hist. of Tlaxcalla, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Cronica de Tlaxcallan</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zapotecs, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zaragoza, Justo, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zarate, Augustin de, <i>Prov. del Peru</i>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zavala, L. de, on Uxmal, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zayi, ruins, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zegarra, G. P., <i>Ollantay</i>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zegarra, Pedro, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Ollantay</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zeisberger, David, missionary, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Indian Dictionary</i>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">on a Delaware grammar, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Zeitschrift für die Anthropologie</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><i>Zeitschrift für physische Aerzte</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zeller, <i>Gesch. der Griech. Philosophie</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Zeni" id="Zeni">Zeni</a>, brothers, <a href="#Page_mxxviii">xxviii</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxiv">xxxiv</a>, <a href="#Page_mxxxvi">xxxvi</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">northern voyage, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">bibliog., <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Dei Commentarii del Viaggio</i>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">fac-simile of title, etc., <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">their map perhaps used by Bordone, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">it made an impression, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">history of the belief in their voyage, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">the map, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">fac-simile of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">altered in Ptolemy, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">facsimiles of this alteration, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">maps possibly to be used by the young Zeno, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">map compared with that of Olaus Magnus, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">condition of northern cartography at the date of the Zeno publication, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zerffi, <i>Hist. development of art</i>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zestermann, C. A. A., <i>Colonization of America</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Ziegler, America, <a href="#Page_mxxxiii">xxxiii</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zoana Mela, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zorzi, Pæsi Nov., <a href="#Page_mxix">xix</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zumárraga, Bp., orders a collection of traditions, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Hist. de los Mexicanos</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Codex Zumárraga</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">his alleged destruction of MSS., <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni"><a name="Zuni" id="Zuni">Zuñi</a>, representatives of the cliff dwellers, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">references on, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">visits to, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zurita, A. de, on the Quiches, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Rapport</i>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii">character of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zurla, Cardinal, on the Zeni, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Dissertazione</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Di Marco Polo</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</p> -<p class="pnii"><i>Fra Mauro</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> - -<p class="pni">Zutigils, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="p4">FOOTNOTES:</h2> - -<div class="footnotes"> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a></span> -Herrera failed to add a list of authors to the original edition of his <i>Historia</i> (1601-1615), but one of about -thirty-three entries is found in later editions.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a></span> -See Vol. IV. p. 417.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a></span> -Sabin, vol. x. no. 40,053; Carter-Brown, vol. ii. no. 347; Rich (1832), no. 188; Trübner, <i>Bibliographical -Guide to American Literature</i>, p. viii; Murphy, no. 1,471.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a></span> -<i>Dictionary</i>, vol. ii. no. 5,102.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a></span> -For an account of a likeness, see J. C. Smith’s <i>British Mezzotint Portraits</i>, iv. no. 1,694.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a></span> -The book, of which 250 copies only were printed, is rare, and Quaritch prices it at £3 (Sabin, vol. ix. no. -37,447). It preserves some titles which are not otherwise known; and represents a library which Kennett had -gathered for presentation to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. Rich (<i>Bibl. -Amer. nova</i>, i. 21) says the index was made by Robert Watts. Although Stevens (Historical Collections, -i. 142) says that the books were dispersed, the library is still in existence in London, though it lacks many -titles given in the printed catalogue, and shows others not in that volume. Cf. <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, xx. -274; Allibone, ii. 1020; James Jackson’s <i>Bibliographies géographiques</i> (Paris, 1881), no. 606; Trübner’s -<i>Bibliographical Guide</i>, p. ix; Sabin, <i>Bibliography of Bibliographies</i>, p. lxxxvii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a></span> -<i>Memorial History of Boston</i>, vol. i. pp. xviii, xix; vol. ii. pp. 221, 426.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a></span> -The original edition was Valencia, 1607. Carter-Brown, vol. ii. no. 52.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a></span> -<i>Catalogue</i> (1832), no. 188. Cf. Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 568; Trübner, <i>Bibliographical Guide</i>, p. ix; -Sabin, vol. i. no. 3,349. The portion on America is in vol. ii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a></span> -For example, the Champlain of 1613, 3 fr.; that of 1632, 4 fr.; 21 volumes of the <i>Relations</i> of the -Jesuits, 18 fr.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a></span> -Sabin, <i>Dictionary</i>, vol. ii. no. 5,198; and <i>Bibliography of Bibliographies</i>, p. xviii; <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, i. 57; and -Allibone, ii. 1764, who calls him Reid, an American resident in London, and says he issued the bibliography -as preparatory to a history of America. Jackson’s <i>Bibliographies géographiques</i>, no. 611, and Trübner, -<i>Bibliographical Guide</i>, p. x, call it by the name of the publisher, Debrett.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a></span> -Jackson’s <i>Bibliographies géographiques</i>, no. 621.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a></span> -Jackson, <i>Bibliographies géographiques</i>, no. 612; <i>Serapeum</i> (1845), p. 223; Trübner, <i>Bibliographical -Guide</i>, p. xxv.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a></span> -Sparks, <i>Catalogue</i>, no. 1,635; Jackson’s <i>Bibliographies géographiques</i>, no. 613; Trübner, p. xxv.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a></span> -<i>History of Mexico</i>, iii. 512, where is an account of Alcedo’s historical labors.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a></span> -Sparks, <i>Catalogue</i>, no. 1,635 <i>a</i>, and p. 230.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a></span> -Sabin, <i>Bibliography of Bibliographies</i>, p. xxiv; H. H. Bancroft, <i>Central America</i>, ii. 700, 760.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a></span> -Quincy’s <i>Harvard University</i>, ii. 413, 596. It is noteworthy, in view of so rich an accession coming -from Germany, that Grahame, the historian of our colonial period, says that in 1825 he found the University -Library at Göttingen richer in books for his purpose than all the libraries of Britain joined together.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a></span> -This collection is also embraced in the Catalogue of the College Library already referred to. Mr. Warden -began the collection of another library, which he used while writing the American part (10 vols.) of the <i>Art de -vérifier des Dates</i>, Paris, 1826-1844, and which (1,118 works) was afterward sold to the State Library at Albany -for $4,000. Dr. Henry A. Homes, the librarian at Albany, informs me that when arranged it made twenty-one -hundred and twenty-three volumes. Warden’s <i>Bibliotheca Americana</i>, Paris, 1831, reprinted at Paris in 1840, -is a catalogue of this collection. Mr. Warden died in 1845, aged 67. Cf. Ludewig in the <i>Serapeum</i>, 1845, p. -209; Muller, <i>Books on America</i> (1872), no. 1734; Allibone, iii. 2,579; S. G. Goodrich, <i>Recollections</i>, ii. 243; -Jackson’s <i>Bibl. Géog.</i>, nos. 617, 618; Trübner, <i>Bibliographical Guide</i>, p. xiv. There was a final sale of Mr. -Warden’s books by Horatio Hill, in New York, in 1846.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a></span> -This portrait of one of the earliest contributors to the bibliography of American history follows an engraving -in the <i>Allgemeine geographische Ephemeriden</i>, May, 1800, p. 395. Ebeling was born Nov. 20, 1741, -and died June 30, 1817, and his own contributions to American History were—</p> -<p class="pfc4">(<i>a</i>) <i>Amerikanische Bibliothek</i> (Zwei Stücke), Leipzig, 1777.</p> -<p class="pfc4">(<i>b</i>) <i>Erdbescreibung und Geschichte von America</i>, Hamburg, 1795-1816, in seven vols.; the author’s interleaved -copy, with manuscript notes, is in Harvard College Library.</p> -<p class="pfc4">(<i>c</i>) With Professor Hegewisch, <i>Americanisches Magazin</i>, Hamburg, 1797.</p> -<p class="pfc4">There are other likenesses,—one a large lithograph published at Hamburgh; the other a small profile by -C. H. Kniep. Both are in the collection of the American Antiquarian Society.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a></span> -This collection was offered to Congress for purchase through Edward Everett in December, 1827. The -printed list, with nearly a hundred entries for manuscripts and three hundred and eighty-nine for printed books, -covering the years 1506-1825, was printed as Document 37 of the 1st session of the 20th Congress. The sale -was not effected. Rich had been able to gather the books at moderate cost because of the troubled political -state of the peninsula. Trübner, <i>Bibliographical Guide</i>, p. xv.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a></span> -<i>Dictionary</i>, ii. 1788.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a></span> -<i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, p. xxix.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a></span> -Dibdin (<i>Library Companion</i>, edition 1825, p. 467) refers to this spirit, hoping it would lead to a new -edition of White Kennett, perfected to date.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a></span> -<i>Bibliotheca Grenvilliana</i> (London, 1842), now a part of the British Museum.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a></span> -Sabin, <i>Bibliog. of Bibliog.</i>, p. cxxi; Allibone, <i>Dictionary</i>, p. 1787; Trübner, <i>Bibliographical Guide to -American Literature</i>, Introduction, p. xiv; Jackson’s <i>Bibl. Géog.</i>, no. 623, etc.; <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, -i. 395; <i>Historical Magazine</i>, iii. 75; <i>Menzies Catalogue</i>, no. 1,690; Ternaux-Compans, <i>Bibliothèque Américaine</i>, -Preface. Puttick and Simpson’s <i>Catalogues</i>, London, June 25, 1850, and March, April, and May, -1872, note some of his books, besides manuscript bibliographies.</p> -<p class="pfc4">After Mr. Rich’s death Mr. Edward G. Allen took the business, and issued various catalogues of books -on America in 1857-1871. Cf. Jackson’s <i>Bibliog. Géog.</i>, nos. 677-682.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a></span> -See Vol. III. p. 159. The catalogue, being without date, is sometimes given later than 1833. Cf. Jackson, -<i>Bibliog. Géog.</i>, no. 636; and no. 690. A new <i>Rough List</i> of the Barlow Collection was printed in 1885.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a></span> -<i>Magazine of American History</i>, iii. 177. This library was sold in November, 1836, as Raetzel’s; the -numbers 908-2,117 concerned America. Trübner (<i>Bibliographical Guide</i>, p. xviii) says the collection was -formed by Ternaux probably with an ultimate view to sale. Ternaux did not die till December, 1864.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a></span> -Now worth 40 or 50 francs.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a></span> -Trübner, <i>Bibliographical Guide</i>, p. xvi.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a></span> -See Vol. IV. p. 367. Cf. also Trübner, <i>Bibliographical Guide</i>, p. xviii; and Daniel’s <i>Nos Gloires -Nationales</i>, where will be found a portrait of Faribault.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a></span> -Sabin, x. nos. 42, 644-42, 645.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a></span> -Sabin, x. 42, 643; Trübner, <i>Bibliographical Guide</i>, p. xxi.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a></span> -<i>Historical Magazine</i>, xii. 145; Allibone, ii. p. 1142. The sale of Mr. Ludewig’s library (1,380 entries) -took place in New York in 1858.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a></span> -In his <i>Verrazano</i>, p. 5.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a></span> -Cf. also D’Avezac in his <i>Waltzemüller</i>, p. 4.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a></span> -Sabin, viii. p. 107; Jackson, <i>Bibliog. Géog.</i>, no. 696. The edition was four hundred copies.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a></span> -An error traced to the proof-reader, it is said in Sabin’s <i>Bibliog. of Bibliog.</i>, p. lxxiv.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a></span> -Stevens noticed this defence by reiterating his charges in a note in his <i>Bibliotheca Historica</i>, 1870, -no. 860.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a></span> -Vol. IV. p. 366.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a></span> -Sabin, <i>Bibliography of Bibliographies</i>, p. lxxv.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a></span> -<i>Grandeur et décadence de la Colombine</i>, Paris, 1885.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a></span> -<i>J. J. Cooke Catalogue</i>, no. 2,214; <i>Griswold Catalogue</i>, nos. 730, 731. The editions were fifty copies -on large paper, two hundred on small. It may be worth record that Gowan, a publisher in New York, was -the earliest (1846) to instigate a taste for large paper copies among American collectors, by printing in that -style Furman’s edition of Denton’s <i>Description of New York</i>, after the manner of the English purveyors to -book-fancying.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a></span> -See <i>Proceedings of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society</i>, Philadelphia, 1881, p. 28.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a></span> -Mr. Wilberforce Eames is the new editor. A list of the catalogues prepared by Mr. Sabin is given in his -<i>Bibliography of Bibliographies</i>, p. cxxiv, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a></span> -The German translation, <i>Kritische Untersuchungen</i>, was made by J. I. Ideler, Berlin, 1852, in 3 vols. -It has an index, which the French edition lacks.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a></span> -Sabin, viii. 539. The edition of Paris, without date, called <i>Histoire de la géographie du nouveau -continent</i>, is the same, with a new title and an introduction of four pages, La Cosa’s map being omitted.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a></span> -<i>Verrazano</i>, p. 4.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a></span> -In his <i>Cosmos</i> Humboldt gives results, which he says are reached in his unpublished sixth volume of the -<i>Examen critique</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a></span> -The Humboldt Library was burned in London in June, 1865. Nearly all of the catalogues were destroyed -at the same time; but a few large paper copies were saved, which, being perfected with a new title (London, -1878), have since been offered by Stevens for sale. Portions of the introduction to it are also used in an article -by Stevens on Humboldt, in the <i>Journal of Sciences and Arts</i> January, 1870. Various of Humboldt’s -manuscripts on American matters are advertised in Stargardt’s <i>Amerika und Orient</i>, no. 135, p. 3 (Berlin, -1881).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Historical Magazine</i>, vol. ix. no. 335; <i>Magazine of American History</i>, vol. ii. pp. 193, 221, 565; -<i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, April, 1868. Colonel Force died in January, 1868.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a></span> -Mr. Sparks died March 14, 1866. Tributes were paid to his memory by distinguished associates in the -Massachusetts Historical Society (<i>Proceedings</i>, ix. 157), and Dr. George E. Ellis reported to them a full and -appreciative memoir (<i>Proceedings</i>, x. 211). Cf. also <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, March, 1866; <i>Historical -Magazine</i>, May, 1866; Brantz Mayer before the Maryland Historical Society, 1867, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Historical Magazine</i>, vol. ix. p. 137.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a></span> -The principal interpreter of the Indian languages of the temperate parts of North America has been -Dr. J. Hammond Trumbull, of Hartford, for whose labor in the bibliography of the subject see a chapter in -vol i. of the <i>Memorial History of Boston</i>. There is also a collection edited by him, of books in and upon the -Indian languages, in the <i>Brinley Catalogue</i>, iii. 123-145. He gave in the <i>Proceedings</i> of the American -Antiquarian Society, and also separately in 1874, a list of books in the Indian languages, printed at Cambridge -and Boston, 1653-1721 (Field, <i>Indian Bibliography</i>, no. 1,571). Cf. also Ludewig’s <i>Literature of American -Aboriginal Languages</i>, mentioned on an earlier page. It was edited and corrected by William W. Turner. -(Cf. <i>Pinart-Brasseur Catalogue</i>, no. 565; Field, <i>Indian Bibliography</i>, no. 959).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Icazbalceta published in 1866, at Mexico, a list of the writers on the languages of America; and Romero -made a similar enumeration of those of Mexico, in 1862, in the <i>Boletin de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia</i>, -vol. viii. Dr. Daniel G. Brinton has made a good introduction to the literary history of the native Americans -in his <i>Aboriginal American Authors</i>, published by him at Philadelphia in 1883. For his own linguistic contributions, -see Field, <i>Indian Bibliography</i>, no. 187, etc. One of the earliest enumerations of linguistic titles -can be picked out of the list which Boturini Benaduci, in 1746, appended to his <i>Idea de una nueva historia -general de la America septentrional</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The most extensive enumeration of the literature of all the North American tongues is doubtless to be the -<i>Bibliography of North American Linguistics</i>, which is preparing by Mr. James C. Pilling of the Bureau of -Ethnology in Washington, and which will be published in due time by that bureau. A preliminary issue (100 -copies) for corrections is called <i>Proof-sheets of a Bibliography of the Indian Languages of North America</i> -(pp. xl, 1135).</p> -<p class="pfc4">The <i>Bibliotheca Americana</i> of Leclerc (Paris, 1879) affords many titles to which a preliminary “Table -des Divisions” affords an index, and most of them are grouped under the heading “Linguistique,” p. 537, etc. -The third volume of H. H. Bancroft’s Native Races, particularly in its notes, is a necessary aid in this study; -and a convenient summary of the whole subject will be found in chapter x. of John T. Short’s <i>North Americans -of Antiquity</i>. J. C. E. Buschmann has been an ardent laborer in this field; the bibliographies give his printed -works (Field’s <i>Indian Bibliography</i>, p. 208, etc.), and Stargardt’s <i>Catalogue</i> (no. 135, p. 6) shows some of -his manuscripts. The Comte Hyacinthe de Charencey has for some years, from time to time, printed various -minor monographs on these subjects; and in 1883 he collected his views in a volume of <i>Mélanges de philologie -et de paléographie Américaines</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4"> -The Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg, in his <i>Bibliothèque Mexico-Guatemalienne</i> (Leclerc, nos. 81, 1,084), -has given for Central America a very excellent list of the works on the linguistics of the natives, which are -all contained also in the <i>Catalogue</i> of the Pinart-Brasseur sale, which took place in Paris in January and -February, 1884. Cf. the paper on Brasseur by Dr. Brinton, in <i>Lippincott’s Magazine</i>, vol. i.; and the -enumeration of his numerous writings in Sabin’s <i>Dictionary</i>, ii. 7,420; also Leclerc, Field, and Bancroft.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Dr. Félix C. Y. Sobron’s <i>Los Idiomas de la America Latina,—Estudios Biografico-bibliograficos</i>, published -a few years since at Madrid, gives, according to Dr. Brinton, extended notices of several rare volumes; -but on the whole the book is neither exhaustive nor very accurate.</p> -<p class="pfc4"> -Julius Platzmann’s <i>Verzeichniss einer Auswahl Amerikanischer Grammatiken</i>, etc. (Leipsic, 1876), is -a small but excellent list, with proper notes. These bibliographies will show the now numerous works upon -the aboriginal tongues, their construction and their fruits.</p> -<p class="pfc4">There are several important series interesting to the student, which are found in the catalogues. Such -are the <i>Bibliothèque linguistique Américaine</i>, published in seven volumes by Maisonneuve in Paris (Leclerc, -no. 2,674); the <i>Coleccion de linguistica y etnografía Americanas</i>, or <i>Bibliothèque de linguistique et -d’Ethnographie Américaines</i>, 1875, etc., edited by A. L. Pinart; the <i>Library of American Linguistics</i>, in -thirteen volumes, edited by Dr. John G. Shea (Cf. <i>Brinley Catalogue</i>, vol. iii. no. 5,631; Field, no. 1,396); -<i>Brinton’s Library of Aboriginal American Literature</i>, published by Dr. D. G. Brinton in Philadelphia; and -Brasseur de Bourbourg’s <i>Collection de documents dans les langues indigènes</i>, Paris, 1861-1864, in four -volumes (cf. Field, p. 175).</p> -<p class="pfc4">The earliest work printed exclusively in a native language was the <i>Catecismo de la Doctrina Cristiana -en lengua Timuiquana</i>, published at Mexico in 1617 (cf. Sabin, vol. xiv. no. 58,580; Finotti, p. 14). This is -the statement often made; but Mr. Pilling refers me to references in Icazbalceta’s <i>Zumárraga</i> (vol. 1. p. 200) -to an earlier edition of about 1547; and in the same author’s <i>Bibliografia Mexicana</i> (p. 32), to one of 1553. -Molina’s <i>Vocabulario de la lengua Castellana y Mexicana</i>, placing the Nahuatl and Castilian in connection, -was printed at Mexico in 1555. The book is very rare, five or six copies only being known; and Quaritch has -priced an imperfect copy at £72 (Quaritch, <i>Bibliog. Géog. linguistica</i>, 1879, no. 12,616; Carter-Brown, -vol. i. no. 206; <i>Brinley Catalogue</i>, vol. iii. no, 5,771). The edition of 1571 is also rare (<i>Pinart-Brasseur Catalogue</i>, -no. 630; Carter-Brown, vol. i. nos. 285, 286; Quaritch, 1879, no. 12,617). The first edition of Molina’s -Aztec grammar, <i>Arte de la lengua Mexicana y Castellana</i>, was published the same year (1571). Quaritch -(1879, no. 12,615) prices this at £52 10<i>s.</i> Cf. also Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 284. One of the chief of the -more recent studies of the linguistics of Mexico is Francisco Pimentel’s <i>Cuadro descriptivo y comparativo de -las lenguas indigenas de México</i>, Mexico, 1862-1865; and second edition in 1874-1875.</p> -<p class="pfc4">This subject has other treatment later in the present volume.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a></span> -It included two thousand and thirty-four items, ninety-four of which were Mr. Squier’s own works.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a></span> -Vol. II. p. 578.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a></span> -He says that up to 1881 he had gathered 35,000 volumes, at a cost of $300,000, exclusive of time and -travelling expenses. His manuscripts embraced 1,200 volumes. The annual growth of his library is still -1,000 volumes.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a></span> -One twelfth of the earth’s surface, as he says.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a></span> -Cf. account of Maximilian’s library in the <i>Bookworm</i> (1869), p. 14.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a></span> -These biographical data are derived from a tract given out by himself which he calls <i>A brief account of -the literary undertakings of Hubert Howe Bancroft</i> (San Francisco, A. L. Bancroft & Co. [his own business -house], 1882, 8vo, pp. 12). Other accounts of his library will be found in the <i>American Bibliopolist</i>, vii. 44; -and in Apponyi’s <i>Libraries of California</i>, 1878. Descriptions of the library and of the brick building (built in -1881) which holds it, and of his organized methods, have occasionally appeared in the <i>Overland Monthly</i> and -in other serial issues of California, as well as in those of the Atlantic cities. He has been free to make public -the most which is known regarding his work. He says that the grouping and separating of his material has -been done mostly by others, who have also written fully one half of the text of what he does not hesitate to call -<i>The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft</i>; and he leaves the reader to derive a correct understanding of the case -from his prefaces and illustrative tracts. Cf. J. C. Derby’s <i>Fifty Years among authors, books, and publishers</i> -(New York, 1884), p. 31.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a></span> -Averaging twelve from that time to this; a hundred persons were tried for every one ultimately retained -as a valuable assistant,—is his own statement.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a></span> -At a cost, as he says, of $80,000 to 1882.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a></span> -They appeared in <i>The Nation</i> and in the <i>New York Independent</i> early in 1883. The first aimed to -show that there were substantial grounds for dissent from Mr. Bancroft’s views regarding the Aztec civilization. -The second ignored that point in controversy, and merely proposed, as was stated, to test the “bibliographic -value” which Mr. Bancroft had claimed for his book, and to point out the failures of the index plan and the -vicarious system as employed by him.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a></span> -Seemingly intended to make part of one of the later volumes of his series, to be called <i>Essays and -Miscellanies</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a></span> -With a general title (as following his <i>Native Races</i>) of <i>The History of the Pacific States</i>, we are to have -in twenty-eight volumes the history of Central America, Mexico, North Mexico, New Mexico, Arizona, California, -Nevada, Utah, Northwest Coast, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Montana, British Columbia, and Alaska,—to -be followed by six volumes of allied subjects, not easily interwoven in the general narrative, making -thirty-nine volumes for the entire work. The volumes are now appearing at the rate of three or four a year.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a></span> -The list which is prefixed to the first volume of the <i>History of California</i>, forming vol. xiii. of his -Pacific States series, is particularly indicative of the rich stores of his library, and greatly eclipses the previous -lists of Mr. A. S. Taylor, which appeared in the <i>Sacramento Daily Union</i>, June 25, 1863 and March 13, -1866. Cf. Harrisse, <i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, p. xxxix. A copy of Taylor’s pioneer work, with his own corrections, -is in Harvard College Library. Mr. Bancroft speaks very ungraciously of it.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a></span> -See Vol. IV., chap. i. p. 19.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a></span> -Jackson, <i>Bibl. Géog.</i>, no. 639; <i>Menzies Catalogue</i>, nos. 1,459, 1,460; Wynne’s <i>Private Libraries -of New York</i>, p. 335. Mr. Murphy died Dec. 1, 1882, aged seventy-two; and his collection, then very much -enlarged, was sold in March, 1884. Its <i>Catalogue</i>, edited by Mr. John Russell Bartlett, shows one of the -richest libraries of Americana which has been given to public sale in America. It is accompanied by a biographical -sketch of its collector. Cf. Vol. IV. p. 22.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a></span> -Cf. Wynne’s <i>Private Libraries of New York</i>, p. 106. Mr. Brevoort died December 7, 1887.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a></span> -Cf. Sabin, v. 283; Farnham’s <i>Private Libraries of Boston</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a></span> -February, 1880, aged eighty years. His father was Robert Lenox, a Scotchman, who began business in -New York in 1783, and retired in 1812 with a large fortune, including a farm of thirty acres, worth then about -$6,000, and to-day $10,000,000,—if such figures can be made accurate. Cf. also Charles Deane in <i>Amer. Antiq. -Soc. Proc.</i>, April, 1880. Henry Stevens’s <i>Recoll. of Lenox</i> is conspicuous for what it does not reveal.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a></span> -The Lenox Library is now under the direction of the distinguished American historical student, Dr. George -H. Moore, so long in charge of the New York Historical Society’s library. Cf. an account of Dr. Moore by -Howard Crosby in the <i>Historical Magazine</i>, vol. xvii. (January, 1870). The officer in immediate charge of the -library is Dr. S. Austin Allibone, well known for his <i>Dictionary of Authors</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a></span> -Mr. Bartlett was early in life a dealer in books in New York; and the Americana catalogues of -Bartlett and Welford, forty years ago, were among the best of dealers’ lists. Jackson’s <i>Bibl. Géog.</i>, -no. 641.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a></span> -The field of Americana before 1800 has been so nearly exhausted in its composition, that recent purchases -have been made in other departments, particularly of costly books on the fine arts.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a></span> -Cf. Vol. III. p. 380.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a></span> -Because Greenland in the map of the Ptolemy of this year is laid down. The slightest reference to -America in books of the sixteenth century have entitled them to admission.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a></span> -The book purports to have been printed in one hundred copies; but not more than half that number, it -is said, have been distributed. Some copies have a title reading, <i>Bibliographical notices of rare and curious -books relating to America, printed in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, in the library of the late John Carter -Brown, by John Russell Bartlett</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a></span> -Sir Arthur Helps, in referring to the assistance he had got from books sent to him from America, and -from this library in particular, says: “As far as I have been able to judge, the American collectors of books -are exceedingly liberal and courteous in the use of them, and seem really to understand what the object should -be in forming a great library.” <i>Spanish Conquest</i>, American edition, p. 122.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, October, 1875.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a></span> -Dr. Trumbull himself has been a keen collector of books on American history, particularly in illustration -of his special study of aboriginal linguistics; while his influence has not been unfelt in the forming of the -Watkinson Library, and of that of the Connecticut Historical Society, both at Hartford.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a></span> -The first sale—there are to be four—took place in March, 1878, and illustrated a new device in testamentary -bequests. Mr. Brinley devised to certain libraries the sum of several thousand dollars each, to be used -to their credit for purchases made at the public sale of his books. The result was a competition that carried -the aggregate of the sales, it is computed, as much beyond the sum which might otherwise have been obtained, -as was the amount devised,—thus impairing in no degree the estate for the heirs, and securing credit for -public bequests. The scheme has been followed in the sale of the library (the third part of which was Americana, -largely from the Menzies library) of the late J. J. Cooke, of Providence, with an equivalent appreciation of the -prices of the books. It is a question if the interests of the libraries benefited are advanced by such artificial -stimulation of prices, which a factitious competition helps to make permanent.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a></span> -<i>American Bibliopolist</i>, viii. 128; Wynne’s <i>Private Libraries of New York</i>, p. 318. The collection was -not exclusively American.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a></span> -Memoir of Mr. Crowninshield, by Charles Deane, in <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, xvii. 356. Mr. Stevens is -said to have given about $9,500 for the library. It was sold in various parts, the more extensive portion -in July, 1860. Allibone, vol. ii. p. 2,248.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a></span> -This collection—which Mr. Allan is said to have held at $15,000—brought $39,000 at auction after -his death.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a></span> -Another catalogue rich in pamphlets relating to America is that of Albert G. Greene, New York, 18339.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a></span> -The <i>Catalogue</i> is more correctly printed than the <i>Essay</i>. Sabin, <i>Bibliog. of Bibliog.</i>, p. cxxv.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a></span> -<i>Bibliotheca Mejicana, a collection of books relating to Mexico, and North and South America</i>; sold by -Puttick & Simpson in London, June, 1869. (About 3,000 titles.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a></span> -Jackson, <i>Bibl. Géog.</i>, nos. 844, 845.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a></span> -<i>Catalogue de la collection précieuse de livres anciens et modernes formant la Bibliothèque de feu M. -Serge Sobolewski (de Moscou)</i> Leipsic, 1873.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a></span> -<i>Bibliotheca Sunderlandiana. Sale Catalogue of the Sunderland or Blenheim Library. Five Parts.</i> -London, 1881-1883. (13,858 nos.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a></span> -<i>Catalogue de livres rares et précieux, manuscrits et imprimés, principalement sur l’Amérique et sur les -langues du monde entier, composant la bibliothèque de Alphonse L. Pinart, et comprenant en totalité la bibliothèque -Mexico-Guatémalienne de M. l’abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg.</i> Paris, 1883. viii. 248 pp. 8º.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a></span> -<i>Catalogue de la précieuse bibliothèque de feu M. le Docteur J. Court, comprenant une collection unique -de voyageurs et d’historiens relatifs à l’Amérique. Première partie.</i> Paris, 1884. (458 nos.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a></span> -There is an account of his family antecedents, well spiced as his wont is, in the introduction to his -<i>Bibliotheca Historica</i>, 1870.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a></span> -Trübner, <i>Bibliographical Guide to American Literature</i> (1859), p. iv.; <i>North American Review</i>, July, -1850, p. 205, by George Livermore.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a></span> -Allibone, ii. 2247-2248.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a></span> -Sabin, vol. xii. no. 49,961.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a></span> -Stevens, <i>Historical Collections</i>, i. 874. It was ostensibly made in preparation for his projected <i>Bibliographia -Americana</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a></span> -<i>Historical Collections</i>, vol. i. no. 90; Allibone, vol. ii. p. 2248.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a></span> -Allibone, ii. 2248; <i>Historical Collections</i>, vol. i. no. 875; <i>Bibliotheca Historica</i> (1870), no. 1,974.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a></span> -Allibone, ii. 2248; <i>Historical Collections</i>, vol. i. no. 878.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a></span> -It was first published, less perfectly, in the <i>American Journal of Science</i>, vol. xcviii. p. 299; and of the -separate issue seventy-five copies only were printed. <i>Bibliotheca Historica</i> (1870), no. 1,976. It was also issued -as a part of a volume on the proposed <i>Tehuantepec Railway</i>, prepared by his brother, Simon Stevens, and published -by the Appletons of New York the same year. <i>Ibid.</i> no. 1,977; <i>Historical Collections</i>, vol. i. nos. 894-895; -Allibone, vol. ii. p. 2348, nos. 17, 18, 19.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a></span> -<i>Historical Collections</i>, vol. i. no. 897.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a></span> -It is a droll fancy of his to call his bookshop the “Nuggetory;” to append to his name “G. M. B.,” for -Green Mountain Boy; and even to parade in a similar titular fashion his rejection at a London Club,—“Bk-bld—Ath.-Cl.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a></span> -<i>Historical Collections</i>, vol. i. no. 898.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a></span> -<i>Historical Collections</i>, vol. i. no. 899.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a></span> -The public is largely indebted to the efforts of Mr. Theodore F. Dwight, the librarian and keeper of the -Archives of the Department of State at Washington, for the ultimate success of the endeavor to secure these -manuscripts to the nation. Mr. Stevens had lately (1885) formed a copartnership with his son, Mr. Henry N. -Stevens, and had begun a new series of Catalogues, of which No. 1 gives his own publications, and No. 2 is a -bibliography of New Hampshire History. He died in London, February 28, 1886.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a></span> -<i>N. E. Hist. and Geneal. Reg.</i>, 1863, p. 203. Dr. Homes, of Albany, is confident Joseph Bumstead was -earlier in Boston than Mr. Drake. The <i>Boston Directory</i> represents him as a printer in 1800, and as a bookseller -after 1816.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a></span> -His earliest catalogue appeared in 1842, as of his private library. Sabin’s <i>Bibl. of Bibl.</i>, p. xlix. A -collection announced for sale in Boston in 1845 was withdrawn after the catalogue was printed, having been -sold to the Connecticut Historical Society for $4,000. At one time he amassed a large collection of American -school-books to illustrate our educational history. They were bought (about four hundred in all) by the British -Museum.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a></span> -Cf. Jackson’s <i>Bibl. Géog.</i>, no. 684, and pp. 185, 199. Also see Vol. III. 361.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a></span> -His catalogues are spiced with annotations signed “Western Memorabilia.” Sabin (<i>Dictionary</i>, vii. 369) -quotes the saying of a rival regarding Gowans’s catalogues, that their notes “were distinguished by much originality, -some personality, and not a little bad grammar.” His shop and its master are drawn in F. B. Perkins’s -<i>Scrope, or the Lost Library</i>. <i>A Novel</i>. Mr. Gowans died in November, 1870, at sixty-seven, leaving a stock, -it is said, of 250,000 bound volumes, besides a pamphlet collection of enormous extent. Mr. W. C. Prime told -the story of his life, genially, in <i>Harper’s Magazine</i> (1872), in an article on “Old Books in New York.” Speaking -of his stock, Mr. Prime says: “There were many more valuable collections in the hands of booksellers, but -none so large, and probably none so wholly without arrangement.” Mr. Gowans was a Scotchman by birth, and -came to America in 1821. After a varied experience on a Mississippi flat-boat, he came to New York, and in -1827 began life afresh as a bookseller’s clerk. Cf. <i>American Bibliopolist</i>, January, 1871, p. 5.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a></span> -Harrisse, <i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, p. xxx.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a></span> -Jackson, <i>Bibl. Géog.</i>, nos. 670-676.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a></span> -Jackson, no. 687. See Vol. IV. p. 435. Munsell issued privately, in 1872, a catalogue of the works -printed by him. Sabin, <i>Bibl. of Bibl.</i>, p. cv. Cf. a <i>Biographical Sketch of Joel Munsell, by George R. -Howell, with a Genealogy of the Munsell Family, by Frank Munsell</i>. Boston, 1880. This was printed -(16 pp.) for the New England Historic Genealogical Society.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a></span> -Jackson, no. 669.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a></span> -They have been issued in 1869, 1871, 1873, 1876, 1877, 1878, 1879, 1883. Jackson, nos. 705-711. Lesser -lists have been issued in Cincinnati by William Dodge. The chief dealer in Americana in Boston, who issues -catalogues, is, at the present time, Mr. George E. Littlefield.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a></span> -Another is now in progress.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a></span> -With these canons Mr. Quaritch’s prices can be understood. The extent and character of his stock can -be inferred from the fact that his purchases at the Perkins sale (1873) amounted to £11,000; at the Tite sale -(1874), £9,500; at the Didot sales (1878-1879), £11,600; and at the Sunderland sales (1883), £32,650, out of a -total of £56,851. At the recent sales of the Beckford and Hamilton collections, which produced £86,444, over -one half, or £44,105, went to Mr. Quaritch. These figures enable one to understand how, in a sense, Mr. Quaritch -commands the world’s market of choice books. A sketch, <i>B. Q., a biographical and bibliographical Fragment</i> -(1880, 25 copies), in the privately printed series of monographs issued to a club in London, of which Mr. -Quaritch is president, called “The Sette of Odd Volumes,” has supplied the above data. The sketch is by C. -W. H. Wyman, and is also reprinted in his <i>Bibliography of Printing</i>, and in the <i>Antiquarian Magazine and -Bibliographer</i>, November, 1882. One of the club’s “opuscula” (no. iii.) has an excellent likeness of Mr. Quaritch -prefixed. Cf. also the memoir and portrait in Bigmore and Wyman’s <i>Bibliography of Printing</i>, ii. 230.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a></span> -Jackson, nos. 643-649; Trübner, <i>Bibliographical Guide</i>, p. xix.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a></span> -Mr. Trübner died in London March 30, 1884. Cf. memorial in <i>The Library Chronicle</i>, April, 1884, -p. 43, by W. E. A. Axon; also a “Nekrolog” by Karl J. Trübner in the <i>Centralblatt für Bibliothekswesen</i>, -June, 1884, p. 240.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a></span> -Cf. notice by Mr. Brevoort in <i>Magazine of American History</i>, iv. 230.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a></span> -There is a paper on “Edwin Tross et ses publications relatives à l’Amérique” in <i>Miscellanées bibliographiques</i>, -Paris, 1878, p. 53, giving a list of his imprints which concern America.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a></span> -Jackson, nos. 689, 703, 717.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a></span> -Vol. IV. chap. viii. editorial note. There is an account of Muller and his bibliographical work in the -<i>Centralblatt für Bibliothekswesen</i>, November, 1884.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a></span> -Jackson, nos. 650-654; Trübner, <i>Bibliographical Guide</i>, p. xix; Sabin, <i>Bibliog. of Bibliog.</i>, p. cv; -Petzholdt, <i>Bibliotheca Bibliographica</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a></span> -More or less help will be derived from the American portion of the <i>Liste provisoire de bibliographies -géographiques spéciales, par James Jackson</i>, published in 1881 by the Société de Géographie de Paris,—a -book of which use has been made in the preceding pages.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a></span> -See the chapter on the libraries of Boston in the <i>Memorial History of Boston</i>, vol. iv.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a></span> -The extent of Dr. Dexter’s library is evident from the signs of possession which are so numerously scattered -through the 7,250 titles that constitute the exhaustive and very careful bibliography of Congregationalism -and the allied phases of religious history, which forms an appendix to his <i>Congregationalism as seen in its -Literature</i>, New York, 1880. He explains in the Introduction to his volume the wide scope which he intended -to give to this list; and to show how poorly off our largest public libraries in America are in the earliest books -illustrating this movement, he says that of the 1,000 earliest titles which he gives, and which bear date -between 1546 and 1644, he found only 208 in American libraries. His arrangement of titles is chronological, -but he has a full name-index.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The students of the early English colonies cannot fail to find for certain phases of their history much help -from Joseph Smith’s <i>Descriptive Catalogue of Friends’ Books</i>, London, 1867; his <i>Bibliotheca Anti-Quakeriana</i>, -1873; and his <i>Bibliotheca Quakeristica</i>, a bibliography of miscellaneous literature relating to the Friends, of -which Part I. was issued in London in 1883.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a></span> -The private library of George Bancroft is in Washington. It is described as it existed some years ago -in Wynne’s <i>Private Libraries of New York</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a></span> -A book on the private libraries of San Francisco by Apponyi was issued in 1878.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a></span> -An account of the libraries of the various historical societies in the United States is given in the <i>Public -Libraries of the United States</i>, issued by the Bureau of Education at Washington in 1876.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a></span> -The title is quoted differently by different authorities. Harrisse, <i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, no. 32, and <i>Additions</i>, -no. 16; his <i>Christophe Colomb</i>, i. 89; Humboldt, <i>Examen critique</i>, iv. 67; Sabin, <i>Dictionary of Books -relating to America</i>, x. 327; D’Avezac, <i>Waltzemüller</i>, p. 79; Varnhagen, <i>Nouvelles Recherches</i>, p. 17; -Irving’s <i>Columbus</i>, app. ix.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a></span> -See Vol. IV. p. 12. The editorship is in dispute,—whether Zorzi or Montalboddo. The better opinion -seems to be that Humboldt erred in assigning it to Zorzi rather than to Montalboddo. Cf. Humboldt, <i>Examen -critique</i>; Brunet, v. 1155, 1158; Sabin, <i>Dictionary</i>, vol. xii. no. 50,050; D’Avezac, <i>Waltzemüller</i>, p. 80; -Graesse, <i>Trésor</i>; Harrisse, <i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, nos. 48, 109, app. p. 469, and <i>Additions</i>, no. 26; <i>Bulletin de -la Société de Géographie</i>, October, 1857, p. 312; Santarem’s <i>Vespucius</i>, Eng. tr., p. 73; Irving’s <i>Columbus</i>, -app. xxx.; Navarrete, <i>Opúsculos</i>, i. 101; Harrisse, <i>Christophe Colomb</i>, i. 89. There are copies of this 1507 -edition in the Lenox and Carter-Brown libraries, and in the Grenville Library; and one in the Beckford sale, -1882 (no. 186), brought £270. Cf. also <i>Murphy Catalogue</i>, no. 2,612[A], and <i>Catalogue de la précicuse bibliothèque -de feu M. le Docteur F. Court</i> (Paris, 1884), no. 262. The <i>Paesi novamente retrovati</i> is shown in the -chapter on the Cortereals in Vol. IV. to be of importance in elucidating the somewhat obscure story of that -portion of the early Portuguese discoveries in North America. Since Vol. IV. was printed, two important contributions -to this study have been made. One is the monograph of Henry Harrisse, <i>Les Cortereal et leur -voyages au Nouveau-monde. D’après des documents nouveaux ou peu connus tirés des archives de Lisbonne et -de Modène. Suivi du texte inédit d’un recit de la troisième expédition de Gasper Cortereal et d’une carte -nautique portugaise de 1502 reproduite ici pour la première jois. Mémoire lu à l’Académie des inscriptions -et belles-lettres dans sa séance du 1er juin, 1883</i>, and published in Paris in 1883, as Vol. III. of the <i>Recueil de -voyages et de documents pour servir à l’histoire de la géographie depuis le XIIIe jusqu’à la fin du XVIe siècle</i>. -The other is the excerpt from the <i>Archivo des Açores</i>, which was drawn from that work by the editor, Ernesto -do Canto, and printed separately at Ponta Delgarda (S. Miguel) in an edition of one hundred copies, under the -title of <i>Os Corte-Reaes, memoria historica accompanhada de muitos documentos ineditos</i>. Do Canto refers -(p. 34) to other monographs on the Portuguese discoveries in America as follows: Sebastião Francisco Mendo -Trigoso,—<i>Ensaio sobre os Descobrimentos e Commercio dos Portuguezes em as Terras Septentrionaes da -America</i>, presented to the Lisbon Academy (1813), and published in their <i>Memorias da Litteratura</i>, viii. 305. -Joaquim José Gonçalves de Mattos Corrêa,—<i>Acerca da prioridade das Descobertas feitas pelos portuguezes -nas costas orientaes da America do norte</i>, which was printed in <i>Annaes maritimos e Coloniaes</i>, Lisbon, 1841, -pp. 269-423. Luciano Cordeiro,—<i>De la part prise par les Portugais dans le découverte de l’Amerique</i>, -Lisbon, 1876. This was a communication made to the Congrès des Américanistes in 1875. Cf. Vol. IV. p. 15.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a></span> -Harrisse, <i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, no. 55; D’Avezac, <i>Waltzemüller</i>, p. 80; Wieser, <i>Magalhâes-Strasse</i>, -pp. 15, 17. There are copies in the Lenox, Carter-Brown, Harvard College, and Cincinnati Public libraries. -The Beckford copy brought, in 1882, £78. Quaritch offered a copy in 1883 for £45. At the Potier sale, in -1870 (no. 1,791), a copy brought 2,015 francs; the same had brought 389 francs in 1844 at the Nodier sale. -<i>Livres payés en vente publique 1,000 francs et au dessus</i>, 1877, p. 77. Cf. also Court, no. 263.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a></span> -Only one copy in the United States, says Sabin.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a></span> -In Carter-Brown and Lenox libraries; also in the Marciana and Brera libraries. Leclerc in 1878 priced -a copy at 1,000 francs. Cf. Harrisse, no. 90, also p. 463, and <i>Additions</i>, no. 52; Sobolewski, no. 4,130; -Brunet, v. 1158; Court, no. 264.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a></span> -Sabin, vol. xii. no. 50,054; Leclerc, no. 2,583 (500 francs). A copy was sold in London in March, 1883. -There is a copy in the Cincinnati Public Library.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a></span> -Harrisse, no. 109; Sobolewski, no. 4,131; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 68; Murphy, no. 2,617.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a></span> -<i>Newe unbekanthe landte</i> (Nuremberg, 1508), by Ruchamer; copies are in the Lenox, Carter-Brown, Congress, -and Cincinnati Public libraries. Cf. Sabin, vol. xii. no. 50,056; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 36; Harrisse, -no. 57; Murphy, no. 2,613; Sobolewski, no. 4,069; D’Avezac, <i>Waltzemüller</i>, p. 83; Rosenthal, <i>Catalogue</i> -(1884), no. 67, at 1,000 marks.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a></span> -<i>Nye unbekande Lande</i> (1508), in Platt-Deutsch, by Henning Ghetel, of Lubeck, following the German. -Sabin, vol. xii. no. 50,057; Harrisse, <i>Additions</i>, no. 29. The Carter-Brown copy (<i>Catalogue</i>, vol. i. no. 37) -cost about 1,000 marks at the Sobolewski (no. 4,070) sale, when it was described as an “édition absolument -inconnu jusqu’au présent.” Mr. C. H. Kalbfleisch has since secured a copy at 3,000 marks,—probably the -copy advertised “as the second copy known,” by Albert Cohn, of Berlin, in 1881, in his <i>Katalog</i>, vol. cxxxix. -no. 27. Cf. <i>Studi biografici e bibliografici della Società Italiana</i>, i. 219.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a></span> -<i>Itinerariū Portugallēsiū e Lusitania in Indiā</i> (Milan, 1508), a Latin version by Archangelus Madrinanus, -of Milan. Cf. D’Avezac, <i>Waltzemüller</i>, p. 82; Sabin, vol. xii. no. 50,058; Harrisse, no. 58; Sobolewski, -no. 4,128; Muller (1870), no. 1,844. There are copies in the Lenox, Barlow, Harvard College, -Carter-Brown (<i>Catalogue</i>, vol. i. no. 35), and Congressional libraries. The Beckford copy (no. 1,081) brought -£78. Sabin quotes Bolton Corney’s copy at £137. Copies have been recently priced at £30, £36, and £45. -A copy noted in the <i>Court Catalogue</i> (no. 177) differs from Harrisse’s collation.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a></span> -<i>Sensuyt le nouveau mōde</i>, supposed to be 1515; some copies vary in text. The Lenox Library has two -varieties. Cf. Sabin, vol. xii. nos. 50,059, 50,061; Harrisse, no. 83, and <i>Additions</i>, no. 46; D’Avezac, -<i>Waltzemüller</i>, p. 84. An edition of 1516 (<i>Le nouveau monde</i>) is in the Carter-Brown and Lenox libraries -(Sabin, vol. xii. no. 50,062; Court, no. 248; Harrisse, no. 86; Sobolewski, no. 4,129). One placed in 1521 -(<i>Sensuyt le nouveau mōde</i>) is in Harvard College Library (Harrisse, no. 111; Sabin, vol. xii. no. 50,063). Another -(<i>Sensuyt le nouveau monde</i>) is placed under 1528 (Sabin, vol. xii. no. 50,064; Harrisse, no. 146, and -<i>Additions</i>, no. 87).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a></span> -<i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, no. 50. Harrisse also gives a chapter to Peter Martyr in his <i>Christophe Colomb</i>, i. 85.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a></span> -See also the reference in Joannes Tritemius’ <i>De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis</i> (Cologne, 1546), pp. 481-482. -There have been within a few years two monographs upon Martyr:(1) Hermann A. Schumacher’s <i>Petrus -Martyr, der Geschichtsschreiber des Weltmeeres</i> (New York, 1879); (2) Dr. Heinrich Heidenheimer’s <i>Petrus -Martyr Anglerius und sein Opus epistolarum</i> (Berlin, 1881). This last writer gives a section to his geographical -studies.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a></span> -Humboldt, <i>Examen critique</i>, ii. 279; Irving, <i>Columbus</i>, app.; Prescott, <i>Ferdinand and Isabella</i> -(1873), ii. 74, and <i>Mexico</i>, ii. 96; H. H. Bancroft, <i>Central America</i>, i. 312; Helps, <i>Spanish Conquest</i>. -Cf. Harrisse, <i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, nos. 66 and 160.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a></span> -Morelli’s edition of <i>Letter of Columbus</i>, 1810.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a></span> -There is an examination of this edition on page 109 of Vol. II.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a></span> -Harrisse, <i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, no. 88; <i>Carter-Brown Catalogue</i>, vol. i. no. 50; Huth, p. 920; Brunet, -i. 293; Murphy, no. 1,606; Leclerc, no. 2,647 (600 francs); Stevens, <i>Nuggets</i>, £10 10<i>s.</i>; <i>Bibliotheca Grenvilliana</i>. -There is a copy in Charles Deane’s collection. Tross priced a copy in 1873 at 900 francs.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a></span> -<i>Carter-Brown Catalogue</i>, vol. i. no. 61; Graesse, <i>Trésor</i>, i. 130; Sabin, i. 201, who says Rich put it -under 1560.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a></span> -<i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, no. 62; <i>Additions</i>, p. 78.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a></span> -<i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, no. 110.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a></span> -There are copies in Harvard College and Carter-Brown libraries. Cf. Sabin, i. 199; Leclerc, no. 24 -(150 francs); Court, no. 13; Murphy, no. 1,606[A]; Stevens, <i>Historical Collection</i>, i. 48; his <i>Nuggets</i>, £2 2<i>s.</i> -But recent prices have been £20 and £25; Brunet, i. 294; Ternaux, no. 24; Sunderland, vol. iv. no. 8,173. -This tract was reprinted in the <i>Novus orbis</i> (Basle, 1532), and was appended to the Antwerp edition (1536) of -Brocard’s <i>Descriptio terræ sanctæ</i> (Harrisse, <i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, no. 218; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 117). It is -also in the <i>Novus orbis</i> of Rotterdam, 1596 (Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 505).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a></span> -There are copies in the Harvard College, Lenox, and Carter-Brown libraries. It is very rare; a fair copy -was priced in London, in 1881, at £62. Cf. Brunet, i. 293; <i>Carter-Brown Catalogue</i>, vol. i. no. 94; Sabin, -i. 198; Harrisse, <i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, no. 154; Murphy, no. 1,607; Court, no. 14.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a></span> -The book is very rare. There is a copy in Harvard College Library. A copy was priced in London at -£36; but Quaritch holds the Beckford copy (no. 2,275), in fine binding, at £148. Harrisse (<i>Bill. Amer. Vet.</i>, -no. 167) errs in his description. Cf. Brunet, i. 294; Sobolewski, no. 3,667; Sabin, i. 199; Huth, p. 920; -Stevens, <i>Historical Collections</i>, i. 48; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 99; Murphy, no. 3,002; Court, no. 124.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a></span> -Richard Eden’s copy of this book, with his annotations, apparently used in making his translation of -1555, was sold in the Brinley sale, no. 40, having been earlier in the Judge Davis sale in 1847 (no. 1,352). -The first of the Stevens copies, in his sale of 1870 (nos. 75, 1,234), is now in Mr. Deane’s library. There are -also copies in the Force (Library of Congress), Carter-Brown (<i>Catalogue</i>, vol. i. no. 104), and Ticknor (<i>Catalogue</i>, -p. 14) collections, and in Harvard College Library. Cf. Sabin, i.; Stevens’s <i>Nuggets</i>, £1 11<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>; -Ternaux, no. 47; Harrisse, <i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, no. 176; Muller (1877), no. 2,031; Court, no. 15; Murphy, -no. 1,608; Leclerc (1878), no. 25 (80 francs); Quaritch, no. 11,628 (£3 10<i>s.</i>; again, £5 5<i>s.</i>); Sunderland, -vol. iv. no. 8,176 (£50). Priced in Germany at 60 and 100 marks.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a></span> -Ramusio’s name does not appear, but D’Avezac thinks his editorship is probable; cf. <i>Bulletin de la -Société de Géographie</i> (1872), p. 11. There are copies in Harvard College, Carter-Brown, J. C. Brevoort, H. C. -Murphy, and Lenox libraries. For an account of a map said to belong to it, see Winsor’s <i>Bibliography of -Ptolemy</i>, sub anno 1540. Cf. <i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, no. 190; Stevens, <i>Historical Collections</i>, vol. i. no. 344, and -<i>Nuggets</i>, vol. ii. no. 1,808; Murphy, no. 1,609; Sunderland, vol. iv. no. 8,177; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 107; -Ternaux, no. 43; Court, no. 213. Ramusio also included Martyr in the third volume of his <i>Navigationi</i>. Cf. -the opinions of Mr. Deane and Mr. Brevoort on the <i>Summario</i> as given in Vol. III. p. 20.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a></span> -Brunet, Graesse, Ternaux.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a></span> -Harrisse, <i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, no. 214.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a></span> -Vol. i. p. 199.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a></span> -See Vol. III. p. 200; Murphy, no. 1,610.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a></span> -The book is rare; the copy in the Menzies sale (no. 1,332) brought $42.50. Cf. further in Vol. III. -p. 204; also Cooke, no. 1,642.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a></span> -It has three decades and three books of the “De Babylonica legatione.” There are copies in Harvard -College and the Carter-Brown libraries. Cf. Rich (1832), no. 52; <i>Nuggets</i>, £1 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>; Sabin, i. 201; Muller, -(1877), no. 2,031; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 295; Leclerc, no. 26 (80 francs); Harrassowitz, 35 marks; -Quaritch, £1 5s. and £1 16s.; Sunderland, vol. iv. no. 8,178; O’Callaghan, no. 1,479; Cooke, no. 1,641; Court, -no. 16; Murphy, no. 1,611.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a></span> -Graesse, i. 130; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 344; Stevens (1870), no. 1,235.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a></span> -The Sunderland copy (vol. iv. no. 8,179), with the map, brought £24; a French catalogue advertised one -with the map for 250 francs. Without the map it is worth about $25. See further in Vol. III. p. 42; also Murphy, -no. 1,612; Cooke, no. 1,643; Court, no. 17. Hakluyt’s text was used by Lok in making an English version -(he adopted, however, Eden’s text of the first three decades), which was printed as <i>De Novo Orbe; or, the -Historie of the West Indies</i>. Bibliographers differ about the editions. One without date is held by some to -have been printed in 1597 (White-Kennett; Field, <i>Indian Bibliography</i>, no. 1,013; Menzies, no. 1,333, $35; -Huth, p. 923); but others consider it the sheets of the 1612 edition with a new title (see Vol. III. p. 47, -Field, no. 1,014; Stevens, 1870, no. 1,236; Harrisse, <i>Notes on Columbus</i>, p. 10; O’Callaghan, no. 1,481; -Murphy, no. 1,612*; Carter-Brown, vol. i. nos. 129, 130). There are copies of this 1612 edition in the Boston -Athenæum, Harvard College, Carter-Brown, and Massachusetts Historical Society libraries; it is worth from -$30 to $40. Mr. Deane’s edition of 1612 has a dedication to Julius Cæsar, the English jurist of that day, -which is not in the edition without date. See Vol. III. p. 47. The same was reissued as a “second edition,” -with a title dated 1628, of which there is a copy in Harvard College Library (Field, no. 1,015; Stevens, -<i>Nuggets</i>, £4 14<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>; Menzies, no. 1,334; Griswold, no. 475; Quaritch, £9 and £12).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a></span> -Brunet, i. 294; Harrisse, <i>Notes on Columbus</i>, p. 10; <i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, no. 160; Carter-Brown, vol. i. -no. 93; Sunderland, vol. iv. no. 8,174, (£61). There is also a copy in Harvard College Library.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a></span> -Sabin, i. 200. Copy in Harvard College Library; it was printed at the Elzevir Press (Harrisse, <i>Notes -on Columbus</i>, p. 11; Carter-Brown, vol. ii. no. 1,036; Sunderland, vol. iv. no. 8,175).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a></span> -Prescott’s copy is in Harvard College Library (<i>Ferdinand and Isabella</i>, 1873, ii. 76).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a></span> -Cf. Arana, <i>Bibliog. de obras anon.</i> (1882), no. 373.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a></span> -There are copies of this Basle edition in the Boston Public, Harvard College, Carter-Brown, Lenox, -Astor, and Barlow libraries. Münster’s map, of which an account is given elsewhere, is often wanting; the -price for a copy with the map has risen from a guinea in Rich’s day (1832), to £5. Cf. Harrisse, no. 171; -Leclerc, no. 411; Muller (1877), no. 1,301; Ternaux, no. 38; Sabin, vol. ix. no. 34,100; Court, no. 249. The -Paris edition has the Orontius Finæus map properly, though others are sometimes found in it. Cf. Harrisse, -nos. 172, 173; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 102; Sabin, vol. ix. nos. 34,101, 34,102; Leclerc, nos. 412 (150 francs), -2,769; Stevens, <i>Bibliotheca geographica</i>, p. 124; Cooke, no. 2,879; Court, no. 250; Sunderland, no. 263; -Muller (1872), no. 1,847; Quaritch (1883) £12 16<i>s.</i> The Lenox Library has copies of different imprints,—“apud -Galeotum” and “apud Parvum.” There are other copies in the Barlow and Carter-Brown libraries. -Good copies are worth about £10.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a></span> -Sabin (vol. ix. p. 30) says it is rarer than the original Latin. There are copies in Harvard College, -Congressional, and Carter-Brown libraries. Cf. Rich (1832), £1 1<i>s.</i>; Ternaux, no. 45; Sabin, vol. ix. -no. 34,106; Grenville, p. 498; Harrisse, no. 188, with references; Stevens (1870), no. 1,419; Muller (1872), -no. 1,853, and (1877) no. 1,309 (40 florins), with corrections of Harrisse; Sobolewski, no. 3,857; Carter-Brown, -vol. i. no. 110; Huth, vol. iii. nos. 1,050-1,051. Quaritch and others of late price it at £3. It -was from this German edition of the <i>Novus orbis</i> that the collection, often quoted as that of Cornelis -Albyn, and called <i>Nieuwe Weerelt</i>, was made up in 1563, with some additional matter. It is in the dialect of -Brabant, and Muller (<i>Books on America</i>, 1872, no. 1,854) says it is “exceedingly rare, even in Holland;” he -prices it at 50 florins. Cf. Leclerc, no. 2,579 (250 francs); Sabin, vol. ix. no. 34,107; Carter-Brown, vol. i. -no. 240; Huth, vol. iii. no. 1,051; A. R. Smith’s Catalogue (1874), no. 8 (£2 2<i>s.</i>); Pinart, no. 668.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a></span> -It has pp. 585-600 in addition to the edition of 1532. There are copies in the Cornell University (<i>Sparks -Catalogue</i>, no. 1,107), Lenox, Carter-Brown, Barlow, J. C. Brevoort, and American Antiquarian Society libraries. -One of the two copies in Harvard College Library belonged at different times to Charles Sumner, E. A. -Crowninshield (no. 796), and the poet Thomas Gray, and has Gray’s annotations, and a record that it cost him -one shilling and ninepence. The map of the 1532 Basle edition belongs to this 1537 edition; but it is often -wanting. The <i>Huth Catalogue</i> (vol. iii. p. 1050) calls the map of “extreme rarity;” and Quaritch has pointed -out that the larger names in the map being set in type in the block, there is some variation in the style of these -inscriptions belonging to the different issues. Cf. Sabin, vol. ix. no. 34,103; Harrisse, no. 223; Carter-Brown, -vol. i. no. 123; Leclerc, no. 413, with map (100 francs); Stevens (<i>Nuggets</i>) does not mention the map, but -his <i>Bibliotheca historica</i> (1870), no. 1,455, and <i>Historical Collections</i>, p. 66, give it; Muller (1872), no. 1,850 and -(1877) no. 1,306. Recent prices of good copies with the map are quoted at £4 4<i>s.</i>, 57 marks, and 70 francs; -without the map it brings about $4.00. Grolier’s copy was in the Beckford sale (1882), no. 187.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a></span> -There are copies in the Boston Public (two copies), Boston Athenæum, Harvard College, Carter-Brown -(no. 202), and American Antiquarian Society libraries. The map is repeated from the earlier Basle editions. -Cf. <i>Brinley Catalogue</i>, no. 50; <i>Huth Catalogue</i> (without map), iii. 1,050; Harrisse, no. 171; Stevens, -<i>Historical Collection</i>, vol. i. no. 501; Cooke, no. 1,064; Sabin, vol. ix. no. 34,104. Rich, in 1832, priced it -with map at £2 2<i>s.</i>; recent prices are £4 4<i>s.</i> and £5 5<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a></span> -Edited by Balthazar Lydius. Cf. Carter-Brown, vol. ii. no. 182; Graesse, iv. 699; Brunet, iv. 132; -Sabin, vol. ix. no. 34,105; Huth, iii. 1051; Leclerc, no. 414 (40 francs); Stevens, <i>Nuggets</i>, £2 2<i>s.</i>; Court, -no. 251; Muller (1872), no. 1,870. There are copies in Harvard College Library and Boston Athenæum.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a></span> -The editions of Ptolemy recording or affecting the progress of geography in respect to the New World -are noted severally elsewhere in the present work; but the whole series is viewed together in the <i>Bibliography -of Ptolemy’s Geography</i>, by Justin Winsor, which, after appearing serially in the <i>Harvard University Bulletin</i>, -was issued separately by the University Library in 1884 as no. 18 of its <i>Bibliographical Contributions</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a></span> -H. H. Bancroft, <i>Mexico</i>, i. 258. Harrisse (<i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, no. 237) gives the date 1541 as apparently -the first edition. His authority is the <i>Labanoff Catalogue</i>; but the date therein is probably an error (Sabin, -vol. xii. no. 51,384). The <i>Athenæ Rauricæ</i> cites a Latin edition of 1543,—it is supposed without warrant, -though it is also mentioned in Poggendorff’s <i>Biog.-liter. Handwörterbuch</i>, ii. 234.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a></span> -Harrisse (<i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, no. 258), describing a copy in the Lenox Library. The map of America in -this edition is given by Santarem, and much reduced in Lelewel. There are twenty-four maps in it in all (Sabin, -vol. xii. no. 51,385).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a></span> -Also published at Basle (Harrisse, <i>Bibl. Amer. Vet., Additions</i>, no. 152; Weigel, 1877, <i>Catalogue</i>; Sabin, -vol. xii. no. 51,386). It has twenty-eight maps. There is a copy in the Royal Library at Munich.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a></span> -The third and later German editions were as follows: 1546. According to the <i>Athenæ Rauricæ</i>.—1550. -Basle, 1,233 pages, woodcuts, with views of towns added for the first time, and fourteen folios of maps. Harrisse -(no. 294) quotes the description in Ebert’s <i>Dictionary</i>, no. 14,500. Cf. Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,387; -Leclerc, no. 396; Rosenthal (Munich, 1884), no. 52, at 80 marks. Harrisse (<i>Additions</i>, no. 179) says the -Royal Library at Munich has three different German editions of 1550.—1553. Basle. Muller (<i>Books on -America</i>, 1872, no. 1,020; 1877, no. 2,203) cites a copy, with twenty-six maps; also Sabin (vol. xii. no. 51,388).—1556. -Cited by Sabin, vol. xii. no. 53,389.—1561. Basle. Cf. Rosenthal, <i>Catalogue</i> (1884), no. 53.—1564. -Basle. Cf. Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,390; <i>Carter-Brown Catalogue</i>, i. 598. It has fourteen maps, the last being -of the New World.—1569, 1574, 1578. Basle. All are cited by Ebert and Harrisse, who give them twenty-six -maps, and say that the cuts are poor impressions.—1574, 1578, 1588. Undated; but cited by Sabin, -vol. xii. no. 51,391-51,393.—1592, 1598. In these editions the twenty-six maps and the woodcuts are -engraved after new drawings. That of 1592 is in the Boston Athenæum; that of 1598 is in Harvard College -Library. The likeness of Münster on the title is inscribed: “Seins alters lx jar.” America is shown in the -general mappemonde, and in map no. xxvi., “Die Newe Welt.” Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,394-51,395.—1614, -1628. These Basle editions reproduced the engravings of the 1592 and 1598 editions, and are considered -the completest issues of the German text. They are worth from 30 to 40 marks each. Sabin, vol. xii. -no. 51,396.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a></span> -The <i>Athenæ Rauricæ</i> gives a Latin edition of 1545.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a></span> -This 1550 Latin edition has fourteen maps, and copies are worth from $12 to $15. Cf. <i>Bibl. Amer. -Vet.</i>, no. 300; <i>Huth Catalogue</i>, iii. 1,009; Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,379; Strutt, <i>Dictionary of Engravers</i>. -</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a></span> -The title of the 1554 edition as shown in the copy in the Boston Public Library reads as follows: <i>Cosmo -| graphiae | uniuersalis Lib. VI. in | quibus iuxta certioris fidei scriptorum | traditionem describuntur, | -Omnium habitabilis orbis partium situs, pro- | priæq’ dotes. | Regionum Topographicæ effigies. | Terræ -ingenia, quibus sit ut tam differentes & ua | rias specie res, & animatas, & inanimatas, ferat. | Animalium -peregrinorum naturæ & picturæ. | Nobiliorum ciuitatum icones & descriptiones. | Regnorum initia, incrementa -& translationes. | Regum & principum genealogiæ. | Item omnium gentium mores, leges, religio, mu- | -tationes: atq’ memorabilium in hunc usque an- | num 1554. gestarum rerum Historia. | Autore Sebast. Munstero.</i> -The same edition is in the Harvard College Library; but the title varies, and reads thus: <i>Cosmo | -graphiæ | uniuersalis Lib. VI. in | quibus, iuxta certioris fidei scriptorum | traditionem describuntur, | -Omniū habitabilis orbis partiū situs, propriæq’ dotes. | Regionum Topographicæ effigies. | Terræ ingenia, -quibus sit ut tam differentes & uarias | specie res, & animatas & inanimatas, ferat. | Animalium peregrinorum -naturæ & picturæ. Nobiliorum ciuitatum icones & descriptiones. | Regnorum initia, incrementa & -translationes. | Omnium gentium mores, leges, religio, res gestæ, mu- | tationes: Item regum & principum -genealogiæ. | Autore Sebast. Munstero. | The colophon in both reads: | Basileæ Apud Henrichum Petri, | -Mense Septemb. Anno Sa | lvtis M.D.LIIII.</i> | This copy belonged to Dr. Mather Byles, and has his autograph; -the title is mounted, and may have belonged to some other one of the several “title-editions” which -appeared about this time. Cf. <i>Harvard University Bulletin</i>, ii. 285; <i>Carter-Brown</i>, vol. i. no. 194; Sabin, -vol. xii. no. 51,380-51,381. The account of America is on pages 1,099-1,113. These editions have been bought -of late years for about $4; but Rosenthal (Munich, 1884) prices a copy of 1552 at 130 marks, and one of 1554 -at 150 marks.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a></span> -Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,382; Muller, <i>Books on America</i> (1872), p. 11.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a></span> -Some copies have nineteen maps, others twenty-two in all. Cf. Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 291; Sabin, -vol. xii. no. 51,383. Some passages displeasing to the Catholics are said to have been omitted in this edition. -It is worth about $12 or $15.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_183_183" id="Footnote_183_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a></span> -<i>Supplément</i>, col. 1,129; Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,397.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_184_184" id="Footnote_184_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a></span> -That of Basle, 1556, has on pp. 1,353-1,374, “Des nouvelles ilsles: comment, quand et par qui elles ont -esté trouvées,” with a map and fourteen woodcuts. It is usually priced at about $20; the copies are commonly -worn (Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,398). The same publisher, Henry Pierre, reissued it (without date) in 1568, with -twelve folding woodcut maps, the first of which pertains to America (Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 271; Sabin, -vol. xii. no. 51,399). In 1575 a new French edition, with the cuts reduced, was issued in three volumes, folio, -edited by Belleforest and others; it gives 101 pages to America. Cf. Brunet, col. 1,945; <i>Supplément</i>, -col. 1,129; Stevens (1870), p. 121; Sunderland, no. 8,722 (£18 10<i>s.</i>); Porquet (1884), no. 1,673, (150 francs); -Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,400.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a></span> -Cf. Vol. III. of the present <i>History</i>, pp. 200, 201.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a></span> -Weigel (1877), p. 96; Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,401.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a></span> -<i>Supplément</i>, col. 1,129. Cf. also Weigel (1877), p. 96; Carter-Brown, vol. ii. no. 1,132; Sabin, vol. xii. -nos. 51,402-51,403.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a></span> -<i>Terzo volume delle navigationi et viaggi</i>, etc., Venice, 1556. His name is, Latinized, Ramusius.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a></span> -Harrisse, <i>Notes on Columbus</i>, p. 46. A list of the Contents is given in the <i>Carter-Brown Catalogue</i> -(vol. i. p. 181), and in Leclerc (no. 484), where a set (1554, 1583, 1565) is priced at 250 francs. Of interest in -connection with the present History, there are in the first volume of Ramusio the voyages of Da Gama, Vespucius, -and Magellan, as well as matter of interest in connection with Cabot (see Vol. III. p. 24); in the second -volume (1559), the travels of Marco Polo, the voyage of the Zeni and of Cabot. The first edition of the first -volume was published in 1550; Ramusio’s name does not appear. A second edition came out in 1554. Cf. -<i>Murphy Catalogue</i>, nos. 2,096-2,098; Cooke, no. 2,117.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a></span> -Born in 1485-1486; died in 1557. There is an alleged portrait of Ramusio in the new edition of <i>Il -viaggio di Giovan Leone</i>, etc. (Venice, 1857), the only volume of it published. The portrait of him by Paul -Veronese in the hall of the Great Council was burned in 1557; and Cicogna (<i>Biblioteca Veneziana</i>, ii. 310) -says that the likeness now in the Sala dello Scudo is imaginary.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a></span> -Cf. also Camus, <i>Mémoire sur De Bry</i>, p. 8; Humboldt, <i>Examen critique</i>; Hallam, <i>Literature of -Europe</i>; Harrisse, <i>Bibl. Amer. Vet.</i>, no. 304; Brunet, vol. iv. col. 1100; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 195 -Clarke’s <i>Maritime Discovery</i>, p. x, where Tiraboschi’s account of Ramusio is translated; and H. H. Bancroft, -<i>Mexico</i>, i. 282. Ternaux mentions a second edition in 1564; but Harrisse could find no evidence of it (<i>Bibl. -Amer. Vet.</i>, p. xxxiii). There was a well-known second edition of the third volume in 1565 (differing in title -only from the 1556 edition), which, with a first volume of 1588 and a second volume of 1583, is thought to make -up the most desirable copy; though there are some qualifications in the case, since the 1606 edition of the third -volume is really more complete.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_192_192" id="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a></span> -Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 275.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_193_193" id="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a></span> -Cf. Carter-Brown, vol. i. nos. 287, 288, 299, 337; Sunderland, nos. 8,569, 8,570; Brinley, no. 44; Murphy, -no. 1,709; Court, no. 241.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_194_194" id="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a></span> -Court, no. 242.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a></span> -Carter-Brown, i. 386; ii. 12; Brinley, no. 45.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_196_196" id="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a></span> -The different editions in the various languages are given in Sabin, xii. 282.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_197_197" id="Footnote_197_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a></span> -Sabin, vol. viii. no. 32,004.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_198_198" id="Footnote_198_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a></span> -A complete reprint of all of Hakluyt’s publications, in fourteen or fifteen volumes, is announced (1884) by -E. and G. Goldsmid, of Edinburgh.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_199_199" id="Footnote_199_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a></span> -The title, however, as given in catalogues generally, runs: <i>Collectiones peregrinationum in Indiam -orientalem et Indiam occidentalem, XXV partibus comprehensæ a Theodoro, Joan-Theodoro De Bry, -et a Matheo Merian publicatæ. Francofurti ad Mænum</i>, 1590-1634.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_200_200" id="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a></span> -This part is of extreme rarity, and Dibdin says that Lord Oxford bought the copy in the Grenville Library -in 1740 for £140. Cf. Vol. III.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_201_201" id="Footnote_201_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a></span> -The earliest description of a set of De Bry of any bibliographical moment is that of the Abbé de -Rothelin, <i>Observations et détails sur la collection des voyages</i>, etc. (Paris, 1742), pp. 44 (Carter-Brown, vol. i. -no. 473), which is reprinted in Lenglet du Fresnoy’s <i>Méthode pour étudier la géographie</i> (1768), i. 324. -Gabriel Martin, in his catalogue of the library of M. Cisternay du Fay, had somewhat earlier announced that -collector’s triumph in calling a set in his catalogue (no. 2,825) “exemplum omni genere perfectum,” when his -copy brought 450 francs. The Abbé de Rothelin aimed to exceed Cisternay du Fay, and did in the varieties -which he brought together. The next description was that of De Bure in his <i>Bibliographie instructive</i> (vol. i. -p. 67), printed 1763-1768; but the German editions were overlooked by De Bure, as they had been by his predecessors. -The <i>Carter-Brown Catalogue</i> (vol. i. no. 473) shows Sobolewski’s copy of De Bure with manuscript -notes. A lifetime later, in 1802, A. G. Camus printed at Paris his <i>Mémoire sur les grands et petits voyages</i> -[de De Bry] <i>et les voyages de Thevenot</i>. As a careful and critical piece of work, this collation of Camus was -superior to De Bure’s. A description of a copy belonging to the Duke of Bedford was printed in Paris in 1836 -(6 pp.). Weigel, in the <i>Serapeum</i> (1845), pp. 65-89, printed his “Bibliographische Mittheilungen über die -deutschen Ausgaben von De Bry,” which was also printed separately. It described a copy now owned in New -York. Muller, in his <i>Catalogue</i> (1872), p. 217, indicates some differences from Weigel’s collations. The copy -formed by De Bure fell into Mr. Grenville’s hands, and was largely improved by him before he left it, with -his library, to the British Museum. The <i>Bibliotheca Grenvilliana</i> describes it, and Bartlett (<i>Carter-Brown -Catalogue</i>, i. 321) thinks it the finest in Europe. Cf. Dibdin’s description, which is copied in the <i>American -Bibliopolist</i> (1872), p. 13. The standard collation at present is probably that of Brunet, in his <i>Manuel -du libraire</i>, vol. i. (1860), which was also printed separately; in this he follows Weigel for the German texts. -This account is followed by Sabin in his <i>Dictionary</i> (vol. iii. p. 20), whose article, prepared by Charles A. -Cutter, of the Boston Athenæum, has also been printed separately. The Brunet account is accompanied by a -valuable note (also in Sabin, iii. 59), by Sobolewski, whose best set (reaching one hundred and seventy parts) -was a wonderful one, though he lacked the English Hariot. This set came to this country through Muller -(cf. his <i>Catalogue</i>, 1875, p. 387), and is now in the Lenox Library. Sobolewski’s second set went into the -Field Collection, and was sold in 1875; and again in the J. J. Cooke sale (<i>Catalogue</i>, iii. 297) in 1883. Cf. -<i>Catalogue de la collection de feu M. Serge Sobolewski de Moscou</i>, prepared by Albert Cohn. The sale took -place in Leipsic in July, 1873. Brunet and Sobolewski both point out the great difficulties of a satisfactory -collation, arising from the publisher’s habit of mixing the sheets of the various editions, forming varieties -almost beyond the acquisition of the most enthusiastic collector, “so that,” says Brunet, “perhaps no two -copies of this work are exactly alike.” “No man ever yet,” says Henry Stevens (<i>Historical Collections</i>, vol. i. -no. 179), “made up his De Bry perfect, if one may count on the three great De Bry witnesses,—the Right -Honorable Thomas Grenville, the Russian prince Sobolewski, and the American Mr. Lenox,—who all went -far beyond De Bure, yet fell far short of attaining all the variations they had heard of.” The collector will -value various other collations now accessible, like that in the <i>Carter-Brown Catalogue</i>, vol. i. no. 396 (also -printed separately, twenty-five copies, in 1875); that printed by Quaritch, confined to the German texts; that -in the <i>Huth Catalogue</i>, ii. 404; and that in the <i>Sunderland Catalogue</i>, nos. 2,052, 2,053.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_202_202" id="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a></span> -There are lists of the sets which have been sold since 1709 given in Sabin (vol. iii. p. 47), from Brunet, and -in the <i>Carter-Brown Catalogue</i> (vol. i. p. 408). The Rothelin copy, then esteemed the best known, brought, in -1746, 750 francs. At a later day, with additions secured under better knowledge, it again changed hands at 2,551 -francs, and once more, in 1855 (described in the <i>Bulletin du bibliophile</i>, 1855, pp. 38-41), Mr. Lenox bought -it for 12,000 francs; and in 1873 Mr. Lenox also bought the best Sobolewski copy (fifty-five volumes) for 5,050 -thalers. With these and other parts, procured elsewhere, this library is supposed to lead all others in the facilities -for a De Bry bibliography. Fair copies of the <i>Grands voyages</i> in Latin, in first or second editions, are -usually sold for about £100, and for both voyages for £150, and sometimes £200. Muller, in 1872, held the -fourteen parts, in German, of the <i>Grands voyages</i>, at 1,000 florins. Fragmentary sets are frequently in the -Catalogues, but bring proportionately much less prices. In unusually full sets the appreciation of value is -rapid with every additional part. Most large American libraries have sets of more or less completeness. -Besides those in the Carter-Brown (which took thirty years to make, besides a duplicate set from the Sobolewski -sale) and Lenox libraries, there are others in the Boston Public, Harvard College, Astor, and Long -Island Historical Society libraries,—all of fair proportions, and not unfrequently in duplicate and complemental -sets. The copy of the Great Voyages, in Latin (all first editions), in the Murphy Library (<i>Catalogue</i>, no. 379), -was gathered for Mr. Murphy by Obadiah Rich. The Murphy Library also contained the German text in first -editions. In 1884 Quaritch offered the fine set from the Hamilton Library (twenty-five parts), “presumed -to be quite perfect,” for £670. The Earl of Crawford and Balcarres is about publishing his bibliography of -De Bry.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_203_203" id="Footnote_203_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a></span> -There are somewhat diverse views on this point expressed by Brunet and in the Grenville Catalogue.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_204_204" id="Footnote_204_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a></span> -Reference has been made elsewhere (Vol. III. pp. 123, 164) to sketches, now preserved as a part of the -Grenville copy of De Bry in the British Museum, which seem to have been the originals from which De Bry -engraved the pictures in Hariot’s <i>Virginia</i>, etc. These were drawn by Wyth, or White. A collection of -twenty-four plates of such, from De Bry, were published in New York in 1841 (<i>Field’s Indian Bibliography</i>, -no. 1,701). Cf. <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, Oct. 20, 1866, for other of De Bry’s drawings in the British Museum. -De Bry’s engravings have been since copied by Picard in his <i>Cérémonies et coutumes religieuses des peuples -idolatres</i> (Amsterdam, 1723), and by others. Exception is taken to the fidelity of De Bry’s engravings in the -parts on Columbus; cf. Navarrete, French translation, i. 320.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a></span> -Carter-Brown, vol. i. nos. 453, 454, 455.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_206_206" id="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a></span> -Rich (1832), £5 5<i>s.</i> Cf. P. A. Tiele’s <i>Mémoire bibliographique sur les journaux des navigateurs -Néerlandais réimprimés dans les collections de De Bry et de Hulsius</i>, Amsterdam, 1867.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_207_207" id="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a></span> -Stevens (1870), no. 668; Sabin, vi. 211.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a></span> -Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 456; vol. ii. no. 198; Muller (1875), p. 389.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_209_209" id="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a></span> -Carter-Brown, vol. i. nos. 457, 458; vol. ii. nos. 373, 791. There was a second edition in 1655. Cf. -Muller (1872), no. 636; Sabin, vol. i. no. 50; iii. 59; Huth, ii. 612. Abelin also edited the first four -volumes (covering 1617-1643) of the <i>Theatrum Europeum</i> (Frankfort, 1635), etc., which pertains incidentally -to American affairs (Muller, 1872, no. 1,514). Fitzer’s <i>Orientalische Indien</i> (1628) and Arthus’s <i>Historia -Indiæ orientalis</i> (1608) are abridgments of the <i>Small Voyages</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_210_210" id="Footnote_210_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a></span> -Vol. IV. p. 442.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_211_211" id="Footnote_211_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a></span> -Sabin, vol. x. no. 42,392; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 530.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_212_212" id="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a></span> -Muller (1872), no. 1,867.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_213_213" id="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a></span> -Vol. III. p. 47. Cf. Carter-Brown, vol. ii. nos. 159, 169, 189, 223, 308, 330, 397. Sobolewski’s copy -was in the Menzies sale (no. 1,649). Quaritch’s price is from £75 to £100, according to condition, which is -the price of good copies in recent sales.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_214_214" id="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a></span> -Muller (1872), no. 2,067.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_215_215" id="Footnote_215_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a></span> -<i>Catalogue</i> (1875), no. 3,284; (1877), no. 1,627; Tiele, no. 1.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_216_216" id="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a></span> -Muller (1872), no. 1,837.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a></span> -This collection also includes the voyages of Barentz, and of Hudson, as well as several through Magellan’s -Straits, with Madriga’s voyage to Peru and Chili.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a></span> -The collection, as it is known, is sometimes dated 1644 and 1645, but usually 1646 (Muller, 1872, -no. 1,871; Tiele, <i>Mémoire bibliographique</i>, p. 9; Carter-Brown, vol. ii. nos. 567, 586; Sabin, iv. 315, 316). -A partial English translation appeared in London in 1703 (Muller, 1872, no. 1,886). The <i>Oost-Indische -Voyagien</i>, issued at Amsterdam in 1648 by Joost Hartgers, is a reprint of part of Commelin, with some additions. -Only one volume was printed; but Muller thinks (1872 <i>Catalogue</i>, no. 1877) that some separate issues -(1649-1651), including Vries’s voyage to Virginia and New Netherland, were intended to make part of a second -volume. Cf. Sabin, viii. 118; Stevens, <i>Nuggets</i>, no. 1,339.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_219_219" id="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a></span> -Vol. IV. p. 219.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_220_220" id="Footnote_220_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a></span> -The original of Ogilby’s <i>America</i>: cf. Vol. III. p. 416.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_221_221" id="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a></span> -Muller (1872), no. 1,884. Another Dutch publication, deserving of a passing notice, which, though not a -collection of voyages, enlarges upon the heroes of such voyages, is the <i>Leeven en Daden der doorluchtigste -Zee-helden</i> (Amsterdam, 1676), by Lambert van den Bos, which gives accounts of Columbus, Vespucius, -Magellan, Drake, Cavendish, the Zeni, Cabot, Cortereal, Frobisher, and Davis. There was a German translation -at Nuremberg in 1681 (Carter-Brown, vol. ii. no. 1,149; Stevens, 1870, no. 231).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a></span> -Carter-Brown, vol. ii. no. 1,111. A second edition was printed by the widow Cellier in Paris in 1683 -(Muller, 1875, p. 395), containing the same matter differently arranged.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a></span> -An earlier edition (1667) did not have them (Muller, 1875, p. 394). Capel’s <i>Vorstellungen des Norden</i> -(Hamburg, 1676) summarizes the voyages of the Zeni, Hudson, and others to the Arctic regions.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a></span> -Sabin, iv. 68; Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 50. It includes in the later editions Castell’s description of -America, with other of the Harleian manuscripts, and gives Ferdinand Columbus’ life of his father.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_225_225" id="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a></span> -<i>Historical Magazine</i>, i. 125.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_226_226" id="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a></span> -Allibone; Bohn’s <i>Lowndes</i>, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_227_227" id="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a></span> -Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 1,400; Sabin, viii. 92; Muller (1872), no. 1,901.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a></span> -H. H. Bancroft, Central America, ii. 745, who errs somewhat in his statements; <i>Murphy Catalogue</i>, -no. 1,074; Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 88, with full table of contents. The best description is in Muller (1872), -no. 1,887. Although Vander Aa says, in the title of the folio edition, that it is based on the Gottfriedt-Abelin -<i>Newe Welt</i>, this new collection is at least four times as extensive.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_229_229" id="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a></span> -Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 96.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_230_230" id="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a></span> -Carter-Brown, iii. 110.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a></span> -Carter-Brown, iii. 150.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a></span> -The publication began in numbers in 1708, and some copies are dated 1710 (Carter-Brown, vol. iii. -no. 158).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a></span> -Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 208, in ten vols., 1715-1718. H. H. Bancroft (<i>Central America</i>, ii. 749), -cites an edition (1715-1727) in nine vols. Muller (1870, no. 2,021) cites an edition, ten vols., 1731-1738.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a></span> -Sabin, vol. i. no. 1,250.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a></span> -Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 792; H. H. Bancroft, <i>Central America</i>, ii. 747.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a></span> -Volumes xii. to xv. are given to America; the later volumes were compiled by Querlon and De -Leyre.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a></span> -Different sets vary in the number of volumes.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a></span> -Muller (1872), nos. 1,895-1,900; Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 831; H. H. Bancroft, <i>Central America</i>, -ii. 746. A German translation appeared at Leipsic in 1747 in twenty-one volumes.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_239_239" id="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a></span> -H. H. Bancroft, Central America, ii. 750.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_240_240" id="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a></span> -Muller (1872), nos. 1,980, 1,981. There was a German translation, with enlargements, by J. C. Adelung, -Halle, 1767; an English translation is also cited. A similar range was taken in Alexander Dalrymple’s -<i>Historical Collection of Voyages</i> in the South Pacific Ocean (London, 1770), of which there was a French -translation in 1774 (Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 1,730). The most important contribution in English on this -subject, however, is in Dr. James Burney’s <i>Chronological History of Discovery in the South Sea</i> (1803-1817), -five volumes quarto.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_241_241" id="Footnote_241_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a></span> -Dr. Johnson wrote the Introduction; there was a third edition in 1767 (Bohn’s <i>Lowndes</i>, p. 2994).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_242_242" id="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a></span> -H. H. Bancroft, <i>Central America</i>, ii. 750.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a></span> -H. H. Bancroft, <i>Central America</i>, ii. 754.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_244_244" id="Footnote_244_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a></span> -Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 1,494.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_245_245" id="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a></span> -Sabin, v. 473; H. H. Bancroft, <i>Central America</i>, ii. 750.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a></span> -Sabin, ix. 529; Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 1,602; H. H. Bancroft, <i>Central America</i>, ii. 750.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_247_247" id="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a></span> -Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 1,733; H. H. Bancroft, <i>Central America</i>, ii. 751.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_248_248" id="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a></span> -H. H. Bancroft, <i>Central America</i>, ii. 751; Allibone.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_249_249" id="Footnote_249_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a></span> -H. H. Bancroft, <i>Central America</i>, ii. 749.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_250_250" id="Footnote_250_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a></span> -H. H. Bancroft, <i>Central America</i>, ii. 752.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_251_251" id="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a></span> -There was a quarto reprint in Philadelphia of a part of it in 1810-1812.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_252_252" id="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a></span> -There is a catalogue of voyages and an index in vol. xvii. Cf. Allibone’s <i>Dictionary</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_253_253" id="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a></span> -Stevens, <i>Bibliotheca geographica</i>, no. 317.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_254_254" id="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a></span> -Muller (1872), no. 1,842.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_255_255" id="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a></span> -Muller (1875), no. 3,303.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a></span> -Complete sets are sometimes offered by dealers at £30 to £35.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_257_257" id="Footnote_257_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a></span> -H. H. Bancroft, <i>Central America</i>, ii. 757.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_258_258" id="Footnote_258_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a></span> -A Spanish translation of the modern voyages by Urrabieta was published in Paris in 1860-1861. The -Spanish <i>Enciclopedia de viajes modernos</i> (Madrid, 1859), five volumes, edited by Fernandez Cuesta, refers -to the later periods (H. H. Bancroft, <i>Central America</i>, ii. 758).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_259_259" id="Footnote_259_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a></span> -The plane earth cut the cosmic sphere like -a diaphragm, shutting the light from Tartarus.</p> -<p class="pfr8"><i>ἀυτὰρ ὕπερθεν</i></p> -<p class="pfr6"><i>γῆς ῥίζαι πεφύασι καὶ ἀτρυγέτοιο θαλάσσης.</i></p> -<p class="pfr2">(Hesiod, <i>Theog.</i> 727.)</p> -<p class="pfr8">“and above</p> -<p class="pfr6">Impend the roots of earth and barren sea.”</p> -<p class="pfc4">(<i>The remains of Hesiod the Ascræan</i>, etc., translated by -C. A. Elton, 2d ed. London, 1815.)</p> -<p class="pfc4">Critics differ as to the age of the vivid description -of Tartarus in the Theogony.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_260_260" id="Footnote_260_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a></span> -Pythagoras has left no writings; Aristotle -speaks only of his school; Diogenes Laertius in -one passage (<i>Vitae</i>, viii. 1 (Pythag.), 25) quotes -an authority to the effect that Pythagoras asserted -the earth to be spherical and inhabited -all over, so that there were antipodes, to whom -that is <i>over</i> which to us is <i>under</i>. As all his disciples -agreed on the spherical form of the earth -while differing as to its position and motion, it -is probable that they took the idea of its form -from him. Diogenes Laertius states that Parmenides -called the earth round (<i>στρογγύλη</i>, viii. -48), and also that he spoke of it as spherical -(<i>σφαιροειδῆ</i>, ix. 3); the passages are not, as has -been sometimes assumed, contradictory. The -enunciation of the doctrine is often attributed to -Thales and to Anaximander, on the authority -of Plutarch, <i>De placitis philosophorum</i>, iii. 10, and -Diogenes Laertius, ii. 1, respectively; but the -evidence is conflicting (Simplicius, <i>Ad Aristot.</i>, -p. 506<sup>b</sup>. ed. Brandis; Aristot., <i>De caelo</i>, ii. 13; -Plutarch, <i>De plac. phil.</i> iii., xv. 9).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_261_261" id="Footnote_261_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a></span> -Plato, <i>Phaedo</i>, 109. Schaefer is in error -when he asserts (<i>Entwicklung der Ansichten der -Alten ueber Gestalt and Grösse der Erde</i>, 16) that -Plato in the <i>Timaeus</i> (55, 56) assigns a cubical -form to the earth. The question there is not -of the shape of the earth, the planet, but of the -form of the constituent atoms of the element -earth.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_262_262" id="Footnote_262_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a></span></p> -<p class="pfn6i">Terra pilae similis, nullo fulcimine nixa,<br /> -Aëre subjecto tam grave pendet onus.</p> -<p class="pfn6i">[Ipsa volubilitas libratum sustinet orbem:<br /> -Quique premit partes, angulus omnis abest.</p> -<p class="pfn6i">Cumque sit in media rerum regione locata,<br /> -Et tangat nullum plusve minusve latus;</p> -<p class="pfn6i">Ni convexa foret, parti vicinior esset,<br /> -Nec medium terram mundus haberet onus.]</p> -<p class="pfn6i">Arte Syracosia suspensus in aëre clauso<br /> -Stat globus, immensi parva figura poli;</p> -<p class="pfn6i">Et quantum a summis, tantum secessit ab imis<br /> -Terra. Quod ut fiat, forma rotunda facit.</p> -<p class="pfr6">(Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, vi. 269-280.)</p> -<p class="pfc4">The bracketed lines are found in but a few -MSS. The last lines refer to a globe said to -have been constructed by Archimedes.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_263_263" id="Footnote_263_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_263_263"><span class="label">[263]</span></a></span> -Plato makes Socrates say that he took up -the works of Anaxagoras, hoping to learn -whether the earth was round or flat (<i>Phaedo</i>, 46, -Stallb. i. 176). In Plutarch’s dialogue “<i>On the -face appearing in the orb of the moon</i>,” one of the -characters is lavish in his ridicule of the sphericity -of the earth and of the theory of antipodes. -See also Lucretius, <i>De rerum nat.</i>, i. 1052, -etc., v. 650; Virgil, <i>Georgics</i>, i. 247; Tacitus, -<i>Germania</i>, 45.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_264_264" id="Footnote_264_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a></span> -That extraordinary picture could, however, -hardly have been intended for an exposition of -the actual physical geography of the globe.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_265_265" id="Footnote_265_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a></span> -Aristotle, <i>De caelo</i>, ii. 15.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_266_266" id="Footnote_266_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a></span> -Archimedes, <i>Arenarius</i>, i. 1, ed. Helbig. -Leipsic, 1881, vol. ii. p. 243.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a></span> -The logical basis of Eratosthenes’s work -was sound, but the result was vitiated by errors -of fact in his assumptions, which, however, to -some extent counterbalanced one another. The -majority of ancient writers who treat of the -matter give 252,000 stadia as the result, but Cleomedes -(<i>Circ. doctr. de subl.</i>, i. 10) gives 250,000. -It is surmised that the former number originated -in a desire to assign in round numbers 700 -stadia to a degree. Forbiger, <i>Handbuch der alten -Geographie</i>, i. 180, n. 27.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_268_268" id="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a></span> -The stadium comprised six hundred feet, but -the length of the Greek foot is uncertain; indeed, -there were at least two varieties, the Olympic and -the Attic, as in Egypt there was a royal and a common -ell, and a much larger number of supposititious -feet (and, consequently, stadia) have been -discovered or invented by metrologists. Early -French scholars, like Ramé de l’Isle, D’Anville, -Gosselin, supposed the true length of the earth’s -circumference to be known to the Greeks, and -held that all the estimates which have come -down to us were expressions of the same value -in different stadia. It is now generally agreed -that these estimates really denote different conceptions -of the size of the earth, but opinions -still differ widely as to the length of the stadium -used by the geographers. The value selected -by Peschel (<i>Geschichte der Erdkunde</i>, 2d ed., p. -46) is that likewise adopted by Hultsch (<i>Griechische -und Römische Metrologie</i>, 2d ed., 1882) and -Muellenhof (<i>Deutsche Alterthumskunde</i>, 2d ed., -vol. i.). According to these writers, Eratosthenes -is supposed to have devised as a standard -geographical measure a stadium composed of -feet equal to one half the royal Egyptian ell. -According to Pliny (<i>Hist. Nat.</i>, xii. 14, § 5), Eratosthenes -allowed forty stadia to the Egyptian -schonus; if we reckon the schonus at 12,000 -royal ells, we have stadium = 12,000/40 × .525<sup>m</sup> -= 157.5<sup>m</sup>. This would give a degree equal to -110,250<sup>m</sup>, the true value being, according to Peschel, -110,808<sup>m</sup>. To this conclusion Lepsius (<i>Das -Stadium und die Gradmessung des Eratosthenes -auf Grundlage der Aegyptischen Masse</i>, in <i>Zeitschrift -für Aegypt. Sprache u. Alterthumskunde</i>, -xv. [1877]. See also <i>Die Längenmasse der Alten</i>. -Berlin, 1884) objects that the royal ell was never -used in composition, and that the schonus was -valued in different parts of Egypt at 12,000, -16,000, 24,000, <i>small</i> ells. He believes that the -schonus referred to by Pliny contained 16,000 -small ells, so that Eratosthenes’s stadium = -<span class="reduct"><sup>16,000</sup>/<sub>40</sub></span> × .450<sup>m</sup> = 180<sup>m</sup>.</p> -<p class="pfc4">It is possible, however, that Eratosthenes did -not devise a new stadium, but adopted that in -current use among the Greeks, the Athenian stadium. -(I have seen no evidence that the long -Olympic stadium was in common use.) This -stadium is based on the Athenian foot, which, -according to the investigations of Stuart, has -been reckoned at .3081<sup>m</sup>, being to the Roman -foot as 25 to 24. This would give a stadium of -184.8<sup>m</sup>, and a degree of 129,500<sup>m</sup>. Now Strabo, -in the passage where he says that people -commonly estimated eight stadia to the mile, -adds that Polybius allowed 8⅓ stadia to the -mile (<i>Geogr.</i>, vii. 7, § 4), and in the fragment -known as the Table of Julian of Ascalon -(Hultsch, <i>Metrolog. script. reliq.</i>, Lips., 1864, i. -201) it is distinctly stated that Eratosthenes and -Strabo reckoned 8⅓ stadia to the mile. In the -opinion of Hultsch, this table probably belonged -to an official compilation made under the emperor -Julian. Very recently W. Dörpfeld has -revised the work of Stuart, and by a series of -measurements of the smaller architectural features -in Athenian remains has made it appear -that the Athenian foot equalled .2957<sup>m</sup> (instead -of .3081<sup>m</sup>), which is almost precisely the Roman -foot, and gives a stadium of 177.4<sup>m</sup>, which runs -8⅓ to the Roman mile. If this revision is -trustworthy,—and it has been accepted by Lepsius -and by Nissel (who contributes the article -on metrology to Mueller’s <i>Handbuch der klassischen -Alterthumswissenschaft</i>, Nordlingen, 1886, -etc.),—it seems to me probable that we have -here the stadium used by Eratosthenes, and that -his degree has a value of 124,180<sup>m</sup> (Dörpfeld, -<i>Beiträge zur antiken Metrologie, in Mittheilungen -des deutschen Archaeolog. Instituts zu Athen</i>, vii. -(1882), 277).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_269_269" id="Footnote_269_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a></span> -Strabo, <i>Geogr.</i>, ii. 5, § 7; the estimate of Posidonius -is only quoted hypothetically by Strabo -(ii. 2, § 2).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_270_270" id="Footnote_270_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a></span> -Pliny, <i>Hist. Nat.</i> ii. 112, 113. There is apparently -some misunderstanding, either on the part -of Pliny or his copyists, in the subsequent proposition -to increase this estimate by 12,000 -stadia. Schaefer’s (<i>Philologus</i>, xxviii. 187) readjustment -of the text is rather audacious. Pliny’s -statement that Hipparchus estimated the circumference -at 275,000 stadia does not agree with -Strabo (i. 4, § 1).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_271_271" id="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a></span> -The discrepancy is variously explained. Riccioli, -in his <i>Geographia et hydrographia reformata</i>, -1661, first suggested the more commonly received -solution. Posidonius, he thought, having -calculated the arc between Rhodes and Alexandria -at 1-48 of the circumference, at first assumed -5,000 stadia as the distance between these places: -5,000 × 48 = 240,000. Later he adopted a revised -estimate of the distance (Strabo, ii, ch. v. -§ 24), 3,750 stadia: 3,750 × 48 = 180,000. Letronne -(<i>Mém. de l’Acad. des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres</i>, -vi., 1822) prefers to regard both numbers -as merely hypothetical illustrations of the processes. -Hultsch (<i>Griechische u. Römische Metrologie</i>, -1882, p. 63) follows Fréret and Gosselin in -regarding both numbers as expressing the same -value in stadia of different length (Forbiger, -<i>Handbuch der alten Geographie</i>, i. 360, n. 29). -The last explanation is barred by the positive -statement of Strabo, who can hardly be thought -not to have known what he was talking about: -<i>κἄν τῶν νεωτέρων δὲ ἀναμετρήσεων εἰσάγηται ἡ -ἐλαχίστην ποιόυσα τὴν γῆν, οἵαν ὁ Ποσειδώνιος -ἐγκρίνει περὶ ὀκτωκαίδεκα μυριάδας οὖσαν</i>, (<i>Geogr.</i>, -ii. 2, § 2.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_272_272" id="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a></span> -<i>Geographia</i>, vii. 5.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_273_273" id="Footnote_273_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a></span> -1° = 500 stadia = 88,700<sup>m</sup>, which is about -one fifth smaller than the truth.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_274_274" id="Footnote_274_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a></span> -Xenophanes is to be excepted, if, as M. Martin -supposes, his doctrine of the infinite extent of -the earth applied to its extent horizontally as -well as downward.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_275_275" id="Footnote_275_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a></span> -The domain of early Greek geography has -not escaped the incursions of unbalanced investigators. -The Greeks themselves allowed the -Argonauts an ocean voyage: Crates and Strabo -did valiant battle for the universal wisdom of -Homer; nor are scholars lacking to-day who will -demonstrate that Odysseus had circumnavigated -Africa, floated in the shadow of Teneriffe—Horace -to the contrary notwithstanding,—or -sought and found the north pole. The evidence -is against such vain imaginings. The world of -Homer is a narrow world; to him the earth and -the Ægean Sea are alike boundless, and in his -thought fairy-land could begin west of the Lotos-eaters, -and one could there forget the things of -this life. There is little doubt that the author of -the Odyssey considered Greece an island, and -Asia and Africa another, and thought the great -ocean eddied around the north of Hellas to a -union with the Euxine.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_276_276" id="Footnote_276_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a></span></p> -<p class="pfp6">Quinque tenent caelum zonae: quarum una corusco</p> -<p class="pfn6i">Semper sole rubens, et torrida semper ab igni;<br /> -Quam circum extremae dextra laevaque trahuntur</p> -<p class="pfn6i">Caeruleae glacie concretae atque imbribus atris;<br /> -Has inter mediam duae mortalibus aegris</p> -<p class="pfn6i">Munere concessae divom.</p> -<p class="pfr6">(Virgil, <i>Georg.</i> i. 233.)</p> -<p class="pfc4">The passage appears to be paraphrased from -similar lines which are preserved in Achilles Tatius -(<i>Isag. in Phænom. Arat.</i>; Petavius, <i>Uranolog.</i> -p. 153), and by him attributed to the <i>Hermes</i> of -Eratosthenes. See also Tibullus, <i>Eleg.</i> iv., Ovid, -and among the men of science, Aristotle, <i>Meteorol.</i>, -ii. 5, §§ 11, 13, 15; Strabo, <i>Geogr.</i>, i. 2, -§ 24; ii. 5, § 3; Pliny, <i>Hist. Nat.</i>, ii. ch. 68; Mela, -<i>De chorographia</i>, i. 1; Cicero, <i>Republ.</i>, vi. 16; -<i>Tusc. Disp.</i>, i. 28.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_277_277" id="Footnote_277_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a></span> -Aristotle, <i>Meteorol.</i>, ii. 1, § 10; ii. 5, § 15; <i>De -caelo</i>, ii. 14 <i>ad fin</i>. Letronne, finding the latter -passage inconvenient, reversed the meaning by -the arbitrary insertion of a negative (<i>Discussion -de l’opinion d’Hipparque sur le prolongement de -l’Afrique au sud de l’Equator</i> in <i>Journal des -Savans</i>, 1831, pp. 476, 545). The theory which -he built upon this reconstructed foundation so -impressed Humboldt that he changed his opinion -as to the views of Aristotle on this point -(<i>Examen critique</i>, ii. 373). Such an emendation -is only justifiable by the sternest necessity, and -it has been shown by Ruge (<i>Der Chaldäer Seleukos</i>, -Dresden, 1865), and Prantl (<i>Werke des Aristoteles -uebersetzt und erläutert</i>, Bd. ii.; <i>Die Himmelsgebäude</i>, -note 61), that neither sense nor -consistency requires the change.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_278_278" id="Footnote_278_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a></span> -Herodotus, ii. 23; iii. 115; iv. 36, 40, 45.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_279_279" id="Footnote_279_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279_279"><span class="label">[279]</span></a></span> -Geminus, <i>Isagoge</i>. Polybius’s work on this -question is lost, and his own expressions as we -have them in his history are more conservative. -It is, he says, unknown, whether Africa is a continent -extending toward the south, or is surrounded -by the sea. Polib. <i>Hist.</i> iii. 38; Hampton’s -translation (London, 1757), i. 334.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_280_280" id="Footnote_280_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280_280"><span class="label">[280]</span></a></span> -Ptolemy, <i>Geogr.</i>, vii. 3, 5.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_281_281" id="Footnote_281_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a></span> -The circumnavigation of Africa by Phœnicians -at the command of Necho, though described -and accepted by Herodotus, can hardly be called -an established fact, in spite of all that has been -written in its favor. The story, whether true or -false, had, like others of its kind, little influence -upon the belief in the impassable tropic zone, because -most of those who accepted it supposed that -the continent terminated north of the equator.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_282_282" id="Footnote_282_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_282_282"><span class="label">[282]</span></a></span> -Ptolemy, <i>Geogr.</i>, i. 11-14. Eratosthenes and -Strabo located their first meridian at Cape St. -Vincent; Marinus and Ptolemy placed it in the -Canary group. See Vol. II. p. 95.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_283_283" id="Footnote_283_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_283_283"><span class="label">[283]</span></a></span> -Geminus, <i>Isagoge</i>, ch. 13; Achilles Tatius, -<i>Isagoge in Phænom. Arati;</i> Cleomedes, <i>De circulis -sublimis</i>, i. 2. The first two are given in the -<i>Uranologion</i> of Petavius, Lond., Paris, 1630, pp. -56, 155.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The classes were always divided on the same -principle, and each contained two groups so related -that they could apply to one another reciprocally -the name by which the whole class was -designed. These names, however, are not always -applied to the same classes by different writers. -1. The first class embraced the people who lived -in the same half of the same temperate zone; -to them all it was day or night, summer or winter, -at the same time. They were called <i>σύνοικοι</i> -by Cleomedes, but <i>περίοκοι</i> by Achilles Tatius. -2. The second class included such peoples -as lived in the same temperate zone, but were -divided by half the circumference of that zone; -so that while they all had summer or winter at -the same time, the one group had day when the -other had night, and <i>vice versa</i>. These groups -could call one another <i>περίοικοι</i> according to Cleomedes, -but <i>ἀντίχθονες</i> according to Tatius. 3. -The third class included those who were divided -by the torrid zone, so that part lived in the northern -temperate zone and part in the southern, -but yet so that all were in the same half of their -respective zones; <i>i. e.</i>, all were in either the eastern -or western, upper or lower, hemisphere. Day -and night were shared by the whole class at -once, but not the seasons, the northern group -having summer when the southern had winter, -and <i>vice versa</i>. These groups could call one -another <i>ἄντοικοι</i>. 4. The fourth class comprised -the groups which we know as antipodes, dwelling -with regard to one another in different halves -of the two temperate zones, so that they had neither -seasons nor day or night in common, but -stood upon the globe diametrically opposed to -one another. All writers agree in calling these -groups <i>ἀντίποδες</i>. The introduction of the word -<i>antichthones</i> in place of <i>perioeci</i> was due, apparently, -to a misunderstanding of the Pythagorean -<i>antichthon</i>. This name was properly applied to -the imaginary planet invented by the early Pythagoreans -to bring the number of the spheres -up to ten; it was located between the earth and -the central fire, and had the same period of revolution -as the earth, from the outer, Grecian, side -of which it was never visible. This “opposite -earth,” <i>Gegenerde</i>, was later confused with the -other, western, or lower hemisphere of the earth -itself. It was also sometimes applied to the -inhabitants of the southern hemisphere, as by -Cicero in the <i>Tusculan Disputations</i> (i. 28), “duabus -oris distantibus habitabilem et cultum; quarum -altera quam nos incolimus,</p> -<p class="pfn6">Sub axe posita ad stellas septem unde horrifer<br /> -Aquiloni stridor gelidas molitur nives,</p> -<p class="pfn4">altera australis, ignota nobis, <i>quam vocant Græci</i> -<i>ἀντίχθονα</i>.” Mela has the same usage (i. 4, 5), as -quoted below. Macrobius, <i>Comm. in Somn. Scip.</i> -lib. ii. 5, uses the nomenclature of Cleomedes. -Reinhardt, quoted in Engelmann’s <i>Bibliotheca -classica Græca</i>, under Geminus, I have not been -able to see.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_284_284" id="Footnote_284_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284_284"><span class="label">[284]</span></a></span> -Strabo, i. 4, § 6, 7; i. 2, § 24. Geminus, <i>Isagoge</i>, -13. Muellenhof, <i>Deutsche Alterthumskunde</i>, -i. 247-254. Berger, <i>Geogr. Fragmente d. Eratosthenes</i>, -8, 84.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_285_285" id="Footnote_285_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_285_285"><span class="label">[285]</span></a></span> -Cicero, <i>Respubl.</i>, vi. 15... sed partim obliquos, -partim transversos, partim etiam adversos -stare vobis. Some MSS. read aversos. See also -<i>Tusc. Disp.</i>, i. 28; <i>Acad.</i>, ii. 39.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_286_286" id="Footnote_286_286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_286_286"><span class="label">[286]</span></a></span> -Antichthones alteram [zonam], nos alteram -incolimus. Illius situs ob ardorem intercedentis -plagae incognitus, huius dicendus est. Haec -ergo ab ortu porrecta ad occasum, et quia sic -iacet aliquanto quam ubi latissima est longior, -ambitur omnis oceano. Mela, <i>Chor.</i>, i. 4, 5. Because -Mela says that the known world is <i>but little</i> -longer than its width, it has been supposed -that he was better informed than his contemporaries, -and attributed something like its real -extent to Africa. Thomassy (<i>Les papes géographiques</i>, -Paris, 1852, p. 17) finds in his work -a rival system to that of Ptolemy. The discovery -of America, he thinks, was due to Ptolemy; -that of the Cape of Good Hope to Mela. It -was the good fortune of Mela that his work was -widely read in the Middle Ages, and had great -influence; but we owe him no new system of -geography, since he simply adopted the oceanic -theory as represented by Strabo and Crates. -That he slightly changed the traditional proportion -between the length and breadth of the -known world is of small importance. The -known world, he states, was surrounded by the -ocean, and there is nothing to show that he supposed -Africa to extend below the equator. In -his description of Africa he applies the terms -length and breadth not as we should, but with -contrary usage: “Africa ab orientis parte Nilo -terminata, pelago a ceteris, brevior est quidem -quam Europa, quia nec usquam Asiae et non -totis huius litoribus obtenditur, longior tamen -ipsa quam latior, et qua ad fluvium adtingit latissima,” -etc., i. 20. (Ed. Parthey, 1867.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_287_287" id="Footnote_287_287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_287_287"><span class="label">[287]</span></a></span> -Mela, i. 54, “Alter orbis.” Cicero, <i>Tusc. -Disp.</i>, i. 28, “Ora Australis.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_288_288" id="Footnote_288_288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_288_288"><span class="label">[288]</span></a></span> -Hyde Clarke, <i>Atlantis</i>, in the <i>Transactions -of the Royal Historical Society</i>, London, New -Series, vol. iii.; Reinaud, <i>Relations politiques</i>, -etc., <i>de l’empire Romaine avec l’Asie orientale</i>, -etc., in the <i>Journal Asiatique</i>, 1863, p. 140.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_289_289" id="Footnote_289_289"></a><a href="#FNanchor_289_289"><span class="label">[289]</span></a></span> -The exposition of Macrobius is so interesting -as illustrating the mathematical and physical -geography of the ancients, and as showing how -thoroughly the practical consequences of the -sphericity of the earth were appreciated; it is so -important in the present connection as demonstrating -that the whole idea of inhabited lands -in other parts of the earth was based on logic -only, not on knowledge, that I have ventured to -quote from it somewhat freely.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Macrobius, <i>Comm. in Somn. Scipionis</i>, ii. 5.—“Cernis -autem eamdem terram quasi quibusdam -redimitam et circumdatam cingulis, e quibus -duos maxime inter se diversos, et caeli verticibus -ipsis ex utraque parte subnixos, obriguisse pruina -vides; medium autem illum, et maximum, solis -ardore torreri. Duo sunt habitabiles: quorum -australis ille, in quo qui insistunt, adversa vobis -urgent vestigia, nihil ad vestrum genus; hic -autem alter subjectus aquiloni, quem incolitis, -cerne quam tenui vos parte contingat. Omnis -enim terra, quae colitur a vobis, angusta verticibus, -lateribus latior, parva quaedam insula -est....” (Cicero.) ... Nam et septentrionalis -et australis extremitas perpetua obriguerunt -pruina.... Horum uterque habitationis impatiens -est.... Medius cingulus et ideo maximus, -aeterno afflatu continui caloris ustus, spatium -quod et lato ambitu et prolixius occupavit, nimietate -fervoris facit inhabitabile victuris. Inter -extremos vero et medium duo majores ultimis, -medio minores ex utriusque vicinitatis intemperie -temperantur.... Licet igitur sint hae duae ... quas -diximus temperatas, non tamen ambae -zonae hominibus nostri generis indultae sunt: -sed sola superior, ... incolitur ab omni, quale -scire possumus, hominum genere, Romani Graecive -sint, vel barbari cujusque nationis. Illa vero ... sola -ratione intelligitur, quod propter similem -temperiem similiter incolatur, sed a quibus, -neque licuit unquam nobis nec licebit cognoscere: -interjecta enim torrida utrique hominum generi -commercium ad se denegat commeandi.... Nec -dubium est, nostrum quoque septentrionem [ventum] -ad illos qui australi adjacent, propter eamdem -rationem calidum pervenire, et austrum corporibus -eorum gemino aurae suae rigore blandiri. -Eadem ratio nos non permittit ambigere quin -per illam quoque superficiem terrae quae ad nos -habetur inferior, integer zonarum ambitus quae -hic temperatae sunt, eodem ductu temperatus -habeatur; atque ideo illic quoque eaedem duae -zonae a se distantes similiter incolantur.... Nam -si nobis vivendi facultas est in hac terrarum -parte quam colimus, quia, calcantes humum, -caelum suspicimus super verticem, quia sol nobis -et oritur et occidit, quia circumfuso fruimur -aere cujus spiramus haustu, cur non et illic -aliquos vivere credamus ubi eadem semper inpromptu -sunt? Nam, qui ibi dicuntur morari, -eamdem credendi sunt spirare auram, quia eadem -est in ejusdem zonalis ambitus continuatione -temperies. Idem sol illis et obire dicitur nostro -ortu, et orietur quum nobis occidet: calcabunt -aeque ut nos humum, et supra verticem semper -caelum videbunt. Nec metus erit ne de terra in -caelum decidant, quum nihil unquam possit ruere -sursum. Si enim nobis, quod asserere genus joci -est, deorsum habitur ubi est terra, et sursum ubi -est caelum, illis quoque sursum erit quod de inferiore -suspicient, nec aliquando in superna casuri -sunt.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Hi quos separat a nobis perusta, quos Graeci -<i>ἀντοικοὑς</i> vocant, similiter ab illis qui inferiorem -zonae suae incolunt partem interjecta australi -gelida separantur. Rursus illos ab <i>ἀντοικοῖς</i> suis, -id est per nostri cinguli inferiora viventibus, interjectio -ardentis sequestrat: et illi a nobis septentrionalis -extremitatis rigore removentur. Et -quia non est una omnium affinis continuatio, -sed interjectae sunt solitudines ex calore vel -frigore mutuum negantibus commeatum, has -terrae partes quae a quattuor hominum generibus -incoluntur, maculas habitationum vocavit....</p> -<p class="pfc4">9. Is enim quem solum oceanum plures opinantur, -de finibus ab illo originali refusis, secundum -ex necessitate ambitum fecit. Ceterum prior -ejus corona per zonam terrae calidam meat, -superiora terrarum et inferiora cingens, flexum -circi equinoctialis imitata. Ab oriente vero duos -sinus refundit, unum ad extremitatem septentrionis, -ad australis alterum: rursusque ab occidente -duo pariter enascuntur sinus, qui usque ad -ambas, quas supra diximus, extremitates refusi -occurrent ab oriente demissis; et, dum vi summa -et impetu immaniore miscentur, invicemque se -feriunt, ex ipsa aquarum collisione nascitur illa -famosa oceani accessio pariter et recessio.... -Ceterum verior, ut ita dicam, ejus alveus tenet -zonam perustam; et tam ipse qui equinoctialem, -quam sinus ex eo nati qui horizontem circulum -ambitu suae flexionis imitantur, omnem terram -quadrifidam dividunt, et singulas, ut supra diximus, -habitationes insulas faciunt ... binas in -superiore atque inferiore terrae superficie insulas....</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_290_290" id="Footnote_290_290"></a><a href="#FNanchor_290_290"><span class="label">[290]</span></a></span> -Mr. Gladstone (<i>Homer and the Homeric age</i>, -vol. iii.) transposes these Homeric localities to -the east, and a few German writers agree with -him. President Warren (<i>True key to ancient -cosmologies</i>, etc., Boston, 1882) will have it that -Ogygia is neither more nor less than the north -pole. Neither of these views is likely to displace -the one now orthodox. Mr. Gladstone is -so much troubled by Odysseus’s course on leaving -Ogygia that he cannot hide a suspicion of -corruption in the text. President Warren should -remember that Ogygia apparently enjoyed the -common succession of day and night. In Homeric -thought the western sea extended northward -and eastward until it joined the Euxine. -Ogygia, located northwest of Greece, would be -the centre, <i>omphalos</i>, of the sea, as Delphi was -later called the centre of the land-masses of the -world.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_291_291" id="Footnote_291_291"></a><a href="#FNanchor_291_291"><span class="label">[291]</span></a></span> -<i>Odyssey</i>, iv. 561, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_292_292" id="Footnote_292_292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292_292"><span class="label">[292]</span></a></span> -It is well known that whereas Odysseus -meets the spirits of the dead across Oceanus, -upon the surface of the earth, there is in the -<i>Iliad</i> mention of a subterranean Hades. The -Assyrio-Babylonians had also the idea of an -earth-encircling ocean stream,—the word <i>Ὠκεανὸς</i> -the Greeks said was of foreign origin,—and -on the south of it they placed the sea of the -dead, which held the island homes of the departed. -As in the <i>Odyssey</i>, it was a place given -over to dust and darkness, and the doors of it -were strongly barred; no living being save a -god or a chosen hero might come there. Schrader, -<i>Namen d. Meere in d. Assyrischen Inschriften -(Abhandl. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin</i>, -1877, p. 169). Jeremias, <i>Die Babylonisch-Assyrischen -Vorstellungen vom Leben nach dem Tode</i> -(Leipzig, 1887). The Israelites, on the other -hand, imagined the home of the dead as underground. -<i>Numbers</i>, xvi. 30, 32, 33.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Buchholtz, <i>Die Homerische Realien</i>, i. 55, -places Hades on the European shores of Ocean, -but the text of the Odyssey seems plainly in -favor of the site across the stream, as Völcker -and others have understood.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_293_293" id="Footnote_293_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a></span> -Hesiod, <i>Works and Days</i>, 166-173; Elton’s -translation, London, 1815, p. 22. Paley marks -the line <i>Τηλοῦ ἀπ̓ ἀθανάτων τόισιν Κρόνος ἐμβασιλζύει</i> -as probably spurious. Cronos appears -to have been originally a Phœnician deity, and -his westward wandering played an important -part in their mythology. We shall find further -traces of this divinity in the west.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_294_294" id="Footnote_294_294"></a><a href="#FNanchor_294_294"><span class="label">[294]</span></a></span> -Pindar, <i>Olymp.</i>, ii. 66-85, Paley’s translation, -London, 1868, p. 12. See also Euripides, <i>Helena</i>, -1677.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_295_295" id="Footnote_295_295"></a><a href="#FNanchor_295_295"><span class="label">[295]</span></a></span> -Æschylus, in the <i>Prometheus bound</i>, introduced -the Gorgon islands in his epitome of the -wanderings of Io, and certainly seems to speak -of them as in the east; the passage is, however, -imperfect, and its interpretation has overtasked -the ablest commentators.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_296_296" id="Footnote_296_296"></a><a href="#FNanchor_296_296"><span class="label">[296]</span></a></span> -Euripides, <i>Hippolytus</i>, 742-751; Potter’s -translation, i. p. 356. See also Hesiod, <i>Theog.</i>, -215, 517-519.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_297_297" id="Footnote_297_297"></a><a href="#FNanchor_297_297"><span class="label">[297]</span></a></span> -Mela, iii. 100, 102, etc. The chief passage -is Pliny, <i>Hist. Nat.</i>, vi. 36, 37, who took his information -from King Juba and a writer named -Statius Sebosus. Pliny, who, beside the groups -named in the text, mentions the Gorgades, which -he identifies with the place where Hanno met -the gorillas, has probably misunderstood and -garbled his authorities; his account is contradictory -and illusive.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_298_298" id="Footnote_298_298"></a><a href="#FNanchor_298_298"><span class="label">[298]</span></a></span> -Tzetzes (<i>Scholia in Lycophron</i>, 1204, ed. -Mueller, ii. 954), a grammarian of the twelfth -century, says that the Isles of the Blessed were -located in the ocean by Homer, Hesiod, Euripides, -Plutarch, Dion, Procopius, Philostratus -and others, but that to many it seems that -Britain must be the true Isle of the Blessed; and -in support of this view he relates a most curious -tale of the ferriage of the dead to Britain by -Breton fishermen.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_299_299" id="Footnote_299_299"></a><a href="#FNanchor_299_299"><span class="label">[299]</span></a></span> -<i>L’Atlantide</i>, by Paul Gaffarel, in the <i>Revue -de Géographie</i>, April, May, June, July, 1880 (vi. -241, 331, 421; vii. 21). See also, in his <i>Étude sur -les rapports de l’Amérique et de l’ancien continent -avant Christophe Colomb</i> (Paris, 1869).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_300_300" id="Footnote_300_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300_300"><span class="label">[300]</span></a></span> -<i>Atlantis: the antediluvian world</i>, New York, -1882.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_301_301" id="Footnote_301_301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_301_301"><span class="label">[301]</span></a></span> -Theopomp., <i>Fragmenta</i>, ed. Wieters, 1829, -no. 76, p. 72. <i>Geographi Graec. minores</i>, ed. -Mueller, i. 289. Aeliani, <i>Var. Hist.</i>, iii. 18. The -extracts in the text are taken from “<i>A Registre -of Hystories, etc., written in Greeke by Aelianus, a -Roman, and delivered in English by</i> Abraham -Fleming.” London, 1576, fol. 36.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_302_302" id="Footnote_302_302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_302_302"><span class="label">[302]</span></a></span> -We owe this quip to Tertullian (he at least -is the earliest writer to whom I can trace it): -“Ut Silenus penes aures Midae blattit, <i>aptas -sane grandioribus fabulis</i>” (<i>De pallio</i>, cap. 2).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_303_303" id="Footnote_303_303"></a><a href="#FNanchor_303_303"><span class="label">[303]</span></a></span> -“Furthermore he tolde one thing among all -others, meriting admiration, that certain men -called Meropes dwelt in many cittyes there about, -and that in the borders adiacent to their countrey, -was a perilous place named Anostus, that is -to say, wythout retourne, being a gaping gulfe -or bottomles pit, for the ground is as it were -cleft and rent in sonder, in so much that it openeth -like to the mouth of insatiable hell, y<sup>t</sup> it is -neither perfectly lightsome, nor absolutely darksome, -but that the ayer hangeth ouer it, being -tempered with a certaine kinde of clowdy rednes, -that a couple of floodes set their recourse that -way, the one of pleasure the other of sorow, and -that about each of them growe plantes answearable -in quantity and bignes to a great plaine tree. -The trees which spring by y<sup>e</sup> flood of sorow -yeldeth fruite of one nature, qualitie, and operation. -For if any man taste thereof, a streame -of teares floweth from his eyes, as out of a conduite -pipe, or sluse in a running riuer, yea, such -effect followeth immediately after the eating of -the same, that the whole race of their life is -turned into a tragical lamentation, in so much -that weeping and wayling knitteth their carkeses -depriued of vitall mouing, in a winding sheete, -and maketh them gobbettes for the greedy graue -to swallow and deuoure. The other trees which -prosper vpon the bankes of the floode of pleasure, -beare fruite cleane contrary to the former, -for whosoeuer tasteth thereof, he is presently -weined from the pappes of his auncient appetites -and inueterate desires, & if he were linked in -loue to any in time past, he is fettered in the -forgetfulnes of them, so that al remembrance is -quite abolished, by litle and litle he recouereth -the yeres of his youth, reasuming vnto him by -degrees, the times & seasons, long since, spent -and gone. For, the frowardnes and crookednes -of old age being first shaken of, the amiablenes -and louelynesse of youth beginneth to budde, in -so much as they put on y<sup>e</sup> estate of stripplings, -then become boyes, then change to children, -then reenter into infancie, & at length death -maketh a finall end of all.”</p> -<p class="pfc4">Compare the story told by Mela (iii. 10) about -the Fortunate Isles: “Una singulari duorum -fontium ingenio maxime insignis: alterum qui -gustavere risu solvuntur, ita adfectis remedium -est ex altero bibere.”</p> -<p class="pfc4">It should be noted that the country described -by Theopompus is called by him simply “The -Great Continent.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_304_304" id="Footnote_304_304"></a><a href="#FNanchor_304_304"><span class="label">[304]</span></a></span> -Strabo, vii. 3, § 6. Perizonius makes this passage -in Aelian the peg for a long note on ancient -knowledge of America, in which he brings together -the most important passages bearing on -the subject. He remarks: “Nullus tamen dubito, -quin Veteres aliquid crediderint vel sciverent, -sed quasi per nebulam et caliginem, de -America, partim ex antiqua traditione ab Aegyptiis -vel Carthaginiensibus accepta, partim ex -ratiocinatione de forma et situ orbis terrarum, -unde colligebant, superesse in hoc orbe etiam -alias terras praeter Asiam, Africam, & Europam.” -In my opinion their assumed knowledge -was based entirely on ratiocination, and -was not real knowledge at all; but Perizonius -well expresses the other view.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_305_305" id="Footnote_305_305"></a><a href="#FNanchor_305_305"><span class="label">[305]</span></a></span> -<i>Mare Cronium</i> was the name given to a portion of the northern ocean. Forbiger, <i>Handbuch</i>, -ii. 3, note 9.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_306_306" id="Footnote_306_306"></a><a href="#FNanchor_306_306"><span class="label">[306]</span></a></span> -The average of all known rates of speed -with ancient ships is about five knots an hour; -some of the fastest runs were at the rate of seven -knots, or a little more. Breusing, <i>Nautik der -Alten</i>, Bremen, 1886, pp. 11, 12. Movers, <i>Die -Phœnizier</i>, ii. 3, 190. Movers estimates the rate -of a Phœnician vessel with 180 oarsmen at -double that of a Greek merchantman. He compares -the sailing qualities of Phœnician vessels -with those of Venice in the Middle Ages to the -disadvantage of the latter. As the ancients had -nothing answering to our log, and their contrivances -for time-keeping were neither trustworthy -nor adapted for use on shipboard, these estimates -are necessarily based on a few reports of -the number of days spent on voyages of known -length,—a rather uncertain method.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_307_307" id="Footnote_307_307"></a><a href="#FNanchor_307_307"><span class="label">[307]</span></a></span> -Tin exists in some of the islands of the Indian -Ocean, and they were worked at a later period, -but there is no direct evidence, as far as I -am aware, that they were known at the date -when Tyre was most flourishing.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_308_308" id="Footnote_308_308"></a><a href="#FNanchor_308_308"><span class="label">[308]</span></a></span> -Diodorus Siculus, v. 18, 19; <i>De Mirab. -Auscult.</i>, 84. Müllenhof, <i>Deutsche Alterthumskunde</i>, -i., Berlin, 1870, p. 467, traces the report -through the historian Timaeus to Punic sources.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_309_309" id="Footnote_309_309"></a><a href="#FNanchor_309_309"><span class="label">[309]</span></a></span> -The narration of Hanno’s voyage has been -preserved, apparently in the words of the commander’s -report. <i>Geographi Graeci minores</i>, -ed. Mueller (Paris, 1855), i. pp. 1-14. Cf. also -<i>Prolegom.</i>, pp. xviii, xxiii. Our only notion of -the date of the expedition is derived from Pliny, -<i>Hist. Nat.</i>, v. i. § 7, who says: “Fuere et -Hannonis Carthaginiensium ducis commentarii, -<i>Punicis rebus florentissimis</i> explorare ambitum -Africae jussi.” All that is known of Himilko -is derived from the statement of Pliny, <i>Hist. -Nat.</i>, ii. 67, that he was sent at about the same -time as Hanno to explore the distant regions of -Europe; and from the poems of Avienus, who -wrote in the fourth century, and professed to -give, in the <i>Ora Maritima</i>, many extracts from -the writings of Himilko. The description of -the difficulties of navigation in the Atlantic is -best known. In his <i>Deutsche Alterthumskunde</i> -(Berlin, 1870), i. pp. 73-210, Muellenhof has devoted -especial attention to an analysis of this -record.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_310_310" id="Footnote_310_310"></a><a href="#FNanchor_310_310"><span class="label">[310]</span></a></span> -Pliny, <i>Hist. Nat.</i>, vi. 36, 37; Mela, iii. 100, -etc.; Solinus, 23, 56 [ed. Mommsen, p. 117, 230]; -Ptolemy, <i>Geogr.</i>, iv. 6; <i>Rapport sur une mission -scientifique dans l’archipel Canarienne,</i> par M. le -docteur Verneau; 1877. In <i>Archives des Missions -Scientifique et Litteraires</i>, 3<sup>e</sup> série, tom. xiii. -pp. 569, etc. The presence of Semites is indicated -in Gran Canaria, Ferro, Palma, and the -inscriptions agree in character with those found -in Numidia by Gen. Faidherbe. In Gomera and -Teneriffe, where the Guanche stock is purest, -there have been no inscriptions found. Dr. -Verneau believes that the Guanches are not descended -from Atlantes or Americans, but from -the Quaternary men of Cro-magnon on the -Vézère; he found, however, traces of an unknown -brachycephalic race in Gomera.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_311_311" id="Footnote_311_311"></a><a href="#FNanchor_311_311"><span class="label">[311]</span></a></span> -In the second century, a.d., Pausanias -(<i>Desc. Graec.</i>, i. 23) was told by Euphemus, a -Carian, that once, on a voyage to Italy, he had -been driven to the sea outside [<i>ἐς τὲν ἔξω θάλασσαν</i>], -where people no longer sailed, and where -he fell in with many desert islands, some inhabited -by wild men, red-haired, and with tails, -whom the sailors called Satyrs. Nothing more is -known of these islands. <i>Ἔξο</i> has here been rendered -simply “distant”; but even in this sense -it could hardly apply in the time of Pausanias to -any region but the Atlantic. It is more probable -that the phrase means “outside the columns.”</p> -<p class="pfc4">In the first century <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, some men of an unknown -race were cast by the sea on the German -coast. There is nothing to show that these men -were American Indians; but since that has been -sometimes assumed, the matter should not be passed -over here. The event is mentioned by -Mela (<i>De Chorogr.</i>, iii. 5, § 8), and by Pliny (<i>Hist. -Nat.</i>, ii. 67); the castaways were forwarded to -the proconsul, Q. Caecilius Metellus Celer (<span class="smcap">b.c.</span> -62), by the king of the tribe within whose territory -they were found. Pliny calls the tribe the -Suevi; the reading in Mela is very uncertain. -Parthey has <i>Botorum</i>, the older editors <i>Baetorum</i>, -or <i>Boiorum</i>. The Romans took them for -inhabitants of India, who had been carried -around the north of Europe; modern writers -have seen in them Africans, Celts, Lapps, or -Caribs. A careful study of the whole subject, -with references to the literature, will be found -in an article by F. Schiern: <i>Un énigme ethnographique -de l’antiquité</i>, contributed to the Memoirs -of the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries; -New Series, 1878-83, pp. 245-288.</p> -<p class="pfc4">In the Louvre is an antique bronze which has -been thought to represent one of the Indians of -Mela, and also to be a good reproduction of the -features of the North American Indian (Longpérier, -<i>Notice des bronzes antiques</i>, etc., <i>du Musée -du Louvre</i>, Paris, 1868, p. 143), but the supposition -is purely arbitrary.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Such an event as an involuntary voyage from -the West Indies to the shores of Europe is not -an impossibility, nor is the case cited by Mela -and Pliny the only one of the kind which we find -recorded. Gomara (<i>Hist. gen. de las Indias</i>, 7) -says some savages were thrown upon the German -coast in the reign of Frederic Barbarossa -(1152-1190), and Aeneas Silvius (Pius II.) probably -refers to the same event when he quotes a -certain Otho as relating the capture on the coast -of Germany, in the time of the German emperors, -of an Indian ship and Indian traders (mercatores). -The identity of Otho is uncertain. -Otto of Freisingen ([Dagger] 1158) is probably meant, -but the passage does not appear in his works -that have been preserved (Aeneas Silvius, <i>Historia -rerum</i>, ii. 8, first edition, Venice, 1477). -The most curious story, however, is that related -by Cardinal Bembo in his history of Venice (first -published 1551), and quoted by Horn (<i>De orig. -Amer.</i>, 14), Garcia (iv. 29), and others. It deserves, -however, record here. “A French ship -while cruising in the ocean not far from Britain -picked up a little boat made of split oziers and -covered with bark taken whole from the tree; -in it were seven men of moderate height, rather -dark complexion, broad and open faces, marked -with a violet scar. They had a garment of fishskin -with spots of divers shades, and wore a -headgear of painted straw, interwoven with seven -things like ears, as it were (coronam e culmo -pictam septem quasi auriculis intextam). They -ate raw flesh, and drank blood as we wine. Their -speech could not be understood. Six of them -died; one, a youth, was brought alive to Roano -(so the Italian; the Latin has Aulercos), where -the king was” (Louis XII.). Bembo, <i>Rerum -Venetarum Hist.</i> vii. year, 1508. [<i>Opere</i>, Venice, -1729, i. 188.]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_312_312" id="Footnote_312_312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312_312"><span class="label">[312]</span></a></span></p> -<p class="pfn6">Nos manet Oceanus circumvagus; arva, beata<br /> -Petamus arva, divites et insulas,<br /> -Reddit ubi Cererem tellus inarata quotannis<br /> -Et inputata floret usque vinea.</p> - -<table id="tf1" summary="tf1"> - - <tr> - <td class="tdc">•</td> - <td class="tdc">•</td> - <td class="tdc">•</td> - <td class="tdc">•</td> - <td class="tdc">•</td> - <td class="tdc">•</td> - <td class="tdc">•</td> - <td class="tdc">•</td> - <td class="tdc">•</td> - </tr> - -</table> - -<p class="pfa6">Non huc Argoo contendit remige pinus,<br /> -Neque inpudica Colchis intulit pedem;<br /> -<i>Non huc Sidonii torserunt cornua nautae</i>,<br /> -Laboriosa nec cohors Ulixei.<br /> -Juppiter illa piae secrevit litora genti,<br /> -Ut inquinavit aere tempus aureum;<br /> -Aere, dehinc ferro duravit saecula, quorum<br /> -Piis secunda, vate me, datur fuga.</p> -<p class="pfr6">(Horace, <i>Epode</i>, xvi.)</p> -<p class="pfc4">Virgil, in the well-known lines in the prophecy -of Anchises—</p> -<p class="pfn6">Super et Garamantes et Indos<br /> -Proferet inperium; iacet extra sidera tellus,<br /> -Extra anni solisque vias, ubi caelifer Atlas<br /> -Axem humero torquet stellis ardentibus aptum—</p> -<p class="pfr6">(<i>Æneid</i>, vi. 795.)</p> -<p class="pfn4">had Africa rather than the west in mind, according -to the commentators.</p> -<p class="pfc4">It is possible that the islands described to -Sertorius were Madeira and Porto Santo, but -the distance was much overestimated in this -case.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_313_313" id="Footnote_313_313"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313_313"><span class="label">[313]</span></a></span> -“He [Eratosthenes] says that if the extent -of the Atlantic Ocean were not an obstacle, we -might easily pass by sea from Iberia to India, -still keeping in the same parallel, the remaining -portion of which parallel ... occupies more -than a third of the whole circle.... But it is -quite possible that in the temperate zone there -may be two or even more habitable earths <i>οἰκουμένας</i>, -especially near the circle of latitude -which is drawn through Athens and the Atlantic -ocean.” (Strabo, <i>Geogr.</i>, i. 4, § 6.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_314_314" id="Footnote_314_314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_314_314"><span class="label">[314]</span></a></span> -Seneca, <i>Naturalium Quaest. Praefatio.</i> The -passage is certainly striking, but those who, like -Baron Zach, base upon it the conclusion that -American voyagers were common in the days of -Seneca overestimate its force. It is certainly -evident that Seneca, relying on his knowledge of -theoretical geography, underestimated the distance -to India. Had the length of the voyage to -America been known, he would not have used -the illustration.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_315_315" id="Footnote_315_315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_315_315"><span class="label">[315]</span></a></span> -Smaller vessels even than were then afloat -have crossed the Atlantic, and the passage from -the Canaries is hardly more difficult than the -Indian navigation. The Pacific islanders make -voyages of days’ duration by the stars alone to -goals infinitely smaller than the broadside of -Asia, to which the ancients would have supposed -themselves addressed.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_316_316" id="Footnote_316_316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316_316"><span class="label">[316]</span></a></span> -Aristotle, <i>Meteorolog.</i>, ii. 1, § 14; Plato, <i>Timaeus</i>; -Scylax Caryandensis, <i>Periplus</i>, 112. <i>τῆς -Κέρνης δὲ νέσου τὰ ἐπέκεινα οὐκέτι ἐστὶ πλωτὰ διὰ -βραχύτητα θαλάττης καὶ πελὸν καὶ φῦκος</i>(<i>Geogr. -Graec. min.</i>, ed. Mueller, i. 93; other references -in the notes). Pytheas in Strabo, ii. 4, § 1; Tacitus, -<i>Germania</i>, 45, 1; <i>Agricola</i>, x. A gloss to -Suidas applies the name Atlantic to all innavigable -seas. Pausanias, i. ch. 3, § 6, says it contained -strange sea-beasts, and was not navigable -in its more distant parts. A long list of references -to similar passages is given by Ukert, -<i>Geogr. der Griechen u. Römer</i>, ii. 1, p. 59. See -also Berger, <i>Wissenschaftliche Geographie</i>, i. p. -27, note 3, and Grote, <i>Hist. of Greece</i>, iii. ch. 18, -notes.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_317_317" id="Footnote_317_317"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317_317"><span class="label">[317]</span></a></span> -<i>De Mirab. Auscult.</i>, 136. The Phœnicians -are said to have discovered beyond Gades extensive -shoals abounding in fish.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Quae Himilco Poenus mensibus vix quatuor, -Ut ipse semet re probasse retulit -Enavigantem, posse transmitti adserit: -Sic nulla late flabra propellunt ratem, -Sic segnis humor aequoris pigri stupet. -Adjecit et illud, plurimum inter gurgites -Extare fucum, et saepe virgulti vice -Retinere puppim: dicit hic nihilominus, -Non in profundum terga dimitti maris, -Parvoque aquarum vix supertexi solum: -Obire semper huc et huc ponti feras, -Navigia lenta et languide repentia -Internatare belluas.</p> -<p class="pfr6">(Avienus, <i>Ora Maritima</i>, 115-130.)</p> -<p class="pfc4">Hunc usus olim dixit Oceanum vetus, -Alterque dixit mos Atlanticum mare. -Longo explicatur gurges hujus ambitu, -Produciturque latere prolixe vago. -Plerumque porro tenue tenditur salum, -Ut vix arenas subjacentes occulat. -Exsuperat autem gurgitem fucus frequens, -Atque impeditur aestus hic uligine: -Vis belluarum pelagus omne internatat, -Multusque terror ex feris habitat freta. -Haec olim Himilcos Poenus Oceano super -Spectasse semet et probasse retulit: -Haec nos, ab imis Punicorum annalibus -Prolata longo tempore, edidimus tibi. (<i>Ibid.</i> 402-415.)</p> -<p class="pfc4">Whether Avienus had immediate knowledge -of these Punic sources is quite unknown.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_318_318" id="Footnote_318_318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318_318"><span class="label">[318]</span></a></span> -Seneca, <i>Medea</i>, 376-380.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_319_319" id="Footnote_319_319"></a><a href="#FNanchor_319_319"><span class="label">[319]</span></a></span> -In the first book of his <i>Suasoriæ</i>, M. Annaeus -Seneca collected a number of examples -illustrative of the manner in which several of -the famous orators and rhetoricians of his time -had handled the subject, <i>Deliberat Alexander, -an Oceanum naviget</i>, which appears to have been -one of a number of stock subjects for use in -rhetorical training. This collection thus gives -a good view of the prevalent views about the -ocean, and certainly tells strongly against the idea -that the western passage was then known or practised. -“Fertiles in Oceano jacere terras, ultraque -Oceanum rursus alia littora, alium nasci -orbem, ... <i>facile ista finguntur; quia Oceanus -navigari non potest</i> ... confusa lux alta caligine, -et interceptus tenebris dies, ipsum veros grave et -devium mare, et aut nulla, aut ignota sidera. Ita -est, Alexander, rerum natura; <i>post omnia Oceanus, -post Oceanum nihil</i>.... Immensum, et humanae -intentatum experientiae pelagus, totius -orbis vinculum, terrarumque custodia, inagitata -remigio vastitas.... Fabianus ... divisit enim -illam [quaestionem] sic, ut primum negaret ullas -in Oceano, aut trans Oceanum, esse terras habitabiles: -deinde si essent, perveniri tamen ad illas -non posse. Hic difficultatem ignoti maris, -naturam non patientem navigationis.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_320_320" id="Footnote_320_320"></a><a href="#FNanchor_320_320"><span class="label">[320]</span></a></span> -Virgil, bishop of Salzburg, was accused before -Pope Zacharias by St. Boniface of teaching -the doctrine of antipodes; for this, and not for -his belief in the sphericity of the earth (as I read), -he was threatened by the Pope with expulsion -from the church. The authority for this story is -a letter from the Pope to Boniface. See Marinelli, -<i>Die Erdkunde bei den Kirchenvätern</i>, -p. 42.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_321_321" id="Footnote_321_321"></a><a href="#FNanchor_321_321"><span class="label">[321]</span></a></span> -Cosmas, as will be seen in the cut, adhered -to the continental theory, placing Paradise on -the continent in the east. Paradise was more -commonly placed in an island east of Asia.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_322_322" id="Footnote_322_322"></a><a href="#FNanchor_322_322"><span class="label">[322]</span></a></span> -It has been suggested by M. Beauvois that -Labrador may in the same way derive its name -from <i>Inis Labrada</i>, or the Island of Labraid, -which figures in an ancient Celtic romance. The -conjecture has only the phonetic resemblance to -recommend it. Beauvois, <i>L’Elysée transatlantique -(Revue de l’Histoire des Religions</i>, vii. (1883), -p. 291, n. 3).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_323_323" id="Footnote_323_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323_323"><span class="label">[323]</span></a></span> -Gaffarel, P., <i>Les isles fantastiques de l’Atlantique -au moyen âge</i>, 3.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_324_324" id="Footnote_324_324"></a><a href="#FNanchor_324_324"><span class="label">[324]</span></a></span> -Coryat’s <i>Crudities</i>, London, 1611. Sig. h(4), -verso.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_325_325" id="Footnote_325_325"></a><a href="#FNanchor_325_325"><span class="label">[325]</span></a></span> -The result of the Arabian measurements -gave 56⅔3 miles to a degree. Arabian miles were -meant, and as these contain, according to Peschel -(<i>Geschichte der Geographie</i>, p. 134) 4,000 -ells of 540.7<sup>mm</sup>., the degree equalled 122,558.6<sup>m</sup>. -The Europeans, however, thought that Roman -miles were meant, and so got but 83,866.6<sup>m</sup>. to a -degree.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_326_326" id="Footnote_326_326"></a><a href="#FNanchor_326_326"><span class="label">[326]</span></a></span> -Edrisi, <i>Geography</i>, Climate, iv., § 1, Jaubert’s -translation, Paris, 1836, ii. 26.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_327_327" id="Footnote_327_327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327_327"><span class="label">[327]</span></a></span> -Found in various Celtic MSS. See Beauvois, -<i>L’Eden occidentale (Rev. de l’Hist. des -Relig.</i>), viii. (1884), 706, etc.; Joyce, <i>Old Celtic -Romances</i>, 112-176.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_328_328" id="Footnote_328_328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_328_328"><span class="label">[328]</span></a></span> -These alleged voyages are considered in the -next chapter.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_329_329" id="Footnote_329_329"></a><a href="#FNanchor_329_329"><span class="label">[329]</span></a></span> -Polybius, <i>Hist.</i>, iii. 38.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_330_330" id="Footnote_330_330"></a><a href="#FNanchor_330_330"><span class="label">[330]</span></a></span> -The tract <i>On the World</i> (<i>περὶ κόσμου</i>, de -mundo), and the <i>Strange Stories</i> (<i>περὶθαυμασίων -ἀκουσμάτν</i>, <i>de mirabilibus auscultationibus</i>), -printed with the works of Aristotle, are held to -be spurious by critics: the former, which gives a -good summary of the oceanic theory of the distribution -of land and water (ch. 3), is considerably -later in date; the latter is a compilation -made from Aristotle and other writers. Muellenhof -has sought partially to analyze it in his -<i>Deutsche Alterthumskunde</i>, i. 426, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_331_331" id="Footnote_331_331"></a><a href="#FNanchor_331_331"><span class="label">[331]</span></a></span> -First in <i>Geographica Marciani, Scylacis, Artemidoris, -Dicæarchi, Isidori. Ed. a Hoeschelio</i> -(Aug. Vind., 1600). The great collection made -by Hudson, <i>Geographiae veteris scriptores Graeci -minores</i> (4 vols., Oxon., 1698-1712; re-edited by -Gail, Paris, 1826, 6 vols.), is still useful, notwithstanding -the handy edition by C. Mueller in -the Didot classics, <i>Geographiae Graeci minores</i> -(Paris, 1855-61. 2 vols. and atlas).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_332_332" id="Footnote_332_332"></a><a href="#FNanchor_332_332"><span class="label">[332]</span></a></span> -<i>Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum. Ed. C. -et T. Mueller</i> (Paris, Didot, 1841-68. 5 vols.).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_333_333" id="Footnote_333_333"></a><a href="#FNanchor_333_333"><span class="label">[333]</span></a></span> -<i>Die geographischen Fragmente des Hipparchus: -H. Berger</i> (Leipzig, 1869); <i>Posidonii Rhodii -reliquiae doctrinae: coll. J. Bake</i> (Lugd. Bat., -1810); <i>Eratosthenica composuit G. Bernhardy</i> -(Berlin, 1822); <i>Die geographischen Fragmente des -Eratosthenes: H. Berger</i> (Leipzig, 1880).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_334_334" id="Footnote_334_334"></a><a href="#FNanchor_334_334"><span class="label">[334]</span></a></span> -<i>Strabonis Geographia</i> (Romae, Suweynheym -et Pannartz, s. a.), in 1469 or 1470, folio. -First edition of the Latin translation which was -made by Guarini of Verona, and Lilius Gregorius -of Tiferno; only 275 copies were printed. -It was reprinted in 1472 (Venice), 1473 (Rome), -1480 (Tarvisii), 1494 (Venice), 1502 (Venice), -1510 (Venice), and 1512 (Paris). <i>Strabo de situ -orbis</i> (Venice. Aldus et Andr. Soc., 1516), fol., -was the first Greek edition; a better edition appeared -in 1549 (Basil., fol.), with Guarini’s and -Gregorius’s translation revised by Glareanus -and others. Critical ed. by J. Kramer (Berlin, -1844), 3 vols. Ed. with Latin trans. by C. -Müller and F. Dübner (Paris, Didot, 1853, 1857). -It has since been edited by August Meineke -(Leipsic, Teubner, 1866. 3 vols. 8vo).</p> -<p class="pfc4">There was an Italian translation by Buonacciuoli, -in Venice and Ferrara, 1562, 1585. 2 vols. -The <i>Γεωγραφικὰ</i> has been several times translated -into German, by Penzel (Lemgo, 1775-1777, -4 Bde. 8vo), Groskund (Berlin, Stettin, -1831-1834. 4 Thle.), and Forbiger (Stuttgart, -1856-1862. 2 Bde.), and very recently into English -by H. C. Hamilton and W. Falconer (London, -Bell [Bohn], 1887). 3 vols. This has a -useful index.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The great French translation of Strabo, made -by order of Napoleon, with very full notes by -Gosselin and others, is still the most useful translation: -<i>Géographie du Strabon trad. du grec en -française</i> (Paris, 1805-1819). 5 vols. 4to.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_335_335" id="Footnote_335_335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_335_335"><span class="label">[335]</span></a></span> -The Geography was first printed, in a Latin -translation, at Vincentia, in 1475; the date 1462 -in the Bononia edition being recognized as a -misprint, probably for 1482. The history of the -book has been described by Lelewel in the appendix -to his <i>Histoire de la Géographie</i>, and more -fully in Winsor’s <i>Bibliography of Ptolemy’s Geography</i> -(Cambridge, Mass., 1884), and in the section -on Ptolemy by Wilberforce Eames in Sabin’s -<i>Dictionary</i>, also printed separately.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_336_336" id="Footnote_336_336"></a><a href="#FNanchor_336_336"><span class="label">[336]</span></a></span> -The <i>Phaenomena</i> of Aratus was a poem -which had great vogue both in Greece and Rome. -It was commented upon by Hipparchus and -Achilles Tatius (both of which commentaries -are preserved, and are found in the <i>Uranologion</i> -of Petavius), and translated by Cicero.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_337_337" id="Footnote_337_337"></a><a href="#FNanchor_337_337"><span class="label">[337]</span></a></span> -<i>Gemini elementa astronomiae</i>, also quoted by -the first word of the Greek title, <i>Isagoge</i>. First -edition, Altorph, 1590. The best edition is still -that in the <i>Uranologion</i> of Dionysius Petavius -(Paris, 1630). It is also found in the rare translation -of Ptolemy by Halma (Paris, 1828).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_338_338" id="Footnote_338_338"></a><a href="#FNanchor_338_338"><span class="label">[338]</span></a></span> -<i>Κύκλικη θεώρια</i> quoted as <i>Cleom. de sublimibus -circulis</i>. The first edition was at Paris, 1539. -4to. It has been edited by Bake (Lugd. Bat., -1826), and Schmidt (Leips. 1832). Nothing is -known of the life of Cleomedes. He wrote after -the 1st cent. <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>, probably.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_339_339" id="Footnote_339_339"></a><a href="#FNanchor_339_339"><span class="label">[339]</span></a></span> -It was first printed in the Plato of Basle, -1534. There is an English translation by Thomas -Taylor, <i>The Commentaries of Proclus on the Timaeus -of Plato</i>, in 2 vols. (London, 1820). Proclus -was also the author of astronomical works -which helped to keep Grecian learning alive in -the early Middle Ages.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_340_340" id="Footnote_340_340"></a><a href="#FNanchor_340_340"><span class="label">[340]</span></a></span> -The works of L. Annaeus Seneca were first -printed in Naples, 1475, fol., but the <i>Questionum -naturalium lib. vii.</i> were not included until the -Venice ed. of 1490, which also contained the -first edition of the <i>Suasoriae and Controversariae</i> -of M. Ann. Seneca. The <i>Tragoediae</i> of L. Ann. -Seneca were first printed about 1484 by A. Gallicus, -probably at Ferrara.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_341_341" id="Footnote_341_341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_341_341"><span class="label">[341]</span></a></span> -<i>Historiae naturalis libri xxxvii.</i> The first -edition was the famous and rare folio of Joannes -de Spira, Venice, 1469. I find record of ten -other editions and three issues of Landino’s -Italian translation before 1492.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_342_342" id="Footnote_342_342"></a><a href="#FNanchor_342_342"><span class="label">[342]</span></a></span> -<i>C. Julii Solini Collectanea rerum memorabilium -sive polyhistor.</i> Solinus lived probably in -the third century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> His book was a great -favorite in the Middle Ages, both in manuscript -and in print, and was known by various titles, as -<i>Polyhistor, De situ orbis</i>, etc. The first edition -appeared without place or date, at Rome, about -1473, and in the same year at Venice, and it was -often reprinted with the annotations of the most -famous geographers. The best edition is that -by Mommsen (Berlin, 1864). See Vol. II. p. -180.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_343_343" id="Footnote_343_343"></a><a href="#FNanchor_343_343"><span class="label">[343]</span></a></span> -First edition, Milan, 1471. 4to. The best -is that by Parthey, Berlin, 1867. A history and -bibliography of this work is given in Vol. II. p. -180.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_344_344" id="Footnote_344_344"></a><a href="#FNanchor_344_344"><span class="label">[344]</span></a></span> -<i>Commentariorum in somnium Scipionis libri -duo.</i> The first edition was at Venice, 1472. -There has been an edition by Jahn (2 vols. -Quedlinburg, 1848, 1852), and by Eyssenhardt -(Leipzig, 1868), and a French translation by various -hands, printed in 3 vols. at Paris, 1845-47.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_345_345" id="Footnote_345_345"></a><a href="#FNanchor_345_345"><span class="label">[345]</span></a></span> -<i>Descriptio orbis terrae; ora maritima.</i> The -first edition appeared at Venice in 1488, with -the <i>Phaenomena</i> of Aratus. It is included in -the <i>Geogr. Graec. min.</i> of Mueller. Muellenhof -has treated of the latter poem at length in his -<i>Deutsche Alterthumskunde</i>, i. 73-210.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_346_346" id="Footnote_346_346"></a><a href="#FNanchor_346_346"><span class="label">[346]</span></a></span> -<i>Astronomicon libri v.</i> Manilius is an unknown -personality, but wrote in the first half of -the first century <span class="smcap">A. D</span>. (First ed., Nuremberg, -1472 or 1473); Hyginus, <i>Poeticon Astronomicon</i>, -1st or 2d cent. <span class="smcap">A. D</span>. (Ferrara, 1475).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_347_347" id="Footnote_347_347"></a><a href="#FNanchor_347_347"><span class="label">[347]</span></a></span> -<i>De nuptiis philologiae et Mercurii</i>, first ed. -Vicent., 1499.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_348_348" id="Footnote_348_348"></a><a href="#FNanchor_348_348"><span class="label">[348]</span></a></span> -E. H. Bunbury, <i>Hist. of Anc. Geog. among -the Greeks and Romans</i> (London, 1879), in two -volumes,—a valuable, well-digested work, but -scant in citations. Ukert, <i>Geog. der Griechen -and Römer</i> (Weimar, 1816), very rich in citations, -giving authorities for every statement, and -useful as a summary.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Forbiger, <i>Handbuch der alten Geographie</i> -(Hamburg, 1877), compiled on a peculiar method, -which is often very sensible. He first analyzes -and condenses the works of each writer, -and then sums up the opinions on each country -and phase of the subject.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Vivien de St. Martin, <i>Histoire de la Géographie</i> -(Paris, 1873).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Peschel, <i>Geschichte der Erdkunde</i> (2d ed., by -S. Ruge, München, 1877). Perhaps reference is -not out of place also to P. F. J. Gosselin’s <i>Géographie -des Grecs analysée, ou les Systèmes d’Eratosthenes, -de Strabon et de Ptolémée, comparés entre -eux et avec nos connaissances modernes</i> (Paris, -1790); and his later <i>Recherches sur la Geographie -systématique et positive des anciens</i> (1797-1813).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Cf. Hugo Berger, <i>Geschichte der wiss. Erdkunde -der Griechen</i> (Leipzig, 1887).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_349_349" id="Footnote_349_349"></a><a href="#FNanchor_349_349"><span class="label">[349]</span></a></span> -<i>Geschichte der Griechischen Philosophie</i> (Tübingen, -1856-62).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_350_350" id="Footnote_350_350"></a><a href="#FNanchor_350_350"><span class="label">[350]</span></a></span> -Sir George Cornwall Lewis, <i>Historical Survey -of the Astronomy of the Ancients</i> (London, -1862).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Theodore Henri Martin, whose numerous papers -are condensed in the article on “Astronomie” -in Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire -de l’Antiquité</i>. Some of the more important distinct -papers of Martin appeared in the <i>Mém. -Acad. Inscrip. et Belles Lettres.</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_351_351" id="Footnote_351_351"></a><a href="#FNanchor_351_351"><span class="label">[351]</span></a></span> -See Cellarius, <i>Notit. orb. antiq.</i> i. ch. 2, <i>de -rotunditate terrae</i>. See also Günther, <i>Aeltere -und neuere Hypothese ueber die chronische Versetzung -des Erdschwerpunktes durch Wassermassen</i> -(Halle, 1878).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_352_352" id="Footnote_352_352"></a><a href="#FNanchor_352_352"><span class="label">[352]</span></a></span> -<i>De Natura Rerum.</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_353_353" id="Footnote_353_353"></a><a href="#FNanchor_353_353"><span class="label">[353]</span></a></span> -See <i>ante</i>, p. 31. In the second century St. -Clement spoke of the “Ocean impassible to -man, and the worlds beyond it.” <i>1st Epist. to -Corinth.</i> ch. 20. (<i>Apostolic Fathers</i>, Edinb. 1870, -p. 22.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_354_354" id="Footnote_354_354"></a><a href="#FNanchor_354_354"><span class="label">[354]</span></a></span> -Legrand d’Aussy, <i>Image du Monde</i>. <i>Notices -et extraits de la Bibliothèque du Roi</i>, etc., v. -(1798), p. 260. It is also said that the earth is -round, so that a man could go all round it as an -insect can walk all round the circumference of a -pear. This notable poem has been lately studied -by Fant, but is still unprinted. It was known -to Abulfeda, that if two persons made the journey -described, they would on meeting differ by -two days in their calendar (Peschel, <i>Gesch. d. -Erdkunde</i>, p. 132).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_355_355" id="Footnote_355_355"></a><a href="#FNanchor_355_355"><span class="label">[355]</span></a></span> -A. Jourdain, <i>Recherches critique sur l’âge et -l’origin des traductions latines d’Aristote, et sur -des commentaires Grecs et Arabes employés par les -docteurs scolastiques</i> (Paris, 1843). See also <i>De -l’influence d’Aristote et de ses interprètes sur la -découverte du nouveau-monde, par Ch. Jourdain</i> -(Paris, 1861).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_356_356" id="Footnote_356_356"></a><a href="#FNanchor_356_356"><span class="label">[356]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II., ch. i., Critical Essay.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_357_357" id="Footnote_357_357"></a><a href="#FNanchor_357_357"><span class="label">[357]</span></a></span> -Cf. a bibliographical note in St. Martin’s -<i>Histoire de la Géographie</i> (1873), p. 296. The -well-known <i>Examen Critique</i> of Humboldt, the -<i>Recherches sur la géographie</i> of Walckenaer, the -<i>Géographie du moyen-âge</i> of Lelewel, with a few -lesser monographic papers like Fréville’s “Mémoire -sur la Cosmographie du moyen-âge,” in -the <i>Revue des Soc. Savantes</i>, 1859, vol. ii., and -Gaffarel’s “Les relations entre l’ancient monde -et l’Amérique, étaient-elles possible au moyen-âge,” -in the <i>Bull. de la Soc. Normande de Géog.</i>, -1881, vol. iii. 209, will answer most purposes of -the general reader; but certain special phases -will best be followed in Letronne’s <i>Des opinions -cosmographiques des Pères de l’Eglise, rapprocher -des doctrines philosophiques de la Grece</i>, in the -<i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, Mars, 1834, p. 601, etc. -The Vicomte Santarem’s <i>Essai sur l’histoire de -la cosmographie et de la cartographie pendant le -moyen-âge, et sur les progrès de la géographie -après les grandes découvertes du xv<sup>e</sup> siècle</i> (Paris, -1849-52), in 3 vols., was an introduction to the -great <i>Atlas</i> of mediæval maps issued by Santarem, -and had for its object the vindication of the -Portuguese to be considered the first explorers -of the African coast. He is more interested in -the burning zone doctrine than in the shape of -the earth. H. Wuttke’s <i>Ueber Erdkunde und -Kultur des Mittelalters</i> (Leipzig, 1853) is an extract -from the <i>Serapeum</i>. G. Marinelli’s <i>Die -Erdkunde bei den Kirchenvätern</i> (Leipzig, 1884, -pp. 87) is very full on Cosmas, with drawings -from the MS. not elsewhere found; Siegmund -Günther’s <i>Die Lehre von der Erdrundung u. -Erdbewegung im Mittelalter bei den Occidentalen</i> -(Halle, 1877), pp. 53, and his <i>Die Lehre von der -Erdrundung u. Erdbewegung bei den Arabern -und Hebräern</i> (Halle, 1877), pp. 127, give numerous -bibliographical references with exactness. -Specially interesting is Charles Jourdain’s <i>De -l’influence d’Aristote et de ses interprètes aux la -découverte du nouveau monde</i> (Paris, 1861), where -we read (p. 30): “La pensée dominante de Colomb -était l’hypothèse de la proximité de l’Espagne -et de l’Asie, et ... cette hypothèse lui venait -d’Aristote et des scolastiques;” and again -(p. 24): “Ce n’est pas à Ptolémée ... que le -moyen âge a emprunté l’hypothèse d’une communication -entre l’Europe et l’Asie par l’océan Atlantique.... -Cette conséquence, qui n’avait par -éschappé à Eratosthène, n’est pas énoncée par -Ptolémée tandis qu’elle retrouve de la manière -la plus expresse chez Aristote.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_358_358" id="Footnote_358_358"></a><a href="#FNanchor_358_358"><span class="label">[358]</span></a></span> -See also <i>ante</i>, p. 37.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_359_359" id="Footnote_359_359"></a><a href="#FNanchor_359_359"><span class="label">[359]</span></a></span> -Plato, <i>Phaedo</i>, 108; Plutarch, <i>De facie</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_360_360" id="Footnote_360_360"></a><a href="#FNanchor_360_360"><span class="label">[360]</span></a></span> -Aristotle, <i>De caelo</i>, ii. 13.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_361_361" id="Footnote_361_361"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361_361"><span class="label">[361]</span></a></span> -Ctesias, <i>On India</i>, ch. v. (ed. Didot, p. 80), says the -rising sun appears ten times larger in India than in Greece. -Strabo, <i>Geogr.</i> iii. 1, § 5, quotes Posidonius as denying a -similar story of the setting sun as seen from Gades.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Whether Herodotus had a similar idea when he wrote -that in India the mornings were torrid, the noons temperate -and the evenings cold (Herod. iii. 104), is uncertain. Also -see Dionysius Periegetes, <i>Periplus</i>, 1109-1111, in <i>Geographi -Graeci minores</i>. <i>Ed. C. Mueller</i> (Paris, Didot, 1861, ii. -172). Rawlinson sees in it only a statement of climatic -fact.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_362_362" id="Footnote_362_362"></a><a href="#FNanchor_362_362"><span class="label">[362]</span></a></span> -<i>The True Key to Ancient Cosmogonies</i>, in the <i>Year -Book of Boston University</i>, 1882, and separately, Boston, -1882; and in his <i>Paradise Found</i>, 4th ed. (Boston, 1885).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_363_363" id="Footnote_363_363"></a><a href="#FNanchor_363_363"><span class="label">[363]</span></a></span> -Geminus, <i>Isagoge</i>, c. 13.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_364_364" id="Footnote_364_364"></a><a href="#FNanchor_364_364"><span class="label">[364]</span></a></span> -“Ueber die Gestalt der Erde nach den Begriffen der -Alten,” in <i>Kritische Blätter</i>, ii. (1790) 130.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_365_365" id="Footnote_365_365"></a><a href="#FNanchor_365_365"><span class="label">[365]</span></a></span> -<i>Ueber Homerische Geographie und Weltkunde</i> (Hanover, -1830).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_366_366" id="Footnote_366_366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_366_366"><span class="label">[366]</span></a></span> -<i>Homerische Realien, I. 1. Homerische Cosmographie -und Geographie</i> (Leipzig, 1871).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_367_367" id="Footnote_367_367"></a><a href="#FNanchor_367_367"><span class="label">[367]</span></a></span> -<i>Homer and the Homeric Age</i> (London, 1858), ii. 334. -The question of Aeaea, “where are the dancing places of the -dawn” (<i>Od.</i> xii. 5), almost induces Gladstone to believe -that Homer thought the earth cylindrical, but it may be -doubted if the expression means more than an outburst of -joy at returning from the darkness beyond ocean to the -realm of light.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_368_368" id="Footnote_368_368"></a><a href="#FNanchor_368_368"><span class="label">[368]</span></a></span> -“Mémoire sur la cosmographie Grecque à l’époque -d’Homere et d’Hesiode,” in <i>Mém. de l’Acad. des Inscr. -et des Belles Lettres</i>, xxviii. (1874) 1, 211-235.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_369_369" id="Footnote_369_369"></a><a href="#FNanchor_369_369"><span class="label">[369]</span></a></span> -<i>Entwicklung der Ansichten des Alterthums ueber -Gestalt und Grösse der Erde.</i> Leipzig, 1868. (Gymn. z. -Insterburg.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_370_370" id="Footnote_370_370"></a><a href="#FNanchor_370_370"><span class="label">[370]</span></a></span> -<i>Die Kosmischen Systeme der Griechen</i> (Berlin, 1851).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_371_371" id="Footnote_371_371"></a><a href="#FNanchor_371_371"><span class="label">[371]</span></a></span> -See also Keppel, <i>Die Ansichten der alten Griechen -und Römer von der Gestalt, Grösse, und Weltstellung der -Erde</i>. (Schweinfurt, 1884.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_372_372" id="Footnote_372_372"></a><a href="#FNanchor_372_372"><span class="label">[372]</span></a></span> -For example, K. Jarz, “Wo sind die Homerischen Inseln -Trinakie, Scherie, etc. zu suchen?” in <i>Zeitschr. für -wissensch. Geogr.</i> ii. 10-18, 21.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_373_373" id="Footnote_373_373"></a><a href="#FNanchor_373_373"><span class="label">[373]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 26. His son Ferdinand enlarges upon -this. The passage in Seneca’s <i>Medea</i> was a favorite. This -is often considered rather as a lucky prophecy. Leibnitz, -<i>Opera Philologica</i> (Geneva, 1708), vi. 317. Charles Sumner’s -“Prophetic Voices concerning America,” in <i>Atlantic -Monthly</i>, Sept. 1867 (also separately, Boston, 1874). <i>Hist. -Mag.</i> xiii. 176; xv. 140.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_374_374" id="Footnote_374_374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_374_374"><span class="label">[374]</span></a></span> -Vol. II. 25. Harrisse, <i>Bib. Amer. Vet.</i> i. 262.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_375_375" id="Footnote_375_375"></a><a href="#FNanchor_375_375"><span class="label">[375]</span></a></span> -Perizonius, in his note to the story of Silenus and -Midas, quoted from Theopompus by Ælian in his <i>Varia -Historiæ</i> (Rome, 1545; in Latin, Basle, 1548; in English, -1576), quotes the chief references in ancient writers. Cf. -Ælian, ed. by Perizonius, Lugd. Bat. 1701, p. 217. Among -the writers of the previous century quoted by this editor are -Rupertus, <i>Dissertationes mixtæ, ad Val. Max.</i> (Nuremberg, -1663). Math. Berniggerus, <i>Ex Taciti Germaniâ -et Agricolâ questiones</i> (Argent. 1640). Eras. Schmidt, -<i>Dissert. de America</i>, which is annexed to Schmidt’s ed. -of Pindar (Witelsbergæ, 1616), where it is spoken of as -“Discursus de insula Atlantica ultra columnas Herculis -qua America hodie dicitur.” Cluverius, <i>Introduction in -univers. geogr.</i>, vi. 21, § 2, supports this view, 1st ed., -1624. In the ed. 1729 is a note by Reiskius on the same -side, with references (p. 667).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Of the same century is J. D. Victor’s <i>Disputatio de -America</i> (Jenæ, 1670).</p> -<p class="pfc4">In Brunn’s <i>Bibliotheca Danica</i> are a number of titles -of dissertations bearing on the subject; they are mostly -old.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_376_376" id="Footnote_376_376"></a><a href="#FNanchor_376_376"><span class="label">[376]</span></a></span> -Even the voyage of Kolaos, mentioned in Herodotus -(iv. 152), is supposed by Garcia a voyage to America.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_377_377" id="Footnote_377_377"></a><a href="#FNanchor_377_377"><span class="label">[377]</span></a></span> -<i>Mœurs des Sauvages</i> (Paris, 1724).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_378_378" id="Footnote_378_378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_378_378"><span class="label">[378]</span></a></span> -<i>Attempt to show that America must have been known -to the Ancients</i> (Boston, 1773).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_379_379" id="Footnote_379_379"></a><a href="#FNanchor_379_379"><span class="label">[379]</span></a></span> -<i>History of America</i>, 1775.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_380_380" id="Footnote_380_380"></a><a href="#FNanchor_380_380"><span class="label">[380]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 68. Humboldt (i. 191) adopts the view -of Ortelius that the grand continent mentioned by Plutarch -is America and not Atlantis. Cf. Brasseur’s <i>Lettres -à M. le Duc de Valmy</i>, p. 57.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_381_381" id="Footnote_381_381"></a><a href="#FNanchor_381_381"><span class="label">[381]</span></a></span> -Gaffarel has since elaborated this part of the book in -some papers, “Les Grecs et les Romains ont-ils connu -l’Amérique?” in the <i>Revue de Géographie</i> (Oct. 1881, <i>et -seq.</i>), ix. 241, 420; x. 21, under the heads of traditions, -theories, and voyages.</p> -<p class="pfc4">There are references in Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i>, v. -ch. 1; and in his <i>Cent. America</i>, vi. 70, etc.; in Short, -<i>No. Amer. of Antiq.</i>, 146, 466, 474; in DeCosta’s <i>Precolumbian -Discovery</i>. Brasseur touches the subject in his -introduction to his <i>Landa’s Relation</i>; Charles Jourdain, in -his <i>De l’influence d’Aristote et de ses interprètes sur la -découverte du nouveau monde</i> (Paris, 1861), taken from -the <i>Journal de l’Instruction Publique</i>. A recent book, -W. S. Blackett’s <i>Researches</i>, etc. (Lond. 1883), may be -avoided.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_382_382" id="Footnote_382_382"></a><a href="#FNanchor_382_382"><span class="label">[382]</span></a></span> -Of lesser importance are these: Bancroft’s <i>Native -Races</i>, iv. 364, v. 55; Short, 418; Stephens’s <i>Cent. Amer.</i>, -ii. 438-442; M’Culloh’s <i>Researches</i>, 171; Weise, <i>Discoveries -of America</i>, p. 2; Campbell in <i>Compte Rendu, -Congrès des Amér.</i> 1875, i. W. L. Stone asks if the -moundbuilders were Egyptians (<i>Mag. Amer. History</i>, ii. -533).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_383_383" id="Footnote_383_383"></a><a href="#FNanchor_383_383"><span class="label">[383]</span></a></span> -Of less importance are: Bancroft, <i>Nat. Races</i>, v. 63-77, -with references; Short, 145; Baldwin’s <i>Anc. America</i>, -162, 171; Warden’s <i>Recherches</i>, etc. The more general -discussion of Humboldt, Brasseur (<i>Nat. Civ.</i>), Gaffarel -(<i>Rapport</i>), De Costa, etc., of course helps the investigator -to clues.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The subject is mixed up with some absurdity and deceit. -The Dighton Rock has passed for Phœnician (Stiles’ -<i>Sermon</i>, 1783; Yates and Moulton’s <i>New York</i>). At one -time a Phœnician inscription in Brazil was invented (<i>Am. -Geog. Soc. Bull.</i> 1886, p. 364; St. John V. Day’s <i>Prehistoric -Use of Iron</i>, Lond. 1877, p. 62). The notorious -Cardiff giant, conveniently found in New York state, was -presented to a credulous public as Phœnician (<i>Am. -Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, Ap. 1875). The history of this hoax is -given by W. A. McKinney in the <i>New Englander</i>, 1875, -P. 759.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_384_384" id="Footnote_384_384"></a><a href="#FNanchor_384_384"><span class="label">[384]</span></a></span> -Cf. Johr. Langius, <i>Medicinalium Epistolarum Miscellanea</i> -(Basle, 1554-60), with a chapter, “De novis Americi -orbis insulis, antea ab Hannone Carthaginein repertis;” -Gebelin’s <i>Monde Primitif</i>; Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i>, iii. -313, v. 77; Short, 145, 209.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_385_385" id="Footnote_385_385"></a><a href="#FNanchor_385_385"><span class="label">[385]</span></a></span> -A specimen is in M. V. Moore’s paper in the <i>Mag. of -Amer. Hist.</i> (1884), xii. 113, 354. There are various fugitive -references to Roman coins found often many feet under -ground, in different parts of America. See for such, Ortelius, -<i>Theatrum orbis terrarum</i>; Haywood’s <i>Tennessee</i> -(1820); <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, v. 314; <i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, xiii. -457; Marcel de Serre, <i>Cosmogonie de Moise</i>, p. 32; and -for pretended Roman inscriptions, Brasseur de Bourbourg, -<i>Nat. Civ. Méx.</i>, preface; <i>Journal de l’Instruction Publique</i>, -Juin, 1853; Humboldt, <i>Exam. Crit.</i>, i. 166; Gaffarel -in <i>Rev. de Géog.</i>, ix. 427.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_386_386" id="Footnote_386_386"></a><a href="#FNanchor_386_386"><span class="label">[386]</span></a></span> -<i>Procli commentarius in Platonis Timaeum. Rec. -C. E. C. Schneider. (Vratislaviae, 1847.) The Commentaries -of Proclus on the Timaeus of Plato. Translated -by Thomas Taylor</i>, 2 vols. 4º. (London, 1820.) Proclus -lived <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 412-485. The passages of importance are found -in the translation, vol. i. pp. 64, 70, 144, 148.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_387_387" id="Footnote_387_387"></a><a href="#FNanchor_387_387"><span class="label">[387]</span></a></span> -Taylor, i. 64.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_388_388" id="Footnote_388_388"></a><a href="#FNanchor_388_388"><span class="label">[388]</span></a></span> -<i>Procl. in Tim.</i> (Schneider), p. 126; Taylor, i. 148. -Also in <i>Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum</i>, ed. Mueller. -(Paris, 1852), vol. iv. p. 443.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_389_389" id="Footnote_389_389"></a><a href="#FNanchor_389_389"><span class="label">[389]</span></a></span> -<i>Geogr.</i> ii. § 3, § 6 (p. 103).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_390_390" id="Footnote_390_390"></a><a href="#FNanchor_390_390"><span class="label">[390]</span></a></span> -<i>Hist. Nat.</i>, ii. 92.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_391_391" id="Footnote_391_391"></a><a href="#FNanchor_391_391"><span class="label">[391]</span></a></span> -The Atlantis mentioned by Pliny in <i>Hist. Nat.</i>, vi. 36, -is apparently entirely distinct from the Atlantis of Plato.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_392_392" id="Footnote_392_392"></a><a href="#FNanchor_392_392"><span class="label">[392]</span></a></span> -Amm. Marc. xvii. 7, § 13. Fiunt autem terrarum motus -modis quattuor, aut enim brasmatiae sunt, ... aut climatiae -... aut chasmatiae, qui grandiori motu patefactis -subito voratrinis terrarum partes absorbent, ut in Atlantico -mare Europaeo orbe spatiosor insula, etc. (Ed. Eyssenhardt, -Berlin, 1871, p. 106).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_393_393" id="Footnote_393_393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_393_393"><span class="label">[393]</span></a></span> -Martin, <i>Etudes sur le Timée</i> (1841), i. 305, 306. The -passage in question is in <i>Schol. ad Rempubl.</i>, p. 327, Plato, -ed. Bekker, vol. ix. p. 67.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_394_394" id="Footnote_394_394"></a><a href="#FNanchor_394_394"><span class="label">[394]</span></a></span> -Cited in Aelian’s <i>Varia Historia</i>, iii. ch. 18. For the -other references see above, pp. 23, 25, 26.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_395_395" id="Footnote_395_395"></a><a href="#FNanchor_395_395"><span class="label">[395]</span></a></span> -Ammianus Marcellinus (xv. 9) quotes from Timagenes -(who wrote in the first century a history of Gaul, now lost) -a statement that some of the Gauls had originally immigrated -from very distant islands and from lands beyond the -Rhine (<i>ab insulis extimis</i> confluxisse et tractibus transrhenanis) -whence they were driven by wars and the incursions -of the sea (Timag. in Mueller, <i>Frag. hist. of Graec.</i>, iii. -323). It would seem incredible that this should be dragged -into the Atlantis controversy, but such has been the case.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_396_396" id="Footnote_396_396"></a><a href="#FNanchor_396_396"><span class="label">[396]</span></a></span> -Plutarch, <i>Solon</i>, at end. R. Prinz, <i>De Solonis Plutarchi -fontibus</i> (Bonnæ, 1857).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_397_397" id="Footnote_397_397"></a><a href="#FNanchor_397_397"><span class="label">[397]</span></a></span> -<i>De Pallio, 2, Apol.</i>, p. 32. Also by Arnobius, <i>Adversus -gentes</i>, i. 5.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_398_398" id="Footnote_398_398"></a><a href="#FNanchor_398_398"><span class="label">[398]</span></a></span> -Ed. Montfaucon, i. 114-125, ii. 131, 136-138, iv. 186-192, -xii. 340.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_399_399" id="Footnote_399_399"></a><a href="#FNanchor_399_399"><span class="label">[399]</span></a></span> -Gaffarel in <i>Revue de Géographie</i>, vi.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_400_400" id="Footnote_400_400"></a><a href="#FNanchor_400_400"><span class="label">[400]</span></a></span> -<i>Platonis omnia opere cum comm. Proclii in Timaeum</i>, -etc. (Basil. Valderus, 1534).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_401_401" id="Footnote_401_401"></a><a href="#FNanchor_401_401"><span class="label">[401]</span></a></span> -<i>Ex Platoni Timaeo particula, Ciceronis libro de universitate -respondens ... op. jo. Perizonii</i> (Paris, Tiletanus, -1540; Basil. s. a.; Paris, Morell, 1551). <i>Interpret. -Cicerone et Chalcidio</i>, etc. (Paris, 1579). <i>Le Timée de -Platon, translaté du grec en français, par L. le Roy</i>, etc. -(Paris, 1551, 1581). <i>Il dialogo di Platone, intitolato il Timaeo -trad. da Sb. Erizzo, nuov. mandato en luce d. Gir. -Ruscellii</i> (Venet. 1558).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_402_402" id="Footnote_402_402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_402_402"><span class="label">[402]</span></a></span> -<i>Birchrodii Schediasma de orbe novo non novo</i> (Altdorf, -1683).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_403_403" id="Footnote_403_403"></a><a href="#FNanchor_403_403"><span class="label">[403]</span></a></span> -The representation of Sanson is reproduced on p. 18. -The full title of these curious maps is given by Martin, -<i>Etudes sur le Timée</i>, i. 270, <i>notes</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_404_404" id="Footnote_404_404"></a><a href="#FNanchor_404_404"><span class="label">[404]</span></a></span> -<i>Plato, ed. Stallbaum</i> (Gothae, 1838); vii. p. 99, note E. -See also his <i>Prolegomena de Critia</i>, in the same volume, -for further discussion and references.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_405_405" id="Footnote_405_405"></a><a href="#FNanchor_405_405"><span class="label">[405]</span></a></span> -Cluverius, <i>Introduct.</i>, ed. 1729, p. 667.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_406_406" id="Footnote_406_406"></a><a href="#FNanchor_406_406"><span class="label">[406]</span></a></span> -<i>Examination of the legend of Atlantis in reference -to protohistoric communications with America</i>, in the -<i>Trans. Royal Hist. Soc.</i> (Lond., 1885), iii. p. 1-46.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_407_407" id="Footnote_407_407"></a><a href="#FNanchor_407_407"><span class="label">[407]</span></a></span> -W. S. Blackett, <i>Researches into the lost histories of -America; or, the Zodiac shown to be an old terrestrial -map in which the Atlantic isle is delineated</i>, etc. (London, -1883), p. 31, 32. The work is not too severely judged by -W. F. Poole, in the <i>Dial</i> (Chicago), Sept. 84, <i>note</i>. The -author’s reasons for believing that Atlantis could not have -sunk are interesting in a way. The <i>Fourth Rept. Bur. of -Ethnology</i> (p. 251) calls it “a curiosity of literature.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_408_408" id="Footnote_408_408"></a><a href="#FNanchor_408_408"><span class="label">[408]</span></a></span> -E. F. Berlioux, <i>Les Atlantes: histoire de l’Atlantis, -et de l’Atlas primitif</i> (Paris, 1883). It originally made -part of the first <i>Annuaire</i> of the Faculté des lettres de -Lyon (Paris, 1883).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_409_409" id="Footnote_409_409"></a><a href="#FNanchor_409_409"><span class="label">[409]</span></a></span> -<i>Thesaurus Geogr.</i>, 1587, under <i>Atlantis</i>. See also -under <i>Gades</i> and <i>Gadirus</i>. On folio 2 of his <i>Theatrum -orbis terrarum</i> he rejects the notion that the ancients -knew America, but in the index, under <i>Atlantis</i>, he says -<i>forte America</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_410_410" id="Footnote_410_410"></a><a href="#FNanchor_410_410"><span class="label">[410]</span></a></span> -Bartolomé de las Casas, <i>Historia de las Indias. Ed. -De la Fuensanto de Valle and J. S. Rayon</i> (Madrid, -1875), i. cap. viii. pp. 73-79.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_411_411" id="Footnote_411_411"></a><a href="#FNanchor_411_411"><span class="label">[411]</span></a></span> -Taylor, in the introduction to the Timaeus, in his -translation of Plato, regards as almost impious the doubts -as to the truth of the narrative. <i>The Works of Plato</i>, vol. -i. London, 1804.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_412_412" id="Footnote_412_412"></a><a href="#FNanchor_412_412"><span class="label">[412]</span></a></span> -<i>Thes. Geogr.</i>, s. v. <i>Gadirus</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_413_413" id="Footnote_413_413"></a><a href="#FNanchor_413_413"><span class="label">[413]</span></a></span> -<i>Athanasii Kircherii Mundus subterraneus in xii. -libros digestus</i> (Amsterd., 1678), pp. 80-83. He gives a -cut illustrative of his views on p. 82.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_414_414" id="Footnote_414_414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_414_414"><span class="label">[414]</span></a></span> -<i>Historia orbis terrarum geographica et civilis</i>, cap. 5, -§ 2, hist. insul. I. C. Becmann, 2d ed. (Francfort on Oder, -1680). Title from British Museum, as I have been unable -to see the work. The <i>Allg. Deutsche Biographie</i> says the -first edition appeared in 1680. It was a book of considerable -note in its day.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_415_415" id="Footnote_415_415"></a><a href="#FNanchor_415_415"><span class="label">[415]</span></a></span> -De la Borde, <i>Histoire abregée de la mer du Sud</i> -(Paris, 1791).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_416_416" id="Footnote_416_416"></a><a href="#FNanchor_416_416"><span class="label">[416]</span></a></span> -J. B. G. M. Bory de St. Vincent, <i>Essais sur les isles -Fortunées et l’antique Atlantide</i> (Paris, an xi. or 1803), ch. -7. Si les Canaries et les autres isles de l’ocean Atlantique -offrent les débris d’un continent. pp. 427, etc. His map -is given <i>ante</i>, p. 19.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_417_417" id="Footnote_417_417"></a><a href="#FNanchor_417_417"><span class="label">[417]</span></a></span> -This is the second part of his <i>Iles de l’Afrique</i> (Paris, -1848), belonging to the series <i>L’Univers. Histoire et description -de tous les peuples</i>, etc. Cf. also his <i>Les îles fantastiques</i> -(Paris, 1845).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_418_418" id="Footnote_418_418"></a><a href="#FNanchor_418_418"><span class="label">[418]</span></a></span> -G. R. Carli, <i>Delle Lettere Americane</i>, ii. (1780). -Lettere, vii. and following; especially xiii. and following.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_419_419" id="Footnote_419_419"></a><a href="#FNanchor_419_419"><span class="label">[419]</span></a></span> -Lyell, <i>Elements of Geology</i> (Lond., 1841), p. 141; and -his <i>Principles of Geology</i>, 10th ed. Buffon dated the -separation of the new and old world from the catastrophe of -Atlantis. <i>Epoques de la Nat.</i>, ed. Flourens, ix. 570.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_420_420" id="Footnote_420_420"></a><a href="#FNanchor_420_420"><span class="label">[420]</span></a></span> -<i>Quatres lettres sur la Méxique; Popul Vuh</i>, p. xcix, -and his <i>Sources de l’histoire primitive du Méxique</i>, section -viii. pp. xxiv, xxxiii, xxxviii and ix, in his edition of -Diego da Landa, <i>Relation des choses de Yucatan</i> (Paris, -1864). H. H. Bancroft, <i>Nat. Races</i>, iii. 112, 264, 480; v. -127, develops Brasseur’s theory. In his <i>Hist. Nat. Civilisées</i> -he compares the condition of the Colhua kingdom of -Xibalba with Atlantis, and finds striking similarities. Le -Plongeon in his <i>Sacred Mysteries</i> (p. 92) accepts Brasseur’s -theory.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_421_421" id="Footnote_421_421"></a><a href="#FNanchor_421_421"><span class="label">[421]</span></a></span> -A. Retzius, <i>Present state of Ethnology in relation to -the form of the human skull</i> (Smithsonian Report, 1859), -p. 266. The resemblance is not indorsed by M. Verneau, -who has lately made a detailed study of the aborigines of -the Canaries.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_422_422" id="Footnote_422_422"></a><a href="#FNanchor_422_422"><span class="label">[422]</span></a></span> -F. Unger, <i>Die versunkene Insel Atlantis</i> (Wien, -1860). Translated in the <i>Journal of Botany</i> (London), -January, 1865. Asa Gray had already called attention to -the remarkable resemblance between the flora of Japan and -that of eastern North America, but had not found the -invention of a Pacific continent preferable to the hypothesis -of a progress of plants of the temperate zone round by -Behring’s Strait (<i>Memoirs of the American Academy of -Arts and Sciences</i>, vi. 377). Unger’s theory has been also -more or less urged in Heer’s <i>Flora Tertiaria Helveticae</i> -(1854-58) and his <i>Urwelt der Schweitz</i> (1865), and by Otto -Ule in his <i>Die Erde</i> (1874), i. 27.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_423_423" id="Footnote_423_423"></a><a href="#FNanchor_423_423"><span class="label">[423]</span></a></span> -<i>Sitzungsberichte der Math. Phys. Classe d. k. Akad. d. -Wissensch.</i> at Vienna, lvii. (1868) p. 12.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_424_424" id="Footnote_424_424"></a><a href="#FNanchor_424_424"><span class="label">[424]</span></a></span> -The “Lost Atlantis” and the “Challenger” soundings, -<i>Nature</i>, 26 April, 1877, xv. 553, with sketch map.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_425_425" id="Footnote_425_425"></a><a href="#FNanchor_425_425"><span class="label">[425]</span></a></span> -J. Starkie Gardner, <i>How were the eocenes of England -deposited?</i> in <i>Popular Science Review</i> (London), July, -1878, xvii. 282. Edw. H. Thompson, <i>Atlantis not a Myth</i>, -in <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, Oct., 1879, xv. 759; reprinted -in <i>Journal of Science</i>, Lond., Nov. 1879.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_426_426" id="Footnote_426_426"></a><a href="#FNanchor_426_426"><span class="label">[426]</span></a></span> -<i>Etude sur les rapports de l’Atlantis et de l’ancien -continent avant Colomb</i> (Paris, 1869).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_427_427" id="Footnote_427_427"></a><a href="#FNanchor_427_427"><span class="label">[427]</span></a></span> -<i>Revue de Géographie</i>, Mars, Avril, 1880, tom. vi. et -vii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_428_428" id="Footnote_428_428"></a><a href="#FNanchor_428_428"><span class="label">[428]</span></a></span> -See p. 46.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_429_429" id="Footnote_429_429"></a><a href="#FNanchor_429_429"><span class="label">[429]</span></a></span> -<i>Ultima teoria sobre la Atlantida.</i> A paper read before -the Geographical Society at Lisbon. I have seen only -the epitome in <i>Bolletino della Società Geografica Italiana</i>, -xvi. (1879), p. 693. Apparently the paper was published -in 1881, in the proceedings of the fourth congress of -Americanists at Madrid.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_430_430" id="Footnote_430_430"></a><a href="#FNanchor_430_430"><span class="label">[430]</span></a></span> -Winchell, <i>Preadamites, or a demonstration of the -existence of man before Adam</i>, etc. (Chicago, 1880), pp. -378 and fol.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_431_431" id="Footnote_431_431"></a><a href="#FNanchor_431_431"><span class="label">[431]</span></a></span> - Ignatius Donnelly, <i>Atlantis: the Antediluvian World</i> -(N. Y., 1882).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_432_432" id="Footnote_432_432"></a><a href="#FNanchor_432_432"><span class="label">[432]</span></a></span> -His work is much more than a defence of Plato. He -attempts to show that Atlantis was the terrestrial paradise, -the cradle of the world’s civilization. I suppose it was -his book which inspired Mrs. J. Gregory Smith to write -<i>Atla: a Story of the Lost Island</i> (New York, 1886).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Donnelly’s book was favorably reviewed by Prof. Winchell -(“Ancient Myth and Modern Fact,” <i>Dial</i>, Chicago, -April, 1882, ii. 284), who declared that there was no longer -serious doubt that the story was founded on fact. His -theory was enthusiastically adopted by Mrs. A. A. Knight -in <i>Education</i> (v. 317), and somewhat more soberly by Rev. -J. P. McLean in the <i>Universalist Quarterly</i> (Oct., 1882, -xxxix. 436, “The Continent of Atlantis”). I have not -seen an article in <i>Kansas Review</i> by Mrs. H. M. Holden, -quoted in <i>Poole’s Index</i> (<i>Kan. Rev.</i>, viii. 435; also, viii. -236, 640). It was more carefully examined and its claims -rejected by a writer in the <i>Journal of Science</i> (London), -(“Atlantis once more,” June, 1883; xx. 319-327). W. F. -Poole doubts whether Mr. Donnelly himself was quite serious -in his theorizing (“Discoveries of America: the lost -Atlantis theory,” <i>Dial</i>, Sept., 1884, v. 97). Lord Arundel -of Wardour controverted Donnelly in <i>The Secret of Plato’s -Atlantis</i> (London, 1885), and believes that the Atlantis -fable originated in vague reports of Hanno’s voyage—a -theory hardly less remarkable than the one it aims to displace. -Lord Arundel’s book was reviewed in the <i>Dublin -Review</i> (Plato’s “Atlantis” and the “Periplus” of Hanno), -July, 1886, xcix. 91.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_433_433" id="Footnote_433_433"></a><a href="#FNanchor_433_433"><span class="label">[433]</span></a></span> -Renard, M., <i>Report on the Petrology of St. Paul’s -Rocks, Challenger Report, Narrative</i> (London, 1882), ii. -Appendix B.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_434_434" id="Footnote_434_434"></a><a href="#FNanchor_434_434"><span class="label">[434]</span></a></span> -<i>A search for “Atlantis” with the microscope</i>, in <i>Nature</i>, -9 Nov., 1882, xxvii. 25.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_435_435" id="Footnote_435_435"></a><a href="#FNanchor_435_435"><span class="label">[435]</span></a></span> -<i>The microscopic evidence of a lost continent</i>, in -<i>Science</i>, 29 June, 1883, i. 591.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_436_436" id="Footnote_436_436"></a><a href="#FNanchor_436_436"><span class="label">[436]</span></a></span> -<i>Origines Celticae</i> (London, 1883), i. 119, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_437_437" id="Footnote_437_437"></a><a href="#FNanchor_437_437"><span class="label">[437]</span></a></span> -<i>The discoveries of America to the year 1525</i> (New -York, 1884), ch. 1. Cf. Poole’s review of this jejune Work, -quoted above, for some healthy criticism of this kind of -writing (<i>Dial</i>, v. 97). Also a notice in the <i>Nation</i>, July 31, -1884.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The scientific theory of Atlantis is, I believe, supported -by M. Jean d’Estienne in the <i>Revue des Questiones Scientifiques</i>, -Oct., 1885, and by M. de Marçay, <i>Histoire des -descouvertes et conquêtes de l’Amerique</i> (Limoges, 1881), -but I have seen neither. H. H. Howorth, <i>The Mammoth -and the Flood</i> (London, 1887), is struggling to revive the -credit of water as the chief agent in the transformations of -the earth’s surface, and relies much upon the deluge myths, -but refuses to accept Atlantis. He thinks the zoölogic evidence -proves the existence in pleistocene times of an easy -and natural bridge between Europe and America, but sees -no need of placing it across the mid-Atlantic (p. 262).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_438_438" id="Footnote_438_438"></a><a href="#FNanchor_438_438"><span class="label">[438]</span></a></span> -<i>The naturall and morall historie of the East and -West Indies</i>, etc., <i>written in Spanish by Joseph Acosta, -and translated into English by E. G[rimeston]</i> (London, -1604), p. 72, 73 (lib. i. ch. 22).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_439_439" id="Footnote_439_439"></a><a href="#FNanchor_439_439"><span class="label">[439]</span></a></span> -<i>Notitiae orbis antiquae</i> (Amsterdam, 1703-6), 2 vols. -The first ed. was Cantab., 1703. “Atlantica insula Platonis -quae similior fabulae est quam chorographiae,” lib. i. -cap. xi. p. 32. In the <i>Additamentum de novo orbe an -cognatus fuerit veteribus</i> (tome ii. lib. iv. pp. 164-166) -Cellarius speaks more guardedly, and quotes with approval -the judgment of Perizonius, which has been given above -(p. 22).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_440_440" id="Footnote_440_440"></a><a href="#FNanchor_440_440"><span class="label">[440]</span></a></span> -<i>Essai sur l’explication historique donnée par Platon -de sa République et de son Atlantide</i> (in <i>Reflexions impartiales -sur le progrès réal ou apparent que les sciences et -les arts ont faits dans le xviii<sup>e</sup> siècle en Europe</i>, Paris, -1780). The work is useful because it contains the Greek -text (from a MS. in the Bibl. du Roi. Cf. <i>MSS. de la -bibliothèque</i>, v. 261), the Latin translations of Ficinus and -Serranus, several French translations, and the Italian of -Frizzo and of Bembo.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_441_441" id="Footnote_441_441"></a><a href="#FNanchor_441_441"><span class="label">[441]</span></a></span> -<i>Recherches sur les iles de l’océan Atlantique</i>, in the -<i>Recherches sur la géographie des anciens</i>, i. p. 146 -(Paris, 1797). Also in the French translation of Strabo (i. -p. 268, note 3). Gosselin thought that Atlantis was nothing -more than Fortaventure or Lancerote.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_442_442" id="Footnote_442_442"></a><a href="#FNanchor_442_442"><span class="label">[442]</span></a></span> -<i>Geogr. d. Griechen u. Römer</i>, i. 1, p. 59; ii. 1, p. 192. -Cf. Letronne’s <i>Essai sur les idées cosmographiques qui se -rettachent au nom d’Atlas</i>, in the <i>Bull. Univ. des sciences</i> -(Ferussac), March, 1831.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_443_443" id="Footnote_443_443"></a><a href="#FNanchor_443_443"><span class="label">[443]</span></a></span> -<i>Examen Crit.</i>, i. 167-180; ii. 192.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_444_444" id="Footnote_444_444"></a><a href="#FNanchor_444_444"><span class="label">[444]</span></a></span> -<i>The dialogues of Plato, translated by B. Jowett</i> (N. Y., -1873), ii. p. 587 (Introduction to Critias).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_445_445" id="Footnote_445_445"></a><a href="#FNanchor_445_445"><span class="label">[445]</span></a></span> -Bunbury, <i>History of ancient geography</i>, i. 402.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_446_446" id="Footnote_446_446"></a><a href="#FNanchor_446_446"><span class="label">[446]</span></a></span> -<i>Etude sur le Timée de Platon</i> (Paris, 1841), t. i. pp. -257-333.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_447_447" id="Footnote_447_447"></a><a href="#FNanchor_447_447"><span class="label">[447]</span></a></span> -Paul Gaffarel, <i>Etude sur les rapports de l’Amérique -et de l’ancien continent avant Christophe Colomb</i> (Paris, -1869), ch. 1er; <i>L’Atlantide</i>, pp. 3-27. The same author -has more lately handled the subject more fully in a series -of articles: <i>L’Atlantide</i>, in the <i>Revue de Géographie</i>, -April-July, 1880; vi. 241, 331, 421; vii. 21,—which is -the most detailed account of the whole matter yet brought -together.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_448_448" id="Footnote_448_448"></a><a href="#FNanchor_448_448"><span class="label">[448]</span></a></span> -One of the most recent résumés of the question is that -by Salone in the <i>Grande Encyclopédie</i>. (Paris, 1888, iv. p. -457). The <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, by the way, regards -the account, “if not entirely fictitious, as belonging to the -most nebulous region of history.”</p> -<p class="pfc4">A few miscellaneous references, of no great significance, -may close this list: <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, Sept., 1886; H. -H. Bancroft, <i>Nat. Races</i>, v. 123; J. S. Clarke’s <i>Progress -of Maritime Discovery</i>, p. ii. Geo. Catlin’s <i>Lifted and -Subsided Rocks of America</i> (Lond., 1870) illustrates “The -Cataclysm of the Antilles.” Dr. Chil, in the Nancy <i>Congrès -des Américanistes</i>, i. 163. Foster’s <i>Prehistoric Races</i>, -app. E. Haven’s <i>Archæol. U. S.</i> Irving’s <i>Columbus</i>, -app. xxii. Major’s <i>Prince Henry</i> (1868), p. 87. Nadaillac’s -<i>Les Prem. Hommes</i>, ii. 114, and his <i>L’ Amérique -préhistorique</i>, 561. John B. Newman’s <i>Origin of the Red -Men</i> (N. Y., 1852). Prescott’s <i>Mexico</i>, iii. 356. C. S. -Rafinesque’s incomplete <i>American Nations</i> (Philad.), and -his earlier introduction to Marshall’s <i>Kentucky</i>, and his -<i>Amer. Museum</i> (1832). Two articles by L. Burke in his -<i>Ethnological Journal</i> (London), 1848: <i>The destruction of -Atlantis</i>, July; <i>The continent of America known to the -ancient Egyptians and other nations of remote antiquity</i>, -Aug. The former article is only a reprint of Taylor’s -trans. of Plato. Roisel’s <i>Etudes ante-historiques</i> (Paris, -1874), devoted largely to the religion of the Atlanteans. -Léon de Rosny’s “L’Atlantide historique” in the <i>Mém. -de la Soc. d’Ethnographie</i> (Paris, 1875), xiii. 33, 159, or -<i>Revue Orientale et Américaine</i>. Short’s <i>No. Americans -of Antiquity</i>, ch. 11. Daniel Wilson’s <i>Lost Atlantis</i> (Montreal, -1886), in <i>Proc. and Trans. Roy. Soc. of Canada</i>, -1886, iv. Cf. also <i>Poole’s Index</i>, i. 73; ii. 27; and Larousse’s -<i>Grand Dictionnaire</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_449_449" id="Footnote_449_449"></a><a href="#FNanchor_449_449"><span class="label">[449]</span></a></span> -<i>Legends and Superstitions of the Sea and of Sailors -in all Lands and at all Times</i> (Chicago and New York, -1885).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_450_450" id="Footnote_450_450"></a><a href="#FNanchor_450_450"><span class="label">[450]</span></a></span> -<i>Légendes, croyances de la mer.</i> 2 vols. (Paris, 1886.) -See ch. 9 in 1<sup>ere</sup> série.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_451_451" id="Footnote_451_451"></a><a href="#FNanchor_451_451"><span class="label">[451]</span></a></span> -<i>L’Elysée transatlantique et l’Eden Occidental</i> (Mai-Juin, -Nov.-Dec., 1883), vii. 273; viii. 673.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_452_452" id="Footnote_452_452"></a><a href="#FNanchor_452_452"><span class="label">[452]</span></a></span> -<i>Paradise Found: the Cradle of the Human Race at -the North Pole</i> (Boston, 1885), 4th ed.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_453_453" id="Footnote_453_453"></a><a href="#FNanchor_453_453"><span class="label">[453]</span></a></span> -Eumenius (?), in the third century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>, is doubtful -about the existence even of the Fortunate Isles (i. e. the -Canaries). <i>Eumenii panegyricus Constantino Aug.</i>, vii., -in Valpy’s <i>Panegyrici veteres</i> (London, 1828), iii. p. 1352. -Baehrens credits this oration to an unknown author. Mamertinus -appears to know them from the poets only (<i>Ibid.</i> -p. 1529).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_454_454" id="Footnote_454_454"></a><a href="#FNanchor_454_454"><span class="label">[454]</span></a></span> -<i>Saggio sulla nautica antica dei Veneziani</i>, n. p., n. d. -(Venice, 1783); French translation (Venice, 1788).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_455_455" id="Footnote_455_455"></a><a href="#FNanchor_455_455"><span class="label">[455]</span></a></span> -<i>Il mappamondo di Fra Mauro descritto ed illustrato</i> -(Venice, 1806). <i>Di Marco Polo e degli altri viaggiatori -veneziani ... con append. sopra le antiche mappe lavorate -in Venezia</i> (Venice, 1818).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_456_456" id="Footnote_456_456"></a><a href="#FNanchor_456_456"><span class="label">[456]</span></a></span> -ii. 156, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_457_457" id="Footnote_457_457"></a><a href="#FNanchor_457_457"><span class="label">[457]</span></a></span> -D’Avezac: <i>Iles d’Afrique</i> (Paris, 1848) 2<sup>e</sup> <i>partie</i>; -<i>Iles connues des Arabes</i>, pp. 15; <i>Les îles de Saint-Brandan</i>, -pp. 19; <i>Les îsles nouvellement trouvées du quinzième -siècle</i>, pp. 24. The last two pieces had been previously -published under the title <i>Les îles fantastiques de l’Ocean -occidental au moyen âge</i>, in the <i>Nouvelles Annales des -Voyages</i> (Mars, Avril, 1845), 2d série, i. 293; ii. 47.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_458_458" id="Footnote_458_458"></a><a href="#FNanchor_458_458"><span class="label">[458]</span></a></span> -<i>Les îsles fantastiques de l’Atlantique au moyen âge.</i> -Lyon [1883], pp. 15. This is apparently extracted from the -<i>Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de Lyon</i> for 1883.</p> -<p class="pfc4">[In <i>Poole’s Index</i> is a reference to an article on imaginary -islands in <i>London Society</i>, i. 80, 150.]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_459_459" id="Footnote_459_459"></a><a href="#FNanchor_459_459"><span class="label">[459]</span></a></span> -“Zur Geschichte der Erdkunde in der letzten Hälfte -des Mittelalters. Die Karten der seefahrenden Völker Süd-Europas -bis zum ersten Druck der Erdbeschreibung des -Ptolemaeus.” <i>Jahresbericht</i>, vi. vii. (1870). Accompanying -the article are sketches of the principal mediæval -maps, which are useful if access to the more trustworthy -reproductions cannot be had.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_460_460" id="Footnote_460_460"></a><a href="#FNanchor_460_460"><span class="label">[460]</span></a></span> -<i>Sammlung mittelalterlicher Welt- und Seekarten italienischen -Ursprungs</i>, etc. (Venice, 1886), especially pp. -14-22, and under the notices of particular maps in the -second part.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_461_461" id="Footnote_461_461"></a><a href="#FNanchor_461_461"><span class="label">[461]</span></a></span> -<i>The Life of Prince Henry of Portugal, surnamed -the Navigator</i>, etc. London, 1868.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_462_462" id="Footnote_462_462"></a><a href="#FNanchor_462_462"><span class="label">[462]</span></a></span> -The position of these islands and the fact that the -Arabs believed that they were following Ptolemy in placing -in them the first meridian seems almost conclusive in favor -of the Canaries; but M. D’Avezac is inclined in favor of -the Azores, because the Arabs place in the Eternal Isles -certain pillars and statues warning against further advance -westward, which remind him of the equestrian statues of -the Azores, and because Ebn Sáyd states that the Islands -of Happiness lie between the Eternal Islands and Africa.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_463_463" id="Footnote_463_463"></a><a href="#FNanchor_463_463"><span class="label">[463]</span></a></span> -D’Avezac, <i>Iles d’Afrique</i>, ii. 15. <i>Géographie d’Abul-Fada -trad. par M. Reinand et M. Guiyard</i> (Paris, -1848-83). 2 vols. The first volume contains a treatise -on Arabian geographers and their systems. <i>Géographie -d’Edrisi trad. par M. Jaubert</i> (Paris, 1836-40). 2 vols. -4to (Soc. de Géogr. de Paris, <i>Recueil de Voyages</i>, v., vi.) -Cf. Cherbonneau on the Arabian geographers in the <i>Revue -de Géographie</i> (1881).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_464_464" id="Footnote_464_464"></a><a href="#FNanchor_464_464"><span class="label">[464]</span></a></span> -Humboldt, <i>Examen Crit.</i>, ii. 163; D’Avezac, <i>Iles -d’Afrique</i>, ii. 19; St. Malo’s voyage by Beauvois, <i>Rev. -Hist. Relig.</i>, viii. 986.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_465_465" id="Footnote_465_465"></a><a href="#FNanchor_465_465"><span class="label">[465]</span></a></span> -<i>Les voyages de Saint Brandan et des Papoe dans l’Atlantique -au moyen-âge</i>, published by the Soc. de Géogr. -de Rochefort (1881). See also his <i>Rapports de l’Amérique -et de l’ancien continent</i> (Paris, 1869), p. 173-183. The -article <i>Brenden</i> in Stephen’s <i>Dict. of National Biography</i>, -vol. vi. (London, 1886), should be consulted.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_466_466" id="Footnote_466_466"></a><a href="#FNanchor_466_466"><span class="label">[466]</span></a></span> -16 May; <i>Maii</i>, tom. ii. p. 699.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_467_467" id="Footnote_467_467"></a><a href="#FNanchor_467_467"><span class="label">[467]</span></a></span> -<i>La légende latine de S. Brandaines, avec une traduction -inédite</i>, etc. (Paris, 1836). M. Jubinal gives a full -account of all manuscripts.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_468_468" id="Footnote_468_468"></a><a href="#FNanchor_468_468"><span class="label">[468]</span></a></span> -<i>St. Brandan, a mediæval legend of the sea, in English -prose and verse</i> (London, 1844). The student of the -subject will find use for <i>Les voyages de Saint Brandan à -la recherche du paradis terrestre, legend en vers du -XII<sup>e</sup> siècle, avec introduction par Francisque Michel</i> -(Paris, 1878), and “La legende Flamande de Saint Brandan -et du bibliographie” by Louis de Backer in <i>Miscellanées -bibliographiques</i>, 1878, p. 191.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_469_469" id="Footnote_469_469"></a><a href="#FNanchor_469_469"><span class="label">[469]</span></a></span> -<i>Nova typis transacta navigatio.</i> <i>Novi orbis India -occidentalis</i>, etc. (1621), p. 11.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_470_470" id="Footnote_470_470"></a><a href="#FNanchor_470_470"><span class="label">[470]</span></a></span> -Honoré d’Autun, <i>Imago Mundi</i>, lib. i. cap. 36. In -<i>Maxima Bibliotheca Veterum Patrum</i> (Lugd., 1677), tom. -xx. p. 971.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_471_471" id="Footnote_471_471"></a><a href="#FNanchor_471_471"><span class="label">[471]</span></a></span> -Humboldt (<i>Examen Critique</i>, ii. 172) quotes these -islands from Sanuto Torsello (1306). They appear on a -map of about 1350, preserved in St. Mark’s Library at -Venice (Wuttke, in <i>Jahresber. d. Vereins für Erdkunde -zu Dresden</i>, xvi. 20), as “<i>I fortunate I beate, 368,</i>” in -connection with <i>La Montagne de St. Brandan</i>, west of -Ireland. They are also in the Medicean Atlas of 1351, and -in Fra Mauro’s map and many others.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_472_472" id="Footnote_472_472"></a><a href="#FNanchor_472_472"><span class="label">[472]</span></a></span> -<i>Noticias de la historia general de las islas de Canaria</i>, -by D. Jos. de Viera y Clavijo, 4 vols. 4to (Madrid, -1772-83). Humboldt, <i>Examen</i>, ii. 167. D’Avezac, <i>Iles -d’Afrique</i>, ii. 22, etc. <i>Les îles fortunées ou archipel des -Canaries</i> [by E. Pégot-Ogier], 2 vols. (Paris, 1862), i. -ch. 13. Saint-Borondon (<i>Aprositus</i>), pp. 186-198. <i>Teneriffe -and its six satellites</i>, by O. M. Stone, 2 vols. -(London, 1887), i. 319. This mirage probably explains the -<i>Perdita</i> of Honoré and the <i>Aprositos</i> of Ptolemy. Cf. O. -Peschel’s <i>Abhandlungen zur Erd- und Völkerkunde</i> -(Leipzig, 1877), i. 20. A similar story is connected with -Brazil.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_473_473" id="Footnote_473_473"></a><a href="#FNanchor_473_473"><span class="label">[473]</span></a></span> -M. Buache in his <i>Mémoire sur l’Isle Antillia</i> (<i>Mém. -Inst. de France, Sciences math. et phys.</i>, vi., 1806), read -on a copy of the Pizigani map of 1367, sent to him from -Parma, the inscription, <i>Ad ripas Antilliae or Antullio</i>. -Cf. Buache’s article in German in <i>Allg. Geogr. Ephemeriden</i>, -xxiv. 129. Humboldt (<i>Examen</i>, ii. 177) quotes Zurla -(<i>Viaggi</i>, ii. 324) as denying that such an inscription can be -made out on the original: but Fischer (<i>Sammlung von -Welt-karten</i>, p. 19) thinks this form of the name can be -made out on Jomard’s fac-simile. Wuttke, however, thinks -that the word Antillia is not to be made out, and gives the -inscription as <i>Hoc sont statua q fuit ut tenprs A cules</i>, -and reads <i>Hoc sunt statuae quae fuerunt antea temporibus -Arcules = Herculis</i> (Wuttke, <i>Zur Geschichte der Erdkunde -in der letzten Haelfte des Mittelalters</i>, p. 26, in <i>Jahresbericht -des Vereins für Erdkunde zu Dresden</i>, vi. and vii., -1870). The matter is of interest in the story of the equestrian -statue of Corvo. According to the researches of -Humboldt, this story first appears in print in the history -of Portugal by Faria y Sousa (<i>Epitome de las historias -Portuguezas</i>, Madrid, 1628. <i>Historia del Reyno de Portugal</i>, -1730), who describes on the “Mountain of the -Crow,” in the Azores, a statue of a man on horseback -pointing westward. A later version of the story mentions -a western promontory in <i>Corvo</i> which had the form of a -person pointing westward. Humboldt (ii. 231), in an interesting -sketch, connects this story with the Greek traditions -of the columns of Hercules at Gades, and with the old -opinion that beyond no one could pass; and with the curious -Arabic stories of numberless columns with inscriptions -prohibiting further navigation, set up by <i>Dhoulcarnain</i>, an -Arabian hero, in whose personality Hercules and Alexander -the Great are curiously compounded (see <i>Edrisi</i>). Humboldt -quotes from Buache a statement that on the Pizigani -map of 1367 there is near Brazil (Azores) a representation -of a person holding an inscription and pointing westward.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_474_474" id="Footnote_474_474"></a><a href="#FNanchor_474_474"><span class="label">[474]</span></a></span> -Fernan Colomb, <i>Historia</i>, ch. 9; Horn, <i>De Originibus -Amer.</i> p. 7, quoted by Gaffarel in his <i>Les îles fantastiques</i>, -p. 3, <i>note</i> 1, 2. D’Avezac, <i>Iles d’Afrique</i>, ii. 27, -quotes a similar passage from Medina (<i>Arte naviguar</i>), -who found it in the Ptolemy dedicated to Pope Urban -(1378-1389). According to D’Avezac (<i>Iles</i>, ii. 28), a -“geographical document” of 1455 gives the name as <i>Antillis</i>, -and identifies it with Plato’s <i>Atlantis</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_475_475" id="Footnote_475_475"></a><a href="#FNanchor_475_475"><span class="label">[475]</span></a></span> -Formaleoni, <i>Essai</i>, 148.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_476_476" id="Footnote_476_476"></a><a href="#FNanchor_476_476"><span class="label">[476]</span></a></span> -D’Avezac marks as wrong the reading <i>Sarastagio</i> of -Humboldt.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_477_477" id="Footnote_477_477"></a><a href="#FNanchor_477_477"><span class="label">[477]</span></a></span> -D’Avezac, <i>Iles d’Afrique</i>, ii. 29; Gaffarel, <i>Iles fantastiques</i>, -12. Fischer (<i>Sammlung</i>, 20) translates <i>Satanaxio, -Satanshand</i>, but thinks the island of <i>Deman</i>, -which appears on the Catalan chart of 1375, is meant by -the first half of the title. The Catalan map, fac-similed by -Buchon and Foster in the <i>Notices et extraits des documents</i>, -xiv. 2, has been more exactly reproduced in the -<i>Choix des documents géographiques conservées à la Bibl. -Nat.</i> (Paris, 1883).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_478_478" id="Footnote_478_478"></a><a href="#FNanchor_478_478"><span class="label">[478]</span></a></span> -Peter Martyr, in 1493, states that cosmographers had -determined that Hispaniola and the adjacent isles were -<i>Antillae insulae</i>, meaning doubtless the group surrounding -Antillia on the old maps (<i>Decades</i>, i. p. 11, ed. 1583); -but the name was not popularly applied to the new islands -until after Wytfliet and Ortelius had so used it (Humboldt, -<i>Examen</i>, ii. 195, etc.). But Schöner, in the dedicatory -letter of his globe of 1523, says that the king of Castile -through Columbus has discovered <i>Antiglias Hispaniam -Cubam quoque</i> (Stevens, <i>Schöner</i>, London, 1888, fac-simile -of letter). In the same way the name Seven Cities was -applied to the pueblos of New Mexico by their first discoverers, -and Brazil passed from an island to the continent.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_479_479" id="Footnote_479_479"></a><a href="#FNanchor_479_479"><span class="label">[479]</span></a></span> -Humboldt identified it with <i>Terceira</i>, but Fischer questions -whether St. Michael does not agree better with the -easterly position constantly assigned to Brazil.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_480_480" id="Footnote_480_480"></a><a href="#FNanchor_480_480"><span class="label">[480]</span></a></span> -The Bianco map of 1436 has, on the ocean sheets, five -groups of small islands, from south to north: (1) Canaries; -(2) Madeira and Porto Santo; (3) <i>luto</i> and <i>chapisa</i>; (4) <i>d. -brasil, di colonbi, d. b. ntusta, d. sanzorzi</i>; (5) <i>coriios</i> and -<i>corbo marinos</i>; (6) <i>de ventura</i>; (7) <i>de brazil</i>. West of -the third and fourth lies <i>Antillia</i>, and N. W. of the fifth a -corner of <i>de laman satanaxio</i>, while west of six and seven -are numerous small islands unnamed. On the ocean sheet -of the Bianco of 1448, we have (2) Madeira and Porto -Santo; (3) <i>licongi</i> and <i>coruo marin</i>; (4) <i>de braxil, zorzi</i>, -etc.; (5) <i>coriios</i> and <i>coruos marinos</i>; (6) <i>y. d. mam -debentum</i>; (7) <i>y. d. brazil d. binar</i>. There is no Antillia -and no Satanaxio, but west of (3) and (4) are two other -groups: (1) <i>yd. diuechi marini, y de falconi</i>; (2) <i>y fortunat -de s<sup>o</sup>. beati. blandan, dinferno, de ipauion, beta -ixola, dexerta</i>. There is not much to be hoped from such -geography.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_481_481" id="Footnote_481_481"></a><a href="#FNanchor_481_481"><span class="label">[481]</span></a></span> -Over against Africa he has an <i>Isola dei Dragoni</i>. On -the Pizigani map of 1367 the Brazil which lies W. of North -France is accompanied by a cut of two ships, a dragon -eating a man, and a legend stating that one cannot sail -further on account of monsters. There was a dragon in -the Hesperian isles, and some have connected it with the -famous dragon-tree of the Canaries.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_482_482" id="Footnote_482_482"></a><a href="#FNanchor_482_482"><span class="label">[482]</span></a></span> -<i>Examen</i>, ii. 216, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_483_483" id="Footnote_483_483"></a><a href="#FNanchor_483_483"><span class="label">[483]</span></a></span> -For an account of the Irish MSS. see Eugene O’Curry, -<i>Lectures on the MS. material of ancient Irish history</i> -(Dublin, 1861), lect. ix. p. 181; H. d’Arbois de Jubainville, -<i>Introduction a l’étude de la littérature Celtique</i>, -2 vols. (Paris, 1883), i. chap. 8, p. 349, etc.; also <i>Essai d’un -catalogue de littérature épique d’Irlande</i>, by the same -author (Paris, 1883). For accounts of the voyages see -O’Curry, p. 252, and especially p. 289, where a sketch of -that of the sons of <i>Ua Corra</i> is given. A list of the voyages -is given by D’Arbois de Jubainville in his <i>Essai</i>, under -<i>Longeas</i> (involuntary voyages) and <i>Immram</i> (voluntary -voyages), with details about MSS. and references to texts -and translations (<i>Mailduin</i>, p. 151; <i>Ua Corra</i>, 152). -See also Beauvois, <i>Eden occidental, Rev. de l’Hist. des -Relig.</i>, viii. 706, 717, for voyages of <i>Mailduin</i> and the sons -of <i>Ua Corra</i>, and of other voyages. Also Joyce, <i>Old Celtic -romances</i> (London, 1879). Is M. Beauvois in earnest -when he suggests that the talking birds discovered by Mailduin -(and also by St. Brandan) were probably parrots, and -their island a part of South America?</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_484_484" id="Footnote_484_484"></a><a href="#FNanchor_484_484"><span class="label">[484]</span></a></span> -The name is derived by Celtic scholars from <i>breas</i>, -large, and <i>i</i>, island.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_485_485" id="Footnote_485_485"></a><a href="#FNanchor_485_485"><span class="label">[485]</span></a></span> -<i>Gulielmi de Worcester Itineraria</i>, ed. J. Nasmyth -(Cantab., 1778), p. 223, 267. I take the quotation from -<i>Notes and Queries</i>, Dec. 15, 1883, 6th series, viii. 475. -The latter passage is quoted in full in <i>Bristol, past and -present</i>, by Nicholls and Taylor (London, 1882), iii. 292. -Cf. H. Harrisse’s <i>C. Colomb.</i>, i. 317.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_486_486" id="Footnote_486_486"></a><a href="#FNanchor_486_486"><span class="label">[486]</span></a></span> -<i>Cal. State Papers, Spanish</i>, i. p. 177.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_487_487" id="Footnote_487_487"></a><a href="#FNanchor_487_487"><span class="label">[487]</span></a></span> -<i>Irish Minstrelsy, or bardic remains of Ireland</i>, etc., -2 vols. (London, 1831), i. 368.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_488_488" id="Footnote_488_488"></a><a href="#FNanchor_488_488"><span class="label">[488]</span></a></span> -This is very nearly its position in the <i>Arcano del Mare</i> -of Dudley, 1646 (Europe 28), where it is called “disabitata -e incerta.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_489_489" id="Footnote_489_489"></a><a href="#FNanchor_489_489"><span class="label">[489]</span></a></span> -i. 369. <i>O-Brazile, or the enchanted island, being a -perfect relation of the late discovery and wonderful disenchantment -of an island on the North [sic] of Ireland</i>, -etc. (London, 1675).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_490_490" id="Footnote_490_490"></a><a href="#FNanchor_490_490"><span class="label">[490]</span></a></span> -John T. O’Flaherty, <i>Sketch of the History and antiquities -of the southern islands of Aran</i>, etc. (Dublin, -1884, in <i>Roy. Irish Acad. Trans.</i>, vol. xiv.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_491_491" id="Footnote_491_491"></a><a href="#FNanchor_491_491"><span class="label">[491]</span></a></span> -<i>On Hy Brasil, a traditional island off the west -coast of Ireland, plotted in a MS. map written by Le -Sieur Tassin</i>, etc., in the <i>Journal of the Royal Geological -Society of Ireland</i> (1879-80), vol. xv. pt. 3, pp. 128-131, -<i>fac-simile of map</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_492_492" id="Footnote_492_492"></a><a href="#FNanchor_492_492"><span class="label">[492]</span></a></span> -In an atlas issued 1866, I observe <i>Mayda</i> and <i>Green -Rock</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_493_493" id="Footnote_493_493"></a><a href="#FNanchor_493_493"><span class="label">[493]</span></a></span> -Harrisse would put it in 1482. See Vol. II. p. 90.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_494_494" id="Footnote_494_494"></a><a href="#FNanchor_494_494"><span class="label">[494]</span></a></span> -Also in his <i>Bib. Amer. Vet.</i>, p. xvi.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_495_495" id="Footnote_495_495"></a><a href="#FNanchor_495_495"><span class="label">[495]</span></a></span> -The various versions of the letter are as follows: <i>Ulloa</i> -(<i>Historie</i>, 1571, ch. 8). Dalla città di Lisbona per dritto -verso ponente sono in detta carta ventisei spazi, ciascun -de’ quali contien dugento, & cinquanta miglia, fino alla -... città di Quisai, la quale gira cento miglia, che sono -trentacinque leghe.... Questo spazio e quasi la terza parte -della sfera.... E dalla’ Isola di Antilia, che voi chiamate -di sette città, ... fino alla ... isola di Cipango sono dieci -spazi, che fanno due mila & cinquecento miglia, cioè dugento, -& venticinque leghe.</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>Barcia.</i> Hallareis en un mapa, que ai desde Lisboa, à -la famosa ciudad de Quisay, tomando el camino derecho à -Poniente, 26 espacios, cada uno de 150 millas. Quisai’ tiene -35 leguas de ambitu.... De la isla Antilla hasta la de Cipango -se quentan diez espacios, que hacen 225 leguas.</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>Las Casas</i>: Y de la ciudad de Lisboa, en derecho por el -Poniente, son en la dicha carta 26 espacios, y en cada uno -dellos hay 250 millas hasta la ... ciudad de Quisay, la -cual etiene al cerco 100 millas, que son 25 leguas, ... (este -espacio es cuasi la tercera parte de la sfera) ... é de la -isla de Antil, ... Hasta la ... isla de Cipango hay 10 -espacios que son 2,500 millas, es á sabre, 225 leguas.</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>Columbus’s copy</i>: A civitate vlixiponis per occidentem -indirecto sunt .26. spacia in carta signata quorum quodlibet -habet miliaria .250. usque ad nobilisim[am], et maxima -ciuitatem quinsay. Circuit enim centum miliaria ... hoc -spatium est fere tercia pars tocius spere.... Sed ab insula -antilia vobis nota ad insulam ... Cippangu sunt decem -spacia.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_496_496" id="Footnote_496_496"></a><a href="#FNanchor_496_496"><span class="label">[496]</span></a></span> -Cf. “Les îles Atlantique,” by Jacobs-Beeckmans in -the <i>Bull. de la Soc. géog. d’Anvers</i>, i. 266, with map.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_497_497" id="Footnote_497_497"></a><a href="#FNanchor_497_497"><span class="label">[497]</span></a></span> -Of these collections, those of Kunstmann and Jomard -are not uncommon in the larger American libraries. A set -of the Santarem series is very difficult to secure complete, -but since the description of these collections in Vol. II. -was written, a set has been secured for Harvard College -library, and I am not aware of another set being in this -country. The same library has the Ongania series. The -maps in this last, some of which are useful in the present -study, are the following:—</p> -<p class="pfc4">1. Arabic marine map, xiiith cent. (Milan); 2. Visconte, -1311 (Florence); 3. Carignano, xivth cent. (Florence); -4. Visconte, 1318 (Venice); 5. Anonymous, 1351 -(Florence); 6. Pizigani, 1373 (Milan); 7. Anon., xivth -cent. (Venice); 8. Giroldi, 1426 (Venice); 9. Bianco, 1430, -(Venice); 10. Anon., 1447 (Venice); 11. Bianco, 1448 -(Milan); 12. Not issued; 13. Anon., Catalan, xvth cent. -(Florence); 14. Leardo, 1452; 15. Fra Mauro, 1457 (Venice); -16. Cantino, 1501-3 (Modena). This has not been -issued in this series, but Harrisse published a fac-simile in -colors in connection with his <i>Les Corte-Real</i>, etc., Paris, -1883. 17. Agnese, 1554 (Venice). The names on these -photographs are often illegible; how far the condition of -the original is exactly reproduced in this respect it is of -course impossible to say without comparison.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_498_498" id="Footnote_498_498"></a><a href="#FNanchor_498_498"><span class="label">[498]</span></a></span> -The notions prevailing so far back as the first century -are seen in the map of Pomponius Mela in Vol. II. p. 180.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_499_499" id="Footnote_499_499"></a><a href="#FNanchor_499_499"><span class="label">[499]</span></a></span> -Vol. II. p. 36.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_500_500" id="Footnote_500_500"></a><a href="#FNanchor_500_500"><span class="label">[500]</span></a></span> -Lelewel (ii. 119) gives a long account of Sanuto and his -maps, and so does Kunstmann in the <i>Mémoires</i> (vii. ch. 2, -1855) of the Royal Bavarian Academy; but a more perfect -inventory of his maps is given in the <i>Studi biog. e bibliog.</i> -of the Italian Geographical Society (1882, i. 80; ii. 50). Cf. -Peschel, <i>Gesch. der Erdkunde</i>, Ruge, ed. 1877, p. 210. -Sanuto’s map of 1320 was first published in his <i>Liber Secretorum -fidelium crucis</i> (Frankfort, 1811. Cf. reproduction -in St. Martin’s <i>Atlas</i>, pl. vi. no. 3). Further references -are in Winsor’s <i>Kohl Maps</i>, no. 12. It is in part reproduced -by Santarem.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_501_501" id="Footnote_501_501"></a><a href="#FNanchor_501_501"><span class="label">[501]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Amer. Geog. Soc. Journal</i>, xii. 177, and references -in the <i>Kohl Maps</i>, nos. 13 and 14.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_502_502" id="Footnote_502_502"></a><a href="#FNanchor_502_502"><span class="label">[502]</span></a></span> -Vol. II. p. 38.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_503_503" id="Footnote_503_503"></a><a href="#FNanchor_503_503"><span class="label">[503]</span></a></span> -Cf. references in Vol. II. 38.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_504_504" id="Footnote_504_504"></a><a href="#FNanchor_504_504"><span class="label">[504]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Studi</i>, etc., ii. no. 392.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_505_505" id="Footnote_505_505"></a><a href="#FNanchor_505_505"><span class="label">[505]</span></a></span> -Cf. Desimoni’s <i>Le carte nautiche Italiane del medio -evo a proposito di un libro del Prof. Fischer</i> (Genoa, -1888).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_506_506" id="Footnote_506_506"></a><a href="#FNanchor_506_506"><span class="label">[506]</span></a></span> -Cf. Vol. II. 38 for references; and Lelewel and Santarem’s -Atlases.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_507_507" id="Footnote_507_507"></a><a href="#FNanchor_507_507"><span class="label">[507]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Studi</i>, etc., vol. ii. pp. viii, 67, 72, with references.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_508_508" id="Footnote_508_508"></a><a href="#FNanchor_508_508"><span class="label">[508]</span></a></span> -Cf. Pietro Amat in the <i>Mem. Soc. Geografica</i>, Roma, -1878; <i>Studi</i>, etc., ii. 75; Winsor’s <i>Bibliog. Ptolemy</i>, sub -anno 1478.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_509_509" id="Footnote_509_509"></a><a href="#FNanchor_509_509"><span class="label">[509]</span></a></span> -Cf. account of inaugurating busts of Fra Mauro and -John Cabot, in <i>Terzo Congresso Geografico internazionale</i> -(held at Venice, Sept., 1881, and published at Rome, 1882), -i. p. 33.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_510_510" id="Footnote_510_510"></a><a href="#FNanchor_510_510"><span class="label">[510]</span></a></span> -Asa Gray, in <i>Darwiniana</i>, p. 203. Cf. his -<i>Address</i> before Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science, 1827.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_511_511" id="Footnote_511_511"></a><a href="#FNanchor_511_511"><span class="label">[511]</span></a></span> -The subject of these pre-Columbian claims -is examined in almost all the general works on -early discovery. Cf. Robertson’s <i>America</i>; J. -S. Vater’s <i>Untersuchungen über Amerikas Bevölkerung -aus dem alten Continent</i> (Leipzig, -1810); Dr. F. X. A. Deuber’s <i>Geschichte der Schiffahrt -im Atlantischen Ozean</i> (Bamberg, 1814); -Ruge, <i>Geschichte des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen</i> -(ch. 2); Major’s <i>Select Letters of Columbus</i>, introd.; -C. A. A. Zestermann’s <i>Memoir on the Colonization -of America in antehistoric times, with -critical observations by E. G. Squier</i> (London, -1851); <i>Nouvelles Annales des Voyages</i> (ii. 404); -“Les précurseurs de Colomb” in <i>Études par les -Pères de la Compagnie de Jesus</i> (Leipzig, 1876); -Oscar Dunn in <i>Revue Canadienne</i>, xii. 57, 194, -305, 871, 909,—not to name numerous other periodical -papers. Paul Gaffarel, in his “Les relations -entre l’ancien monde et l’Amérique étaient-elles -possibles au moyen âge?” (<i>Soc. Normande -de Géog. Bulletin</i>, 1881, p. 209), thinks that amid -the confused traditions there is enough to convince -us that we have no right to determine that -communication was impossible.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_512_512" id="Footnote_512_512"></a><a href="#FNanchor_512_512"><span class="label">[512]</span></a></span> -<i>MSS. de la bibliothèque royale</i> (Paris, 1787), -i. 462.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_513_513" id="Footnote_513_513"></a><a href="#FNanchor_513_513"><span class="label">[513]</span></a></span> -De Costa in <i>Journal Amer. Geog. Soc.</i> xii. -(1880) p. 159, etc., with references.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_514_514" id="Footnote_514_514"></a><a href="#FNanchor_514_514"><span class="label">[514]</span></a></span> -Humboldt, <i>Views of Nature</i>, p. 124. He also -notes the drifting of Eskimo boats to Europe.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_515_515" id="Footnote_515_515"></a><a href="#FNanchor_515_515"><span class="label">[515]</span></a></span> -<i>Tratado de las cinco zonas habitables.</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_516_516" id="Footnote_516_516"></a><a href="#FNanchor_516_516"><span class="label">[516]</span></a></span> -Respecting these Christian Irish see the supplemental -chapters of Mallet’s <i>Northern Antiquities</i> -(London, 1847); Dasent’s <i>Burnt Njal</i>, i. -p. vii.; Moore’s <i>History of Ireland</i>; Forster’s -<i>Northern Voyages</i>; Worsaae’s <i>Danes and Norwegians -in England</i>, 332. Cf. on the contact of -the two races H. H. Howorth on “The Irish -monks and the Norsemen” in the <i>Roy. Hist. -Soc. Trans.</i> viii. 281.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_517_517" id="Footnote_517_517"></a><a href="#FNanchor_517_517"><span class="label">[517]</span></a></span> -Conybeare remarks that jarl, naturalized in -England as earl, has been displaced in its native -north by graf.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_518_518" id="Footnote_518_518"></a><a href="#FNanchor_518_518"><span class="label">[518]</span></a></span> -It has sometimes been contended that a -bull of Gregory IV, in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 770, referred to -Greenland, but Spitzbergen was more likely intended, -though its known discovery is much -later. A bull of <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 835, in Pontanus’s <i>Rerum -Daniarum Historia</i>, is also held to indicate -that there were earlier peoples in Greenland -than those from Iceland. Sabin (vi. no. 22,854) -gives as published at Godthaab, 1859-61, in 3 -vols., the Eskimo text of Greenland Folk Lore, -collected and edited by natives of Greenland, -with a Danish translation, and showing, as the -notice says, the traditions of the first descent of -the Northmen in the <i>eighth</i> century.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_519_519" id="Footnote_519_519"></a><a href="#FNanchor_519_519"><span class="label">[519]</span></a></span> -Known as the Katortuk church.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_520_520" id="Footnote_520_520"></a><a href="#FNanchor_520_520"><span class="label">[520]</span></a></span> -An apocryphal story goes that one of these -churches was built near a boiling spring, the water -from which was conducted through the building -in pipes for heating it! The Zeno narrative is the -authority for this. Cf. Gay’s <i>Pop. Hist. U. S.</i> i. 79.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_521_521" id="Footnote_521_521"></a><a href="#FNanchor_521_521"><span class="label">[521]</span></a></span> -The Westribygd, or western colony, had in -the fourteenth century 90 settlements and 4 -churches; the Eystribygd had 190 settlements, a -cathedral and eleven churches, with two large -towns and three or four monasteries.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_522_522" id="Footnote_522_522"></a><a href="#FNanchor_522_522"><span class="label">[522]</span></a></span> -R. G. Haliburton, in the <i>Popular Science -Monthly</i>, May, 1885, p. 40, gives a map in which -Bjarni’s course is marked as entering the St. -Lawrence Gulf by the south, and emerging by -the Straits of Belle Isle.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_523_523" id="Footnote_523_523"></a><a href="#FNanchor_523_523"><span class="label">[523]</span></a></span> -Dated 1135, and discovered in 1824.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_524_524" id="Footnote_524_524"></a><a href="#FNanchor_524_524"><span class="label">[524]</span></a></span> -Distinctly shown in the diverse identifications -of these landmarks which have been made.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_525_525" id="Footnote_525_525"></a><a href="#FNanchor_525_525"><span class="label">[525]</span></a></span> -On the probabilities of the Vinland voyages, -see Worsaae’s <i>Danes and Norwegians in England</i>, -etc., p. 109.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_526_526" id="Footnote_526_526"></a><a href="#FNanchor_526_526"><span class="label">[526]</span></a></span> -<i>Grönland’s Hist. Mindesmaeker</i>, iii. 9.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_527_527" id="Footnote_527_527"></a><a href="#FNanchor_527_527"><span class="label">[527]</span></a></span> -The popular confidence in this view is doubtless -helped by Montgomery, who has made it a -point in his poem on Greenland, canto v. De -Courcy (<i>Hist. of the Church in America</i>, p. 12) -is cited by Howley (<i>Newfoundland</i>) as asserting -that the eastern colony was destroyed by -“a physical cataclysm, which accumulated the -ice.” On the question of a change of climate in -Greenland, see J. D. Whitney’s <i>Climatic Changes</i> -(<i>Mus. Comp. Zoöl. Mem.</i>, 1882, vii. 238).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_528_528" id="Footnote_528_528"></a><a href="#FNanchor_528_528"><span class="label">[528]</span></a></span> -Rink (<i>Danish Greenland</i>, 22) is not inclined -to believe that there has been any material climatic -change in Greenland since the Norse days, -and favors the supposition that some portion of -the finally remaining Norse became amalgamated -with the Eskimo and disappeared. If the reader -wants circumstantial details of the misfortunes -of their “last man,” he can see how they can be -made out of what are held to be Eskimo traditions -in a chapter of Dr. Hayes’s <i>Land of Desolation</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Nordenskjöld (<i>Voyage of the Vega</i>) holds, such -is the rapid assimilation of a foreign stock by a -native stock, that it is not unlikely that what -descendants may exist of the lost colonists of -Greenland may be now indistinguishable from -the Eskimo.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Tylor (<i>Early Hist. Mankind</i>, p. 208), speaking -of the Eskimo, says: “It is indeed very strange -that there should be no traces found among them -of knowledge of metal-work and of other arts, -which one would expect a race so receptive of -foreign knowledge would have got from contact -with the Northmen.”</p> -<p class="pfc4">Prof. Edward S. Morse, in his very curious -study of <i>Ancient and Modern Methods of Arrow -Release</i> (Salem, 1885,—<i>Bull. Essex Inst.</i>, xvii.) -p. 52, notes that the Eskimo are the only North -American tribe practising what he calls the -“Mediterranean release,” common to all civilized -Europe, and he ventures to accept a surmise -that it may have been derived from the -Scandinavians.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_529_529" id="Footnote_529_529"></a><a href="#FNanchor_529_529"><span class="label">[529]</span></a></span> -Given by Schlegel, Egede (citing Pontanus), -and Rafn; and a French version is in the <i>Bull. -de la Soc. de Géog.</i>, 2d series, iii. 348. It is said -to be preserved in a copy in the Vatican. M. -F. Howley, <i>Ecclesiastical Hist. of Newfoundland</i> -(Boston, 1888), p. 43, however, says “Abbé -Garnier mentions a bull of Pope Nicholas V, of -date about 1447, concerning the church of Greenland; -but on searching the Bullarium in the -Propaganda library, Rome, in 1885, I could not -find it.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_530_530" id="Footnote_530_530"></a><a href="#FNanchor_530_530"><span class="label">[530]</span></a></span> -Laing’s <i>Heimskringla</i>, i. 146.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_531_531" id="Footnote_531_531"></a><a href="#FNanchor_531_531"><span class="label">[531]</span></a></span> -E. B. Tylor on “Old Scandinavian Civilization -among the modern Esquimaux,” in the -<i>Journal of the Anthropological Inst.</i> (1884), xiii. -348, shows that the Greenlanders still preserve -some of the Norse customs, arising in part, as -he thinks, from some of the lost Scandinavian -survivors being merged in the savage tribes. -Their recollection of the Northmen seems evident -from the traditions collected among them -by Dr. Rink in his <i>Eskimoiske Eventyr og Sagn</i> -(Copenhagen, 1866); and their dress, and some -of their utensils and games, as it existed in the -days of Egede and Crantz, seem to indicate the -survival of customs.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_532_532" id="Footnote_532_532"></a><a href="#FNanchor_532_532"><span class="label">[532]</span></a></span> -<i>Cosmos</i>, Bohn’s ed., ii. 610; <i>Examen Crit.</i>, -ii. 148.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_533_533" id="Footnote_533_533"></a><a href="#FNanchor_533_533"><span class="label">[533]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Geographie de Edrisi, traduite de l’arabe -en français d’après deux manuscrits de la bibliothèque -du Roi, et accompagnée de notes, par -G. Amédée Jaubert</i> (Paris, 1836-40), vol. i. 200; -ii. 26. Cf. <i>Recueil des Voyages et Mémoires de -la Société de Géographie de Paris</i>, vols. v., vi. -The world-map by Edrisi does not indicate any -knowledge of this unknown world. Cf. copies -of it in St. Martin’s <i>Atlas</i>, pl. vi; Lelewel, <i>Atlas</i>, -pl. x-xii; Peschel’s <i>Gesch. der Erdkunde</i>, ed. -by Ruge, 1877, p. 144; <i>Amer. Geog. Soc. Journal</i>, -xii. 181; <i>Allg. Geog. Ephemeriden</i>, ix. 292; -Gerard Stein’s <i>Die Entdeckungsreisen in alter -und neuer Zeit</i> (1883).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Guignes (<i>Mém. Acad. des Inscriptions</i>, 1761, -xxviii. 524) limits the Arab voyage to the Canaries, -and in <i>Notices et Extraits des MSS. de la -bibliothèque du Roi</i>, ii. 24, he describes a MS. -which makes him believe the Arabs reached -America; and he is followed by Munoz (<i>Hist. -del Nuevo Mondo</i>, Madrid, 1793). Hugh Murray -(<i>Discoveries and Travels in No. Amer.</i>, Lond., -1829, i. p. II) and W. D. Cooley (<i>Maritime -Discovery</i>, 1830, i. 172) limit the explorations -respectively to the Azores and the Canaries. -Humboldt (<i>Examen Crit.</i>, 1837, ii. 137) thinks -they may possibly have reached the Canaries; -but Malte Brun (<i>Géog. Universelle</i>, 1841, i. 186) -is more positive. Major (<i>Select Letters of Columbus</i>, -1847) discredits the American theory, -and in his <i>Prince Henry</i> agrees with D’Avezac -that they reached Madeira. Lelewel (<i>Géog. du -Moyen Age</i>, ii. 78) seems likewise incredulous. -S. F. Haven (<i>Archæol. U. S.</i>) gives the theory -and enumerates some of its supporters. Peschel -(<i>Geschichte des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen</i>, -1858) is very sceptical. Gaffarel (<i>Etudes</i>, etc., -p. 209) fails to find proof of the American -theory. Gay (<i>Pop. History U. S.</i>, i. 64) limits -their voyage to the Azores.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_534_534" id="Footnote_534_534"></a><a href="#FNanchor_534_534"><span class="label">[534]</span></a></span> -Given as <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1380; but Major says, 1390. -<i>Journal Royal Geog. Soc.</i>, 1873, p. 180.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_535_535" id="Footnote_535_535"></a><a href="#FNanchor_535_535"><span class="label">[535]</span></a></span> -De Costa, <i>Verrazano the Explorer</i> (N. Y., -1880), pp. 47, 63, contends that Benedetto Bordone, -writing his <i>Isole del Monde</i> in 1521, and -printing it in 1528, had access to the Zeno map -thirty years and more earlier than its publication. -This, he thinks, is evident from the way -in which he made and filled in his outline, and -from his drawing of “Islanda,” even to a like way -of engraving the name, which is in a style of -letter used by Bordone nowhere else. Humboldt -(<i>Cosmos</i>, Bohn’s ed., ii. 611) has also remarked -it as singular that the name Frislanda, -which, as he supposed, was not known on the -maps before the Zeni publication in 1538, should -have been applied by Columbus to an island -southerly from Iceland, in his <i>Tratado de las -cinco zonas habitables</i>. Cf. De Costa’s <i>Columbus -and the Geographers of the North</i> (1872), p. 19. -Of course, Columbus might have used the name -simply descriptively,—cold land; but it is now -known that in a sea chart of perhaps the fifteenth -century, preserved in the Ambrosian library at -Milan, the name “Fixlanda” is applied to an -island in the position of Frislanda in the Zeno -chart, while in a Catalan chart of the end of the -fifteenth century the same island is apparently -called “Frixlanda” (<i>Studi biog. e bibliog. della -soc. geog. ital.</i>, ii. nos. 400, 404). “Frixanda” -is also on a chart, <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1471-83, given in fac-simile -to accompany Wuttke’s “Geschichte der -Erdkunde” in the <i>Jahrbuch des Vereins für -Erdkunde</i> (Dresden, 1870, tab. vi.).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_536_536" id="Footnote_536_536"></a><a href="#FNanchor_536_536"><span class="label">[536]</span></a></span> -Irving’s <i>Columbus</i> takes this view.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_537_537" id="Footnote_537_537"></a><a href="#FNanchor_537_537"><span class="label">[537]</span></a></span> -J. P. Leslie’s <i>Man’s Origin and Destiny</i>, p. -114, for instance.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_538_538" id="Footnote_538_538"></a><a href="#FNanchor_538_538"><span class="label">[538]</span></a></span> -Brevoort (<i>Hist. Mag.</i>, xiii. 45) thinks that -the “Isola Verde” and “Isle de Mai” of the -fifteenth-century maps, lying in lat. 46° north, -was Newfoundland with its adjacent bank, which -he finds in one case represented. Samuel Robertson -(<i>Lit. & Hist. Soc. Quebec, Trans.</i> Jan. 16) -goes so far as to say that certain relics found in -Canada may be Basque, and that it was a Basque -whaler, named Labrador, who gave the name -to the coast, which the early Portuguese found -attached to it! We find occasional stories indicating -knowledge of distant fishing coasts at a -very early date, like the following:—</p> -<p class="pfc4">“In the yeere 1153 it is written that there came -to Lubec, a citie of Germanie, one canoa with -certaine indians, like unto a long barge, which -seemed to have come from the coast of Baccalaos, -which standeth in the same latitude that -Germanie doth” (<i>Galvano</i>, Bethune’s edition, -p. 56).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_539_539" id="Footnote_539_539"></a><a href="#FNanchor_539_539"><span class="label">[539]</span></a></span> -W. D. Whitney, <i>Life and Growth of Language</i>, -p. 258, says: “No other dialect of the old -world so much resembles in structure the American -languages.” Cf. Farrar’s <i>Families of Speech</i>, -p. 132; Nott and Gliddon’s <i>Indigenous Races</i>, -48; H. de Charencey’s <i>Des affinités de la langue -Basque avec les idiomes du Nouveau Monde</i> -(Paris and Caen, 1867); and Julien Vinson’s “La -langue basque et les langues Américaines” in -the <i>Compte Rendu, Congrès des Américanistes</i> -(Nancy, 1875), ii. 46. On the other hand, Joly -(<i>Man before Metals</i>, 316) says: “Whatever may -be said to the contrary, Basque offers no analogy -with the American dialects.”</p> -<p class="pfc4">These linguistic peculiarities enter into all the -studies of this remarkable stock. Cf. J. F. -Blade’s <i>Etude sur l’origine des Basques</i> (Paris, -1869); W. B. Dawkins in the <i>Fortnightly Review</i>, -Sept., 1874, and his <i>Cave Hunting</i>, ch. 6, -with Brabrook’s critique in the <i>Journal Anthropological -Institute</i>, v. 5; and Julien Vinson on -“L’Ethnographie des Basques” in <i>Mém. de la -Soc. d’Ethnographie, Session de 1872</i>, p. 49, with -a map.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_540_540" id="Footnote_540_540"></a><a href="#FNanchor_540_540"><span class="label">[540]</span></a></span> -But see Vol. III. 45; IV. 3. Forster (<i>Northern -Voyages</i>, book iii. ch. 3 and 4) contends for -these pre-Columbian visits of the European fishermen. -Cf. Winsor’s <i>Bibliog. of Ptolemy</i>, sub -anno 1508. The same currents and easterly -trade-winds which helped Columbus might easily -have carried chance vessels to the American -coasts, as we have evidence, apparently, in the -stern-post of a European vessel which Columbus -saw at Guadaloupe. Haven cites Gumilla -(<i>Hist. Orinoco</i>, ii. 208) as stating that in 1731 a -bateau from Teneriffe was thrown upon the -South American coast. Cf. J. P. Casselius, <i>De -Navigationibus fortuitis in Americam, ante Columbum -factis</i> (Magdeburg, 1742); Brasseur’s <i>Popul -Vuh</i>, introd.; Hunt’s <i>Merchants’ Mag.</i> xxv. 275.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_541_541" id="Footnote_541_541"></a><a href="#FNanchor_541_541"><span class="label">[541]</span></a></span> -Francisque-Michel, <i>Le Pays Basque</i>, 189, -who says that the Basques were acquainted with -the coasts of Newfoundland a century before -Columbus (ch. 9).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Humboldt (<i>Cosmos</i>, Eng. ed. ii. 142) is not -prepared to deny such early visits of the Basques -to the northern fishing grounds. Cf. Gaffarel’s -<i>Rapport</i>, p. 212. Harrisse (<i>Notes on Columbus</i>, -80) goes back very far: “The Basques and -Northmen, we feel confident, visited these shores -as early as the seventh century.”</p> -<p class="pfc4">There are some recent studies on these early -fishing experiences in Ferd. Duro’s <i>Disquisiciones -nauticas</i> (1881), and in E. Gelcich’s “Der -Fischgang des Gascogner and die Entdeckung -von Neufundland,” in the <i>Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft -für Erdkunde zu Berlin</i> (1883), vol. -xviii. pp. 249-287.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_542_542" id="Footnote_542_542"></a><a href="#FNanchor_542_542"><span class="label">[542]</span></a></span> -Cf. M. Hamconius’ <i>Frisia: seu de viris erbusque -Frisiæ illustribus</i> (Franckeræ, 1620), and -L. Ph. C. v. d. Bergh’s <i>Nederlands annspraak op -de ontdekking van Amerika voor Columbus</i> (Arnheim, -1850). Cf. Müller’s <i>Catalogue</i> (1877), nos. -303, 1343.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_543_543" id="Footnote_543_543"></a><a href="#FNanchor_543_543"><span class="label">[543]</span></a></span> -Watson’s bibliog. in Anderson, p. 158.</p> -<p class="pfc4">A Biscayan merchant, a subject of Navarre, is -also said to have discovered the western lands -in 1444. Cf. André Favyn, <i>Hist. de Navarre</i>, p. -564; and G. de Henao’s <i>Averignaciones de las -Antigüedades? de Cantabria</i>, p. 25.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Galvano (Hakluyt Soc. ed., p. 72) recounts -the story of a Portuguese ship in 1447 being -driven westward from the Straits of Gibraltar to -an island with seven cities, where they found the -people speaking Portuguese; who said they had -deserted their country on the death of King -Roderigo. “All these reasons seem to agree,” -adds Galvano, “that this should be that country -which is called Nova Spagna.”</p> -<p class="pfc4">It was the year (1491) before Columbus’ voyage -that the English began to send out from Bristol -expeditions to discover these islands of the seven -cities, and others having the same legendary existence. -Cf. Ayala, the Spanish ambassador to -England, in <i>Spanish State Papers</i>, i. 177. Cf. -also Irving’s <i>Columbus</i>, app. xxiv., and Gaffarel’s -<i>Etude sur la rapports</i>, etc., p. 185.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_544_544" id="Footnote_544_544"></a><a href="#FNanchor_544_544"><span class="label">[544]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 34.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_545_545" id="Footnote_545_545"></a><a href="#FNanchor_545_545"><span class="label">[545]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 34, where is a list of references, -which may be increased as follows: Bachiller -y Morales, <i>Antigüedades Americanas</i> (Havana, -1845). E. de Freville’s <i>Mémoire sur le Commerce -maritime de Rouen</i> (1857), i. 328, and his -<i>La Cosmographie du moyen age, et les découvertes -maritimes des Normands</i> (Paris, 1860), taken -from the <i>Revue des Sociétés Savantes</i>. Gabriel -Gravier’s <i>Les Normands sur la route des Indes</i>, -(Rouen, 1880). Cf. <i>Congrès des Américanistes in -Compte Rendu</i> (1875), i. 397.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_546_546" id="Footnote_546_546"></a><a href="#FNanchor_546_546"><span class="label">[546]</span></a></span> -“Ethnography and Philology of America,” in H. W. Bates, <i>Central America, West Indies, and South -America</i> (Lond., 1882). This was the opinion of Prescott (<i>Mexico</i>, Kirk’s ed., iii. 398), and he based his -judgment on the investigations of Waldeck, Voyage dans la Yucatan, and Dupaix, <i>Antiquités Méxicaines</i>. -Stephens (<i>Central America</i>) holds similar views. Cf. Wilson, <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, i. 327; ii. 43. Dall (<i>Third -Rep. Bur. Ethnol.</i>, 146) says: “There can be no doubt that America was populated in some way by people -of an extremely low grade of culture at a period even geologically remote. There is no reason for supposing, -however, that immigration ceased with these original people.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_547_547" id="Footnote_547_547"></a><a href="#FNanchor_547_547"><span class="label">[547]</span></a></span> -Cf. references in H. H. Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i>, v. 39; <i>Amerika’s Nordwest Küste; Neueste Ergebnisse -ethnologischer Reisen</i> (Berlin, 1883), and the English version, <i>The Northwest Coast of America. Being -Results of Recent Ethnological Researches from the collections of the Royal Museums at Berlin. Published -by the Directors of the Ethnological Department</i> (New York, 1883).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_548_548" id="Footnote_548_548"></a><a href="#FNanchor_548_548"><span class="label">[548]</span></a></span> -Cf. his <i>Observations on some remains of antiquity</i> (1796).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_549_549" id="Footnote_549_549"></a><a href="#FNanchor_549_549"><span class="label">[549]</span></a></span> -Different shades of belief are abundant: F. Xavier de Orrio’s <i>Solucion del gran problema</i> (Mexico, -1763); Fischer’s <i>Conjecture sur l’origine des Américaines</i>; Adair’s <i>Amer. Indians;</i> G. A. Thompson’s <i>New -theory of the two hemispheres</i> (London, 1815); Adam Hodgson’s <i>Letters from No. Amer.</i> (Lond., 1824); -J. H. McCulloh’s <i>Researches</i> (Balt., 1829), ch. 10; D. B. Warden’s “Recherches sur les Antiquités de -l’Amérique” in the <i>Antiquités Méxicaines</i> (Paris, 1834), vol. ii.; E. G. Squier’s <i>Serpent Symbol</i> (N. Y., -1851); Brasseur de Bourbourg’s <i>Hist. des Nations Civilisées</i>, i. 7; José Perez in <i>Revue Orientale et Américaine</i> -(Paris, 1862), vol. viii.; Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i>, v. 30, 31, with references; Winchell’s <i>Preadamites</i>, -397; a paper on Asiatic tribes in North America, in <i>Canadian Institute Proceedings</i> (1881), i. 171. Dabry -de Thiersant, in his <i>Origine des Indiens du nouv. monde</i> (Paris, 1883), reopens the question, and Quatrefages -even brings the story of Moncacht-Ape (see <i>post</i>, Vol. V. p. 77) to support a theory of frequent Asiatic -communication. Tylor (<i>Early Hist. Mankind</i>, 209) says that the Asiatics must have taught the Mexicans -to make bronze and smelt iron; and (p. 339) he finds additional testimony in the correspondence of myths, -but Max Müller (<i>Chips</i>, ii. 168) demurs. Nadaillac, in his <i>L’Amérique préhistorique</i>, discussed this with the -other supposable connections of the American people, and generally disbelieved in them; but Dall, in the English -translation, summarily dismisses all consideration of them as unworthy a scientific mind; but points out -what the early Indian traditions are (p. 526).</p> -<p class="pfc4">A good deal of stress has been laid at times on certain linguistic affiliations. Barton, in his <i>New Views</i>, -sought to strengthen the case by various comparative vocabularies. Charles Farcy went over the proofs in his -<i>Antiquités de l’Amérique: Discuter la valeur des documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’Amérique avant la -conquête des Européens, et déterminer s’il existe des rapports entre les langues de l’Amérique et celles -des tribus de l’Afrique et de l’Asie</i> (Paris, 1836). H. H. Bancroft (<i>Native Races</i>, v. 39) enumerates the -sources of the controversy. Roehrig (<i>Smithsonian Report</i>, 1872) finds affinities in the languages of the -Dakota or Sioux Indians. Pilling (<i>Bibliog. of Siouan languages</i>, p. 11) gives John Campbell’s contributions -to this comparative study. In the <i>Canadian Institute Proceedings</i> (1881), vol. i. p. 171, Campbell -points out the affinities of the Tinneh with the Tungus, and of the Choctaws and Cherokees with the Koriaks. -Cf. also <i>Ibid</i>., July, 1884. Dall and Pinart pronounce against any affinity of tongues in the <i>Contributions -to Amer. Ethnology</i> (Washington), i. 97. Cf. Short, <i>No. Amer. of Antiq.</i>, 494; Leland’s <i>Fusang</i>, -ch. 10.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_550_550" id="Footnote_550_550"></a><a href="#FNanchor_550_550"><span class="label">[550]</span></a></span> -Behring’s Straits, first opened, as Wallace says, in quaternary times, are 45 miles across, and are often frozen -in winter. South of them is an island where a tribe of Eskimos live, and they keep constant communication -with the main of Asia, 50 miles distant, and with America, 120 miles away. Robertson solved the difficulty -by this route. Cf. <i>Contributions to Amer. Ethnology</i> (1877), i. 95-98; Warden’s <i>Recherches</i>; Maury, -in <i>Revue des deux Mondes</i>, Ap. 15, 1858; Peschel’s <i>Races of Men</i>, p. 401; F. von Hellwald in <i>Smithsonian -Report</i>, 1866; Short, p. 510; Bancroft, <i>Native Races</i>, v. 28, 29, 54; and Chavanne’s <i>Lit. of the Polar Regions</i>, -58, 194—the last page shows a list of maps. Max Müller (<i>Chips</i>, ii. 270) considers this theory a postulate -only.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_551_551" id="Footnote_551_551"></a><a href="#FNanchor_551_551"><span class="label">[551]</span></a></span> -<i>Contrib. to Amer. Ethnology</i>, i. 96; Lyell’s <i>Principles of Geology</i>, 8th ed., 368; A. Ragine’s <i>Découverte -de l’Amérique du Kamtchatka et des îles Aléoutiennes</i> (St. Petersburg, 1868, 2d ed.); Pickering’s <i>Races of -Men</i>; Peschel’s <i>Races of Men</i>, 397; Morgan’s <i>Systems of Consanguinity</i>. Dall (<i>Tribes of the Northwest</i>, -in Powell’s <i>Rocky Mountain Region</i>, 1877, p. 96) does not believe in the Aleutian route.</p> -<p class="pfc4">On the drifting of canoes for long distances see Lyell’s <i>Principles of Geology</i>, 11th ed., ii. 472; Col. B. -Kennon in Leland’s <i>Fousang; Rev. des deux Mondes</i>, Apr., 1858; Vining, ch. 1. Cf. Alphonse Pinart’s -“Les Aléoutes et leur origine,” in <i>Mém. de la Soc. d’Ethnographie, session de 1872</i>, p. 155.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_552_552" id="Footnote_552_552"></a><a href="#FNanchor_552_552"><span class="label">[552]</span></a></span> -Cf. references in H. H. Bancroft’s <i>Nat. Races</i>, v. 54. We have an uncorroborated story of a Tartar inscription -being found. Cf. Kalm’s <i>Reise</i>, iii. 416; <i>Archæologia</i> (London, 1787), viii. 304.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_553_553" id="Footnote_553_553"></a><a href="#FNanchor_553_553"><span class="label">[553]</span></a></span> -Gomara makes record of such floating visitors in the beginning of the sixteenth century. Horace Davis -published in the <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i> (Apr., 1872) a record of Japanese vessels driven upon the northwest -coast of America and its outlying islands in a paper “On the likelihood of an admixture of Japanese blood on -our northwest coast.” Cf. A. W. Bradford’s <i>American Antiquities</i> (N. Y., 1841); Whymper’s <i>Alaska</i>, 250; -Bancroft’s <i>Nat. Races</i>, v. 52, with references; <i>Contributions to Amer. Ethnol.</i>, i. 97, 238; De Roquefeuil’s -<i>Journal du Voyage autour du Monde</i> (1876-79), etc. It is shown that the great Pacific current naturally -carries floating objects to the American coast. Davis, in his tract, gives a map of it. Cf. Haven, <i>Archæol. -U. S.</i>, p. 144; <i>Bull. Amer. Geog. Soc.</i> (1883), xv. p. 101, by Thomas Antisell; and <i>China Review</i>, Mar., Apr., -1888, by J. Edkins.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_554_554" id="Footnote_554_554"></a><a href="#FNanchor_554_554"><span class="label">[554]</span></a></span> -<i>Recherches sur les navigations des Chinois du côte de l’Amérique et sur quelques peuples situés à l’extrémité -orientale de l’Asie</i> (Paris, 1761). It is translated in Vining, ch. 1.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_555_555" id="Footnote_555_555"></a><a href="#FNanchor_555_555"><span class="label">[555]</span></a></span> -<i>Examen Critique</i>, ii. 65, and <i>Ansichten der Natur</i>, or <i>Views of Nature</i>, p. 132.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_556_556" id="Footnote_556_556"></a><a href="#FNanchor_556_556"><span class="label">[556]</span></a></span> -Much depends on the distance intended by a Chinese <i>li</i>. Klaproth translated the version as given by an -early Chinese historian of the seventh century, Li Yan Tcheou, and Klaproth’s version is Englished in Bancroft’s -<i>Nat. Races</i>, v. 33-36. Klaproth’s memoir is also translated in Vining, ch. 3. Some have more specifically -pointed to Saghalien, an island at the north end of the Japan Sea. Brooks says there is a district of -Corea called Fusang (<i>Science</i>, viii. 402). Brasseur says the great Chinese encyclopædia describes Fusang as -lying east of Japan, and he thinks the descriptions correspond to the Cibola of Castañeda.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_557_557" id="Footnote_557_557"></a><a href="#FNanchor_557_557"><span class="label">[557]</span></a></span> -Again with a commentary in <i>The Continental Mag.</i> (New York, vol. i.). Subjected to the revision of -Neumann, it is reproduced in Leland’s <i>Fusang</i> (Lond., 1875). Cf. Vining, ch. 6, who gives also (ch. 10) the -account in Shan-Hai-king as translated by C. M. Williams in <i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, April, 1883.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_558_558" id="Footnote_558_558"></a><a href="#FNanchor_558_558"><span class="label">[558]</span></a></span> -The pamphlets are translated in Vining, ch. 4 and 5. Paravey held to the Mexican theory, and he at -least convinced Domenech (<i>Seven years’ residence in the great deserts of No. Amer.</i>, Lond., 1860). Paravey -published several pamphlets on subjects allied to this. His <i>Mémoire sur l’origine japonaise, arabe et basque -de la civilisation des peuples du plateau de Bogota d’après les travaux de Humboldt et Siebold</i> (Paris, 1835) -is a treatise on the origin of the Muyscas or Chibchas. Jomard, in his <i>Les Antiquités Américaines au point -de vue des progrès de la géographie</i> (Paris, 1817) in the <i>Bull. de la Soc. Géog.</i>, had questioned the Asiatic -affiliations, and Paravey replied in a <i>Réfutation de l’opinion émise par Jomard que les peuples de l’Amérique -n’ont jamais en aucun rapport avec ceux de l’Asie</i> (Paris, 1849), originally in the <i>Annales de philosophie -Chrétienne</i> (May, 1849).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_559_559" id="Footnote_559_559"></a><a href="#FNanchor_559_559"><span class="label">[559]</span></a></span> -Also in the <i>Rev. Archéologique</i> (vols. x., xi.), and epitomized in Leland. Cf. also Dr. A. Godron on the -Buddhist mission to America in <i>Annales des Voyages</i> (Paris, 1864), vol. iv., and an opposing view by Vivien -de St. Martin in <i>L’Année géographique</i> (1865), iii. p. 253, who was in turn controverted by Brasseur in his -<i>Monuments Anciens du Méxique</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_560_560" id="Footnote_560_560"></a><a href="#FNanchor_560_560"><span class="label">[560]</span></a></span> -This paper is reprinted in Leland.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_561_561" id="Footnote_561_561"></a><a href="#FNanchor_561_561"><span class="label">[561]</span></a></span> -Cf. also his <i>Variétés Orientales</i>, 1872; and his “L’Amérique, etait-elle connue des Chinois à l’époque du -déluge?” in the <i>Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France</i>, n. s., iii. 191.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_562_562" id="Footnote_562_562"></a><a href="#FNanchor_562_562"><span class="label">[562]</span></a></span> -S. W. Williams, in the <i>Journal of the American Oriental Soc.</i> (vol. xi.), in controverting the views of -Leland, was inclined to find Fusang in the Loo-choo Islands. This paper was printed separately as <i>Notices -of Fusang and other countries lying east of China in the Pacific ocean</i> (New Haven, 1881).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_563_563" id="Footnote_563_563"></a><a href="#FNanchor_563_563"><span class="label">[563]</span></a></span> -A good deal of labor has been bestowed to prove this identity of Fusang with Mexico. It is held to be -found in the myths and legends of the two people by Charency in his <i>Mythe de Votan, étude sur les origines -asiatiques de la civilisation américaine</i> (Alençon, 1871), drawn from the <i>Actes de la Soc. philologique</i> (vol. -ii.); and he has enforced similar views in the <i>Revue des questions historiques</i> (vi. 283), and in his <i>Djemschid -et Quetzalcohuatl. L’histoire légendaire de la Nouvelle-Espagne rapprochée de la source indo-européenne</i> -(Alençon, 1874). Humboldt thought it strange, considering other affinities,—as for instance in the Mexican -calendars,—that he could find no Mexican use of phallic symbols; but Bancroft says they exist. Cf. <i>Native -Races</i>, iii. 501; also see v. 40, 232; Brasseur’s <i>Quatre Lettres</i>, p. 202; and John Campbell’s paper on the -traditions of Mexico and Peru as establishing such connections, in the <i>Compte Rendu, Congrès des Amér.</i> -(Nancy, 1875), i. 348. Dr. Hamy saw in a monument found at Copan an inscription which he thought was -the Taë-kai of the Chinese, the symbol of the essence of all things (<i>Bull. de la Soc. de Géog.</i>, 1886, and -<i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, xvi. 242, with a cut of the stone). Dall controverts this point -(<i>Science</i>, viii. 402).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Others have dwelt on the linguistic resemblances. B. S. Barton in his <i>New Views</i> pressed this side of the -question. The presence of a monosyllabic tongue like the Otomi in the midst of the polysyllabic languages -of Mexico has been thought strongly to indicate a survival. Cf. Manuel Najera’s <i>Disertacion sobre la lengua -Othomi</i>, Mexico, 1845, and in <i>Amer. Philos. Soc. Trans.</i>, n. s., v.; Ampère’s <i>Promenade en Amérique</i>, ii. -301; Prescott’s <i>Mexico</i>, iii. 396; Warden’s <i>Recherches</i> (in Dupaix), p. 125; Latham’s <i>Races of Men</i>, 408; -Bancroft’s <i>Nat. Races</i>, iii. 737; v. 39, with references. Others find Sanskrit roots in the Mexican. E. B. -Tylor has indicated the Asiatic origin of certain Mexican games (<i>Journal of the Anthropol. Inst.</i>, xxiv.). -Ornaments of jade found in Nicaragua, while the stone is thought to be native only in Asia, is another indication, -and they are more distinctively Asiatic than the jade ornaments found in Alaska (<i>Peabody Mus. Reports</i>, -xviii. 414; xx. 548; <i>Proc. Mass. Hist. Soc.</i>, Jan., 1886).</p> -<p class="pfc4">On the general question of the Asiatic origin of the Mexicans see Dupaix’s <i>Antiquités Méxicaines</i>, with -included papers by Lenoir, Warden, and Farcy; the <i>Report</i> on a railroad route from the Mississippi, 1853-54 -(Washington); Whipple’s and other <i>Reports</i> on the Indian tribes; John Russell Bartlett’s <i>Personal Narrative</i> -(1854); Brasseur’s <i>Popul Vuh</i>, p. xxxix; Viollet le Duc’s belief in a “yellow race” building the -Mexican and Central American monuments, in Charnay’s <i>Ruines Américaines</i>, and Charnay’s traces of the -Buddhists in the <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, July, 1879, p. 432; Le Plongeon’s belief in the connection of the -Maya and Asiatic races in <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, Apr. 30, 1879, p. 113; and some papers on the ancient -Mexicans and their origin by the Abbé Jolibois, Col. Parmentier, and M. Emile Guimet, which, prepared for -the Soc. de Géog. de Lyon, were published separately as <i>De l’origine des Anciens Peuples du Méxique</i> -(Lyon, 1875).</p> -<p class="pfc4">A few other incidental discussions of the Fusang question are these: R. H. Major in <i>Select Letters of -Columbus</i> (1847); J. T. Short in <i>The Galaxy</i> (1875) and in his <i>No. Americans of Antiquity</i>; Nadaillac in -his <i>L’Amérique préhistorique</i>, 544; Gay’s <i>Pop. Hist. U. S.</i> calls the story vague and improbable. In periodicals -we find: <i>Gentleman’s Mag.</i>, 1869, p. 333 (reprinted in <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, Sept., 1869, xvi. 221), and 1870, reproduced -in <i>Chinese Recorder</i>, May, 1870; Nathan Brown in <i>Amer. Philolog. Mag.</i>, Aug., 1869; Wm. Speer in -<i>Princeton Rev.</i>, xxv. 83; <i>Penn Monthly</i>, vi. 603; <i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, Apr., 1883, p. 291; <i>Notes and Queries</i>, -iii. 58, 78; iv. 19; <i>Notes and Queries in China and Japan</i>, Apr., May, 1869; Feb., 1870. Chas. W. Brooks -maintained on the other hand (<i>Proc. California Acad. Sciences</i>, 1876; cf. Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i>, v. 51), -that the Chinese were emigrants from America. There is a map of the supposed Chinese route to America in -the <i>Congrès des Américanistes</i> (Nancy, 1875), vol. i.; and Winchell, <i>Pre-Adamites</i>, gives a chart showing -different lines of approach from Asia. Stephen Powers (<i>Overland Monthly</i>, Apr., 1872, and <i>California -Acad. Sciences</i>, 1875) treats the California Indians as descendants of the Chinese,—a view he modifies in the -<i>Contrib. to Amer. Ethnology</i>, vol. iii., on “Tribes of California.” It is claimed that Chinese coin of the -fifteenth century have been found in mounds on Vancouver’s Island. Cf. G. P. Thurston in <i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, -xiii. p. 457. The principal lists of authorities are those in Vining (app.), and Watson’s in Anderson’s <i>America -not discovered by Columbus</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_564_564" id="Footnote_564_564"></a><a href="#FNanchor_564_564"><span class="label">[564]</span></a></span> -From Easter Island to the Galapagos is 2,000 miles, thence to South America 600 more. On such long -migrations by water see Waitz, <i>Introduction to Anthropology</i>, Eng. transl., p. 202. On early modes of -navigation see Col. A. Lane Fox in the <i>Journal Anthropological Inst.</i> (1875), iv. 399. Otto Caspari gives a -map of post-tertiary times in his <i>Urgeschichte der Menschheit</i> (Leipzig, 1873), vol. i., in which land is made -to stretch from the Marquesas Islands nearly to South America; while large patches of land lie between Asia -and Mexico, to render migration practicable. Andrew Murray, in his <i>Geographical Distribution of Mammals</i> -(London, 1866), is almost compelled to admit (p. 25) that as complete a circuit of land formerly crossed the -southern temperate regions as now does the northern; and Daniel Wilson, <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, holds much the -same opinion. The connection of the flora of Polynesia and South America is discussed by J. D. Hooker in -the <i>Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of the Erebus and Terror, 1839-43</i>, and in his <i>Flora of Tasmania</i>. -Cf. <i>Amer. Journal of Science and Arts</i>, Mar., May, 1854; Jan., May, 1860.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_565_565" id="Footnote_565_565"></a><a href="#FNanchor_565_565"><span class="label">[565]</span></a></span> -<i>Races of Men.</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_566_566" id="Footnote_566_566"></a><a href="#FNanchor_566_566"><span class="label">[566]</span></a></span> -<i>Compte Rendu</i>, 1877, p. 79; 1883, p. 246; the latter being called “Polynesian Antiquities, a link between -the ancient civilizations of Asia and America.” Further discussions of the Polynesian migrations will -be found as follows: A. W. Bradford’s <i>Amer. Antiquities</i> (N. Y., 1841); Gallatin (<i>Am. Eth. Soc. Trans.</i>, i. -176) disputed any common linguistic traces, while Bradford thought he found such; Lesson and Martinet’s -<i>Les Polynésiens, leur origine, leurs migrations, leur langage</i>; Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, ii. 344; Jules -Garnier’s “Les migrations polynésiennes” in <i>Bull. de la Soc. de Géog. de Paris</i>, Jan., June, 1870; G. -d’Eichthal’s “Etudes sur l’histoire primitive des races océaniennes et Américaines” in <i>Mem. de la Soc. Ethnologique</i> -(vol. ii.); Marcoy’s <i>Travels in South America</i>; C. Staniland Wake’s <i>Chapters on Man</i>, p. 200; -a “Rapport de la Polynésie et l’Amérique” in the <i>Mémoires de la Soc. Ethnologique</i>, ii. 223; A. de Quatrefages -de Bréau’s <i>Les Polynésiens et leurs migrations</i> (Paris, 1866), from the <i>Revue des deux Mondes</i>, Feb., -1864; O. F. Peschel in <i>Ausland</i>, 1864, p. 348; W. H. Dall in <i>Bureau of Ethnology Rept.</i>, 1881-82, p. 147. -Allen’s paper, already referred to, gives references.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_567_567" id="Footnote_567_567"></a><a href="#FNanchor_567_567"><span class="label">[567]</span></a></span> -Bancroft, <i>Nat. Races</i>, v. 44, with references, p. 48, epitomizes the story. Cf. Short, 151. There was a -tradition of giants landing on the shore (Markham’s <i>Cieza de Leon</i>, p. 190). Cf. Forster’s <i>Voyages</i>, 43.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_568_568" id="Footnote_568_568"></a><a href="#FNanchor_568_568"><span class="label">[568]</span></a></span> -A belief in the Asiatic connection has taken some curious forms. Montesinos in his <i>Memorias Peruanas</i> -held Peru to be the Ophir of Solomon. Cf. Gotfriedus Wegner’s <i>De Navigationis Solomonæis</i> (Frankfort, -1689). Horn held Hayti to be Ophir, and he indulges in some fantastic evidences to show that the Iroquois, -<i>i. e.</i> Yrcas, were Turks! Cf. Onffroy de Thoron in <i>Le Globe</i>, 1869. C. Wiener in his <i>L’Empire des Incas</i> -(ch. 2, 4) finds traces of Buddhism, and so does Hyde Clarke in his <i>Khita-Peruvian Epoch</i> (1877). Lopez -has written on <i>Les Races Aryennes de Pérou</i> (1871). Cf. Robert Ellis, <i>Peruvia Scythica</i>. <i>The Quicha -Language of Peru, its derivation from Central Asia with the American languages in general</i> (London, -1875). Grotius held that the Peruvians were of Chinese stock. Charles Pickering’s ethnological map gives a -Malay origin to the islands of the Gulf of Mexico and a part of the Pacific coast, the rest being Mongolian.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_569_569" id="Footnote_569_569"></a><a href="#FNanchor_569_569"><span class="label">[569]</span></a></span> -The story is given in English by De Costa (<i>Pre-Columbian Disc. of America</i>, p. 85) from the <i>Landnámabók</i>, -no. 107. Cf. <i>Saga of Thorfinn Karlsefne</i>, ch. 13, and that of Erik the Red. Leif is said in the sagas -to have met shipwrecked white people on the coasts visited by him (<i>Hist. Mag.</i>, xiii. 46).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_570_570" id="Footnote_570_570"></a><a href="#FNanchor_570_570"><span class="label">[570]</span></a></span> -<i>Antiquitates Americanæ</i>, 162, 183, 205, 210, 211, 212, 214, 319, 446-51.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_571_571" id="Footnote_571_571"></a><a href="#FNanchor_571_571"><span class="label">[571]</span></a></span> -Brinton in <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, ix. 364; Rivero and Tschudi’s <i>Peru</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_572_572" id="Footnote_572_572"></a><a href="#FNanchor_572_572"><span class="label">[572]</span></a></span> -Schöning’s <i>Heimskringla</i>. <i>Grönlands Historiske Mindesmærker</i>, i. 150.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_573_573" id="Footnote_573_573"></a><a href="#FNanchor_573_573"><span class="label">[573]</span></a></span> -<i>Eyrbyggja Saga</i>, ch. 64, and given in English in De Costa’s <i>Pre-Columbian Discovery</i>, p. 89. Cf. Sir -Walter Scott’s version of this saga and the appendix of Mallet’s <i>Northern Antiquities</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_574_574" id="Footnote_574_574"></a><a href="#FNanchor_574_574"><span class="label">[574]</span></a></span> -Traces of Celtic have been discovered by some of the philologists, when put to the task, in the American -languages. Cf. Humboldt, <i>Relation Historique</i>, iii. 159. Lord Monboddo held such a theory.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_575_575" id="Footnote_575_575"></a><a href="#FNanchor_575_575"><span class="label">[575]</span></a></span> -Brinton’s <i>Myths of the New World</i>, 176. One of the earliest accounts which we have of the Cherokees -is that by Henry Timberlake (London, 1765), and he remarks on their lighter complexion as indicating a possible -descent from these traditionary white men.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_576_576" id="Footnote_576_576"></a><a href="#FNanchor_576_576"><span class="label">[576]</span></a></span> -Richard Broughton’s <i>Monasticon Britannicum</i> (London, 1655), pp. 131, 187.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_577_577" id="Footnote_577_577"></a><a href="#FNanchor_577_577"><span class="label">[577]</span></a></span> -<i>A Memoir on the European Colonization of America in antehistoric times</i> was contributed to the <i>Proceedings</i> -of the American Ethnological Society in 1851, to which E. G. Squier added some notes, the original -paper being by Dr. C. A. A. Zestermann of Leipzig. The aim was to prove, by the similarity of remains, the -connection of the peoples who built the mounds of the Ohio Valley with the early peoples of northwestern -Europe, a Caucasian race, which he would identify with the settlers of Irland it Mikla, and with the coming -of the white-bearded men spoken of in Mexican traditions, who established a civilization which an inundating -population from Asia subsequently buried from sight. This European immigration he places at least 1,200 -years before Christ. Squier’s comments are that the monumental resemblances referred to indicate similar -conditions of life rather than ethnic connections.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The other advocate was Eugène Beauvois in a paper published in the <i>Compte Rendu du Congrès des -Américanistes</i> (Nancy, 1875, p. 4) as <i>La découverte du nouveau monde par les irlandais et les premières -traces du christianisme en Amérique avant l’an 1000</i>, accompanied by a map, in which he makes Irland it -Mikla correspond to the provinces of Ontario and Quebec. Again, in the session at Luxembourg in 1877, he -endeavored to connect the Irish colony with the narrative of the seaman in the Zeno accounts, in a paper which -he called <i>Les Colonies Européennes du Markland et de l’Escociland au xiv. Siècle, et les vestiges qui en -subsistèrent jusqu’aux xvi<sup>e</sup> et xvii<sup>e</sup> Siècles</i>, and in which he identifies the Estotiland of the Frislanda -mariner. M. Beauvois again, at the Copenhagen meeting of the same body, read a paper on <i>Les Relations -précolumbiennes des Gaels avec le Méxique</i> (Copenhagen, 1883, p. 74), in which he elicited objections from -M. Lucien Adam. Beauvois belongs to that class of enthusiasts somewhat numerous in these studies of pre-Columbian -discoveries, who have haunted these Congresses of Americanists, and who see overmuch. Other -references to these Irish claims are to be found in Laing’s <i>Heimskringla</i>, i. 186; Beamish’s <i>Discovery of -America</i> (London, 1841); Gravier’s <i>Découverte de l’Amérique</i>, p. 123, 137, and his <i>Les Normands sur la -route, etc.</i>, ch. 1; Gaffarel’s <i>Etudes sur les rapports de l’Amérique</i>, pp. 201, 214; Brasseur’s introd. to his -<i>Popul Vuh</i>; De Costa’s <i>Pre-Columbian Discovery</i>, pp. xviii, xlix, lii; Humboldt’s <i>Cosmos</i> (Bohn), ii. 607; -Rask in <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, xviii. 21; <i>Journal London Geog. Soc.</i>, viii. 125; Gay’s <i>Pop. Hist. U. S.</i>, i. 53; -and K. Wilhelmi’s <i>Island, Hvitramannaland, Grönland und Vinland, oder Der Norrmänner Leben auf -Island und Grönland und deren Fahrten nach Amerika schon über 500 Jahre vor Columbus</i> (Heidelberg, -1842).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_578_578" id="Footnote_578_578"></a><a href="#FNanchor_578_578"><span class="label">[578]</span></a></span> -The account in the Landnámabók is briefly rehearsed in ch. 8 of C. W. Paijkull’s <i>Summer in Iceland</i> -(London, 1868).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_579_579" id="Footnote_579_579"></a><a href="#FNanchor_579_579"><span class="label">[579]</span></a></span> -There are various editions, of which the best is called that of Copenhagen, 1843. The <i>Islendingabók</i>, a -sort of epitome of a lost historical narrative, is considered an introduction to the <i>Landnámabók</i>. Much of -the early story will be found in Latin in the <i>Islenzkir Annáler, sive Annales Islandici ab anno Christi 803 -ad anno 1430</i> (Copenhagen, 1847); in the <i>Scripta historica Islandorum de rebus veterum Borealium</i>, published -by the Royal Soc. of Northern Antiquaries at Copenhagen, 1828-46; and in Jacobus Langebek’s <i>Scriptores -Rerum Danicarum medii ævi</i> (Copenhagen, 1772-1878,—the ninth volume being a recently added -index).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_580_580" id="Footnote_580_580"></a><a href="#FNanchor_580_580"><span class="label">[580]</span></a></span> -A convenient survey of this early literature is in chapter 1 of the <i>History of the Literature of the Scandinavian -North, from the most ancient times to the present, by Frederick Winkel Horn, revised by the -author, and translated by Rasmus B. Anderson</i> (Chicago, 1884). The text is accompanied by useful bibliographical -details. Cf. B. F. De Costa in <i>Journal Amer. Geog. Soc.</i> (1880), xii. 159.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_581_581" id="Footnote_581_581"></a><a href="#FNanchor_581_581"><span class="label">[581]</span></a></span> -Saxo Grammaticus acknowledges his dependence on the Icelandic sagas, and is thought to have used some -which had not been yet put into writing.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_582_582" id="Footnote_582_582"></a><a href="#FNanchor_582_582"><span class="label">[582]</span></a></span> -Baring-Gould in his <i>Iceland, its Scenes and Sagas</i> (London, 1863) gives in his App. D a list of thirty-five -published sagas, sixty-six local histories, twelve ecclesiastical annals, and sixty-nine Norse annals. Cf. -the eclectic list in Laing’s <i>Heimskringla</i>, i. 17.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Konrad Maurer has given an elaborate essay on this early literature in his <i>Ueber die Ausdrücke: altnordische, -altnorwegische und isländische Sprache</i> (Munich, 1867), which originally appeared in the <i>Abhandlungen</i> -of the Bavarian Academy.</p> -<p class="pfc4">G. P. Marsh translated P. E. Müller’s “Origin, progress, and decline of Icelandic historical literature” in -<i>The American Eclectic</i> (N. Y., 1841,—vols. i., ii.). In 1781, Lindblom printed at Paris a French translation -of Bishop Troil’s <i>Lettres sur l’Islande</i>, which contained a catalogue of books on Iceland and an enumeration -of the Icelandic sagas. (Cf. Pinkerton’s <i>Voyages</i>, vol. i.) Chavanne’s <i>Bibliography of the Polar Regions</i>, -p. 95, has a section on Iceland.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Solberg’s list of illustrative works, appended to Anderson’s version of Horn’s <i>Lit. of the Scandinavian -North</i>, is useful so far as the English language goes. Periodical contributions also appear in <i>Poole’s Index</i> -(p. 622) and <i>Supplement</i>, p. 214.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Burton (<i>Ultima Thule</i>, i. 239) enumerates the principal writers on Iceland from Arngrimur Jónsson down, -including the travellers of this century.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_583_583" id="Footnote_583_583"></a><a href="#FNanchor_583_583"><span class="label">[583]</span></a></span> -The more general histories of Scandinavia, like Sinding’s English narrative,—not a good book, but -accessible,—yield the comparisons more readily.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_584_584" id="Footnote_584_584"></a><a href="#FNanchor_584_584"><span class="label">[584]</span></a></span> -There are also German (Gotha, 1844-75) and French versions (Paris). The best German version, <i>Geschichte -Schwedens</i> (Hamburg and Gotha, 1832-1887), is in six volumes, a part of the <i>Geschichte der europäischen -Staaten</i>. Vol. 1-3, by E. G. Geijer, is translated by O. P. Leffler; vol. 4, by F. F. Carlson, is translated -by J. G. Petersen; vol. 5, 6, by F. F. Carlson.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_585_585" id="Footnote_585_585"></a><a href="#FNanchor_585_585"><span class="label">[585]</span></a></span> -Published in German at Lübeck in 1854 as <i>Das heroische Zeitalter der Nordisch-Germanischen Völker -und die Wikinger-Züge</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_586_586" id="Footnote_586_586"></a><a href="#FNanchor_586_586"><span class="label">[586]</span></a></span> -Maurer had long been a student of Icelandic lore, and his <i>Isländische Volkssagen der Gegenwart gesammelt -und verdeutscht</i> (Leipzig, 1860) is greatly illustrative of the early north. Conybeare (<i>Place of Iceland -in the History of European Institutions</i>, preface) says: “To any one writing on Iceland the elaborate works -of the learned Maurer afford at once a help and difficulty: a help in so far as they shed the fullest light -upon the subjects; a difficulty in that their painstaking completeness has brought together well-nigh everything -that can be said.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_587_587" id="Footnote_587_587"></a><a href="#FNanchor_587_587"><span class="label">[587]</span></a></span> - What is known as the Kristni Saga gives an account of this change. Cf. Eugène Beauvois, <i>Origines et -fondation du plus ancien évêché du nouveau monde. Le diocèse de Gardhs en Grœnland, 986-1126</i> -(Paris, 1878), an extract from the <i>Mémoires de la Soc. d’Histoire, etc., de Beaune</i>; C. A. V. Conybeare’s -<i>Place of Iceland in the history of European institutions</i> (1877); Maurer’s <i>Beiträge zur Rechtsgeschichte -des germanischen Nordens</i>; Wheaton’s <i>Northmen</i>; Worsaae’s <i>Danes and Norwegians in England</i>, p. 332; -Jacob Rudolph Keyser’s <i>Private Life of the Old Northmen</i>, as translated by M. R. Barnard (London, 1868), -and his <i>Religion of the Northmen</i>, as translated by B. Pennock (N. Y., 1854); <i>Quarterly Review</i>, January, -1862; and references in McClintock and Strong’s <i>Cyclopædia</i>, under Iceland.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_588_588" id="Footnote_588_588"></a><a href="#FNanchor_588_588"><span class="label">[588]</span></a></span> - Such are the Swedish work of A. M. Strinhold, known in the German of E. F. Frisch as <i>Wikingzüge, -Staatsverfassung und Sitten der alten Scandinaver</i> (Hamburg, 1839-41).</p> -<p class="pfc4">A summarized statement of life in Iceland in the early days is held to be well made out in Hans O. H. -Hildebrand’s <i>Lifvet þå Island under Sagotiden</i> (Stockholm, 1867), and in A. E. Holmberg’s <i>Nordbon under -Hednatiden</i> (Stockholm). J. A. Worsaae published his <i>Vorgeschichte des Nordens</i> at Hamburg in 1878. -It was improved in a Danish edition in 1880, and from this H. F. Morland Simpson made the <i>Prehistory of -the North, based on contemporary materials</i> (London, 1886), with a memoir of Worsaae (d. 1885), the foremost -scholar in this northern lore.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_589_589" id="Footnote_589_589"></a><a href="#FNanchor_589_589"><span class="label">[589]</span></a></span> -This book is recognized as one of the best commentaries and most informing books on Icelandic history, -and this writer’s introduction to Gudbrand Vigfússon’s <i>Icelandic-English Dictionary</i> (3 vols., Cambridge, -Eng., 1869, 1870, 1874) is of scholarly importance.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_590_590" id="Footnote_590_590"></a><a href="#FNanchor_590_590"><span class="label">[590]</span></a></span> - The millennial celebration of the settlement of Iceland in 1874 gave occasion to a variety of books and -papers, more or less suggestive of the early days, like Samuel Kneeland’s <i>American in Iceland</i> (Boston. -1876); but the enumeration of this essentially descriptive literature need not be undertaken here.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_591_591" id="Footnote_591_591"></a><a href="#FNanchor_591_591"><span class="label">[591]</span></a></span> - <i>Antiquitates Americanæ</i>, pp. 1-76, with an account of the Greenland MSS. (p. 255). Müller’s <i>Sagenbibliothek</i>. -Arngrimur Jónsson’s <i>Grönlandia</i> (Iceland, 1688). A fac-simile of the title is in the <i>Carter-Brown -Catalogue</i>, ii., no. 1356. A translation by Rev. J. Sephton is in the <i>Proc. Lit. and Philos. Soc. of Liverpool</i>, -vol. xxxiv. 183, and separately, Liverpool, 1880. There is a paper in the <i>Jahresbericht der geographischen -Gesellschaft in München für 1885</i> (Munich, 1886), p. 71, by Oskar Brenner, on “Grönland im Mittelalter -nach einer altnorwegischen Quelle.”</p> -<p class="pfc4">Some of the earliest references are: Christopherson Claus’ <i>Den Grölandske Chronica</i> (Copenhagen, 1608), -noticed in the <i>Carter-Brown Catalogue</i>, ii., no. 64. Gerald de Veer’s <i>True and perfect description of three -voyages</i> speaks in its title (<i>Carter-Brown</i>, ii. 38) of “the countrie lying under 80 degrees, which is thought to -be Greenland, where never man had been before.” Antoine de la Sale wrote between 1438 and 1447 a curious -book, printed in 1527 as <i>La Salade</i>, in which he refers to Iceland and Greenland (Gronnellont), where white -bears abound (Harrisse, <i>Bib. Am. Vet.</i>, no. 140).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_592_592" id="Footnote_592_592"></a><a href="#FNanchor_592_592"><span class="label">[592]</span></a></span> -This book is now rare. Dufossé prices it at 50 francs; F. S. Ellis,—London. 1884, at £5.5.0. Before -Torfæus, probably the best known book was Isaac de la Peyrère’s <i>Relation du Groenland</i> (Paris, 1647). It -is one of the earliest books to give an account of the Eskimos. It was again printed in 1674 in <i>Recueil de -Voyages du Nord</i>. A Dutch edition at Amsterdam in 1678 (<i>Nauwkenrige Beschrijvingh van Groenland</i>) -was considerably enlarged with other matter, and this edition was the basis of the German version published -at Nuremberg, 1679. Peyrère’s description will be found in English in a volume published by the Hakluyt -Society in 1855, where it is accompanied by two maps of the early part of the seventeenth century. Cf. Carter-Brown, -ii., no. 1192, note; Sabin, x. p. 70.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_593_593" id="Footnote_593_593"></a><a href="#FNanchor_593_593"><span class="label">[593]</span></a></span> -Pilling (<i>Eskimo Bibliog.</i>, p. 20) gives the most careful account of editions. Cf. Sabin, v. 66. A Dutch -translation at Haarlem in 1767 was provided with better and larger maps than the original issue; and this -version was again brought out with a changed title in 1786. There was a Swedish ed. at Stockholm in 1769, -and a reprint of the original German at Leipzig in 1770, and it is included in the <i>Bibliothek der neuesten -Reisebeschreibungen</i> (Frankfort, 1779-1797), vol. xx. Cf. Carter-Brown, ii., nos. 1443, 1576, 1577, 1671, 1728.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_594_594" id="Footnote_594_594"></a><a href="#FNanchor_594_594"><span class="label">[594]</span></a></span> -This constitutes in 3 vols. a sort of supplement to the <i>Antiquitates Americanæ</i>, Cf. <i>Dublin Review</i>, xxvii. -35; <i>Bulletin de la Soc. de Géog. de Paris</i>, 3d ser., vol. vi., and a synopsis of the <i>Mindesmæker</i> in <i>The -Sacristy</i>, Feb. 1, 1871 (London).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_595_595" id="Footnote_595_595"></a><a href="#FNanchor_595_595"><span class="label">[595]</span></a></span> -The principal ruin is that of a church, and it will be found represented in the Antiquitates Americanæ, -and again by Nordenskjöld, Steenstrup, J. T. Smith (<i>Discovery of America</i>, etc.), Horsford; and, not to name -more, in Hayes’s <i>Land of Desolation</i> (and in the French version in <i>Tour du Monde</i>, xxvi.).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_596_596" id="Footnote_596_596"></a><a href="#FNanchor_596_596"><span class="label">[596]</span></a></span> -Rafn in his <i>Americas arctiske landes Gamle Geographie efter de Nordiske Oldskrifter</i> (Copenhagen, -1845) gives the seals of some of the Greenland bishops, various plans of the different ruins, a view of the -Katortok church with its surroundings, engraving of the different runic inscriptions, and a map of the -Julianehaab district.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_597_597" id="Footnote_597_597"></a><a href="#FNanchor_597_597"><span class="label">[597]</span></a></span> -This tendency of the Scandinavian writers is recognized among themselves. Horn (Anderson’s translation, -324) ascribes it to “an unbridled fancy and want of critical method rather than to any wilful perversion -of historical truth. This tendency owed its origin to an intense patriotism, a leading trait in the Swedish -character, which on this very account was well-nigh incorrigible.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_598_598" id="Footnote_598_598"></a><a href="#FNanchor_598_598"><span class="label">[598]</span></a></span> -Dasent translates from the preface to <i>Egils Saga</i> (Reikjavik, 1856): “The sagas show no wilful purpose -to tell untruths, but simply are proofs of <i>the beliefs and turns of thought of men in the age when the sagas -were reduced to writing</i>” (<i>Burnt Njal</i>, i. p. xiii).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_599_599" id="Footnote_599_599"></a><a href="#FNanchor_599_599"><span class="label">[599]</span></a></span> -Rink (<i>Danish Greenland</i>, p. 3) says of the sagas that “they exist only in a fragmentary condition, and -bear the general character of popular traditions to such a degree that they stand much in need of being corroborated -by collateral proofs, if we are wholly to rely upon them in such a question as an ancient colonization -of America.” So he proceeds to enumerate the kind of evidence, which is sufficient in Greenland, but is -wholly wanting in other parts of America, and to point out that the trustworthiness of the sagas of the Vinland -voyages exists only in regard to their general scope.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Dasent, in the introduction of Vigfússon’s <i>Icelandic Dictionary</i>, says of the sagas: “Written at various -periods by scribes more or less fitted for the task, they are evidently of very varying authority.” The Scandinavian -authorities class the sagas as mythical histories, as those relating to Icelandic history (subdivided into -general, family, personal, ecclesiastical), and as the lives of rulers.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_600_600" id="Footnote_600_600"></a><a href="#FNanchor_600_600"><span class="label">[600]</span></a></span> -Anderson’s translation, <i>Lit. of the Scand. North</i>, p. 81.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_601_601" id="Footnote_601_601"></a><a href="#FNanchor_601_601"><span class="label">[601]</span></a></span> -Laing (<i>Heimskringla</i>, i. 23) says: “Arne Magnussen was the greatest antiquary who never wrote; his -judgments and opinions are known from notes, selections, and correspondence, and are of great authority at -this day in the saga literature. Torfæus consulted him in his researches.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_602_602" id="Footnote_602_602"></a><a href="#FNanchor_602_602"><span class="label">[602]</span></a></span> -<i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, xviii. 20.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_603_603" id="Footnote_603_603"></a><a href="#FNanchor_603_603"><span class="label">[603]</span></a></span> -Oswald Moosmüller’s <i>Europäer in Amerika vor Columbus</i> (Regensburg, 1879, p. 4) enumerates the -manuscripts in the royal library in Copenhagen.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_604_604" id="Footnote_604_604"></a><a href="#FNanchor_604_604"><span class="label">[604]</span></a></span> -A. E. Wollheim’s <i>Die Nat. lit. der Scandinavier</i> (Berlin, 1875-77), p. 47. Turner’s <i>Anglo Saxons</i>, book -iv. ch. 1. Mallet’s <i>No. Antiq.</i> (1847), 393</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_605_605" id="Footnote_605_605"></a><a href="#FNanchor_605_605"><span class="label">[605]</span></a></span> -Cf. G. H. Pertz, <i>Monumenta Germaniæ historica</i>, 1846, vol. vii. cap. 247. Of the different manuscripts, -some call Vinland a “regio” and others an “insula.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_606_606" id="Footnote_606_606"></a><a href="#FNanchor_606_606"><span class="label">[606]</span></a></span> -Discovered in the seventeenth century in a monastery on an island close by the Icelandic coast, and now -in the royal library in Copenhagen. Cf. Laing’s introduction to his edition of the <i>Heimskringla</i>, vol. i. -p. 157. Horn says of this codex: “The book was written towards the end of the fourteenth century by two -Icelandic priests, and contains in strange confusion and wholly without criticism a large number of sagas, -poems, and stories. No other manuscript confuses things on so vast a scale.” Anderson’s translation of -Horn’s <i>Lit. of the Scandin. North</i>, p. 60. Cf. <i>Flateyjarbok. En Samling af Norske Konge-Sagaer med -indskudte mindre fortællinger om Begivenheder i og Udenfor Norge samt Annaler</i> (Christiania, 1860); and -Vigfússon’s and Unger’s edition of 1868, also at Christiania. The best English account of the <i>Codex Flatoyensis</i> -is by Gudbrand Vigfússon in the preface to his <i>Icelandic Sagas</i>, published under direction of the -Master of the Rolls, London, 1887, vol. i. p. xxv.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_607_607" id="Footnote_607_607"></a><a href="#FNanchor_607_607"><span class="label">[607]</span></a></span> -For texts, see C. C. Rafn’s edition of <i>Kong Olaf Tryggvesons Saga</i> (Copenhagen, 1826), and Munch’s -edition of <i>Kong Olaf Tryggvesön’s Saga</i> (Christiania, 1853). Cf. also P. A. Munch’s <i>Norges Konge-Sagaer</i> -of Snorri Sturleson, Sturla Thordsson, etc. (Christiania, 1859).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_608_608" id="Footnote_608_608"></a><a href="#FNanchor_608_608"><span class="label">[608]</span></a></span> -The <i>Codex Flatoyensis</i> says that it was sixteen winters after the settlement of Greenland before Leif went -to Norway, and that in the next year he sailed to Vinland.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_609_609" id="Footnote_609_609"></a><a href="#FNanchor_609_609"><span class="label">[609]</span></a></span> -<i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, xviii. 21.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_610_610" id="Footnote_610_610"></a><a href="#FNanchor_610_610"><span class="label">[610]</span></a></span> -These sagas are given in Icelandic, Danish, and Latin in Rafn’s <i>Antiquitates Americanæ</i> (Copenhagen, -1837). Versions or abstracts, more or less full, of all or of some of them are given by Beamish, in his <i>Discovery -of America by the Northmen</i> (London, 1841), whose text is reprinted by Slafter, in his <i>Voyages of the -Northmen</i> (Boston, 1877). J. Elliot Cabot, in the Mass. Quart. Review, March, 1849, copied in part in -Higginson’s <i>Amer. Explorers</i>. Blackwell, in his supplementary chapters to Mallet’s <i>Northern Antiquities</i> -(London, Bohn’s library). B. F. De Costa, in his <i>Pre-Columbian Discovery of America</i> (Albany, 1868). -Eben Norton Horsford, in his <i>Discovery of America by Norsemen</i> (Boston, 1888). Beauvois, in his <i>Découvertes -des Scandinaves en Amérique</i> (Paris, 1859). P. E. Müller, in his <i>Sagabibliothek</i> (Copenhagen, -1816-20), and a German version of part of it by Lachmann, <i>Sagenbibliothek des Scandinavischen Alterthums -in Aussügen</i> (Berlin, 1816).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_611_611" id="Footnote_611_611"></a><a href="#FNanchor_611_611"><span class="label">[611]</span></a></span> -When, however, Peringskiöld edited the Heimskringla, in 1697, he interpolated eight chapters of a more -particular account of the Vinland voyages, which drew forth some animadversions from Torfæus in 1705, when -he published his <i>Historia Vinlandiæ</i>. It was later found that Peringskiöld had drawn these eight chapters -from the <i>Codex Flatoyensis</i>, which particular MS. was unknown to Torfæus. When Laing printed his edition -of the <i>Heimskringla, The Sea Kings of Norway</i> (London, 1844), he translated these eight chapters in his -appendix (vol. iii. 344). Laing (<i>Heimskringla</i>, i. 27) says: “Snorro Sturleson has done for the history of -the Northmen what Livy did for the history of the Romans,”—a rather questionable tribute to the verity of -the saga history, in the light of the most approved comments on Livy. Cf. Horn, in Anderson’s translation, -<i>Lit. of the Scandinavian North</i> (Chicago, 1884), p. 56, with references, p. 59.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_612_612" id="Footnote_612_612"></a><a href="#FNanchor_612_612"><span class="label">[612]</span></a></span> -J. Fulford Vicary’s <i>Saga Time</i> (Lond., 1887). Some time in the fifteenth century, a monk, Thomas -Gheysmer, made an abridgment of Saxo, alleging that he “had said much rather for the sake of adornment -than in behalf of truth.” The Canon Christiern Pederson printed the first edition of Saxo at Paris in 1514 -(Anderson’s Horn’s <i>Lit. Scandin. North</i>, p. 102). This writer adds: “The entire work rests exclusively on -oral tradition, which had been gathered by Saxo, and which he repeated precisely as he had heard it, for in the -whole chronicle there is no trace of criticism proper.... Saxo must also undoubtedly have had Icelandic -sagamen as authorities for the legendary part of his work; but there is not the slightest evidence to show that -he ever had a written Icelandic saga before him.... In this part of the work he betrays no effort to separate -fact from fiction, ... and he has in many instances consciously or unconsciously adorned the original material.” -Horn adds that the last and best edition is that of P. E. Müller and J. Velchow, <i>Saxonis Grammatici -Historia Danica</i> (Copenhagen, 1839).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_613_613" id="Footnote_613_613"></a><a href="#FNanchor_613_613"><span class="label">[613]</span></a></span> -Humboldt (<i>Crit. Exam.</i>, ii. 120) represented that Ortelius referred to these voyages in 1570; but Palfrey -(<i>Hist. New England</i>, i. 51) shows that the language cited by Humboldt was not used by Ortelius till in his -edition of 1592, and that then he referred to the Zeno narrative.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_614_614" id="Footnote_614_614"></a><a href="#FNanchor_614_614"><span class="label">[614]</span></a></span> -See <i>post</i>, Vol. IV. p. 492.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_615_615" id="Footnote_615_615"></a><a href="#FNanchor_615_615"><span class="label">[615]</span></a></span> -His account is followed by Malte Brun in his <i>Précis de la Géographie</i> (i. 395). Cf. also <i>Annales des -Voyages</i> (Paris, 1810), x. 50, and his <i>Géographie Universelle</i> (Paris, 1841). Pinkerton, in his <i>Voyages</i> (London, -1814), vol. xvii., also followed Torfæus.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_616_616" id="Footnote_616_616"></a><a href="#FNanchor_616_616"><span class="label">[616]</span></a></span> -J. J. Wahlstedt’s <i>Iter in Americam</i> (Upsala, 1725). Cf. <i>Brinley Catal.</i>, i. 59.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_617_617" id="Footnote_617_617"></a><a href="#FNanchor_617_617"><span class="label">[617]</span></a></span> -<i>Observatio historica ad Frisonum navigatione fortuita in Americam sec. xi. facta</i> (Magdeburg, 1741).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_618_618" id="Footnote_618_618"></a><a href="#FNanchor_618_618"><span class="label">[618]</span></a></span> -<i>Franklin’s Works</i>, Philad., 1809, vol. vi.; Sparks’s ed., viii. 69.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_619_619" id="Footnote_619_619"></a><a href="#FNanchor_619_619"><span class="label">[619]</span></a></span> -This is the book which furnished the text in an English dress (London, 1770) known as <i>Northern Antiquities</i>, -and a part of his account is given in the <i>American Museum</i> (Philad., 1789). In the Edinburgh edition -of 1809 it is called: <i>Northern antiquities: or a description of the manners, customs, religion and laws, of -the ancient Danes, including those of our Saxon ancestors. With a translation of the Edda and other -pieces, from the ancient Icelandic tongue. Translated from “L’introduction à l’histoire de Dannemarc, -&c.,” par Mons. Mallet. With additional notes by the English translator [Bishop Percy], and Goranson’s -Latin version of the Edda</i>. In 2 vols. The chapters defining the locations are omitted, and others substituted, -in the reprint of the <i>Northern Antiquities</i> in Bohn’s library.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_620_620" id="Footnote_620_620"></a><a href="#FNanchor_620_620"><span class="label">[620]</span></a></span> -There are French and English versions.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_621_621" id="Footnote_621_621"></a><a href="#FNanchor_621_621"><span class="label">[621]</span></a></span> -Edinburgh, 1818; Boston, 1831.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_622_622" id="Footnote_622_622"></a><a href="#FNanchor_622_622"><span class="label">[622]</span></a></span> -<i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, 1865, p. 184.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_623_623" id="Footnote_623_623"></a><a href="#FNanchor_623_623"><span class="label">[623]</span></a></span> -<i>Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopædia.</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_624_624" id="Footnote_624_624"></a><a href="#FNanchor_624_624"><span class="label">[624]</span></a></span> -Allibone, iii. 2667.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_625_625" id="Footnote_625_625"></a><a href="#FNanchor_625_625"><span class="label">[625]</span></a></span> -Irving, in reviewing the book in the <i>No. Am. Rev.</i>, Oct., 1832, avoided the question of the Norse discovery. -(Cf. his <i>Spanish Papers</i>, vol. ii., and Rice’s <i>Essays from the No. Am. Rev.</i>) C. Robinson, in his -<i>Discoveries in the West</i> (ch. 1), borrows from Wheaton.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_626_626" id="Footnote_626_626"></a><a href="#FNanchor_626_626"><span class="label">[626]</span></a></span> -Octavo ed., i. pp. 5, 6.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_627_627" id="Footnote_627_627"></a><a href="#FNanchor_627_627"><span class="label">[627]</span></a></span> -Orig. ed., iii. 313; last revision, ii. 132.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_628_628" id="Footnote_628_628"></a><a href="#FNanchor_628_628"><span class="label">[628]</span></a></span> -This society, Kongelige Nordiske Oldskrift-Selskab, since 1825, has been issuing works and periodicals -illustrating all departments of Scandinavian archæology (cf. Webb, in <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, viii. 177), and -has gathered cabinets and museums, sections of which are devoted to American subjects. C. C. Rafn’s <i>Cabinet -d’antiquités Américaines à Copenhague</i> (Copenhagen, 1858); <i>Journal of the Royal Geographical -Society</i>, xiv. 316; Slafter’s introd. to his <i>Voyages of the Northmen</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_629_629" id="Footnote_629_629"></a><a href="#FNanchor_629_629"><span class="label">[629]</span></a></span> -<i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, viii. 81; <i>Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, April, 1865; <i>N. E. Hist. Geneal. Reg.</i>, 1865, -p. 273; <i>To-day</i>, ii. 176.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_630_630" id="Footnote_630_630"></a><a href="#FNanchor_630_630"><span class="label">[630]</span></a></span> -Professor Willard Fiske has paid particular attention to the early forms of the Danish in the Icelandic -literature. In 1885 the British Museum issued a <i>Catalogue of the books printed in Iceland from <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1578 -to 1880 in the library of the British Museum</i>. In 1886 Mr. Fiske privately printed at Florence <i>Bibliographical -Notices, i.: Books printed in Iceland, 1578-1844, a supplement to the British Museum Catalogue,</i> -which enumerates 139 titles with full bibliographical detail and an index. He refers also to the principal -bibliographical authorities. Laing’s introduction to the <i>Heimskringla</i> gives a survey.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_631_631" id="Footnote_631_631"></a><a href="#FNanchor_631_631"><span class="label">[631]</span></a></span> -Cf. list of their several issues in Scudder’s <i>Catal. of Scient. Serials</i>, nos. 640, 654, and the Rafn bibliography -in Sabin, xvi. nos. 67,466-67,486. In addition to its Danish publications, the chief of which interesting -to the American archæologist being the <i>Antiquarisk Tidsskrift</i> (1845-1864), sometimes known as the <i>Revue -Archéologique et Bulletin</i>, the society, under its more familiar name of Société Royale des Antiquaires du -Nord, has issued its <i>Mémoires</i>, the first series running from 1836 to 1860, in 4 vols., and the second beginning -in 1866. These contain numerous papers involving the discussion of the Northmen voyages, including a condensed -narrative by Rafn, “Mémoire sur la découverte de l’Amérique au 10<sup>e</sup> siècle,” which was enlarged and -frequently issued separately in French and other languages (1838-1843), and is sometimes found in English as -a <i>Supplement to the Antiquitates Americanæ</i>, and was issued in New York (1838) as <i>America discovered in -the tenth century</i>. In this form (<i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, viii. 187) it was widely used here and in Europe to -call attention to Rafn’s folio, <i>Antiquitates Americanæ</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The <i>Mémoires</i> also contained another paper by Rafn, <i>Aperçu de l’ancienne géographie des régions -arctiques de l’Amérique, selon les rapports contenus dans les Sagas du Nord</i> (Copenhagen, 1847), which -also concerns the Vinland voyages, and is repeated in the <i>Nouvelles Annales des Voyages</i> (1849), i. 277.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_632_632" id="Footnote_632_632"></a><a href="#FNanchor_632_632"><span class="label">[632]</span></a></span> -<i>Antiqvitates Americanæ sive scriptores septentrionales rerum ante-Columbianarum in America. -Samling af de i nordens oldskrifter indeholdte efterretninger om de gamle nordboers opdagelsesreiser til -America fra det 10de til det 14de aarhundrede. Edidit Societas regia antiquariorum Septentrionalium</i> -(Hafniæ, 1837). <span class="smcap">Contents</span>: Præfatio.—Conspectus codicum membraneorum, in quibus terrarum Americanarum -mentio fit.—America discovered by the Scandinavians in the tenth century. (An abstract of the -historical evidence contained in this work.)—Pættir af Eireki Rauda ok Grænlendingum.—Saga Porfinns -Karlsefnis ok Snorra Porbrandssonar.—Breviores relationes: De inhabitatione Islandiæ; De inhabitatione -Grœnlandiæ; De Ario Maris filio; De Björne Breidvikensium athleta; De Gudleivo Gudlœgi filio; Excerpta -ex annalibus Islandorum; Die mansione Grœnlandorum in locis Borealibus; Excerpta e geographicis scriptis -veterum Islandorum; Carmen Færöicum, in quo Vinlandiæ mentio fit; Adami Bremensis Relatio de Vinlandia; -Descriptio quorumdam monumentorum Europæorum, quæ in oris Grönlandiæ ocidentalibus reperta -et detecta sunt; Descriptio vetusti monumenti in regione Massachusetts reperti; Descriptio vetustorum -quorundam monumentorum in Rhode Island.—Annotationes geographicæ; Islandia et Grönlandia; Indagatio -Arctoarum Americæ regionum.—Indagatio Orientalium Americæ regionum.—Addenda et emendanda.—Indexes. -The larger works are in Icelandic, Danish, and Latin.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Cf. also his <i>Antiquités Américaines d’après les monuments historiques des Islandais et des anciens -Scandinaves</i> (Copenhagen, 1845). An abstract of the evidence is given in the <i>Journal of the Royal Geographical -Society</i> (viii. 114), and it is upon this that H. H. Bancroft depends in his <i>Native Races</i> (v. 106). -Cf. also <i>Ibid.</i> v. 115-116; and his <i>Cent. America</i>, i. 74. L. Dussieux in his <i>Les Grands Faits de l’Histoire -de la Géographie</i> (Paris, 1882; vol. i. 147, 165) follows Rafn and Malte-Brun. So does Brasseur de Bourbourg -in his <i>Hist. de Nations Civilisées</i>, i. 18; and Bachiller y Morales in his <i>Antigüedades Americanas</i> -(Havana, 1845).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Great efforts were made by Rafn and his friends to get reviews of his folio in American periodicals; and he -relied in this matter upon Dr. Webb and others, with whom he had been in correspondence in working up his -geographical details (<i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, ii. 97, 107; viii. 189, etc.), and so late as 1852 he drafted in -English a new synopsis of the evidence, and sent it over for distribution in the United States (<i>Ibid.</i> ii. 500; -<i>New Jersey Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, vi.; <i>N. E. Hist. Geneal. Reg.</i>, 1853, p. 13). So far as weight of character went, -there was a plenty of it in his reviewers: Edward Everett in the <i>No. Amer. Rev.</i>, Jan., 1838; Alexander -Everett in the <i>U. S. Magazine and Democratic Review</i> (1838); George Folsom in the <i>N. Y. Review</i> (1838); -H. R. Schoolcraft in the <i>Amer. Biblical Repository</i> (1839). Cf. <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, viii. 182-3; <i>Poole’s -Index</i>, 28, 928.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_633_633" id="Footnote_633_633"></a><a href="#FNanchor_633_633"><span class="label">[633]</span></a></span> -Bohn’s ed., English transl., ii. 603; Lond. ed., 1849, ii. 233-36. Humboldt expresses the opinion that -Columbus, during his visit to Iceland, got no knowledge of the stories, so little an impression had they made on -the public mind (<i>Cosmos</i>, Bohn, ii. 611), and that the enemies of Columbus in his famous lawsuit, when every -effort was made to discredit his enterprise, did not instance his Iceland experience, should be held to indicate -that no one in southern Europe believed in any such prompting at that time. Wheaton and Prescott (<i>Ferdinand -and Isabella</i>, orig. ed., ii. 118, 131) hold similar opinions. (Cf. Vol. II. p. 33.) Dr. Webb says that Irving -held back from accepting the stories of the saga, for fear that they could be used to detract from Columbus’ -fame. Rafn and his immediate sympathizers did not fail to make the most of the supposition that Columbus -had in some way profited by his Iceland experience. Laing thinks Columbus must have heard of the voyages, -and De Costa (<i>Columbus and the Geographers of the North</i>) thinks that the bruit of the Northmen -voyages extended sufficiently over Europe to render it unlikely that it escaped the ears of Columbus. Cf. -further an appendix in Irving’s <i>Columbus</i>, and Mallet’s <i>Northern Antiquities</i>, Bohn’s ed., 267, in refutation -of the conclusions of Finn Magnusen in the <i>Nordisk Tidsskrift</i>. It has been left for the unwise and overtopped -advocates of a later day, like Goodrich and Marie A. Brown, to go beyond reason in an indiscriminate -denunciation of the Genoese. The latter writer, in her <i>Icelandic Discoverers of America</i> (Boston, 1888), -rambles over the subject in a jejune way, and easily falls into errors, while she pursues her main purpose -of exposing what she fancies to be a deep-laid scheme of the Pope and the Catholic Church to conceal the -merits of the Northmen and to capture the sympathies of Americans in honoring the memory of Columbus in -1892. It is simply a reactionary craze from the overdone raptures of the school of Roselly de Lorgues and -the other advocates of the canonization of Columbus, in Catholic Europe.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_634_634" id="Footnote_634_634"></a><a href="#FNanchor_634_634"><span class="label">[634]</span></a></span> -This book is for the sagas the basis of the most useful book on the subject, Edmund Farwell Slafter’s -<i>Voyages of the Northmen to America</i>. <i>Including extracts from Icelandic Sagas relating to Western -voyages by Northmen in the 10th and 11th centuries in an English translation by Nathaniel Ludlow -Beamish; with a synopsis of the historical evidence and the opinion of professor Rafn as to the places visited -by the Scandinavians on the coast of America</i>. <i>With an introduction</i> (Boston, 1877), published by the -Prince Society. Slafter’s opinion is that the narratives are “true in their general outlines and important -features.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_635_635" id="Footnote_635_635"></a><a href="#FNanchor_635_635"><span class="label">[635]</span></a></span> -<i>Island, Huitramannaland, Grönland und Vinland</i> (Heidelberg, 1842).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_636_636" id="Footnote_636_636"></a><a href="#FNanchor_636_636"><span class="label">[636]</span></a></span> -<i>Die Entdeckung von Amerika durch die Isländer im zehnten und eilften Jahrhundert</i> (Braunschweig, -1844). Cf. E. G. Squier’s <i>Discovery of America by the Northmen, a critical review of the works -of Hermes, Rafn and Beamish</i> (1849).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_637_637" id="Footnote_637_637"></a><a href="#FNanchor_637_637"><span class="label">[637]</span></a></span> -Cf. his paper in the <i>Quebec Lit. and Hist. Soc. Trans.</i>, 1865.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_638_638" id="Footnote_638_638"></a><a href="#FNanchor_638_638"><span class="label">[638]</span></a></span> -Beauvois also made at a later period other contributions to the subject: <i>Les derniers vestiges du Christianisme -prêchés du X<sup>e</sup> au XIV<sup>e</sup> siècles dans le Markland et le Grande-Irlande, les porte-croix de la -Gaspésie at de l’Arcadie</i> (Paris, 1877) which appeared originally in the <i>Annales de philosophie Chrétiennes</i>, -Apr., 1877; and <i>Les Colonies européennes du Markland at de l’Escociland au XIV<sup>e</sup> siècle et les vestiges qui -en subsistèrent jusqu’aux XVI<sup>e</sup> et XVII<sup>e</sup> siècle</i> (Luxembourg, 1878), being taken from the <i>Compte Rendu</i> -of the Luxembourg meeting of the Congrès des Américanistes.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_639_639" id="Footnote_639_639"></a><a href="#FNanchor_639_639"><span class="label">[639]</span></a></span> -<i>Prehistoric Man</i>, 3d ed., ii. 83, 85. Cf. also his <i>Historic Footprints in America</i>, extracted from the -<i>Canadian Journal</i>, Sept., 1864.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_640_640" id="Footnote_640_640"></a><a href="#FNanchor_640_640"><span class="label">[640]</span></a></span> -Joseph Williamson, in the <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, Jan., 1869 (x. 30), sought to connect with the Northmen certain -ancient remains along the coast of Maine.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_641_641" id="Footnote_641_641"></a><a href="#FNanchor_641_641"><span class="label">[641]</span></a></span> -He was rather caustically taken to account by Henry Cabot Lodge, in the <i>No. Am. Review</i>, vol. cxix. -Cf. Michel Hardy’s <i>Les Scandinaves dans l’Amérique du Nord</i> (Dieppe, 1874). An April hoax which -appeared in a Washington paper in 1867, about some runes discovered on the Potomac, had been promptly -exposed in this country (<i>Hist. Mag.</i>, Mar. and Aug., 1869), but it had been accepted as true in the <i>Annuaire de -la Société Américaine</i> in 1873, and Gaffarel (<i>Etudes sur les Rapports de l’Amérique avant Columbus</i>, Paris, -1869, p. 251) and Gravier (p. 139) was drawn into the snare. (Cf. Whittlesey’s <i>Archæol. frauds</i> in the <i>Western -Reserve Hist. Soc. Tracts</i>, no. 9, and H. W. Haynes in <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, Jan., 1888, p. 59.) In a -later monograph, <i>Les Normands sur la route des Indes</i> (Rouen, 1880), Gravier, while still accepting the old -exploded geographical theories, undertook further to prove that the bruits of the Norse discoveries instigated -the seamen of Normandy to similar ventures, and that they visited America in ante-Columbian days.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_642_642" id="Footnote_642_642"></a><a href="#FNanchor_642_642"><span class="label">[642]</span></a></span> -There is an authorized German version, <i>Die erste Entdeckung von Amerika</i>, by Mathilde Mann (Hamburg, -1888).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_643_643" id="Footnote_643_643"></a><a href="#FNanchor_643_643"><span class="label">[643]</span></a></span> -<i>American in Iceland</i> (Boston, 1876).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_644_644" id="Footnote_644_644"></a><a href="#FNanchor_644_644"><span class="label">[644]</span></a></span> -<i>Land of Desolation</i> (New York, 1872). There is a French version in the <i>Tour du Monde</i>, xxvi.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_645_645" id="Footnote_645_645"></a><a href="#FNanchor_645_645"><span class="label">[645]</span></a></span> -<i>Lectures delivered in America</i> (Philad., 1875),—third lecture.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_646_646" id="Footnote_646_646"></a><a href="#FNanchor_646_646"><span class="label">[646]</span></a></span> -<i>Europäer in Amerika vor Columbus, nach Quellen bearbeitet von P. Oswald Moosmüller</i> (Regensburg, -1879).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_647_647" id="Footnote_647_647"></a><a href="#FNanchor_647_647"><span class="label">[647]</span></a></span> -<i>Larger History of the United States</i> (N. Y., 1886).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_648_648" id="Footnote_648_648"></a><a href="#FNanchor_648_648"><span class="label">[648]</span></a></span> -<i>Discoveries of America</i> (N. Y., 1884).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_649_649" id="Footnote_649_649"></a><a href="#FNanchor_649_649"><span class="label">[649]</span></a></span> -Particularly Beauvois, already mentioned, and Dr. E. Löffler, on the Vinland Excursions of the Ancient -Scandinavians, at the Copenhagen meeting, <i>Compte Rendu</i> (1883), p. 64. Cf. also Michel Hardy’s <i>Les -Scandinaves dans l’Amérique du Nord au X<sup>e</sup> Siècle</i> (Dieppe, 1874).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_650_650" id="Footnote_650_650"></a><a href="#FNanchor_650_650"><span class="label">[650]</span></a></span> -R. G. Haliburton, in <i>Roy. Geog. Soc. Proc.</i> (Jan., 1885); Thomas Morgan, in <i>Roy. Hist. Soc. Trans.</i> -iii. 75.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_651_651" id="Footnote_651_651"></a><a href="#FNanchor_651_651"><span class="label">[651]</span></a></span> -E. N. Horsford’s <i>Discovery of America by the Northmen</i> (Boston, 1888); Anderson’s <i>America not discovered -by Columbus</i>, 3d ed., p. 30; <i>N. Y. Nation</i>, Nov. 17, 1887; <i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, Mar., 1888, p. 223.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_652_652" id="Footnote_652_652"></a><a href="#FNanchor_652_652"><span class="label">[652]</span></a></span> -Remarks of Wm. Everett and Chas. Deane in the society’s <i>Proceedings</i>, May, 1880.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_653_653" id="Footnote_653_653"></a><a href="#FNanchor_653_653"><span class="label">[653]</span></a></span> -<i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, Dec., 1887. The most incautious linguistic inferences and the most uncritical -cartological perversions are presented by Eben Norton Horsford in his <i>Discovery of America by the Northmen—address -at the unveiling of the statue of Leif Eriksen, Oct. 29, 1887</i> (Boston, 1888). Cf. Oscar -Brenner in <i>Beilage zur Allgemeinen Zeitung</i> (Munich, Dec. 6, 1888). A trustful reliance upon the reputations -of those who have in greater or less degree accepted the details of the sagas characterizes a paper by -Mrs. Ole Bull in the <i>Mag. of Amer. Hist.</i>, Mar., 1888. She is naturally not inclined to make much allowance -for the patriotic zeal of the northern writers.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_654_654" id="Footnote_654_654"></a><a href="#FNanchor_654_654"><span class="label">[654]</span></a></span> -The best list is in P. B. Watson’s “Bibliog. of Pre-Columbian Discoveries of America,” originally in the -<i>Library Journal</i>, vi. 259, but more complete in Anderson’s <i>America not discovered by Columbus</i> (3d ed., -Chicago, 1883). Cf. also Chavanne’s <i>Literature of the Polar Regions</i>; Th. Solberg’s Bibliog. of Scandinavia, -in English, with magazine articles, in F. W. Horn’s <i>Hist. of the lit. of the Scandinavian North</i> (1884, pp. -413-500). There is a convenient brief list in Slafter’s <i>Voyages of the Northmen</i> (pp. 127-140), and a not -very well selected one in Marie A. Brown’s <i>Icelandic Discoverers</i>. <i>Poole’s Index</i> indicates the considerable -amount of periodical discussions. The Scandinavian writers are mainly referred to by Miss Brown and Mrs. -Bull.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_655_655" id="Footnote_655_655"></a><a href="#FNanchor_655_655"><span class="label">[655]</span></a></span> -Forster finds a corruption of Norvegia (Norway) in Norumbega. Rafn finds the Norse elements in the -words Massachusetts, Nauset, and Mount Hope (<i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, viii. 194-198). The word Hole, used -as synonymous to harbor in various localities along the Vineyard Sound, has been called a relic of the Icelandic -Holl, a hill (<i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, June, 1882, p. 431; Jos. S. Fay in <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, xii. 334; and in -Anderson, <i>America not discovered by Columbus</i>, 3d ed.).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Brasseur de Bourbourg in his <i>Nations civilisées du Méxique</i>, and more emphatically in his <i>Grammaire -Quichée</i>, had indicated what he thought a northern incursion before Leif, in certain seeming similarities to -the northern tongues of those of Guatemala. Cf. also <i>Nouv. Annales des Voyages</i>, 6th ser., xvi. 263; <i>N. Y. -Tribune</i>, Nov. 21, 1855; Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i>, iii. 762.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_656_656" id="Footnote_656_656"></a><a href="#FNanchor_656_656"><span class="label">[656]</span></a></span> -<i>De origine gentium Americanarum</i> (1642).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_657_657" id="Footnote_657_657"></a><a href="#FNanchor_657_657"><span class="label">[657]</span></a></span> -<i>Nouv. Ann. des Voyages</i>, 6th ser., vols. iii. and vi.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_658_658" id="Footnote_658_658"></a><a href="#FNanchor_658_658"><span class="label">[658]</span></a></span> -In Charnay’s <i>Ruines</i>, etc. (Paris, 1867).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_659_659" id="Footnote_659_659"></a><a href="#FNanchor_659_659"><span class="label">[659]</span></a></span> -<i>Découverte de l’America par les Normands</i> (Paris, 1864).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_660_660" id="Footnote_660_660"></a><a href="#FNanchor_660_660"><span class="label">[660]</span></a></span> -H. H. Bancroft, <i>Nat. Races</i>, v. 115-16, gives references on the peopling of America from the northwest of -Europe.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_661_661" id="Footnote_661_661"></a><a href="#FNanchor_661_661"><span class="label">[661]</span></a></span> -<i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Lit.</i>, xiv. 1887; also printed separately as <i>Mythology, legends and Folk-lore of the -Algonquins</i>. Cf. also his <i>Algonquin Legends of New England</i> (1885). Cf. D. G. Brinton in <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, -May, 1885.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_662_662" id="Footnote_662_662"></a><a href="#FNanchor_662_662"><span class="label">[662]</span></a></span> -Mr. Mitchell, of the U. S. Coast Survey, has attended to this part of the subject, and Horsford (p. 28) -quotes his MS. He finds on the Massachusetts coast what he thinks a sufficient correspondence to the description -of the sagas.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_663_663" id="Footnote_663_663"></a><a href="#FNanchor_663_663"><span class="label">[663]</span></a></span> -So plain a matter as the length of the longest summer day would indubitably point to an absolute parallel -of latitude as determining the site of Vinland, if there was no doubt in the language of the saga. Unfortunately -there is a wide divergence of opinion in the meaning of the words to be depended upon, even among -Icelandic scholars; and the later writers among them assert that Rafn (<i>Antiq. Amer.</i> 436) and Magnusen in -interpreting the language to confirm their theory of the Rhode Island bays have misconceived. Their argument -is summarized in the French version of Wheaton. John M’Caul translated Finn Magnusen’s “Ancient -Scandinavian divisions of the times of day,” in the <i>Mémoire de la Soc. Roy. des Antiq. du Nord</i> (1836-37). -Rask disputes Rafn’s deductions (<i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, xviii. 22). Torfæus, who is our best commentator -after all, says it meant Newfoundland. Robertson put it at 58° north. Dahlmann in his <i>Forschungen</i> (vol. i.) -places it on the coast of Labrador. Horsford (p. 66) at some length admits no question that it must have -been between 41° and 43° north. Cf. Laing’s <i>Heimskringla</i>, i. 173; Palfrey’s <i>New England</i>, i. 55; De -Costa’s <i>Pre-Columbian Disc.</i>, p. 33; Weise’s <i>Discoveries of America</i>, 31; and particularly Vigfússon in his -<i>English-Icelandic Dictionary</i> under “Eykt.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_664_664" id="Footnote_664_664"></a><a href="#FNanchor_664_664"><span class="label">[664]</span></a></span> -“The discovery of America,” says Laing (<i>Heimskringla</i>, i. 154), “rests entirely upon documentary evidence -which cannot, as in the case of Greenland, be substantiated by anything to be discovered in America.” Laing -and many of the commentators, by some strange process of reasoning, have determined that the proof of these -MS. records being written before Columbus’ visit to Iceland in 1477 is sufficient to establish the priority of -discovery for the Northmen, as if it was nothing in the case that the sagas may or may not be good history; -and nothing that it was the opinion entertained in Europe at that time that Greenland and the more distant -lands were not a new continent, but a prolongation of Europe by the north. It is curious, too, to observe that, -treating of events after 1492, Laing is quite willing to believe in any saga being “filled up and new invented,” -but is quite unwilling to believe anything of the kind as respects those written anterior to 1492; and yet he -goes on to prove conclusively that the <i>Flatoyensis Codex</i> is full of fable, as when the saga man makes the -eider-duck lay eggs where during the same weeks the grapes ripen and intoxicate when fresh, and the wheat -forms in the ear! Laing nevertheless rests his case on the <i>Flatoyensis Codex</i> in its most general scope, and -calls poets, but not antiquaries, those who attempt to make any additional evidence out of imaginary runes or -the identification of places.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_665_665" id="Footnote_665_665"></a><a href="#FNanchor_665_665"><span class="label">[665]</span></a></span> -It must be remembered that this divergence was not so wide to the Northmen as it seems to us. With -them the Atlantic was sometimes held to be a great basin that was enclasped from northwestern Europe by a -prolongation of Scandinavia into Greenland, Helluland, and Markland, and it was a question if the more -distant region of Vinland did not belong rather to the corresponding prolongation of Africa on the south. -Cf. De Costa, <i>Pre-Columbian Disc.</i>, 108; <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, xiii. 46.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_666_666" id="Footnote_666_666"></a><a href="#FNanchor_666_666"><span class="label">[666]</span></a></span> -He wrote “Here for the first time will be found indicated the precise spot where the ancient Northmen -held their intercourse.” The committee of the Mass. Hist. Soc. objected to this extreme confidence. <i>Proceedings</i>, -ii. 97, 107, 500, 505.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_667_667" id="Footnote_667_667"></a><a href="#FNanchor_667_667"><span class="label">[667]</span></a></span> -Reproduction of part of the plate in the <i>Antiquitates Americanæ</i>, after a drawing by J. R. Bartlett. The -engravings of the rock are numerous: <i>Mem. Amer. Acad.</i>, iii.; the works of Beamish, J. T. Smith, Gravier, -Gay, Higginson, etc.; Laing’s <i>Heimskringla</i>; the French ed. of Wheaton; Hermes’ <i>Entdeckung von America</i>; -Schoolcraft’s <i>Ind. Tribes</i>, i. 114, iv. 120; Drake’s ed., Philad., 1884, i. p. 88; the Copenhagen <i>Compte -Rendu, Congrès des Américanistes</i>, p. 70, from a photograph. The Hitchcock Museum at Amherst, Mass., -had a cast, and one was shown at the Albany meeting (1836) of the Am. Asso. for the Adv. of Science. The -rock was conveyed by deed in 1861 to the Roy. Soc. of Northern Antiquaries (<i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, v. 226; -vi. 252), but the society subsequently relinquished their title to a Boston committee, who charged itself with -the care of the monument; but in doing so the Danish antiquaries disclaimed all belief in its runic character -(<i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, iii. 236).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_668_668" id="Footnote_668_668"></a><a href="#FNanchor_668_668"><span class="label">[668]</span></a></span> -De Costa, <i>Pre-Col. Disc.</i>, 29; <i>N. E. Hist. Geneal. Reg.</i>, xviii. 37; Gay, <i>Pop. Hist.</i>, i. 41; <i>Mass. Hist. -Soc. Coll.</i>, viii. 72; <i>Am. Geog. Soc. Journal</i>, 1870, p. 50; <i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, Aug. and Sept., 1879.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_669_669" id="Footnote_669_669"></a><a href="#FNanchor_669_669"><span class="label">[669]</span></a></span> -<i>Am. Ass. Adv. Science, Proc.</i> (1856), ii. 214.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_670_670" id="Footnote_670_670"></a><a href="#FNanchor_670_670"><span class="label">[670]</span></a></span> -Cf. paper on the site of Vinland in <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, Feb., 1874, p. 94; Alex. Farnum’s <i>Visit of the Northmen -to Rhode Island</i> (<i>R. I. Hist. Tracts</i>, no. 2, 1877). The statement of the sagas that there was no frost in -Vinland and grass did not wither in winter compels some of the identifiers to resort to the precession of the -equinox as accounting for changes of climate (Gay’s <i>Pop. Hist.</i>, i. 50).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_671_671" id="Footnote_671_671"></a><a href="#FNanchor_671_671"><span class="label">[671]</span></a></span> -E. G. Squier in <i>Ethnological Journal</i>, 1848; Wilson’s Prehist. Man, ii. 98; <i>Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans.</i>, -i. 392; Schoolcraft’s <i>Indian Tribes</i>, iv. 118; <i>Mém. de la Soc. royale des Antiq. du Nord</i>, 1840-44, p. 127.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_672_672" id="Footnote_672_672"></a><a href="#FNanchor_672_672"><span class="label">[672]</span></a></span> -<i>Amer. Philos. Soc. Proc.</i>, May 2, 1884 (by Henry Phillips, Jr.); <i>Numismatic and Antiq. Soc. of Philad., -Proc.</i>, 1884, p. 17; Geo. S. Brown’s <i>Yarmouth</i> (Boston, 1888).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_673_673" id="Footnote_673_673"></a><a href="#FNanchor_673_673"><span class="label">[673]</span></a></span> -Wilson’s <i>Prehist. Man</i>, ii. 98; <i>Amer. Asso. Adv. Science, Proc.</i>, 1856, p. 214; <i>Séance annuelle de la -Soc. des Antiq. du Nord</i>, May 14, 1859; H. W. Haynes in <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, Jan., 1888, p. 56. The -Monhegan inscription, as examined by the late C. W. Tuttle and J. Wingate Thornton, was held to be natural -markings (<i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, ii. 308; <i>Pulpit of the Revolution</i>, 410). Charles Rau cites a striking instance -of the way in which the lively imagination of Finn Magnusen has misled him in interpreting weather cracks on -a rock in Sweden (<i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, ii. 83).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_674_674" id="Footnote_674_674"></a><a href="#FNanchor_674_674"><span class="label">[674]</span></a></span> -<i>N. E. Hist. Geneal. Reg.</i>, 1854, p. 185.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_675_675" id="Footnote_675_675"></a><a href="#FNanchor_675_675"><span class="label">[675]</span></a></span> -<i>Antiquitates Americanæ</i>, 335, 371, 401; <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, Oct., 1868, p. 13; W. J. Miller’s -<i>Wampanoag Indians</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_676_676" id="Footnote_676_676"></a><a href="#FNanchor_676_676"><span class="label">[676]</span></a></span> -Cf. list of inscribed rocks in the <i>Proceedings</i> (vol. ii.) of the Davenport Acad. of Natural Sciences.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_677_677" id="Footnote_677_677"></a><a href="#FNanchor_677_677"><span class="label">[677]</span></a></span> -The stone with its inscription early attracted attention, but Danforth’s drawing of 1680 is the earliest -known. Cotton Mather, in a dedicatory epistle to Sir Henry Ashurst, prefixed to his <i>Wonderful Works of -God commemorated</i> (Boston, 1690), gave a cut of a part of the inscription; and he communicated an account -with a drawing of the inscription to the Royal Society in 1712, which appears in their <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>. -Dr. Isaac Greenwood sent another draft to the Society of Antiquaries in London in 1730, and -their <i>Transactions</i> in 1732 has this of Greenwood. In 1768 Professor Stephen Sewall of Cambridge made -a copy of the natural size, which was sent in 1774 by Professor James Winthrop to the Royal Society. -Dr. Stiles says that Sewall sent it to Gebelin, of the French Academy, whose members judged them to -be Punic characters. Stiles himself, in 1783, in an election sermon delivered at Hartford, spoke of “the -visit by the Phœnicians, who charged the Dighton Rock and other rocks in Narragansett Bay with Punic -inscriptions remaining to this day, which last I myself have repeatedly seen and taken off at large.” Cf. -Thornton’s <i>Pulpit of the Revolution</i>, p. 410. The <i>Archæologia</i> (London, viii. for 1786) gave various drawings, -with a paper by the Rev. Michael Lort and some notes by Charles Vallancey, in which the opinion was -expressed that the inscription was the work of a people from Siberia, driven south by hordes of Tartars. -Professor Winthrop in 1788 filled the marks, as he understood them, with printer’s ink, and in this way took -an actual impression of the inscription. His copy was engraved in the <i>Memoirs of the American Academy -of Arts and Sciences</i> (vol. ii. for 1793). It was this copy by Winthrop which Washington in 1789 saw at -Cambridge, when he pronounced the inscription as similar to those made by the Indians, which he had been -accustomed to see in the western country during his life as a surveyor. Cf. <i>Belknap Papers, Mass. Hist. Soc. -Coll.</i>, ii. 76, 77, 81; <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, x. 114. In 1789 there was also presented to the Academy a copy -made by Joseph Gooding under the direction of Francis Baylies (<i>Belknap Papers</i>, ii. 160). In the third -volume of the Academy’s <i>Memoirs</i> there are papers on the inscription by John Davis and Edward A. Kendall; -Davis (1807) thinking it a representation of an Indian deer hunt, and Kendall later, in his <i>Travels</i> (vol. ii. -1809), assigns it to the Indians. This description is copied in Barber’s <i>Historical Collections of Mass.</i> (p. -117). In 1812 a drawing was made by Job Gardner, and in 1825 there was further discussion in the <i>Mémoires -de la Société de Géographie de Paris</i>, and in the <i>Hist. of New York</i> by Yates and Moulton. In 1831 there -was a cut in Ira Hill’s <i>Antiquities of America explained</i> (Hagerstown, Md.) This was in effect the history -of the interest in the rock up to the appearance of Rafn’s <i>Antiquitates Americanæ</i>, in which for the first time -the inscription was represented as being the work of the Northmen. This belief is now shared by few, if -any, temperate students. The exuberant Anderson thinks that the rock removes all doubt of the Northmen -discovery (<i>America not discovered by Columbus</i>, pp. 21, 23, 83). The credulous Gravier has not a doubt. -Cf. his <i>Notice sur le roc de Dighton et le séjour des Scandinaves en Amérique au commencement du -XI<sup>e</sup> siècle</i> (Nancy, 1875), reprinted from the <i>Compte Rendu, Congrès des Américanistes</i>, i. 166, giving Rafn’s -drawing. The Rev. J. P. Bodfish accepts its evidence in the <i>Proc. Second Pub. Meeting U. S. Cath. Hist. -Soc.</i> (N. Y., 1886).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_678_678" id="Footnote_678_678"></a><a href="#FNanchor_678_678"><span class="label">[678]</span></a></span> -<i>Pre-Columbian Discovery of America</i>, p. lvii. The <i>Brinley Catalogue</i>, iii. 5378, gives Dammartin’s <i>Explification -de la Pierre de Taunston</i> (Paris? 1840-50) as finding in the inscription an astronomical theme by -some nation foreign to America. Buckingham Smith believed it to be a Roman Catholic invocation, around -which the Indians later put their symbols (<i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, Apr. 29, 1863, p. 32). For discussions -more or less extensive see Laing’s <i>Heimskringla</i>, i. 175; Haven in <i>Smithsonian Contributions</i>, 1856, viii. -133, in a paper on the “Archæology of the United States;” Charles Rau in <i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, Feb., 1878; -Apr., 1879; and in <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, i. 38; Daniel Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, ii. 97; J. R. Bartlett in -<i>Rhode Island Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, 1872-73, p. 70; Haven and others in <i>Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, Oct., 1864, and -Oct., 1867; H. H. Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i>, v. 74; Drake’s <i>N. E. Coast; North American Rev.</i>, 1874; <i>Amer. -Biblical Repository</i>, July, 1839; <i>Historical Mag.</i>, Dec., 1859, and March, 1869; Lelewel’s <i>Moyen Age</i>, iii.; -H. W. Williams’s transl. of Humboldt’s <i>Travels</i>, i. 157, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_679_679" id="Footnote_679_679"></a><a href="#FNanchor_679_679"><span class="label">[679]</span></a></span> -Schoolcraft wavered in his opinion. (Cf. Haven, 133.) He showed Gooding’s drawing to an Algonkin -chief, who found in it a record of a battle of the Indians, except that some figures near the centre did not -belong to it, and these Schoolcraft thought might be runic, as De Costa has later suggested; but in 1853 -Schoolcraft made no reservation in pronouncing it entirely Indian (<i>Indian Tribes</i>, i. 112; iv. 120; pl. 14). -Wilson (<i>Prehist. Man</i>, ii., ch. 19) is severe on Schoolcraft. On the general character of Indian rock -inscriptions,—some of which in the delineations accompanying these accounts closely resemble the Dighton -Rock,—see Mallery in the <i>Bureau of Ethnology, Fourth Report</i>, p. 19; Lieut. A. M. Wheeler’s Report on -Indian tribes in <i>Pacific Rail Road Reports</i>, ii.; J. G. Bruff on those of Green River in the Sierra Nevada, in -<i>Smithsonian Rept.</i> (1872); <i>American Antiquarian</i>, iv. 259; vi. 119; <i>Western Reserve Hist. Soc. Tracts</i>, -nos. 42, 44, 52, 53, 56; T. Ewbank’s <i>No. Amer. Rock Writing</i> (Morrisania, 1866); Brinton’s <i>Myths of the -New World</i>, p. 10; Tylor’s <i>Early Hist. Mankind</i>; Dr. Richard Andree’s <i>Ethnographische Parallelen und -Vergleiche</i> (Stuttgard, 1878). It is Mallery’s opinion that no “considerable information of value in an historical -point of view will be obtained directly from the interpretations of the Pictographs in North America.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_680_680" id="Footnote_680_680"></a><a href="#FNanchor_680_680"><span class="label">[680]</span></a></span> -Palfrey, i. p. 57; Higginson’s <i>Larger Hist.</i>, 44; Gay’s <i>Pop. Hist.</i>, i. 59, 60; Laing’s <i>Heimskringla</i>, i. -183; Charles T. Brooks’s <i>Controversy touching the old stone mill in Newport</i> (Newport, 1851); Peterson’s -<i>Rhode Island</i>; Drake’s <i>New England Coast</i>; Schoolcraft’s <i>Indian Tribes</i>, iv. 120; Bishop’s <i>Amer. Manufactures</i>, -i. 118; C. S. Pierce in <i>Science</i>, iv. 512, who endeavored by measurement to get at what was the unit -of measure used,—an effort not very successful. Cf. references in <i>Poole’s Index</i>, p. 913.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Gaffarel accepts the Rafn view in his <i>Etudes sur la rapports</i>, etc., 282, as does Gravier in his <i>Normands -sur la route</i>, p. 168; and De Costa (<i>Pre-Columbian Disc.</i>, p. lviii) intimates that “all is in a measure doubtful.” -R. G. Hatfield (<i>Scribner’s Monthly</i>, Mar., 1879) in an illustrated paper undertook to show by comparison -with Scandinavian building that what is now standing is but the central part of a Vinland baptistery, -and that the projection which supported the radiating roof timbers is still to be seen. This paper was -answered by George C. Mason (<i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, iii. 541, Sept., 1879, with other remarks in the <i>Amer. -Architect</i>, Oct. 4, 1879), who rehearsed the views of the local antiquaries as to its connection with Gov. -Arnold. Cf. <i>Reminiscences of Newport</i>, by Geo. C. Mason, 1884.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_681_681" id="Footnote_681_681"></a><a href="#FNanchor_681_681"><span class="label">[681]</span></a></span> -<i>Hist. Mag.</i>, Apr., 1862, p. 123; <i>N. E. Hist. Geneal. Reg.</i>, 1865, p. 372; Abner Morse’s <i>Traces of the -Ancient Northmen in America</i> (Aug., 1861), with a <i>Supplement</i> (Boston, 1887).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_682_682" id="Footnote_682_682"></a><a href="#FNanchor_682_682"><span class="label">[682]</span></a></span> -<i>Mémoires de la Soc. roy. des Antiq. du Nord</i>, 1843; <i>New Jersey Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, vi.; Stone’s <i>Brant</i>, ii. -593-94; Schoolcraft’s <i>Ind. Tribes</i>, i. 127; <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, 1883, p. 902; Dr. Kneeland in <i>Peabody Mus. -Repts.</i>, no. 20, p. 543. The skeleton was destroyed by fire about 1843.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_683_683" id="Footnote_683_683"></a><a href="#FNanchor_683_683"><span class="label">[683]</span></a></span> -Dawkins in his <i>Cave Hunters</i> accounts them survivors of the cave dwellers of Europe. Cf. Wilson’s -<i>Prehistoric Man</i>. A. R. Grote (<i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, Apr., 1877) holds them to be the survivors of the palæolithic -man.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_684_684" id="Footnote_684_684"></a><a href="#FNanchor_684_684"><span class="label">[684]</span></a></span> -E. Beauvois’ <i>Les Skroelings, Ancêtres des Esquimaux</i> (Paris, 1879); B. F. DeCosta in <i>Pop. Science -Monthly</i>, Nov., 1884; A. S. Packard on their former range southward, in the <i>American Naturalist</i>, xix. 471, -553, and his paper on the Eskimos of Labrador, in <i>Appleton’s Journal</i>, Dec. 9, 1871 (reprinted in Beach’s -<i>Indian Miscellany</i>, Albany, 1877). Humboldt holds them to have been driven across America to Europe -(<i>Views of Nature</i>, Bohn’s ed., 123). Ethnologists are not wholly agreed as to the course of their migrations. -The material for the ethnological study of the Eskimos must be looked for in the narratives of the Arctic -voyagers, like Scoresby, Parry, Ross, O’Reilly, Kane, C. F. Hall, and the rest; in the accounts by the missionaries -like Egede, Crantz, and others; by students of ethnology, like Lubbock (<i>Prehist. Times</i>, ch. 14); Prichard -(<i>Researches</i>, v. 367); Waitz (<i>Amerikaner</i>, i. 300); the Abbé Morillot (<i>Mythologie et légendes des Esquimaux -du Groenland in the Actes de la Soc. Philologique</i> (Paris, 1875), vol. iv.); Morgan (<i>Systems of Consanguinity</i>, -267), who excludes them from his Ganowanian family; Irving C. Rosse on the northern inhabitants (<i>Journal -Amer. Geog. Soc.</i>, 1883, p. 163); Ludwig Kumlien in his <i>Contributions to the natural history of Arctic -America</i>, made in connection with the Howgate polar expedition, 1877-78, in <i>Bull. of the U. S. Naval -Museum</i> (Washington, 1879), no. 15; and his paper in the <i>Smithsonian Report</i> (1878). There are several -helpful papers in the <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i> (London), vol. i., by Richard King, on their -intellectual character; vol. iv. by P. C. Sutherland; vol. vii. by John Rae on their migrations, and W. H. -Flower on their skulls; vol. ix. by W. J. Sollars on their bone implements. For other references see Bancroft, -<i>Native Races</i>, i. 41, 138; <i>Poole’s Index</i>, p. 424, and <i>Supplement</i>, p. 146.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_685_685" id="Footnote_685_685"></a><a href="#FNanchor_685_685"><span class="label">[685]</span></a></span> -This evidence is of course rather indicative of a geological antiquity not to be associated with the age of -the Northmen. Cf. Murray’s <i>Distribution of Animals</i>, 128; Howarth’s <i>Mammoth and Flood</i>, 285.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_686_686" id="Footnote_686_686"></a><a href="#FNanchor_686_686"><span class="label">[686]</span></a></span> -Rink, born in 1819 in Copenhagen, spent much of the interval from 1853 to 1872 in Greenland. Pilling -(<i>Bibl. Eskimo Language</i>, p. 80) gives the best account of Rink’s publications. His principal book is <i>Grönland -geographisch und statistisch beschrieben</i> (Stuttgart, 1860). The English reader has access to his <i>Tales and -Traditions of the Eskimo</i>, translated by Rink himself, and edited by Dr. Robert Brown (London, 1875); to -<i>Danish Greenland, its people and its products</i>, ed. by Dr. Brown (London, 1877). Rink says of this work -that in its English dress it must be considered a new book. He also published <i>The Eskimo tribes; their -distribution and characteristics, especially in regard to language. With a comparative vocabulary</i> (Copenhagen, -etc., 1887). He also considered their dialects as divulging the relationship of tribes in the <i>Journal -of the Anthropological Institute</i> (xv. 239); and in the same journal (1872, p. 104) he has written of their descent. -Rink also furnished to the <i>Compte Rendu, Congrès des Américanistes</i>, a paper on the traditions of Greenland -(Nancy, 1875, ii. 181), and (Luxembourg, 1877, ii. 327) another on “L’habitat primitif des Esquimaux.”</p> -<p class="pfn4">Dr. Brown has also considered the “Origin of the Eskimo” in the <i>Archæological Review</i> (1888), no. 4.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_687_687" id="Footnote_687_687"></a><a href="#FNanchor_687_687"><span class="label">[687]</span></a></span> -<i>Alaska and its Resources</i>, p. 374; and in <i>Contributions to Amer. Ethnology</i>, i. 93.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_688_688" id="Footnote_688_688"></a><a href="#FNanchor_688_688"><span class="label">[688]</span></a></span> -“On the origin and migrations of the Greenland Esquimaux” in the <i>Journal Royal Geog. Soc.</i>, 1865; -“The Arctic highlanders” in the <i>Lond. Ethnol. Soc. Trans.</i> (1866), iv. 125, and in <i>Arctic Geography and -Ethnology</i> (London, 1875), published by the Royal Geog. Society.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_689_689" id="Footnote_689_689"></a><a href="#FNanchor_689_689"><span class="label">[689]</span></a></span> -<i>American Antiquarian</i>, Jan., 1888. Cf. other papers by him in the <i>Proc. Roy. Soc. of Canada</i>, vol. v. -“A year among the Eskimos” in the <i>Journal Amer. Geog. Soc.</i>, 1887, xix. p. 383; “Reise in Baffinland” -in the proceedings of the Berlin Gesellschaft für Erdkunde (1885). Cf. Pilling’s Eskimo Bibliog., p. 12; and -for linguistic evidences of tribal differences, pp. 69-72, 81-82. Cf. also H. H. Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i>, iii. -574, and Lucien Adam’s “En quoi la langue Esquimaude, deffère-t-elle grammaticalement des autres langues -de l’Amérique du Nord?” in the <i>Compte Rendu, Congrès des Amér.</i> (Copenhagen), p. 337.</p> -<p class="pfn4">Anton von Etzel’s <i>Grönland, geographisch und statistisch beschrieben aus Dänischen Quellschriften</i> -(Stuttgart, 1860) goes cursorily over the early history, and describes the Eskimos. Cf. F. Schwatka in <i>Amer. -Magazine</i>, Aug., 1888.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_690_690" id="Footnote_690_690"></a><a href="#FNanchor_690_690"><span class="label">[690]</span></a></span> -There is an easy way of tracing these accounts in Joel A. Allen’s <i>List of Works and Papers relating to -the mammalian orders of Cete and Sirenia</i>, extracted from the <i>Bulletin of Hayden’s U. S. Geol. and Geog. -Survey</i> (Washington, 1882). It is necessary to bear in mind that Spitzbergen is often called Greenland in -these accounts.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_691_691" id="Footnote_691_691"></a><a href="#FNanchor_691_691"><span class="label">[691]</span></a></span> -His book, <i>Det gamle Grönlands nye Perlustration</i>, etc., was first published at Copenhagen in 1729. -Pilling (<i>Bibliog. of the Eskimo language</i>, p. 26) was able to find only a single copy of this book, that in the -British Museum. Muller (<i>Books on America</i>, Amsterdam, 1872, no. 648) describes a copy. This first edition -escaped the notice of J. A. Allen, whose list is very carefully prepared (nos. 217, 220, 226, 230, 235). There -were two German editions of this original form of the book, Frankfort, 1730, and Hamburg, 1740, according -to the <i>Carter-Brown Catalogue</i> (ii. 448, 647), but Pilling gives only the first. The 1729 edition was enlarged -in the Copenhagen edition of 1741, which has a map, “Gronlandia Antiqua,” showing the east colony and -west colony, respectively, east and west of Cape Farewell. This edition is the basis of the various translations: -In German, Copenhagen, 1742, using the plates of the 1741 ed.; Berlin, 1763. In Dutch, Delft, 1746. -In French, Copenhagen, 1763. In English, London, 1745; abstracted in the <i>Philosoph. Transactions Royal -Soc.</i> (1744), xlii. no. 47; and again, London (1818), with an historical introduction based on Torfæus and La -Peyrère. Crantz epitomizes Egede’s career in Greenland.</p> -<p class="pfn4">The bibliography in Sabin’s <i>Dictionary</i> (vi. 22,018, etc.) confounds the Greenland journal (1770-78) of Hans -Egede’s grandson, Hans Egede Saabye (b. 1746; d. 1817), with the work of the grandfather. This journal is -of importance as regards the Eskimos and the missions among them. There is an English version: <i>Greenland: -extracts from a journal kept in 1770 to 1778. Prefixed an introduction; illus. by chart of Greenland, -by G. Fries. Transl. from the German</i> <i>[by H. E. Lloyd]</i> (London, 1818). The map follows that of -the son of Hans, Paul Egede, whose <i>Nachrichten von Grönland aus einem Tagebuche von Bischof Paul -Egede</i> (Copenhagen, 1790) must also be kept distinct. Pilling’s <i>Bibliog. of the Eskimo language</i> affords the -best guide.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_692_692" id="Footnote_692_692"></a><a href="#FNanchor_692_692"><span class="label">[692]</span></a></span> -An English translation by Macdougall was published in London in 1837 (Pilling, p. 38; Field, no. 619). -A French version of Graah’s introduction with notes by M. de la Roquette was published in 1835. Cf. -<i>Journal Royal Geog. Soc.</i>, i. 247. After Graah’s publication Rafn placed the Osterbygden on the west coast -in his map. Graah’s report (1830) is in French in the <i>Bull. de la Soc. de Géog. de Paris</i>, 1830.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_693_693" id="Footnote_693_693"></a><a href="#FNanchor_693_693"><span class="label">[693]</span></a></span> -On the present scant, if not absence of, population on the east coast of Greenland, see J. D. Whitney’s -<i>Climatic Changes of later geological times</i> (<i>Mus. of Comp. Zoöl. Mem.</i>, vii. p. 303, Cambridge, 1882).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_694_694" id="Footnote_694_694"></a><a href="#FNanchor_694_694"><span class="label">[694]</span></a></span> -The changes in opinion respecting the sites of the colonies and the successive explorations are followed -in the <i>Compte Rendu, Congrès des Américanistes</i> by Steenstrup (p. 114) and by Valdemar-Schmidt, “Sur -les Voyages des Danois au Groenland” (195, 205, with references). Cf. on these lost colonies and the search -for them <i>Westminster Review</i>, xxvii. 139; <i>Harper’s Monthly</i>, xliv. 65 (by I. I. Hayes); <i>Lippincott’s Mag.</i>, -Aug., 1878; <i>Amer. Church Rev.</i>, xxi. 338; and in the general histories, La Peyrère (Dutch transl., Amsterdam, -1678); Crantz (Eng. transl., 1767, p. 272); Egede (Eng. ed., 1818, introd.); and Rink’s <i>Danish Greenland</i>, -ch. 1.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_695_695" id="Footnote_695_695"></a><a href="#FNanchor_695_695"><span class="label">[695]</span></a></span> -The original of Bardsen’s account has disappeared, but Rafn puts it in Latin, translating from an early -copy found in the Faröe Islands (<i>Antiquitates Américanæ</i>, p. 300). Purchas gives it in English, from a -copy which had belonged to Hudson, being translated from a Dutch version which Hudson had borrowed, the -Dutch being rendered by Barentz from a German version. Major also prints it in <i>Voyages of the Zeni</i>. He -recognizes in Bardsen’s “Gunnbiorn’s Skerries” the island which is marked in Ruysch’s map (1507) as blown -up in 1456 (see Vol. III. p. 9).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_696_696" id="Footnote_696_696"></a><a href="#FNanchor_696_696"><span class="label">[696]</span></a></span> -Hakluyt, however, prints some pertinent verses by Meredith, a Welsh bard, in 1477.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_697_697" id="Footnote_697_697"></a><a href="#FNanchor_697_697"><span class="label">[697]</span></a></span> -<i>Murphy Catal.</i>, no. 1489; Sabin, x. p. 322; <i>Carter-Brown Catal.</i> for eds. of 1584, 1697, 1702, 1774, 1811, -1832, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_698_698" id="Footnote_698_698"></a><a href="#FNanchor_698_698"><span class="label">[698]</span></a></span> -In the seventeenth century there were a variety of symptoms of the English eagerness to get the claims of -Madoc substantiated, as in Sir Richard Hawkins’s <i>Observations</i> (Hakluyt Soc., 1847), and James Howell’s -<i>Familiar Letters</i> (London, 1645). Belknap (<i>Amer. Biog.</i>, 1794, i. p. 58) takes this view of Hakluyt’s purpose; -but Pinkerton, <i>Voyages</i>, 1812, xii. 157, thinks such a charge an aspersion. The subject was mentioned with some -particularity or incidentally by Purchas, Abbott (<i>Brief Description</i>, London, 1620, 1634, 1677), Smith (<i>Virginia</i>), -and Fox (<i>North-West Fox</i>). Sir Thomas Herbert in his <i>Relation of some Travaile into Africa and -Asia</i> (London, 1634) tracks Madoc to Newfoundland, and he also found Cymric words in Mexico, which -assured him in his search for further proofs (Bohn’s <i>Lowndes</i>, p. 1049; Carter-Brown, ii. 413, 1166).</p> -<p class="pfn4">The <i>Nieuwe en onbekende Weereld</i> of Montanus (Amsterdam, 1671) made the story more familiar. It -necessarily entered into the discussions of the learned men who, in the seventeenth century, were busied with -the question of the origin of the Americans, as in De Laet’s <i>Notæ ad dissertationem Hugonis Grotii</i> (Paris, -1643), who is inclined to believe the story, as is Hornius in his <i>De Originibus Americaniis</i> (1652).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_699_699" id="Footnote_699_699"></a><a href="#FNanchor_699_699"><span class="label">[699]</span></a></span> -Cf. Catlin’s <i>No. Amer. Indians</i>, i. 207; ii. 259, 262.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_700_700" id="Footnote_700_700"></a><a href="#FNanchor_700_700"><span class="label">[700]</span></a></span> -<i>Gentleman’s Magazine</i>. It is reprinted in H. H. Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i>, v. 119, and in Baldwin’s <i>Anc. -America</i>, 286. Cf. John Paul Marana, Letters writ by a Turkish Spy, 1691, and later. The story had been -told in <i>The British Sailors’ Directory</i> in 1739 (Carter-Brown, iii. 599).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_701_701" id="Footnote_701_701"></a><a href="#FNanchor_701_701"><span class="label">[701]</span></a></span> -Warden’s <i>Recherches</i>, p. 157; Amos Stoddard’s <i>Sketches of Louisiana</i> (Philad., 1812), ch. 17, and <i>Philad. -Med. and Physical Journal</i>, 1805; with views <i>pro</i> and <i>con</i> by Harry Toulmin and B. S. Barton.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_702_702" id="Footnote_702_702"></a><a href="#FNanchor_702_702"><span class="label">[702]</span></a></span> -The book was reprinted by Sabin, N. Y., 1865, with an introduction by Horatio Gates Jones.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_703_703" id="Footnote_703_703"></a><a href="#FNanchor_703_703"><span class="label">[703]</span></a></span> -<i>An inquiry into the truth of the tradition concerning the discovery of America by Prince Madog</i> (Lond., -1791), and <i>Further Observations ... containing the account given by General Bowles, the Creek or Cherokee -Indian, lately in London, and by several others, of a Welsh tribe of Indians now living in the western -parts of North America</i> (Lond., 1792,—Field’s <i>Ind. Bibliog.</i>, nos. 1664-65). Carey’s <i>American Museum</i> -(April, May, 1792), xi. 152, etc., gave extracts from Williams.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_704_704" id="Footnote_704_704"></a><a href="#FNanchor_704_704"><span class="label">[704]</span></a></span> -<i>The Welsh Indians, or a collection of papers respecting a people whose ancestors emigrated from Wales -to America with Prince Madoc, and who are now said to inhabit a beautiful country on the west side of -the Mississippi</i> (London, 1797). He finds these conditions in the Padoucas. Goodson, <i>Straits of Anian</i> -(Portsmouth, 1793), p. 71, makes Padoucahs out of “Madogwys”!</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_705_705" id="Footnote_705_705"></a><a href="#FNanchor_705_705"><span class="label">[705]</span></a></span> -<i>Chambers’ Journal</i>, vi. 411, mentioning the Asguaws.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_706_706" id="Footnote_706_706"></a><a href="#FNanchor_706_706"><span class="label">[706]</span></a></span> -<i>Letter on the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the No. Amer. Indians</i> (N. Y., 1842).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_707_707" id="Footnote_707_707"></a><a href="#FNanchor_707_707"><span class="label">[707]</span></a></span> -He convinced, for instance, Fontaine in his <i>How the World was Peopled</i>, p. 142.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_708_708" id="Footnote_708_708"></a><a href="#FNanchor_708_708"><span class="label">[708]</span></a></span> -On the variety of complexion among the Indians, see Short’s <i>No. Amer. of Antiq.</i>, p. 189; McCulloh’s -<i>Researches</i>; Haven, <i>Archæol. U. S.</i>, 48; Morton in <i>Schoolcraft</i>, ii. 320; <i>Ethnolog. Journal</i>, London, July, -1848; App. 1849, commenting on Morton.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_709_709" id="Footnote_709_709"></a><a href="#FNanchor_709_709"><span class="label">[709]</span></a></span> -Pilling, <i>Bibliog. of Siouan languages</i> (Washington, 1887, p. 48), enumerates the authorities on the -Mandan tongue. The tribe is now extinct. Cf. Morgan’s <i>Systems of Consanguinity</i>, p. 181.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_710_710" id="Footnote_710_710"></a><a href="#FNanchor_710_710"><span class="label">[710]</span></a></span> -See also <i>Smithsonian Report</i>, 1885, Part ii. pp. 80, 271, 349, 449. Ruxton in <i>Life in the Far West</i> -(N. Y., 1846) found Welsh traces in the speech of the Mowquas, and S. Y. McMaster in <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, -1865, heard Welsh sounds among the Navajos.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_711_711" id="Footnote_711_711"></a><a href="#FNanchor_711_711"><span class="label">[711]</span></a></span> -Filson in his <i>Kentucke</i> has also pointed out this possibility.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_712_712" id="Footnote_712_712"></a><a href="#FNanchor_712_712"><span class="label">[712]</span></a></span> -The bibliography of the subject can be followed in Watson’s list, already referred to, and in that in the <i>Amer. -Bibliopolist</i>, Feb., 1869. A few additional references may help complete these lists: Stephens’s <i>Literature of -the Cymry</i>, ch. 2; the Abbé Domenech’s <i>Seven Years in the Great Desert of America</i>; Tytler’s <i>Progress of -Discovery</i>; Moosmüller’s <i>Europäer in Amerika vor Columbus</i> (Regensburg, 1879, ch. 21); Gaffarel’s <i>Rapport</i> -etc., p. 216; <i>Analytical Mag.</i>, ii. 409; <i>Atlantic Monthly,</i> xxxvii. 305; <i>No. Am. Rev.</i> (by E. E. Hale), lxxxv. -305; <i>Antiquary</i>, iv. 65; <i>Southern Presbyterian Rev.</i>, Jan., April, 1878; <i>Notes and Queries</i>, index.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_713_713" id="Footnote_713_713"></a><a href="#FNanchor_713_713"><span class="label">[713]</span></a></span> -This Ptolemy map is reproduced in Gravier’s <i>Les Normands sur la route</i>, etc., 6th part, ch. 1; and in -Nordenskjöld’s <i>Studien und Forschungen</i> (Leipzig, 1805), p. 25. The Ptolemy of 1562 has the same plate.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_714_714" id="Footnote_714_714"></a><a href="#FNanchor_714_714"><span class="label">[714]</span></a></span> -J. R. Forster’s <i>Discoveries in the Northern Regions</i>. His confidence was shared by Eggers (1794) in his -<i>True Site of Old East Greenland</i> (Kiel), who doubts, however, if the descriptions of Estotiland apply to -America. It was held to be a confirmation of the chart that both the east and west Greenland colonies were -on the side of Davis’s Straits.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_715_715" id="Footnote_715_715"></a><a href="#FNanchor_715_715"><span class="label">[715]</span></a></span> -Buache reproduced the map, and read in 1784, before the Academy of Inscriptions in Paris, his <i>Mémoire -sur la Frisland</i>, which was printed by the Academy in 1787, p. 430.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_716_716" id="Footnote_716_716"></a><a href="#FNanchor_716_716"><span class="label">[716]</span></a></span> -<i>Dissertazione intorno ai viaggi e scoperte settentrionali di Nicolo e Antonio Fratelli Zeni.</i> This paper -was substantially reproduced in the same writer’s <i>Di Marco Polo e degli altri Viaggiatori veneziani più -illustri dissertazioni</i> (Venice, 1818).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_717_717" id="Footnote_717_717"></a><a href="#FNanchor_717_717"><span class="label">[717]</span></a></span> -<i>Annales des Voyages</i> (1810), x. 72; <i>Précis de la Géographie</i> (1817).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_718_718" id="Footnote_718_718"></a><a href="#FNanchor_718_718"><span class="label">[718]</span></a></span> -<i>Nordisk Tidsskrift for Oldkyndighed</i> (Copenhagen, 1834), vol. i. p. 1; <i>Royal Geog. Soc. Journal</i> (London, -1835), v. 102; <i>Annales des Voyages</i> (1836), xi.</p> -<p class="pfn4">George Folsom, in the <i>No. Amer. Rev.</i>, July, 1838, criticised Zahrtmann, and sustained an opposite view. T. -H. Bredsdorff discussed the question in the <i>Grönlands Historiske Mindesmæker</i> (iii. 529); and La Roquette -furnished the article in Michaud’s Biog. <i>Universelle</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_719_719" id="Footnote_719_719"></a><a href="#FNanchor_719_719"><span class="label">[719]</span></a></span> -Major also, in his paper (<i>Royal Geog. Soc. Journal</i>, 1873) on “The Site of the Lost Colony of Greenland -determined, and the pre-Columbian discoveries of America confirmed, from fourteenth century documents,” -used the Zeno account and map in connection with Ivan Bardsen’s Sailing Directions in placing the missing -colony near Cape Farewell. Major epitomized his views on the question in <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, Oct., 1874. -Sir H. C. Rawlinson commented on Major’s views in his address before the Royal Geog. Society (<i>Journal</i>, -1873, p. clxxxvii).</p> -<p class="pfn4">Stevens (<i>Bibl. Geographica</i>, no. 3104) said: “If the map be genuine, the most of its geography is false, -while a part of it is remarkably accurate.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_720_720" id="Footnote_720_720"></a><a href="#FNanchor_720_720"><span class="label">[720]</span></a></span> -<i>I viaggi e la Carta dei Fratelli Zeno Veneziani</i> (Florence, 1878), and a <i>Studio Secondo</i> (<i>Estratto dall. -Archivio Storico Italiano</i>) in 1885.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_721_721" id="Footnote_721_721"></a><a href="#FNanchor_721_721"><span class="label">[721]</span></a></span> -“Zeniernes Rejse til Norden et Tolkning Forsoeg,” with a fac-simile of the Zeni map.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_722_722" id="Footnote_722_722"></a><a href="#FNanchor_722_722"><span class="label">[722]</span></a></span> -Nordenskjöld’s <i>Om bröderna Zenos resor och de äldsta kartor öfner Norden</i> was published at Stockholm -in 1883, as an address on leaving the presidency of the Swedish Academy, April 12, 1882; and in the same year, -at the Copenhagen meeting of the Congrès des Américanistes, he presented his <i>Trois Cartes précolumbiennes, -représentant une partie de l’Amérique</i> (Greenland), which included facsimiles of the Zeno (1558) and Donis -(1482) maps with that of Claudius Clavus (1427). This last represents “Islandia” lying midway alone in the -sea between “Norwegica Regio” and “Gronlandia provincia.” The “Congelatum mare” is made to flow north -of Norway, so as almost to meet the northern Baltic, while north of this frozen sea is an Arctic region, of which -Greenland is but an extension south and west. The student will find these and other maps making part of -the address already referred to, which also makes part in German of his <i>Studien und Forschungen veranlasst -durch meine Reisen im hohen Norden, autorisirte deutsche Ausgabe</i> (Leipzig, 1885). The maps accompanying -it not already referred to are the usual Ptolemy map of the north of Europe, based on a MS. of the -fourteenth century; the “Scandinavia” from the <i>Isolario</i> of Bordone, 1547; that of the world in the MS. -<i>Insularium illustratum</i> of Henricus Martellus, of the fifteenth century, in the British Museum, copied from -the sketch in José de Lacerda’s <i>Exame dos Viagens do Doutor Livingstone</i> (Lisbon, 1867); the “Scandinavia” -and the “Carta Marina” in the Venetian Ptolemy of 1548; the map of Olaus Magnus in 1567; the chart of -Andrea Bianco (1436); the map of the Basle ed. (1532) of Grynæus’ <i>Novis Orbis</i>; that of Laurentius Frisius -(1524). He gives these maps as the material possible to be used in 1558 in compiling a map, and to show the -superiority of the Zeno chart. Cf. <i>Nature</i>, xxviii. 14; and Major in <i>Royal Geog. Soc. Proc.</i>, 1883, p. 473.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_723_723" id="Footnote_723_723"></a><a href="#FNanchor_723_723"><span class="label">[723]</span></a></span> -“Zeni’ernes Reiser i Norden” in the publication of the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries (Copenhagen, -1883), in which he compares the Zeno Frislanda with the maps of Iceland. He also communicated to -the Copenhagen meeting of the Congrès des Américanistes “Les voyages des frères Zeni dans le Nord” -(<i>Compte Rendu</i>, p. 150).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_724_724" id="Footnote_724_724"></a><a href="#FNanchor_724_724"><span class="label">[724]</span></a></span> -This also appeared in the <i>Geog. Tidsskrift</i>, vii. 153, accompanied by facsimiles of the Zeni map, with -Ruscelli’s alteration of it (1561), and of the maps of Donis (1482), Laurentius Frisius (1525), and of the Ptolemy -of 1548.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_725_725" id="Footnote_725_725"></a><a href="#FNanchor_725_725"><span class="label">[725]</span></a></span> -<i>Roy. Geog. Soc. Journal</i> (1879), vol. xlix. p. 398, “Zeno’s Frisland is Iceland and not the Faröes,”—and -the same views in “Nautical Remarks about the Zeni Voyages” in <i>Compte Rendu, Cong. des Amér.</i> (Copenhagen, -1883), p. 183.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_726_726" id="Footnote_726_726"></a><a href="#FNanchor_726_726"><span class="label">[726]</span></a></span> -“Zeno’s Frisland is not Iceland, but the Faröes” in <i>Roy. Geog. Soc. Journal</i> (1879), xlix. 412.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_727_727" id="Footnote_727_727"></a><a href="#FNanchor_727_727"><span class="label">[727]</span></a></span> -<i>Géog. du Moyen Age</i>, iii. 103.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_728_728" id="Footnote_728_728"></a><a href="#FNanchor_728_728"><span class="label">[728]</span></a></span> -<i>Discovery of Maine</i>, 92.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_729_729" id="Footnote_729_729"></a><a href="#FNanchor_729_729"><span class="label">[729]</span></a></span> -Dudley, <i>Arcano del Mare</i>, pl. lii, places Estotiland between Davis and Hudson’s Straits; but Torfæus -doubts if it is Labrador, as is “commonly believed.” Lafitau (<i>Mœurs des Sauvages</i>) puts it north of Hudson -Bay. Forster calls it Newfoundland. Beauvois (<i>Les colonies Européenes du Markland at de l’Escociland</i>) -makes it include Maine, New Brunswick, and part of Lower Canada. These are the chief varieties of belief. -Steenstrup is of those who do not recognize America at all. Hornius, among the older writers, thought that -Scotland or Shetland was more likely to have been the fisherman’s strange country. Santarem (<i>Hist. de la -Cartographie</i>, iii. 141) points out an island, “Y Stotlandia,” in the Baltic, as shown on the map of Giovanni -Leardo (1448) at Venice.</p> -<p class="pfc4">In P. B. Watson’s <i>Bibliog. of Pre-Columbian Discoveries of America</i> there is the fullest but not a complete -list on the subject, and from this and other sources a few further references may be added: Belknap’s <i>Amer. -Biography</i>; Humboldt’s <i>Examen Critique</i>, ii. 120; Asher’s <i>Henry Hudson</i>, p. clxiv; Gravier’s <i>Découverte de -l’Amérique</i>, 183; Gaffarel’s <i>Etude sur l’Amérique avant Colomb</i>, p. 261, and in the <i>Revue de Géog.</i>, vii., -Oct., Nov., 1880, with the Zeno map as changed by Ortelius; De Costa’s <i>Northmen in Maine</i>; Weise’s <i>Discoveries -of America</i>, p. 44; Goodrich’s <i>Columbus</i>; Peschel’s <i>Gesch. des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen</i> (1858), -and Ruge’s work of the same title; Guido Cora’s <i>I precursori di Cristoforo Colombo</i> (Rome, 1886), taken -from the <i>Bollettino della soc. geog. italiana</i>, Dec., 1885; Gay’s <i>Pop. Hist. U. S.</i> (i. 76); Foster’s <i>Prehistoric -Races</i>; <i>Studi biog. e bibliog. soc. geog. ital.</i>, 2d ed., 1882, p. 117; P. O. Moosmüller’s <i>Europäer in Amerika -vor Columbus,</i> ch. 24; <i>Das Ausland</i>, Oct. 11, Dec. 27, 1886; <i>Nature</i>, xxviii. p. 14.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Geo. E. Emery, Lynn, Mass., issued in 1877 a series of maps, making Islandia to be Spitzbergen, with the -East Bygd of the Northmen at its southern end; Frisland, Iceland; and Estotiland, Newfoundland.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_730_730" id="Footnote_730_730"></a><a href="#FNanchor_730_730"><span class="label">[730]</span></a></span> -Sabin, x., no. 42,675.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_731_731" id="Footnote_731_731"></a><a href="#FNanchor_731_731"><span class="label">[731]</span></a></span> -There are editions with annotations by Robert Ingram, at Colchester, Eng., 1792; and by Santiago -Perez Junquera, at Madrid, 1881. Theoph. Spizelius’ <i>Elevatio relationis Montezinianæ de repertis in America -tribubus Israeliticis</i> (Basle, 1661) is a criticism (Leclerc, 547; Field, 1473). One Montesinos had -professed to have found a colony of Jews in Peru, and had satisfied Manasseh Ben Israel of his truthfulness.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_732_732" id="Footnote_732_732"></a><a href="#FNanchor_732_732"><span class="label">[732]</span></a></span> -Cf. collations in Stevens’s <i>Nuggets</i>, p. 728, and his <i>Hist. Coll.</i>, ii. no. 538; Brinley, iii. no. 5463; Field, no. -1551, who cites a new edition in 1652, called <i>Digitus Dei: new discoveryes, with some arguments to prove -that the Jews (a nation) a people ... inhabit now in America ... with the history of Ant: Montesinos -attested by Mannasseh Ben Israell</i>. A divine, John Dury, had urged Thorowgood to publish, and had -before this, in printing some of the accounts of the work of Eliot and others among the New England Indians, -announced his belief in the theory.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_733_733" id="Footnote_733_733"></a><a href="#FNanchor_733_733"><span class="label">[733]</span></a></span> -Cotton Mather (<i>Magnalia</i>, iii. part 2) tells how Eliot traced the resemblances to the Jews in the New -England Indians.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_734_734" id="Footnote_734_734"></a><a href="#FNanchor_734_734"><span class="label">[734]</span></a></span> -2d ed., 1727. Cf. Sibley’s <i>Harvard Graduates</i>, ii. p. 361; Carter-Brown, iii. 401.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_735_735" id="Footnote_735_735"></a><a href="#FNanchor_735_735"><span class="label">[735]</span></a></span> -<i>The History of the American Indians, particularly those Nations adjoining to the Mississippi, East -and West Florida, Georgia, South and North Carolina, and Virginia: Containing an Account of their -Origin, Language, Manners, Religious and Civil Customs, Laws, Form of Government, etc., etc., with an -Appendix, containing a Description of the Floridas, and the Missisipi Lands, with their productions</i> -(London, 1775). His arguments are given in Kingsborough’s Mex. Antiq., viii. Bancroft (<i>Nat. Races</i>, v. -91) epitomizes them. Adair’s book appeared in a German translation at Breslau (1782).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_736_736" id="Footnote_736_736"></a><a href="#FNanchor_736_736"><span class="label">[736]</span></a></span> -<i>Observations on the language of the Muhhekaneew Indians, in which ... some instances of analogy -between that and the Hebrew are pointed out</i> (New Haven, 1788). Cf. on the contrary, Jarvis before the -N. Y. Hist. Soc. in 1819.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_737_737" id="Footnote_737_737"></a><a href="#FNanchor_737_737"><span class="label">[737]</span></a></span> -<i>Essay upon the propagation of the Gospel, in which there are facts to prove that many of the indians in -America are descended from the Ten Tribes</i> (Philad., 1799; 2d ed., 1801).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_738_738" id="Footnote_738_738"></a><a href="#FNanchor_738_738"><span class="label">[738]</span></a></span> -<i>A Star in the West, or an attempt to discover the long lost Ten Tribes of Israel</i> (Trenton, N. J., 1816).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_739_739" id="Footnote_739_739"></a><a href="#FNanchor_739_739"><span class="label">[739]</span></a></span> -<i>View of the Hebrews, or the tribe of Israel in America</i> (Poultney, Vt., 1825).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_740_740" id="Footnote_740_740"></a><a href="#FNanchor_740_740"><span class="label">[740]</span></a></span> -<i>A view of the Amer. Indians, shewing them to be the descendants of the Ten Tribes of Israel</i> (Lond., -1828).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_741_741" id="Footnote_741_741"></a><a href="#FNanchor_741_741"><span class="label">[741]</span></a></span> -<i>Discourse on the evidences of the Amer. Indians being the descendants of the lost tribes of Israel</i> -(N. Y., 1837). It is reprinted in Maryatt’s <i>Diary in America</i>, vol. ii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_742_742" id="Footnote_742_742"></a><a href="#FNanchor_742_742"><span class="label">[742]</span></a></span> -<i>Hist. of the Wyandotte Mission</i> (Cincinnati, 1840); Thomson’s <i>Ohio Bibliog.</i>, 409.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_743_743" id="Footnote_743_743"></a><a href="#FNanchor_743_743"><span class="label">[743]</span></a></span> -<i>Manners, &c. of the N. Amer. Indians</i> (Lond., 1841). Cf. <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, 1885, ii. 532.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_744_744" id="Footnote_744_744"></a><a href="#FNanchor_744_744"><span class="label">[744]</span></a></span> -Mainly in vol. vii.; but see vi. 232, etc. Cf. Short, 143, 460, and Bancroft, <i>Nat. Races</i> (v. 26), with an -epitome of Kingsborough’s arguments (v. 84). Mrs. Barbara Anne Simon in her <i>Hope of Israel</i> (Lond., 1829) -advocated the theory on biblical grounds; but later she made the most of Kingsborough’s amassment of -points in her <i>Ten Tribes of Israel historically identified with the aborigines of the Western Hemisphere</i> -(London, 1836).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_745_745" id="Footnote_745_745"></a><a href="#FNanchor_745_745"><span class="label">[745]</span></a></span> -The recognition of the theory in the Mormon bible is well known. Bancroft (v. 97) epitomizes its recital, -following Bertrand’s <i>Mémoires</i>. There is a repetition of the old arguments in a sermon, <i>Increase of the Kingdom -of Christ</i> (N. Y., 1831), by the Indian William Apes; and in <i>An Address</i> by J. Madison Brown (Jackson, -Miss., 1860). Señor Melgar points out resemblances between the Maya and the Hebrew in the <i>Bol. Soc. -Méx. Geog.</i>, iii. Even the Western mounds have been made to yield Hebrew inscriptions (<i>Congrès des -Amér.</i>, Nancy, ii. 192).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Many of the general treatises on the origin of the Americans have set forth the opposing arguments. -Garcia did it fairly in his <i>Origen de los Indios</i> (1607; ed. by Barcia, 1729), and Bancroft (v. 78-84) has condensed -his treatment. Brasseur (<i>Hist. Nat. Civ.</i>, i. 17) rejects the theory of the ten tribes; but is not inclined -to abandon a belief in some scattered traces. Short (pp. 135, 144) epitomizes the claims. Gaffarel covers -them in his <i>Etude sur les rapports de l’Amérique</i> (p. 87) with references, and these last are enlarged in Bancroft’s -<i>Nat. Races</i>, v. 95-97.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_746_746" id="Footnote_746_746"></a><a href="#FNanchor_746_746"><span class="label">[746]</span></a></span> -Varnhagen’s <i>L’origine touranienne des Américains Tupis-Caraïbes et des anciens Egyptiens, indiquée -principalement par la philologie comparée: traces d’une ancienne migration en Amérique, invasion du -Brésil par les Tupis</i> (Vienne, 1876). Labat’s <i>Nouveau Voyage aux isles de l’Amérique</i> (Paris, 1722), vol. ii. -ch. 23. Sieur de la Borde’s <i>Relation de l’origine, mœurs, coutumes, etc. des Caraibes</i> (Paris, 1764). Robertson’s -America. James Kennedy’s <i>Probable origin of the Amer. Indians, with particular reference to that -of the Caribs</i> (Lond., 1854), or <i>Journal of the Ethnolog. Soc.</i> (vol. iv.). <i>London Geog. Journal</i>, iii. 290.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_747_747" id="Footnote_747_747"></a><a href="#FNanchor_747_747"><span class="label">[747]</span></a></span> -Cf. Peter Martyr, Torquemada, and later writers, like La Perouse, McCulloh, Haven (p. 48), Gaffarel -(<i>Rapport</i>, 204), J. Perez in <i>Rev. Orientale et Amér.</i>, viii., xii.; Bancroft, <i>Nat. Races</i>, iii. 458. Brinton (<i>Address</i>, -1887) takes exception to all such views. Cf. Quatrefages’ <i>Human Species</i> (N. Y., 1879, pp. 200, 202).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_748_748" id="Footnote_748_748"></a><a href="#FNanchor_748_748"><span class="label">[748]</span></a></span> -Cf. Beccari in <i>Kosmos</i>, Apr., 1879; De Candolle in <i>Géographie botanique</i> (1855).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_749_749" id="Footnote_749_749"></a><a href="#FNanchor_749_749"><span class="label">[749]</span></a></span> -Santarem, <i>Hist. de la Cartog.</i>, iii. 76, refers to maps of -the fourteenth century in copies of Ranulphus Hydgen’s -<i>Polychronicon</i>, in the British Museum and in the Advocates’ -library at Edinburgh, which show a land in the north, -called in the one Wureland and in the other Wyhlandia.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_750_750" id="Footnote_750_750"></a><a href="#FNanchor_750_750"><span class="label">[750]</span></a></span> -<i>Mag. Am. Hist.</i>, April, 1883, p. 290. Cf. Vol. II. p. 28. -The name used is “Grinlandia.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_751_751" id="Footnote_751_751"></a><a href="#FNanchor_751_751"><span class="label">[751]</span></a></span> -Mauro’s map was called by Ramusio, who saw it, an -improved copy of one brought from Cathay by Marco -Polo. It is preserved in the Biblioteca Marciana at Venice. -It was made by Mauro under the command of Don Alonso -V., and Bianco assisted him. The exact date is in dispute; -but all agree to place it between 1457 and 1460. A copy -was made on vellum in 1804, which is now in the British -Museum. Our cut follows one corner of the reproduction -in Santarem’s <i>Atlas</i>. A photographic fac-simile has been -issued in Venice by Ongania, and St. Martin (<i>Atlas</i>, p. vii) -follows this fac-simile. Ruge (<i>Geschichte des Zeitalters der -Entdeckungen</i>) gives a modernized and more legible reproduction. -There are other drawings in Zurla’s <i>Fra Mauro</i>; -Vincent’s <i>Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients</i> -(1797, 1807); Lelewel’s <i>Moyen Age</i> (pl. xxxiii). Cf. <i>Studi -della Soc. Geografia Italia</i> (1882), ii. 76, for references.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_752_752" id="Footnote_752_752"></a><a href="#FNanchor_752_752"><span class="label">[752]</span></a></span> -Rafn gives a large map of Iceland with the names of -a.d. 1000. On the errors of early and late maps of Iceland -see Baring-Gould’s <i>Ultima Thule</i>, i. 253. On the varying -application of the name Thule, Thyle, etc., to the northern -regions or to particular parts of them, see R. F. Burton’s -<i>Ultima Thule, a Summer in Iceland</i> (London, 1875), -ch. 1. Bunbury (<i>Hist. Anc. Geog.</i>, ii. 527) holds that the -Thule of Marinus of Tyre and of Ptolemy was the Shetlands. -Cf. James Wallace’s <i>Description of the Orkney -islands</i> (1693,—new ed., 1887, by John Small) for an essay -on “the Thule of the Ancients.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_753_753" id="Footnote_753_753"></a><a href="#FNanchor_753_753"><span class="label">[753]</span></a></span> -There are other reproductions of the map in full, in -Nordenskjöld’s <i>Vega</i>, i. 51; in his <i>Broderna Zenos</i>, and -in his <i>Studien</i>, p. 31. Cf. also the present <i>History</i>, II., -p. 28, for other bibliographical detail; Hassler, <i>Buchdruckergeschichte -Ulm’s</i>; D’Avezac’s <i>Waltzemüller</i>, 23; Wilberforce -Eames’s <i>Bibliography of Ptolemy</i>, separately, -and in Sabin’s <i>Dictionary</i>; and Winsor’s <i>Bibliog. of -Ptolemy’s Geography</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_754_754" id="Footnote_754_754"></a><a href="#FNanchor_754_754"><span class="label">[754]</span></a></span> -Cf. D’Avezac in <i>Bull. de la Soc. de Géog.</i>, xx. 417.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_755_755" id="Footnote_755_755"></a><a href="#FNanchor_755_755"><span class="label">[755]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 41. There is another sketch in Nordenskjöld’s -<i>Studien</i>, etc., p. 33, which is reduced from a -fac-simile given in José de Lacerda’s <i>Exame dos Viagens -do Doutor Livingstone</i> (Lissabon, 1867). The present extract -is from Santarem, pl. 50. Cf. O. Peschel in <i>Ausland</i>, -Feb. 13, 1857, and his posthumous <i>Abhandlungen</i>, -i. 213.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_756_756" id="Footnote_756_756"></a><a href="#FNanchor_756_756"><span class="label">[756]</span></a></span> -See references in Vol. II. p. 105.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_757_757" id="Footnote_757_757"></a><a href="#FNanchor_757_757"><span class="label">[757]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 108.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_758_758" id="Footnote_758_758"></a><a href="#FNanchor_758_758"><span class="label">[758]</span></a></span> -See <i>post</i>, Vol. IV. p. 35; and Kohl’s <i>Discovery of -Maine</i>, p. 174. Cf. Winsor’s <i>Bibliog. of Ptolemy</i>, sub -anno 1511.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_759_759" id="Footnote_759_759"></a><a href="#FNanchor_759_759"><span class="label">[759]</span></a></span> -He holds that the 1513 Ptolemy map was drawn in -1501-4, and was engraved before Dec. 10, 1508.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_760_760" id="Footnote_760_760"></a><a href="#FNanchor_760_760"><span class="label">[760]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 115.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_761_761" id="Footnote_761_761"></a><a href="#FNanchor_761_761"><span class="label">[761]</span></a></span> -Winsor’s <i>Bibliog. of Ptolemy</i>, sub anno 1511.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_762_762" id="Footnote_762_762"></a><a href="#FNanchor_762_762"><span class="label">[762]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 111. Winsor’s <i>Ptolemy</i>, sub anno -1513. Reisch, in 1515, seems to have been of the same -opinion. Cf. the bibliography of Reisch’s <i>Margarita -Philosophia</i> in Sabin’s <i>Dictionary</i>, vol. xvi., and separately, -prepared by Wilberforce Eames. Reisch’s map is given -<i>post</i>, Vol. II. p. 114. Another sketch of this map, with an -examination of the question, where the name “Zoana -Mela,” applied on it to America, came from, is given by -Frank Wieser in the <i>Zeitschrift für Wissensch. Geographie</i> -(Carlsruhe), vol. v., a sight of which I owe to the -author, who believes Waldseemüller made the map.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_763_763" id="Footnote_763_763"></a><a href="#FNanchor_763_763"><span class="label">[763]</span></a></span> -The map is given, <i>post</i>, Vol. II. 175. Cf. also Nordenskjöld, -<i>Studien</i>, p. 53.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_764_764" id="Footnote_764_764"></a><a href="#FNanchor_764_764"><span class="label">[764]</span></a></span> -Cf. Winsor’s <i>Bibliog. of Ptolemy</i>, sub anno 1522.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_765_765" id="Footnote_765_765"></a><a href="#FNanchor_765_765"><span class="label">[765]</span></a></span> -Winsor’s <i>Bibliog. of Ptolemy</i>, sub anno 1525. This -map is no. 49, “Gronlandiæ et Russiæ.” Cf. Witsen’s -<i>Noord en Oost Tartctrye</i> (1705), vol. ii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_766_766" id="Footnote_766_766"></a><a href="#FNanchor_766_766"><span class="label">[766]</span></a></span> -Winsor’s <i>Kohl Collection</i>, no. 102.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_767_767" id="Footnote_767_767"></a><a href="#FNanchor_767_767"><span class="label">[767]</span></a></span> -Given <i>post</i>, Vol. III. p. 17.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_768_768" id="Footnote_768_768"></a><a href="#FNanchor_768_768"><span class="label">[768]</span></a></span> -Given <i>post</i>, Vol. III. p. 11.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_769_769" id="Footnote_769_769"></a><a href="#FNanchor_769_769"><span class="label">[769]</span></a></span> -<i>Jahrb. des Vereins für Erdkunde in Dresden</i> (1870), -tab. vii. A similar feature is in the map described by Peschel -in the <i>Jahresbericht des Vereins für Erdkunde in -Leipzig</i> (1871). It is also to be seen in the Homem map of -about 1540 (given in Vol. II. p. 446), and in the map which -Major assigns to Baptista Agnese, and which was published -in Paris in 1875 as a <i>Portulan de Charles Quint.</i> (Cf. Vol. -II. p. 445.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_770_770" id="Footnote_770_770"></a><a href="#FNanchor_770_770"><span class="label">[770]</span></a></span> -There is a fac-simile of Ziegler’s map in Vol. II. 434; -also in Goldsmid’s ed. of Hakluyt (Edinb., 1885), and in -Nordenskjöld’s <i>Vega</i>, i. 52.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_771_771" id="Footnote_771_771"></a><a href="#FNanchor_771_771"><span class="label">[771]</span></a></span> -The map (1551) of Gemma Frisius in Apian is much the -same.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_772_772" id="Footnote_772_772"></a><a href="#FNanchor_772_772"><span class="label">[772]</span></a></span> -In the Basle ed. of the <i>Historia de Gentium</i>. Cf. Nordenskjöld’s -<i>Vega</i>, vol. i., who says that the map originally -appeared in Magnus’s <i>Auslegung und Verklarung der -Neuen Mappen von den Alten Goettenreich</i> (Venice, 1539); -and is different from the map which appeared in the intermediate -edition of 1555 at Rome, a part of which is also annexed.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_773_773" id="Footnote_773_773"></a><a href="#FNanchor_773_773"><span class="label">[773]</span></a></span> -The same is done in the Ptolemy of 1548 (Venice). -There is a fac-simile in Nordenskjöld’s <i>Studien</i>, p. 35.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_774_774" id="Footnote_774_774"></a><a href="#FNanchor_774_774"><span class="label">[774]</span></a></span> -See Vol. IV. p. 84.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_775_775" id="Footnote_775_775"></a><a href="#FNanchor_775_775"><span class="label">[775]</span></a></span> -We find it in the Nancy globe of about 1540 (see Vol. -IV. p. 81); in the Mercator gores of 1541 (Vol. II. p. 177); -and in the Ruscelli map of 1544 (Vol. II. p. 432), where -Greenland (Grotlandia) is simply a neck connecting Europe -with America; and in Gastaldi “Carta Marina,” in the -Italian Ptolemy of 1548, where it is a protuberance on a -similar neck (see Vol. II. 435; IV. 43; and Nordenskjöld’s -<i>Studien</i>, 43). The Rotz map of 1542 seems to be based on -the same material used by Mercator in his gores, but he -adds a new confusion in calling Greenland the “Cost of -Labrador.” Cf. Winsor’s <i>Kohl Maps</i>, no. 104. The -“Grutlandia” of the Vopellio map of 1556 is also continuous -with Labrador (see Vol. II. 436; IV. 90).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_776_776" id="Footnote_776_776"></a><a href="#FNanchor_776_776"><span class="label">[776]</span></a></span> -See Vol. IV. pp. 42, 82.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_777_777" id="Footnote_777_777"></a><a href="#FNanchor_777_777"><span class="label">[777]</span></a></span> -In the edition of 1562, which repeated the map, the -cartographer Moletta (Moletius) testified that its geography -had been confirmed “by letters and marine charts sent to -us from divers parts.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_778_778" id="Footnote_778_778"></a><a href="#FNanchor_778_778"><span class="label">[778]</span></a></span> -Winsor’s <i>Bibliog. of Ptolemy</i>, sub anno 1561.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_779_779" id="Footnote_779_779"></a><a href="#FNanchor_779_779"><span class="label">[779]</span></a></span> -Lok’s map of 1582 calls it “Groetland,” the landfall -of “Jac. Scolvus,” the Pole. Cf. Vol. III. 40.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_780_780" id="Footnote_780_780"></a><a href="#FNanchor_780_780"><span class="label">[780]</span></a></span> -For Mercator’s map, see Vol. II. 452; IV. 94, 373. -Ortelius’ separate map of Scandia is much the same. It is -the same with the map of Phillipus Gallæus, dated 1574, but -published at Antwerp in 1585 in the <i>Theatri orbis terrarum -Enchiridion</i>. Gilbert’s map in 1576 omits the “Grocland” -(Vol. III. 203). Both features, however, are preserved -in the Judæis of 1593 (Vol. IV. 97), in the Wytfliet -of 1597 (Vol. II. 459), in Wolfe’s Linschoten in 1598 (Vol. -III. 101), and in Quadus in 1600 (Vol. IV. 101). In the -Zaltière map of 1566 (Vol. II. 451; IV. 93), in the Porcacchi -map of 1572 (Vol. II. 96, 453; IV. 96), and in that of -Johannes Martines of 1578, the features are too indefinite -for recognition. Lelewel (i. pl. 7) gives a Spanish mappemonde -of 1573.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_781_781" id="Footnote_781_781"></a><a href="#FNanchor_781_781"><span class="label">[781]</span></a></span> -In fac-simile in Nordenskjöld’s <i>Vega</i>, i. 247.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_782_782" id="Footnote_782_782"></a><a href="#FNanchor_782_782"><span class="label">[782]</span></a></span> -Vol. III p. 98.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_783_783" id="Footnote_783_783"></a><a href="#FNanchor_783_783"><span class="label">[783]</span></a></span> -A paper by H. Rink in the <i>Geografisk Tidskrift</i> (viii. -139) entitled “Ostgrönländerne i deres Forhold till Vestgrönländerne -og de övrige Eskimostammer,” is accompanied -by drafts of the map of G. Tholacius, 1606, and of Th. -Thorlacius, 1668-69,—the latter placing East Bygd on the -east coast near the south end. K. J. V. Steenstrup, on -Osterbygden in <i>Geog. Tidskrift</i>, viii. 123, gives facsimiles -of maps of Jovis Carolus in 1634; of Hendrick Doncker -in 1669. Sketches of maps by Johannes Meyer in 1652, -and by Hendrick Doncker in 1666, are also given in the -<i>Geografisk Tidskrift</i>, viii. (1885), pl. 5.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_784_784" id="Footnote_784_784"></a><a href="#FNanchor_784_784"><span class="label">[784]</span></a></span> -<i>Voyages des Pais Septentrionaux,</i>—a very popular book.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_785_785" id="Footnote_785_785"></a><a href="#FNanchor_785_785"><span class="label">[785]</span></a></span> -<i>Chips from a German Workshop</i>, i. 327.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_786_786" id="Footnote_786_786"></a><a href="#FNanchor_786_786"><span class="label">[786]</span></a></span> -<i>Archæological Tour</i>, p. 202.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_787_787" id="Footnote_787_787"></a><a href="#FNanchor_787_787"><span class="label">[787]</span></a></span> -The earliest fixed date for the founding -of Tenochtitlan (Mexico city) is 1325. Brasseur -tells us that Carlos de Sigüenza y Gongora -made the first chronological table of ancient -Mexican dates, which was used by Boturini, and -was improved by Leon y Gama,—the same -which Bustamante has inserted in his edition of -Gomara. Gallatin (<i>Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans.</i>, i.) -gave a composite table of events by dates before -the Conquest, which is followed in Brantz -Mayer’s <i>Mexico as it was</i>, i. 97. Ed. Madier de -Montjau, in his <i>Chronologie hiéroglyphico-phonétique -des Rois Astéques de 1352 à 1522</i>, takes -issue with Ramirez on some points.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_788_788" id="Footnote_788_788"></a><a href="#FNanchor_788_788"><span class="label">[788]</span></a></span> -Bancroft (v. 199) gives references to those -writers who have discussed this question of giants. -Bandelier’s references are more in detail -(<i>Arch. Tour</i>, p. 201). Short (p. 233) borrows -largely the list in Bancroft. The enumeration -includes nearly all the old writers. Acosta finds -confirmation in bones of incredible largeness, -often found in his day, and then supposed to be -human. Modern zoölogists say they were those -of the Mastodon. Howarth, <i>Mammoth and the -Flood</i>, 297.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_789_789" id="Footnote_789_789"></a><a href="#FNanchor_789_789"><span class="label">[789]</span></a></span> -See <i>Native Races</i>, ii. 117; v. 24, 27.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_790_790" id="Footnote_790_790"></a><a href="#FNanchor_790_790"><span class="label">[790]</span></a></span> -Sometimes it is said they came from the -Antilles, or beyond, easterly, and that an off-shoot -of the same people appeared to the early -French, explorers as the Natchez Indians. We -have, of course, offered to us a choice of theories -in the belief that the Maya civilization came -from the westward by the island route from -Asia. This misty history is nothing without -alternatives, and there are a plenty of writers -who dogmatize about them.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_791_791" id="Footnote_791_791"></a><a href="#FNanchor_791_791"><span class="label">[791]</span></a></span> -<i>Constituciones diocesanas del obispado de Chiappas</i> -(Rome, 1702).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_792_792" id="Footnote_792_792"></a><a href="#FNanchor_792_792"><span class="label">[792]</span></a></span> -<i>Nat. Races</i>, v. 160.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_793_793" id="Footnote_793_793"></a><a href="#FNanchor_793_793"><span class="label">[793]</span></a></span> -<i>Hist. Nations Civilisées</i>, i. 37, 150, etc. <i>Popul -Vuh</i>, introd., sec. v. Bancroft relates the -Votan myth, with references, in <i>Nat. Races</i>, iii. -450. Brasseur identifies the Votanites with the -Colhuas, as the builders of Palenqué, the founders -of Xibalba, and thinks a branch of them -wandered south to Peru. There are some stories -of even pre-Votan days, under Igh and -Imox. Cf. H. De Charency’s “Myth d’Imos,” -in the <i>Annales de philosophie Chrétienne</i>, 1872-73, -and references in Bancroft, v. 164, 231.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_794_794" id="Footnote_794_794"></a><a href="#FNanchor_794_794"><span class="label">[794]</span></a></span> -<i>Native Races</i>, ii. 121, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_795_795" id="Footnote_795_795"></a><a href="#FNanchor_795_795"><span class="label">[795]</span></a></span> -Bancroft (v. 236) points to Bradford, Squier, -Tylor, Viollet-le-Duc, Bartlett, and Müller, with -Brasseur in a qualified way, as in the main agreeing -in this early disjointing of the Nashua stock, -by which the Maya was formed through separation -from the older race.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_796_796" id="Footnote_796_796"></a><a href="#FNanchor_796_796"><span class="label">[796]</span></a></span> -Enforced, for instance, by one of the best of -the later Mexican writers, Orozco y Berra, in his -<i>Geografía de las lenguas y Carta Ethnografica de -México</i> (Mexico, 1865).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_797_797" id="Footnote_797_797"></a><a href="#FNanchor_797_797"><span class="label">[797]</span></a></span> -Tylor, <i>Anahuac</i>, 189, and his <i>Early Hist. -Mankind</i>, 184. Orozco y Berra, <i>Geog.</i>, 124. Bancroft, -v. 169, note. The word Maya was first -heard by Columbus in his fourth voyage, 1503-4. -We sometimes find it written Mayab. It is -usual to class the people of Yucatan, and even -the Quiché-Cakchiquels of Guatemala and those -of Nicaragua, under the comprehensive term of -Maya, as distinct from the Nahua people farther -north.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_798_798" id="Footnote_798_798"></a><a href="#FNanchor_798_798"><span class="label">[798]</span></a></span> -<i>Nat. Races</i>, v. 186.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_799_799" id="Footnote_799_799"></a><a href="#FNanchor_799_799"><span class="label">[799]</span></a></span> -Brinton, with his view of myths, speaks of -the attempt of the Abbé Brasseur to make Xibalba -an ancient kingdom, with Palenqué as its -capital, as utterly unsupported and wildly hypothetical -(<i>Myths</i>, 251).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_800_800" id="Footnote_800_800"></a><a href="#FNanchor_800_800"><span class="label">[800]</span></a></span> -Perhaps by Gucumatz (who is identified by -some with Quetzalcoatl), leading the Tzequiles, -who are said to have appeared from somewhere -during one of Votan’s absences, and to have -grown into power among the Chanes, or Votan’s -people, till they made Tulan, where they lived, -too powerful for the Votanites. Bancroft (v. -187) holds this view against Brasseur.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_801_801" id="Footnote_801_801"></a><a href="#FNanchor_801_801"><span class="label">[801]</span></a></span> -Perhaps Ococingo, or Copan, as Bancroft -conjectures (v. 187).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_802_802" id="Footnote_802_802"></a><a href="#FNanchor_802_802"><span class="label">[802]</span></a></span> -As Sahagún calls it, meaning, as Bancroft -suggests, Tabasco.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_803_803" id="Footnote_803_803"></a><a href="#FNanchor_803_803"><span class="label">[803]</span></a></span> -Short (p. 248) points out that the linguistic -researches of Orozco y Berra (<i>Geografía de las -Lenguas de México</i>, 1-76) seem to confirm this.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_804_804" id="Footnote_804_804"></a><a href="#FNanchor_804_804"><span class="label">[804]</span></a></span> -See p. 158.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_805_805" id="Footnote_805_805"></a><a href="#FNanchor_805_805"><span class="label">[805]</span></a></span> -Kirk says (Prescott’s <i>Mexico</i>): “Confusion -arises from the name of Chichimec, originally -that of a single tribe, and subsequently of its -many offshoots, being also used to designate successive -hordes of whatever race.” Some have -seen in the Waiknas of the Mosquito Coast, and -in the Caribs generally, descendants of these Chichimecs -who have kept to their old social level. -The Caribs, on other authority, came originally -from the stock of the Tupis and Guaranis, who -occupied the region south of the Amazon, and -in Columbus’s time they were scattered in Darien -and Honduras, along the northern regions -of South America, and in some of the Antilles -(Von Martius, <i>Beiträge sur Ethnographie and -Sprachenkunde Amerika’s zumal Brasilìens</i>, -Leipzig, 1867). Bancroft (ii. 126) gives the -etymology of Chichimec and of other tribal designations. -Cf. Buschmann’s <i>Ueber die Aztekischen -Ortsnamen</i> (Berlin, 1853). Bandelier (<i>Archæol. -Tour</i>, 200; <i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i>, ii. 393) -says he fails to discover in the word anything -more than a general term, signifying a savage, a -hunter, or a warrior, Chichimecos, applied to -roving tribes. Brasseur says that Mexican tradition -applies the term Chichimecs generically -to the first occupants of the New World.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_806_806" id="Footnote_806_806"></a><a href="#FNanchor_806_806"><span class="label">[806]</span></a></span> -These names wander and exchange consonants -provokingly, and it may be enough to give -alphabetically a list comprised of those in Prichard -(<i>Nat. Hist. Man</i>) and Orozco y Berra (<i>Geografía</i>), -with some help from Gallatin in the -<i>American Ethno. Soc. Trans.</i>, i., and other -groupers of the ethnological traces: Chinantecs, -Chatinos, Cohuixcas, Chontales, Colhuas, Coras, -Cuitatecs, Chichimecs, Cuextecas (Guaxtecas, -Huastecs), Mazetecs, Mazahuas, Michinacas, -Miztecs, Nonohualcas, Olmecs, Otomís, Papabucos, -Quinames, Soltecos, Totonacs, Triquis, -Tepanecs, Tarascos, Xicalancas, Zapotecs. It -is not unlikely the same people may be here -mentioned under different names. The diversity -of opinions respecting the future of these vapory -existences is seen in Bancroft’s collation (v. -202). Torquemada tells us about all that we -know of the Totonacs, who claim to have been -the builders of Teotihuacan. Bancroft gives references -(v. 204) for the Totonacs, (p. 206) for -the Otomís, (p. 207) for the Mistecs and Zapotecs, -and (p. 208) for the Huastecs.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_807_807" id="Footnote_807_807"></a><a href="#FNanchor_807_807"><span class="label">[807]</span></a></span> -Bancroft, ii. 97. Brasseur, <i>Nat. Civ.</i>, i. ch. -4, and his <i>Palenqué</i> ch. 3.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_808_808" id="Footnote_808_808"></a><a href="#FNanchor_808_808"><span class="label">[808]</span></a></span> -Called Huehue-Tlapallan, as Brasseur would -have it.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_809_809" id="Footnote_809_809"></a><a href="#FNanchor_809_809"><span class="label">[809]</span></a></span> -Following Motolinía and other early writers.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_810_810" id="Footnote_810_810"></a><a href="#FNanchor_810_810"><span class="label">[810]</span></a></span> -<i>Native Races</i>, v. 219, 616.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_811_811" id="Footnote_811_811"></a><a href="#FNanchor_811_811"><span class="label">[811]</span></a></span> -Bandelier, <i>Archæol. Tour</i>, 253.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_812_812" id="Footnote_812_812"></a><a href="#FNanchor_812_812"><span class="label">[812]</span></a></span> -Kingsborough, ix. 206, 460; Veytia, i. 155, -163. Of the Quetzalcoatl myth there are references -elsewhere. P. J. J. Valentini has made -a study of the early Mexican ethnology and history -in his “Olmecas and Tultecas,” translated -by S. Salisbury, Jr., and printed in the <i>Amer. -Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, Oct. 21, 1882. On Quetzalcoatl -in Cholula, see Torquemada, translated in Bancroft, -iii. 258.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_813_813" id="Footnote_813_813"></a><a href="#FNanchor_813_813"><span class="label">[813]</span></a></span> -This wide difference covers intervening centuries, -each of which has its advocates. Short -carries their coming back to the fourth century -(p. 245), but Clavigero’s date of <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 544 is more -commonly followed. Veytia makes it the seventh -century. Bancroft (v. 211, 214) notes the -diversity of views.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_814_814" id="Footnote_814_814"></a><a href="#FNanchor_814_814"><span class="label">[814]</span></a></span> -Bancroft (v. 322) in a long note collates the -different statements of the routes and sojourns -in this migration. Cf. Short, p. 259.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_815_815" id="Footnote_815_815"></a><a href="#FNanchor_815_815"><span class="label">[815]</span></a></span> -Cf. Kirk in Prescott, i. 10. It must be confessed -that it is rather in the domain of myth -than of history that we must place all that has -been written about the scattering of the Toltec -people at Babel (Bancroft, v. 19), and their -finally reaching Huehue-Tlapallan, wherever -that may have been. The view long prevalent -about this American starting-point of the Nahuas, -Toltecs, or whatever designation may be -given to the beginners of this myth and history, -placed it in California, but some later writers -think it worth while to give it a geographical -existence in the Mississippi Valley, and to associate -it in some vague way with the moundbuilders -and their works (Short, <i>No. Amer. of -Antiq.</i>, 251, 253). There is some confusion between -Huehue-Tlapallan of this story and the -Tlapallan noticed in the Spanish conquest time, -which was somewhere in the Usumacinta region, -and if we accept Tollan, Tullan, or Tula as a -form of the name, the confusion is much increased -(Short, pp. 217-220). Bancroft (v. 214) -says there is no sufficient data to determine the -position of Huehue-Tlapallan, but he thinks “the -evidence, while not conclusive, favors the south -rather than the north” (p. 216). The truth is, -about these conflicting views of a northern or -southern origin, pretty much as Kirk puts it -(Prescott, i. 18): “All that can be said with confidence -is, that neither of the opposing theories -rests on a secure and sufficient basis.” The -situation of Huehue-Tlapallan and Aztlan is -very likely one and the same question, as looking -to what was the starting-point of all the -Nahua migrations, extending over a thousand -years.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_816_816" id="Footnote_816_816"></a><a href="#FNanchor_816_816"><span class="label">[816]</span></a></span> -Bancroft, v. 217.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_817_817" id="Footnote_817_817"></a><a href="#FNanchor_817_817"><span class="label">[817]</span></a></span> -Torquemada, Boturini, Humboldt, Brasseur, -Charnay, Short, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_818_818" id="Footnote_818_818"></a><a href="#FNanchor_818_818"><span class="label">[818]</span></a></span> -<i>Nat. Races</i> (v. 222).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_819_819" id="Footnote_819_819"></a><a href="#FNanchor_819_819"><span class="label">[819]</span></a></span> -In support of the California location, Buschmann, -in his <i>Ueber die Spuren der Aztekischen -Sprache im nördlichen Mexico und höheren Amerikanischen -Norden</i> (Berlin, 1854), finds traces of -the Mexican tongue in those of the recent California -Indians. Linguistic resemblances to the -Aztec, even so far north as Nootka, have been -traced, but later philologists deny the inferences -of relationship drawn from such similarity (Bancroft, -iii. p. 612). The linguistic confusion in -aboriginal California is so great that there is a -wide field for tracing likenesses (<i>Ibid.</i> iii. 635). -In the <i>California State Mining Bureau, Bulletin -no. 1</i> (Sacramento, 1888), Winslow Anderson -gives a description of some desiccated human -remains found in a sealed cave, which are supposed -to be Aztec. There are slight resemblances -to the Aztec in the Shoshone group of -languages (Bancroft, iii. 660), and the same author -arranges all that has been said to connect -the Mexican tongue with those of New Mexico -and neighboring regions (iii. 664). Buschmann, -who has given particular attention to tracing the -Aztec connections at the north, finds nothing to -warrant anything more than casual admixtures -with other stocks (<i>Die Lautveränderung Aztekischer -Wörter</i>, Berlin, 1855, and <i>Die Spuren der -Aztekischen Sprachen</i>, Berlin, 1859). See Short -(p. 487) for a summary.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_820_820" id="Footnote_820_820"></a><a href="#FNanchor_820_820"><span class="label">[820]</span></a></span> -Bancroft (v. 305) cites the diverse views; so -does Short to some extent (pp. 246, 258, etc.). -Cf. Brinton’s <i>Address</i> on “Where was Aztlan?” -p. 6; Short, 486, 490; Nadaillac, 284; Wilson’s -<i>Prehistoric Man</i>, i. 327.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Brinton (<i>Myths of the New World</i>, etc., 89; -<i>Amer. Hero. Myths</i>, 92) holds that Aztlan is a -name wholly of mythical purport, which it would -be vain to seek on the terrestrial globe. This -cradle region of the Nahuas sometimes appears -as the Seven Caves (Chicomoztoc), and Duran -places them “in Teoculuacan, otherwise called -Aztlan, a country toward the north and connected -with Florida.” The Seven Caves were -explained by Sahagún as a valley, by Clavigero -as a city, by Schoolcraft and others as simply -seven boats in which the first comers came from -Asia; Brasseur makes them and Aztlan the -same; others find them to be the seven cities of -Cibola,—so enumerates Brinton (<i>Myths</i>, 227), -who thinks that the seven divisions of the Nahuas -sprung from the belief in the Seven Caves, -and had in reality no existence.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Gallatin has followed out the series of migrations -in the <i>Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans.</i>, i. 162. -Dawson, <i>Fossil Men</i> (ch. 3), gives his comprehensive -views of the main directions of these -early migrations. Brasseur follows the Nahuas -(<i>Popul Vuh</i>, introd., sect. ix.). Winchell (<i>Pre-Adamites</i>) -thinks the general tendency was from -north to south. Morgan finds the origin of the -Mexican tribes in New Mexico and in the San -Juan Valley (<i>Peabody Mus. Rept.</i>, xii. 553. Cf. -his article in the <i>North Am. Rev.</i>, Oct., 1869). -Humboldt (<i>Views of Nature</i>, 207) touches the -Aztec wanderings.</p> -<p class="pfc4">There are two well-known Aztec migration -maps, first published in F. G. Carreri’s <i>Giro -del Mondo</i>; in English as “Voyage round the -world,” in Churchill’s <i>Voyages</i>, vol. iv., concerning -which see Bancroft, ii. 543; iii. 68, 69; Short, -262, 431, 433; Prescott, iii. 364, 382. Orozco y -Berra (<i>Hist. Antiq. de Mexico</i>, iii. 61) says that -these maps follow one another, and are not different -records of the same progress. Humboldt -(<i>Vues</i>, etc., ii. 176) gives an interpretation of -them in accordance with Sigüenza’s views, which -is the one usually followed, and Bancroft (v. 324) -epitomizes it. Ramirez says that the copies -reproduced in Humboldt, Clavigero, and Kingsborough -are not so correct as the engraving -given in Garcia y Cubas’s <i>Atlas geogrâfico, estadistico -e histórico de la Republica Mejicana</i> (April, -1858). Bancroft (ii. 544) gives it as reproduced -by Ramirez. It is also in the Mexican edition -of Prescott, and in Schoolcraft’s <i>Indian Tribes</i>. -Cf. Delafield’s <i>Inquiry</i> (N. Y., 1839) and Léon -de Rosny’s <i>Les doc. écrits de l’antiq. Amér.</i> -(Paris, 1882). The original is preserved in -the Museo Nacional of Mexico. A palm-tree -on the map, near Aztlan, has pointed some of -the arguments in favor of a southern position -for that place, but Ramirez says it is but a part -of a hieroglyphic name, and has no reference -to the climate of Aztlan (Short, p. 266). F. Von -Hellwald printed a paper on “American migrations,” -with notes by Professor Henry, in the -<i>Smithsonian Report</i>, 1866, pp. 328-345. Short -defines as “altogether the most enlightened -treatment of the subject” the paper of John -H. Becker, “Migrations des Nahuas,” in the -<i>Compte rendu, Congrès des Américanistes</i> (Luxembourg, -1877), i. 325. This paper finds an -identification of the Tulan Zuiva of the Quichés, -the Huehue-Tlapallan of the Toltecs, the Amaquemecan -of the Chichimecs, and the Oztotlan -(Aztlan) of the Aztecs in The valleys of the Rio -Grande del Norte and Rio Colorado, as was -Morgan’s view. Short (p. 249) summarizes his -paper. Bancroft (v. 289) shows the diversity -of views respecting Amaquemecan.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_821_821" id="Footnote_821_821"></a><a href="#FNanchor_821_821"><span class="label">[821]</span></a></span> -<i>Native Races</i>, v. 167, recapitulates the proofs -against the northern theory. J. R. Bartlett, <i>Personal -Narrative</i>, ii. 283, finds no evidence for it. -The successive sites of their sojourns as they -passed on their journeys are given as Tlapallan, -Tlacutzin, Tlapallanco, Jalisco, Atenco, Iztachnexuca, -Tollatzinco, Tollan or Tula,—the last, -says Bancroft, apparently in Chiapas. If there -was not such confusion respecting the old geography, -these names might decide the question.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_822_822" id="Footnote_822_822"></a><a href="#FNanchor_822_822"><span class="label">[822]</span></a></span> -Writers usually place the beginnings of credible -history at about this period. Brasseur and -the class of writers who are easily lifted on their -imagination talk about traces of a settled government -being discernible at periods which they -place a thousand years before Christ.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_823_823" id="Footnote_823_823"></a><a href="#FNanchor_823_823"><span class="label">[823]</span></a></span> -References in Bancroft, v. 247, with Brasseur -for the main dependence, in his use of the -<i>Codex Chimalpòpoca</i> and the <i>Memorial de Colhuacan</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_824_824" id="Footnote_824_824"></a><a href="#FNanchor_824_824"><span class="label">[824]</span></a></span> -Charnay (Eng. trans., ch. 8 and 9) calls it a -rival city of Tula or Tollan, rebuilt by the Chichimecs -on the ruins of a Toltec city.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_825_825" id="Footnote_825_825"></a><a href="#FNanchor_825_825"><span class="label">[825]</span></a></span> -If one wants the details of all this, he can -read it in Veytia, Brasseur (<i>Nat. Civilisées</i> and -<i>Palenqué</i>, ch. viii.), and Bancroft, the latter giving -references (v. 285).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_826_826" id="Footnote_826_826"></a><a href="#FNanchor_826_826"><span class="label">[826]</span></a></span> -It is frequently stated that there was a segregated -migration to Central America. Bancroft -(v. 168, 285), who collates the authorities, finds -nothing of the kind implied. He thinks the -mass remained in Anáhuac. The old view as -expressed by Prescott (i. 14) was that “much -the greater number probably spread over the -region of Central America and the neighboring -isles, and the traveller now speculates on the -majestic ruins of Mitla and Palenqué as possibly -the work of this extraordinary people.” -Kirk, as Prescott’s editor, refers to the labors -of Orozco y Berra (<i>Geografía de las Lenguas de -México</i>, 122), followed by Tylor, (<i>Anahuac</i>, 189) -as establishing the more recent view that this -southern architecture, “though of a far higher -grade, was long anterior to the Toltec dominion.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_827_827" id="Footnote_827_827"></a><a href="#FNanchor_827_827"><span class="label">[827]</span></a></span> -<i>Amer. Ethno. Soc. Trans.</i>, i.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_828_828" id="Footnote_828_828"></a><a href="#FNanchor_828_828"><span class="label">[828]</span></a></span> -Bancroft (v. 287) says: “It is probable that -the name Toltec, a title of distinction rather -than a national name, was never applied at all -to the common people.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_829_829" id="Footnote_829_829"></a><a href="#FNanchor_829_829"><span class="label">[829]</span></a></span> -Brinton’s main statement is in his <i>Were the -Toltecs an historic nationality? Read before the -American Philosophical Society, Sept. 2, 1887</i> -(Phila., 1887); published also in their <i>Proceedings</i>, -1887, p. 229. Cf. also Brinton’s <i>Amer. -Hero. Myths</i> (Phil., 1882), p. 86, where he throws -discredit on the existence of the alleged Toltec -king Quetzalcoatl (whom Sahagún keeps distinct -from the mythical demi-god); and earlier, -in his <i>Myths of the New World</i> (p. 29), he had -suggested that the name Toltec might have “a -merely mythical signification.” Charnay, who -makes the Toltecs a Nahuan tribe, had defended -their historical status in a paper on “La Civilisation -Tolteque,” in the <i>Revue d’Ethnographie</i> -(iv., 1885); and again, two years later, in the same -periodical, he reviewed adversely Brinton’s arguments. -(Cf. <i>Saturday Review</i>, lxiii. 843.) Otto -Stoll, in his <i>Guatemala, Reisen und Schilderungen</i> -(Leipzig, 1886), is another who rejects the old -theory.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_830_830" id="Footnote_830_830"></a><a href="#FNanchor_830_830"><span class="label">[830]</span></a></span> -<i>Archæol. Tour</i>, 253.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_831_831" id="Footnote_831_831"></a><a href="#FNanchor_831_831"><span class="label">[831]</span></a></span> -<i>Archæol. Tour</i>, 7. Sahagún identifies the -Toltecs with the “giants,” and if these were the -degraded descendants of the followers of Votan, -Sahagún thus earlier established the same identity.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_832_832" id="Footnote_832_832"></a><a href="#FNanchor_832_832"><span class="label">[832]</span></a></span> -<i>Archæol. Tour</i>, 191. The fact that the -names which we associate with the Toltecs are -Nahua, only means that Nahua writers have -transmitted them, as Bandelier thinks. Cf. also -Bandelier’s citation in the <i>Peabody Mus. Reports</i>, -vol. ii. 388, where he speaks of our information -regarding the Toltecs as “limited and obscure.” -He thinks it beyond question that they were Nahuas; -and the fact that their division of time -corresponds with the system found in Yucatan, -Guatemala, etc., with other evidences of myths -and legends, leads him to believe that the aborigines -of more southern regions were, if not descendants, -at least of the same stock with the -Toltecs, and that we are justified in studying -them to learn what the Toltecs were. He finds -that Veytia, in his account of the Toltecs, beside -depending on Sahagún and Torquemada, finds a -chief source in Ixtlilxochitl, and locates Huehue-Tlapallan -in the north; and Veytia’s statements -reappear in Clavigero.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The best narratives of the Toltec history are -those in Veytia, <i>Historia Antigua de Méjico</i> (Mexico, -1806); Brasseur’s <i>Hist. Nations Civilisées</i> -(vol. i.), and his introduction to his <i>Popul Vuh</i>; -and Bancroft (v. ch. 3 and 4): but we must look -to Ixtlilxochitl, Torquemada, Sahagún, and the -others, if we wish to study the sources. In such -a study we shall encounter vexatious problems -enough. It is practically impossible to arrange -chronologically what Ixtlilxochitl says that he -got from the picture-writings which he interpreted. -Bancroft (v. 209) does the best he can -to give it a forced perspicuity. Wilson (<i>Prehisoric -Man</i>, i. 245) not inaptly says: “The history -of the Toltecs and their ruined edifices stands -on the border line of romance and fable, like -that of the ruined builders of Carnac and Avebury.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_833_833" id="Footnote_833_833"></a><a href="#FNanchor_833_833"><span class="label">[833]</span></a></span> -Short (page 255) points out that Bancroft -unadvisedly looks upon these Chichimecs as of -Nahua stock, according to the common belief. -Short thinks that Pimentel (<i>Lenguas indigenas -de México</i>, published in 1862) has conclusively -shown that the Chichimecs did not originally -speak the Nahua tongue, but subsequently -adopted it. Short (page 256) thinks, after collating -the evidence, that it is impossible to determine -whence or how they came to Anáhuac.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_834_834" id="Footnote_834_834"></a><a href="#FNanchor_834_834"><span class="label">[834]</span></a></span> -Bancroft, v. 292, gives the different views. -Cf. Kirk in Prescott, i. 16.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_835_835" id="Footnote_835_835"></a><a href="#FNanchor_835_835"><span class="label">[835]</span></a></span> -These events are usually one thing or -another, according to the original source which -you accept, as Bancroft shows (v. 303). The -story of the text is as good as any, and is in the -main borne out by the other narratives.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_836_836" id="Footnote_836_836"></a><a href="#FNanchor_836_836"><span class="label">[836]</span></a></span> -Bancroft, v. 308. Cf., on the arrival of the -Mexicans in the valley, Bandelier (<i>Peabody Mus. -Reports</i>, ii. 398) and his references.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_837_837" id="Footnote_837_837"></a><a href="#FNanchor_837_837"><span class="label">[837]</span></a></span> -Prescott, i., introduction ch. 6, tells the story -of their golden age.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_838_838" id="Footnote_838_838"></a><a href="#FNanchor_838_838"><span class="label">[838]</span></a></span> -Cf. the map in Lucien Biart’s <i>Les Aztèques</i> (Paris, 1885). Prescott says the maps in Clavigero, Lopez, -and Robertson defy “equally topography and history.” Cf. note on plans of the city and valley in Vol. II. -pp. 364, 369, 374, to which may be added, as showing diversified views, those in Stevens’s <i>Herrera</i> (London, -1740), vol. ii.; Bordone’s <i>Libro</i> (1528); Icazbalceta’s <i>Coll. de docs.</i>, i. 390; and the Eng. translation of Cortes’ -despatches, 333.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_839_839" id="Footnote_839_839"></a><a href="#FNanchor_839_839"><span class="label">[839]</span></a></span> -This is placed <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1325. Cf. references in Bancroft (v. 346).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_840_840" id="Footnote_840_840"></a><a href="#FNanchor_840_840"><span class="label">[840]</span></a></span> -On the conquest of the Tecpanecas by the Mexicans, see the references in Bandelier (<i>Peabody -Mus. Reports</i>, ii. 412).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_841_841" id="Footnote_841_841"></a><a href="#FNanchor_841_841"><span class="label">[841]</span></a></span> -For details of the period of the Chichimec -ascendency, see Bancroft (v. ch. 5-7), Brasseur -(<i>Nat. Civil.</i> ii.), and the authorities plentifully -cited in Bancroft.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_842_842" id="Footnote_842_842"></a><a href="#FNanchor_842_842"><span class="label">[842]</span></a></span> -On the nature of the Mexican confederacy -see Bandelier (<i>Peabody Mus. Reports</i>, ii. 416). -He enumerates the authorities upon the point -that no one of the allied tribes exercised any -powers over the others beyond the exclusive -military direction of the Mexicans proper (<i>Peabody -Mus. Reports</i>, ii. 559). Orozco y Berra -(<i>Geografía</i>, etc.) claims that there was a tendency -to assimilate the conquered people to the Mexican -conditions. Bandelier claims that “no attempt, -either direct or implied, was made to -assimilate or incorporate them.” He urges that -nowhere on the march to Mexico did Cortés fall -in with Mexican rulers of subjected tribes. It -does not seem to be clear in all cases whether it -was before or after the confederation was formed, -or whether it was by the Mexicans or Tezcucans -that Tecpaneca, Xochimilca, Cuitlahuac, Chalco, -Acolhuacan, and Quauhnahuac, were conquered. -Cf. Bandelier in <i>Peabody Mus. Reports</i>, ii. 691. -As to the tributaries, see <i>Ibid.</i> 695.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_843_843" id="Footnote_843_843"></a><a href="#FNanchor_843_843"><span class="label">[843]</span></a></span> -Cf. Brasseur’s <i>Nations Civ.</i> ii. 457, on Tezcuco -in its palmy days.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_844_844" id="Footnote_844_844"></a><a href="#FNanchor_844_844"><span class="label">[844]</span></a></span> -Sometimes written Mochtheuzema, Moktezema. -The Aztec Montezuma must not, as is -contended, be confounded with the hero-god of -the New Mexicans. Cf. Bancroft, iii. 77, 171; -Brinton’s <i>Myths</i>, 190; Schoolcraft’s <i>Ind. Tribes</i>, -iv. 73; Tylor’s <i>Prim. Culture</i>, ii. 384; Short, 333.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_845_845" id="Footnote_845_845"></a><a href="#FNanchor_845_845"><span class="label">[845]</span></a></span> -This has induced some historians to call -these wars “holy wars.” Bandelier discredits -wholly the common view, that wars were undertaken -to secure victims for the sacrificial stone -(<i>Archæol. Tour</i>, 24). But in another place (<i>Peabody -Mus. Reports</i>, ii. 128) he says: “War was -required for the purpose of obtaining human victims, -their religion demanding human sacrifices -at least eighteen times every year.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_846_846" id="Footnote_846_846"></a><a href="#FNanchor_846_846"><span class="label">[846]</span></a></span> -As to these carvings, which have not yet -wholly disappeared, see <i>Peabody Mus. Reports</i>, -ii. 677, 678. There is a series of alleged portraits -of the Mexican kings in Carbajal-Espinosa’s -<i>Hist. de Mexico</i> (Mexico, 1862). See pictures -of Montezuma II. in Vol. II. 361, 363, and that -in Ranking, p. 313.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_847_847" id="Footnote_847_847"></a><a href="#FNanchor_847_847"><span class="label">[847]</span></a></span> -Bancroft (v. 466) enumerates the great variety -of such proofs of disaster, and gives references -(p. 469). Cf. Prescott, i. p. 309.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_848_848" id="Footnote_848_848"></a><a href="#FNanchor_848_848"><span class="label">[848]</span></a></span> -Tezozomoc (cap. 106) gives the description -of the first bringing of the news to Montezuma -of the arrival of the Spaniards on the coast.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_849_849" id="Footnote_849_849"></a><a href="#FNanchor_849_849"><span class="label">[849]</span></a></span> -Brinton’s <i>Amer. Hero Myths</i>, 139, etc. See, -on the prevalence of the idea of the return at -some time of the hero-god, Brinton’s <i>Myths of -the New World</i>, p. 160. “We must remember,” -he says, “that a fiction built on an idea is infinitely -more tenacious of life than a story founded -on fact.” Brinton (<i>Myths</i>, 188) gathers from -Gomara, Cogolludo, Villagutierre, and others, -instances to show how prevalent in America was -the presentiment of the arrival and domination -of a white race,—a belief still prevailing among -their descendants of the middle regions of America -who watch for the coming of Montezuma -(<i>Ibid.</i> p. 190). Brinton does not seem to recognize -the view held by many that the Montezuma -of the Aztecs was quite a different being from -the demi-god of the Pueblas of New Mexico.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_850_850" id="Footnote_850_850"></a><a href="#FNanchor_850_850"><span class="label">[850]</span></a></span> -It is not easy to reconcile the conflicting -statements of the native historians respecting -the course of events during the Aztec supremacy, -such is the mutual jealousy of the Mexican -and Tezcucan writers. Brasseur has satisfied -himself of the authenticity of a certain sequence -and character of events (<i>Nations Civilisées</i>), and -Bancroft simply follows him (v. 401). Veytia is -occupied more with the Tezcucans than with the -Aztecs. The condensed sketch here given follows -the main lines of the collated records. We -find good pictures of the later history of Mexico -and Tlascala, before the Spaniards came, -in Prescott (i. book 2d, ch. vi., and book 3d, ch. -ii.). Bancroft (v. ch. 10) with his narrative and -references helps us out with the somewhat monotonous -details of all the districts of Mexico -which were outside the dominance of the Mexican -valley, as of Cholula, Tlascala, Michoacan, -and Oajaca, with the Miztecs and Zapotecs, inhabiting -this last province.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_851_851" id="Footnote_851_851"></a><a href="#FNanchor_851_851"><span class="label">[851]</span></a></span> -Bancroft (v. 543-553).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_852_852" id="Footnote_852_852"></a><a href="#FNanchor_852_852"><span class="label">[852]</span></a></span> -It is so held by Stephens, Waldeck, Mayer, -Prichard, Ternaux-Compans, not to name others.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_853_853" id="Footnote_853_853"></a><a href="#FNanchor_853_853"><span class="label">[853]</span></a></span> -Vol. v. 617.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_854_854" id="Footnote_854_854"></a><a href="#FNanchor_854_854"><span class="label">[854]</span></a></span> -The Maya calendar and astronomical system, -as the basis of the Maya chronology, is explained -in the version which Perez gave into -Spanish of a Maya manuscript (translated into -English by Stephens in his <i>Yucatan</i>), and which -Valentini has used in his “Katunes of Maya -History,” in the <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, Oct. -1879. On the difficulties of the subject see Brasseur’s -<i>Nations Civilisées</i> (ii. ch. 1). Cf. also his -<i>Landa</i>, section xxxix., and page 366, from the -“Cronologia antigua de Yucatan.” Cf. further, -Cyrus Thomas’s <i>MS. Troano</i>, ch. 2, and Powell’s -<i>Third Report Bur. of Ethn.</i>, pp. xxx and 3; -Ancona’s <i>Yucatan</i>, ch. xi.; Bancroft’s <i>Nat. Races</i>, -ii. ch. 24, with references; Short, ch. 9; Brinton’s -<i>Maya Chronicles</i>, introduction, p. 50.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_855_855" id="Footnote_855_855"></a><a href="#FNanchor_855_855"><span class="label">[855]</span></a></span> -Bancroft (v. 624) epitomizes the Perez manuscript -given by Stephens, the sole source of this -Totul Xiu legendary.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_856_856" id="Footnote_856_856"></a><a href="#FNanchor_856_856"><span class="label">[856]</span></a></span> -Brasseur’s <i>Nations Civilisées</i> (i., ii.), with the -Perez manuscript, and Landa’s <i>Relacion</i>, are the -sufficient source of the Yucatan history. Bancroft’s -last chapter of his fifth volume summarizes -it.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_857_857" id="Footnote_857_857"></a><a href="#FNanchor_857_857"><span class="label">[857]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 402.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_858_858" id="Footnote_858_858"></a><a href="#FNanchor_858_858"><span class="label">[858]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 397.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_859_859" id="Footnote_859_859"></a><a href="#FNanchor_859_859"><span class="label">[859]</span></a></span> -<i>Central America</i>, ii. 452.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_860_860" id="Footnote_860_860"></a><a href="#FNanchor_860_860"><span class="label">[860]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 414.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_861_861" id="Footnote_861_861"></a><a href="#FNanchor_861_861"><span class="label">[861]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 343.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_862_862" id="Footnote_862_862"></a><a href="#FNanchor_862_862"><span class="label">[862]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 412.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_863_863" id="Footnote_863_863"></a><a href="#FNanchor_863_863"><span class="label">[863]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 417. Cf. Prescott’s <i>Mexico</i>, -i. 50; Bancroft (<i>Nat. Races</i>, ii. ch. 14) epitomizes -the information on the laws and courts of -the Nahua; Bandelier (<i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i>, ii. -446), referring to Zurita’s Report, which he characterizes -as marked for perspicacity, deep knowledge, -and honest judgment, speaks of it as embodying -the experience of nearly twenty years,—eleven -of which were passed in Mexico,—and -in which the author gave answers to inquiries -put by the king. “If we could obtain,” says -Bandelier, “all the answers given to these questions -from all parts of Spanish America, and all -as elaborate and truthful as those of Zurita, Palacio, -and Ondegardo, our knowledge of the aboriginal -history and ethnology of Spanish America -would be much advanced.” Zurita’s Report -in a French translation is in Ternaux-Compans’ -<i>Collection</i>; the original is in Pacheco’s <i>Docs. -inéditos</i>, but in a mutilated text.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_864_864" id="Footnote_864_864"></a><a href="#FNanchor_864_864"><span class="label">[864]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 346.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_865_865" id="Footnote_865_865"></a><a href="#FNanchor_865_865"><span class="label">[865]</span></a></span> -It is much we owe to the twelve Franciscan -friars who on May 13, 1524, landed in Mexico to -convert and defend the natives. It is from their -writings that we must draw a large part of our -knowledge respecting the Indian character, condition, -and history. These Christian apostles -were Martin de Valencia, Francisco de Soto, -Martin de Coruña, Juan Xuares, Antonio de -Ciudad Rodrigo, Toribio de Benavente, Garcia -de Cisneros, Luis de Fuensalida, Juan de Ribas, -Francisco Ximenez, Andrés de Cordoba, Juan -de Palos.</p> -<p class="pfc4">From the <i>Historia</i> of Las Casas, particularly -from that part of it called <i>Apologética historia</i>, -we can also derive some help. (Cf. Vol. II. p. -340.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_866_866" id="Footnote_866_866"></a><a href="#FNanchor_866_866"><span class="label">[866]</span></a></span> -Brasseur, <i>Bib. Mex.-Guat.</i>, p. 147; Leclerc, -p. 168.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_867_867" id="Footnote_867_867"></a><a href="#FNanchor_867_867"><span class="label">[867]</span></a></span> -Herrera is furthermore the source of much -that we read in later works concerning the native -religion and habits of life. See Vol. II. p. 67.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_868_868" id="Footnote_868_868"></a><a href="#FNanchor_868_868"><span class="label">[868]</span></a></span> -Cf. Vol. II. p. 418.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_869_869" id="Footnote_869_869"></a><a href="#FNanchor_869_869"><span class="label">[869]</span></a></span> -<i>Anales del Museo Nacional</i>, iii. 4, 120; Brinton’s -<i>Am. Hero Myths</i>, 78. Bandelier, in <i>N. Y. -Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, November, 1879, used a portion -of the MS. as printed by Sir Thomas Phillipps -(<i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, i. 115) under the title -of <i>Historia de los Yndios Mexicanos, por Juan -de Tovar; Cura et impensis Dni Thomæ Phillipps, -Bart.</i> (privately printed at Middle Hill, -1860. See <i>Squier Catalogue</i>, no. 1417). The -document is translated by Henry Phillipps, Jr., -in the <i>Proc. Amer. Philosophical Soc.</i> (Philad.), -xxi. 616.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_870_870" id="Footnote_870_870"></a><a href="#FNanchor_870_870"><span class="label">[870]</span></a></span> -Vol. II. p. 419. Brasseur de Bourbourg’s -<i>Bibl. Mex.-Guat.</i>, p. 59. He used a MS. copy -in the Force collection.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_871_871" id="Footnote_871_871"></a><a href="#FNanchor_871_871"><span class="label">[871]</span></a></span> -This is true of Acosta and Davila Padilla. -The bibliography of Acosta has been given elsewhere -(Vol. II. p. 420). His books v., vi., and -vii. cover the ancient history of the country. -He used the MSS. of Duran (Brasseur, <i>Bibl. -Mex.-Guat.</i>, p. 2), and his correspondence with -Tobar, preserved in the Lenox library, has been -edited by Icazbalceta in his <i>Don Fray Zumárraga</i> -(Mexico, 1881). Of the <i>Provincia de Santiago</i> -and the <i>Varia historia</i> of Davila Padilla, -the bibliography has been told in another place. -(Cf. Vol. II. pp. 399-400[; Sabin, v. 18780-1; -Brasseur de Bourbourg’s <i>Bibl. Mex.-Guat.</i>, p. 53; -<i>Del Monte Library</i>, no. 126.) Ternaux was not -wrong in ascribing great value to the books.]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_872_872" id="Footnote_872_872"></a><a href="#FNanchor_872_872"><span class="label">[872]</span></a></span> -Peter of Ghent. Cf. Vol. II. p. 417.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_873_873" id="Footnote_873_873"></a><a href="#FNanchor_873_873"><span class="label">[873]</span></a></span> -<i>Chronica Compendiosissima ab exordio mundi -per Amandum Zierixcensem, adjectæ sunt epistolæ -ex nova maris Oceani Hispania ad nos transmissæ</i> -(Antwerp, 1534). The subjoined letters -here mentioned are, beside that referred to, two -others written in Mexico (1531), by Martin of -Valencia and Bishop Zumárraga (Sabin, i. no. -994; Quaritch, 362, no. 28583, £7 10). Icazbalceta -(<i>Bib. Mex. del Siglo xvi.</i>, i. p. 33) gives -a long account of Gante. There is a French -version of the letter in Ternaux’s <i>Collection</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_874_874" id="Footnote_874_874"></a><a href="#FNanchor_874_874"><span class="label">[874]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 397. Cf. Prescott, ii. 95. -The first part of the <i>Historia</i> is on the religious -rites of the natives; the second on their conversion -to Christianity; the third on their chronology, -etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_875_875" id="Footnote_875_875"></a><a href="#FNanchor_875_875"><span class="label">[875]</span></a></span> -Cf. Icazbalceta’s <i>Bibl. Mexicana</i>, p. 220, -with references; Pilling’s <i>Proof-sheets</i>, no. 2600, -etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_876_876" id="Footnote_876_876"></a><a href="#FNanchor_876_876"><span class="label">[876]</span></a></span> -Pilling, no. 2817, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_877_877" id="Footnote_877_877"></a><a href="#FNanchor_877_877"><span class="label">[877]</span></a></span> -Properly, Bernardino Ribeira; named from -his birthplace, Sahagún, in Spain. Chavero’s -<i>Sahagún</i> (Mexico, 1877).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_878_878" id="Footnote_878_878"></a><a href="#FNanchor_878_878"><span class="label">[878]</span></a></span> -A few data can be added to the account of -Sahagún given in Vol. II. p. 415. J. F. Ramirez -completes the bibliography of Sahagún in the -<i>Boletin de la Real Academia de la Historia de -Madrid</i>, vi. 85 (1885). Icazbalceta, having told -the story of Sahagún’s life in his edition of -Mendieta’s <i>Hist. Eclesiastica Indiana</i> (México, -1870), has given an extended critical and bibliographical -account in his <i>Bibliografía Mexicana</i> -(México, 1886), vol. i. 247-308. Other bibliographical -detail can be gleaned from Pilling’s -<i>Proof-sheets</i>, p. 677, etc.; Icazbalceta’s <i>Apuntes</i>; -Beristain’s <i>Biblioteca</i>; the <i>Bibliotheca Mexicana</i> -of Ramirez. The list in Adolfo Llanos’s <i>Sahagún -y su historia de México</i> (<i>Museo Nac. de Méx. -Anales</i>, iii., pt. 3, p. 71) is based chiefly on Alfredo -Chavero’s <i>Sahagún</i> (México, 1877). Brasseur -de Bourbourg, in his <i>Palenqué</i> (ch. 5), has -explained the importance of what Brevoort calls -Sahagún’s “great encyclopædia of the Mexican -Empire.” Rosny (<i>Les documents écrits de l’Antiquité -Américaine</i>, p. 69) speaks of seeing a -copy of the <i>Historia</i> in Madrid, accompanied by -remarkable Aztec pictures. Bancroft, referring -to the defective texts of Sahagún in Kingsborough -and Bustamante, says: “Fortunately what -is missing in one I have always found in the -other.” He further speaks of the work of Sahagún -as “the most complete and comprehensive, -so far as aboriginal history is concerned, furnishing -an immense mass of material, drawn from -native sources, very badly arranged and written.” -Eleven books of Sahagún are given to the social -institutions of the natives, and but one to the -conquest. Jourdanet’s edition is mentioned elsewhere -(Vol. II.).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_879_879" id="Footnote_879_879"></a><a href="#FNanchor_879_879"><span class="label">[879]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 421.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_880_880" id="Footnote_880_880"></a><a href="#FNanchor_880_880"><span class="label">[880]</span></a></span> -Those who used him most, like Clavigero -and Brasseur de Bourbourg, complain of this. -Torquemada, says Bandelier (<i>Peabody Mus. -Repts.</i> ii. 119), “notwithstanding his unquestionable -credulity, is extremely important on all questions -of Mexican antiquities.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_881_881" id="Footnote_881_881"></a><a href="#FNanchor_881_881"><span class="label">[881]</span></a></span> -<i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, n. s., i. 105.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_882_882" id="Footnote_882_882"></a><a href="#FNanchor_882_882"><span class="label">[882]</span></a></span> -Cf. Vol. II. 417; Prescott, i. 13, 163, 193, 196; -Bancroft, <i>Nat. Races</i>, v. 147; Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric -Man</i>, i. 325. It must be confessed that -with no more authority than the old Mexican -paintings, interpreted through the understanding -of old men and their traditions, Ixtlilxochitl -has not the firmest ground to walk on. Aubin -thinks that Ixtlilxochitl’s confusion and contradictions -arise from his want of patience in studying -his documents; and some part of it may -doubtless have arisen from his habit, as Brasseur -says (<i>Annales de Philosophie Chrétienne</i>, May, -1855, p. 329), of altering his authorities to magnify -the glories of his genealogic line. Max -Müller (<i>Chips from a German Workshop</i>, i. 322) -says of his works: “Though we must not expect -to find in them what we are accustomed to -call history, they are nevertheless of great historical -interest, as supplying the vague outlines -of a distant past, filled with migrations, wars, -dynasties and revolutions, such as were cherished -in the memory of the Greeks in the time of Solon.” -In addition to his <i>Historia Chichimeca</i> -and his <i>Relaciones</i>, (both of which are given by -Kingsborough, while Ternaux has translated portions,)—the -MS. of the <i>Relaciones</i> being in the -Mexican archives,—Ixtlilxochitl left a large -mass of his manuscript studies of the antiquities, -often repetitionary in substance. Some are -found in the compilation made in Mexico by -Figueroa in 1792, by order of the Spanish government -(Prescott, i. 193). Some were in the -Ramirez collection. Quaritch (<i>MS. Collections</i>, -Jan., 1888, no. 136) held one from that collection, -dated about 1680, at £16, called <i>Sumaria Relacion</i>, -which concerned the ancient Chichimecs. -Those which are best known are a <i>Historia de la -Nueva España</i>, or <i>Historia del Reyno de Tezcuco</i>, -and a <i>Historia de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe</i>, -if this last is by him.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_883_883" id="Footnote_883_883"></a><a href="#FNanchor_883_883"><span class="label">[883]</span></a></span> -<i>Annales de Philosophie Chrétienne</i>, May, -1855, p. 326.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_884_884" id="Footnote_884_884"></a><a href="#FNanchor_884_884"><span class="label">[884]</span></a></span> -In his <i>Quatre Lettres</i>, p. 24, he calls it the -sacred book of the Toltecs. “C’est le Livre -divin lui-même, c’est le Teoamoxtli.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_885_885" id="Footnote_885_885"></a><a href="#FNanchor_885_885"><span class="label">[885]</span></a></span> -Brasseur’s <i>Lettres à M. le due de Valmy, -Lettre seconde</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_886_886" id="Footnote_886_886"></a><a href="#FNanchor_886_886"><span class="label">[886]</span></a></span> -<i>Catálogo</i>, pp. 17, 18.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_887_887" id="Footnote_887_887"></a><a href="#FNanchor_887_887"><span class="label">[887]</span></a></span> -Brasseur, <i>Bibl. Mex. Guat.</i>, p. 47; <i>Pinart-Brasseur -Catal.</i>, no. 237.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_888_888" id="Footnote_888_888"></a><a href="#FNanchor_888_888"><span class="label">[888]</span></a></span> -It has been announced that Bandelier is -engaged in a new translation of <i>The Annals of -Quauhtitlan</i> for Brinton’s <i>Aboriginal Literature -series</i>. Cf. Bancroft, iii. 57, 63, and in vol. v., -where he endeavors to patch together Brasseur’s -fragments of it. Short, p. 241.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_889_889" id="Footnote_889_889"></a><a href="#FNanchor_889_889"><span class="label">[889]</span></a></span> -Humboldt says that Sigüenza inherited Ixtlilxochitl’s -collection; and that it was preserved -in the College of San Pedro till 1759.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_890_890" id="Footnote_890_890"></a><a href="#FNanchor_890_890"><span class="label">[890]</span></a></span> -<i>Giro del mondo</i>, 1699, vol. vi. Cf. Kingsborough, -vol. iv. Robertson attacked Carreri’s character -for honesty, and claimed it was a received -opinion that he had never been out of Italy. -Clavigero defended Carreri. Humboldt thinks -Carreri’s local coloring shows he must have -been in Mexico.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_891_891" id="Footnote_891_891"></a><a href="#FNanchor_891_891"><span class="label">[891]</span></a></span> -Cf. the bibliog., in Vol. II., p. 425, of his -<i>Storia Antica del Messico</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_892_892" id="Footnote_892_892"></a><a href="#FNanchor_892_892"><span class="label">[892]</span></a></span> -We owe to him descriptions at this time of -the collections of Mendoza, of that in the Vatican, -and of that at Vienna. Robertson made -an enumeration of such manuscripts; but his -knowledge was defective, and he did not know -even of those at Oxford.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_893_893" id="Footnote_893_893"></a><a href="#FNanchor_893_893"><span class="label">[893]</span></a></span> -Robertson was inclined to disparage Clavigero’s -work, asserting that he could find little -in him beyond what he took from Acosta and -Herrera “except the improbable narratives and -fanciful conjectures of Torquemada and Boturini.” -Clavigero criticised Robertson, and the -English historian in his later editions replied. -Prescott points out (i. 70) that Clavigero only -knew Sahagún through the medium of Torquemada -and later writers. Bancroft (<i>Nat. Races</i>, v. -149; <i>Mexico</i>, i. 700) thinks that Clavigero “owes -his reputation much more to his systematic arrangement -and clear narration of traditions that -had before been greatly confused, and to the -omission of the most perplexing and contradictory -points, than to deep research or new discoveries.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_894_894" id="Footnote_894_894"></a><a href="#FNanchor_894_894"><span class="label">[894]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 418. Brasseur de Bourbourg’s -<i>Hist. des Nations Civilisées</i>, p. xxxii. -Clavigero had described it.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_895_895" id="Footnote_895_895"></a><a href="#FNanchor_895_895"><span class="label">[895]</span></a></span> -He had collected nearly 500 Mexican paintings -in all. Aubin (<i>Notices</i>, etc., p. 21) says -that Boturini nearly exhausted the field in his -searches, and with the collection of Sigüenza he -secured all those cited by Ixtlilxochitl and the -most of those concealed by the Indians,—of -which mention is made by Torquemada, Sahagún, -Valadés, Zurita, and others; and that the -researches of Bustamante, Cubas, Gondra, and -others, up to 1851, had not been able to add -much of importance to what Boturini possessed.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_896_896" id="Footnote_896_896"></a><a href="#FNanchor_896_896"><span class="label">[896]</span></a></span> -This portion of his collection has not been -traced. The fact is indeed denied.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_897_897" id="Footnote_897_897"></a><a href="#FNanchor_897_897"><span class="label">[897]</span></a></span> -<i>Idea de una nueva historia general de la -America septentrional</i> (Madrid, 1746); Carter-Brown, -iii. 817; Brasseur’s <i>Bibl. Mex.-Guat.</i>, -p. 26; Field, <i>Ind. Bibliog.</i>, no. 159; Pinart, <i>Catalogue</i>, -no. 134; Prescott, i. 160.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_898_898" id="Footnote_898_898"></a><a href="#FNanchor_898_898"><span class="label">[898]</span></a></span> -Brasseur, <i>Bibl. Mex.-Guat.</i>, p. 152.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_899_899" id="Footnote_899_899"></a><a href="#FNanchor_899_899"><span class="label">[899]</span></a></span> -Prescott, i. 24. Harrisse, <i>Bib. Am. Vet.</i>, calls -Veytia’s the best history of the ancient period -yet (1866) written.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_900_900" id="Footnote_900_900"></a><a href="#FNanchor_900_900"><span class="label">[900]</span></a></span> -A second ed. (Mexico, 1832) was augmented -with notes and a life of the author, by Carlos -Maria de Bustamante; Field, <i>Ind. Bibliog.</i>, no. -909; Brasseur’s <i>Bibl. Mex.-Guat.</i>, p. 68.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_901_901" id="Footnote_901_901"></a><a href="#FNanchor_901_901"><span class="label">[901]</span></a></span> -Prescott, i. 133. Gama and others collected -another class of hieroglyphics, of less importance, -but still interesting as illustrating legal and administrative -processes used in later times, in the -relations of the Spaniards with the natives; and -still others embracing Christian prayers, catechisms, -etc., employed by the missionaries in the -religious instruction (Aubin, <i>Notice</i>, etc., 21). -Humboldt (vol. xiii., pl. p. 141) gives “a lawsuit -in hieroglyphics.”</p> -<p class="pfc4">There was published (100 copies) at Madrid, -in 1878, <i>Pintura del Gobernador, Alcaldes y Regidores -de México, Codice en geroglíficos Méxicanos -y en lengua Castellana y Azteca, Existente en la -Biblioteca del Excmo Señor Duque de Osuna</i>,—a -legal record of the later Spanish courts affecting -the natives.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_902_902" id="Footnote_902_902"></a><a href="#FNanchor_902_902"><span class="label">[902]</span></a></span> -Humboldt describes these collections which -he knew at the beginning of the century, speaking -of José Antonio Pichardo’s as the finest.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_903_903" id="Footnote_903_903"></a><a href="#FNanchor_903_903"><span class="label">[903]</span></a></span> -<i>Notice sur une collection d’antiquités Mexicaines, -being an extract from a Mémoire sur la -peinture didactique et l’Écriture figurative des -Anciens Mexicains</i> (Paris, 1851; again, 1859-1861). -Cf. papers in <i>Revue Américaine et Orientale</i>, -1st ser., iii., iv., and v. Aubin says that -Humboldt found that part of the Boturini collection -which had been given over to the Mexican -archivists diminished by seven eighths. He -also shows how Ternaux-Compans (<i>Crauatés -Horribles</i>, p. 275-289), Rafael Isidro Gondra (in -Veytia, <i>Hist. Ant. de Mex.</i>, 1836, i. 49), and Bustamante -have related the long contentions over -the disposition of these relics, and how the Academy -of History at Madrid had even secured the -suppression of a similar academy among the -antiquaries in Mexico, which had been formed -to develop the study of their antiquities. It was -as a sort of peace-offering that the Spanish -king now caused Veytia to be empowered to -proceed with the work which Boturini had begun. -This allayed the irritation for a while, but -on Veytia’s death (1769) it broke out again, when -Gama was given possession of the collection, -which he further increased. It was at Gama’s -death sold at auction, when Humboldt bought -the specimens which are now in Berlin, and -Waldeck secured others which he took to Europe. -It was from Waldeck that Aubin acquired -the Boturini part of his collection. The -rest of the collection remained in Mexico, and -in the main makes a part at present of the Museo -Nacional. But Aubin is a doubtful witness.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Aubin says that he now proposed to refashion -the Boturini collection by copies where he could -not procure the originals; to add others, embracing -whatever he could still find in the hands -of the native population, and what had been -collected by Veytia, Gama, and Pichardo. In -1851, when he wrote, Aubin had given twenty -years to this task, and with what results the list -of his MSS., which he appends to the account -we have quoted, will show.</p> -<p class="pfc4">These include in the native tongue:—</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>a.</i> History of Mexico from <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1064 to 1521, -in fragments, from Tezozomoc and from Alonso -Franco, annotated by Domingo Chimalpain (a -copy).</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>b.</i> Annals of Mexico, written apparently in -1528 by one who had taken part in the defence -of Mexico (an original).</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>c.</i> Several historical narratives on European -paper, by Domingo Chimalpain, coming down -to <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1591, which have in great part been -translated by Aubin, who considers them the -most important documents which we possess.</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>d.</i> A history of Colhuacan and Mexico, lacking -the first leaf. This is described as being -in the handwriting of Ixtlilxochitl, and Aubin -gives the dates of its composition as 1563 and -1570. It is what has later been known as the -<i>Codex Chimalpopoca</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>e.</i> Zapata’s history of Tlaxcalla.</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>f.</i> A copy by Loaysa of an original, from -which Torquemada has copied several chapters.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_904_904" id="Footnote_904_904"></a><a href="#FNanchor_904_904"><span class="label">[904]</span></a></span> -The chief of the Boturini acquisition he -enumerates as follows:—</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>a.</i> Toltec annals on fifty leaves of European -paper, cited by Gama in his <i>Descripcion histórica</i>. -Cf. Brasseur, <i>Nations Civilisées</i>, p. lxxvi.</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>b.</i> Chichimec annals, on Indian paper, six -leaves, of which ten pages consist of pictures, -the original so-called <i>Codex Chimalpopoca</i>, of -which Gama made a copy, also in the Aubin collection, -as well as Ixtlilxochitl’s explanation of -it. Aubin says that he has used this account of -Ixtlilxochitl to rectify that historian’s blunders.</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>c.</i> Codex on Indian paper, having a picture of -the Emperor Xolotl.</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>d.</i> A painting on prepared skin, giving the -genealogy of the Chichimecan chiefs, accompanied -by the copies made by Pichardo and -Boturini. Cf. <i>Archives de la Soc. Amér. de -France</i>, 2d ser., i. 283.</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>e.</i> A synchronical history of Tepechpan and of -Mexico, on Indian paper, accompanied by a -copy made by Pichardo and an outline sketch -of that in the Museo Nacional.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Without specifying others which Aubin enumerates, -he gives as other acquisitions the following -in particular:—</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>a.</i> Pichardo’s copy of a Codex Mexicanus, -giving the history of the Mexicans from their -leaving Aztlan to 1590.</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>b.</i> An original Mexican history from the departure -from Aztlan to 1569.</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>c.</i> Fragments which had belonged to Sigüenza.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_905_905" id="Footnote_905_905"></a><a href="#FNanchor_905_905"><span class="label">[905]</span></a></span> -<i>Notice sur une Collection, etc.</i>, p. 12.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_906_906" id="Footnote_906_906"></a><a href="#FNanchor_906_906"><span class="label">[906]</span></a></span> -<i>Hist. des Nations Civilisées</i> (i. pp. xxxi, lxxvi, -etc.; cf. Müller’s <i>Chips</i>, i. 317, 320, 323). Brasseur -in the same place describes his own collection; -and it may be further followed in his <i>Bibl. -Mex.-Guat.</i>, and in the <i>Pinart Catalogue</i>. Dr. -Brinton says that we owe much for the preservation -during late years of Maya MSS. to Don -Juan Pio Perez, and that the best existing collection -of them is that of Canon Crescencio -Carrillo y Ancona. José F. Ramirez (see Vol. -II. p. 398) is another recent Mexican collector, -and his MSS. have been in one place and another -in the market of late years. Quaritch’s recent -catalogues reveal a number of them, including -his own MS. <i>Catálogo de Colecciones</i> (Jan., -1888, no. 171), and some of his unpublished -notes on Prescott, not included in those “notas y -ecclarecimientos” appended to Navarro’s translation -of the <i>Conquest of Mexico</i> (<i>Catal.</i>, 1885, -no. 28,502). The several publications of Léon -de Rosny point us to scattered specimens. In -his <i>Doc. écrits de l’Antiquité Amér.</i> he gives the -fac-simile of a colored Aztec map. A MS. in -the collection of the Corps Legislatif, in Paris, -and that of the Codex Indiæ Meridionalis are -figured in his <i>Essai sur le déchiffrement, etc.</i> (pl. -ix, x). In the <i>Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France, -n. s.</i>, vol. i., etc., we find plates of the Mappe -Tlotzin, and a paper of Madier de Montjau, -“sur quelques manuscrits figuratifs de l’Ancien -Méxique.” Cf. also <i>Anales del Museo</i>, viii.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Cf. for further mention of collections the <i>Revue -Orientale et Américaine</i>; Cyrus Thomas in -the <i>Am. Antiquarian</i>, May, 1884 (vol. vi.); and -the more comprehensive enumeration in the introduction -to Domenech’s <i>Manuscrit pictographique</i>. -Orozco y Berra, in the introduction to -his <i>Geografia de las Lenguas y Carta Etnográfica</i> -(Mexico, 1864), speaks of the assistance he obtained -from the collections of Ramirez and of -Icazbalceta.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_907_907" id="Footnote_907_907"></a><a href="#FNanchor_907_907"><span class="label">[907]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 418.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_908_908" id="Footnote_908_908"></a><a href="#FNanchor_908_908"><span class="label">[908]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 418. Bandelier calls this -French version “utterly unreliable.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_909_909" id="Footnote_909_909"></a><a href="#FNanchor_909_909"><span class="label">[909]</span></a></span> -This is Beristain’s title. Torquemada, Vetancurt, -and Sigüenza cite it as <i>Memorias históricas</i>; -Brasseur, <i>Bib. Mexico-Guat.</i>, p. 122.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_910_910" id="Footnote_910_910"></a><a href="#FNanchor_910_910"><span class="label">[910]</span></a></span> -Cf. “Les Annales Méxicaines,” by Rémi -Siméon in the <i>Archives de la Soc. Amér. de -France</i>, n. s., vol. ii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_911_911" id="Footnote_911_911"></a><a href="#FNanchor_911_911"><span class="label">[911]</span></a></span> -It is cited by Chavero as <i>Codex Zumárraga</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_912_912" id="Footnote_912_912"></a><a href="#FNanchor_912_912"><span class="label">[912]</span></a></span> -<i>Hist. Nat. Civ.</i>, ii. 577.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_913_913" id="Footnote_913_913"></a><a href="#FNanchor_913_913"><span class="label">[913]</span></a></span> -<i>Aboriginal Amer. Authors</i>, p. 29. Cf. Bandelier’s -<i>Bibliography of Yucatan</i> in <i>Am. Antiq. -Soc. Proc.</i>, n. s., vol. i. p. 82. Cf. the references -in Brasseur, <i>Hist. Nat. Civ.</i>, and in Bancroft, -<i>Nat. Races</i>, v.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_914_914" id="Footnote_914_914"></a><a href="#FNanchor_914_914"><span class="label">[914]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Mem. of Berendt</i>, by Brinton (Worcester, -1884).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_915_915" id="Footnote_915_915"></a><a href="#FNanchor_915_915"><span class="label">[915]</span></a></span> -Cf. Brinton on the MSS. in the languages of -Cent. America, in <i>Amer. Jour. of Science</i>, xcvii. -222; and his <i>Books of Chilan Balam, the prophetic -and historical records of the Mayas of -Yucatan</i> (Philad., 1882), reprinted from the <i>Penn -Monthly</i>, March, 1882. Cf. also the <i>Transactions -of the Philad. Numismatic and Antiquarian -Soc.</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_916_916" id="Footnote_916_916"></a><a href="#FNanchor_916_916"><span class="label">[916]</span></a></span> -This is in the alphabet adopted by the early -missionaries. The volume contains the “Books -of Chilan Balam,” written “not later than 1595,” -and also the “Chac Xulub Chen,” written by a -Maya chief, Nakuk Pech, in 1562, to recount the -story of the Spanish conquest of Yucatan.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_917_917" id="Footnote_917_917"></a><a href="#FNanchor_917_917"><span class="label">[917]</span></a></span> -This was in 1843, when Stephens made his -English translation from Pio Perez’s Spanish -version, <i>Antigua Chronologia Yucateca</i>; and -from Stephens’s text, Brasseur gave it a French -rendering in his edition of Landa. (Cf. also his -<i>Nat. Civilisées</i>, ii. p. 2.) Perez, who in Stephens’s -opinion (<i>Yucatan</i>, ii. 117) was the best Maya -scholar in that country, made notes, which Valentini -published in his “Katunes of Maya History,” -in the <i>Pro. of the Amer. Antiq. Soc.</i>, Oct., 1879 -(Worcester, 1880), but they had earlier been -printed in Carrillo’s <i>Hist. y Geog. de Yucatan</i> -(Merida, 1881). Bancroft (<i>Nat. Races</i>, v. 624) -reprints Stephens’s text with notes from Brasseur.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The books of Chilan Balam were used both -by Cogolludo and Lizana; and Brasseur printed -some of them in the <i>Mission Scientifique au -Méxique</i>. They are described in Carrillo’s <i>Disertacion -sobre la historia de lengua Maya ó Yucateca</i> -(Merida, 1870).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_918_918" id="Footnote_918_918"></a><a href="#FNanchor_918_918"><span class="label">[918]</span></a></span> -Brasseur, <i>Bib. Mex.-Guat.</i>, p. 30. See Vol. -II. p. 429. The Spanish title is <i>Relacion de las -Cosas de Yucatan</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_919_919" id="Footnote_919_919"></a><a href="#FNanchor_919_919"><span class="label">[919]</span></a></span> -From the <i>Proc. of the Amer. Philos. Soc.</i>, -xxiv.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_920_920" id="Footnote_920_920"></a><a href="#FNanchor_920_920"><span class="label">[920]</span></a></span> -Cf. Bandelier in <i>Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, n. s., -vol. i. p. 88.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_921_921" id="Footnote_921_921"></a><a href="#FNanchor_921_921"><span class="label">[921]</span></a></span> -The second edition was called <i>Los tres Siglos -de la Dominacion Española en Yucatan</i> (Campeche -and Merida, 2 vols., 1842, 1845). It was -edited unsatisfactorily by Justo Sierra. Cf. Vol. -II. p. 429; Brasseur, <i>Bib. Mex.-Guat.</i>, p. 47.</p> -<p class="pfc4">This, like Juan de Villagutierre Soto-Mayor’s -<i>Historia de la Conquista de la Provincia de el -Itza, reduccion, y progressos de la de el Lacandon, -y otras naciones de Indios Barbaros, de la mediacion -de el Reyno de Gautimala, a las Provincias -de Yucatan, en la America Septentrional</i> (Madrid, -1701), (which, says Bandelier, is of importance -for that part of Yucatan which has remained unexplored), -has mostly to do with the Indians -under the Spanish rule, but the books are not -devoid of usefulness in the study of the early -tribes.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Of the modern comments on the Yucatan ancient -history, those of Brasseur in his <i>Nations -Civilisées</i> are more to be trusted than his introduction -to his edition of Landa, which needs -to be taken with due recognition of his later -vagaries; and Brinton has studied their history -at some length in the introduction to his <i>Maya -Chronicles</i>. The first volume of Eligio Ancona’s -<i>Hist. de Yucatan</i> covers the early period. See -Vol. II. p. 429. Brinton calls it “disappointingly -superficial.” There is much that is popularly -retrospective in the various and not always -stable contributions of Dr. Le Plongeon and -his wife. The last of Mrs. Le Plongeon’s papers -is one on “The Mayas, their customs, -laws, religion,” in the <i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, Aug., -1887. Bancroft’s second volume groups the necessary -references to every phase of Maya history. -Cf. Charnay, English translation, ch. 15; -and Geronimo Castillo’s <i>Diccionario Histórico, -biográfico y monumental de Yucatan</i> (Mérida, -1866). Of Crescencio Carrillo and his <i>Historia -Antigua de Yucatan</i> (Mérida, 1881), Brinton -says: “I know of no other Yucatecan who has -equal enthusiasm or so just an estimate of the -antiquarian riches of his native land” (<i>Amer. -Hero Myths</i>, 147). Bastian summarizes the history -of Yucatan and Guatemala in the second -volume of his <i>Culturländer des alten Amerika</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_922_922" id="Footnote_922_922"></a><a href="#FNanchor_922_922"><span class="label">[922]</span></a></span> -<i>Yucatan</i>, ii. 79.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_923_923" id="Footnote_923_923"></a><a href="#FNanchor_923_923"><span class="label">[923]</span></a></span> -See C. H. Berendt on the hist. docs. of Guatemala -in <i>Smithsonian Report</i>, 1876. There is a -partial bibliography of Guatemala in W. T. -Brigham’s <i>Guatemala the land of the Quetzal</i> -(N. Y., 1887), and another by Bandelier in the -<i>Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, n. s., vol. i. p. 101. The -references in Brasseur’s <i>Hist. Nations Civilisées</i>, -and in Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i>, vol. v., will be a -ready means for collating the early sources.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_924_924" id="Footnote_924_924"></a><a href="#FNanchor_924_924"><span class="label">[924]</span></a></span> -Scherzer and Brasseur are somewhat at variance -here.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_925_925" id="Footnote_925_925"></a><a href="#FNanchor_925_925"><span class="label">[925]</span></a></span> -“There are some coincidences between the -Old Testament and the Quiché MS. which are -certainly startling.” Müller’s <i>Chips</i>, i. 328.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_926_926" id="Footnote_926_926"></a><a href="#FNanchor_926_926"><span class="label">[926]</span></a></span> -<i>Wanderungen durch die mittel-Amerikanischen -Freistaaten</i> (Braunschweig, 1857—an English -translation, London, 1857).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_927_927" id="Footnote_927_927"></a><a href="#FNanchor_927_927"><span class="label">[927]</span></a></span> -Leclerc, no. 1305.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_928_928" id="Footnote_928_928"></a><a href="#FNanchor_928_928"><span class="label">[928]</span></a></span> -H. H. Bancroft, <i>Nat. Races</i>, ii. 115; iii., ch. -2, and v. 170, 547, gives a convenient condensation -of the book, and says that Müller misconceives -in some parts of his summary, and that -Baldwin in his <i>Ancient America</i>, p. 191, follows -Müller. Helps, <i>Spanish Conquest</i>, iv. App., gives -a brief synopsis,—the first one done in English.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_929_929" id="Footnote_929_929"></a><a href="#FNanchor_929_929"><span class="label">[929]</span></a></span> -Max Müller dissents from this. <i>Chips</i>, i. -326. Müller reminds us, if we are suspicious of -the disjointed manner of what has come down -to us as the <i>Popul Vuh</i>, that “consecutive history -is altogether a modern idea, of which few -only of the ancient nations had any conception. -If we had the exact words of the <i>Popul Vuh</i>, we -should probably find no more history there than -we find in the Quiché MS. as it now stands.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_930_930" id="Footnote_930_930"></a><a href="#FNanchor_930_930"><span class="label">[930]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Aborig. Amer. Authors</i>, p. 33.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_931_931" id="Footnote_931_931"></a><a href="#FNanchor_931_931"><span class="label">[931]</span></a></span> -<i>The names of the gods in the Kiché Myths -of Central America</i> (Philad., 1881), from the -<i>Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc.</i> He gives his reasons -(p. 4) for the spelling <i>Kiché</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_932_932" id="Footnote_932_932"></a><a href="#FNanchor_932_932"><span class="label">[932]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, n. s., vol. i. 109; -and his paper, “On the Sources of the Aboriginal -Hist. of Spanish America,” in the <i>Am. -Asso. Adv. Sci. Proc.</i>, xxvii. 328 (Aug., 1878). -In the <i>Peabody Mus. Eleventh Report</i>, p. 391, he -says of it that “it appears to be for the first -chapters an evident fabrication, or at least accommodation -of Indian mythology to Christian -notions,—a pious fraud; but the bulk is an -equally evident collection of original traditions -of the Indians of Guatemala, and as such the -most valuable work for the aboriginal history -and ethnology of Central America.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_933_933" id="Footnote_933_933"></a><a href="#FNanchor_933_933"><span class="label">[933]</span></a></span> -<i>Hist. Nat. Civ.</i>, i. 47. <i>S’il existe des sources de -l’histoire primitive du Méxique dans les monuments -égyptiens et de l’histoire primitive de l’ancien -monde dans les monuments Américains?</i> (1864), -which is an extract from his <i>Landa’s Relation</i>. -Cf. Bollaert, in the <i>Royal Soc. of Lit. Trans.</i>, -1863. Brasseur (<i>Bib. Mex.-Guat.</i>, p. 45; Pinart, -no. 231) also speaks of another Quiché document, -of which his MS. copy is entitled <i>Titulo -de los Señores de Totonicapan, escrito en lengua -Quiché, el año de 1554, y traducido al Castellano -el año de 1834, por el Padre Dionisio José Chonay, -indígena</i>, which tells the story of the Quiché -race somewhat differently from the <i>Popul Vuh</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_934_934" id="Footnote_934_934"></a><a href="#FNanchor_934_934"><span class="label">[934]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 419.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_935_935" id="Footnote_935_935"></a><a href="#FNanchor_935_935"><span class="label">[935]</span></a></span> -It stands in Brasseur’s <i>Bib. Mex.-Guat.</i>, p. -13, as <i>Memorial de Tecpan-Atitlan</i> (<i>Solola</i>), <i>histoire -des deux familles royales du royaume des -Cakchiquels d’Iximché ou Guatémala, rédigé en -langue Cakchiquèle par le prince Don Francisco -Ernantez Arana-Xahila, des rois Ahpozotziles</i>, -where Brasseur speaks of it as analogous to the -<i>Popul Vuh</i>, but with numerous and remarkable -variations. The MS. remained in the keeping -of Xahila till 1562, when Francisco Gebuta -Queh received it and continued it (<i>Pinart Catalogue</i>, -no. 35).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_936_936" id="Footnote_936_936"></a><a href="#FNanchor_936_936"><span class="label">[936]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. 419; Bancroft, <i>Nat. Races</i>, v. -564; Bandelier in <i>Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, i. 105. -Bandelier (<i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i>, ii. 391) says -that it is now acknowledged that the <i>Recordacion -florida</i> of Fuentes y Guzman is “full of exaggerations -and misstatements.” Brasseur (<i>Bib. -Mex.-Guat.</i>, pp. 65, 87), in speaking of Fuentes’ -<i>Noticia histórica de los indios de Guatemala</i> (of -which manuscript he had a copy), says that he -had access to a great number of native documents, -but profited little by them, either because -he could not read them, or his translators deceived -him. Brasseur adds that Fuentes’ account -of the Quiché rulers is “un mauvais roman qui -n’a pas le sens commun.” This last is a manuscript -used by Domingo Juarros in his <i>Compendio -de la historia de la ciudad de Guatemala</i> -(Guatemala, 1808-1818, in two vols.—become -rare), but reprinted in the <i>Museo Guatemalteco</i>, -1857. The English translation, by John Baily, -a merchant living in Guatemala, was published -as a <i>Statistical and Commercial History of Guatemala</i> -(Lond., 1823). Cf. Vol. II. p. 419. Francisco -Vazquez depended largely on native writers -in his <i>Crónica de la Provincia de Guatemala</i> -(Guatemala, 1714-16). (See Vol. II. p. 419.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_937_937" id="Footnote_937_937"></a><a href="#FNanchor_937_937"><span class="label">[937]</span></a></span> -See note in Bancroft, iii. 451.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_938_938" id="Footnote_938_938"></a><a href="#FNanchor_938_938"><span class="label">[938]</span></a></span> -Vol. II. 419. Helps (iii. 300), speaking of -Remesal, says: “He had access to the archives -of Guatemala early in the seventeenth century, -and he is one of those excellent writers so dear -to the students of history, who is not prone to -declamation, or rhetoric, or picturesque writing, -but indulges us largely by the introduction everywhere -of most important historical documents, -copied boldly into the text.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_939_939" id="Footnote_939_939"></a><a href="#FNanchor_939_939"><span class="label">[939]</span></a></span> -Vol. II. 419.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_940_940" id="Footnote_940_940"></a><a href="#FNanchor_940_940"><span class="label">[940]</span></a></span> -Vol. II. 417.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_941_941" id="Footnote_941_941"></a><a href="#FNanchor_941_941"><span class="label">[941]</span></a></span> -E. G. Squier printed in 1860 (see Vol. II. p. -vii.) Diego Garcia de Palacio’s <i>Carta dirigida al -Rey de España, año 1576</i>, under the English title -of <i>Description of the ancient Provinces of Guazacupan, -Izalco, Cuscatlan, and Chiquimula in Guatemala</i>, -which is also included in Pacheco’s <i>Coleccion</i>, -vol. vi. Bandelier refers to Estevan -Aviles’ <i>Historia de Guatemala desde los tiempos -de los Indios</i> (Guatemala, 1663). A good reputation -belongs to a modern work, Francisco de -Paula Garcia Pelaez’s <i>Memorias para la Historia -del antiguo reyno de Guatemala</i> (Guatemala, -1851-53, in three vols.).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_942_942" id="Footnote_942_942"></a><a href="#FNanchor_942_942"><span class="label">[942]</span></a></span> -For details follow the references in Brasseur’s -<i>Nat. Civil.</i>; Bancroft’s <i>Nat. Races</i>; Stephens’s -<i>Nicaragua</i>, ii. 305, etc. See the introd. -of Brinton’s <i>Güegüence</i> (Philad., 1883), for the -Nahuas and Mangues of Nicaragua.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_943_943" id="Footnote_943_943"></a><a href="#FNanchor_943_943"><span class="label">[943]</span></a></span> -Leclerc, no. 1070. Bancroft summarized the -history of these ancient peoples in his vol. ii. -ch. 2, and goes into detail in his vol. v.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_944_944" id="Footnote_944_944"></a><a href="#FNanchor_944_944"><span class="label">[944]</span></a></span> -He condenses the early Mexican history in -his <i>Mexico</i>, i. ch. 7. There are recent condensed -narratives, in which avail has been had of the -latest developments, in Baldwin’s <i>Ancient America</i>, -ch. 4, and Short’s <i>North Americans of Antiquity</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_945_945" id="Footnote_945_945"></a><a href="#FNanchor_945_945"><span class="label">[945]</span></a></span> -Mrs. Alice D. Le Plongeon has printed various -summarized popular papers, like the “Conquest -of the Mayas,” in the <i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, -April and June, 1888.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_946_946" id="Footnote_946_946"></a><a href="#FNanchor_946_946"><span class="label">[946]</span></a></span> -A list of Squier’s published writings was appended -to the <i>Catalogue of Squier’s Library</i>, -prepared by Joseph Sabin (N. Y., 1876), as sold -at that time. By this it appears that his earliest -study of these subjects was a review of Buxton’s -<i>Migrations of the Ancient Mexicans</i>, read before -the London Ethnolog. Soc., and printed in 1848 -in the <i>Edinb. New Philosoph. Mag.</i>, vol. xlvi. -His first considerable contribution was his <i>Travels -in Cent. America, particularly in Nicaragua, -with a description of its aboriginal monuments</i> -(London and N. Y., 1852-53). He supplemented -this by some popular papers in <i>Harper’s -Mag.</i>, 1854, 1855. (Cf. <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, iv. 65; <i>Putnam’s -Mag.</i>, xii. 549.) A year or two later he -communicated papers on “Les Indiens Guatusos -du Nicaragua,” and “Les indiens Xicaques -du Honduras,” to the <i>Nouvelles Annales des -Voyages</i> (1856, 1858), and “A Visit to the Guajiquero -Indians” to <i>Harper’s Mag.</i>, 1859. In -1860, Squier projected the publication of a <i>Collection</i> -of documents, but only a letter (1576) of -Palacio was printed (Icazbalceta, <i>Bibl. Mex.</i>, i. -p. 326). He had intended to make the series -more correct and with fewer omissions than Ternaux -had allowed himself. His material, then -the result of ten years’ gathering, had been -largely secured through the instrumentality of -Buckingham Smith. (See Vol. II. p. vii.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_947_947" id="Footnote_947_947"></a><a href="#FNanchor_947_947"><span class="label">[947]</span></a></span> -“Art of war and mode of warfare of the Ancient -Mexicans” (<i>Peabody Mus. Rept.</i>, no. x.).</p> -<p class="pfc4">“Distribution and tenure of lands, and the customs -with respect to inheritance among the ancient -Mexicans” (<i>Ibid.</i> no. xi.).</p> -<p class="pfc4">“Special organizations and mode of government -of the ancient Mexicans” (<i>Ibid.</i> no. xii.).</p> -<p class="pfc4">These papers reveal much thorough study -of the earlier writers on the general condition of -the ancient people of Mexico, and the student -finds much help in their full references. It was -this manifestation of his learning that led to his -appointment by the Archæological Institute,—the -fruit of his labor in their behalf appearing -in his <i>Report of an Archæological Tour in Mexico, -1881</i>, which constitutes the second volume -(1884) of the <i>Papers</i> of that body. In his third -section he enlarges upon the condition of Mexico -at the time of the Conquest. His explorations -covered the region from Tampico to Mexico -city.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_948_948" id="Footnote_948_948"></a><a href="#FNanchor_948_948"><span class="label">[948]</span></a></span> -<i>Library of Aboriginal American Literature</i>, -(Philadelphia.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_949_949" id="Footnote_949_949"></a><a href="#FNanchor_949_949"><span class="label">[949]</span></a></span> -James H. McCulloh, an officer of the U. S. -army, published <i>Researches on America</i> (Balt., -1816), expanded later into <i>Researches, philosophical -and antiquarian, concerning the original History -of America</i> (Baltimore, 1829). His fifth and -sixth parts concern the “Institutions of the Mexican -Empire,” and “The nations inhabiting Guatemala” -(Field, no. 987).</p> -<p class="pfc4">G. F. Lyon’s <i>Journal of a residence and tour in -the Republic of Mexico</i> (Lond., 1826, 1828).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Brantz Mayer’s <i>Mexico as it was and as it is</i>, -and his more comprehensive <i>Mexico, Aztec, -Spanish and Republican</i> (Hartford, 1853), which -includes an essay on the ancient civilization. -Mayer had good opportunities while attached to -the United States legation in Mexico, but of -course he wrote earlier than the later developments -(Field, no. 1038).</p> -<p class="pfc4">The distinguished English anthropologist, E. -B. Tylor’s <i>Anahuac; or, Mexico and the Mexicans, -ancient and modern</i> (London, 1861), is a -readable rendering of the outlines of the ancient -history, and he describes such of the archæological -remains as fell in his way.</p> -<p class="pfc4">H. C. R. Becher’s <i>Trip to Mexico</i> (London, -1880) has an appendix on the ancient races.</p> -<p class="pfc4">F. A. Ober’s <i>Travels in Mexico</i> (1884).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_950_950" id="Footnote_950_950"></a><a href="#FNanchor_950_950"><span class="label">[950]</span></a></span> -The important papers are:—Tome I. Brasseur -de Bourbourg. <i>Esquisses d’histoire, d’archéologie, -d’ethnographie et de linguistique.</i> Gros. -<i>Renseignements sur les monuments anciens situés -dans les environs de Mexico.</i>—Tome II. Br. de -Bourbourg. <i>Rapport sur les ruines de Mayapan -et d’Uxmal au Yucatan.</i> Hay. <i>Renseignements -sur Texcoco.</i> Dolfus, Montserrat et Pavie. <i>Mémoires -et notes géologiques.</i>—Tome III. Doutrelaine. -<i>Rapports sur les ruines de Mitla, sur la -pierre de Tlalnepantla, sur un mss. mexicain -(avec fac-simile).</i> Guillemin Tarayre. <i>Rapport -sur l’exploration minéralogique des régions mexicaines.</i> -Siméon. <i>Note sur la numération des -anciens Mexicains.</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_951_951" id="Footnote_951_951"></a><a href="#FNanchor_951_951"><span class="label">[951]</span></a></span> -He says the work is very rare. A copy -given by him is in Harvard College library. -<i>Bib. Mex.-Guat.</i>, p. 26.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_952_952" id="Footnote_952_952"></a><a href="#FNanchor_952_952"><span class="label">[952]</span></a></span> -His <i>Palenqué</i>, at a later day, was published -by the French government (<i>Quatre Lettres, avant-propos</i>).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_953_953" id="Footnote_953_953"></a><a href="#FNanchor_953_953"><span class="label">[953]</span></a></span> -Introduction of his <i>Hist. Nations Civilisées</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_954_954" id="Footnote_954_954"></a><a href="#FNanchor_954_954"><span class="label">[954]</span></a></span> -Tome I. xcii. et 440 pp. <i>Les temps héroïques -et l’histoire de l’empire des Toltèques.</i>—Tome II. -616 pp. <i>L’histoire du Yucatan et du Guatémala, -avec celle de l’Anahuac durant le moyen âge aztèque, -jusqu’à la fondation de la royauté à Mexico.</i>—Tome -III. 692 pp. <i>L’histoire des Etats du -Michoacan et d’Oaxaca et de l’empire de l’Anahuac -jusqu’à l’arrivée des Espagnols. Astronomie, -religion, sciences et arts des Aztèques, etc.</i>—Tome -IV. vi. et 851 pp. <i>Conquête du Mexique, -du Michoacan et du Guatémala, etc. Etablissement -des Espagnols et fondation de l’Eglise catholique. -Ruine de l’idolâtrie, déclin et abaissement -de la race indigène, jusqu’à la fin du xvi<sup>e</sup> siècle.</i></p> -<p class="pfc4">In his introduction (p. lxxiv) Brasseur gives a -list of the manuscript and printed books on -which he has mainly depended, the chief of -which are: Burgoa, Cogolludo, Torquemada, -Sahagún, Remesal, Gomara (in Barcia), Lorenzana’s -<i>Cortes</i>, Bernal Diaz, Vetancurt’s <i>Teatro -Mexicano</i> (1698), Valades’ <i>Rhetorica Christiana</i> -(1579), Juarros, Pelaez, Leon y Gama, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_955_955" id="Footnote_955_955"></a><a href="#FNanchor_955_955"><span class="label">[955]</span></a></span> -Kirk’s <i>Prescott</i>, i. 10. There are lists of -Brasseur’s works in his own <i>Bibliothèque Mex.-Guatémalienne</i>, -p. 25; in the <i>Pinart Catalogue</i>, no. -141, etc.; Field, p. 43; Sabin, ii. 7420. Cf. notices -of his labors by Haven in <i>Am. Antiq. Soc. -Proc.</i>, Oct., 1870, p. 47; by Brinton in <i>Lippincott’s -Mag.</i>, i. 79. There is a <i>Sommaire des voyages -scientifiques et des travaux de géographie, -d’histoire, d’archéologie et de Philologie américaines, -publiés par l’abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg</i> -(St. Cloud, 1862).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_956_956" id="Footnote_956_956"></a><a href="#FNanchor_956_956"><span class="label">[956]</span></a></span> -<i>Abor. Amer. Authors</i>, 57.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_957_957" id="Footnote_957_957"></a><a href="#FNanchor_957_957"><span class="label">[957]</span></a></span> -Cf. Bandelier, <i>Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, n. s., -i. 93; Field, no. 176; H. H. Bancroft’s <i>Nat. -Races</i>, ii. 116, 780; v. 126, 153, 236, 241,—who -says of Brasseur that “he rejects nothing, and -transforms everything into historic fact;” but -Bancroft looks to Brasseur for the main drift of -his chapter on pre-Toltec history. Cf. Brinton’s -<i>Myths of the New World</i>, p. 41.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_958_958" id="Footnote_958_958"></a><a href="#FNanchor_958_958"><span class="label">[958]</span></a></span> -Bancroft, <i>Nat. Races</i>, v. 176; Baldwin, <i>Anc. -America</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_959_959" id="Footnote_959_959"></a><a href="#FNanchor_959_959"><span class="label">[959]</span></a></span> -Reference may be made to H. T. Moke’s -<i>Histoire des peuples Américains</i> (Bruxelles, 1847); -Michel Chevalier’s “Du Mexique avant et pendant -la Conquête,” in the <i>Revue des deux Mondes</i>, -1845, and his <i>Le Méxique ancien et moderne</i> -(Paris, 1863); and some parts of the Marquis -de Nadaillac’s <i>L’Amérique préhistorique</i> (Paris, -1883). A recent popular summary, without references, -of the condition and history of ancient -Mexico, is Lucien Biart’s <i>Les Aztèques, histoire, -mœurs, coutumes</i> (Paris, 1885), of which there is -an English translation, <i>The Aztecs, their history</i>, -etc., translated by J. L. Garnier (Chicago, -1887).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_960_960" id="Footnote_960_960"></a><a href="#FNanchor_960_960"><span class="label">[960]</span></a></span> -Leclerc, no. 1147; Field, no. 620; Squier, -no. 427; Sabin, vii. 28,255; Bandelier in <i>Am. -Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, n. s., i. 116. It has never yet -been reprinted. The early date, as well as its -rarity, have contributed to give it, perhaps, undue -reputation. It is worth from £3 to £4.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_961_961" id="Footnote_961_961"></a><a href="#FNanchor_961_961"><span class="label">[961]</span></a></span> -Leclerc, no. 1119. See Vol. II. p. 415.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_962_962" id="Footnote_962_962"></a><a href="#FNanchor_962_962"><span class="label">[962]</span></a></span> -Leclerc, no. 2079; Brasseur, <i>Bib. Mex.-Guat.</i>, -p. 113.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_963_963" id="Footnote_963_963"></a><a href="#FNanchor_963_963"><span class="label">[963]</span></a></span> -For the <i>Historia de Mexico</i> of Carbajal Espinosa, -see Vol. II. p. 428. Cf. Alfred Chavero’s -<i>México á través de los Siglos</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_964_964" id="Footnote_964_964"></a><a href="#FNanchor_964_964"><span class="label">[964]</span></a></span> -Discrediting Gomara’s statement that De Ayllon found -tribes near Cape Hatteras who had tame deer and made -cheese from their milk, Dr. Brinton says: “Throughout -the continent there is not a single authentic instance of a -pastoral tribe, not one of an animal raised for its milk, nor -for the transportation of persons, and very few for their -flesh. It was essentially a hunting race.” (<i>Myths of the -New World</i>, 21.) He adds: “The one mollifying element -was agriculture, substituting a sedentary for a wandering -life, supplying a fixed dependence for an uncertain contingency.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_965_965" id="Footnote_965_965"></a><a href="#FNanchor_965_965"><span class="label">[965]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 98.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_966_966" id="Footnote_966_966"></a><a href="#FNanchor_966_966"><span class="label">[966]</span></a></span> -It was two years earlier, in 1517, that Hernandez de -Cordova had first noticed the ruins of the Yucatan coast, -though Columbus, in 1502, near Yucatan had met a Maya -vessel, which with its navigators had astonished him.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_967_967" id="Footnote_967_967"></a><a href="#FNanchor_967_967"><span class="label">[967]</span></a></span> -“No writer,” says Bandelier (<i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i> ii. -674), “has been more prolific in pictures of pomp, regal -wealth and magnificence, than Bernal Diaz. Most of the -later writers have placed undue reliance on his statements, -assuming that the truthfulness of his own individual feelings -was the result of cool observation. Any one who has read -attentively his <i>Mémoirs</i> will become convinced that he is -in fact one of the most unreliable eye-witnesses, so far as -general principles are concerned.... Cortes had personal -and political motives to magnify and embellish the picture. -If his statements fall far below those of his troopers in -thrilling and highly-colored details, there is every reason to -believe that they are the more trustworthy.... In the descriptions -by Cortes we find, on the whole, nothing but a -barbarous display common to other Indian celebrations of a -similar character.”</p> -<p class="pfc4">Bandelier’s further comment is (<i>Ibid.</i> ii. 397) “A feudal -empire at Tezcuco was an invention of the chroniclers, who -had a direct interest, or thought to have one, in advancing -the claims of the Tezcucan tribe to an original supremacy.”</p> -<p class="pfc4">Bandelier again (<i>Ibid.</i> ii. 385) points out the early statements -of the conquerors, and of their annalists, which have -prompted the inference of a feudal condition of society; -but he refers to Ixtlilxochitl as “the chief originator of the -feudal view;” and from him Torquemada draws his inspiration. -Wilson (<i>Prehist. Man</i>, i. 242) holds much the same -views.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_968_968" id="Footnote_968_968"></a><a href="#FNanchor_968_968"><span class="label">[968]</span></a></span> -<i>Peabody Mus. Tenth Rept.</i> vol. ii. 114.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_969_969" id="Footnote_969_969"></a><a href="#FNanchor_969_969"><span class="label">[969]</span></a></span> -Bandelier (“Art of War, etc.,” in <i>Peabody Mus. Rept.</i> -x. 113) again says of De Pauw’s <i>Recherches philosophiques -sur les Américaines</i>, that it is “a very injudicious book, -which by its extravagance and audacity created a great deal -of harm. It permitted Clavigero to attack even Robertson, -because the latter had also applied sound criticism to the -study of American aboriginal history, and by artfully placing -both as upon the same platform, to counteract much of -the good effects of Robertson’s work.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_970_970" id="Footnote_970_970"></a><a href="#FNanchor_970_970"><span class="label">[970]</span></a></span> -<i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i> ii. 114.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_971_971" id="Footnote_971_971"></a><a href="#FNanchor_971_971"><span class="label">[971]</span></a></span> -In regard to the nature of the chief-of-men we find, -among much else of the first importance in the study of the -Mexican government, an exposition in Sahagún (lib. vi. cap. -20), which seems to establish the elective and non-hereditary -character of the office. It was “this office and its attributes,” -says Bandelier (<i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i> ii. 670), -“which have been the main stays of the notion that a high -degree of civilization prevailed in aboriginal Mexico, in so -far as its people were ruled after the manner of eastern despotisms.” -Bandelier (<i>Ibid.</i> ii. 133) says: “It is not impossible -that the so-called empire of Mexico may yet prove to -have been but a confederacy of the Nahuatlac tribe of the -valley, with the Mexicans as military leaders.” His argument -on the word translated “king” is not convincing.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_972_972" id="Footnote_972_972"></a><a href="#FNanchor_972_972"><span class="label">[972]</span></a></span> -<i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i> ii. 435.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_973_973" id="Footnote_973_973"></a><a href="#FNanchor_973_973"><span class="label">[973]</span></a></span> -Introd. to <i>Conquest of Mexico</i>. See Vol. II. p. 426. -In the Appendix to his third volume, Prescott, relying -mainly on the works of Dupaix and Waldeck, arrived at -conclusions as respects the origin of the Mexican civilization, -and its analogies with the Old World, which accord -with those of Stephens, whose work had not appeared at -the time when Prescott wrote.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_974_974" id="Footnote_974_974"></a><a href="#FNanchor_974_974"><span class="label">[974]</span></a></span> -<i>Houses and House Life</i>, p. 222.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_975_975" id="Footnote_975_975"></a><a href="#FNanchor_975_975"><span class="label">[975]</span></a></span> -Bancroft (ii. 92) says: “What is known of the Aztecs -has furnished material for nine tenths of all that has been -written on the American civilized nations in general.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_976_976" id="Footnote_976_976"></a><a href="#FNanchor_976_976"><span class="label">[976]</span></a></span> -<i>Anahuac, or Mexico and the Mexicans, Ancient and -Modern</i> (London, 1861). Tylor enlarges upon what he -considers the evidences of immense populations; and respecting -some of their arts he adds, from inspection of specimens -of their handicraft, that “the Spanish conquerors -were not romancing in the wonderful stories they told of -the skill of the native goldsmiths.” On the other hand, -Morgan (<i>Houses and House Life</i>, 223) thinks the figures of -population grossly exaggerated.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_977_977" id="Footnote_977_977"></a><a href="#FNanchor_977_977"><span class="label">[977]</span></a></span> -Vol. II. p. 427.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_978_978" id="Footnote_978_978"></a><a href="#FNanchor_978_978"><span class="label">[978]</span></a></span> -When we consider that Rome, Constantinople, and Jerusalem, -in spite of rapine, siege and fire, still retain numerous -traces of their earliest times, and that not a vestige of -the Aztec capital remains to us except its site, we must -assume, in Wilson’s opinion (<i>Prehistoric Man</i>, i. 331), -that its edifices and causeways must have been for the most -part more slight and fragile than the descriptions of the -conquerors implied. Morgan instances as a proof of the -flimsy character of their masonry, that Cortes in seventeen -days levelled three fourths of the city of Mexico. But, adds -Wilson, “so far as an indigenous American civilization is -concerned, no doubt can be entertained, and there is little -room for questioning, that among races who had carried civilization -so far, there existed the capacity for its further development, -independently of all borrowed aid” (p. 336). -The Baron Nordenskjöld informs me that there is in the -library at Upsala a MS. map of Mexico by Santa Cruz -(d. 1572) which contains numerous ethnographical details, -not to be found in printed maps of that day.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_979_979" id="Footnote_979_979"></a><a href="#FNanchor_979_979"><span class="label">[979]</span></a></span> -<i>Native Races</i>, ii. 159.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_980_980" id="Footnote_980_980"></a><a href="#FNanchor_980_980"><span class="label">[980]</span></a></span> -<i>Ibid.</i> ii. 133.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_981_981" id="Footnote_981_981"></a><a href="#FNanchor_981_981"><span class="label">[981]</span></a></span> -Bancroft has recently epitomized his views afresh in -the <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, Jan., 1888.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_982_982" id="Footnote_982_982"></a><a href="#FNanchor_982_982"><span class="label">[982]</span></a></span> -Bancroft wrote in San Francisco, it will be remembered.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_983_983" id="Footnote_983_983"></a><a href="#FNanchor_983_983"><span class="label">[983]</span></a></span> -It was for Bandelier, in his “Social organization and -mode of government of the ancient Mexicans” (<i>Peabody -Mus. Repts.</i> ii. 557), to demonstrate the proposition that -tribal society based, according to Morgan, upon kin, and -not political society, which rests upon territory and property, -must be looked for among the ancient Mexicans.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_984_984" id="Footnote_984_984"></a><a href="#FNanchor_984_984"><span class="label">[984]</span></a></span> -Morgan’s <i>Houses</i>, etc., 225. Bandelier (<i>Peabody Mus. -Rept.</i>, vol. ii. 114) speaks of the views advanced by Morgan -in his “Montezuma’s Dinner,” as “a bold stroke for the -establishment of American ethnology on a new basis.” It -must be remembered that Bandelier was Morgan’s pupil.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_985_985" id="Footnote_985_985"></a><a href="#FNanchor_985_985"><span class="label">[985]</span></a></span> -<i>Ibid.</i> 222.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_986_986" id="Footnote_986_986"></a><a href="#FNanchor_986_986"><span class="label">[986]</span></a></span> -Morgan says of his predecessors, “they learned nothing -and knew nothing” of Indian society.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_987_987" id="Footnote_987_987"></a><a href="#FNanchor_987_987"><span class="label">[987]</span></a></span> -<i>Ibid.</i> 223.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_988_988" id="Footnote_988_988"></a><a href="#FNanchor_988_988"><span class="label">[988]</span></a></span> -In this he of course assumes that the ruins in Spanish -America are of communal edifices.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_989_989" id="Footnote_989_989"></a><a href="#FNanchor_989_989"><span class="label">[989]</span></a></span> -Bandelier’s papers are in the second volume of the <i>Reports -of the Peabody Museum</i> at Cambridge. He contends -in his “Art of Warfare among the Ancient Mexicans,” that -he has shown the non-existence of a military despotism, -and proved their government to be “a military democracy, -originally based upon communism in living.” A similar -understanding pervades his other essay “On the social organization -and mode of government of the ancient Mexicans.” -Morgan and Bandelier profess great admiration for -each other,—Morgan citing his friend as “our most eminent -scholar in Spanish American history” (<i>Houses</i>, etc., -84), and Bandelier expresses his deep feeling of gratitude, -etc. (<i>Archæolog. Tour</i>, 32). This affectionate relation has -very likely done something in unifying their intellectual -sympathies. The <i>Ancient Society, or researches in the -lines of human progress from savagery through barbarism -to civilization</i> (N. Y. 1877), of Morgan is reflected very palpably -in these papers of Bandelier. The accounts of the -war of the conquest, as detailed in Bancroft’s <i>Mexico</i> (vol. -i.), and the views of their war customs (<i>Native Races</i>, ii. -ch. 13), contrasted with Bandelier’s ideas,—who finds in -Parkman’s books “the natural parallelism between the -forays of the Iroquois and the so-called conquests of the -Mexican confederacy” (<i>Archæol. Tour</i>, 32), and who reduces -the battle of Otumba to an affair like that of Custer -and the Sioux (<i>Art of Warfare</i>),—give us in the military -aspects of the ancient life the opposed views of the two -schools of interpreters.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_990_990" id="Footnote_990_990"></a><a href="#FNanchor_990_990"><span class="label">[990]</span></a></span> -Being vol. iv. of the <i>Contributions to No. Amer. Ethnol.</i> -in Powell’s <i>Survey of the Rocky Mt. Region</i>. Some -of Morgan’s cognate studies relating to the aboriginal system -of consanguinity and laws of descent are in the <i>Smithsonian -Contributions</i>, xvii., the <i>Smithsonian Misc. Coll.</i> -ii., <i>Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci. Trans.</i> vii., and <i>Am. -Assoc. Adv. Sci. Proc.</i>, 1857.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_991_991" id="Footnote_991_991"></a><a href="#FNanchor_991_991"><span class="label">[991]</span></a></span> -Morgan in this, his last work, condenses in his first -chapter those which were numbered 1 to 4 in his <i>Ancient -Society</i>, and in succeeding sections he discusses the laws of -hospitality, communism, usages of land and food, and the -houses of the northern tribes, of those of New Mexico, San -Juan River, the moundbuilders, the Aztecs, and those in -Yucatan and Central America. Among these he finds three -distinct ethnical stages, as shown in the northern Indian, -higher in the sedentary tribes of New Mexico, and highest -among those of Mexico and Central America. S. F. Haven -commemorated Morgan’s death in the <i>Am. Antiq. Soc. -Proc.</i>, Apr., 1880.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_992_992" id="Footnote_992_992"></a><a href="#FNanchor_992_992"><span class="label">[992]</span></a></span> -Cf. Bandelier on “the tenure of lands” in <i>Peabody -Mus. Repts.</i> (1878), no. xi., and Bancroft in <i>Nat. Races</i>, ii. -ch. 6, p. 223.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_993_993" id="Footnote_993_993"></a><a href="#FNanchor_993_993"><span class="label">[993]</span></a></span> -Bandelier (<i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i> ii. 391) points out that -when Martin Ursúa captured Tayasál on Lake Petin, the -last pueblo inhabited by Maya Indians, he found “all the -inhabitants living brutally together, an entire relationship -together in one single house,” and Bandelier refers further -to Morgan’s <i>Ancient Society</i>, Part 2, p. 181.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_994_994" id="Footnote_994_994"></a><a href="#FNanchor_994_994"><span class="label">[994]</span></a></span> -Bandelier (<i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i> ii. 673) accepts the -views of Morgan, calling it “a rude clannish feast,” given -by the official household of the tribe as a part of its daily -duties and obligations.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_995_995" id="Footnote_995_995"></a><a href="#FNanchor_995_995"><span class="label">[995]</span></a></span> -On the character of the Tecpan (council house, or official -house) of the Mexicans, which the early writers translate -“palace,” with its sense of magnificence, see Bandelier -(<i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i> ii. 406, 671, etc.), with his references. -Morgan holds that Stephens is largely responsible -for the prevalence of erroneous notions regarding the -Mayas, by reason of using the words “palaces” and “great -cities” for defining what were really the pueblos of these -southern Indians. Bancroft (ii. 84), referring to the ruins, -says: They have “the highest value as confirming the truth -of the reports made by Spanish writers, very many, or perhaps -most, of whose statements respecting the wonderful -phenomena of the New World, without this incontrovertible -material proof, would find few believers among the -skeptical students of the present day.” Bancroft had little -prescience respecting what the communal theorists were -going to say of these ruins.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_996_996" id="Footnote_996_996"></a><a href="#FNanchor_996_996"><span class="label">[996]</span></a></span> -Cf. Bancroft’s <i>Cent. America</i>, i. 317. Sir J. William -Dawson, in his <i>Fossil Men</i> (p. 83), contends that Morgan has -proved his point, and he calls the ruins of Spanish America -“communistic barracks” (p. 50). Higginson, in the first -chapter of his <i>Larger History</i>, which is a very excellent, -condensed popular statement of the new views which Morgan -inaugurated, says of him very truly, that he lacked moderation, -and that there is “something almost exasperating -in the positiveness with which he sometimes assumes as -proved that which is only probable.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_997_997" id="Footnote_997_997"></a><a href="#FNanchor_997_997"><span class="label">[997]</span></a></span> -Bancroft in his foot-notes (vol. ii.) embodies the best -bibliography of this ancient civilization. Cf. Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric -Man</i>, i. ch. 14; C. Hermann Berendt’s “Centres -of ancient civilization and their geographical distribution,” -an <i>Address before the Amer. Geog. Soc.</i> (N. Y. 1876); -Draper’s <i>Intellectual Development of Europe</i>; Brasseur’s -<i>Ms. Troano</i>; Humboldt’s <i>Cosmos</i> (English transl. ii. 674); -Michel Chevalier in the <i>Revue de deux Mondes</i>, Mar.-July, -1845, embraced later in his <i>Du Méxique avant et pendant -la Conquête</i> (Paris, 1845); Brantz Mayer’s <i>Mexico as it -was; The Galaxy</i>, March, 1876; <i>Scribner’s Mag.</i> v. 724; -<i>Overland Monthly</i>, xiv. 468; De Charency’s <i>Hist. du Civilisation -du Méxique</i> (<i>Revue des Questions historiques</i>), -vi. 283; Dabry de Thiersant’s <i>Origine des indiens du Nouveau -Monde</i> (Paris, 1883); Peschel’s <i>Races of Men</i>, 441; -Nadaillac’s <i>Les premiers hommes et les temps préhistoriques</i>, -ii. ch. 9, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_998_998" id="Footnote_998_998"></a><a href="#FNanchor_998_998"><span class="label">[998]</span></a></span> -For the bibliography of his works see Brunet, Sabin, -Field, etc. The octavo edition of his <i>Vues</i> has 19 of the -69 plates which constitute the <i>Atlas</i> of the large edition. -See the chapter on Peru for further detail.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_999_999" id="Footnote_999_999"></a><a href="#FNanchor_999_999"><span class="label">[999]</span></a></span> -John Lloyd Stephens, <i>Incidents of travel in Central -America, Chiapas, and Yucatan</i>, Lond. and N. Y. 1841,—various -later eds., that of London, 1854, being “revised -from the latest Amer. ed., with additions by Frederick -Catherwood.” Stephens started on this expedition in -1839, and he was armed with credentials from President -Van Buren. He travelled 3000 miles, and visited eight -ruined cities, as shown by his route given on the map in -vol. i. Cf. references in Allibone, ii. p. 2240; <i>Poole’s Index</i>, -p. 212; his <i>Incidents of Travel in Yucatan</i> will be -mentioned later.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Frederick Catherwood’s <i>Views of Ancient Monuments -in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan</i> (Lond. 1844) -has a brief text (pp. 24) and 25 lithographed plates. Some -of the original drawings used in making these plates were -included in the <i>Squier Catalogue</i>, p. 229. (Sabin’s <i>Dict.</i> -iii. no. 11520.) Captain Lindesay Brine, in his paper on -the “Ruined Cities of Central America” (<i>Journal Roy. -Geog. Soc.</i> 1872, p. 354; <i>Proc.</i> xvii. 67), testifies to the -accuracy of Stephens and Catherwood. These new developments -furnished the material for numerous purveyors to -the popular mind, some of them of the slightest value, like -Asahel Davis, whose <i>Antiquities of Central America</i>, -with some slight changes of title, and with the parade of -new editions, were common enough between 1840 and -1850.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1000_1000" id="Footnote_1000_1000"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1000_1000"><span class="label">[1000]</span></a></span> -Viollet le Duc, in his <i>Histoire de l’habitation humaine -depuis les temps préhistoriques</i> (Paris, 1875), has given a -chapter (no. xxii.) to the “Nahuas and Toltecs.” Views -more or less studied, comprehensive, and restricted are -given in R. Cary Long’s <i>Ancient Architecture of America, -its historic value and parallelism of development with the -architecture of the Old World</i> (N. Y. 1849), an address -from the <i>N. Y. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i> 1849, p. 117; R. P. Greg -on “the Fret or Key Ornament in Mexico and Peru,” in -the <i>Archæologia</i> (London), vol. xlvii. 157; and a popular -summary on “the pyramid in America,” by S. D. Peet, in -the <i>American Antiquarian</i>, July, 1888, comparing the -mounds of Cholula, Uxmal, Palenqué, Teotihuacan, Copan, -Quemada, Cohokia, St. Louis, etc. John T. Short -summarizes the characteristics of the Nahua and Maya -styles (<i>No. Amer. of Antiquity</i>, 340, 359). There are chapters -on their architecture in Bancroft, <i>Nat. Races</i>, ii.; but -the references in his vol. iv. are most helpful.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1001_1001" id="Footnote_1001_1001"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1001_1001"><span class="label">[1001]</span></a></span> -Vols. v. vi. vii. on “Ancient Mexican Civilization,” -“Pyramid of Teotihuacan,” “Sacrificial Calendar Stone,” -“Central America at time of Conquest,” “Ruins at Palenque -and Copan,” “Ruins of Uxmal,” etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1002_1002" id="Footnote_1002_1002"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1002_1002"><span class="label">[1002]</span></a></span> -Duplicates were placed in the Nat. Museum at Washington -by the liberality of Pierre Lorillard.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1003_1003" id="Footnote_1003_1003"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1003_1003"><span class="label">[1003]</span></a></span> -The English translation is condensed in parts: <i>The -ancient cities of the New World: being travels and explorations -in Mexico and Central America from 1857-1882</i>. -<i>Translated from the French by J. Gonino and -Helen S. Conant.</i> (London, 1887.) Some of his notable -results were the discovery of stucco ornaments in the province -of Iturbide, among ruins which he unfortunately -named Lorillard City (Eng. tr. ch. 22). The palace at Tula -is also figured in Brocklehurst’s <i>Mexico to-day</i>, ch. 25. The -discovery of what Charnay calls glass and porcelain is -looked upon as doubtful by most archæologists, who believe -the specimens to be rather traces of Spanish contact.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1004_1004" id="Footnote_1004_1004"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1004_1004"><span class="label">[1004]</span></a></span> -Bancroft, iv. 453, and references.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1005_1005" id="Footnote_1005_1005"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1005_1005"><span class="label">[1005]</span></a></span> -Bandelier (p. 235) is confident that it was built by an -earlier people than the Nahuas.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1006_1006" id="Footnote_1006_1006"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1006_1006"><span class="label">[1006]</span></a></span> -Cf. Bandelier, p. 247. Short, p. 236.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1007_1007" id="Footnote_1007_1007"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1007_1007"><span class="label">[1007]</span></a></span> -Bancroft (v. 200) gives references on these points, and -particular note may be taken of Veytia, i. 18, 155, 199; and -Brasseur, <i>Hist. Nations Civ.</i> iv. 182. Cf. also Nadaillac, -p. 351. Bandelier (<i>Archæolog. Tour</i>, 248, 249) favors the -gradual growth theory, and collates early sources (p. 250). -Bancroft (iv. 474) holds that we may feel very sure its erection -dates back of the tenth, and perhaps of the seventh, -century.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1008_1008" id="Footnote_1008_1008"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1008_1008"><span class="label">[1008]</span></a></span> -Bandelier’s idea (p. 254) is that as the Indians never -repair a ruin, they abandoned this remaining mound after -its disaster, and transplanted the worship of Quetzalcoatl -to the new mound, since destroyed, while the old shrine -was in time given to the new cult of the Rain-god.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1009_1009" id="Footnote_1009_1009"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1009_1009"><span class="label">[1009]</span></a></span> -As Bancroft thinks; but Bandelier says that it was not -of this mound, but of the temple which stood where the -modern convent stands, that this count was made. <i>Arch. -Tour</i>, 242.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1010_1010" id="Footnote_1010_1010"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1010_1010"><span class="label">[1010]</span></a></span> -<i>Storia Ant. del Messico</i>, ii. 33.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1011_1011" id="Footnote_1011_1011"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1011_1011"><span class="label">[1011]</span></a></span> -<i>Vues</i>, i. 96 pl. iii., or pl. vii., viii. in folio ed.; <i>Essai -polit.</i>, 239. The later observers are: Dupaix (<i>Antiq. Mex.</i>, -and in Kingsborough, v. 218; with iv. pl. viii.). Bancroft -remarks on the totally different aspects of Castañeda’s two -drawings. Nebel, in his <i>Viaje pintoresco y Arqueolójico -sobre la república Mejicana</i>, 1829-34 (Paris, 1839, folio), -gave a description and a large colored drawing. Of the -other visitors whose accounts add something to our knowledge, -Bancroft (iv. 471) notes the following: J. R. Poinsett, -<i>Notes on Mexico</i> (London, 1825). W. H. Bullock, <i>Six -Months in Mexico</i> (Lond., 1825). H. G. Ward, <i>Mexico in -1827</i> (Lond., 1828). Mark Beaufoy, <i>Mex. Illustrations</i> -(Lond., 1828), with cuts. Charles Jos. Latrobe, <i>Rambles -in Mexico</i> (Lond., 1836). Brantz Mayer, <i>Mexico as it was</i> -(N. Y., 1854); <i>Mexico, Aztec, etc.</i> (Hartford, 1853); and in -Schoolcraft, <i>Ind. Tribes</i>, vi. 582. Waddy Thompson, -<i>Recoll. of Mexico</i> (N. Y., 1847). E. B. Tylor, <i>Anahuac</i> -(Lond., 1861), p. 274. A. S. Evans, <i>Our Sister Republic</i> -(Hartford, 1870). Summaries later than Bancroft’s will be -found in Short, p. 369, and Nadaillac, p. 350. Bancroft -adds (iv. 471-2) a long list of second-hand describers.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1012_1012" id="Footnote_1012_1012"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1012_1012"><span class="label">[1012]</span></a></span> -It is illustrated with a map of the district of Cholula (p. -158), a detailed plan of the pyramid or mound (Humboldt -is responsible for the former term) as it stands amid roads -and fields (p. 230), and a fac-simile of an old map of the -pueblo of Cholula (1581).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Bandelier speaks of the conservative tendencies of the -native population of this region, giving a report that old -native idols are still preserved and worshipped in caves, to -which he could not induce the Indians to conduct him (p. -156); and that when he went to see the <i>Mapa de Cuauhtlantzinco</i>, -or some native pictures of the 16th century, representing -the Conquest, and of the highest importance for -its history, he was jealously allowed but one glance at -them, and could not get another (<i>Archæol. Tour</i>, p. 123). -He adds: “The difficulty attending the consultation of -any documents in the hands of Indians is universal, and -results from their superstitious regard for writings on paper. -The bulk of the people watch with the utmost jealousy over -their old papers.... They have a fear lest the power vested -in an original may be transferred to a copy” (pp. 155-6).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1013_1013" id="Footnote_1013_1013"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1013_1013"><span class="label">[1013]</span></a></span> -Pinart, no. 590.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1014_1014" id="Footnote_1014_1014"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1014_1014"><span class="label">[1014]</span></a></span> -He repeats Alzate’s plate of the restoration of the -ruins.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1015_1015" id="Footnote_1015_1015"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1015_1015"><span class="label">[1015]</span></a></span> -Bancroft refers (iv. 483) to various compiled accounts, -to which may be added his own and Short’s (p. 371). Cf. -F. Boncourt in the <i>Revue d’Ethnographie</i> (1887).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1016_1016" id="Footnote_1016_1016"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1016_1016"><span class="label">[1016]</span></a></span> -Prescott, Kirk ed., i. 12. See the map of the plateau -of Anahuac in Ruge, <i>Gesch. des Zeitalters der Entdeck.</i>, -i. 363.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1017_1017" id="Footnote_1017_1017"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1017_1017"><span class="label">[1017]</span></a></span> -Cf. Gros in the <i>Archives de la Com. Scient. du Méxique</i>, -vol. i.; H. de Saussure on the <i>Découverte des ruines -d’une ancienne ville Méxicaine située sur le plateau de -l’Anahuac</i> (Paris, 1858,—<i>Bull. Soc Géog. de Paris</i>).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1018_1018" id="Footnote_1018_1018"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1018_1018"><span class="label">[1018]</span></a></span> -The same is true of the earliest Spanish buildings. -Icazbalceta (<i>México en 1554</i>, p. 74) says that the soil is -constantly accumulating, and the whole city gradually -sinks.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1019_1019" id="Footnote_1019_1019"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1019_1019"><span class="label">[1019]</span></a></span> -Bancroft (iv. 505, 516, with references) says that such -objects, when brought to light by excavations, have not -always been removed from their hiding-places; and he argues -that beneath the city there may yet be “thousands of -interesting monuments.” Cf. B. Mayer’s <i>Mexico as it -was</i>, vol. ii.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Bandelier (<i>Archæol. Tour</i>, Part ii. p. 49) gives us -valuable “Archæological Notes about the City of Mexico,” -in which he says that Alfredo Chavero owns a very large -oil painting, said to have been executed in 1523, giving a -view of the aboriginal city and the principal events of the -Conquest. It shows that the ancient city was about one -quarter the size of the modern town.</p> -<p class="pfc4">We find descriptions of the city before the conquerors -transformed it, in Brasseur’s <i>Hist. Nations Civ.</i> iii. 187; -iv. line 13; and in Bancroft (ii. ch. 18) there is a collation -of authorities on Nahua buildings, with specific references -on the city of Mexico (ii. p. 567). Bandelier describes with -citations its military aspects at the time of the Conquest -(<i>Peabody Mus. Reports</i>, x. 151).</p> -<p class="pfc4">The movable relics found in Mexico are the following:—</p> -<p class="pfc4">1. The calendar stone. See annexed cut.</p> -<p class="pfc4">2. Teoyamique. See cut in the appendix of this volume.</p> -<p class="pfc4">3. Sacrificial stone. See annexed cut.</p> -<p class="pfc4">4. Indio triste. See annexed cut.</p> -<p class="pfc4">5. Head of a serpent, discovered in 1881. Cf. Bandelier’s -<i>Archæol. Tour</i>, p. 69.</p> -<p class="pfc4">6. Human head. Cf. Bancroft, iv. 518. All of the -above, except the calendar stone, are in the Museo Nacional.</p> -<p class="pfc4">7. Gladiatorial stone, discovered in 1792, but left buried. -Cf. B. Mayer’s <i>Mexico</i>, 123; Bancroft, iv. 516; Kingsborough, -vii. 94; Sahagún, lib. ii.</p> -<p class="pfc4">8. A few other less important objects. Cf. Bandelier, -<i>Archæol. Tour</i>, 52.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Antonio de Leon y Gama, who unfortunately had no -knowledge of the writings of Sahagún, has discussed most of -these relics in his <i>Descripcion histórico y Cronológico de -las dos Piedras &</i>. (2d ed. Bustamante, 1832.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1020_1020" id="Footnote_1020_1020"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1020_1020"><span class="label">[1020]</span></a></span> -Bancroft, iv. 520, with authorities, p. 523. Cf. <i>American -Antiquarian</i>, May, 1888.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1021_1021" id="Footnote_1021_1021"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1021_1021"><span class="label">[1021]</span></a></span> -Bancroft’s numerous references make a foot-note (iv. -530). He adds a plan from Almaraz, and says that the -description of Linares (<i>Soc. Mex. Geog. Boletin</i>, 30, i. -103) is mainly drawn from Almaraz. It is believed, but not -absolutely proven, that the mounds were natural ones, artificially -shaped (Bandelier, 44). The extent of the ruins is -very great, and it is a current belief that the city in its -prime must have been very large. The whole region is exceptionally -rich in fragmentary and small relics, like pottery, -obsidian implements, and terra-cotta heads. Cf. for -these last, <i>Lond. Geog. Soc. Journal</i>, vii. 10; Thompson’s -<i>Mexico</i>, 140; Nebel, <i>Viaje</i>; Mayer’s <i>Mexico as it was</i>, -227 (as cited in Bancroft, iv. 542); and later publications -like T. U. Brocklehurst’s <i>Mexico to-day</i> (Lond., 1883), and -Zelia Nuttall’s “Terra Cotta Heads from Teotihuacan,” in -the <i>Amer. Journal of Archæology</i> (June and Sept. 1886), -ii. 157, 318.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Bancroft judges that the ruins date back to the sixth century, -and says that these mounds served for models of the -Aztec teocallis. On the commission already referred to -was Antonio García y Cubas, who conducted some personal -explorations, and in describing these in a separate publication, -<i>Ensayo de un Estudio Comparativo entre las Pirámides -Egípcias y Mexicanas</i> (Mexico, 1871), he points out -certain analogies of the American and Egyptian structures, -which will be found in epitome in Bancroft (iv. 543). In -discussing the monoliths of the ruins, Amos W. Butler -(<i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, May, 1885), in a paper on “The Sacrificial -Stone of San Juan Teotihuacan,” advanced some -views that are controverted by W. H. Holmes in the -<i>Amer. Journal of Archæology</i> (i. 361), from whose foot-notes -a good bibliography of the subject can be derived. -Bandelier (<i>Archæol. Tour</i>, 42) thinks that because no specific -mention is made of them in Mexican tradition, it is -safe to infer that these monuments antedate the Mexicans, -and were in ruins at the time of the Conquest.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1022_1022" id="Footnote_1022_1022"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1022_1022"><span class="label">[1022]</span></a></span> -The early writers make little mention of the place except -as one of the halting-places of the Aztec migration. -Torquemada has something to say (quoted in <i>Soc. Mex. -Geog. Bol.</i>, 2º, iii. 278, with the earliest of the modern accounts -by Manuel Gutierrez, in 1805). Capt. G. F. Lyon -(<i>Journal of a residence and tour in Mexico</i>, London, 1828) -visited the ruins in 1828. Pedro Rivera in 1830 described -them in Márcos de Esparza’s <i>Informe presentado al Gobierno</i> -(Zacatecas, 1830,—also in <i>Museo Méxicano</i>, i. 185, -1843). The plan in Nebel’s Viaje (copied in Bancroft, iv. -582) was made for Governor García, by Berghes, a German -engineer, in 1831, who at the time was accompanied by J. -Burkart (<i>Aufenthalt und Reisen in Mexico</i>, Stuttgart, 1836), -who gives a plan of fewer details. Bancroft (iv. 579) thinks -Nebel’s views of the ruins the only ones ever published, -and he enumerates various second-hand writers (iv. 579).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Cf. Fegeux, “Les ruines de la Quemada,” in the <i>Revue -d’Ethnologie</i>, i. 119. The noticeable features of these ruins -are their massiveness and height of walls, their absence -of decoration and carved idols, and the lack of pottery and -the smaller relics. Their history, notwithstanding much -search, is a blank.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1023_1023" id="Footnote_1023_1023"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1023_1023"><span class="label">[1023]</span></a></span> -Cf. Bandelier, p. 320.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1024_1024" id="Footnote_1024_1024"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1024_1024"><span class="label">[1024]</span></a></span> -Bandelier, p. 276.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1025_1025" id="Footnote_1025_1025"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1025_1025"><span class="label">[1025]</span></a></span> -Ramirez, ed. 1867.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1026_1026" id="Footnote_1026_1026"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1026_1026"><span class="label">[1026]</span></a></span> -His brief account is copied by Mendieta and Torquemada, -and is cited in Bandelier, p. 324.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1027_1027" id="Footnote_1027_1027"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1027_1027"><span class="label">[1027]</span></a></span> -<i>Geog. Descripcion</i>, ii. cited in Bandelier, 324. Cf. <i>Soc. -Mex. Geog. Boletin</i>, vii. 170.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1028_1028" id="Footnote_1028_1028"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1028_1028"><span class="label">[1028]</span></a></span> -Bandelier says (p. 279) that he saw them in the library -of the Institute of Oaxaca, and that, though admirable, -they have a certain tendency to over-restoration,—the besetting -sin of all explorers who make drawings.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1029_1029" id="Footnote_1029_1029"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1029_1029"><span class="label">[1029]</span></a></span> -Cf. Field, no. 1612.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1030_1030" id="Footnote_1030_1030"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1030_1030"><span class="label">[1030]</span></a></span> -<i>Ruines</i>, etc., 261, and Viollet le Duc, p. 74; <i>Anciens -Villes</i>, ch. 24.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1031_1031" id="Footnote_1031_1031"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1031_1031"><span class="label">[1031]</span></a></span> -There is a <i>Rapport sur les ruines</i>, by Doutrelaine, in -the <i>Archives de la Commission Scientifique du Méxique</i> -(vol. iii.); Nadaillac (p. 364) and Short (p. 361) have epitomized -results, and Louis H. Aymé gives some <i>Notes on -Mitla</i> in the <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, April, 1882, p. 82; -Bancroft (iv. 391) enumerates various second-hand descriptions.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1032_1032" id="Footnote_1032_1032"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1032_1032"><span class="label">[1032]</span></a></span> -I do not understand Bandelier’s statement (p. 277) that -it is taken from Bancroft’s plan, which it only resembles in -a general way.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1033_1033" id="Footnote_1033_1033"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1033_1033"><span class="label">[1033]</span></a></span> -Bancroft classifies their architectural peculiarities (iv. -pp. 267-279).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1034_1034" id="Footnote_1034_1034"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1034_1034"><span class="label">[1034]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. ch. 3. Bancroft (ii. p. 784) collates the -early accounts of the habitations of the people, and (iv. 254, -260, 261) the descriptions of the ruins and statelier edifices, -as seen by these explorers.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1035_1035" id="Footnote_1035_1035"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1035_1035"><span class="label">[1035]</span></a></span> -<i>For. Q. Rev.</i>, xviii. 251.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1036_1036" id="Footnote_1036_1036"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1036_1036"><span class="label">[1036]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Poole’s Index</i>, p. 1439.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1037_1037" id="Footnote_1037_1037"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1037_1037"><span class="label">[1037]</span></a></span> -Bancroft, iv. 145; Field, no. 1138; Leclerc, no. 1217; -Pilling, p. 2767; <i>Dem. Review</i>, xi. 529. Cf. <i>Poole’s Index</i>, -P. 1439.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1038_1038" id="Footnote_1038_1038"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1038_1038"><span class="label">[1038]</span></a></span> -<i>Registro Yucateco</i>, ii. 437; <i>Diccionario Universal</i> -(México, 1853), x. 290.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1039_1039" id="Footnote_1039_1039"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1039_1039"><span class="label">[1039]</span></a></span> -Bandelier, <i>Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, n. s., i. 92, calls the -paper “not very valuable.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1040_1040" id="Footnote_1040_1040"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1040_1040"><span class="label">[1040]</span></a></span> -This gentleman, since the death of his father, of the -same name, succeeded, after an interval, the elder antiquary -in the president’s chair of the American Antiquarian -Society.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1041_1041" id="Footnote_1041_1041"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1041_1041"><span class="label">[1041]</span></a></span> -Cf. Short, p. 396. Le Plongeon retorts (<i>Amer. Antiq. -Soc. Proc.</i>, n. s., i. 282) by telling his critic that he had -never been in Yucatan. Considering the effect of contact in -many of those who have written of the ruins, it may be a -question if the implication is valuable as a piece of criticism. -Mr. Salisbury and Dr. Le Plongeon reported from time to -time in the <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i> the results of the -latter’s investigations, and the researches to which they -gave rise. Those in April, 1876, and April, 1877, of these -<i>Proceedings</i>, were privately printed by Mr. Salisbury, as -<i>The Mayas</i>, etc. In April, 1878, Mr. Salisbury reported -upon the “Terra-cotta figures from Isla Mujeres.” In Oct., -1878, there were communications from Dr. Le Plongeon, -and from Alice D. Le Plongeon, his wife. In April, 1879, -Dr. Le Plongeon communicated a letter on the affinities of -Central America and the East. Since this the Le Plongeons -have found other channels of communication. Dr. -Le Plongeon expanded his somewhat extravagant notions -of Oriental affinities in his <i>Sacred mysteries among the -Mayas and the Quiches, 11,500 years ago; their relation -to the sacred mysteries of Egypt, Greece, Chaldea, and -India. Freemasonry in times anterior to the temple of -Solomon</i> (New York, 1886).</p> -<p class="pfc4">His preface is largely made up with a rehearsal of his -rebuffs and in complaints of the want of public appreciation -of his labors. He is, however, as confident as ever, and -deciphers the bas-reliefs and mural inscriptions of Chichen-Itza -by “the ancient hieratic Maya alphabet” which he -claims to have discovered, and shows this alphabet in parallel -columns with that of Egypt as displayed by Champollion -and Bunsen. Mrs. Le Plongeon published her -<i>Vestiges of the Mayas</i> in New York, in 1881, and gathered -some of her periodical writings in her <i>Here and There -in Yucatan</i> (N. Y., 1886). Cf. her letter on the ancient -records of Yucatan in <i>The Nation</i>, xxix. 224.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1042_1042" id="Footnote_1042_1042"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1042_1042"><span class="label">[1042]</span></a></span> -Baldwin (p. 125), in a condensed way, and likewise -Short (ch. 8) and Bancroft (iv. ch. 5), more at length, have -mainly depended on Stephens. Cf. references in Bancroft, -iv. 147, and Bandelier’s list in the <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. -Proc.</i>, n. s., i. 82, 95. E. H. Thompson has contributed papers -in <i>Ibid.</i> Oct., 1886, p. 248, and April, 1887, p. 379, -and on the ruins of Kich-Moo and Chun-Kal-Cin in April, -1888, p. 162. Brasseur, beside his <i>Hist. Nat. Civ.</i>, ii. -20, has something in his introduction to his <i>Relation de -Landa</i>. The description of the ruins at Zayi, which Stephens -gives, shows that some of the rooms were filled solid with -masonry, and he leaves it as an unaccountable fact; but -Morgan (<i>Houses and House Life</i>, p. 267) thinks it shows -that the builders constructed a core of masonry, over which -they reared the walls and ceilings, which last, after hardening, -were able to support themselves, when the cores were -removed; and that in the ruins at Zayi we see the cores -unremoved.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1043_1043" id="Footnote_1043_1043"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1043_1043"><span class="label">[1043]</span></a></span> -Cf. the <i>pros</i> and <i>cons</i> in Waldeck and Charnay. Waldeck -first named the ornaments as “Elephants’ trunks” -(<i>Voy. Pitt.</i> p. 74). There are cuts in Stephens, reproduced -in Bancroft. There is also a cut in Norman. Cf. E. H. -Thompson in <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, April, 1887, p. 382.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1044_1044" id="Footnote_1044_1044"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1044_1044"><span class="label">[1044]</span></a></span> -Stephens, <i>Yucatan</i>, ii. 265, gives an ancient Indian -map (1557), and extracts from the archives of Mani, which -lead him to infer that at that time it was an inhabited Indian -town.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1045_1045" id="Footnote_1045_1045"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1045_1045"><span class="label">[1045]</span></a></span> -Bancroft (iv. 151) gives various references to second-hand -descriptions, noted before 1875, to which may be -added those in Short, p. 347; Nadaillac, 334; Amer. Antiquarian, -vii. 257, and again, July, 1888.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Probably the most accurate of the plans of the ruins is -that of Stephens (<i>Yucatan</i>, i. 165), which is followed by -Bancroft (iv. 153). Brasseur’s report has a plan, and others, -all differing, are given by Waldeck (pl. viii.), Norman (p. -155), and Charnay (<i>Ruines</i>, p. 62). Views and cuts of details -are found in Waldeck, Stephens, Charnay,—whence -later summarizers like Bancroft, Baldwin, and Short have -drawn their copies; while special cuts are copied in Armin -(<i>Das Heutige Mexico</i>); Larenaudière (<i>Mexique et Guatemala</i>, -Paris, 1847); Le Plongeon (<i>Sacred Mysteries</i>); -Ruge (<i>Zeitalter der Entdeckungen</i>, p. 357); Morgan -(<i>Houses</i>, etc., ch. xi.), and in various others. One can best -trace the varieties and contrasts of the different accounts -of the various edifices in Bancroft’s collations of their -statements. His constant citation, even to scorn them, of -the impertinencies of George Jones’s <i>Hist. of Anc. America</i> -(London, 1842),—the later notorious Count Johannes,—was -hardly worth while.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1046_1046" id="Footnote_1046_1046"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1046_1046"><span class="label">[1046]</span></a></span> -Landa described the ruins. <i>Relation</i>, p. 340.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1047_1047" id="Footnote_1047_1047"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1047_1047"><span class="label">[1047]</span></a></span> -All other accounts are based on these. Bancroft, who -gives the best summary (iv. 221), enumerates many of the -second-hand writers, to whom Short (p. 396) must be added. -Stephens gives a plan (ii. 290) which Bancroft (iv. 222) follows; -and it apparently is worthy of reasonable confidence, -which cannot be said of Norman’s. The ruins present -some features not found in others, and the most interesting -of such may be considered the wall paintings, one representing -a boat with occupants, which Stephens found on -the walls of the building called by him the Gymnasium, because -of stone rings projecting from the walls (see annexed -cut), which were supposed by him to have been used in -ball games. Norman calls the same building the Temple; -Charnay, the Cirque; but the native designation is Iglesia.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1048_1048" id="Footnote_1048_1048"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1048_1048"><span class="label">[1048]</span></a></span> -<i>Yucatan</i>, i. 94. Cf. Bancroft, <i>Native Races</i>, ii. 117; v. -164, 342.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1049_1049" id="Footnote_1049_1049"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1049_1049"><span class="label">[1049]</span></a></span> -Bancroft collates the views of different writers (iv. 285). -He himself holds that these buildings are more ancient -than those of Anáhuac; consequently he rejects the arguments -of Stephens, that it was by the Toltecs, after they migrated -south from Anáhuac, that these constructions were -raised (<i>Native Races</i>, v. 165, and for references, p. 169). -Charnay (<i>Bull. de la Soc. de Géog.</i>, Nov., 1881) believes -they were erected between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries.</p> -<p class="pfc4">It is well known now that the concentric rings are a useless -guide in tropical regions to determine the age of trees, -though in the past, the immense size of trees as well as the -deposition of soil have been used to determine the supposed -ages of ruins. Waldeck counted a ring a year in getting -two thousand years for the time since the abandonment of -Palenqué; but Charnay (Eng. tr. <i>Ancient Cities</i>, p. 260) -says that these rings are often formed monthly. Cf. Nadaillac, -p. 323.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1050_1050" id="Footnote_1050_1050"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1050_1050"><span class="label">[1050]</span></a></span> -So called because near a modern village of that name, -founded by the Spaniards about 1564. Bancroft (iv. 296) -says the ruins are ordinarily called by the natives Casas de -Piedra. Ordoñez calls them Nachan, but without giving -any authority, and some adopt the Aztec equivalent Calhuacan, -city of the serpents. Because Xibalba is held by -some to be the name of the great city of this region in the -shadowy days of Votan, that name has also been applied to -the ruins. Otolum, or the ruined place, is a common designation -thereabouts, but Palenqué is the appellation in use -by most travellers and writers.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1051_1051" id="Footnote_1051_1051"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1051_1051"><span class="label">[1051]</span></a></span> -The fact is, that widely distinct estimates have been -held, some dating them back into the remotest antiquity, -and others making them later than the Conquest. Bancroft -(iv. 362) collates these statements. Cf. Dr. Earl Flint in -<i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, iv. 289. Morelet identifies them with -the Toltec remains, supposing them to be the work of that -people after their emigration, and to be of about the same -age as Mitla. Charnay (<i>Anc. Cities of the New World</i>, p. -260) claims that Cortes knew the place as the religious metropolis -of the Acaltecs. On the question of Cortes’ knowledge -see <i>Science</i>, Feb. 27, 1885, p. 171; and <i>Ibid.</i> (by Brinton) -March 27, 1885, p. 248.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1052_1052" id="Footnote_1052_1052"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1052_1052"><span class="label">[1052]</span></a></span> -The original is in the Roy. Acad. of Hist. at Madrid -(Brasseur, <i>Bib. Mex.-Guat.</i>, p. 125), and is called <i>Descripcion -del terreno publacion antigua</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1053_1053" id="Footnote_1053_1053"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1053_1053"><span class="label">[1053]</span></a></span> -Field, no. 231; Sabin, xvii. p. 292. The report of Rio -was brief, and as we would judge now, superficial. Dupaix -treats him disparagingly. The appended essay by Cabrera, -an Italian, is said to have been largely filched from Ramon’s -paper, which had been confidentially placed in his hands -(Short, 207). A Spanish text of Cabrera is in the Museo -Nacional. Cf. Brasseur (<i>Bib. Mex.-Guat.</i>), p. 30; Pinart, -no. 186. It is a question if the plates, which constituted the -most interesting part of the English book, be Rio’s after -all; for though they profess to be engraved after his drawings, -they are suspiciously like those made by Castañeda, -twenty years after Rio’s visit (Bancroft, iv. 290). David -B. Warden translated Rio’s report in the <i>Recueil de voyages -et de Mémoires, par la Soc. de in Géog. de Paris</i>. -(vol. ii.), and gave some of the plates. (Cf. Warden’s <i>Recherches -sur les antiquités de l’Amérique Septentrionale</i>, -Paris, 1827, in <i>Mém. de la Soc. de Géog.</i>) There is a German -version, <i>Beschreibung einer alten Stadt</i> (Berlin, 1832), -by J. H. von Minutoli, which is provided with an introductory -essay.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1054_1054" id="Footnote_1054_1054"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1054_1054"><span class="label">[1054]</span></a></span> -Sabin, x. 209, 213. Cf. <i>Annales de Philos. Chrétienne</i>, xi.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1055_1055" id="Footnote_1055_1055"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1055_1055"><span class="label">[1055]</span></a></span> -<i>Bull. de la Soc. de Géog. de Paris</i>, ix. (1828) 198. Dupaix, -i. 2d div. 76.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1056_1056" id="Footnote_1056_1056"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1056_1056"><span class="label">[1056]</span></a></span> -“Palenque et autres lieux circonvoisins,” in Dupaix, i. -2d div. 67 (in English in <i>Literary Gazette</i>, London, 1831, -no. 769, and in <i>Lond. Geog. Soc. Journal</i>, iii. 60). Cf. -<i>Bull. de la Soc. de Géog. de Paris</i>, 1832. He is overenthusiastic, -as Bandelier thinks (<i>Amer. Ant. Soc. Proc.</i>, -n. s., i. p. 111).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1057_1057" id="Footnote_1057_1057"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1057_1057"><span class="label">[1057]</span></a></span> -The report by Angrand, which induced this purchase, -is in the work as published.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1058_1058" id="Footnote_1058_1058"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1058_1058"><span class="label">[1058]</span></a></span> -He had described them in his <i>Hist. Nat. Civ.</i>, i. ch. 3.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1059_1059" id="Footnote_1059_1059"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1059_1059"><span class="label">[1059]</span></a></span> -The book usually sells for about 150 francs.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1060_1060" id="Footnote_1060_1060"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1060_1060"><span class="label">[1060]</span></a></span> -Given, also enlarged, in the folio known as Catherwood’s -<i>Views</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1061_1061" id="Footnote_1061_1061"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1061_1061"><span class="label">[1061]</span></a></span> -The German version was made from this (Jena, 1872).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1062_1062" id="Footnote_1062_1062"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1062_1062"><span class="label">[1062]</span></a></span> -Particularly ch. 13, 14. Charnay is the last of the explorers -of Palenqué. All the other accounts of the ruins -found here and there are based on the descriptions of -those who have been named, or at least nothing is added -of material value by other actual visitors like Norman -(<i>Rambles in Yucatan</i>, p. 284). Bancroft (iv. 294) enumerates -a number of such second-hand describers. The most -important work since Bancroft’s summary is Manuel Larrainzar’s -<i>Estudios sobre la historia de America, sus ruinas -y antigüedades, y sobre el orígen de sus habitantes</i> (Mexico, -1875-78), in five vols., all of whose plates are illustrations -from the ruins of Palenqué, which are described and compared -with other ancient remains throughout the world. -Cf. Brühl, <i>Culturvölker d. alt. Amerikas</i>. Plans of the -ruins will be found in Waldeck (pl. vii., followed mainly -by Bancroft, iv. 298, 307), Stephens (ii. 310), Dupaix (pl. -xi.), Kingsborough (iv. pl. 13), and Charnay (ch. 13 and -14). The views of the ruins given by these authorities -mainly make up the stock of cuts in all the popular narratives.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The most interesting of the carvings is what is known as -the Tablet of the Cross, which was taken from one of the -minor buildings, and is now in the National Museum at -Washington. It has often been engraved, but such representations -never satisfied the student till they could be -tested by the best of Charnay’s photographs. (Engravings -in Brasseur and Waldeck, pl. 21, 22; Rosny’s <i>Essai sur -le déchiffrement</i>, etc.; Minutoli’s <i>Beschreibung einer alten -Stadt in Guatimala</i> (Berlin, 1832); Stephens’s <i>Cent. -Amer.</i>, ii.; Bancroft, <i>Nat. Races</i>, iv. 333; Charnay, <i>Les -anciens Villes</i>, and Eng. transl. p. 255; Nadaillac, 325; -<i>Powell’ s Rept.</i>, i. 221; cf. p. 234; <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, vii. -200.) The most important discussion of the tablet is -Charles Rau’s <i>Palenqué Tablet in the U. S. National -Museum</i> (Washington, 1879), being the <i>Smithsonian Contri. -to Knowledge</i>, no. 331, or vol. xxii. It contains an account -of the explorations that have been made at Palenqué, and -a chapter on the “Aboriginal writing in Mexico, Central -America, and Yucatan, with some account of the attempted -translations of Maya hieroglyphics.” Rau’s conclusion is -that it is a Phallic symbol. Cf. a summary in <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, -vi., Jan., 1884, and in <i>Amer. Art Review</i>, 1880, -p. 217. Rau’s paper was translated into Spanish and -French: <i>Tablero del Palenque en el Museo nacional de los -Estados-Unidos</i> [traducido por Joaquin Davis y Miguel -Perez], in the <i>Anales del Museo nacional</i>. Tomo 2, pp. -131-203. (México, 1880.) <i>La Stèle de Palenqué du Musée -national des Etats-Unis, à Washington. Traduit de -l’Anglais avec autorisation de l’auteur.</i> In the <i>Annales -du Musée Guimet</i>, vol. x. (Paris, 1887.) Rau’s views were -criticised by Morgan.</p> -<p class="pfc4">There are papers by Charency on the interpretation of the -hieroglyphs in <i>Le Muséon</i> (Paris, 1882, 1883).</p> -<p class="pfc4">The significance of the cross among the Nahuas and -Mayas has been the subject of much controversy, some connecting -it with a possible early association with Christians in -ante-Columbian days (Bancroft, iii. 468). On this later point -see Bamps, <i>Les traditions relatives à l’homme blanc et au -signe de la cruz en Amérique à l’Epoque précolumbienne</i>, -in the <i>Compte rendu, Congrès des Américanistes</i> (Copenhagen, -1883), p. 125; and “Supposed vestiges of early -Christian teaching in America,” in the <i>Catholic Historical -Researches</i> (vol. i., Oct., 1885). The symbolism is variously -conceived. Bandelier (<i>Archæol. Jour.</i>) holds it to -be the emblem of fire, indeed an ornamented fire-drill, -which later got mixed up with the Spanish crucifix. Brinton -(<i>Myths of the New World</i>, 95) sees in it the four cardinal -points, the rain-bringers, the symbol of life and health, -and cites (p. 96) various of the early writers in proof. Brinton -(<i>Am. Hero Myths</i>, 155) claims to have been the first -to connect the Palenqué cross with the four cardinal points. -The bird and serpent—the last shown better in Charnay’s -photograph than in Stephens’s cut—is (<i>Myths</i>, 119) simply -a rebus of the air-god, the ruler of the winds. Brinton -says that Waldeck, in a paper on the tablet in the <i>Revue -Américaine</i> (ii. 69), came to a similar conclusion. Squier -(<i>Nicaragua</i>, ii. 337) speaks of the common error of mistaking -the tree of life of the Mexicans for the Christian -symbol. Cf. Powell’s <i>Second Rept., Bur. of Ethnol.</i>, p. -208; the <i>Fourth Rept.</i>, p. 252, where discredit is thrown -upon Gabriel de Mortillet’s <i>Le Signe de la cross avant le -Christianisme</i> (Paris, 1866); Joly’s <i>Man before Metals</i>, -339; and Charnay’s <i>Les Anciens Villes</i> (or Eng. transl. p. -85). Cf. for various applications the references in Bancroft’s -index (v. p. 671).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1063_1063" id="Footnote_1063_1063"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1063_1063"><span class="label">[1063]</span></a></span> -Both were alike, and one was broken in two. There -are engravings in Waldeck, pl. 25; Stephens, ii. 344, 349; -Squier’s <i>Nicaragua</i>, 1856, ii. 337; Bancroft, iv. 337.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1064_1064" id="Footnote_1064_1064"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1064_1064"><span class="label">[1064]</span></a></span> -These have been the subject of an elaborate folio, -thought, however, to be of questionable value, <i>Die Steinbildwerke -von Copân und Quiriguâ, aufgenommen von -Heinrich Meye; historisch erläutert und beschrieben von -Dr. Julius Schmidt</i> (Berlin, 1883), of which there is an -English translation, <i>The stone sculptures of Copán and -Quiriguá</i>; translated from the German by <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> Savage -(New York, 1883). It gives twenty plates, Catherwood’s -plates, and the cuts in Stephens, with reproductions in accessible -books (Bancroft, iv. ch. 3; Powell’s <i>First Rept. -Bur. Ethn.</i> 224; Ruge’s <i>Gesch. des Zeitalters; Amer. Antiquarian</i>, -viii. 204-6), will serve, however, all purposes.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1065_1065" id="Footnote_1065_1065"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1065_1065"><span class="label">[1065]</span></a></span> -Squier says: “There are various reasons for believing -that both Copan and Quirigua antedate Olosingo and Palenqué, -precisely as the latter antedate the ruins of Quiché, -Chichen-Itza, and Uxmal, and that all of them were the -work of the same people, or of nations of the same race, -dating from a high antiquity, and in blood and language -precisely the same that was found in occupation of the country -by the Spaniards.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1066_1066" id="Footnote_1066_1066"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1066_1066"><span class="label">[1066]</span></a></span> -Named apparently from a neighboring village.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1067_1067" id="Footnote_1067_1067"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1067_1067"><span class="label">[1067]</span></a></span> -Ref. in Bancroft, iv. 79.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1068_1068" id="Footnote_1068_1068"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1068_1068"><span class="label">[1068]</span></a></span> -This account can be found in Pacheco’s <i>Col. Doc. inéd.</i> -vi. 37, in Spanish; in Ternaux’s <i>Coll.</i> (1840), imperfect, -and in the <i>Nouv. Annales des Voyages</i>, 1843, v. xcvii. p. 18, -in French; in Squier’s <i>Cent. America</i>, 242, and in his ed. -of Palacio (N. Y. 1860), in English; and in Alexander von -Frantzius’s <i>San Salvador und Honduras im Jahre</i> 1576, -with notes by the translator and by C. H. Berendt.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1069_1069" id="Footnote_1069_1069"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1069_1069"><span class="label">[1069]</span></a></span> -Stephens, <i>Cent. Am.</i>, i. 131, 144; Warden, 71; <i>Nouvelles -Annales des Voyages</i>, xxxv. 329; Bancroft, iv. 82; -<i>Bull. de la Soc. de Géog. de Paris</i>, 1836, v. 267; Short, 56, -82,—not to name others.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1070_1070" id="Footnote_1070_1070"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1070_1070"><span class="label">[1070]</span></a></span> -His account is in the <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Trans.</i>, ii.; -<i>Bull. Soc. de Géog.</i> 1835; Dupaix, a summary, i. div. 2, -p. 73; Bradford’s <i>Amer. Antiq.</i>, in part. Galindo’s drawings -are unknown. Stephens calls his account “unsatisfactory -and imperfect.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1071_1071" id="Footnote_1071_1071"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1071_1071"><span class="label">[1071]</span></a></span> -<i>Central America</i>, i. ch. 5-7; <i>Views of Anc. Mts.</i> It -is Stephens’s account which has furnished the basis of those -given by Bancroft (iv. ch. 3); Baldwin, p. 111; Short, 356; -Nadaillac, 328, and all others. Bancroft in his bibliog. -note (iv. pp. 79-81), which has been collated with my own -notes, mentions others of less importance, particularly the -report of Center and Hardcastle to the Amer. Ethnol. Soc. -in 1860 and 1862, and the photographs made by Ellerley, -which Brasseur (<i>Hist. Nat. Civ.</i> i. 96; ii. 493; <i>Palenqué</i>, -8, 17) found to confirm the drawings and descriptions of -Catherwood and Stephens.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Stephens (<i>Cent. Am.</i>, i. 133) made a plan of the ruins reproduced -in <i>Annales des Voyages</i> (1841, p. 57), which is -the basis of that given by Bancroft (iv. 85). Dr. Julius -Schmidt, who was a member of the Squier expedition in -1852-53, furnished the historical and descriptive text to a -work which in the English translation by <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> Savage -is known as <i>Stone Sculptures of Copán and Quiriguá, -drawn by Heinrich Meye</i> (N. Y., 1883). What Stephens -calls the Copan idols and altars are considered by Morgan -(<i>Houses and House Life</i>, 257), following the analogy of the -customs of the northern Indians, to be the grave-posts and -graves of Copan chiefs. Bancroft (iv. ch. 3) covers the -other ruins of Honduras and San Salvador; and Squier has -a paper on those of Tenampua in the <i>N. Y. Hist. Soc. -Proc.</i>, 1853.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1072_1072" id="Footnote_1072_1072"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1072_1072"><span class="label">[1072]</span></a></span> -Stephens’s <i>Central America</i>, ii. ch. 7; and <i>Nouvelles -Annales des Voyages</i>, vol. lxxxviii. 376, derived from Catherwood.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1073_1073" id="Footnote_1073_1073"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1073_1073"><span class="label">[1073]</span></a></span> -Other travellers who have visited them are John Baily, -<i>Central America</i> (Lond. 1850); A. P. Maudsley, <i>Explorations -in Guatemala</i> (Lond. 1883), with map and plans -of ruins, in the <i>Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc.</i> p. 185; W. T. Brigham’s -<i>Guatemala</i> (N. Y., 1886). Bancroft (iv. 109) epitomizes -the existing knowledge; but the remains seem to be -less known than any other of the considerable ruins. There -are a few later papers: G. Williams on the Antiquities of -Guatemala, in the <i>Smithsonian Report</i>, 1876; Simeon Habel’s -“Sculptures of Santa Lucia Cosumalhuapa in Guatemala” -in the <i>Smithson. Contrib.</i> xxii. (Washington, 1878), -or “Sculptures de Santa (Lucia) Cosumalwhuapa dans le -Guatémala, avec une rélation de voyages dans l’Amérique -Centrale et sur les cótes occidentales de l’Amérique du Sud, -par S. Habel. Traduit de l’anglais, par J. Pointet,” with -eight plates, in the <i>Annales du Musée Guimet</i>, vol. x. pp. -119-259 (Paris, 1887); Philipp Wilhelm Adolf Bastian’s -“Stein Sculpturen aus Guatemala,” in the <i>Jahrbuch der k. -Museen zu Berlin</i>, 1882, or “Notice sur les pierres sculptées -du Guatémala récemment acquises par le Musée royal d’ethnographie -de Berlin. Traduit avec autorisation de l’auteur -par J. Pointet,” in the <i>Annales du Musée Guimet</i>, vol. x. -pp. 261-305 (Paris, 1887); and C. E. Vreeland and J. F. -Bransford, on the <i>Antiquities at Pantaleon, Guatemala</i> -(Washington, 1885), from the <i>Smithsonian Report</i> for -1884.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1074_1074" id="Footnote_1074_1074"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1074_1074"><span class="label">[1074]</span></a></span> -<i>Nicaragua; its people, scenery, monuments, and the -proposed interoceanic canal</i> (N. Y., 1856; revised 1860), a -portion (pp. 303-362) referring to the modern Indian occupants. -Squier was helped by his official station as U. S. -chargé d’affaires; and the archæological objects brought -away by him are now in the National Museum at Washington. -He published separate papers in the <i>Amer. Ethnol. -Soc. Trans.</i> ii.; <i>Smithsonian Ann. Rept.</i> v. (1850); <i>Harper’s -Monthly</i>, x. and xi. Cf. list in Pilling, nos. 3717, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1075_1075" id="Footnote_1075_1075"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1075_1075"><span class="label">[1075]</span></a></span> -His explorations were in 1865-66. He carried off what -he could to the British Museum.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1076_1076" id="Footnote_1076_1076"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1076_1076"><span class="label">[1076]</span></a></span> -Like Bedford Pim and Berthold Seemann’s <i>Dottings -on the Roadside in Panama, Nicaragua, and Mosquito</i> -(Lond., 1869).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1077_1077" id="Footnote_1077_1077"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1077_1077"><span class="label">[1077]</span></a></span> -J. F. Bransford’s “Archæological Researches in Nicaragua,” -in the <i>Smithsonian Contrib.</i> (Washington, 1881). -Karl Bovallius’s <i>Nicaraguan Antiquities</i>, with plates -(Stockholm, 1886), published by the Swedish Society of Anthropology -and Geography, figures various statues and -other relics found by the author in Nicaragua, and he says -that his drawings are in some instances more exact than -those given by Squier before the days of photography. In -his introduction he describes the different Indian stocks of -Nicaragua, and disagrees with Squier. He gives a useful -map of Nicaragua and Costa Rica.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1078_1078" id="Footnote_1078_1078"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1078_1078"><span class="label">[1078]</span></a></span> -It is only of late years that they have been kept apart, -for the elder writers like Kingsborough, Stephens, and -Brantz Mayer, confounded them.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1079_1079" id="Footnote_1079_1079"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1079_1079"><span class="label">[1079]</span></a></span> -The Father Alonzo Ponce, who travelled through Yucatan -in 1586, is the only writer, according to Brinton -(<i>Books of Chilan Balam</i>, p. 5), who tells us distinctly that -the early missionaries made use of aboriginal characters in -giving religious instruction to the natives (<i>Relacion Breve -y Verdadera</i>).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1080_1080" id="Footnote_1080_1080"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1080_1080"><span class="label">[1080]</span></a></span> -Leon y Gama tells us that color as well as form seems -to have been representative.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1081_1081" id="Footnote_1081_1081"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1081_1081"><span class="label">[1081]</span></a></span> -See references on the accepted difficulties in <i>Native -Races</i>, ii. 551. Mrs. Nuttall claims to have observed certain -complemental signs in the Mexican graphic system, “which -renders a misinterpretation of the Nahuatl picture-writings -impossible” (<i>Am. Asso. Adv. Science, Proc.</i>, xxxv. Aug., -1886); <i>Peabody Mus. Papers</i>, i. App.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1082_1082" id="Footnote_1082_1082"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1082_1082"><span class="label">[1082]</span></a></span> -<i>Prehist. Man</i>, ii. 57, 64, for his views</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1083_1083" id="Footnote_1083_1083"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1083_1083"><span class="label">[1083]</span></a></span> -Bancroft, <i>Native Races</i>, ii. ch. 17 (pp. 542, 552) gives -a good description of the Aztec system, with numerous -references; but on this system, and on the hieroglyphic -element in general, see Gomara; Bernal Diaz; Motolinia -in Icazbalceta’s <i>Collection</i>, i. 186, 209; Ternaux’s <i>Collection</i>, -x. 250; Kingsborough, vi. 87; viii. 190; ix. 201, -235, 287, 325; Acosta, lib. vi. cap. 7; Sahagún, i. p. iv.; -Torquemada, i. 29, 30, 36, 149, 253; ii. 263, 544; Las -Casas’s <i>Hist. Apologética</i>; Purchas’s <i>Pilgrimes</i>, iii. 1069; -iv. 1135; Clavigero, ii. 187; Robertson’s <i>America</i>; Boturini’s -<i>Idea</i>, pp. 5, 77, 87, 96, 112, 116; Humboldt’s <i>Vues</i>, -i. 177, 192; Veytia, i. 6, 250; Gallatin in <i>Am. Ethn. Soc. -Trans.</i> i. 126, 165; Prescott’s <i>Mexico</i>, i. ch. 4; Brasseur’s -<i>Nat. Civ.</i>, i. pp. xv, xvii; Domenech’s <i>Manuscrit pictographique</i>, -introd.; Mendoza, in the <i>Boletin Soc. Mex.</i> -Geog., 2<sup>de</sup> ed. i. 896; Madier de Montjau’s <i>Chronologie -hiéroglyphico-phonetic des rois Aztèques, de 1322 à 1522</i>, -with an introduction “sur l’Ecriture Méxicaine;” Lubbock’s -<i>Prehistoric Times</i>, 279, and his <i>Origin of Civilization</i>, -ch. 2; E. B. Tylor’s <i>Researches into the Early Hist. of -Mankind</i>, 89; Short’s <i>No. Amer. of Antiq.</i>, ch. 8; Müller’s -<i>Chips</i>, i. 317; The Abbé Jules Pipart in <i>Compte-rendu, -Congrès des Amér.</i> 1877, ii. 346; Isaac Taylor’s -<i>Alphabets</i>; Foster’s <i>Prehistoric Races</i>, 322; Nadaillac, -376, not to cite others. Bandelier has discussed the Mexican -paintings in his paper “On the sources for aboriginal -history of Spanish America” in <i>Am. Asso. Adv. Science, -Proc.</i>, xxvii. (1878). See also <i>Peabody Mus. Reports</i>, ii. -631; and Orozco y Berra’s “Códice Mendozino” in the -<i>Anales del Museo Nacional</i>, vol. i. Mrs. Nuttall’s views -are in the <i>Peabody Mus., Twentieth Report</i>, p. 567. Quaritch -(<i>Catal.</i> 1885, nos. 29040, etc.) advertised some original -Mexican pictures; a native MS. pictorial record of a part -of the Tezcuco domain (supposed <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1530), and perhaps -one of the “pinturas” mentioned by Ixtlilxochitl; a colored -Mexican calendar on a single leaf of the same supposed -date and origin; with other MSS. of the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries. (Cf. also his <i>Catal.</i>, Jan., Feb., 1888.)</p> -<p class="pfc4">The most important studies upon the Aztec system have -been those of Aubin. Cf. his <i>Mémoire sur la peinture -didactique et l’écriture figurative des Anciens Méxicains</i>, -in the <i>Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France</i>, iii. 225 -(<i>Revue Orient. et Amér.</i>), in which he contended for the -rebus-like character of the writings. He made further contributions -to vols. iv. and v. (1859-1861). Cf. his “Examen -des anciennes peintures figuratives de l’ancien Méxique,” -in the new series of <i>Archives</i>, etc., vol. i.; and the introd. -to Brasseur’s <i>Nations Civilisées</i>, p. xliv.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1084_1084" id="Footnote_1084_1084"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1084_1084"><span class="label">[1084]</span></a></span> -Bancroft (<i>Nat. Races</i>, ii. ch. 24) translates these from -Landa, Peter Martyr, Cogulludo, Villagutierre, Mendieta, -Acosta, Benzoni, and Herrera, and thinks all the modern -writers (whom he names, p. 770) have drawn from these -earlier ones, except, perhaps, Medel in <i>Nouv. Annales des -Voyages</i>, xcvii. 49. Cf. Wilson, <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, ii. 61. -It will be seen later that Holden discredits the belief in any -phonetic value of the Maya system. But compare on the -phonetic value of the Mexican and Maya systems, Brinton -in <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i> (Nov. 1886); Lazarus Geiger’s -<i>Contrib. to the Hist. of the Development of the Human -Race</i> (Eng. tr. by David Asher). London, 1880, p. 75; -and Zelia Nuttall in <i>Am. Ass. Adv. Sci. Proc.</i>, Aug. 1886.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1085_1085" id="Footnote_1085_1085"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1085_1085"><span class="label">[1085]</span></a></span> -Dr. Bernoulli, who died at San Francisco, in California, -in 1878, and whose labors are commemorated in a notice -in the <i>Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft</i> -(vi. 710) at Basle, found at Tikal, in Guatemala, some -fragments of sculptured panels of wood, bearing hieroglyphics -as well as designs, which he succeeded in purchasing, -and they were finally deposited in 1879 in the Ethnological -Museum in Basle, where Rosny saw them, and describes -them, with excellent photographic representations, -in his <i>Doc. Ecrits de l’Antiq. Amér.</i> (p. 97). These tablets -are the latest additions to be made to the store already possessed -from Palenqué, as given by Stephens in his <i>Central -America, Chiapas, and Yucatan</i>; those of the Temple of -the Cross at Palenqué, after Waldeck’s drawings in the -<i>Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France</i> (ii., 1864); that -from Kabah in Yucatan, given by Rosny in his <i>Archives -Paléographiques</i> (i. p. 178; Atlas, pl. xx.), and one from -Chichen-Itza, figured by Le Plongeon in <i>L’Illustration</i>, -Feb. 10, 1882; not to name other engravings. Rosny holds -that Rau’s <i>Palenqué Tablet</i> (Washington, 1879) gives the -first really serviceably accurate reproduction of that inscription. -Cf. on Maya inscriptions, Bancroft, ii. 775; iv. -91, 97, 234; Morelet’s <i>Travels</i>; and Le Plongeon in <i>Am. -Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, n. s., i. 246. This last writer has been -thought to let his enthusiasm—not to say dogmatism—turn -his head, under which imputation he is not content, -naturally (<i>Ibid.</i> p. 282).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1086_1086" id="Footnote_1086_1086"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1086_1086"><span class="label">[1086]</span></a></span> -“Landa’s alphabet a Spanish fabrication,” appeared -in the <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, April, 1880. In this, Philipp -J. J. Valentini interprets all that the old writers say of -the ancient writings to mean that they were pictorial and not -phonetic; and that Landa’s purpose was to devise a vehicle -which seemed familiar to the natives, through which he -could communicate religious instruction. His views have -been controverted by Léon de Rosny (<i>Doc. Ecrits de la -Antiq. Amér.</i> p. 91); and Brinton (<i>Maya Chronicles</i>, 61), -calls them an entire misconception of Landa’s purpose.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1087_1087" id="Footnote_1087_1087"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1087_1087"><span class="label">[1087]</span></a></span> -<i>Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, n. s., i. 251.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1088_1088" id="Footnote_1088_1088"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1088_1088"><span class="label">[1088]</span></a></span> -<i>Troano</i> MS., p. viii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1089_1089" id="Footnote_1089_1089"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1089_1089"><span class="label">[1089]</span></a></span> -<i>Relation</i>, Brasseur’s ed., section xli.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1090_1090" id="Footnote_1090_1090"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1090_1090"><span class="label">[1090]</span></a></span> -This is given in the <i>Archives de la Soc. Amér. de -France</i>, ii. pl. iv.; in Brasseur’s ed. of Landa; in Bancroft’s -<i>Nat. Races</i>, ii. 779; in Short, 425; Rosny (<i>Essai -sur le déchiff.</i> etc., pl. xiii.) gives a “Tableau des caractères -phonétique Mayas d’après Diégo de Landa et Brasseur -de Bourbourg.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1091_1091" id="Footnote_1091_1091"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1091_1091"><span class="label">[1091]</span></a></span> -<i>Manuscrit Troano Etudes sur le système graphique et -la langue des Mayas</i> (Paris, 1869-70)—the first volume -containing a fac-simile of the Codex in seventy plates, -with Brasseur’s explications and partial interpretation. -In the second volume there is a translation of Gabriél de -Saint Bonaventure’s <i>Grammaire Maya</i>, a “Chrestomathie” -of Maya extracts, and a Maya lexicon of more than -10,000 words. Brasseur published at the same time (1869) -in the <i>Mémoires de la Soc. d’Ethnographie a Lettre à M. -Léon de Rosny sur la découverte de documents relatifs à la -haute antiquité américaine, et sur le déchiffrement et l’interprétation -de l’écriture phonétique et figurative de la -langue Maya</i> (Paris, 1869). He explained his application -of Landa’s alphabet in the introduction to the <i>MS. Troano</i>, -i. p. 36. Brasseur later confessed he had begun at the -wrong end of the MS. (<i>Bib. Mex.-Guat.</i>, introd.). The -pebble-shape form of the characters induced Brasseur to call -them <i>calculiform</i>; and Julien Duchateau adopted the -term in his paper “Sur l’écriture calculiforme des Mayas” -in the <i>Annuaire de la Soc. Amér.</i> (Paris, 1874), iii. p. 31.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1092_1092" id="Footnote_1092_1092"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1092_1092"><span class="label">[1092]</span></a></span> -<i>L’écriture hiératique</i>, and <i>Archives de la Soc. Am. -de France</i>, n. s., ii. 35.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1093_1093" id="Footnote_1093_1093"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1093_1093"><span class="label">[1093]</span></a></span> -<i>Ancient Phonetic Alphabets of Yucatan</i> (N. Y., 1870), -p. 7.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1094_1094" id="Footnote_1094_1094"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1094_1094"><span class="label">[1094]</span></a></span> -It is the development of a paper given at the Nancy -session of the Congrès des Américanistes (1875). Landa’s -alphabet with the variations make 262 of the 700 signs -which Rosny catalogues. He printed his “Nouvelles Recherches -pour l’interpretation des caractères de l’Amérique -Centrale” in the <i>Archives</i>, etc., iii. 118. There is a paper on -Rosny’s studies by De la Rada in the Compte-rendu of the -Copenhagen session (p. 355) of the Congrès des Américanistes. -Rosny’s <i>Documents écrits de l’antiquité Américaine</i> -(Paris, 1882), from the <i>Mémoires de la Société d’Ethnographie</i> -(1881), covers his researches in Spain and Portugal -for material illustrative of the pre-Columbian history of -America. Cf. also his “Les sources de l’histoire anté -columbienne du nouveau monde,” in the <i>Mémoires de la -Soc. d’Ethnographie</i> (1877). For the titles in full of Rosny’s -linguistic studies, see Pilling’s <i>Proof-sheets</i>, p. 663.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1095_1095" id="Footnote_1095_1095"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1095_1095"><span class="label">[1095]</span></a></span> -<i>Anthropol. Review</i>, May, 1864; <i>Memoirs of the Anthropol. -Soc.</i>, i.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1096_1096" id="Footnote_1096_1096"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1096_1096"><span class="label">[1096]</span></a></span> -<i>Memoirs</i>, etc., ii. 298.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1097_1097" id="Footnote_1097_1097"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1097_1097"><span class="label">[1097]</span></a></span> -<i>Memoirs</i>, etc., 1870, iii. 288; <i>Trans. Anthrop. Inst. Gt. -Britain</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1098_1098" id="Footnote_1098_1098"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1098_1098"><span class="label">[1098]</span></a></span> -Introd. to Cyrus Thomas’s <i>MS. Troano</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1099_1099" id="Footnote_1099_1099"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1099_1099"><span class="label">[1099]</span></a></span> -<i>Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, <i>n. s.</i>, i. 250.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1100_1100" id="Footnote_1100_1100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1100_1100"><span class="label">[1100]</span></a></span> -<i>Actes de la Soc. philologique</i>, March, 1870. Cf. <i>Revue -de Philologie</i>, i. 380; <i>Recherches sur le Codex Troano</i> (Paris, -1876); <i>Actes</i>, etc., March, 1878; Baldwin’s <i>Anc. America</i>, -App.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1101_1101" id="Footnote_1101_1101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1101_1101"><span class="label">[1101]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Sabin’s Amer. Bibliopolist</i>, ii. 143.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1102_1102" id="Footnote_1102_1102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1102_1102"><span class="label">[1102]</span></a></span> -<i>Contributions to N. A. Ethnology, Powell’s Survey</i>, -vol. v. Cf. also his <i>Phonetic elements in the graphic system -of the Mayas and Mexicans</i> in the <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i> -(Nov., 1886), and separately (Chicago, 1886), and his <i>Ikonomic -method of phonetic writing</i> (Phila., 1886). Thomas -in <i>The Amer. Antiquarian</i> (March, 1886) points out the -course of his own studies in this direction.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1103_1103" id="Footnote_1103_1103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1103_1103"><span class="label">[1103]</span></a></span> -Cf. Short, p. 425. Dr. Harrison Allen in 1875, in the -<i>Amer. Philosophical Society’s Transactions</i>, made an analysis -of Landa’s alphabet and the published codices. Rau, -in his <i>Palenqué Tablet of the U. S. Nat. Museum</i> (ch. 5), -examines what had been done up to 1879. In the same -year Dr. Carl Schultz-Sellack wrote on “Die Amerikanischen -Götter der vier Weltgegenden und ihre Tempel in -Palenqué,” touching also the question of interpretation (<i>Zeitschrift -für Ethnologie</i>, vol. xi.); and in 1880 Dr. Förstemann -examined the matter in his introduction to his reproduction -of the Dresden Codex.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1104_1104" id="Footnote_1104_1104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1104_1104"><span class="label">[1104]</span></a></span> -<i>Studies in Central American picture-writing</i> (Washington, -1881), extracted from the <i>First Report of the Bureau -of Ethnology</i>. His method is epitomized in <i>The Century</i>, -Dec., 1881. He finds Stephens’s drawings the most -trustworthy of all, Waldeck’s being beautiful, but they embody -“singular liberties.” His examination was confined -to the 1500 separate hieroglyphs in Stephens’s <i>Central -America</i>. Some of Holden’s conclusions are worth noting: -“The Maya manuscripts do not possess to me the -same interest as the stones, and I think it may be certainly -said that all of them are younger than the Palenqué tablets, -far younger than the inscriptions at Copan.” “I distrust -the methods of Brasseur and others who start from -the misleading and unlucky alphabet handed down by -Landa,” by forming variants, which are made “to satisfy -the necessities of the interpreter in carrying out some preconceived -idea.” He finds a rigid adherence to the standard -form of a character prevailing throughout the same inscription. -At Palenqué the inscriptions read as an English -inscription would read, beginning at the left and proceeding -line by line downward. “The system employed at Palenqué -and Copan was the same in its general character, -and almost identical even in details.” He deciphers three -proper names: “all of them have been pure picture-writing, -except in so far as their rebus character may make -them in a sense phonetic.” Referring to Valentini’s -<i>Landa Alphabet a Spanish Fabrication</i>, he agrees in that -critic’s conclusions. “While my own,” he adds, “were -reached by a study of the stones and in the course of a -general examination, Dr. Valentini has addressed himself -successfully to the solution of a special problem.” Holden -thinks his own solution of the three proper names points -of departure for subsequent decipherers. The Maya method -was “pure picture-writing. At Copan this is found in -its earliest state; at Palenqué it was already highly conventionalized.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1105_1105" id="Footnote_1105_1105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1105_1105"><span class="label">[1105]</span></a></span> -See references in Bancroft’s <i>Nat. Races</i>, ii. 576.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1106_1106" id="Footnote_1106_1106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1106_1106"><span class="label">[1106]</span></a></span> -Cogulludo’s <i>Hist. de Yucatan</i>, 3d ed., i. 604.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1107_1107" id="Footnote_1107_1107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1107_1107"><span class="label">[1107]</span></a></span> -Prescott, i. 104, and references.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1108_1108" id="Footnote_1108_1108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1108_1108"><span class="label">[1108]</span></a></span> -Dec. iv., lib. 8.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1109_1109" id="Footnote_1109_1109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1109_1109"><span class="label">[1109]</span></a></span> -Brasseur de Bourbourg’s <i>Troano MS.</i>, i. 9. Cf. on -the Aztec books Kirk’s Prescott, i. 103; Brinton’s <i>Myths</i>, -10; his <i>Aborig. Amer. Authors</i>, 17; and on the Mexican -Paper, Valentini in <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, 2d s., i. 58.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1110_1110" id="Footnote_1110_1110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1110_1110"><span class="label">[1110]</span></a></span> -Cf. Icazbalceta’s <i>Don Fray Juan de Zumárraga, primer -Obispo y Arzobispo de México (1529-48)</i>. <i>Estudio -biográfico y bibligráfico. Con un apéndice de documentos -inéditos ó raros</i> (Mexico, 1881). A part of this work was -also printed separately (fifty copies) under the title of <i>De -la destruction de antigüedades méxicanas atribuida á los -misioneros en general, y particularmente al Illmo. Sr. D. -Fr. Juan de Zumárraga, primer Obispo y Arzobispo de -México</i> (Mexico, 1881). In this he exhausts pretty much -all that has been said on the subject by the bishop himself, -by Pedro de Gante, Motolinía, Sahagún, Duran, Acosta, -Davila Padilla, Herrera, Torquemada, Ixtlilxochitl, Robertson, -Clavigero, Humboldt, Bustamante, Ternaux, Prescott, -Alaman, etc. Brasseur (<i>Nat. Civil.</i>, ii. 4) says of Landa -that we must not forget that he was oftener the agent of -the council for the Indies than of the Church. Helps (iii. -374) is inclined to be charitable towards a man in a skeptical -age, so intensely believing as Zumárraga was. -Sahagún relates that earlier than Zumárraga, the fourth -ruler of his race, Itzcohuatl, had caused a large destruction -of native writings, in order to remove souvenirs of the national -humiliation.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1111_1111" id="Footnote_1111_1111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1111_1111"><span class="label">[1111]</span></a></span> -Humboldt was one of the earliest to describe some of -these manuscripts in connection with his <i>Atlas</i>, pl. xiii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1112_1112" id="Footnote_1112_1112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1112_1112"><span class="label">[1112]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Catal. of the Phillipps Coll.</i>, no. 404. An original -colored copy of the <i>Antiquities of Mexico</i>, given by Kingsborough -to Phillipps, was offered of late years by Quaritch -at £70-£100; it was published at £175. The usual colored -copies sell now for about £40-£60; the uncolored for about -£30-£35. It is usually stated that two copies were printed -on vellum (British Museum, Bodleian), and ten on large -paper, which were given to crowned heads, except one, -which was given to Obadiah Rich. Squier, in the <i>London -Athenæum</i>, Dec. 13, 1856 (Allibone, p. 1033), drew attention -to the omission of the last signature of the <i>Hist. Chichimeca</i> -in vol. ix.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1113_1113" id="Footnote_1113_1113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1113_1113"><span class="label">[1113]</span></a></span> -Rich, <i>Bibl. Amer. Nova</i>, ii. 233; <i>Gentleman’s Mag.</i>, -May, 1837, which varies in some particulars. Cf. for other -details Sabin’s <i>Dictionary</i>, ix. 485; De Rosny in the <i>Rev. -Orient et Amér.</i>, xii. 387. R. A. Wilson (<i>New Conquest -of Mexico</i>, p. 68) gives the violent skeptical view of the -material.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1114_1114" id="Footnote_1114_1114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1114_1114"><span class="label">[1114]</span></a></span> -Sabin, ix., no. 37,800.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1115_1115" id="Footnote_1115_1115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1115_1115"><span class="label">[1115]</span></a></span> -Léon de Rosny (<i>Doc. écrits de l’Antiq. Amér.</i>, p. 71) -speaks of those in the Museo Archæológico at Madrid.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1116_1116" id="Footnote_1116_1116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1116_1116"><span class="label">[1116]</span></a></span> -<i>Hist. Nueva España.</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1117_1117" id="Footnote_1117_1117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1117_1117"><span class="label">[1117]</span></a></span> -<i>Pilgrimes</i>, vol. iii. (1625). It is also included in Thevenot’s -<i>Coll. de Voyages</i> (1696), vol. ii., in a translation. -Clavigero (i. 23) calls this copy faulty. See also Kircher’s -<i>Œdipus Ægypticus</i>; Humboldt’s plates, xiii., lviii., lix., -with his text, in which he quotes Du Palin’s <i>Study of Hieroglyphics</i>, -vol. i. See the account in Bancroft, ii. 241.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1118_1118" id="Footnote_1118_1118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1118_1118"><span class="label">[1118]</span></a></span> -Prescott, i. 106. He thinks that a copy mentioned in -Spineto’s <i>Lectures on the Elements of Hieroglyphics</i>, and -then in the Escurial, may perhaps be the original. Humboldt -calls it a copy.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1119_1119" id="Footnote_1119_1119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1119_1119"><span class="label">[1119]</span></a></span> -Humboldt placed some tribute-rolls in the Berlin -library, and gave an account of them. See his pl. xxxvi.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1120_1120" id="Footnote_1120_1120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1120_1120"><span class="label">[1120]</span></a></span> -Cf. references in Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i>, ii. 529. The -“Explicacion” of the MS. is given in Kingsborough’s volume -v., and an “interpretation” in vol. vi.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1121_1121" id="Footnote_1121_1121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1121_1121"><span class="label">[1121]</span></a></span> -Kingsborough’s “explicacion” and “explanation” are -given in his vols. v. and vi. Rosny has given an “explication -avec notes par Brasseur de Bourbourg” in his <i>Archives -paléographiques</i> (Paris, 1870-71), p. 190, with an -atlas of plates. Cf. references in Bancroft, ii. 530; and in -another place (iii. 191) this same writer cautions the reader -against the translation in Kingsborough, and says that it -has every error that can vitiate a translation. Humboldt -thinks his own plates, lv. and lvi., of the codex carefully -made.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1122_1122" id="Footnote_1122_1122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1122_1122"><span class="label">[1122]</span></a></span> -Prescott says (i. 108) of this that it bears evident marks -of recent origin, when “the hieroglyphics were read with -the eye of faith rather than of reason.” Cf. Bancroft, <i>Nat. -Races</i>, ii. 527.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1123_1123" id="Footnote_1123_1123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1123_1123"><span class="label">[1123]</span></a></span> -Portions of it are also reproduced in the <i>Archives de la -Soc. Amér. de France</i>; in Rosny’s <i>Essai sur le déchiffrement -de l’Ecriture Hiératique</i>; and in Powell’s <i>Third -Rept. Bur. of Ethnology</i>, p. 56. Cf. also Humboldt’s <i>Atlas</i>, -pl. xiii.; and H. M. Williams’s translation of his <i>Aues</i>, -i. 145.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1124_1124" id="Footnote_1124_1124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1124_1124"><span class="label">[1124]</span></a></span> -It is known to have been given in 1665 by the Marquis -de Caspi by Count Valerio Zani. There is a copy in the -museum of Cardinal Borgia at Veletri.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1125_1125" id="Footnote_1125_1125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1125_1125"><span class="label">[1125]</span></a></span> -Known to have been given in 1677 by the Duke of Saxe-Eisenach -to the Emperor Leopold. Some parts are reproduced -in Robertson’s <i>America</i>, Lond., 1777, ii. 482.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1126_1126" id="Footnote_1126_1126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1126_1126"><span class="label">[1126]</span></a></span> -Humboldt, <i>Vues des Cordillères</i>, p. 89; pl. 15, 27, 37; -Prescott, i. 106. There is a single leaf of it reproduced in -Powell’s <i>Third Rept. Bur. of Eth.</i>, p. 33.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1127_1127" id="Footnote_1127_1127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1127_1127"><span class="label">[1127]</span></a></span> -Cf. his <i>Denkwürdigkeiten der Dresdener Bibliothek</i> -(1744), p. 4.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1128_1128" id="Footnote_1128_1128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1128_1128"><span class="label">[1128]</span></a></span> -Stephens (<i>Central America</i>, ii. 342, 453; <i>Yucatan</i>, ii. -292, 453) was in the same way at a loss respecting the conditions -of the knowledge of such things in his time. Cf. -also Orozco y Berra, <i>Geografia de las Lenguas de México</i>, -p. 101.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1129_1129" id="Footnote_1129_1129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1129_1129"><span class="label">[1129]</span></a></span> -<i>Die Mayahandschrift der königlichen öffentlichen -Bibliothek zu Dresden; herausgegeben von E. Förstemann</i> -(Leipzig, 1880). Only thirty copies were offered for sale at -two hundred marks. There is a copy in Harvard College -library. Parts of the manuscript are found figured in different -publications: Humboldt’s <i>Vues des Cordillères</i>, ii. -268, and pl. 16 and 45; Wuttke’s <i>Gesch. der Schrift. Atlas</i>, -pl. 22, 23 (Leipzig, 1872); <i>Archives de la Soc. Amér. -de France</i>, n. s., vol. i. and ii.; Silvestre’s <i>Paléographie -Universelle</i>; Rosny’s <i>Les Ecritures figuratives et hiéroglyphiques -des peuples anciens et modernes</i> (Paris, 1860, -pl. v.), and in his <i>Essai sur le déchiffrement</i>, etc.; Ruge, -<i>Zeitalter der Entdeckungen</i>, p. 559. Cf. also Le Noir in -<i>Antiquités Méxicaines</i>, ii. introd.; Förstemann’s separate -monographs, <i>Der Maya apparat in Dresden (Centralblatt -für Bibliothekswesen</i>, 1885, p. 182), and <i>Erläuterungen -zur Mayahandschrift der königlichen öffentlichen Bibliothek -zu Dresden</i> (Dresden, 1886); Schellhas’ <i>Die Maya-Handschrift -zu Dresden</i> (Berlin, 1886); C. Thomas on -the numerical signs in <i>Arch. de la Soc. Am. de France</i>, -n. s., iii. 207.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1130_1130" id="Footnote_1130_1130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1130_1130"><span class="label">[1130]</span></a></span> -Cf. Powell’s <i>Third Rept. Eth. Bureau</i>, p. 32</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1131_1131" id="Footnote_1131_1131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1131_1131"><span class="label">[1131]</span></a></span> -Brinton’s <i>Maya Chronicles</i>, 66; Brasseur de Bourbourg’s -<i>Troano</i> (1868).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1132_1132" id="Footnote_1132_1132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1132_1132"><span class="label">[1132]</span></a></span> -It constitutes vol. ii. and iii. of the series.</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>Mission scientifique au Méxique et dans l’Amérique -Centrale. Ouvrages publiés par ordre de l’Empereur et -par les soins du Ministre de l’Instruction publique</i> (Paris, -1868-70), under the distinctive title: <i>Linguistique, Manuscrit -Troano. Etudes sur le système graphique et la langue -des Mayas, par Brasseur de Bourbourg</i> (1869-70).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Rosny, who compared Brasseur’s edition with the original, -was satisfied with its exactness, except in the numbering -of the leaves; and Brasseur (<i>Bibl. Mex.-Guat.</i>, 1871) -confessed that in his interpretation he had read the MS. -backwards. The work was reissued in Paris in 1872, without -the plates, under the following title: <i>Dictionnaire, -Grammaire et Chrestomathie de la langue maya, précédés -d’une étude sur les système graphique des indigènes du -Yucatan (Méxique)</i> (Paris, 1872).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Brasseur’s <i>Rapport, addressé à son Excellence M. Duruy</i>, -included in the work, gives briefly the abbé’s exposition of -the MS. Professor Cyrus Thomas and Dr. D. G. Brinton, -having printed some expositions in the <i>American Naturalist</i> -(vol. xv.) united in an essay making vol. v. of the <i>Contributions -to North American Ethnology</i> (Powell’s survey) -under the title: <i>A Study of the Manuscript Troano by -Cyrus Thomas, with an introduction by D. G. Brinton</i> -(Washington, 1882), which gives facsimiles of some of the -plates. Thomas calls it a kind of religious calendar, giving -dates of religious festivals through a long period, intermixed -with illustrations of the habits and employments of the -people, their houses, dress, utensils. He calls the characters -in a measure phonetic, and not syllabic. Cf. Rosny -in the <i>Archives de la Soc. Am. de France</i>, n. s., ii. 28; -his <i>Essai sur le déchiffrement</i>, etc. (1876); Powell’s <i>Third -Rept. Bur. of Eth.</i>, xvi.; Bancroft’s <i>Nat. Races</i>, ii. 774; -and Brinton’s <i>Notes on the Codex Troano and Maya -Chronology</i> (Salem, 1881).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1133_1133" id="Footnote_1133_1133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1133_1133"><span class="label">[1133]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Science</i>, iii. 458.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1134_1134" id="Footnote_1134_1134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1134_1134"><span class="label">[1134]</span></a></span> -<i>Codex Cortesianus. Manuscrit hiératique des anciens -Indiens de l’Amérique centrale conservé au Musée -archéologique de Madrid. Photographié et publié pour la -première fois, avec une introduction, et un vocabulaire de -l’écriture hiératique yucatéque par Léon de Rosny</i> (Paris, -1883). At the end is a list of works by De Rosny on American -archæology and paleography.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1135_1135" id="Footnote_1135_1135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1135_1135"><span class="label">[1135]</span></a></span> -<i>Archives de la Soc. Am. de France</i>, n. s., ii. 25.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1136_1136" id="Footnote_1136_1136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1136_1136"><span class="label">[1136]</span></a></span> -<i>Bib. Mex.-Guat.</i>, p. 95.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1137_1137" id="Footnote_1137_1137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1137_1137"><span class="label">[1137]</span></a></span> -Cf. Rosny in <i>Archives paléographiques</i> (Paris, 1869-71), -pl. 117, etc.; and his <i>Essai sur le dé chiffrement</i>, etc., -pl. viii., xvi.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1138_1138" id="Footnote_1138_1138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1138_1138"><span class="label">[1138]</span></a></span> -[Mr. Markham made a special study of this -point in the <i>Journal of the Roy. Geog. Soc</i>. (1871), -xli. p. 281, collating its authorities. Cf. the -views of Marcoy in <i>Travels in South America</i>, tr. -by Rich, London, 1875.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1139_1139" id="Footnote_1139_1139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1139_1139"><span class="label">[1139]</span></a></span> -Except those portions which Garcilasso de -la Vega has embodied in his <i>Commentaries</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1140_1140" id="Footnote_1140_1140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1140_1140"><span class="label">[1140]</span></a></span> -It is, of course, necessary to consider the -weight to be attached to the statements of different -authors; but the most convenient method -of placing the subject before the reader will be -to deal in the present chapter with general conclusions, -and to discuss the comparative merits -of the authorities in the Critical Essay on the -sources of information.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1141_1141" id="Footnote_1141_1141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1141_1141"><span class="label">[1141]</span></a></span> -For special study, see Paz Soldan’s <i>Geografía -del Peru</i>; Menendez’ <i>Manual de Geografía -del Peru</i>; and Wiener’s <i>L’Empire des Incas</i>, -ch. i.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1142_1142" id="Footnote_1142_1142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1142_1142"><span class="label">[1142]</span></a></span> -“Jusqu’à present on n’a pas retrouvé le maïs, -d’une manière certaine, a l’état sauvage” (De -Candolle’s <i>Géographie botanique raisonnée</i>, p. 951).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1143_1143" id="Footnote_1143_1143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1143_1143"><span class="label">[1143]</span></a></span> -De Candolle, p. 983.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1144_1144" id="Footnote_1144_1144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1144_1144"><span class="label">[1144]</span></a></span> -There is a wild variety in Mexico, the size -of a nut, and attempts have been made to increase -its size under cultivation during many -years, without any result. This seems to show -that a great length of time must have elapsed -before the ancient Peruvians could have brought -the cultivation of the potato to such a high state -of perfection as they undoubtedly did.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1145_1145" id="Footnote_1145_1145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1145_1145"><span class="label">[1145]</span></a></span> -Some years ago a priest named Cabrera, the -cura of a village called Macusani, in the province -of Caravaya, succeeded in breeding a cross between -the wild vicuña and the tame alpaca. He -had a flock of these beautiful animals, which -yielded long, silken, white wool; but they required -extreme care, and died out when the sustaining -hand of Cabrera was no longer available. -There is also a cross between a llama and an -alpaca, called <i>guariso</i>, as large as the llama, but -with much more wool. The guanaco and llama -have also been known to form a cross; but there -is no instance of a cross between the two wild -varieties,—the guanaco and vicuña. The extremely -artificial life of the alpaca, which renders -that curious and valuable animal so absolutely -dependent on the ministrations of its human -master, and the complete domestication of the -llama, certainly indicate the lapse of many centuries -before such a change could have been -effected.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1146_1146" id="Footnote_1146_1146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1146_1146"><span class="label">[1146]</span></a></span> -[Cf. remarks of Daniel Wilson in his <i>Prehistoric -Man</i>, i. 243.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1147_1147" id="Footnote_1147_1147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1147_1147"><span class="label">[1147]</span></a></span> -The name is of later date. One story is -that, when an Inca was encamped there, a messenger -reached him with unusual celerity, whose -speed was compared with that of the “<i>huanaco</i>.” -The Inca said, “<i>Tia</i>” (sit or rest), “<i>O! huanaco</i>.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1148_1148" id="Footnote_1148_1148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1148_1148"><span class="label">[1148]</span></a></span> -Basadre’s measurement is 32 inches by 21.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1149_1149" id="Footnote_1149_1149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1149_1149"><span class="label">[1149]</span></a></span> -Quoted by Garcilasso de la Vega, Pte. I. lib. III. cap. 1.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1150_1150" id="Footnote_1150_1150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1150_1150"><span class="label">[1150]</span></a></span> -Basadre mentions a carved stone brought -from the department of Ancachs, in Peru, which -had some resemblances to the stones at Tiahuanacu. -A copy of it is in possession of Señor -Raimondi.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1151_1151" id="Footnote_1151_1151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1151_1151"><span class="label">[1151]</span></a></span> -[Cf. plans and views in Squier’s <i>Peru</i>, ch. -24.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1152_1152" id="Footnote_1152_1152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1152_1152"><span class="label">[1152]</span></a></span> -Cap. 94.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1153_1153" id="Footnote_1153_1153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1153_1153"><span class="label">[1153]</span></a></span> -See page 238.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1154_1154" id="Footnote_1154_1154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1154_1154"><span class="label">[1154]</span></a></span> -The name of the place where these remains -are situated is Concacha, from the Quichua word -“<i>Cuncachay</i>,”—the act of holding down a victim -for sacrifice; literally, “to take by the neck.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1155_1155" id="Footnote_1155_1155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1155_1155"><span class="label">[1155]</span></a></span> -The names of this god were <i>Con-Illa-Tici-Uira-cocha</i>, -and he was the <i>Pachayachachic</i>, or -Teacher of the World. <i>Pacha</i> is “time,” or -“place;” also “the universe.” “<i>Yachachic</i>,” a -teacher, from “<i>Yachachini</i>,” “I teach.” <i>Con</i> is -said to signify the creating Deity (<i>Betanzos, Garcia</i>). -According to Gomara, Con was a creative -deity who came from the north, afterwards expelled -by Pachacamac, and a modern authority -(Lopez, p. 235) suggests that <i>Con</i> represented -the “cult of the setting sun,” because <i>Cunti</i> -means the west. <i>Tici</i> means a founder or foundation, -and <i>Illa</i> is light, from <i>Illani</i>, “I shine:” -“The Origin of Light” (<i>Montesinos. Anonymous -Jesuit.</i> Lopez suggests “<i>Ati</i>,” an evil omen,—the -Moon God); or, according to one authority, -“Light Eternal” (<i>The anonymous Jesuit</i>). -<i>Vira</i> is a corruption of <i>Pirua</i>, which is said by -some authorities to be the name of the first settler, -or the founder of a dynasty; and by others -to mean a “depository,” a “place of abode;” -hence a “dweller,” or “abider.” <i>Cocha</i> means -“ocean,” “abyss,” “profundity,” “space.” <i>Uira-cocha</i>, -“the Dweller in Space.” So that the -whole would signify “God: the Creator of -Light:” “the Dweller in Space: the Teacher -of the World.”</p> -<p class="pfc4">Some authors gave the meaning of <i>Uira-cocha</i> -to be “foam of the sea:” from <i>Uira</i> (<i>Huira</i>), -“grease,” or “foam,” and <i>Cocha</i>, “ocean,” -“sea,” “lake.” Garcilasso de la Vega pointed -out the error. In compound words of a nominative -and genitive, the genitive is invariably -placed first in Quichua; so that the meaning -would be “a sea of grease,” not “grease of the -sea.” Hence he concludes that <i>Uira-cocha</i> is not -a compound word, but simply a name, the derivation -of which he does not attempt to explain. -Blas Valera says that it means “the will and -power of God;” not that this is the signification -of the word, but that such were the godlike attributes -of the being who was known by it. Acosta -says that to <i>Ticsi Uira-cocha</i> they assigned the -chief power and command over all things. The -anonymous Jesuit tells us that <i>Illa Ticsi</i> was the -original name, and that <i>Uira-cocha</i> was added -later.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Of these names, <i>Illa Ticci</i> appears to have been -the most ancient.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1156_1156" id="Footnote_1156_1156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1156_1156"><span class="label">[1156]</span></a></span> -Cieza de Leon and Salcamayhua.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1157_1157" id="Footnote_1157_1157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1157_1157"><span class="label">[1157]</span></a></span> -Montesinos calls the ancient people, who -were peaceful and industrious, <i>Hatu-runa</i>, or -“Great men.” See also Matienza (MS. Brit. -Mus.).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1158_1158" id="Footnote_1158_1158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1158_1158"><span class="label">[1158]</span></a></span> -<i>The anonymous Jesuit</i>, p. 178. A work referred -to by Oliva as having been written by -Blas Valera also mentions some of the early -kings by name. (See Saldamando, <i>Jesuitas del -Peru</i>, p. 22.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1159_1159" id="Footnote_1159_1159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1159_1159"><span class="label">[1159]</span></a></span> -<i>Cachi</i> (“salt”) was the Inca’s instruction in -rational life, <i>Uchu</i> (“pepper”) was the delight -the people derived from this teaching, and <i>Sauca</i> -(“joy”) means the happiness afterward experienced.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1160_1160" id="Footnote_1160_1160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1160_1160"><span class="label">[1160]</span></a></span> -G. de la Vega.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1161_1161" id="Footnote_1161_1161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1161_1161"><span class="label">[1161]</span></a></span> -Molina, p. 7.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1162_1162" id="Footnote_1162_1162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1162_1162"><span class="label">[1162]</span></a></span> -Pirua?</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1163_1163" id="Footnote_1163_1163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1163_1163"><span class="label">[1163]</span></a></span> -Cieza de Leon; Herrera.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1164_1164" id="Footnote_1164_1164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1164_1164"><span class="label">[1164]</span></a></span> -Salcamayhua.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1165_1165" id="Footnote_1165_1165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1165_1165"><span class="label">[1165]</span></a></span> -Blas Valera allows a period of 600 years for -the existence of the Inca dynasty, which throws -its origin back to the days of Alfred the Great. -Garcilasso allows 400 years, which would make -its rise to be contemporary with Henry II of -England. But twelve generations, allowing -twenty-five years for each, would only occupy -300 years.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1166_1166" id="Footnote_1166_1166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1166_1166"><span class="label">[1166]</span></a></span> -Erroneously called <i>Aymaras</i> by the Spaniards. -The name, which really belongs to a -branch of the Quichua tribe, was first misapplied -to the Colla language by the Jesuits at -Juli, and afterwards to the whole Colla race.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1167_1167" id="Footnote_1167_1167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1167_1167"><span class="label">[1167]</span></a></span> -Don Modesto Basadre tells us that he sent -an Indian messenger, named Alejo Vilca, from -Puno to Tacna, a distance of 84 leagues, who did -it in 62 hours, his only sustenance being a little -dried maize and coca,—over four miles an hour -for 152 miles.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1168_1168" id="Footnote_1168_1168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1168_1168"><span class="label">[1168]</span></a></span> -Fray Ludovico Geronimo de Oré, a native -of Guamanga, in Peru, was the author of <i>Rituale -seu Manuale ac brevem formam administrandi -sacramenta juxta ordinem S. Ecclesiæ Romanœ, -cum translationibus in linguas provinciarum Peruanorum</i>, -published at Naples in 1607.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1169_1169" id="Footnote_1169_1169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1169_1169"><span class="label">[1169]</span></a></span> -Cf. Note 1, following this chapter.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1170_1170" id="Footnote_1170_1170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1170_1170"><span class="label">[1170]</span></a></span> -<i>Chucu</i> means a head-dress; <i>Huaman</i>, a falcon; -<i>Huacra</i>, a horn.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1171_1171" id="Footnote_1171_1171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1171_1171"><span class="label">[1171]</span></a></span> -[Ramusio’s plan of Cuzco is given in Vol. -II. p. 554, with references (p. 556) to other plans -and descriptions; to which may be added an -archæological examination by Wiener, in the -<i>Bull. de la Soc. de Géog. de Paris</i>, Oct., 1879, and -in his <i>Pérou et Bolivie</i>, with an enlarged plan of -the town, showing the regions of different architecture; -accounts in Marcoy’s <i>Voyage à travers -l’Amérique du Sud</i> (Paris, 1869; or Eng. transl. -i. 174), and in Nadaillac’s <i>L’Amérique préhistorique</i>, -and by Squier in his Peru, and in his <i>Remarques -sur la Géographie du Pérou</i>, p. 20.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1172_1172" id="Footnote_1172_1172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1172_1172"><span class="label">[1172]</span></a></span> -It is related by Betanzos that one day this -Inca appeared before his people with a very joyful -countenance. When they asked him the -cause of his joy, he replied that Uira-cocha Pachayachachic -had spoken to him in a dream that -night. Then all the people rose up and saluted -him as Viracocha Inca, which is as much as to -say,—“King and God.” From that time he was -so called. Garcilasso gives a different version -of the same tradition, in which he confuses Viracocha -with his son.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1173_1173" id="Footnote_1173_1173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1173_1173"><span class="label">[1173]</span></a></span> -Cieza de Leon, ii. 138-44.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1174_1174" id="Footnote_1174_1174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1174_1174"><span class="label">[1174]</span></a></span> -Salcamayhua, 91.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1175_1175" id="Footnote_1175_1175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1175_1175"><span class="label">[1175]</span></a></span> -Blas Valera says 42, Balboa 33, years.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1176_1176" id="Footnote_1176_1176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1176_1176"><span class="label">[1176]</span></a></span> -[The ruins of Atahualpa’s palace are figured -in Wiener’s <i>Pérou et Bolivie</i>, and in Cte. de Gabriac’s -<i>Promenade à travers l’Amérique du Sud</i> -(Paris, 1868), p. 196.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1177_1177" id="Footnote_1177_1177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1177_1177"><span class="label">[1177]</span></a></span> -The meanings of the names of these Incas -are significant. Manco and Rocca appear to be -proper names without any clear etymology. The -rest refer to mental attributes, or else to some -personal peculiarity. Sinchi means “strong.” -Lloque is “left-handed.” Yupanqui is the second -person of the future tense of a verb, and -signifies “you will count.” Garcilasso interprets -it as one who will count as wise, virtuous, and -powerful. Ccapac is rich; that is, rich in all -virtues and attributes of a prince. Mayta is an -adverb, “where;” and Salcamayhua says that -the constant cry and prayer of this Inca was, -“Where art thou, O God?” because he was -constantly seeking his Creator. Yahuar-huaccac -means “weeping blood,” probably in allusion -to some malady from which he suffered. Pachacutec -has already been explained. Tupac is -a word signifying royal splendor, and Huayna -means “youth.” Huascar is “a chain,” in allusion -to a golden chain said to have been made -in his honor, and held by the dancers at the festival -of his birth. The meaning of Atahualpa -has been much disputed. <i>Hualpa</i> certainly -means any large game fowl. <i>Hualpani</i> is to -create. <i>Atau</i> is “chance,” or “the fortune of -war.” Garcilasso, who is always opposed to derivations, -maintains that Atahualpa was a proper -name without special meaning, and that Hualpa, -as a word for a fowl, is derived from it, because -the boys in the streets, when imitating cock-crowing, -used the word Atahualpa. But Hualpa -formed part of the name of many scions -of the Inca family long before the time of Atahualpa.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1178_1178" id="Footnote_1178_1178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1178_1178"><span class="label">[1178]</span></a></span> -All authorities agree that Manco Ccapac -was the first Inca, although Montesinos places -him far back at the head of the Pirhua dynasty, -and all agree respecting the second, Sinchi -Rocca. Lloque Yupanqui, with various spellings, -has the unanimous vote of all authorities -except Acosta, who calls him “Iaguarhuarque.” -But Acosta’s list is incomplete. Respecting -Mayta Ccapac and Ccapac Yupanqui, all are -agreed except Betanzos, who transposes them -by an evident slip of memory. Touching Inca -Rocca all are agreed, though Montesinos has -Sinchi for Inca, and all agree as to Yahuar-huaccac. -It is true that Cieza de Leon and Herrera -call him Inca Yupanqui, but this is explained -by Salcamayhua when he gives the full name,—Yahuar-huaccac -Inca Yupanqui. All agree as -to Uira-cocha. As to his successor, Betanzos, -Cieza de Leon, Fernandez, Herrera, Salcamayhua, -and Balboa mention the short reign of the -deposed Urco. Cieza de Leon and Betanzos give -Yupanqui as the name of Urco’s brother; all -other authorities have Pachacutec. The discrepancy -is explained by his names having been -Yupanqui Pachacutec. This also accounts for -Garcilasso de la Vega and Santillan having -made Pachacutec and Yupanqui into two Incas, -father and son. Betanzos also interpolates a -Yamque Yupanqui. All are agreed with regard -to Tupac Inca Yupanqui, Huayna Ccapac, Huascar, -and Atahualpa. [There is another comparison -of the different lists in Wiener, <i>L’Empire -des Incas</i>, p. 53.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1179_1179" id="Footnote_1179_1179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1179_1179"><span class="label">[1179]</span></a></span> -[See an early cut of this sun-worship in Vol. -II. p. 551.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1180_1180" id="Footnote_1180_1180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1180_1180"><span class="label">[1180]</span></a></span> -At Pachacamac there was a temple to the -coast deity, called locally Pachacamac, and -another to the sun; but none to the supreme -Creator, one of whose epithets was Pachacamac.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1181_1181" id="Footnote_1181_1181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1181_1181"><span class="label">[1181]</span></a></span> -Spanish authors mention a being called <i>Supay</i>, -which they say was the devil. <i>Supay</i>, as an -evil spirit, also occurs in the drama of Ollantay. -It may have been some local <i>huaca</i>, but no devil -as such, entered into the religious belief of the -Incas.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1182_1182" id="Footnote_1182_1182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1182_1182"><span class="label">[1182]</span></a></span> -Acosta, Polo de Ondegardo, Garcilasso de -la Vega.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1183_1183" id="Footnote_1183_1183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1183_1183"><span class="label">[1183]</span></a></span> -The mummies were those of Incas Uira-cocha, -Tupac Yupanqui, and Huayna Ccapac; -of Mama Runtu (wife of Uira-cocha) and -Mama Ocllo (wife of Tupac Yupanqui).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1184_1184" id="Footnote_1184_1184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1184_1184"><span class="label">[1184]</span></a></span> -Mentioned by Calancha (471) and Arriaga -as an oracle at the village of Tauca, in Conchucos. -Brinton has built up a myth which he credits -to the whole Peruvian people, on the strength -of a meaning applied to the word <i>Catequilla</i>, -which is erroneous. It is exactly the same grammatical -error that those etymologists fell into -who thought that <i>Uira-cocha</i> signified “foam of -the sea.” (<i>Myths of the New World</i>, 154.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1185_1185" id="Footnote_1185_1185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1185_1185"><span class="label">[1185]</span></a></span> -A very interesting account of it, with a -sketch, is given by Squier, p. 524.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1186_1186" id="Footnote_1186_1186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1186_1186"><span class="label">[1186]</span></a></span> -<i>Huatana</i> means a halter, from <i>huatani</i>, to -seize; hence the tying up or encircling of the -sun.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1187_1187" id="Footnote_1187_1187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1187_1187"><span class="label">[1187]</span></a></span> -Authorities differ respecting the names of -the months, and probably some months had -more than one name. But the most accurate -list, and that which is most in agreement with -all the others, is the one adopted by the first -Council of Lima, and given by Calancha. It is -as follows:—</p> -<p class="pfc4">1. <i>Yntip Raymi</i> (22 June-22 July), Festival of -the Winter Solstice, or <i>Raymi</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4">2. Chahuarquiz (22 July-22 Aug.), Season of -ploughing.</p> -<p class="pfc4">3. Yapa-quiz (22 Aug.-22 Sept.), Season of -sowing.</p> -<p class="pfc4">4. <i>Ccoya Raymi</i> (22 Sept.-22 Oct.), Festival of -the Spring Equinox. <i>Situa.</i></p> -<p class="pfc4">5. Uma Raymi (22 Oct.-22 Nov.), Season of -brewing.</p> -<p class="pfc4">6. Ayamarca (22 Nov.-22 Dec.), Commemoration -of the dead.</p> -<p class="pfc4 p1">7. <i>Ccapac Raymi</i> (22 Dec.-22 Jan.), Festival -of the Summer Solstice. <i>Huaraca.</i></p> -<p class="pfc4">8. Camay (22 Jan.-22 Feb.), Season of exercises.</p> -<p class="pfc4">9. Hatun-poccoy (22 Feb.-22 March), Season -of ripening.</p> -<p class="pfc4 p1">10. <i>Pacha-poccoy</i> (22 March-22 April), Festival -of Autumn Equinox. <i>Mosoc Nina.</i></p> -<p class="pfc4">11. Ayrihua (22 April-22 May), Beginning of -harvest.</p> -<p class="pfc4">12. Aymuray (22 May-22 June), Harvesting -month. in Google’s copy</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1188_1188" id="Footnote_1188_1188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1188_1188"><span class="label">[1188]</span></a></span> -Judges xii. 39; 2 Kings iii. 27.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1189_1189" id="Footnote_1189_1189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1189_1189"><span class="label">[1189]</span></a></span> -The sacrifices were called <i>runa</i>, <i>yuyac</i>, and -<i>huahua</i>. The Spaniards thought that <i>runa</i> and -<i>yuyac</i> signified men, and <i>huahua</i> children. This -was not the case when speaking of sacrificial -victims. <i>Runa</i> was applied to a male sacrifice, -<i>huahua</i> to the lambs, and <i>yuyac</i> signified an -adult or full-grown animal. The sacrificial animals -were also called after the names of those -who offered them, which was another cause of -erroneous assumptions by Spanish writers. -There was a law strictly prohibiting human sacrifices -among the conquered tribes; and the -statement that servants were sacrificed at the -obsequies of their masters is disproved by the -fact, mentioned by the anonymous Jesuit, that -in none of the burial-places opened by the Spaniards -in search of treasure were any human -bones found, except those of the buried lord -himself.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1190_1190" id="Footnote_1190_1190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1190_1190"><span class="label">[1190]</span></a></span> -Prescott (I. p. 98, note) accepted the statement -that human sacrifices were offered by the -Incas, because six authorities, Sarmiento, Cieza -de Leon, Montesinos, Balboa, Ondegardo, and -Acosta—outnumbered the single authority on -the other side, Garcilasso de la Vega, who, moreover, -was believed to be prejudiced owing to his -relationship to the Incas. Sarmiento and Cieza -de Leon are one and the same, so that the number -of authorities for human sacrifices is reduced to -five. Cieza de Leon, Montesinos, and Balboa -adopted the belief that human sacrifices were -offered up, through a misunderstanding of the -words <i>yuyac</i> and <i>huahua</i>. Acosta had little or -no acquaintance with the language, as is proved -by the numerous linguistic blunders in his work. -Ondegardo wrote at a time when he scarcely -knew the language, and had no interpreters; for -it was in 1554, when he was judge at Cuzco. At -that time all the annalists and old men had fled -into the forests, because of the insurrection of -Francisco Hernandez Giron.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The authorities who deny the practice are numerous -and important. These are Francisco de -Chaves, one of the best and most able of the -original conquerors; Juan de Oliva; the Licentiate -Alvarez; Fray Marcos Jofre; the Licentiate -Falcon, in his <i>Apologia pro Indis</i>; Melchior -Hernandez, in his dictionary, under the words -<i>harpay</i> and <i>huahua</i>; the anonymous Jesuit in -his most valuable narrative; and Garcilasso de -la Vega. These eight authorities outweigh the -five quoted by Prescott, both as regards number -and importance. So that the evidence against -human sacrifices is conclusive. The <i>Quipus</i>, as -the anonymous Jesuit tells us, also prove that -there was a law prohibiting human sacrifices.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The assertion that 200 children and 1,000 men -were sacrificed at the coronation of Huayua Ccapac -was made; but these “<i>huahuas</i>” were not -children of men, but young lambs, which are -called children; and the “<i>yuyac</i>” and “<i>runa</i>” -were not men, but adult llamas. [Mr. Markham -has elsewhere collated the authorities on this -point (<i>Royal Commentaries</i>, i. 139). Cf. Bollaert’s -<i>Antiq. Researches</i>, p. 124; and Alphonse -Castaing on “Les Fêtes, Offrandes et Sacrifices -dans l’Antiquité Peruvienne,” in the <i>Archives de -la Société Américaine de France</i>, n. s. iii. 239.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1191_1191" id="Footnote_1191_1191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1191_1191"><span class="label">[1191]</span></a></span> -The sacrificial llamas bore the names of the -youths who presented them. Hence the Spanish -writers, with little or no knowledge of the -language, assumed that the youths themselves -were the victims. (See <i>ante</i>, p. 237.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1192_1192" id="Footnote_1192_1192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1192_1192"><span class="label">[1192]</span></a></span> -<i>Ñusta</i>, princess; <i>calli</i>, valorous; <i>sapa</i>, alone, -unrivalled.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1193_1193" id="Footnote_1193_1193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1193_1193"><span class="label">[1193]</span></a></span> -Of the first class were the <i>Tarpuntay</i>, or -sacrificing priests, and the <i>Nacac</i>, who cut up -the victims and provided the offerings, whether -<i>harpay</i> or bloody sacrifices, <i>haspay</i> or bloodless -sacrifices of flesh, or <i>cocuy</i>, oblations of corn, -fruit, or coca. Molina mentions a custom called -<i>Ccapac-cocha</i> or <i>Cacha-huaca</i>, being the distribution -of sacrifices. An enormous tribute came to -Cuzco annually for sacrificial purposes, and was -thence distributed by the Inca, for the worship -of every huaca in the empire. The different sacrifices -were sent from Cuzco in all directions for -delivery to the priests of the numerous <i>huacas</i>. -The ministering priests were called <i>Huacap -Uillac</i> when they had charge of a special idol, -<i>Huacap Rimachi</i> or <i>Huatuc</i> when they received -utterances from a deity while in a state of ecstatic -frenzy called <i>utirayay</i>, and <i>Ychurichuc</i> -when they received confessions and ministered -in private families. The soothsayers were a -very numerous class. The <i>Hamurpa</i> examined -the entrails of sacrifices, and divined by the -flight of birds. The <i>Llayca</i>, <i>Achacuc</i>, <i>Huatuc</i>, -and <i>Uira-piricuc</i> were soothsayers of various -grades. The <i>Socyac</i> divined by maize heaps, the -<i>Pacchacuc</i> by the feet of a large hairy spider, the -<i>Llaychunca</i> by odds and evens. The recluses -were not only <i>Aclla-cuna</i>, or virgins congregated -in temples under the charge of matrons called -<i>Mama-cuna</i>. There were also hermits who meditated -in solitary places, and appear to have been -under a rule, with an abbot called <i>Tucricac</i>, and -younger men serving a novitiate called <i>Huamac</i>. -These <i>Huancaquilli</i>, or hermits, took vows of -chastity (<i>titu</i>), obedience (<i>Huñicui</i>), poverty (<i>uscacuy</i>), -and penance (<i>villullery</i>).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1194_1194" id="Footnote_1194_1194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1194_1194"><span class="label">[1194]</span></a></span> -[The general works on the Inca civilization -necessarily touch these points of their religious -customs, and Mr. Markham’s volume on the -<i>Rites and Laws of the Incas</i> is a prime source of -information. Hawk’s translation of Rivero and -Von Tschudi (p. 151) gives references; but special -mention may be made of Müller’s <i>Geschichte -der Amerikanischen Urreligionen</i>; Castaing’s -<i>Les Système religieux dans l’Antiquité peruvienne</i>, -in the <i>Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France</i>, -n. s., iii. 86, 145; Tylor’s <i>Primitive Culture</i>; -Brinton’s <i>Myths of the New World</i>; and Albert -Réville’s <i>Lectures on the origin and growth of -religion as illustrated by the native religions of -Mexico and Peru. Delivered at Oxford and -London, in April and May, 1884. Translated by -Philip H. Wicksteed</i> (London, 1884. Hibbart -lectures).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1195_1195" id="Footnote_1195_1195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1195_1195"><span class="label">[1195]</span></a></span> -The Quichua language was spoken over a -vast area of the Andean region of South America. -The dialects only differ slightly, and even the -language of the Collas, called by the Spaniards -Aymara, is identical as regards the grammatical -structure, while a clear majority of the words -are the same. The general language of Peru -belongs to that American group of languages -which has been called agglutinative by William -von Humboldt. These languages form new -words by a process of junction which is much -more developed in them than in any of the forms -of speech in the Old World. They also have -exclusive and inclusive plurals, and transitional -forms of the verb combined with pronominal -suffixes which are peculiar to them. In these -respects the Quichua is purely an American language, -and in spite of the resemblances in the -sounds of some words, which have been diligently -collected by Lopez (<i>Les Races Aryennes -du Pérou</i>, par Vicente F. Lopez, Paris, 1871) and -Ellis (<i>Peruvia Scythica</i>, by Robert Ellis, B. D., -London, 1875), no connection, either as regards -grammar or vocabulary, has been satisfactorily -established between the speech of the Incas -and any language of the Old World. Quichua -is a noble language, with a most extensive vocabulary, -rich in forms of the plural number, -which argue a very clear conception of the idea -of plurality; rich in verbal conjugations; rich in -the power of forming compound nouns; rich in -varied expression to denote abstract ideas; rich -in words for relationships which are wanting in -the Old World idioms; and rich, above all, in -synonyms: so that it was an efficient vehicle -wherewith to clothe the thoughts and ideas of a -people advanced in civilization.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1196_1196" id="Footnote_1196_1196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1196_1196"><span class="label">[1196]</span></a></span> -Garcilasso, <i>Com. Real.</i>, i. lib. i. cap. 24, and -lib. vii. cap. 1.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1197_1197" id="Footnote_1197_1197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1197_1197"><span class="label">[1197]</span></a></span> -Among several kinds of flutes were the -<i>chayña</i>, made of cane, the <i>pincullu</i>, a small -wooden flute, and the <i>pirutu</i>, of bone. They -also had a stringed instrument called <i>tinya</i>, for -accompanying their songs, a drum, and trumpets -of several kinds, one made from a sea-shell.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1198_1198" id="Footnote_1198_1198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1198_1198"><span class="label">[1198]</span></a></span> -Blas Valera wrote upon the subject of Inca -drugs, and I have given a list of those usually -found in the bags of the itinerant Calahuaya -doctors, in a foot-note at page 186 in vol. i. of -my translation of the first part of the <i>Royal Commentaries</i> -of Garcilasso de la Vega. An interesting -account of the Calahuaya doctors is given -by Don Modesto Basadre in his <i>Riquezas Peruanas</i>, -p. 17 (Lima, 1884).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1199_1199" id="Footnote_1199_1199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1199_1199"><span class="label">[1199]</span></a></span> -In the church of Santa Anna.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1200_1200" id="Footnote_1200_1200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1200_1200"><span class="label">[1200]</span></a></span> -[See pictures of Atahualpa in Vol. II. pp. -515, 516. For a colored plate of “Lyoux d’or -péruviens,” emblems of royalty, see <i>Archives de -la Soc. Amér. de France</i>, n. s., i. pl. v.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1201_1201" id="Footnote_1201_1201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1201_1201"><span class="label">[1201]</span></a></span> -The truth of this use of gold by the Incas -does not depend on the glowing descriptions of -Garcilasso de la Vega. A golden breastplate -and <i>topu</i>, a golden leaf with a long stalk, four -specimens of golden fruit, and a girdle of gold -were found near Cuzco in 1852, and sent to the -late General Echenique, then President of Peru. -The present writer had an opportunity of inspecting -and making careful copies of them. His -drawings of the breastplate and <i>topu</i> were lithographed -for Bollaert’s <i>Antiquarian Researches in -Peru</i>, p. 146. The breastplate was 5-3/10 inches -in diameter, and had four narrow slits for suspending -it round the neck. The golden leaf was -12-7/10 inches long, including the stem; breadth -of the base of the leaf, 3-1/10 inches. The models -of fruit were 3 inches in diameter, and the -girdle 18¼ inches long.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1202_1202" id="Footnote_1202_1202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1202_1202"><span class="label">[1202]</span></a></span> -“The stones are of various sizes in different -structures, ranging in length from one to eight -feet, and in thickness from six inches to two feet. -The larger stones are generally at the bottom, -each course diminishing in thickness towards -the top of the wall, thus giving a very pleasing -effect of graduation. The joints are of a precision -unknown in our architecture, and not rivalled -in the remains of ancient art in Europe. The -statement of the old writers, that the accuracy -with which the stones of some structures were -fitted together was such that it was impossible -to introduce the thinnest knife-blade or finest -needle between them, may be taken as strictly -true. The world has nothing to show in the way -of stone cutting and fitting to surpass the skill -and accuracy displayed in the Inca structures of -Cuzco.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1203_1203" id="Footnote_1203_1203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1203_1203"><span class="label">[1203]</span></a></span> -Place of serpents.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1204_1204" id="Footnote_1204_1204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1204_1204"><span class="label">[1204]</span></a></span> -An unmarried prince of the blood royal; a -nobleman. Father, in the Colla dialect.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1205_1205" id="Footnote_1205_1205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1205_1205"><span class="label">[1205]</span></a></span> -A married prince of the blood royal.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1206_1206" id="Footnote_1206_1206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1206_1206"><span class="label">[1206]</span></a></span> -A married princess; a lady of noble family.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1207_1207" id="Footnote_1207_1207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1207_1207"><span class="label">[1207]</span></a></span> -An unmarried princess.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1208_1208" id="Footnote_1208_1208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1208_1208"><span class="label">[1208]</span></a></span> -At the conquest there were 594, but a great -number had been killed in the previous civil war.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1209_1209" id="Footnote_1209_1209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1209_1209"><span class="label">[1209]</span></a></span> -Chiefs.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1210_1210" id="Footnote_1210_1210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1210_1210"><span class="label">[1210]</span></a></span> -Principal chiefs.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1211_1211" id="Footnote_1211_1211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1211_1211"><span class="label">[1211]</span></a></span> -Balboa, Montesinos, Santillana.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1212_1212" id="Footnote_1212_1212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1212_1212"><span class="label">[1212]</span></a></span> -The male members of a <i>Chunca</i> were divided -into ten classes, with reference to age and -consequent ability to work:—</p> -<p class="pfc4">1. <i>Mosoc-aparic</i>, “Newly begun.” A baby.</p> -<p class="pfc4">2. <i>Saya-huarma</i>, “Standing boy.” A child -that could stand.</p> -<p class="pfc4">3. <i>Macta-puric</i>, “Walking child.” Child aged -2 to 8.</p> -<p class="pfc4">4. <i>Ttanta raquisic</i>, “Bread receiver.” Boy -of 8.</p> -<p class="pfc4">5. <i>Puclacc huarma</i>, “Playing boy.” Boys -from 8 to 16.</p> -<p class="pfc4">6. <i>Cuca pallac</i>, “Coca picker.” Age from 16 -to 20. Light work.</p> -<p class="pfc4">7. <i>Yma huayna</i>, “As a youth.” Age 20 to 25.</p> -<p class="pfc4">8. <i>Puric ——</i>, “Able-bodied.” Head of a -family; paying tribute.</p> -<p class="pfc4">9. <i>Chaupi-ruccu</i>, “Elderly.” Light service. -Age 50 to 60.</p> -<p class="pfc4">10. <i>Puñuc ruccu</i>, “Dotage.” No work. Sixty -and upwards.</p> -<p class="pfc4">A <i>Chunca</i> consisted of ten <i>Purics</i>, with the -other classes in proportion. The <i>Puric</i> was -married to one wife, and, while assisted by the -young lads and the elderly men, he supported -the children and the old people who could not -work. The Peruvian laborer had many superstitions, -but he was not devoid of higher religious -feelings. This is shown by his practice when -travelling. On reaching the summit of a pass -he never forgot to throw a stone, or sometimes -his beloved pellet of coca, on a heap by the roadside, -as a thank-offering to God, exclaiming, -<i>Apachicta muchani!</i> “I worship or give thanks -at this heap.” Festivals lightened his days of -toil by their periodical recurrence, and certain -family ceremonials were also recognized as occasions -for holidays. There was a gathering at -the cradling of a child, called <i>quirau</i>. When -the child attained the age of one year, the <i>rutuchicu</i> -took place. Then he received the name -he was to retain until he attained the age of puberty. -The child was closely shorn, and the -name was given by the eldest relation. With a -girl the ceremony was called <i>quicuchica</i>, and -there was a fast of two days imposed before the -naming-day, when she assumed the dress called -<i>aucalluasu</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1213_1213" id="Footnote_1213_1213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1213_1213"><span class="label">[1213]</span></a></span> -The <i>tupu</i> was a measure of land sufficient -to support one man and his wife. It was the -unit of land measurement, and a <i>puric</i> received -<i>tupus</i> according to the number of those dependent -on him. In parts of Peru, especially on the -road from Tarma to Xauxa, these small square -fields, or <i>tupus</i>, may still be seen in great numbers, -divided by low stone walls.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1214_1214" id="Footnote_1214_1214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1214_1214"><span class="label">[1214]</span></a></span> -The shares for the <i>Inca</i> and <i>Huaca</i> varied -according to the requirements of the state. If -needful, the <i>Inca</i> share was increased at the expense -of the <i>Huaca</i>, but never at the expense of -the people’s share.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1215_1215" id="Footnote_1215_1215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1215_1215"><span class="label">[1215]</span></a></span> -From <i>Taripani</i>, I examine.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1216_1216" id="Footnote_1216_1216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1216_1216"><span class="label">[1216]</span></a></span> -It should probably be <i>Apunaca</i>: <i>Apu</i> is a -chief, and <i>naca</i> the plural suffix in the Colla dialect.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1217_1217" id="Footnote_1217_1217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1217_1217"><span class="label">[1217]</span></a></span> -<i>Hatun</i>, great, and <i>uilca</i>, sacred. This official -held a position equivalent to a Christian -bishop.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1218_1218" id="Footnote_1218_1218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1218_1218"><span class="label">[1218]</span></a></span> -[On the use of guano see Markham’s <i>Cieza -de Leon</i>, p. 266, note.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1219_1219" id="Footnote_1219_1219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1219_1219"><span class="label">[1219]</span></a></span> -[Max Steffen, in his <i>Die Landwirtschaft bei -den Altamerikanischen Kulturvölkern</i> (Leipzig, -1883), gives a list of sources.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1220_1220" id="Footnote_1220_1220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1220_1220"><span class="label">[1220]</span></a></span> -[The llamas were used in ploughing. Cf. -Humboldt’s <i>Views of Nature</i>, p. 125.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1221_1221" id="Footnote_1221_1221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1221_1221"><span class="label">[1221]</span></a></span> -A bronze instrument found at Sorata had -the following composition, according to an analysis -by David Forbes:—</p> - -<table id="tf2" summary="tf2"> - - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Copper</td> - <td class="tdr">88.05</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Tin</td> - <td class="tdr">11.42</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Iron</td> - <td class="tdr">.36</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Silver</td> - <td class="tdr">.17</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td rowspan="2"> </td> - <td class="tdr">–——</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="tdr">100.00</td> - </tr> - -</table> - -<p class="pfc4">Humboldt gave the composition of a bronze -instrument found at Vilcabamba as follows:—</p> - -<table id="tf3" summary="tf3"> - - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Copper</td> - <td class="tdr">94</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Tin</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td rowspan="2"> </td> - <td class="tdr">–—</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - -</table> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1222_1222" id="Footnote_1222_1222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1222_1222"><span class="label">[1222]</span></a></span> -<i>Fifteenth Report of the Trustees of the Peabody -Museum of Ethnology</i>, vol. iii. 2, p. 140 -(Cambridge, 1882).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1223_1223" id="Footnote_1223_1223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1223_1223"><span class="label">[1223]</span></a></span> -[Cf. the plates in the <i>Necropolis of Ancon</i>, -and De la Rada’s <i>Les Vases Péruviens du Musée -Archéologique de Madrid</i>, in the <i>Compte Rendu</i> -(p. 236) of the Copenhagen meeting of the Congrès -des Américanistes.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1224_1224" id="Footnote_1224_1224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1224_1224"><span class="label">[1224]</span></a></span> -It is believed that some of the heads on the -vases were intended as likenesses. One especially, -in a collection at Cuzco, is intended, according -to native tradition, for a portrait of -Rumi-ñaui, a character in the drama of Ollantay.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1225_1225" id="Footnote_1225_1225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1225_1225"><span class="label">[1225]</span></a></span> -<i>Prehistoric Man</i>, i. p. 110. A great number -of specimens of Peruvian pottery are given in -the works of Castelnau, Wiener, Squier, and in -the atlas of the <i>Antigüedades Peruanas</i>. [Cf. -also Marcoy’s <i>Voyage; Mémoires de la Soc. des -Antiquaires du Nord</i> (two plates); J. E. Price -in the <i>Anthropological Journal</i>, iii. 100, and -many of the books of Peruvian travel.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1226_1226" id="Footnote_1226_1226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1226_1226"><span class="label">[1226]</span></a></span> -[The narratives of the Spanish conquest necessarily throw much light, sometimes more than incidentally, -upon the earlier history of the region. These sources are characterized in the critical essay appended to -chapter viii. of Vol. II., and embrace bibliographical accounts of Herrera, Gomara, Oviedo, Andagoya, Xeres, -Fernandez, Oliva, not to name others of less moment.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1227_1227" id="Footnote_1227_1227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1227_1227"><span class="label">[1227]</span></a></span> -See Note II. following this essay.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1228_1228" id="Footnote_1228_1228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1228_1228"><span class="label">[1228]</span></a></span> -Vol. II. p. 573.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1229_1229" id="Footnote_1229_1229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1229_1229"><span class="label">[1229]</span></a></span> -Cf. Vol. II. p. 546.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1230_1230" id="Footnote_1230_1230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1230_1230"><span class="label">[1230]</span></a></span> -<i>Suma y narracion de los Incas, que los Indios llamaron Capaccuna que fueron señores de la ciudad del -Cuzco y de todo lo á ella subjeto. Publícala M. Jiménez de la Espada</i> (Madrid, 1880).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1231_1231" id="Footnote_1231_1231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1231_1231"><span class="label">[1231]</span></a></span> -We learn from Leon Pinelo that one of the famous band of adventurers who crossed the line drawn by -Pizarro on the sands of Gallo was an author (Antonio, ii. 645). But the <i>Relacion de la tierra que descubrió -Don Francisco Pizarro</i>, by Diego de Truxillo, remained in manuscript and is lost to us. Francisco de Chaves, -one of the most respected of the companions of Pizarro, who strove to save the life of Atahualpa, and was an -intimate friend of the Inca’s brother, was also an author. Chaves is honorably distinguished for his moderation -and humanity. He lost his own life in defending the staircase against the assassins of Pizarro. He left -behind a copious narrative, and his intimate relations with the Indians make it likely that it contained much -valuable information respecting Inca civilization. It was inherited by the author’s friend and relation, Luis -Valera, but it was never printed, and the manuscript is now lost. The works of Palomino, a companion of -Belalcazar, who wrote on the kingdom of Quito, are also lost, with the exception of a fragment preserved in -the <i>Breve Informe</i> of Las Casas. Other soldiers of the conquest, Tomas Vasquez, Francisco de Villacastin, -Garcia de Melo, and Alonso de Mesa, are mentioned as men who had studied and were learned in all matters -relating to Inca antiquities; but none of their writings have been preserved.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1232_1232" id="Footnote_1232_1232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1232_1232"><span class="label">[1232]</span></a></span> -But not dedicated to the Conde de Nieva, as Prescott states, for that viceroy died in 1564.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1233_1233" id="Footnote_1233_1233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1233_1233"><span class="label">[1233]</span></a></span> -B, 135.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1234_1234" id="Footnote_1234_1234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1234_1234"><span class="label">[1234]</span></a></span> -Report by Polo de Ondegardo, translated by Clements R. Markham (Hakluyt Society, 1873).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1235_1235" id="Footnote_1235_1235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1235_1235"><span class="label">[1235]</span></a></span> -[See Vol. II. p. 571.—<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1236_1236" id="Footnote_1236_1236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1236_1236"><span class="label">[1236]</span></a></span> -[See Vol. II. p. 567-8, for bibliography.—<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1237_1237" id="Footnote_1237_1237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1237_1237"><span class="label">[1237]</span></a></span> -[See Vol. II. p. 542.—<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1238_1238" id="Footnote_1238_1238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1238_1238"><span class="label">[1238]</span></a></span> -Additional MSS. 5469, British Museum, folio, p. 274. See Vol. II. p. 571.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1239_1239" id="Footnote_1239_1239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1239_1239"><span class="label">[1239]</span></a></span> -See <i>ante</i>, p. 6.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1240_1240" id="Footnote_1240_1240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1240_1240"><span class="label">[1240]</span></a></span> -National Library at Madrid, B, 135.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1241_1241" id="Footnote_1241_1241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1241_1241"><span class="label">[1241]</span></a></span> -<i>The fables and rites of the Incas, by Christoval de Molina</i>, translated and edited by Clements R. Markham -(Hakluyt Society, 1873).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1242_1242" id="Footnote_1242_1242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1242_1242"><span class="label">[1242]</span></a></span> -[See. Vol. II. p. 576.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1243_1243" id="Footnote_1243_1243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1243_1243"><span class="label">[1243]</span></a></span> -For the bibliography of Acosta, see Vol. II. p. 420, 421.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1244_1244" id="Footnote_1244_1244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1244_1244"><span class="label">[1244]</span></a></span> -Notices of the life and works of Acosta have been given in biographical dictionaries, and in histories of -the Jesuits. An excellent biography will be found in a work entitled <i>Los Antiquos Jesuitas del Peru</i>, by Don -Enrique Torres Saldamando, which was published at Lima in 1885. See also an introductory notice in Markham’s -edition (1880).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1245_1245" id="Footnote_1245_1245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1245_1245"><span class="label">[1245]</span></a></span> -Thus his lists of the Incas, of the names of months and of festivals, are very defective; and his list of -names of stars, though copied from Balboa without acknowledgment, is incomplete.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1246_1246" id="Footnote_1246_1246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1246_1246"><span class="label">[1246]</span></a></span> -Acosta was the chief source whence the civilized world of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, beyond -the limits of Spain, derived a knowledge of Peruvian civilization. Purchas, in his <i>Pilgrimage</i> (ed. of 1623, -lib. v. p. 869; vi. p. 931), quotes largely from the learned Jesuit, and an abstract of his work is given in Harris’s -<i>Voyages</i> (lib. i. cap. xiii. pp. 751-799). He is much relied upon as an authority by Robertson, and is quoted -19 times in Prescott’s <i>Conquest of Peru</i>, thus taking the fourth place as an authority with regard to that work, -since Garcilasso is quoted 89 times, Cieza de Leon 45, Ondegardo 41, Acosta 19.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1247_1247" id="Footnote_1247_1247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1247_1247"><span class="label">[1247]</span></a></span> -Of whose parentage a pleasing story is told. He was a native of Truxillo, of French parents, his father -being a metal-founder. When he was a small boy his father said to him, “Study, little Charles, study! and -this bell that I am founding shall be rung for you when you are the bishop.” (“Estudiar, Carlete, estudiar! -que con esta campana te han de repicar cuando seas obispo.”) Dr. Corni rose to be a prelate of great virtue -and erudition, and an eloquent preacher. At last he became Bishop of Truxillo in 1620, and when he heard -the chimes which were rung on his approach to the city, he said, “That bell which excels all the others was -founded by my father.” (“Aquella campana que sobresale entre las demas le fundio mi padre.”)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1248_1248" id="Footnote_1248_1248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1248_1248"><span class="label">[1248]</span></a></span> -<i>Papeles Varios de Indias.</i> MS. Brit. Mus.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1249_1249" id="Footnote_1249_1249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1249_1249"><span class="label">[1249]</span></a></span> -This last work is devoted to the Spanish conquest.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1250_1250" id="Footnote_1250_1250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1250_1250"><span class="label">[1250]</span></a></span> -In the series entitled <i>Coleccion de libros Españoles raros ó curiosos</i>, tom xvi. (Madrid, 1882.) [The original -manuscript is in the library of the Real Academia de Historia at Madrid. Brasseur de Bourbourg had a -copy (<i>Pinart Catalogue</i>, No. 638; <i>Bibl. Mex. Guat.</i>, p. 103), which appeared also in the Del Monte sale -(N. Y., June, 1888,—<i>Catalogue</i>, iii. no. 554). Cf. the present <i>History</i>, II. pp. 570, 577.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1251_1251" id="Footnote_1251_1251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1251_1251"><span class="label">[1251]</span></a></span> -<i>Relacion de las costumbres antiquas de los naturales del Peru. Anónima.</i> The original is among the -manuscript in the National Library at Madrid. It was published as part of a volume entitled <i>Tres Relaciones -de Antigüedades Peruanas</i>. <i>Publícalas el Ministerio de Fomento</i> (Madrid, 1879).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1252_1252" id="Footnote_1252_1252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1252_1252"><span class="label">[1252]</span></a></span> -<i>Narrative of the errors, false gods, and other superstitions and diabolical rites in which the Indians of -the province of Huarochiri lived in ancient times, collected by Dr. Francisco de Avila, 1608: translated and -edited by Clements R. Markham</i> (Hakluyt Society, 1872). [There was a copy of the Spanish MS. in the -E. G. Squier sale, 1876, no. 726.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1253_1253" id="Footnote_1253_1253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1253_1253"><span class="label">[1253]</span></a></span> -<i>Tratado de las idolatrias de los Indios del Peru.</i> This work is mentioned by Leon Pinelo as “una obra -grande y de mucha erudicion,” but it was never printed.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1254_1254" id="Footnote_1254_1254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1254_1254"><span class="label">[1254]</span></a></span> -<i>Contra idolatriam</i>, MS.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1255_1255" id="Footnote_1255_1255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1255_1255"><span class="label">[1255]</span></a></span> -<i>Extirpacion de la idolatria del Peru, por el Padre Pablo Joseph de Arriaga</i> (Lima, 1621, pp. 137).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1256_1256" id="Footnote_1256_1256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1256_1256"><span class="label">[1256]</span></a></span> -[See Vol. II. p. 570. The <i>Historiæ Pervanæ ordinis Eremitarum S. P. Augustini libri octodecim (1651-52)</i> -is mainly a translation of Calancha. Cf. Sabin, nos. 8760, 9870.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1257_1257" id="Footnote_1257_1257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1257_1257"><span class="label">[1257]</span></a></span> -<i>Historia de Copacabana y de su milagrosa imagen, escrita por el R. P. Fray Alonso Ramos Gavilan</i> -(1620). The work of Ramos was reprinted from an incomplete copy at La Paz in 1860, and edited by Fr. -Rafael Sans.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1258_1258" id="Footnote_1258_1258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1258_1258"><span class="label">[1258]</span></a></span> -<i>Origen de los Indios del Nuevo Mundo</i> (1607), and in Barcia (1729).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1259_1259" id="Footnote_1259_1259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1259_1259"><span class="label">[1259]</span></a></span> -<i>Monarquia de los Incas del Peru.</i> Antonio says of this work, “Tertium quod promiserat adhuc latet -nempe.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1260_1260" id="Footnote_1260_1260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1260_1260"><span class="label">[1260]</span></a></span> -<i>Historia general del Peru, origen y descendencia de los Incas, pueblos y ciudades, por P. Fr. Martin de -Múrua</i> (1618). [Cf. Markham’s <i>Cieza’s Travels</i>, Second Part, p. 12.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1261_1261" id="Footnote_1261_1261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1261_1261"><span class="label">[1261]</span></a></span> -He was a cousin of the poet of the same name, and of the dukes of Feria.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1262_1262" id="Footnote_1262_1262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1262_1262"><span class="label">[1262]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. pp. 290, 575.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1263_1263" id="Footnote_1263_1263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1263_1263"><span class="label">[1263]</span></a></span> -The <i>Commentarios Reales</i> (Part I.) of Garcilassos de la Vega contain 21 quotations from Blas Valera, 30 -from Cieza de Leon (first part), 27 from Acosta, 11 from Gomara, 9 from Zarate, 3 from the <i>Republica de las -Indias Occidentales</i> of Fray Geronimo Roman, 2 from Fernandez, 4 from the Inca’s schoolfellow Alcobasa, -and 1 from Juan Botero Benes.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1264_1264" id="Footnote_1264_1264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1264_1264"><span class="label">[1264]</span></a></span> -In a learned pamphlet on the word <i>Uirakocha</i>,—“<i>Lexicologia Keshua por Leonardo Villar</i>” (pp. 16, -double columns. Lima, 1887).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1265_1265" id="Footnote_1265_1265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1265_1265"><span class="label">[1265]</span></a></span> -[The common expression of distrust is such as is shown by Hutchinson in his <i>Two Years in Peru</i>, who -finds little to commend amid a constant glorification of the Incas to the prejudice of the older peoples; and by -Marcoy in his <i>Travels in South America</i>, who speaks of his “simple and audacious gasconades” (Eng. trans. -i. p. 186).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1266_1266" id="Footnote_1266_1266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1266_1266"><span class="label">[1266]</span></a></span> -Cf. the bibliography of the book in Vol. II. pp. 569, 570, 575.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1267_1267" id="Footnote_1267_1267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1267_1267"><span class="label">[1267]</span></a></span> -By Clements R. Markham, in 1872.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1268_1268" id="Footnote_1268_1268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1268_1268"><span class="label">[1268]</span></a></span> -[Cf. bibliog. of Herrera in Vol. II. pp. 67, 68.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1269_1269" id="Footnote_1269_1269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1269_1269"><span class="label">[1269]</span></a></span> -<i>Informaciones acerca del Señorio y Gobierno de los Ingas hechas, por mandado de Don Francisco de -Toledo Virey del Peru</i> (1570-72). Edited by Don Márcos Jiménez de la Espada, in the <i>Coleccion de libros -Españoles raros ó curiosos</i>, Tomo xvi. (Madrid, 1882).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1270_1270" id="Footnote_1270_1270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1270_1270"><span class="label">[1270]</span></a></span> -We first hear of Sarmiento in a memorial dated at Cuzco on March 4, 1572, in which he says that he was -the author of a history of the Incas, now lost. We further gather that, owing to having found out from the -records of the Incas that Tupac Inca Yupanqui discovered two islands in the South Sea, called <i>Ahuachumpi</i> -and <i>Ninachumpi</i>, Sarmiento sailed on an expedition to discover them at some time previous to 1564. Balboa -also mentions the tradition of the discovery of these islands by Tupac Yupanqui. Sarmiento seems to have -discovered islands which he believed to be those of the Inca, and in 1567 he volunteered to command the -expedition dispatched by Lope de Castro, then governor of Peru, to discover the Terra Australis. But Castro -gave the command to his own relation, Mandana. We learn, however, from the memorial of Sarmiento, that -he accompanied the expedition, and that the first land was discovered through shaping a course in accordance -with his advice. Sarmiento submitted a full report of this first voyage of Mandana, which is now lost, to the -Viceroy Toledo. In 1579, Sarmiento was sent to explore the Straits of Magellan. In 1586, on his way to -Spain, he was captured by an English ship belonging to Raleigh, and was entertained hospitably by Sir Walter -at Durham House until his ransom was collected. From the Spanish captive his host obtained much information -respecting Peru and its Incas. He could have no higher authority. One of the journals of the survey of -Magellan Straits by Sarmiento was published at Madrid in 1768: <i>Viage al estrecho de Magellanes: por el -Capitan Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, en los años 1579 y 1580</i>. See Vol. II. p. 616.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1271_1271" id="Footnote_1271_1271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1271_1271"><span class="label">[1271]</span></a></span> -[Cf. Vol. II. p. 571.]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1272_1272" id="Footnote_1272_1272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1272_1272"><span class="label">[1272]</span></a></span> -<i>Historia del Reino de Quito, en la America Meridional, escrita por el Presbitero Don Juan de Velasco -nativo de Mismo Reino, año de 1789.</i> A Spanish edition, <i>Quito, Imprenta del Gobierno</i>, 1844, 3 Tomos, -was printed from the manuscript, <i>Histoire du Royaume de Quito, por Don Juan de Velasco</i> (<i>inédite</i>,) vol. -ix. <i>Voyages, &c., par H. Ternaux Compans</i> (Paris, 1840). This version, however, covers only a part of -the work, of which the second volume only relates to the ancient history. [Cf. Vol. II. p. 576.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1273_1273" id="Footnote_1273_1273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1273_1273"><span class="label">[1273]</span></a></span> -[Cf. Vol. II. p. 578.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1274_1274" id="Footnote_1274_1274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1274_1274"><span class="label">[1274]</span></a></span> -[Cf. Vol. II. p. 577; Sabin’s <i>Dictionary</i>, xv. p. 439. The opinions of Prescott can be got at through -<i>Poole’s Index</i>, p. 993. H. H. Bancroft, <i>Chronicles</i>, 25, gives a characteristic estimate of Prescott’s archæological -labors. Prescott’s catalogue of his own library, with his annotations, is in the Boston Public Library, -no. 6334.27.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1275_1275" id="Footnote_1275_1275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1275_1275"><span class="label">[1275]</span></a></span> -Prescott quotes these four authorities 249 times, and all other early writers known to him (Herrera, Zarate, -Betanzos, Balboa, Montesinos, Pedro Pizarro, Fernandez, Gomara, Levinus Apollonius, Velasco, and the MS. -“Declaracion de la Audiencia”) 82 times.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1276_1276" id="Footnote_1276_1276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1276_1276"><span class="label">[1276]</span></a></span> -Calancha and a MS. letter of Valverde. He also refers several times to the <i>Antigüedades Peruanas</i> of -Tschudi and Rivero.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1277_1277" id="Footnote_1277_1277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1277_1277"><span class="label">[1277]</span></a></span> -<i>Spanish Conquest in America</i>, vol. iii. book xiii. chap. 3, pp. 468 to 513. [Cf. Vol. II. p. 578.]—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1278_1278" id="Footnote_1278_1278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1278_1278"><span class="label">[1278]</span></a></span> -It was translated into English as <i>Peruvian Antiquities</i>, by Dr. Francis L. Hawkes, of New York, in 1853. -[The English translation retained the woodcuts, but omitted the atlas. Cf. Field, <i>Ind. Bibliog.</i>, no. 1306; -Sabin, xvii. p. 319. There is a French edition, <i>Antiquités Péruviennes</i> (Paris, 1859). Dr. Tschudi later -published <i>Reisen durch Süd Amerika</i>, in five vols. (Leipzig, 1866-69), which was translated into English as -<i>Travels in Peru</i>, 1838-1842, and published in New York and London.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1279_1279" id="Footnote_1279_1279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1279_1279"><span class="label">[1279]</span></a></span> -<i>Los Anales del Cuzco, por Dr. Mesa</i> (Cuzco, 2 vols.).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1280_1280" id="Footnote_1280_1280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1280_1280"><span class="label">[1280]</span></a></span> -<i>Historia Antigua del Peru, por Sebastian Lorente</i> (Lima, 1860).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1281_1281" id="Footnote_1281_1281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1281_1281"><span class="label">[1281]</span></a></span> -<i>Historia de la civilizacion Peruana, Revista de Lima</i> (Lima, 1880).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1282_1282" id="Footnote_1282_1282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1282_1282"><span class="label">[1282]</span></a></span> -<i>Recuerdos de la Monarquia Peruana, ó Bosquejo de la historia de los Incas, por Dr. Justo Sahuaraura -Inca, Canonigo en la Catedral de Cuzco</i> (Paris, 1850).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1283_1283" id="Footnote_1283_1283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1283_1283"><span class="label">[1283]</span></a></span> -<i>Le Pérou avant la conquête espagnole, d’après les principaux historiens originaux et quelques documents -inédits sur les antiquités de ce pays</i> (Paris, 1858).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1284_1284" id="Footnote_1284_1284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1284_1284"><span class="label">[1284]</span></a></span> -<i>Geschichte der Amerikanischen Urreligionen, von J. G. Müller</i> (Basel, 1867).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1285_1285" id="Footnote_1285_1285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1285_1285"><span class="label">[1285]</span></a></span> -<i>Anthropologie der Naturvölker, von Dr. Theodor Waitz</i> (4 vols.) Leipzig, 1864.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1286_1286" id="Footnote_1286_1286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1286_1286"><span class="label">[1286]</span></a></span> -<i>Myths of the New World, a treatise on the symbolism and mythology of the Red Race of America, by -Daniel G. Brinton, M.D.</i> (New York, 1868). <i>Aboriginal American authors and their productions, especially -those in the native languages, by Daniel G. Brinton, M.D.</i> (Philadelphia, 1883). [Brinton’s writings, -however, in the main illustrate the antiquities north of Panama.]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1287_1287" id="Footnote_1287_1287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1287_1287"><span class="label">[1287]</span></a></span> -<i>Antiquarian, ethnological and other researches in New Granada, Equador, Peru, and Chile; with -observations on the Pre-Incarial, Incarial, and other monuments of Peruvian nations, by William Bollaert, -F.R.G.S.</i> (London, 1860). [Bollaert’s minor and periodical contributions, mainly embodied in his final work, -are numerous: <i>Contributions to an introduction to the Anthropology of the New World</i>. <i>Ancient Peruvian -graphic Records</i> (tr. in <i>Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France</i>, n. s., i.). <i>Observations on the history of the -Incas</i> (in the <i>Transactions Ethnological Soc.</i>, 1854).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1288_1288" id="Footnote_1288_1288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1288_1288"><span class="label">[1288]</span></a></span> -<i>Vues des Cordillères, ou Monumens des Peuples indigènes de l’Amérique</i> (Paris, 1810; in 8vo, 1816), -called in the English translation, <i>Researches concerning the institutions and monuments of the ancient inhabitants -of America, with descriptions and views of some of the most striking scenes in the Cordilleras</i>. <i>Transl. -into English by Helen Maria Williams</i> (London, 1814). <i>Voyage aux Régions équinoxiales du Nouveau -Continent fait en 1799-1804, avec deux Atlas</i>, 3 vols. 4to (Paris, 1814-25; and 8vo, 13 vols., 1816-31), called -in the English translation, <i>Personal narrative of travels to the equinoctial regions of America, 1799-1804, by -A. von Humboldt</i> [<i>and A. Bonpland</i>]: <i>translated and edited by Thomasina Ross</i> (Lond., 1852); and in earlier -versions by H. M. Williams (London, 1818-1829). [Humboldt’s later summarized expressions are found -in his <i>Ansichten der Natur</i> (Stuttgart, 1849; English tr., <i>Aspects of Nature</i>, by Mrs. Sabine, London and -Philad., 1849; and <i>Views of Nature</i>, by E. C. Otté, London, 1850). Current views of Humboldt’s American -studies can be tracked through <i>Poole’s Index</i>, p. 613.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1289_1289" id="Footnote_1289_1289"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1289_1289"><span class="label">[1289]</span></a></span> -Antonio Ulloa’s <i>Mémoires philosophiques, historiques, physiques, concernant le découverte de l’Amérique</i> -(Paris, 1787). <i>Voyage historique de l’Amérique Méridionale, fait par ordre du Roy d’Espagne; -ouvrage qui contient une histoire des Yncas du Pérou, et des observations astronomiques et physiques, faites -pour déterminer la figure et la grandeur de la terre</i> (Amsterdam, 1732). Or in the English translation, -<i>Voyage to South America by Don Jorge Juan and Don Antonio de Ulloa</i>, 2 vols. 8vo (London, 1758, 1772; -fifth ed. 1807). [Another of the savans in this scientific expedition was Charles M. La Condamine, and we -have his observations in his <i>Journal du Voyage fait à l’Equateur</i> (1751), and in a paper on the Peruvian -monuments in the Mémoires of the Berlin Academy (1746). Other early observers deserving brief mention -are Pedro de Madriga, whose account is appended to Admiral Jacques d’Heremite’s <i>Journael van de Nassausche -Vloot</i> (Amsterdam, 1652), and Amedée François Frezier’s <i>Voyage to the South Sea</i> (London, 1717).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1290_1290" id="Footnote_1290_1290"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1290_1290"><span class="label">[1290]</span></a></span> -<i>L’Homme Américain considéré sous ses Rapports Physiologiques et Moraux</i> (Paris, 1839). [He gives -a large ethnological map of South America. His book is separately printed from <i>Voyages dans l’Amérique -Meridionale</i> (9 vols.)—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1291_1291" id="Footnote_1291_1291"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1291_1291"><span class="label">[1291]</span></a></span> -<i>Expédition dans les parties centrales de l’Amérique de Sud, exécutée par ordre du Gouvernement Français -pendant les annees 1843 à 1847. Troisième partie, Antiquités des Incas</i> (4to, Paris, 1854).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1292_1292" id="Footnote_1292_1292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1292_1292"><span class="label">[1292]</span></a></span> -<i>Pérou et Bolivie, Récit de voyage suivi d’études archéologiques et ethnographiques et de notes sur l’écriture -et les langues des populations Indiennes. Ouvrage contenant plus de 1100 gravures, 27 cartes et 18 -plans, par Charles Wiener</i> (Paris, 1880). [Wiener earlier published two monographs: <i>Notice sur le communisme -des Incas</i> (Paris, 1874); <i>Essai sur les institutions politiques, religieuses, économiques et sociales de -l’Empire des Incas</i> (Paris, 1874).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1293_1293" id="Footnote_1293_1293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1293_1293"><span class="label">[1293]</span></a></span> -<i>Uira-cocha, por Leonardo Villar</i> (Lima, 1887).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1294_1294" id="Footnote_1294_1294"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1294_1294"><span class="label">[1294]</span></a></span> -<i>Cuzco and Lima</i> (London, 1856).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1295_1295" id="Footnote_1295_1295"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1295_1295"><span class="label">[1295]</span></a></span> -<i>Travels in Peru and India while superintending the collection of chinchona plants and seeds in South -America, and their introduction into India</i> (London, 1862). [Cf. Field’s <i>Indian Bibliog.</i> for notes on Mr. -Markham’s book. He epitomizes the accounts of Peruvian antiquities in his <i>Peru</i> (London, 1880), of the -“Foreign Countries Series.” Cf. Vol. II. p. 578.]—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1296_1296" id="Footnote_1296_1296"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1296_1296"><span class="label">[1296]</span></a></span> -<i>Peru, Incidents of travel and exploration in the land of the Incas</i> (N. Y. 1877; London, 1877). [Squier -was sent to Peru on a diplomatic mission by the United States government in 1863, and this service rendered, -he gave two years to exploring the antiquities of the country. His <i>Peru</i> embodies various separate studies, -which he had previously contributed to the <i>Journal of the American Geographical Society</i> (vol. iii. 1870-71); -the <i>American Naturalist</i> (vol. iv. 1870); <i>Harper’s Monthly</i> (vols. vii., xxxvi., xxxvii.). He contributed -“Quelques remarques sur la géographie et les monuments du Pérou” to the <i>Bulletin de la Société de géographie -de Paris</i>, Jan., 1868. A list of Squier’s publications is appended to the Sale <i>Catalogue</i> of his Library -(N. Y., 1876), which contains a list of his MSS., most of which, it is believed, passed into the collection of H. -H. Bancroft. Mr. Squier’s closing years were obscured by infirmity; he died in 1888.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1297_1297" id="Footnote_1297_1297"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1297_1297"><span class="label">[1297]</span></a></span> -[Among the recent travellers, mention may be made of a few of various interests: Edmund Temple’s -<i>Travels in Peru</i> (Lond., 1830); Thomas Sutcliffe’s <i>Sixteen Years in Chili and Peru</i> (Lond., 1841); S. S. -Hill’s <i>Travels in Peru and Mexico</i> (Lond., 1860); Thos. J. Hutchinson’s <i>Two Years in Peru</i> (with papers -on prehistoric anthropology in the <i>Anthropological Journal</i>, iv. 438, and “Some Fallacies about the Incas,” -in the <i>Proc. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of Liverpool</i>, 1873-74, p. 121); Marcoy’s <i>Voyage</i>, first in the <i>Tour du Monde</i>, -1863-64, and then separately in French, and again in English; E. Pertuiset’s <i>Le Trésor des Incas</i> (Paris, -1877); and Comte d’Ursel’s <i>Sud-Amérique</i>, 2d ed. (Paris, 1879). F. Hassaurek, in his <i>Four Years among -Spanish Americans</i> (N. Y., 1867), epitomizes in his ch. xvi. the history of Quito.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1298_1298" id="Footnote_1298_1298"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1298_1298"><span class="label">[1298]</span></a></span> -<i>Intellectual Observer</i>, May, 1863 (London).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1299_1299" id="Footnote_1299_1299"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1299_1299"><span class="label">[1299]</span></a></span> -<i>Riquezas Peruanas</i> (Lima, 1884).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1300_1300" id="Footnote_1300_1300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1300_1300"><span class="label">[1300]</span></a></span> -<i>The temple of the Andes, by Richards Inwards</i> (London, 1884). [Mr. Markham has also had occasion to -speak of these ruins in annotating his edition of Cieza de Leon, p. 374. There is a privately printed book by -L. Angrand, <i>Antiquités Américaines: lettres sur les antiquités de Tiaguanaco, et l’origine présumable -de la plus ancienne civilisation du Haut-Pérou</i> (Paris, 1866).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1301_1301" id="Footnote_1301_1301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1301_1301"><span class="label">[1301]</span></a></span> -This superb work was issued at Berlin and London with German and English texts. The English title -reads, <i>Peruvian Antiquities: the Necropolis of Ancon in Peru. A contribution to our knowledge of the culture -and industries of the empire of the Incas. Being the results of excavations made on the spot.</i> Translated -by A. H. Keane. With the aid of the general administration of the royal museums of Berlin (Berlin, -1880-87); in three folio volumes, with 119 colored and plain plates. The divisions are: 1. The Necropolis and -its graves. 2. Garments and textiles. 3. Ornaments, utensils, earthenware; evolution of ornamentation, with -treatises by L. Wittmack on the plants found in the graves; R. Virchow on the human remains, and A. Nehring -on the animals. [A few of the plates are reproduced in black and white in Ruge’s <i>Geschichte des Zeitalters -der Entdeckungen</i>. The authors represent that the graveyard of Ancon, an obscure place lying near the -coast, north of Lima, was probably the burial-place of a poor people; but its obscurity has saved it to us while -important places have been ransacked and destroyed. The reader will be struck with the richness of the woven -materials, which are so strikingly figured in the plates. On this point Stübel published in Dresden in 1888, as -a part of the <i>Festschrift</i> of the twenty-fifth anniversary of the “Verein für Erdkunde,” a paper <i>Ueber altperuanische -Gewebemuster und ihnen analoge Ornamente der altklassischen Kunst</i> (Dresden, 1888). Some of -the plates in the larger work impress one with the great variety of ornamenting skill. The collection formed by -John H. Blake from an ancient cemetery on the bay of Chacota, now in the Peabody Museum at Cambridge, -Mass., is described in the <i>Reports</i> of that institution, xi. 195, 277. Reference may also be made to B. M. -Wright’s <i>Description of the collection of gold ornaments from the “huacas,” or graves of some aboriginal -races of the northwestern provinces of South America, belonging to Lady Brassey</i> (London, 1885).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1302_1302" id="Footnote_1302_1302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1302_1302"><span class="label">[1302]</span></a></span> -Antonio Raimondi. <i>El Peru. Tomo I. Parte Preliminar, 4to, pp. 444</i> (Lima, 1874). <i>Tomo II. Historia -de la Geografia del Peru, 4to, pp. 475</i> (Lima, 1876). <i>Tomo III. Historia de la Geografia del Peru, -4to, pp. 614</i> (Lima, 1880).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1303_1303" id="Footnote_1303_1303"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1303_1303"><span class="label">[1303]</span></a></span> -<i>Voyages, Relations et Mémoires Originaux pour servir à l’Histoire de la Découverte de l’Amérique</i>, 20 -vols. in 10, 8vo (Paris, 1837-41). See Vol. II., introd. p. vi.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1304_1304" id="Footnote_1304_1304"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1304_1304"><span class="label">[1304]</span></a></span> -[Among less important or more general later writers on this ancient civilization may be mentioned: -Charles Labarthe’s <i>La Civilisation péruvienne avant l’arrivée des Espagnols (Archives de la Soc. Amér. de -France</i>, n. s., i.), and his paper from the <i>Annuaire Ethnographique</i>, on the “Documents inédits sur l’empire -des Incas” (Paris, 1861); Rudolf Falb’s <i>Das Land der Inca in seiner Bedeutung für die Urgeschichte -der Sprache und Schrift</i> (Leipzig, 1883); Lieut. G. M. Gilliss, in Schoolcraft’s <i>Ind. Tribes</i>, v. 657; Dr. Macedo’s -comparison of the Inca and Aztec civilizations in the <i>Proc. of the Numism. and Antiq. Soc.</i> (Philad. -1883); Vicomte Th. de Bussière’s <i>Le Pérou</i> (Paris, 1863); beside chapters in such comprehensive works as -those of Nadaillac, Ruge, Baldwin, Wilson (<i>Prehistoric Man</i>), and the papers of Castaing and others in the -<i>Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France</i>, and an occasional paper in the <i>Journals</i> of the American and other -geographical and ethnological societies. Current English comment is reached through <i>Poole’s Index</i>, pp. 627, -992.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1305_1305" id="Footnote_1305_1305"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1305_1305"><span class="label">[1305]</span></a></span> -[Humboldt (<i>Views of Nature</i>, 235) points out that the -name Chimborazo is probably a relic of this earlier tongue.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1306_1306" id="Footnote_1306_1306"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1306_1306"><span class="label">[1306]</span></a></span> -[Wiener, <i>Pérou et Bolivie</i>, p. 98, gives a plan of the -neighborhood of Truxillo, showing the position “du Gran -Chimu,” and an enlarged plan of the ruins.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1307_1307" id="Footnote_1307_1307"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1307_1307"><span class="label">[1307]</span></a></span> -Squier, 210.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1308_1308" id="Footnote_1308_1308"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1308_1308"><span class="label">[1308]</span></a></span> -[There are two or three Peruvian periodicals of some -importance for their archæological papers. The <i>Mercurio -Peruano de Historia, Literatura y Noticias publicas que -da a luz la Sociedad Academica de Amantes de Lima</i> -(Lima, 1791-1795), appeared in twelve volumes. It is often -defective, and the Spanish government finally interdicted it, -as it was considered revolutionary in principle. It was edited -at one time by the Père Cisneros. There is a set in -Harvard College library.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The <i>Revista Peruana</i> (Lima) has been the channel of -some important archæological contributions. Others appeared -in the <i>Museo Erudito, o los Tiempos y las Costumbres</i> -(Cuzco, 1837, etc.)—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1309_1309" id="Footnote_1309_1309"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1309_1309"><span class="label">[1309]</span></a></span> -Squier.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1310_1310" id="Footnote_1310_1310"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1310_1310"><span class="label">[1310]</span></a></span> -I do not now believe that the idolatrous practices and -legends, preserved by Arriaga and Avila, had any connection -with the <i>Chimu</i> race.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1311_1311" id="Footnote_1311_1311"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1311_1311"><span class="label">[1311]</span></a></span> -<i>Grammatica o Arte de la lengua general de los Indios -de los Reynos del Peru, nuevamente compuesta por el -Maestro Fray Domingo de S. Thomas de la orden de S. -Domingo, Morador en los dichos reynos. Impresso en -Valladolid por Francisco Fernandez de Cordova, 1560. -Lexicon ó Vocabulario de la lengua general del Peru, -llamada Quichua</i> (Valladolid, 1560). The grammar and -vocabulary are usually bound up together. [The two were -priced respectively by Leclerc, in 1878, at 2,500 and 600 -francs.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> -<p class="pfc4">The grammar and vocabulary of San Tomas were reprinted -at Lima in 1586 by Antonio Ricardo. In the list -given by Rivero and Von Tschudi (<i>Antigüedades Peruanas</i>, -p. 99), the printer Ricardo is entered as the author of this -Lima edition of San Tomas.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1312_1312" id="Footnote_1312_1312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1312_1312"><span class="label">[1312]</span></a></span> -<i>Grammatica y Vocabulario en la lengua general del -Peru llamada Quichua por Diego de Torres Rubio S. S.</i> -(Seville, 1603). This original edition is of great rarity. -Quaritch, in 1885, asked £20 for a defective copy.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p> -<p class="pfc4">A second edition was printed at Lima in 1619; and a third -in 1700. To this third edition a vocabulary was added of -the Chinchaysuyu dialect, by Juan de Figueredo. A fourth -edition was published at Lima in 1754, also containing the -Chinchaysuyu vocabulary, which is spoken in the north of -Peru. [For this 1754 edition see Leclerc, no. 2409. It is -worth about $50.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1313_1313" id="Footnote_1313_1313"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1313_1313"><span class="label">[1313]</span></a></span> -<i>Vocabulario de la Lengua general de todo el Peru -llamada lengua Quichua ó del Inca.</i> En la ciudad de los -Reyes, 1586. Second edition printed by Francisco del -Canto, 1607 (2 vols. 4to). [Leclerc (no. 2401), in 1879, -priced this ed. at 2,000 francs; Quaritch, a defective copy, -£21.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1314_1314" id="Footnote_1314_1314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1314_1314"><span class="label">[1314]</span></a></span> -<i>Gramatica y Arte nueva de la lengua general de todo -el Peru llamada lengua Quichua o Lengua del Inca por -Diego Gonzales Holguin de la Compañia de Jesus, natural -de Caceres Impresso en la Ciudad de los Reyes del Peru, -por Francisco del Canto, 1607.</i> [Leclerc, 1879, no. 2402, -500 francs.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>] A second edition was published at -Lima in 1842.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1315_1315" id="Footnote_1315_1315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1315_1315"><span class="label">[1315]</span></a></span> -<i>Arte y gramatica muy copiosa de la lengua Aymará -con muchos y variados modos de hablar</i> (Roma, 1603).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1316_1316" id="Footnote_1316_1316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1316_1316"><span class="label">[1316]</span></a></span> -<i>Arte de la lengua Aymará con una selva de frases en -la misma lengua y su declaracion en romance. Impresso -en la casa de in Compañia de Jesus de Juli en la provincia -de Chucuyto. Por Francisco del Canto, 1612.</i> pp. 348.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1317_1317" id="Footnote_1317_1317"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1317_1317"><span class="label">[1317]</span></a></span> -<i>Vocabulario de la lengua Aymara, Juli 1612</i>, Spanish -and Aymara, pp. 420, Aymara and Spanish, pp. 378. [Priced -by Quaritch in 1885 at £60; by Leclerc in 1879 at 2,000 -francs.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1318_1318" id="Footnote_1318_1318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1318_1318"><span class="label">[1318]</span></a></span> -<i>Arte de la lengua general del’ ynga llamada Quechhua</i> -(Lima, 1691). Leclerc, 1879. 250 francs.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1319_1319" id="Footnote_1319_1319"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1319_1319"><span class="label">[1319]</span></a></span> -<i>Arte de la lengua Yunga de los valles del Obispado de -Truxillo, con un confesionario, y todos las ovaciones cristianas -y otras casas. Autor el beneficiado Don Fernando -de la Carrera Cura y Vicario de San Martin de Reque -en el corregimiento de Chiclayo</i> (Lima, 1644).</p> -<p class="pfc4">This work is extremely rare. Only three copies are -known to exist, one in the library at Madrid, one in the -British Museum, which belonged to M. Ternaux Compans, -and one in possession of Dr. Villar, in Peru. A copy was -made for William von Humboldt from the British Museum -copy, which is now in the library at Berlin.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The <i>Arte de la lengua Yunga</i> was reprinted in numbers -of the <i>Revista de Lima</i> in 1880, under the editorial supervision -of Dr. Gonzalez de la Rosa.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1320_1320" id="Footnote_1320_1320"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1320_1320"><span class="label">[1320]</span></a></span> -<i>Sermones de los misterios de nuestra Santa Fé catolica, -en lengua Castellana, y la general del Inca. Impugnanse -los errores particulares que los Indios han tenido, -por el Doctor Don Fernando de Avendaño, 1648.</i> Rivero -and Von Tschudi give some extracts from these sermons in -the <i>Antigüedades Peruanas</i>, p. 108.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1321_1321" id="Footnote_1321_1321"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1321_1321"><span class="label">[1321]</span></a></span> -<i>Rituale seu Manuale Peruanum juxta ordinem -Sanctæ Romanæ Ecclesiæ, per R. P. F. Ludovicum -Hieronymum Orerum</i> (Neapoli, 1607).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1322_1322" id="Footnote_1322_1322"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1322_1322"><span class="label">[1322]</span></a></span> -Carter-Brown, ii. 7.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1323_1323" id="Footnote_1323_1323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1323_1323"><span class="label">[1323]</span></a></span> -<i>Primera parte de la miscelanea austral de Don Diego -D’Avalos y Figueroa ex varias coloquias, interlocutores -Delia y Cilena, con la defensa de Danias. Impreso en -Lima por Antonio Ricardo, año 1602.</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1324_1324" id="Footnote_1324_1324"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1324_1324"><span class="label">[1324]</span></a></span> -<i>Die Kechua Sprache, I.</i>; <i>Sprachlehre, II.</i>; <i>Wörterbuch, -von J. J. Von Tschudi</i> (Wien, 1853).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1325_1325" id="Footnote_1325_1325"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1325_1325"><span class="label">[1325]</span></a></span> -<i>Gramatica y Diccionario de la lengua general de -Peru, llamada comunmuente Quichua, por el R. P. Fr. -Honorio Mossi, Misionero Apostolico del colejio de propaganda -fide de la ciudad de Potosi</i> (Sucre, 1859). [An -earlier <i>Gramática y Ensayo</i> was published at Sucre in 1857. -Leclerc says it has become very rare.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1326_1326" id="Footnote_1326_1326"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1326_1326"><span class="label">[1326]</span></a></span> -<i>Gramatica Quichua o del idioma del Imperio de los -Incas, por José Dionisio Anchorena</i> (Lima, 1874).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1327_1327" id="Footnote_1327_1327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1327_1327"><span class="label">[1327]</span></a></span> -<i>Elementos de Gramatica Quichua ó idioma de los -Yncas por el Dr. José Fernandez Nodal.</i> The book was -printed in England in 1874.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1328_1328" id="Footnote_1328_1328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1328_1328"><span class="label">[1328]</span></a></span> -<i>El Evangelio de Jesu Christo segun San Lucas en -Aymara y Español, traducido de la vulgata Latin al -Aymará por Don Vicente Pazos-kanki, Doctor de la -Universidad del Cuzco e Individuo de la Sociedad Historica -de Nueva York</i> (Londres, 1829).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1329_1329" id="Footnote_1329_1329"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1329_1329"><span class="label">[1329]</span></a></span> -<i>Apunchis Santa Yoancama Ehuangeliun, Quichua -cayri Ynca siminpi quillkcasca. El Santo Evangelio de -Nuestro Señor Jesu-Christo segun San Juan, traducido -del original a la lengua Quichua o del Ynca; por el Rev. -J. H. Gybbon Spilsbury, Buenos Aires, 1880.</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1330_1330" id="Footnote_1330_1330"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1330_1330"><span class="label">[1330]</span></a></span> -<i>Les Races Aryennes du Pérou, leur langue, leur religion, -leur histoire, par Vicente Fidel Lopez</i> (Paris et Montevideo, -1871). [Lopez’s book was subjected to an examination -by Lucien Adam, in a paper, “Le Quichua, est il une -langue aryenne?” in the Luxembourg <i>Compte-Rendu du -Congrés des Américanistes</i>, ii. 75. Cf. <i>Macmillan’s Mag.</i>, -xxvii. 424, by A. Lang.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1331_1331" id="Footnote_1331_1331"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1331_1331"><span class="label">[1331]</span></a></span> -<i>Peruvia Scythica. The Quichua language of Peru: -its derivation from Central Asia, with the American -languages in general, and with the Turanian and Iberian -languages of the Old World, including the Basque, the -Llycian, and the Pre-Aryan language of Etruria; by -Robert Ellis, B. D.</i> (Trübner & Co., London, 1875).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1332_1332" id="Footnote_1332_1332"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1332_1332"><span class="label">[1332]</span></a></span> -<i>Ollanta: ein Altperuanisches Drama aus der Kechuasprache, -übersetzt und commentirt von J. J. von Tschudi</i> -(Wien, 1875).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1333_1333" id="Footnote_1333_1333"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1333_1333"><span class="label">[1333]</span></a></span> -<i>Ollanta, an ancient Inca Drama</i>, by Clements R. -Markham (London, 1871).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1334_1334" id="Footnote_1334_1334"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1334_1334"><span class="label">[1334]</span></a></span> -<i>Ollanta o sea la severidad de un padre y la clemencia -de un rey drama traducido del Quichua al Castellano -por José S. Barranca</i> (Lima, 1868).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1335_1335" id="Footnote_1335_1335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1335_1335"><span class="label">[1335]</span></a></span> -<i>Ollanta por Constantino Carrasco</i> (Lima, 1876).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1336_1336" id="Footnote_1336_1336"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1336_1336"><span class="label">[1336]</span></a></span> -<i>Los vinculos de Ollanta y Cusi Kcoyllor, Drama en -Quichua. José Fernandez Nodal.</i> Dr. Nodal commenced, -but never completed, an English translation.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1337_1337" id="Footnote_1337_1337"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1337_1337"><span class="label">[1337]</span></a></span> -<i>Collection Linguistique Americaine. Tome iv. Ollanaï, -drama en vers Quechuas du temps des Incas traduit -et commenté, par Gavino Pacheco Zegarra</i> (Paris, -1878), pp. clxxiv and 265.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1338_1338" id="Footnote_1338_1338"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1338_1338"><span class="label">[1338]</span></a></span> -<i>Ollantay. Estudio sobre el drama Quichua, por -Bartolomé Mitre, publicada en la Nueva Revista de Buenos -Ayres</i> (1881).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1339_1339" id="Footnote_1339_1339"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1339_1339"><span class="label">[1339]</span></a></span> -<i>Poesia Dramatica de los Incas. Ollantay, por Clemente -R. Markham traducido del Ingles por Adolfo -F. Olivares, y seguido de una carta critica del Dr. Don -Vicente Fidel Lopez</i> (Buenos Ayres, 1883).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1340_1340" id="Footnote_1340_1340"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1340_1340"><span class="label">[1340]</span></a></span> -See Vol. IV. p. 141.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1341_1341" id="Footnote_1341_1341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1341_1341"><span class="label">[1341]</span></a></span> -A most graphic and picturesque account of -the ceremonies attending the process of adoption -is given in the <i>Narrative of the Captivity of -Col. James Smith</i>. He was taken prisoner, in -May, 1755, by two Delaware Indians, and carried -to Fort Duquesne. He describes the methods -of the men and the women in an Indian town -by which he was adopted as one of the Caughnewagos. -He shared the life and rovings of the -tribe till 1760, when he got back to his home; -accompanied Bouquet as a guide; was colonel -of a regiment in our Revolutionary War, and -afterwards a member of the Kentucky legislature. -Here certainly was a varied career.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1342_1342" id="Footnote_1342_1342"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1342_1342"><span class="label">[1342]</span></a></span> -Governor Colden says that when he first -went among the Mohawks he was adopted by -them. The name given to him was “Cayenderogue,” -which was borne by an old sachem, a -notable warrior. He writes: “I thought no -more of it at that time than as an artifice to draw -a belly-full of strong liquor from me for himself -and his companions. But when, about ten or -twelve years after, my business led me among -them,” he was recognized by the name, and it -served him in good stead. (<i>Hist. of Five Nats.</i>, -3d ed., i. p. 11.) The savages always took the -liberty of assigning names of their own, either -general or individual, to the Europeans with -whom they had intercourse. The governor of -Canada, for the time being, was called “Onontio”; -of New York, “Corlear”; of Virginia, -“Assarigoa”; of Pennsylvania, “Onas,” etc. -At a council of the Six Nations with the governors -of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Maryland, -held at Lancaster in June, 1744, it came under -notice that the governor of Maryland had as -yet no appellation assigned him by the natives. -Much formality was used in providing one for -him. It was tried by lot as to which of the -tribes should have the honor of naming him. -The lot fell to the Cayugas, one of whose chiefs, -after solemn deliberation, assigned the name -“To-carryhogan.” (Colden, ii. p. 89.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1343_1343" id="Footnote_1343_1343"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1343_1343"><span class="label">[1343]</span></a></span> -From Archives of Massachusetts, vol. lxviii. -p. 193:—</p> -<p class="pfc4">“For the Indian Sagamores, and people that -are in warre against us.</p> -<p class="pfc4">“Inteligence is Come to us that you haue some -English (especially weomen and children) in -Captivity among you. Wee haue therefore sent -this messenger, offering to redeeme them either -for payment in goods or wompom; or by exchange -of prisoners. Wee desire your answer -by this our messinger, what price you demand -for euery man woman and child, or if you will -exchainge for Indians: if you haue any among -you that can write your Answer to this our messuage, -we desire it in writting, and to that end -haue sent paper, pen and Incke by the messenger. -If you lett our messenger haue free -accesse to you and freedome of a safe returne: -Wee are willing to doe the like by any messenger -of yours. Prouided he come vnarmed and Carry -a white flagg Vpon a Staffe vissible to be seene: -which we calle a flagg of truce: and is used by -Civil nations in time of warre when any messingers -are sent in a way of treaty: which wee haue -done by our messenger.</p> -<p class="pfc4">“Boston 31th of March 1676 -past by the Council E. R. S. & -was signed</p> -<p class="pfc4">“In testimony whereof I haue set to my hand -& Seal.</p> -<p class="pfr6">F. L. Gov.”</p> -<p class="pfc4">(From <i>N. E. Hist. and Gen. Register</i>, Jan’y, -1885, pp. 79, 80.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1344_1344" id="Footnote_1344_1344"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1344_1344"><span class="label">[1344]</span></a></span> -<i>Dinwiddie Papers</i>, ii. p. 426.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1345_1345" id="Footnote_1345_1345"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1345_1345"><span class="label">[1345]</span></a></span> -Quoted in Parkman’s <i>Montcalm and Wolfe</i>, i. p. 297.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1346_1346" id="Footnote_1346_1346"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1346_1346"><span class="label">[1346]</span></a></span> -Margry, v. 135-250.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1347_1347" id="Footnote_1347_1347"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1347_1347"><span class="label">[1347]</span></a></span> -By the treaty at Lancaster, the Indians covenanted -to cede to the English, for goods of the -money value of £400, the lands between the Alleghanies -and the Ohio. See our Vol. V. 566.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1348_1348" id="Footnote_1348_1348"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1348_1348"><span class="label">[1348]</span></a></span> -These treaties are fully presented, with all -the harangues, by Colden, vol. ii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1349_1349" id="Footnote_1349_1349"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1349_1349"><span class="label">[1349]</span></a></span> -The most capable and intelligent interpreter -employed by the English for a long period, and -who served at the councils for negotiating the -most important treaties of this time, was Conrad -Weiser. He came with his family from -Germany in 1710, and settled at Schoharie, -N. Y. His ability and integrity won him the -confidence alike of the Indians and the English. -In the <i>Collections of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania</i>, -vol. i. pp. 1-34, are autobiographical, -personal, and narrative papers and journals by -this remarkable man, equally characterized by -the boldest spirit of adventure and by an ardent -piety. He gives in full his journal of his mission -from the governments of Pennsylvania and -Virginia to negotiate with the Six Nations in -1737. [See Vol. V. 566.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1350_1350" id="Footnote_1350_1350"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1350_1350"><span class="label">[1350]</span></a></span> -Mahon’s <i>England</i>, ch. 35, and Smollett’s <i>England</i>, Book iii. ch. 9.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1351_1351" id="Footnote_1351_1351"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1351_1351"><span class="label">[1351]</span></a></span> -Governor Dinwiddie, in urging the assembly -of Virginia, in 1756, to active war measures, -warned them of the alternative of “giving up -your Liberty for Slavery, the purest Religion for -the grossest Idolatry and Superstition, the legal -and mild Government of a Protestant King for -the Arbitrary Exactions and heavy Oppressions -of a Popish Tyrant.” (<i>Dinwiddie Papers</i>, ii. p. -515.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1352_1352" id="Footnote_1352_1352"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1352_1352"><span class="label">[1352]</span></a></span> -In Mr. Parkman’s <i>Montcalm and Wolfe</i>, i. -p. 65 and on, is a lively account of the busy -zeal of Father Piquet in making and putting to -service savage converts of the sort described in -the text. [See Vol. V. 571.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1353_1353" id="Footnote_1353_1353"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1353_1353"><span class="label">[1353]</span></a></span> -The excellent James Logan, who came over -as secretary to William Penn, and who always -claimed to be a consistent member of the Society -of Friends, took an exception to a position on -one point,—that of maintaining the right, and -even obligation, of defensive warfare. A letter of -very cogent argument to this effect was addressed -by him to the Society of Friends in 1741, remonstrating -with them for their opposition in the -legislature to means for defending the colony. -<i>Collections of Historl. Soc. of Penns.</i>, i. p. 36. [See -Vol V. p. 243.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1354_1354" id="Footnote_1354_1354"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1354_1354"><span class="label">[1354]</span></a></span> -It was but a repetition of the passions and -jealousies of the colonists of Massachusetts, as -maddened by the devastation inflicted upon -them in King Philip’s war, when they themselves -broke up the settlements, then under -hopeful promise, of “Praying Indians,” at Natick -and other villages, the fruits of the devoted -labors of the Apostle Eliot. The occasion of -this dispersion and severe watch over the Indian -converts was a jealousy that they had been -warmed in the bosom of a weak pity merely -for a deadly use of their fangs.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1355_1355" id="Footnote_1355_1355"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1355_1355"><span class="label">[1355]</span></a></span> -[See Vol. V. 240.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1356_1356" id="Footnote_1356_1356"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1356_1356"><span class="label">[1356]</span></a></span> -<i>Spotswood Papers</i>, published by the Virginia Historical Society. [The events of this period -are followed in our Vol. V.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1357_1357" id="Footnote_1357_1357"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1357_1357"><span class="label">[1357]</span></a></span> -The official papers are given in full by Colden, -who adds a very able memorial of his own, -in favor of the act, addressed to Governor Burnet, -in 1724. It was estimated that the Indian -trade of New York increased fivefold in twelve -years.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1358_1358" id="Footnote_1358_1358"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1358_1358"><span class="label">[1358]</span></a></span> -[See Vol. V. 530, 575.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1359_1359" id="Footnote_1359_1359"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1359_1359"><span class="label">[1359]</span></a></span> -Appendix V to the <i>Ohio Valley Historical Series</i>, edition of <i>Bouquet’s Expedition</i> (Cincinnati, -1868).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1360_1360" id="Footnote_1360_1360"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1360_1360"><span class="label">[1360]</span></a></span> -It is estimated that not less than two hundred -of these scattered traders, who had confidently -ventured into the wilderness on the -assurance of the treaty, were massacred, after -being plundered of goods of more than a hundred -thousand pounds in value.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1361_1361" id="Footnote_1361_1361"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1361_1361"><span class="label">[1361]</span></a></span> -[The events of the Pontiac war can be followed -in Vol. V.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1362_1362" id="Footnote_1362_1362"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1362_1362"><span class="label">[1362]</span></a></span> -The bibliography of the subject is nowhere exhaustively done. The <i>Proof-sheets</i> of Pilling as a tentative -effort, and his later divisionary sections, devoted to the Eskimo, Siouan, and other stocks, though primarily -framed for their linguistic bearing, are the chief help; and these guides can be supplemented by Field’s Indian -<i>Bibliography</i>, the references for anonymous books in Sabin’s <i>Dictionary</i> (ix. p. 86), and sections in many -catalogues of public and private libraries, like the Brinley (iii. 5, 352 etc.), devoted wholly or in part to Americana, -and the foot-notes and authorities given in Parkman, H. H. Bancroft, and many others.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1363_1363" id="Footnote_1363_1363"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1363_1363"><span class="label">[1363]</span></a></span> -Parkman’s merits as a historian are elsewhere recognized in the present history. See Vols. II., IV., and -V. He first gave his summary of Indian character in the introductory chapter of his first historical book, his -<i>Pontiac</i>. He later completed it in papers in the <i>North Amer. Rev.</i>, July, 1865, and July, 1866, and finally in -the introduction to his <i>Jesuits</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1364_1364" id="Footnote_1364_1364"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1364_1364"><span class="label">[1364]</span></a></span> -This class of material, including the <i>Lettres Edifiantes</i>, has been examined in our Vol. IV. 292, 296, -316, etc. Cf. Shea’s <i>Charlevoix</i>, i. 88; <i>Glorias del segundo siglo de la compañia de Jesus, 1646-1730</i> (Madrid, -1734).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Parkman calls Brébœuf the best observer among the Jesuits. On their missions see <i>Revue Canadienne</i>, -Jan., 1888; <i>Dublin Review</i>, xii. (1869) 70; <i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, iii. 250. Margry (vol. i.) has a “Mémoire” -on the Recollects, 1614-1884. Cf. <i>Revue Canadienne</i>, by S. Lesage, Feb., 1867, p. 303. On the earlier -Canadian missions see N. E. Dionne in <i>Nouvelles Soirées Canadiennes</i>, i. 399; <i>U. S. Catholic Monthly</i>, vii. -235, 518, 561; and the Abbé Verreau on the beginnings of the Church in Canada, in <i>Roy. Soc. Canada, Proc.</i>, -ii. 63.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1365_1365" id="Footnote_1365_1365"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1365_1365"><span class="label">[1365]</span></a></span> -See Vol. IV. 130, 290, 296, 298.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1366_1366" id="Footnote_1366_1366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1366_1366"><span class="label">[1366]</span></a></span> - <i>Jesuits</i>, p. liv.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1367_1367" id="Footnote_1367_1367"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1367_1367"><span class="label">[1367]</span></a></span> -Shea’s ed. Charlevoix, p. 91. See <i>post</i>, Vol. IV. 298.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1368_1368" id="Footnote_1368_1368"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1368_1368"><span class="label">[1368]</span></a></span> -Cf. Vol. IV. p. 242.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1369_1369" id="Footnote_1369_1369"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1369_1369"><span class="label">[1369]</span></a></span> -<i>U.S. Statutes at Large</i>, xvii. 513.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1370_1370" id="Footnote_1370_1370"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1370_1370"><span class="label">[1370]</span></a></span> -Parkman in his <i>La Salle</i> lets us into the feelings of that explorer. La Salle’s account of the Indians -is translated in the <i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, Ap., 1878.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1371_1371" id="Footnote_1371_1371"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1371_1371"><span class="label">[1371]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Travels of several learned missionaries of the Society of Jesus, translated from the French</i> (London, -1714).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1372_1372" id="Footnote_1372_1372"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1372_1372"><span class="label">[1372]</span></a></span> -See Vol. V. 245, 582.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1373_1373" id="Footnote_1373_1373"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1373_1373"><span class="label">[1373]</span></a></span> -See Vol. V. p. 169.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1374_1374" id="Footnote_1374_1374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1374_1374"><span class="label">[1374]</span></a></span> -Other missionary records are noticed in Vol. V. Brinton enlarges upon the traces of Indian degradation -following upon all missionary efforts among them. <i>Amer. Hero Myths</i>, 206, 231.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1375_1375" id="Footnote_1375_1375"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1375_1375"><span class="label">[1375]</span></a></span> -The careers of Johnson and Croghan are traced in Vol. V.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1376_1376" id="Footnote_1376_1376"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1376_1376"><span class="label">[1376]</span></a></span> -Vol. V. <i>passim</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1377_1377" id="Footnote_1377_1377"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1377_1377"><span class="label">[1377]</span></a></span> -Such were the <i>Travels</i> of Alexander Henry, the <i>Sufferings</i> of Peter Williamson, and the long list of -so-called “Captivities” (see Vol. V. 186, 490). Probably Mr. Samuel G. Drake was for many years the most -assiduous promoter of this class of books. This compiler’s sympathetic sentiment clearly affected his rhetoric -and sometimes the accuracy of his statements. Cf. titles of his books in Pilling, Sabin, and Field. Cf. -Drake’s <i>Aboriginal Races of North America, revised by H. L. Williams</i> (N. Y., 1880).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1378_1378" id="Footnote_1378_1378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1378_1378"><span class="label">[1378]</span></a></span> -<i>Voyages: an account of his travels and experiences among the North American Indians, from 1652 to -1684. Transcribed from original manuscripts in the Bodleian Library and the British Museum. With -historical illustrations and an introduction by G. D. Scull</i> (Boston, 1885), a publication of the Prince -Society.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1379_1379" id="Footnote_1379_1379"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1379_1379"><span class="label">[1379]</span></a></span> -<i>Voyages</i>, 2d ed., London, 1724.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1380_1380" id="Footnote_1380_1380"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1380_1380"><span class="label">[1380]</span></a></span> -See Vol. IV. p. 299.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1381_1381" id="Footnote_1381_1381"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1381_1381"><span class="label">[1381]</span></a></span> -In 1766-68.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1382_1382" id="Footnote_1382_1382"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1382_1382"><span class="label">[1382]</span></a></span> -<i>Reise in das Innere Nord Amerikas</i> (Coblenz, 1841); also in an English translation (London).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1383_1383" id="Footnote_1383_1383"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1383_1383"><span class="label">[1383]</span></a></span> -<i>Border Reminiscences</i> (N. Y., 1872).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1384_1384" id="Footnote_1384_1384"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1384_1384"><span class="label">[1384]</span></a></span> -<i>Army Sacrifices.</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1385_1385" id="Footnote_1385_1385"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1385_1385"><span class="label">[1385]</span></a></span> -<i>Notes of the settlement and Indian wars of the western parts of Virginia and Pennsylvania</i>, 1763-1783. -See Vol. V. p. 581.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1386_1386" id="Footnote_1386_1386"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1386_1386"><span class="label">[1386]</span></a></span> -The question has often been discussed as to the origin of the title of “Indian summer,” as applied to a -beautiful portion of our autumnal season. Dr. Doddridge gives us an explanation of its original significance, -or, at least, of an association with it, which would make a feeling of dread rather than of romance its most -striking suggestion. He says that to a backwoodsman the term in its original import would cause a chill of -horror. The explanation is as follows: The white settlers on the frontiers found no peace from Indian alarms -and onsets save in the winter. From spring to the early part of the autumn, the settlers, cooped up in the -forts, or ever at watch in their fields, had no security or comfort. The approach of winter was hailed as a -jubilee in cabin and farm, with bustle and hilarity. But after the first set-in of winter aspects came a longer -or shorter interval of warm, smoky, hazy weather, which would tempt the Indians—as if a brief return of -summer—to renew their incursions on the frontiers. The season, then, was an “Indian summer” only for -blood and mischief. So the spell of warm open weather, of melting snows, in the latter part of February—a -premature spring—was a period of dread for the frontiersmen. It was called the “pawwawing days,” as -the Indians were then holding their incantations and councils for rehearsing for their spring war-parties.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1387_1387" id="Footnote_1387_1387"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1387_1387"><span class="label">[1387]</span></a></span> -Cf. further on Hildreth and his books our Vol. VII. p. 536.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1388_1388" id="Footnote_1388_1388"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1388_1388"><span class="label">[1388]</span></a></span> -There are notices of other books of this kind in Vols. V. and VII. of the present History. Particularly, -may be mentioned Joseph Pritt’s <i>Mirror of Olden Time</i> (Chambersburg, Va., 1848; 2d ed., Abingdon, Va., -1849), in which the most interesting portions are the personal narratives of such captives to the Indians as -Col. James Smith, John M’Cullough, and others, the full credibility of which is vouched for by those who -knew them as neighbors and associates. This class of narratives by men who for years, willingly or unwillingly, -affiliated with their wild captors make very intelligible to us the fact that the whites are much more -readily Indianized than are Indians led to conform to the ways of civilization. Cf. Archibald Loudon’s <i>Selection -of some of the most interesting narratives, of outrages, committed by the Indians, in their wars with -the white people. Also, an account of their manners, customs, traditions, etc.</i> (Carlisle, 1808-11; Harrisburg, -1888).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1389_1389" id="Footnote_1389_1389"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1389_1389"><span class="label">[1389]</span></a></span> -Vol. VII. p. 448. As types of successive ranges of anthropological studies see Happel’s <i>Thesaurus -Exoticorum</i> (Hamburg, 1688); Stuart and Kuyper’s <i>De Mensch zoo als hij voorkomt</i> (Amsterdam, 1802), -vol. vi., and the better known <i>Researches</i> of Prichard (vol. v.).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1390_1390" id="Footnote_1390_1390"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1390_1390"><span class="label">[1390]</span></a></span> -See Vol. V. 68.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1391_1391" id="Footnote_1391_1391"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1391_1391"><span class="label">[1391]</span></a></span> -See Vol. VII. 264.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1392_1392" id="Footnote_1392_1392"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1392_1392"><span class="label">[1392]</span></a></span> -The original paintings for the plates are now in the Peabody Museum (<i>Report</i>, xvi. 189). M’Kenney also -published his <i>Memoirs, official and personal, with sketches of travel among the northern and southern -Indians</i> (N. Y., 1846), in two volumes. He had been in 1816 the agent of the United States in dealing with -the Indians, and in 1824 had been put at the head of the Indian bureau.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1393_1393" id="Footnote_1393_1393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1393_1393"><span class="label">[1393]</span></a></span> -The English editions are generally called <i>Illustrations of the Manners</i>, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1394_1394" id="Footnote_1394_1394"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1394_1394"><span class="label">[1394]</span></a></span> -The best bibliographical record of Catlin’s publications is in Pilling’s <i>Bibliog. Siouan languages</i> (1887), -p. 15. Cf. Field, p. 63; Sabin, iii. p. 436.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1395_1395" id="Footnote_1395_1395"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1395_1395"><span class="label">[1395]</span></a></span> -The volume contains three interesting portraits of Catlin and reimpressions of his drawings as originally -published.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1396_1396" id="Footnote_1396_1396"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1396_1396"><span class="label">[1396]</span></a></span> -For diversity of opinions respecting it see Allibone’s <i>Dictionary</i>. The modern scientific historian and -ethnologist think in conjunction in giving it a low rank compared with what such a book should be. The -fullest account of the bibliography of this and of Schoolcraft’s other books is in Pilling’s <i>Proof-sheets</i>. Whatever -credit may accrue to Schoolcraft is kept out of sight in the title-page of a condensation of the book, which -has some interspersed additions from other sources, all of which are obscurely included, so that the authorship -of them is uncertain. The book is called <i>The Indian Tribes of the United States, edited by F. S. Drake</i> -(Philad., 1884), in 2 vols. There is another conglomerate and useful book, edited by W. W. Beach, <i>The Indian -Miscellany; papers on the history, antiquities [etc.] of the American aborigines</i> (Albany, 1877), which is a -collection of magazine, review, and newspaper articles by various writers, usually of good character.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1397_1397" id="Footnote_1397_1397"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1397_1397"><span class="label">[1397]</span></a></span> -Particularly in Vol. IV.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1398_1398" id="Footnote_1398_1398"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1398_1398"><span class="label">[1398]</span></a></span> -Cf. Vol. VI. 610, 611, 650.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1399_1399" id="Footnote_1399_1399"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1399_1399"><span class="label">[1399]</span></a></span> -A part of it is reproduced by J. Watts de Peyster in his <i>Miscellanies by an Officer</i>, part ii. (N. Y., 1888).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1400_1400" id="Footnote_1400_1400"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1400_1400"><span class="label">[1400]</span></a></span> -Vol. VII. p. 448.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1401_1401" id="Footnote_1401_1401"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1401_1401"><span class="label">[1401]</span></a></span> -There is a map of the distribution of Indians in the eastern part of the United States in Cassino’s -<i>Standard Nat. Hist.</i>, vi. 147.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1402_1402" id="Footnote_1402_1402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1402_1402"><span class="label">[1402]</span></a></span> -See <i>ante</i>, p. 106.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1403_1403" id="Footnote_1403_1403"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1403_1403"><span class="label">[1403]</span></a></span> -Paul Kane’s <i>Wanderings of an artist among the Indians</i> is translated by Ed. Delessert in <i>Les Indiens -de la baie d’Hudson</i> (Paris, 1861).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1404_1404" id="Footnote_1404_1404"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1404_1404"><span class="label">[1404]</span></a></span> -The truth seems to be that some were last seen in that year. It is uncertain whether they died out, or -the final remnant crossed into Labrador.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1405_1405" id="Footnote_1405_1405"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1405_1405"><span class="label">[1405]</span></a></span> -See Vol. IV. p. 292.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1406_1406" id="Footnote_1406_1406"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1406_1406"><span class="label">[1406]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Account of the customs and manners of the Micmakis and Maricheets savage nations. From an -original French manuscript letter, never published. Annexed, pieces relative to the savages, Nova Scotia</i> -[etc.] (London, 1758); J. G. Shea in <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, v. 290; <i>No. Am. Rev.</i>, vol. cxii., Jan., 1871. For missions -among them see Vol. IV. p. 268.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1407_1407" id="Footnote_1407_1407"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1407_1407"><span class="label">[1407]</span></a></span> -See Vol. IV. p. 299. The Hurons as the leading stock in Canada are, of course, to be studied in the -<i>Jesuit Relations</i> and in all the other accounts of the Catholic missions in Canada, as well as in the early -historical narratives, alluded to in the text, and in such special books as the Sieur Gendron’s <i>Pays des Hurons</i> -(see Vol. IV. 305), and in the accounts of leading missionaries like Jean de Brébœuf. Cf. Félix Martin’s -<i>Hurons et Iroquois</i> (Paris, 1877); J. M. Lemoine in <i>Maple Leaves</i>, 2d ser. (1873); Cayaron’s <i>Chaumont</i>, -1639-1693, and his<i> Autobiographie et pièces inédites</i> (Poitiers, 1869); B. Sulte on the Iroquois and Algonquins -in the <i>Revue Canadienne</i> (x. 606); D. Wilson on the Huron-Iroquois of Canada in <i>Roy. Soc. Canada, Proc.</i> -(1884, vol. ii.), and references, <i>post</i>, Vol. IV. p. 307. W. H. Withrow has a paper on the last of the Hurons in -the <i>Canadian Monthly</i> (ii. 409).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1408_1408" id="Footnote_1408_1408"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1408_1408"><span class="label">[1408]</span></a></span> -All of these books are further characterized in Vols. IV. and V. Cf. also J. Campbell in the <i>Quebec Lit. -and Hist. Soc. Trans.</i>, 1881, and Wm. Clint in <i>Ibid.</i> 1877; and Daniel Wilson in <i>Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Proc.</i> -(1882), vol. xxxi., and in his <i>Prehist. Man</i>, ii. Also Vetromile’s <i>Abnakis</i> (N. Y., 1866).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1409_1409" id="Footnote_1409_1409"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1409_1409"><span class="label">[1409]</span></a></span> -Vol. III.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1410_1410" id="Footnote_1410_1410"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1410_1410"><span class="label">[1410]</span></a></span> -“Hist. Coll. of the Indians of N. E.” in <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll.</i>, i.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1411_1411" id="Footnote_1411_1411"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1411_1411"><span class="label">[1411]</span></a></span> -Noyes’ <i>New England’s Duty</i>, Boston, 1698.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1412_1412" id="Footnote_1412_1412"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1412_1412"><span class="label">[1412]</span></a></span> -Cf. Neal’s <i>New England</i>, i. ch. 6; <i>Conn. Evang. Mag.</i>, ii., iii., iv.; <i>Amer. Q. Reg.</i>, iv.; <i>Sabbath at -Home</i>, Apr.-July, 1868.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1413_1413" id="Footnote_1413_1413"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1413_1413"><span class="label">[1413]</span></a></span> -Cf. his letters in <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, Nov., 1879; <i>N. E. Hist. Gen. Reg.</i>, July, 1882; Birch’s <i>Life of -Robert Boyle</i>; and the lives of Eliot. For the Eliot tracts see our Vol. III. p. 355. Marvin’s reprint of Eliot’s -<i>Brief Narration</i> (1670) has a list of writers on the subject. Cf. Martin Moore on Eliot and his Converts in -the <i>Amer. Quart. Reg.</i>, Feb., 1843, reprinted in Beach’s <i>Indian Miscellany</i>, p. 405; Ellis’s <i>Red Man and -White Man in No. America</i>; Jacob’s <i>Praying Indians</i>; and Bigelow’s <i>Natick</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1414_1414" id="Footnote_1414_1414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1414_1414"><span class="label">[1414]</span></a></span> -Sabin, x. p. 191.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1415_1415" id="Footnote_1415_1415"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1415_1415"><span class="label">[1415]</span></a></span> -<i>Archæologia Amer.</i>, ii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1416_1416" id="Footnote_1416_1416"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1416_1416"><span class="label">[1416]</span></a></span> -Cf. John Gillies’ <i>Hist. Coll. relating to remarkable periods of the success of the Gospel</i> (Glasgow, 1754).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1417_1417" id="Footnote_1417_1417"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1417_1417"><span class="label">[1417]</span></a></span> -<i>Success of the gospel among the Indians of Martha’s Vineyard</i> (1694). <i>Conquests and Triumphs of -Grace</i> (1696), which is reprinted in part in Mather’s <i>Magnalia</i>. <i>Indian Converts of Martha’s Vineyard</i> -(1727), and Experience, its author, appended to one of his discourses a “State of the Indians, 1694-1720.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1418_1418" id="Footnote_1418_1418"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1418_1418"><span class="label">[1418]</span></a></span> -<i>Origin and early progress of Indian missions in New England, with a list of books in the Indian -language printed at Cambridge and Boston, 1653-1721</i> (Worcester, 1874, or <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, Oct., -1873); a paper on the Indian tongue and its literature in the <i>Mem. Hist. Boston</i>, i. 465.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1419_1419" id="Footnote_1419_1419"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1419_1419"><span class="label">[1419]</span></a></span> -Wheelock has given us <i>A brief narrative of the Indian Charity School</i> (London, 1766; 2d ed., 1767), and -a series of tracts portray its later progress. Cf. McClure and Parish’s <i>Memoir of Wheelock</i>. Samson Occum -and Brant were his pupils. Also see Miss Fletcher’s <i>Report</i>, p. 94, and S. C. Bartlett in <i>The Granite -Monthly</i> (1888), p. 277.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1420_1420" id="Footnote_1420_1420"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1420_1420"><span class="label">[1420]</span></a></span> -See Vol. III. p. 364. There is a bibliography of the Indians in Maine in the <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, March, 1870, p. -164. Cf. Hanson’s <i>Gardiner</i>, etc.; the histories of Norridgewock by Hanson and Allen; Sabine in the <i>Christian -Examiner</i>, 1857; and <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll.</i>, vols. iii., ix. On the Maine missions, see <i>post</i>, Vol. IV. -300; and R. H. Sherwood in the <i>Catholic World</i>, xxii. 656.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1421_1421" id="Footnote_1421_1421"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1421_1421"><span class="label">[1421]</span></a></span> -See Vol. III. p. 367.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1422_1422" id="Footnote_1422_1422"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1422_1422"><span class="label">[1422]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Report on the Mass. Archives</i> (1885).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1423_1423" id="Footnote_1423_1423"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1423_1423"><span class="label">[1423]</span></a></span> -Vol. III. p. 362.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1424_1424" id="Footnote_1424_1424"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1424_1424"><span class="label">[1424]</span></a></span> -Dr. Ellis has a paper on the Indians of eastern Massachusetts in the <i>Mem. Hist. Boston</i>, i. 241. For the -middle regions there are Epaphras Hoyt’s <i>Antiquarian Researches</i> (Greenfield, 1824), and Temple’s <i>North -Brookfield</i>, not to name other books. For the Stockbridge tribe and the Housatonics, see Samuel Hopkins’ -<i>Hist. Memoirs relating to the Housatunnuk Indians</i> (1753); Jones’ <i>Stockbridge</i>; Charles Allen’s <i>Report -on the Stockbridge Indians</i> (Boston, 1870; <i>Ho. Doc. Mass. Leg.</i>, no. 13, of 1870); S. Orcutt’s <i>Indians of the -Housatonic and Naugatuck Valleys</i> (Hartford, 1882); <i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, Dec., 1878; and Miss Fletcher’s -<i>Report</i>, pp. 38, 90. For the Wampanoags on the borders of Rhode Island, see <i>Smithsonian Report</i>, 1883; -and William J. Miller’s <i>Notes concerning the Wampanoag tribe of Indians, with some account of a rock -picture on the shore of Mount Hope Bay, in Bristol, R. I.</i> (Providence, 1880).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1425_1425" id="Footnote_1425_1425"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1425_1425"><span class="label">[1425]</span></a></span> -Potter’s <i>Early Hist. of Narragansett</i>; <i>R. I. Hist. Coll.</i>, viii.; Henry Bull’s Memoir in <i>R. I. Hist. Mag.</i>, -April, 1886; Usher Parsons on the Nyantics in <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, Feb., 1863.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1426_1426" id="Footnote_1426_1426"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1426_1426"><span class="label">[1426]</span></a></span> -Theo. Dwight’s <i>Connecticut</i>, ch. 5-7; Trumbull’s Connecticut, ch. 5, 6; Ellis’ <i>Life of Capt. Mason</i>; W. -L. Stone’s <i>Uncas and Miantonomoh</i>; S. Orcutt’s <i>Stratford and Bridgeport</i> (1886); Luzerne Ray in <i>New -Englander</i>, July, 1843 (reprinted in Beach’s <i>Ind. Miscellany</i>).</p> -<p class="pfc4">On the Pequods, see Wm. Apes’ <i>Son of the Forest</i>, and other small books by this member of the tribe, -published from 1829 to 1837; Lossing in <i>Scribner’s Monthly</i>, ii., Oct., 1871 (included in Beach). Cf. our -Vol. III. p. 368.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1427_1427" id="Footnote_1427_1427"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1427_1427"><span class="label">[1427]</span></a></span> -Further modern portraitures can be found in Dwight’s <i>Travels</i>; Barry’s <i>Massachusetts</i>; Felt’s <i>Eccles. -Hist. N. E.</i> (p. 279); Samuel Eliot on the “Early relations with the Indians” in the volume of the <i>Mass. -Hist. Soc. Lectures</i>; Zachariah Allen on <i>The conditions of life, habits, and customs of the native Indians -of America, and their treatment by the first settlers. An address before the Rhode Island Historical -Society, Dec. 4, 1879</i> (Providence, 1880). Cf. on the Indians and the Puritans, <i>Amer. Chh. Review</i>, iii. 208, -359.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1428_1428" id="Footnote_1428_1428"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1428_1428"><span class="label">[1428]</span></a></span> -Cf. Brodhead’s <i>New York</i>; the <i>Doc. Hist. N. Y.</i>; and Wm. Eliot Griffis’ <i>Arent van Curler and his -policy of peace with the Iroquois</i> (1884).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1429_1429" id="Footnote_1429_1429"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1429_1429"><span class="label">[1429]</span></a></span> -Cf. Vol. IV. 306. The best source for the story of Jogues is Felix Martin’s <i>Life of Father Isaac Jogues, -missionary priest of the Society of Jesus, slain by the Mohawk Iroquois, in the present state of New York, -Oct. 18, 1646. With [his] account of the captivity and death of René Goupil, slain Sept. 29, 1642. -Translated from the French by J. G. Shea</i> (New York, 1885). It is accompanied by a map of the county by -Gen. John S. Clark, indicating the sites of the Indian villages and missions, which is an improvement upon -Clark’s earlier map, given <i>post</i>, Vol. IV. 293. Cf. <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, xii. 15; Hale’s <i>Book of Rites</i>, introd. W. H. -Withrow has a paper on Jogues in the <i>Proc. Roy. Soc. Canada</i>, iii. (2) 45.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1430_1430" id="Footnote_1430_1430"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1430_1430"><span class="label">[1430]</span></a></span> -Vol. IV. 279, 309.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1431_1431" id="Footnote_1431_1431"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1431_1431"><span class="label">[1431]</span></a></span> -Cf. D. Humphrey’s <i>Hist. Acc. of the Soc. for propagating the Gospel</i> (1730); <i>Doc. Hist. N. Y.</i>, iv.; A. G. -Hopkins in the <i>Oneida Hist. Soc. Trans.</i>, 1885-86, p. 5; W. M. Beauchamp in <i>Am. Chh. Rev.</i>, xlvi. 87; -S. K. Lothrop’s <i>Kirkland</i>; and Miss Fletcher’s <i>Report</i> (1888), p. 85.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1432_1432" id="Footnote_1432_1432"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1432_1432"><span class="label">[1432]</span></a></span> -Sylvester’s <i>Northern New York</i>; Clark’s <i>Onondaga</i>; Jones’s <i>Oneida County</i>; Simms’ <i>Schoharie -County</i>; Benton’s <i>Herkimer County</i>; C. E. Stickney’s <i>Minisink Region</i>; G. H. Harris’ <i>Aboriginal occupation -of the lower Genesee County</i> (Rochester, 1884,—taken from W. F. Peck’s <i>Semi-Centennial Hist. -of Rochester</i>); Ketchum’s <i>Buffalo</i>; John Wentworth Sanborn’s <i>Legends, Customs, and Social Life of the -Seneca Indians</i> (Gowanda, N. Y., 1878). On the origin of the name Seneca, see O. H. Marshall’s <i>Hist. -Writings</i>, p. 231.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1433_1433" id="Footnote_1433_1433"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1433_1433"><span class="label">[1433]</span></a></span> -See Vol. IV. 299. Shea says the only copies known of the 1727 edition are those noted in the catalogues -of H. C. Murphy, Menzies, Brinley, and T. H. Morrell. Stevens noted a copy in 1885, at £42. The <i>Murphy -Catalogue</i> gives the various editions. Cf. Sabin and Pilling. There is an account of Colden in the <i>Hist. -Mag.</i>, Jan., 1865. Palfrey (<i>New England</i>, iv. 40) warns the student that Colden must be used with caution, -and that he needs to be corrected by Charlevoix.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1434_1434" id="Footnote_1434_1434"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1434_1434"><span class="label">[1434]</span></a></span> -See Vol. V. 618.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1435_1435" id="Footnote_1435_1435"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1435_1435"><span class="label">[1435]</span></a></span> -Cf. Vol. IV. 297. Schoolcraft later included in his <i>Indian Tribes</i> a reprint of David Cusick’s <i>Ancient -Hist. of the Six Nations</i> (1825), the work of a Tuscarora chief. Brinton (<i>Myths</i>, 108) calls it of little value. -Elias Johnson, another Tuscarora, printed a little <i>Hist. of the Six Nations</i> at Lockport in 1881.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1436_1436" id="Footnote_1436_1436"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1436_1436"><span class="label">[1436]</span></a></span> -See Vol. V., VI., VII.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1437_1437" id="Footnote_1437_1437"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1437_1437"><span class="label">[1437]</span></a></span> -This was the earliest of Morgan’s important writings on the Iroquois, but the full outcome of all his -views on the Indian character and life can only be studied by following him through his later <i>Ancient Society</i>, -his <i>Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity</i>, and his <i>Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines</i>. -Cf. Pilling’s <i>Proof-sheets</i> for a conspectus of his works. Morgan’s early studies on the Iroquois sensibly -affected his judgment in his later treatment of all other North American tribes.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1438_1438" id="Footnote_1438_1438"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1438_1438"><span class="label">[1438]</span></a></span> -Hale has also contributed to the <i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, 1885, xiii. 131, a paper on “Chief George H. M. -Johnson, his life and work among the Six Nations;” and to the <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, 1885, vii. 7, one on -“The Iroquois sacrifice of the white dog.”</p> -<p class="pfc4">A few other references on the Iroquois follow: Drake’s <i>Book of the Indians</i>, book v.; D. Sherman in <i>Mag. -West. Hist.</i>, i. 467; W. W. Beauchamp in <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i> (Nov., 1886), viii. 358; D. Gray on the last -Indian council in the Genesee Country, in <i>Scribner’s Mag.</i>, xxv. 338; <i>Penna. Mag.</i>, i. 163, 319; ii. 407. For -the Schaghticoke tribe, see <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, June, 1870; and for those of the Susquehanna Valley, Miner’s <i>Wyoming</i> -and Stone’s <i>Wyoming</i>. E. M. Ruttenber’s <i>Indian Tribes of the Hudson River</i> (Albany, 1872) is an -important book. Miss Fletcher’s <i>Report</i> includes a paper on the N. Y. Indians, by F. B. Hough.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1439_1439" id="Footnote_1439_1439"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1439_1439"><span class="label">[1439]</span></a></span> -<i>N. Jersey Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, vol. iv.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1440_1440" id="Footnote_1440_1440"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1440_1440"><span class="label">[1440]</span></a></span> -There is a sketch of this singular character in Brinton’s <i>Lenape</i>, ch. 7.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1441_1441" id="Footnote_1441_1441"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1441_1441"><span class="label">[1441]</span></a></span> -Also <i>Amer. Whig Review</i>, Feb., 1849; and in Beach’s <i>Indian Miscellany</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1442_1442" id="Footnote_1442_1442"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1442_1442"><span class="label">[1442]</span></a></span> -We may also note: D. B. Brunner’s <i>Indians of Berks county, Pa.; being a summary of all the tangible -records of the aborigines of Berks County</i> (Reading, Pa., 1881), and W. J. Buck’s “Lappawinzo and -Tishcohan chiefs of the Lenni Lenape” in the <i>Penna. Mag. of Hist.</i>, July, 1883, p. 215. The early writers -to elucidate the condition of the Delawares soon after the white contact are Vanderdonck, Campanius, -Gabriel Thomas, and later there is something of value in Peter Kalm’s <i>Travels</i>. The early authorities on -Pennsylvania need also to be consulted, as well as the <i>Penna. Archives</i>, and the <i>Collections</i> of the Penna. -Hist. Soc., and its <i>Bulletin</i>, whose first number has Ettwein’s <i>Traditions and language of the Indians</i>. Of -considerable historical value is Charles Thomson’s <i>Enquiry</i> (see Vol. V. 575), and the relations of the -Quakers to the tribes are surveyed in an <i>Account of the Conduct of the Society of Friends towards the Indian -Tribes</i> (Lond., 1844); but other references will be found <i>post</i>, Vol. V. 582, including others on the Moravian -missions, the literature of which is of much importance in this study. Cf. Chas. Beatty’s <i>Journal of a two -months’ tour</i> (London, 1768), the works of Heckewelder and Loskiel, and Schweinitz’s <i>Zeisberger</i>. Cf. Miss -Fletcher’s <i>Report</i>, p. 78.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1443_1443" id="Footnote_1443_1443"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1443_1443"><span class="label">[1443]</span></a></span> -Vol. III., under Virginia and Maryland. Cf. <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, March, 1857.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1444_1444" id="Footnote_1444_1444"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1444_1444"><span class="label">[1444]</span></a></span> -For instance, the <i>Relatio itineris in Marylandiam</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1445_1445" id="Footnote_1445_1445"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1445_1445"><span class="label">[1445]</span></a></span> -See Vol. III.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1446_1446" id="Footnote_1446_1446"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1446_1446"><span class="label">[1446]</span></a></span> -The latest summary is in Miss Fletcher’s <i>Report</i>, ch. 2 and 3.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1447_1447" id="Footnote_1447_1447"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1447_1447"><span class="label">[1447]</span></a></span> -F. Kidder in <i>Hist. Mag.</i> (1857), i. 161. Doyle’s <i>English in America, Virginia, etc.</i> (London, 1882) gives -a brief chapter to the natives. Cf. travels of Bartram and Smyth, and Miss Fletcher’s <i>Report</i>, ch. 19.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1448_1448" id="Footnote_1448_1448"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1448_1448"><span class="label">[1448]</span></a></span> -Vol. II.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1449_1449" id="Footnote_1449_1449"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1449_1449"><span class="label">[1449]</span></a></span> -Vol. V. p. 65.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1450_1450" id="Footnote_1450_1450"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1450_1450"><span class="label">[1450]</span></a></span> -Vol. V. p. 69, 344, 393.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1451_1451" id="Footnote_1451_1451"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1451_1451"><span class="label">[1451]</span></a></span> -Vol. V. p. 401.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1452_1452" id="Footnote_1452_1452"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1452_1452"><span class="label">[1452]</span></a></span> -This also makes part of the Urlsperger tract, <i>Ausführliche Nachricht von den Saltzburgischen Emigranten</i> -(Halle, 1835). See Vol. V. p. 395.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1453_1453" id="Footnote_1453_1453"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1453_1453"><span class="label">[1453]</span></a></span> -Vol. V. p. 399. Cf. <i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, v. 346.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1454_1454" id="Footnote_1454_1454"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1454_1454"><span class="label">[1454]</span></a></span> -The long contested case of the Cherokees <i>v.</i> Georgia brought out much material. Cf. Vol. VII. p. 322, -and <i>Poole’s Index</i>, p. 225. There is a somewhat curious presentation of the Cherokee mind in the address -of Dewi Brown in the <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, xii. 30.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1455_1455" id="Footnote_1455_1455"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1455_1455"><span class="label">[1455]</span></a></span> -The histories of the Creek war give some material. See Vol. VII. and Harrison’s <i>Life of John Howard -Payne</i>, ch. 4. Cf. <i>Poole’s Index</i>, p. 314.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1456_1456" id="Footnote_1456_1456"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1456_1456"><span class="label">[1456]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Poole’s Index</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1457_1457" id="Footnote_1457_1457"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1457_1457"><span class="label">[1457]</span></a></span> -See Vol. VII.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1458_1458" id="Footnote_1458_1458"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1458_1458"><span class="label">[1458]</span></a></span> -Cf. Claiborne’s <i>Mississippi</i>, i.; Brinton in <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, 2d ser., vol. i. p. 16; and E. L. Berthoud’s <i>Natchez -Indians</i> (Golden, 1886), a pamphlet.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1459_1459" id="Footnote_1459_1459"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1459_1459"><span class="label">[1459]</span></a></span> -Vol. V. p. 68. Cf. also an abridged memoir of the missions in Louisiana by Father Francis Watrin, -Jesuit, 1764-65, in <i>Mag. West. Hist.</i>, Feb., 1885, p. 265; the <i>Travels into Arkansa territory</i>, 1819, by Thomas -Nuttall (Philad., 1821), for other accounts of the aboriginal inhabitants of the banks of the Mississippi; the -<i>History of Kansas</i> (Chicago, 1883), p. 58; and the <i>Proceedings</i> of the Kansas Hist. Society.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1460_1460" id="Footnote_1460_1460"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1460_1460"><span class="label">[1460]</span></a></span> -Cf. Vol. IV. p. 298; and C. W. Butterfield in the <i>Mag. West. Hist.</i>, Feb., 1887; and on the Indian -occupation of Ohio, <i>Ibid.</i>, Nov., 1884. David Jones’ <i>Two Visits, 1772-73</i>, concerns the Ohio Indians. Our -Vol. V. covers this region during the French wars. J. R. Dodge’s <i>Red Man of the Ohio Valley, 1650-1795</i> -(Springfield, O., 1860), is a popular book.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1461_1461" id="Footnote_1461_1461"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1461_1461"><span class="label">[1461]</span></a></span> -<i>Hist. Mag.</i>, x. (Jan., 1866).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1462_1462" id="Footnote_1462_1462"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1462_1462"><span class="label">[1462]</span></a></span> -<i>Mag. West. Hist.</i>, ii. 38.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1463_1463" id="Footnote_1463_1463"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1463_1463"><span class="label">[1463]</span></a></span> -<i>Hist. Writings</i>, 1887.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1464_1464" id="Footnote_1464_1464"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1464_1464"><span class="label">[1464]</span></a></span> -<i>Fergus Hist. Series, No. 27</i> (1884). Cf. Hough’s map of the tribal districts of Indiana in his <i>Rept. on -the Geology and Nat. Hist. of Indiana</i> (1882).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1465_1465" id="Footnote_1465_1465"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1465_1465"><span class="label">[1465]</span></a></span> -See Vol. IV. 298.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1466_1466" id="Footnote_1466_1466"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1466_1466"><span class="label">[1466]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, Sept., 1861; and Peter D. Clarke’s <i>Origin and Traditional Hist. of the Wyandotts</i> -(Toronto, 1870). Clarke is a native Indian writer.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1467_1467" id="Footnote_1467_1467"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1467_1467"><span class="label">[1467]</span></a></span> -Cf. I. A. Lapham on the <i>Indians of Wisconsin</i> (Milwaukee, 1879); and E. Jacker on the missions in -<i>Am. Cath. Quart.</i>, i. 404; also Miss Fletcher’s <i>Report</i>, ch. 21.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1468_1468" id="Footnote_1468_1468"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1468_1468"><span class="label">[1468]</span></a></span> -Vol. VII.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1469_1469" id="Footnote_1469_1469"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1469_1469"><span class="label">[1469]</span></a></span> -Cf. her <i>Report</i> (1888), ch. 10, and her <i>Indian ceremonies</i> (Salem, Mass., 1884), taken from the xvi. <i>Report -of the Peabody Museum of Amer. Archæology and Ethnology</i>, 1883, pp. 260-333, and containing: The white -buffalo festival of the Uncpapas.—The elk mystery or festival. Ogallala Sioux.—The religious ceremony -of the four winds or quarters, as observed by the Santee Sioux.—The shadow or ghost lodge: a ceremony of -the Ogallala Sioux.—The “Wawan,” or pipe dance of the Omahas.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The <i>Minnesota Hist. Soc. Collections</i> have much on the Dacotahs.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1470_1470" id="Footnote_1470_1470"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1470_1470"><span class="label">[1470]</span></a></span> -<i>Ab-sa-ra-ka, home of the Crows, being the experience of an officer’s wife on the plains, with outlines of -the natural features of the land, tables of distances, maps</i> [etc.] (Philad., 1868).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1471_1471" id="Footnote_1471_1471"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1471_1471"><span class="label">[1471]</span></a></span> -These may be supplemented by Letheman’s account of the Navajos in the <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, 1855, -p. 280; and books of adventures, like Ruxton’s <i>Life in the Far West</i>; Pumpelly’s <i>Across America and Asia</i>; -H. C. Dorr in <i>Overland Monthly</i>, Apr., 1871 (also in Beach’s <i>Indian Miscellany</i>); James Hobbs’ <i>Wild life -in the far West</i> (Hartford, 1875),—not to name others, and a large mass of periodical literature to be reached -for the English portion through <i>Poole’s Index</i>. Cf. Miss Fletcher’s <i>Report</i> (1888).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1472_1472" id="Footnote_1472_1472"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1472_1472"><span class="label">[1472]</span></a></span> -<i>A Journal, kept at Nootka Sound, by John R. Jewitt, one of the surviving crew of the ship Boston, of -Boston, John Salter, commander, who was massacred on 22d of March, 1803. Interspersed with some -account of the natives, their manners and customs</i> (Boston, 1807). Another account has been published -with the title, “A narrative of the adventures and sufferings of J. R. Jewitt,” compiled from Jewitt’s “Oral -relations,” by Richard Alsop; and another alteration and abridgment by S. G. Goodrich has been published -with the title, “The captive of Nootka.” Cf. Sabin, Pilling, Field, etc. Cf. also <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, Mar., 1863. -The French half-breeds of the Northwest are described by V. Havard in the <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, 1879.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1473_1473" id="Footnote_1473_1473"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1473_1473"><span class="label">[1473]</span></a></span> -Dall’s <i>Alaska and its Resources</i> (Boston, 1870), with its list of books, is of use in this particular field. -Cf. also Miss Fletcher’s <i>Report</i> (1888), ch. 19 and 20.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1474_1474" id="Footnote_1474_1474"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1474_1474"><span class="label">[1474]</span></a></span> -His map is reproduced in Petermann’s <i>Geog. Mittheilungen</i>, xxv. pl. 13.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1475_1475" id="Footnote_1475_1475"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1475_1475"><span class="label">[1475]</span></a></span> -The periodical literature can be reached through <i>Poole’s Index</i>; particularly to be mentioned, however, -are the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>, Apr., 1875; by J. R. Browne in <i>Harper’s Mag.</i>, Aug., 1861, repeated in Beach’s -<i>Ind. Miscellany</i>. For the missionary aspects see such books as Geronimo Boscana’s <i>Chinigchinich; a historical -account of the origin, customs, and traditions of the Indians at the missionary establishment of St. -Juan Capistrano, Alta California; called the Acagchemem nation. Translated from the original Spanish -manuscript, by one who was many years a resident of Alta California</i> [Alfred Robinson] (N. Y., 1846), -which is included in Robinson’s <i>Life in California</i> (N. Y., 1846); and C. C. Painter’s <i>Visit to the mission -Indians of southern California, and other western tribes</i> (Philadelphia, 1886).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1476_1476" id="Footnote_1476_1476"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1476_1476"><span class="label">[1476]</span></a></span> -See, for instance: Maj. Powell on tribal society in the <i>Third Rept. Bur. of Ethnology</i>. On Totemism, -see the <i>Fourth Rept.</i>, p. 165, and J. G. Frazier in his <i>Totemism</i> (Edinburgh, 1887). Lucien Carr on the -social and political condition of women among the Huron-Iroquois tribes, in <i>Peabody Mus. Rept.</i>, xvi. 207. -J. M. Browne on Indian medicine in the <i>Atlantic</i>, July, 1866, reprinted in Beach’s <i>Indian Miscellany</i>. J. M. -Lemoine on their mortuary rites in <i>Proc. Roy. Soc. Canada</i>, ii. 85, and H. C. Yarrow on their mortuary -customs in the <i>First Rept. Bur. Ethnol.</i>, p. 87, and on their mummifications in <i>Ibid.</i> p. 130. Andrew MacFarland -Davis on Indian games in the <i>Bulletin, Essex Institute</i>, vols. xvii., xviii., and separately. On their -intellectual and literary capacity, John Reade in the <i>Proc. Roy. Soc. of Canada</i> (ii. sect. 2d, p. 17); Edward -Jacker in <i>Amer. Catholic Quarterly</i> (ii. 304; iii. 255); Brinton’s <i>Lenape and their legends</i>; W. G. Simms’ -<i>Views and Reviews</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1477_1477" id="Footnote_1477_1477"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1477_1477"><span class="label">[1477]</span></a></span> -<i>The North Americans of Antiquity</i>, by John -T. Short, p. 130.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1478_1478" id="Footnote_1478_1478"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1478_1478"><span class="label">[1478]</span></a></span> -<i>Ibid.</i> p. 127.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1479_1479" id="Footnote_1479_1479"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1479_1479"><span class="label">[1479]</span></a></span> -<i>The Antiquity of Man in America</i>, by Alfred -R. Wallace in <i>Nineteenth Century</i> (November, -1887), vol. xxii. p. 673.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1480_1480" id="Footnote_1480_1480"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1480_1480"><span class="label">[1480]</span></a></span> -<i>Palæolithic Man in America</i>, in <i>Popular Science Monthly</i> (November, 1888), p. 23.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1481_1481" id="Footnote_1481_1481"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1481_1481"><span class="label">[1481]</span></a></span> -Sometimes the gravels in which such implements -were originally deposited have disappeared -through denudation or other natural -causes, leaving the implements on the surface. -But the outside of such specimens always shows -traces of decomposition, indicating their high -antiquity. Other examples of implements of -like shape, found on the surface in places where -there has been no glacial drift, may be palæolithic, -but their form is no sufficient proof of this, -since they may equally well have been the work -of the Indians, who are known to have fashioned -similar objects.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1482_1482" id="Footnote_1482_1482"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1482_1482"><span class="label">[1482]</span></a></span> -<i>The Great Ice Age and its relation to the antiquity -of Man</i>, by James Geikie, p. 416.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1483_1483" id="Footnote_1483_1483"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1483_1483"><span class="label">[1483]</span></a></span> -<i>An Inventory of our Glacial Drift</i>, by T. C. -Chamberlin in the <i>Proceedings of American Association -for Advancement of Science</i>, vol. xxxv. -p. 196. A general map of this great moraine -and others representing portions of it on a large -scale will be found in his “Preliminary Paper on -the terminal moraine of the second glacial period,” -in the <i>Third Annual Report of the U. S. -Geological Survey</i>, by J. W. Powell (Washington, -1883).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1484_1484" id="Footnote_1484_1484"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1484_1484"><span class="label">[1484]</span></a></span> -Chamberlin, <i>Proc. Amer. Assoc.</i>, <i>ubi sup.</i>, p. -199.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1485_1485" id="Footnote_1485_1485"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1485_1485"><span class="label">[1485]</span></a></span> -<i>The place of Niagara Falls in geological -history</i>, by G. K. Gilbert, of the U. S. Govt. -Surv., in the <i>Proc. Amer. Assoc.</i>, <i>Ibid.</i> p. 223; -<i>Geology of Minnesota</i> [final report], by N. H. -Winchell and Warren Upham, vol. i. p. 337 (St. -Paul, 1888).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1486_1486" id="Footnote_1486_1486"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1486_1486"><span class="label">[1486]</span></a></span> -<i>The American Naturalist</i>, vol. vii. p. 204.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1487_1487" id="Footnote_1487_1487"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1487_1487"><span class="label">[1487]</span></a></span> -<i>Ibid.</i> vol. x. p. 329.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1488_1488" id="Footnote_1488_1488"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1488_1488"><span class="label">[1488]</span></a></span> -<i>Tenth Annual Report of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum of American Archæology and -Ethnology</i>, vol. ii. p. 30.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1489_1489" id="Footnote_1489_1489"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1489_1489"><span class="label">[1489]</span></a></span> -Second report on the palæolithic implements -from the glacial drift, in the valley of the -Delaware River, near Trenton, New Jersey, -<i>Ibid.</i> p. 225.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1490_1490" id="Footnote_1490_1490"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1490_1490"><span class="label">[1490]</span></a></span> -A complete account of Dr. Abbott’s investigations -will be found in his <i>Primitive Industry</i>, -chap. 32 (Palæolithic Implements); <i>Tenth ann. -rep. of Peabody Museum</i>, vol. ii. p. 30; <i>Eleventh -Do.</i>, <i>Ibid.</i> p. 225; <i>Proceedings of Boston Society -of Natural History</i>, vol. xxi. p. 124; vol. xxiii. -p. 424; <i>Proc. of Amer. Assoc. for Adv. of Science</i>, -vol. xxxvii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1491_1491" id="Footnote_1491_1491"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1491_1491"><span class="label">[1491]</span></a></span> -<i>Proceedings of Boston Society of Natural History</i>, -vol. xxi. p. 148.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1492_1492" id="Footnote_1492_1492"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1492_1492"><span class="label">[1492]</span></a></span> -<i>Twelfth annual report of Peabody Museum</i>, -vol. ii. p. 489.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1493_1493" id="Footnote_1493_1493"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1493_1493"><span class="label">[1493]</span></a></span> -<i>Proceedings of Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.</i>, <i>Ibid.</i> -p. 132.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1494_1494" id="Footnote_1494_1494"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1494_1494"><span class="label">[1494]</span></a></span> -<i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, January, 1889, -p. 411.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1495_1495" id="Footnote_1495_1495"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1495_1495"><span class="label">[1495]</span></a></span> -<i>On the discovery of stone implements in the -glacial drift of North America</i>, in the <i>Quart. -Journ. of Science</i> (London, January, 1878), vol. -xv. p. 68.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1496_1496" id="Footnote_1496_1496"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1496_1496"><span class="label">[1496]</span></a></span> -<i>The Trenton gravel and its relation to the -antiquity of man, in the Proceedings of the -Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia</i>, -1880, p. 296.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1497_1497" id="Footnote_1497_1497"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1497_1497"><span class="label">[1497]</span></a></span> -<i>Primitive Industry</i>, p. 533 <i>et seq.</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1498_1498" id="Footnote_1498_1498"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1498_1498"><span class="label">[1498]</span></a></span> -The bibliography of Professor Wright’s publications upon this subject will be found in <i>Proc. -Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.</i>, vol. xxiii. p. 427.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1499_1499" id="Footnote_1499_1499"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1499_1499"><span class="label">[1499]</span></a></span> -<i>Science</i>, vol. i. p. 271.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1500_1500" id="Footnote_1500_1500"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1500_1500"><span class="label">[1500]</span></a></span> -<i>Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.</i>, vol. xxiii. -p. 435.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1501_1501" id="Footnote_1501_1501"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1501_1501"><span class="label">[1501]</span></a></span> -<i>Proc. Amer. Assoc. for Adv. of Science</i>, vol. -xxxvii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1502_1502" id="Footnote_1502_1502"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1502_1502"><span class="label">[1502]</span></a></span> -Early Man in the Delaware Valley, in the -<i>Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.</i>, vol. xxiv.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1503_1503" id="Footnote_1503_1503"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1503_1503"><span class="label">[1503]</span></a></span> -The Age of the Philadelphia Red Gravel, -<i>Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.</i>, vol. xxiv.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1504_1504" id="Footnote_1504_1504"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1504_1504"><span class="label">[1504]</span></a></span> -<i>Antiquities of the Southern Indians</i>, p. 293. -The preface of this volume is dated “New -York, April 10, 1873.” In an article in the -<i>North American Review</i> for January, 1874 (vol. -cxviii. p. 70), on “The Antiquity of the North -American Indians,” he traces that race back to -palæolithic times.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1505_1505" id="Footnote_1505_1505"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1505_1505"><span class="label">[1505]</span></a></span> -<i>Flint implements from the stratified drift of -the vicinity of Richmond, Va.</i>, in the <i>American -Journal of Science</i> (3d series), vol. xi. -p. 195; quoted in Dana’s <i>Manual of Geology</i>, -p. 578.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1506_1506" id="Footnote_1506_1506"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1506_1506"><span class="label">[1506]</span></a></span> -<i>Sixth annual report of the Geological and -Natural History Survey of Minnesota</i>, 1877, p. -54.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1507_1507" id="Footnote_1507_1507"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1507_1507"><span class="label">[1507]</span></a></span> -Her paper on “Ancient quartz-workers and -their quarries in Minnesota,” read before the -Minnesota Historical Society, February, 1880, -was reprinted in <i>The American Antiquarian</i>, -vol. iii. p. 18.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1508_1508" id="Footnote_1508_1508"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1508_1508"><span class="label">[1508]</span></a></span> -<i>Vestiges of Glacial Man in Central Minnesota</i>, -in the <i>Proc. Amer. Assoc. for Adv. of Science</i>, -vol. xxxii. p. 385. A more extended account of -her researches will be found under the same -title in the <i>American Naturalist</i> for June and -July, 1884 (vol. xviii. pp. 594 and 697). On p. -705 the writer has given at some length his -opinion in regard to the artificial character of -these quartz objects.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1509_1509" id="Footnote_1509_1509"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1509_1509"><span class="label">[1509]</span></a></span> -<i>Proc. of Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.</i>, vol. xxiii. p. 436.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1510_1510" id="Footnote_1510_1510"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1510_1510"><span class="label">[1510]</span></a></span> -In 1877, by Professor S. S. Haldeman on an -island in the Susquehanna River, in Lancaster -Co., Penn. (<i>Eleventh Rep. Peabody Mus.</i>, vol. ii. -p. 255). In 1878, by A. F. Berlin in the Schuylkill -Valley, at Reading, Penn. (<i>American Antiquarian</i>, -vol. i. p. 10). In 1879, by Dr. W. J. -Hoffman in the valley of the Potomac, near -Washington (<i>American Naturalist</i>, vol. xiii. p. -108). Subsequently by others in the same vicinity, -reported by S. V. Proudfit in <i>The American -Anthropologist</i>, vol. i. p. 337. By David Dodge -at Wakefield, Mass., and by Mr. Frazer at Marshfield, -Mass. (<i>Proc. of Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.</i>, -vol. xxi. pp. 123 and 450). By the writer, in several -localities in New England (<i>Ibid.</i> p. 382).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1511_1511" id="Footnote_1511_1511"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1511_1511"><span class="label">[1511]</span></a></span> -<i>Sixth annual report of the U. S. Geological -Survey of the Territories</i>, by F. V. Hayden -(1873), p. 652.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1512_1512" id="Footnote_1512_1512"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1512_1512"><span class="label">[1512]</span></a></span> -<i>Ibid.</i> (1874), p. 247.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1513_1513" id="Footnote_1513_1513"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1513_1513"><span class="label">[1513]</span></a></span> -<i>Ibid.</i> p. 254.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1514_1514" id="Footnote_1514_1514"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1514_1514"><span class="label">[1514]</span></a></span> -<i>Eleventh Report of Peabody Museum</i>, p. 257.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1515_1515" id="Footnote_1515_1515"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1515_1515"><span class="label">[1515]</span></a></span> -<i>Geological History of Lake Lahontan, a quaternary -lake of northwestern Nevada</i>, by I. C. -Russell, being <i>Monog.</i> No. xi. <i>U. S. Geol. Surv.</i> -under J. W. Powell, p. 247 (Washington, 1885).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1516_1516" id="Footnote_1516_1516"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1516_1516"><span class="label">[1516]</span></a></span> -<i>Ibid.</i> p. 269.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1517_1517" id="Footnote_1517_1517"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1517_1517"><span class="label">[1517]</span></a></span> -<i>Pop. Science Monthly</i>, November, 1888, p. 27.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1518_1518" id="Footnote_1518_1518"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1518_1518"><span class="label">[1518]</span></a></span> -Article in the <i>Iconographic Encyclopædia</i>, on -Prehistoric Archæology, by Daniel G. Brinton, -vol. ii. p. 63 (Philadelphia, 1886).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1519_1519" id="Footnote_1519_1519"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1519_1519"><span class="label">[1519]</span></a></span> -<i>Smithsonian Report</i>, 1862, p. 297, where it is -figured; and repeated in his <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, -vol. i. p. 45.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1520_1520" id="Footnote_1520_1520"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1520_1520"><span class="label">[1520]</span></a></span> -See p. 385 of this volume.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1521_1521" id="Footnote_1521_1521"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1521_1521"><span class="label">[1521]</span></a></span> -<i>Memoirs of Mus. of Comp. Zoölogy at Harv. -College</i>, vol. vi. pp. 258-288 (Cambridge, 1880).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1522_1522" id="Footnote_1522_1522"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1522_1522"><span class="label">[1522]</span></a></span> -<i>The Native Races of the Pacific States of -North America</i>, by H. H. Bancroft, vol. iv. pp. -699-707.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1523_1523" id="Footnote_1523_1523"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1523_1523"><span class="label">[1523]</span></a></span> -<i>Transactions</i> of the Chicago Academy of -Sciences, vol. i. p. 232, pl. xxii, fig. 3.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1524_1524" id="Footnote_1524_1524"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1524_1524"><span class="label">[1524]</span></a></span> -<i>The aboriginal relics called “sinkers” or -“plummets”</i> in <i>Amer. Journal of Archæology</i>, -vol. i. p. 105.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1525_1525" id="Footnote_1525_1525"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1525_1525"><span class="label">[1525]</span></a></span> -<i>The Epoch of the Mammoth and the Apparition -of Man upon the Earth</i>, by James C. -Southall, p. 399 (Philadelphia, 1878).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1526_1526" id="Footnote_1526_1526"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1526_1526"><span class="label">[1526]</span></a></span> -Schoolcraft’s <i>Indian Tribes of the United -States</i>, vol. i. p. 101 (Philadelphia, 1851).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1527_1527" id="Footnote_1527_1527"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1527_1527"><span class="label">[1527]</span></a></span> -S. B. J. Skertchly in the <i>Journal Anthrop. -Inst.</i>, vol. xvii. p. 335 (Jan. 10, 1888).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1528_1528" id="Footnote_1528_1528"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1528_1528"><span class="label">[1528]</span></a></span> -<i>The American Naturalist</i>, vol. xxi. p. 459 -(1887).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1529_1529" id="Footnote_1529_1529"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1529_1529"><span class="label">[1529]</span></a></span> -<i>Early Man in America</i>, in the <i>North American -Review</i>, Oct., 1883, p. 340.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1530_1530" id="Footnote_1530_1530"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1530_1530"><span class="label">[1530]</span></a></span> -<i>The Auriferous Gravels</i>, etc., p. 273.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1531_1531" id="Footnote_1531_1531"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1531_1531"><span class="label">[1531]</span></a></span> -<i>Ibid.</i> p. 242.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1532_1532" id="Footnote_1532_1532"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1532_1532"><span class="label">[1532]</span></a></span> -<i>Sixth annual report of the U. S. Geol. Surv. -of the Territories</i>, p. 29.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1533_1533" id="Footnote_1533_1533"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1533_1533"><span class="label">[1533]</span></a></span> -<i>Ibid.</i> p. 44.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1534_1534" id="Footnote_1534_1534"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1534_1534"><span class="label">[1534]</span></a></span> -<i>The Auriferous Gravels</i>, etc., p. 281.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1535_1535" id="Footnote_1535_1535"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1535_1535"><span class="label">[1535]</span></a></span> -<i>The Antiquity of Man in North America</i>, p. -679.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1536_1536" id="Footnote_1536_1536"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1536_1536"><span class="label">[1536]</span></a></span> -<i>Proc. of Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.</i>, vol. xxiii, -p. 269.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1537_1537" id="Footnote_1537_1537"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1537_1537"><span class="label">[1537]</span></a></span> -<i>Reports of Peabody Museum</i>, vol. iii. pp. 177, -408; iv. p. 35.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1538_1538" id="Footnote_1538_1538"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1538_1538"><span class="label">[1538]</span></a></span> -<i>Early Man in Britain</i>, by W. Boyd Dawkins, -p. 167.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1539_1539" id="Footnote_1539_1539"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1539_1539"><span class="label">[1539]</span></a></span> -Dr. H. Ten Kate in <i>Science</i>, vol. xii. p. 228 -(November 9, 1888).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1540_1540" id="Footnote_1540_1540"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1540_1540"><span class="label">[1540]</span></a></span> -<i>Notes on the Crania of the N. E. Indians</i>, -by Lucien Carr, p. 9 (<i>Anniversary Memoirs of -Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.</i>), 1880.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1541_1541" id="Footnote_1541_1541"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1541_1541"><span class="label">[1541]</span></a></span> -<i>The Standard Natural History</i>, ed. by J. S. -Kingsley, vol. vi. p. 143.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1542_1542" id="Footnote_1542_1542"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1542_1542"><span class="label">[1542]</span></a></span> -<i>The Mammoth and the Flood</i>, by Henry H. -Howorth, p. 316 (London, 1887).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1543_1543" id="Footnote_1543_1543"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1543_1543"><span class="label">[1543]</span></a></span> -<i>Fossil Men and their modern Representatives</i>, -by J. W. Dawson, p. 106 <i>et seq.</i> (London, 1880).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1544_1544" id="Footnote_1544_1544"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1544_1544"><span class="label">[1544]</span></a></span> -<i>Le Maconnais Préhistorique, ... ouvrage -posthume par H. De Ferry ... avec notes et cet. -par A. Arcelin</i>, Mâcon, 1870.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1545_1545" id="Footnote_1545_1545"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1545_1545"><span class="label">[1545]</span></a></span> -<i>The Auriferous Gravels</i>, etc., p. 287.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1546_1546" id="Footnote_1546_1546"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1546_1546"><span class="label">[1546]</span></a></span> -<i>Primitive Industry; or Illustrations of the -Handiwork in Stone, Bone, and Clay of the Native -Races of the Northern Atlantic Seaboard of -America</i>, by Charles C. Abbott (Salem and Boston, -1881), p. 3.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1547_1547" id="Footnote_1547_1547"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1547_1547"><span class="label">[1547]</span></a></span> -<i>Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.</i>, vol. xxiii. p. -422.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1548_1548" id="Footnote_1548_1548"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1548_1548"><span class="label">[1548]</span></a></span> -<i>Proc. of Am. Assoc. for Adv. of Science</i>, vol. -xxxvii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1549_1549" id="Footnote_1549_1549"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1549_1549"><span class="label">[1549]</span></a></span> -<i>Primitive Industry</i>, p. 253.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1550_1550" id="Footnote_1550_1550"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1550_1550"><span class="label">[1550]</span></a></span> -<i>Ibid.</i> p. 262.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1551_1551" id="Footnote_1551_1551"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1551_1551"><span class="label">[1551]</span></a></span> -<i>Primitive Industry</i>, p. 276 <i>et seq.</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1552_1552" id="Footnote_1552_1552"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1552_1552"><span class="label">[1552]</span></a></span> -<i>Ibid.</i> p. 515, <i>note</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1553_1553" id="Footnote_1553_1553"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1553_1553"><span class="label">[1553]</span></a></span> -<i>Proc. of Am. Assoc. for Adv. of Science</i>, vol. xxxvii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1554_1554" id="Footnote_1554_1554"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1554_1554"><span class="label">[1554]</span></a></span> -Peter Kalm, <i>Travels into North America, translated by J. R. Forster</i> (London, 1770-71), v. ii. p. 17.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1555_1555" id="Footnote_1555_1555"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1555_1555"><span class="label">[1555]</span></a></span> -<i>Primitive Industry</i>, p. 462.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1556_1556" id="Footnote_1556_1556"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1556_1556"><span class="label">[1556]</span></a></span> -<i>Proc. of Amer. Assoc. for Adv. of Science</i>, vol. -xxxvii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1557_1557" id="Footnote_1557_1557"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1557_1557"><span class="label">[1557]</span></a></span> -<i>Rep. of Peabody Museum</i>, vol. iv. p. 43.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1558_1558" id="Footnote_1558_1558"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1558_1558"><span class="label">[1558]</span></a></span> -Vol. ix. p. 363.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1559_1559" id="Footnote_1559_1559"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1559_1559"><span class="label">[1559]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. pp. 144 and 187.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1560_1560" id="Footnote_1560_1560"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1560_1560"><span class="label">[1560]</span></a></span> -<i>Companions of Columbus</i>, p. 28.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1561_1561" id="Footnote_1561_1561"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1561_1561"><span class="label">[1561]</span></a></span> -<i>Flint Chips, a Guide to Prehistoric Archæology</i>, -by Edw. T. Stevens, p. 123.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1562_1562" id="Footnote_1562_1562"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1562_1562"><span class="label">[1562]</span></a></span> -<i>Antiquities of the Southern Indians</i>, by C. C. -Jones, p. 320.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1563_1563" id="Footnote_1563_1563"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1563_1563"><span class="label">[1563]</span></a></span> -<i>Rep. of Peabody Museum</i>, vol. iv. p. 45.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1564_1564" id="Footnote_1564_1564"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1564_1564"><span class="label">[1564]</span></a></span> -“Early Man in the Delaware Valley,” in the <i>Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.</i>, vol. xxiv.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1565_1565" id="Footnote_1565_1565"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1565_1565"><span class="label">[1565]</span></a></span> -<i>Early Man in Britain</i>, p. 173.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1566_1566" id="Footnote_1566_1566"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1566_1566"><span class="label">[1566]</span></a></span> -Waitz, <i>Introd. to Anthropology</i>, Eng. trans., p. 255, -points out the dangers of over-confidence in this research. -Cf. also J. H. McCulloh’s <i>Researches</i> (1829).</p> -<p class="pfc4">The best indications of the sources as respects the origin -of the Americans can be found in Haven’s <i>Archæology of -the United States</i> (<i>Smithsonian Contributions</i>, vii., 1856); -Bancroft’s foot-notes to his <i>Nat. Races</i>, v. ch. 1; Short, ch. -3, on the diversity of opinions; Poole’s <i>Index</i>, p. 637, and -<i>Supplement</i>, p. 274. Cf. Drake’s <i>Book of the Indians</i>, -ch. 2.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Without anticipating the characterization and mention of -the essential books later to be indicated, some miscellaneous -references may be added without much attempt at classifying -them.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Among English writers: Hyde Clarke’s <i>Researches -on prehistoric and protohistoric comparative philology, -mythology, and archæology in connection with the origin -of culture in America</i> (London, 1875). Robert Knox’s -<i>Races of Men</i> (London, 1862); J. Kennedy in his <i>Probable -origin of the American Indians</i> (London, 1854), and -in his <i>Essays, ethnological and linguistic</i> (London, 1861); -J. C. Beltrami’s <i>Pilgrimage in Europe and America</i> -(London, 1828); C. H. Smith in <i>Edinburgh New Philosophical -Journal</i>, xxxviii. 1.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Some French authorities: Nadaillac, <i>Les premiers -hommes</i>, ii. 93, and his <i>L’Amérique préhistorique</i>, ch. 10, -and to the English translation W. H. Dall adds a chapter -on this subject; Brasseur de Bourbourg’s introduction to -his <i>Popul Vuh</i> (section 4); Dabry de Thiersant’s <i>De l’origine -des indiens du nouveau monde et de leur civilisation</i> -(Paris, 1883); M. A. Baguet’s “Les races primitives des -deux Amériques” in <i>Bull. de la Soc. de Géog. d’Anvers</i>, -viii. 440; Domenech in <i>Revue Contemporaine</i>, 1st ser., -xxxiii. 283; xxxiv. 5, 284; 2d ser., iv.; Baron de Bretton’s -<i>Origines des peuples de l’Amérique</i>, in the Nancy <i>Compte-rendu, -Congrès des Américanistes</i>, i. 439.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Among German writers perhaps the most weighty are -Theodor Waitz in his <i>Anthropologie der Naturvölker</i> -(1862-66), and Carl Vogt’s <i>Vorlesungen über den Menschen</i>, -translated as <i>Lectures on Man</i> (1864).</p> -<p class="pfc4">American writers: Drake’s <i>Book of the Indians</i>, ch. 1, 2; -Doddridge’s <i>Notes on the Settlement and Indian Wars of -Virginia and Penna.</i>, ch. 3; Geo. Catlin’s <i>Life amongst -the Indians</i> (1861), and his <i>Last Rambles</i> (1867), with -extracts in <i>Smithsonian Ann. Rept.</i>, 1885, iii. 749; -Isaac McCoy’s <i>Hist. of Baptist Indian Missions</i> (Washington, -1840); Short’s <i>No. Amer. of Antiq.</i>, ch. 4, 11; -B. H. Coate’s <i>Annual Discourse before the Penna. Hist. -Soc.</i> (Philad., 1834), reviewing the various theories; also in -their <i>Memoirs</i>, iii. part 2; John Y. Smith in <i>Wisconsin -Hist. Soc. Ann. Rep.</i>, iv. 117; Dennie’s <i>Portfolio</i>, xiii. -231, 519; xiv. 7; A. R. Grote in <i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, xi. -221 (April, 1877); C. C. Abbott in <i>Ibid.</i> x. 65.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Some Canadian writers: J. Campbell in <i>Quebec Lit. and -Hist. Soc. Transactions</i> (1880-81); Napoléon Legendre’s -“Races indigénes de l’Amérique devant l’histoire” in -<i>Proc. Royal Soc. of Canada</i>, ii. 25.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1567_1567" id="Footnote_1567_1567"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1567_1567"><span class="label">[1567]</span></a></span> -The book is a rare one. Field, No. 586. Sabin, vii. -p. 157. Quaritch in 1885 had not known of a copy being -for sale in twenty years. He then had two (Nos. 28,355-56). -There is one in Harvard College Library. Garcia drew -somewhat from a manuscript of Juan de Vetanzos, a companion -of Pizarro, and he gives the native accounts of their -origin. There was a second edition, with Barcia’s Annotations, -Madrid, 1729 (Carter-Brown, iii. 432).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1568_1568" id="Footnote_1568_1568"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1568_1568"><span class="label">[1568]</span></a></span> -<i>New English Canaan</i> (Amsterdam, 1637—C. F. -Adams’ ed., 1883, pp. 125, 129).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1569_1569" id="Footnote_1569_1569"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1569_1569"><span class="label">[1569]</span></a></span> -There is an English translation in the <i>Bibliotheca -Curiosa</i>. [Edited by Edmund Goldsmidt.] (Edinburgh, -1883-85.) No. 12. <i>On the origin of the native races of -America. To which is added, A treatise on foreign languages -and unknown islands, by Peter Albinus. Translated -from the Latin.</i> The translation is unfortunate in -its blunders. Cf. H. W. Haynes in <i>The Nation</i>, Mar. 15, -1888. Grotius was b. 1583; d. 1645.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1570_1570" id="Footnote_1570_1570"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1570_1570"><span class="label">[1570]</span></a></span> -Carter-Brown, ii. 522, 523, 543.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1571_1571" id="Footnote_1571_1571"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1571_1571"><span class="label">[1571]</span></a></span> -This book is scarcer than the first (Brinley, iii. 5414-15). -There is a letter addressed to De Laet, touching Grotius, -in Claudius Morisotus’s <i>Epistolarum Centuriæ duæ</i>, -1656.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1572_1572" id="Footnote_1572_1572"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1572_1572"><span class="label">[1572]</span></a></span> -Brinley, iii. 5407-8. In Samuel Sewall’s <i>Letter Book</i>, -i. 289, is an amusing reference to the “vanities of Hornius.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1573_1573" id="Footnote_1573_1573"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1573_1573"><span class="label">[1573]</span></a></span> -Jo. Bapt. Poisson, <i>Animadversiones ad ea quæ Hugo -Grotius et Joh. Lahetius de origine gentium Peruvianarum -et Mexicanarum scripserunt</i> (Paris, 1644); Rob. -Comtæus Nortmanus, <i>De origine gentium Americanarum</i> -(Amsterdam, 1664), an academic dissertation adopting the -Phœnician view; A. Mil, <i>De origine animalium et migratione -populorum</i> (Geneva, 1667); Erasmus Franciscus, -<i>Lust- und Staatsgarten</i> (Nürnberg, 1668), with a third part -on the aboriginal inhabitants (Müller, 1877, no. 1150); Gottfried -[Godofredus] Wagner, <i>De Originibus Americanis</i> -(Leipzig, 1669); J. D. Victor, <i>Disputatio historia de America</i> -(Jena, 1670); E. P. Ljung, <i>Dissertatio de origine gentium -novi orbis prima</i> (Stregnäs [Sweden] 1676). An essay -of 1695 reprinted in the <i>Memoirs, Anthrop. Soc. of London</i>, -i. 365; Nic Witsen, <i>Noord-en-Oost Tartarye</i> (2d ed., -Amsterdam, 1705), holding to the migration from northeastern -Asia.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1574_1574" id="Footnote_1574_1574"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1574_1574"><span class="label">[1574]</span></a></span> -Cf. Alex. Catcott’s <i>Treatise on the Deluge</i> (2d ed., -enlarged, London, 1768), and A. de Ulloa’s <i>Noticias Americanas</i> -(Madrid, 1772, 1792), for speculations.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1575_1575" id="Footnote_1575_1575"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1575_1575"><span class="label">[1575]</span></a></span> -Cf. Sabin, xiv. 59,239, etc., for editions. The original -three vols. appeared in Berlin in 1768, 1769, and 1770, respectively. -The best edition, with De Pauw’s subsequent -defence and Pernetty’s attack, was issued at London in -three vols. in 1770:—</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>Recherches philosophiques sur les Américains, ou Mémoires -interessants pour servir à l’histoire de l’espèce -humaine</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>Contents</i>: Du climat de l’Amérique.—De la complexion -altérée de ses habitants.—De la découverte du Nouveau-Monde.—De -la variété de l’espèce humaine en Amérique.—De -la couleur des Américains.—Des anthropophages.—Des -Eskimaux; des Patagons.—Des Blafards et des -Négres blancs.—De l’Orang-Outang.—Des hermaphrodites -de la Floride.—De la circoncision et de l’infibulation.—Du -génie abruti des Américains.—De quelques usages -bizarres, communs aux deux continents.—De l’usage des -flèches empoisonnées chez les peuples des deux continents.—De -la religion des Américains.—Sur le grand Lama.—Sur -les vicissitudes de notre globe.—Sur le Paraguai.—Défenses -des recherches sur les Américains.—D. Pernetty. -Dissertation sur l’Amérique et les Américains contre les -recherches philosophiques de M. de Pauw.</p> -<p class="pfc4">There was an edition in French at Berlin in 1770, in 2 -vols., and, with Pernetty annexed, in 1774, in 3 vols. The -<i>Defenses</i> was printed also at Berlin in 1770. These were -all included in De Pauw’s <i>Œuvres Philosophiques</i>, published -at Paris “<i>an iii</i>.” An English translation by J. -Thomson was printed at London, 1795. Daniel Webb published -some selections in English at Bath, 1789, 1795, and -at Rochdale, 1806. Pernetty’s <i>Examen</i> was printed at -Berlin in 1769. There is another little tractate of this -time attributed to Pernetty, <i>De l’Amérique et des Américains</i> -(Berlin, 1771), in whose humor De Pauw fares no -better; but Rich has a note on the questionable attributing -of it to Pernetty, and its real author was probably C. de -Bonneville (cf. Hœfer).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1576_1576" id="Footnote_1576_1576"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1576_1576"><span class="label">[1576]</span></a></span> -<i>Delle Lettere Americane</i> (<i>opere</i>, xi.-xiv., Milano, 1784-94); -better known in J. B. L. Villebrune’s French translation, -<i>Lettres Américaines</i> (2 vols.; Paris and Boston, 1787); -Sabin, no. 10,912. There is also a German version.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1577_1577" id="Footnote_1577_1577"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1577_1577"><span class="label">[1577]</span></a></span> -<i>The United States elevated to Glory and Honor.</i> -New Haven, 1783. It is included in J. W. Thornton’s -<i>Pulpit of the Amer. Revolution</i> (Boston, 1860).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1578_1578" id="Footnote_1578_1578"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1578_1578"><span class="label">[1578]</span></a></span> -This Canaanite view, though hardly held with the -scope given by Dr. Stiles, had been asserted earlier by Gomara, -De Lery, and Lescarbot. Cf. <i>For. Quart. Rev.</i>, -Oct., 1856.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1579_1579" id="Footnote_1579_1579"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1579_1579"><span class="label">[1579]</span></a></span> -G. H. Loskiel, <i>Mission of the United Brethren among -the Indians, trans. from the German by La Trobe</i> (London, -1794). Johann Gottlieb Fritsch, <i>Disputatio historico-geographica -in qua quæritur utrum veteres Americam -noverint nec ne</i> (Curæ Regnilianæ, 1796).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1580_1580" id="Footnote_1580_1580"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1580_1580"><span class="label">[1580]</span></a></span> -<i>Observations on some Parts of Nat. Hist.</i>, Lond., 1787.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1581_1581" id="Footnote_1581_1581"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1581_1581"><span class="label">[1581]</span></a></span> -Pilling, <i>Bibliog. Siouan languages</i> (1887, p. 4).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1582_1582" id="Footnote_1582_1582"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1582_1582"><span class="label">[1582]</span></a></span> -<i>Hist. North Carolina</i>, 1811-12.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1583_1583" id="Footnote_1583_1583"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1583_1583"><span class="label">[1583]</span></a></span> -Haven, <i>Archæol. U. States</i>, 35. Cf. Mitchell’s papers -in the <i>Archæeologia Americana</i>, i.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1584_1584" id="Footnote_1584_1584"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1584_1584"><span class="label">[1584]</span></a></span> -There is a fair sample of the conjectural habit of the -time in the paper of Moses Fiske, in the first volume of the -Society’s <i>Transactions</i>, 300.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1585_1585" id="Footnote_1585_1585"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1585_1585"><span class="label">[1585]</span></a></span> -<i>Mexico</i>, Kirk’s ed., iii. 375.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1586_1586" id="Footnote_1586_1586"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1586_1586"><span class="label">[1586]</span></a></span> -<i>Archæol.</i> <i>U. S.</i>, 48.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1587_1587" id="Footnote_1587_1587"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1587_1587"><span class="label">[1587]</span></a></span> -<i>Hist. of Tennessee</i>, Nashville, 1823.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1588_1588" id="Footnote_1588_1588"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1588_1588"><span class="label">[1588]</span></a></span> -Introd. to Marshall’s <i>Kentucky</i>, 1824; <i>The Anc. Mts. -of N. & S. America</i>, 2d ed., 1838, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1589_1589" id="Footnote_1589_1589"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1589_1589"><span class="label">[1589]</span></a></span> -<i>Amer. Antiq. and Discoveries in the West</i>, 1833, which -Rafinesque thought largely taken from him. Cf. Haven -on these writers, pp. 38-41; Sabin, xv. 65, 484.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1590_1590" id="Footnote_1590_1590"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1590_1590"><span class="label">[1590]</span></a></span> -Pilling, <i>Bibliog. Siouan languages</i>, pp. 47, 48.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1591_1591" id="Footnote_1591_1591"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1591_1591"><span class="label">[1591]</span></a></span> -Peschel, <i>Races of Men</i> (London, 1876), p. 32.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1592_1592" id="Footnote_1592_1592"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1592_1592"><span class="label">[1592]</span></a></span> -Eng. transl. in <i>Memoirs, Anthropological Society of -London</i>, i. 372.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1593_1593" id="Footnote_1593_1593"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1593_1593"><span class="label">[1593]</span></a></span> -There is a summary of the progressive conflict on the -question of the unity and plurality of races in the introduction -to Topinard’s <i>Anthropology</i>. Cf. Peschel’s <i>Races of -Man</i> (Eng. transl., N. Y., 1876), p. 6.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1594_1594" id="Footnote_1594_1594"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1594_1594"><span class="label">[1594]</span></a></span> -The idea in general was not wholly new. Capt. Bernard -Romans, in his <i>Concise Nat. Hist. of East and West -Florida</i> (N. Y., 1776), had expressed the opinion “that -God created an original man and woman in this part of the -globe of different species from any in the other parts” -(p. 38). Clavigero, in 1780, believed that the distinct linguistic -traits of the Americans pointed to something like -an independent origin. Cf. W. D. Whitney on the “Bearing -of Languages on the Unity of Man,” in <i>North Amer. -Review</i>, cv. 214.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1595_1595" id="Footnote_1595_1595"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1595_1595"><span class="label">[1595]</span></a></span> -Cf. Jeffries Wyman in <i>No. Am. Rev.</i>, li.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1596_1596" id="Footnote_1596_1596"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1596_1596"><span class="label">[1596]</span></a></span> -Cardinal Wiseman’s <i>Lectures</i>, 5th ed., London, p. -158.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1597_1597" id="Footnote_1597_1597"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1597_1597"><span class="label">[1597]</span></a></span> -Described in <i>Trans. Amer. Ethnol. Soc.</i>, ii. The collection -went to the Acad. of Natural Sciences in Philad., -and is examined by Dr. J. Austin Meigs in its <i>Proc.</i>, 1860. -Cf. Meigs’s <i>Catalogue of human crania in the Acad. -Nat. Sci.</i> (Philad., 1857).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1598_1598" id="Footnote_1598_1598"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1598_1598"><span class="label">[1598]</span></a></span> -Morton’s latest results are given in a paper, “The physical -type of the American Indian,” left unfinished, but -completed by John S. Phillips, and printed in Schoolcraft’s -<i>Indian Tribes</i>, ii. He also printed <i>An Inquiry into the -distinctive characteristics of the Aboriginal Race of -America</i> (Boston, 1842; Philad., 1844); and <i>Some Observations -in the Ethnography and Archæology of the American -Aborigines</i> (N. Haven, 1846,—from the <i>Amer. Jour. -of Science</i>, 2d ser., ii.). Cf. <i>Trans. Amer. Ethnol. Soc.</i> -ii. 219. Cf. Allibone’s <i>Dictionary</i>, ii. 1376. It is certainly -evident that skull capacity is no sure measure of intelligence, -and the Indian custom of misshaping the head offers -some serious obstacles in the study. Cf. Nadaillac, -<i>L’Amér. préhist.</i>, 512; L. A. Gosse, <i>Les déformations -artificielles du crane</i> (Paris, 1855); Daniel Wilson’s “Indications -of Ancient Customs suggested by certain cranial -forms,” in <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i> (1863); Dabry de -Thiersant’s <i>Origine des indiens du Nouveau Monde</i>, -p. 12; W. F. Whitney, on “Anomalies, injuries and diseases -of the bones of the native races of No. America,” -in <i>Peabody Mus. Rept.</i>, xviii. 434. On the difficulties of -the study see Lucien Carr in <i>Ibid.</i> xi. 361; Flower in the -<i>Journal Anthropological Institute</i>, May, 1885; Dawson, -<i>Fossil Men</i>, chap. 7. Further see: Anders Retzius, on -“The Present State of Ethnology in relation to the form -of the human skull,” in <i>Smithson. Rept.</i>, 1859; Waitz’s -<i>Introd. to Anthropology</i>, Eng. transl., pp. 233, 261; Carl -Vogt’s <i>Lectures on Man</i> (lect. 2); A. Quatrefages and E. T. -Hamy, <i>Crania Ethica</i> (Paris, 1873-77); Nott and Gliddon, -<i>Types of Mankind</i>; Nadaillac’s <i>L’Amérique préhist.</i>, -ch. 9, and <i>Les premiers hommes</i>, i. ch. 3.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1599_1599" id="Footnote_1599_1599"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1599_1599"><span class="label">[1599]</span></a></span> -An anonymous book, <i>The Genesis of Earth and -Man</i> (Edinburgh, 1856), places the negro as the primal -stock, and traces out the higher races by variation.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1600_1600" id="Footnote_1600_1600"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1600_1600"><span class="label">[1600]</span></a></span> -Dr. Nott had given some indication of his views in -“An Examination of the physical history of the Jews in its -bearing on the question of the Unity of the Races” (<i>Amer. -Asso. Adv. Sci. Proc.</i>, iii. 1850).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1601_1601" id="Footnote_1601_1601"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1601_1601"><span class="label">[1601]</span></a></span> -Cf. References in Allibone, i. 678; <i>Poole’s Index</i>, p. -796.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1602_1602" id="Footnote_1602_1602"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1602_1602"><span class="label">[1602]</span></a></span> -The editor’s collaborateurs were Alfred Maury, Francis -Palszky, J. Aitken Meigs, J. Leidy, and Louis Agassiz. -Nott had in the interval since his previous book furnished -an appendix on the unity or plurality of Races to the -English transl. of Gobineau’s <i>Moral Diversity of Races</i> -(Philad., 1856).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1603_1603" id="Footnote_1603_1603"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1603_1603"><span class="label">[1603]</span></a></span> -Haven gives a summary of the arguments of each -(p. 90, etc.). For various views on this side see Southall’s -<i>Recent Origin of Man</i>, ch. ii. 36, 37, and his <i>Epoch of the -Mammoth</i>, ch. 2, where he allows that the proofs from -traditions and customs are not conclusive; George Palmer’s -<i>Migration from Shinar; or, the Earliest Links between -the Old and New Continents</i> (London, 1879); Edward -Fontaine’s <i>How the World was Peopled</i> (N. Y., 1876); Dr. -Samuel Forrey in <i>Amer. Biblical Repository</i>, July, 1843; -McClintock and Strong’s <i>Cyclopædia</i>, under “Adam”; -Henry Cowles’ <i>Pentateuch</i> (N. Y., 1874),—not to name -many others. See <i>Poole’s Index</i>, 1073.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1604_1604" id="Footnote_1604_1604"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1604_1604"><span class="label">[1604]</span></a></span> -Wilson’s first criticism was in the <i>Canadian Journal</i> -(1857); then in the <i>Edinburgh Philosophical Journal</i> -(Jan., 1858); in the <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i> (1862), p. 240, on -the “American Cranial Type;” and in his <i>Prehist. Man</i> -(ii. ch. 20). Latham’s <i>Nat. Hist. of the Varieties of Man</i>. -Charles Pickering’s <i>Races of Men</i> (1848). The orthodox -monogenism of A. de Quatrefages is expressed in his <i>De -l’unité de l’espèce humaine</i> (Paris, 1864, 1869); in his <i>Hist. -générale des Races humaines</i> (Paris, 1887); in his <i>Human -Species</i> (N. Y., 1879), and in papers in <i>Revue des Cours -Scientifiques</i>, 1864-5, 1867-8; in his <i>Nat. Hist. of Man</i> -(Eng. transl., N. Y., 1875); in <i>Catholic World</i>, vii. 67; -and in <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, i. 61.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Cf. further, Retzius in <i>Archives des Sciences Naturelles</i> -(Genève, 1845-52); Col. Chas. Hamilton Smith’s <i>Nat. Hist. -Human Species</i> (1848); Dawson in <i>Leisure Hour</i>, xxiii. -813, and in his <i>Fossil Men</i>, p. 334, who holds the biblical -account to be “the most complete and scientific;” Figuier’s -<i>World before the Deluge</i> (N. Y., 1872), p. 469. Geo. -Bancroft sees no signs to reverse the old judgment respecting -a single human race.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1605_1605" id="Footnote_1605_1605"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1605_1605"><span class="label">[1605]</span></a></span> -He found all three varieties of skulls in America: the -long-headed (dolichocephalic), the short-headed (brachycephalic), -and the medium (mesocephalic). He found the -long heads to predominate, except in Peru. Meigs had -earlier studied the subject in his <i>Observations on the Form -of the Occiput</i> (Philad., 1860). Cf. Busk in <i>Jour. Anthrop. -Inst.</i>, April, 1873; Wyman, in <i>Peab. Mus. Rept.</i>, -1871.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1606_1606" id="Footnote_1606_1606"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1606_1606"><span class="label">[1606]</span></a></span> -H. H. Bancroft, <i>Nat. Races</i>, v. 129, 131, gives references -on the autochthonous theory. It is held by Nadaillac, -<i>Les premiers hommes</i>, ii. 117; Fred. von Hellwald in -<i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, 1866; Bollaert’s “Contribution to an -Introduction to the Anthropology of the New World” in -<i>Memoirs, Anthrop. Society of London</i>, ii. 92; F. Müller, -<i>Allgemeine Ethnographie</i>; and Simonin, <i>L’homme -Américain</i> (Paris, 1870). F. W. Putnam (<i>Report</i> in -<i>Wheeler’s Survey</i>, vii. p. 18) says: “The primitive race -of America was as likely autochthonous and of Pliocene -age as of Asiatic origin.” The autochthonous view is -probably losing ground. Dall, in ch. 10, appended to the -English translation of Nadaillac’s <i>Prehistoric America</i>, -sums up the prevailing arguments against it. Cf. also -Dabry de Thiersant’s <i>Origine des Indiens du Nouveau -Monde</i>, ch. 1.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1607_1607" id="Footnote_1607_1607"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1607_1607"><span class="label">[1607]</span></a></span> -Cf. also Prescott’s <i>Essays</i>, 224.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1608_1608" id="Footnote_1608_1608"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1608_1608"><span class="label">[1608]</span></a></span> -This view has necessarily been abandoned in his later -editions. Cf. orig. ed., iii. 307; and final revision, ii. 130.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1609_1609" id="Footnote_1609_1609"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1609_1609"><span class="label">[1609]</span></a></span> -Haven at the end of his second chapter tries to place -Schoolcraft, and he does better than one would expect, at -that day. For Schoolcraft’s special notes on Antiquities -see his vol. i. p. 44; ii. 83; iii. 73; iv. 113; v. 85, 657. -For bibliography see Pilling, Sabin, Field, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1610_1610" id="Footnote_1610_1610"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1610_1610"><span class="label">[1610]</span></a></span> -Again he says: “Man may be assumed to be prehistoric -wherever his chroniclings of himself are undesigned, -and his history is wholly recoverable by induction. The -term has, strictly speaking, no chronological significance; -but in its relative application corresponds to other archæological, -in contradistinction to geological periods.” Of -America he says: “A continent where man may be studied -under circumstances which seem to furnish the best guarantee -of his independent development.” Dawkins (<i>Cave -hunting</i>, 136) says: “For that series of events which extends -from the borders of history back to the remote age, -where the geologist, descending the stream of time, meets -the archæologist, I have adopted the term <i>prehistoric</i>.”</p> -<p class="pfc4">The divisions of prehistoric time now most commonly employed -are: For the oldest, the Palæolithic age, as Lubbock -first termed it, which, with a shadowy termination, has an -unknown beginning, covering an interval geologically of -vast extent. It is the primitive stone age, the epoch of -flint-chippers; and but a single positive vestige of any community -of living is known to archæologists: the village of -Solutré, in Eastern France, being held by some to be associated -with man in this earlier stage of his development. -This stone period is sometimes divided in Europe into an -earlier and later period, representing respectively the men -of the river drift and of the caves. In the first period, -called sometimes that of the race of Canstadt, and by Mortillet -the Chellean period, we have, as is claimed, a savage -hunter race, represented by the Neanderthal skull; and -because in two jaw-bones discovered the genial tubercle is -undeveloped, a school of archæologists contend that the -race was speechless (Horatio Hale’s “Origin of Language,” -in <i>Am. Asso. Adv. Sci. Proc.</i>, xxxv., Cambridge, -1886; and separate, p. 31). This theory, however, seems -to rest on a misconception. Cf. Topinard on the jaw-bone -from the Naulette cave in the <i>Revue d’Anthropologie</i>, 3d -ser. i., p. 422 (1886). It is held that the ethnical relations -of this race are unknown, and it is not palpably connected -with the race of the later period, the race of the caves, which -archæologists, like Carl Vogt, Lartet, and Christy, call the -cave-bear epoch, as its evidences are found in the cave -deposits of Europe.</p> - -<div class="floatright"> - <img src="images/note-1610.jpg" width="200" height="290" id="i377" - alt="" - title="" /> - <div class="cf"><p class="pc200">FROM DAWSON’S FOSSIL MEN.</p> - <p class="pf200">A front view of a Hochelagan skull, surrounded by the outline, on a larger scale, of the Cro-magnon skull.</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="pfc4">This cave race is represented by the Cro-magnon skull, -and, as Dawkins holds, is perpetuated to-day by the Eskimo, -and was very likely also represented in the Guanches of the -Canary Islands. Quatrefages calls it the race of Cro-magnon; -and the vanishing of it into the Neolithic people is -obscure. It is claimed by some, but the evidence is questionable, -that the development of the muscles of speech -make this race the first to speak, and that thus man, as a -speaking being, is probably not ten thousand years old.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The interval before the shaped and polished stone implements -were used may have been long in some places, and -the gradation may have been confused in others; and it is -indeed sometimes said that the one and the other condition -exist in savage regions at the present day, as many archæologists -hold that they have always existed, side by side, -though this proposition is also denied. Indeed, it is a -question if the terms of the archæologist, signifying ages -or epochs, have any time value, being rather characteristics -of stages of development than of passing time. Those who -find the ruder implements to stand for a people living with -the cave-bear find, as they contend, a shorter-headed race -producing these finer stone implements, and call it the -Reindeer epoch. One of Lubbock’s terms, the Neolithic -age, has gained larger acceptance as a designation for this -period since 1865, when he introduced it. With these -polished stones we first find signs of domestic animals -and of the practice of agriculture. Any considerable collection -of these stone implements and ornaments will present -to the observer great varieties, but with steady types, -of such implements as axes, celts, hammers, knives, drills, -scrapers, mortars and pestles, pitted stones, plummets, sinkers, -spear-points, arrow-heads, daggers, pipes, gorgets,—not -to name others.</p> -<p class="pfc4">On the American stone age, see Nadaillac, <i>Les premiers -hommes</i>, p. 37; L. P. Gratacap in <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, -iv.; and W. J. McGee, in <i>Pop. Sci. Monthly</i>, Nov., -1888, for condensed views; but the student will prefer the -more enlarged views of Rau, Abbott and others.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1611_1611" id="Footnote_1611_1611"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1611_1611"><span class="label">[1611]</span></a></span> -Cambridge, Eng., 1862; revised, 1865; and largely -rewritten, London, 1876. Cf. his “Pre-Aryan American -Man,” in the <i>Roy. Soc. Canada Trans.</i>, i., 2d sect., 35, -and his “Unwritten History” in <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i> (1862).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1612_1612" id="Footnote_1612_1612"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1612_1612"><span class="label">[1612]</span></a></span> -London, 1865, 1870; N. Y., 1878.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1613_1613" id="Footnote_1613_1613"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1613_1613"><span class="label">[1613]</span></a></span> -Tylor speaks of Klemm’s <i>Allgemeine Culturgeschichte -der Menschheit</i> and his <i>Allgemeine Culturwissenschaft</i> -as containing “invaluable collections of facts bearing on -the history of civilization.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1614_1614" id="Footnote_1614_1614"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1614_1614"><span class="label">[1614]</span></a></span> -<i>Royal Inst. of Gt. Brit. Proc.</i>, reprinted in <i>Smithsonian -Rept.</i>, 1867.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1615_1615" id="Footnote_1615_1615"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1615_1615"><span class="label">[1615]</span></a></span> -<i>Internat. Cong. Prehist. Archæol. Trans.</i>, 1868.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1616_1616" id="Footnote_1616_1616"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1616_1616"><span class="label">[1616]</span></a></span> -London, 1871; 2d ed., 1874, somewhat amplified; -Boston, 1874; N. Y., 1877.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1617_1617" id="Footnote_1617_1617"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1617_1617"><span class="label">[1617]</span></a></span> -See preface to <i>Primitive Culture</i>, 1st ed.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1618_1618" id="Footnote_1618_1618"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1618_1618"><span class="label">[1618]</span></a></span> -Vols. iii. and iv. of this treatise (Leipzig, 1862-64) are -given to “Die Amerikaner,” and are provided with a list of -books on the subject, and ethnological maps of North and -South America. Brinton (<i>Myths</i>, p. 40) thinks it the best -work yet written on the American Indians, though he -thinks that Waitz errs on the religious aspects. Waitz has -fully discussed the question of climate as affecting the -development of people, and this is included with full references -in that part of his great work which in the English -translation is called an <i>Introduction to Anthropology</i>. -Wallace and other observers contend that the direct efficacy -of physical conditions is overrated, and that climate is but -one of the many factors. F. H. Cushing discusses the -question of habitation as affected by surroundings in the -<i>Fourth Ann. Rept. Bur. of Ethnol.</i>, p. 473.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1619_1619" id="Footnote_1619_1619"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1619_1619"><span class="label">[1619]</span></a></span> -Cf. Quatrefages’ <i>Les Progrès de l’Anthropologie</i> -(Paris, 1868), and Paul Topinard’s <i>Anthropology</i> (English -translation, London, 1878). Quatrefages (<i>Human Race</i>, -New York, 1879) explains the anthropological method -(p. 27).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1620_1620" id="Footnote_1620_1620"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1620_1620"><span class="label">[1620]</span></a></span> -Given in <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, Dec., 1884, p. 152; -and in the same periodical p. 264, is an account and portrait -of Tylor.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1621_1621" id="Footnote_1621_1621"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1621_1621"><span class="label">[1621]</span></a></span> -London, N. Y., 1865; 2d ed. somewhat enlarged, Lond., -1869; and later. Part of this work had appeared earlier in -the <i>National Hist. Review</i>, 1861-64, including a paper (ch. -8) on No. Amer. Archæology in Jan., 1863, which was reprinted -in the <i>Smithsonian Report</i> for 1862, and was translated -in the <i>Revue Archéologique</i>, 1865.</p> -<p class="pfc4">This book of Lubbock’s and Tylor’s correlative work -probably represent the best dealing with the subject in -English; and some such book as Jas. A. Farrer’s <i>Primitive -Manners and Customs</i> (N. Y., 1879) will lead up to -them with readers less studious. The English reader may -find some comparative treatments in the English version of -Waitz’s <i>Introd. to Anthropology</i> (p. 284), etc.; much that -is suggestive and in some way supplemental to Tylor and -Lubbock in Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i>; some vigorous and -perhaps sweeping characterizations in Lesley’s <i>Origin and -Destiny of Man</i> (ch. 6); and other aspects in Winchell’s -<i>Preadamites</i> (ch. 26), Foster’s <i>Prehistoric Races of the -U. S.</i> (ch. 9), F. A. Allen in <i>Compte Rendu, Congrès des -Américanistes</i>, 1877, vol. i. 79. Humboldt points out the -non-pastoral character of the American tribes (<i>Views of -Nature</i>, ii. 42). Helps’ <i>Realmah</i> deals with the prehistoric -condition of man.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1622_1622" id="Footnote_1622_1622"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1622_1622"><span class="label">[1622]</span></a></span> -London, N. Y., 1870; 2d ed.; 3d ed., 1875; 4th ed., -1882,—each with additions and revisions.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1623_1623" id="Footnote_1623_1623"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1623_1623"><span class="label">[1623]</span></a></span> -Cf. his <i>Studies in Anc. Hist.</i> He elucidates the early -practice of capturing a wife, and controverts Morgan’s -<i>Ancient Society</i>. Cf. W. F. Allen in <i>Penn. Monthly</i>, -June, 1880.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1624_1624" id="Footnote_1624_1624"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1624_1624"><span class="label">[1624]</span></a></span> -Cf. also his “Early Condition of Man,” in <i>British -Ass. Proc.</i>, 1867; and Lyell’s <i>Principles of Geology</i>, 11th -ed., ii. 485; Dawkins in <i>No. Amer. Rev.</i>, Oct., 1883, p. -348.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1625_1625" id="Footnote_1625_1625"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1625_1625"><span class="label">[1625]</span></a></span> -Darwin took Lubbock’s side, <i>Descent of Man</i>, i. 174. -Bradford, in his <i>American Antiquities</i>, held the barbarous -American to be a degraded remnant of a society originally -more cultivated; and a similar view was held by S. F. -Jarvis in his <i>Discourse</i> before the New York Hist. Soc. -(Proc., iii., N. Y., 1821). Cf. Büchner’s <i>Man</i>, Eng. transl., -67, 276. Rawlinson (<i>Antiquity of man historically considered</i>) -considers savagery a “corruption and degradation,—the -result of adverse circumstances during a long -period.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1626_1626" id="Footnote_1626_1626"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1626_1626"><span class="label">[1626]</span></a></span> -N. Y., 1869; originally in <i>Good Words</i>, Mar.-June, -1868.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1627_1627" id="Footnote_1627_1627"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1627_1627"><span class="label">[1627]</span></a></span> -Dawson’s <i>Fossil Men and their modern representatives</i> -(London, 1880, 1883) is “an attempt to illustrate the -characters and conditions of prehistoric men in Europe by -those of the American races.” A conservative reliance on -the biblical record, as long understood, characterizes Dawson’s -usual speculations. Cf. his <i>Nature and the Bible</i>, -his <i>Story of the Earth</i>, his <i>Origin of the World</i>, and his -<i>Address</i> as president of the geological section of the -Amer. Association in 1876. He confronts his opponents’ -views of the long periods necessary to effect geographical -changes by telling them that in historic times “the Hyrcanian -ocean has dried up and Atlantis has gone down.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1628_1628" id="Footnote_1628_1628"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1628_1628"><span class="label">[1628]</span></a></span> -Dawson (<i>Fossil Men</i>, 218) says: “I think that American -archæologists and geologists must refuse to accept the -distinction of a palæolithic from a neolithic period until -further evidence can be obtained.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1629_1629" id="Footnote_1629_1629"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1629_1629"><span class="label">[1629]</span></a></span> -These are very nearly the views of Winchell in his -<i>Preadamites</i>, p. 420.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1630_1630" id="Footnote_1630_1630"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1630_1630"><span class="label">[1630]</span></a></span> -Cf. his papers in <i>Methodist Quarterly</i>, xxxvi. 581; -xxxvii. 29.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1631_1631" id="Footnote_1631_1631"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1631_1631"><span class="label">[1631]</span></a></span> -This is also considered important evidence by Dawson, -as well as Winchell’s estimate, in his <i>5th Report, Minnesota -Geol. Survey</i> (1876), of the 8,000 or 9,000 years necessary -for the falls of St. Anthony to have worked back from Fort -Snelling. Edw. Fontaine’s <i>How the World was peopled</i> -(N. Y., 1872) is another expression of this recent-origin -belief.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1632_1632" id="Footnote_1632_1632"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1632_1632"><span class="label">[1632]</span></a></span> -This cataclysmic element of force, as opposed to the -gradual uniformity theory of Lyell, finds expounders in -Huxley and Prestwich, and is the burden of H. H. Howorth’s -<i>Mammoth and the Flood</i> (London, 1887) in its -palæontological and archæological aspects, its geological -aspects having been touched by him so far only in some -papers in the <i>Geological Mag.</i> This great overthrow of -the gigantic animals, during which the man intermediate -between the palæolithic and neolithic age lived, was not -universal, so that the less unwieldy species largely saved -themselves; and it was in effect the scriptural flood, of -which traditions were widely preserved among the North -American tribes (<i>Mammoth and the Flood</i>, 307, 444).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1633_1633" id="Footnote_1633_1633"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1633_1633"><span class="label">[1633]</span></a></span> -Southall answered his detractors in the <i>Methodist -Quarterly</i>, xxxvii. 225. Geo. Rawlinson (<i>Antiq. of Man -historically considered, Present Day Tract, No. 9</i>, or -<i>Journal of Christian Philosophy</i>, April, 1883) speaks of -the antiquity of prehistoric man as involving considerations -“to a large extent speculative” as to limits, “that are to -be measured not so much by centuries as by millenia.” -He condenses the arguments for a recent origin of man.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1634_1634" id="Footnote_1634_1634"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1634_1634"><span class="label">[1634]</span></a></span> -There is a cursory survey in John Scoffern’s <i>Stray -leaves of science and folk lore</i> (London, 1870).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1635_1635" id="Footnote_1635_1635"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1635_1635"><span class="label">[1635]</span></a></span> -Cf. his papers in <i>Leisure Hour</i>, xxiii. 740, 766; -xxvi. 54.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1636_1636" id="Footnote_1636_1636"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1636_1636"><span class="label">[1636]</span></a></span> -Current periodical views can be traced in Poole’s -<i>Index</i> (vols. i. and ii.) under “Man,” “Races,” “Prehistoric,” -etc.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The views of the cosmogonists, running back to the beginning -of the sixteenth century, are followed down to the -birth of modern geology in Pattison’s <i>The Earth and -the Word</i> (Lond., 1858), and condensed in M’Clintock & -Strong’s <i>Cyclopædia</i> (iii. 795).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1637_1637" id="Footnote_1637_1637"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1637_1637"><span class="label">[1637]</span></a></span> -<i>Verse 1.</i> In the beginning God created the heaven -and the earth.</p> -<p class="pft4"><i>Verse 2.</i> And the earth was without form and void, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1638_1638" id="Footnote_1638_1638"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1638_1638"><span class="label">[1638]</span></a></span> -Cf. also J. D. Whitney’s <i>Climatic Changes</i>. The -present proportion of land to water is reckoned as four is -to eleven. The ocean’s average depth is variously estimated -at from eleven to thirteen times that of the average elevation -of land above water, or as 11,000 or 13,000 feet is to -1,000 feet. The bulk of water on the globe is computed -at thirty-six times the cubic measurement of the land above -water (<i>Ibid.</i> 194, 209).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1639_1639" id="Footnote_1639_1639"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1639_1639"><span class="label">[1639]</span></a></span> -For an extended discussion of the Atlantis question, -see <i>ante</i>, ch. 1.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1640_1640" id="Footnote_1640_1640"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1640_1640"><span class="label">[1640]</span></a></span> -It is enough to indicate the necessary correlation of -this subject with the transformation theory of J. B. A. Lamarck -as enunciated in his <i>Philosophie Zoologique</i> (Paris, -1809; again, 1873), which Cuvier opposed; and with the -new phase of it in what is called Darwinism, a theory of -the survival of the fittest, leading ultimately to man. -Lyell (<i>Principles of Geology</i>, 11th ed., ii, 495) presents -the diverse sides of the question, which is one hardly germane -to our present purpose.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1641_1641" id="Footnote_1641_1641"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1641_1641"><span class="label">[1641]</span></a></span> -London, 1863, 3 eds., each enlarged; Philad., 1863. -In his final edition Lyell acknowledges his obligations to -Lubbock’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i> and John Evans’s <i>Anc. Stone -Implements</i>. His final edition is called: <i>The geological -evidences of the antiquity of man, with an outline of glacial -and post-tertiary geology and remarks on the origin -of species with special reference to man’s first appearance -on the earth</i>. 4th ed., revised (London, 1873).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1642_1642" id="Footnote_1642_1642"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1642_1642"><span class="label">[1642]</span></a></span> -<i>Recent Origin of Man</i>, p. 10.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1643_1643" id="Footnote_1643_1643"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1643_1643"><span class="label">[1643]</span></a></span> -Another way of looking at it gives reasons for this -omission: “The first chapter of Genesis is not a geological -treatise. It is absolutely valueless in geological discussion, -and has no value whatever save as representing what the -Jews borrowed from the Babylonians, and as preserving for -us an early cosmology” (Howorth’s <i>Mammoth and the -Flood</i>, Lond., 1887, p. ix). Between Lyell and Gabriel de -Mortillet (<i>La préhistorique Antiquité de l’Homme</i>, Paris, -1881) on the one hand and Southall on the other, there are -the more cautious geologists, like Prestwich, who claim that -we must wait before we can think of measuring by years -the interval from the earliest men. (Cf. “Theoretical -considerations on the drift containing implements,” in <i>Roy. -Soc. Philos. Trans.</i>, 1862)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1644_1644" id="Footnote_1644_1644"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1644_1644"><span class="label">[1644]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, Apr., 1873, p. 33.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1645_1645" id="Footnote_1645_1645"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1645_1645"><span class="label">[1645]</span></a></span> -Winchell’s book is an enlargement of an article contributed -by him to M’Clintock and Strong’s <i>Cyclopædia of -Biblical literature</i>, etc. (vol viii., 1879),—the editors of -which, by their foot-notes, showed themselves uneasy under -some of his inferences and conclusions, which do not agree -with their conservative views.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1646_1646" id="Footnote_1646_1646"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1646_1646"><span class="label">[1646]</span></a></span> -Lois Agassiz advanced (1863) this view of the first -emergence of land in America, in the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>, -xi. 373; also in <i>Geol. Sketches</i>, p. 1,—marking the Laurentian -hills along the Canadian borders of the United -States as the primal continent. Cf. Nott and Gliddon’s -<i>Types of Mankind</i>, ch. 9. Mortillet holds that so late -as the early quaternary period Europe was connected with -America by a region now represented by the Faröes, Iceland, -and Greenland. Some general references on the -antiquity of man in America follow:—Wilson, <i>Prehistoric -Man</i>. Short’s <i>No. Amer. of Antiq.</i>, ch. 2. Nadaillac, -<i>Les Premiers Hommes</i>, ii. ch. 8. Foster, <i>Prehistoric -Races of the U. S.</i>, and <i>Chicago Acad. of Sciences, Proc.</i>, -i. (1869). Joly, <i>Man before Metals</i>, ch. 7. Emil -Schmidt, <i>Die ältesten Spuren des Menschen in Nord -Amerika</i> (Hamburg, 1887). A. R. Wallace in <i>Nineteenth -Century</i> (Nov., 1887, or <i>Living Age</i>, clxxv. 472). <i>Pop. -Science Monthly</i>, Mar., 1877. An epitome in <i>Science</i>, -Apr. 3, 1885, of a paper by Dr. Kollmann in the <i>Zeitschrift -für Ethnologie</i>. F. Larkin, <i>Ancient Man in America</i> -(N. Y., 1880). The biblical record restrains Southall in -all his estimates of the antiquity of man in America, as -shown in his <i>Recent Origin of Man</i>, ch. 36, and <i>Epoch of -the Mammoth</i>, ch. 25.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1647_1647" id="Footnote_1647_1647"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1647_1647"><span class="label">[1647]</span></a></span> -Hugh Falconer (<i>Palæontological Memoirs</i>, ii. 579) -says: “The earliest date to which man has as yet been -traced back in Europe is probably but as yesterday in -comparison with the epoch at which he made his appearance -in more favored regions.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1648_1648" id="Footnote_1648_1648"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1648_1648"><span class="label">[1648]</span></a></span> -Cf. also Putnam’s <i>Report</i> in Wheeler’s Survey, 1879, -p. 11.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1649_1649" id="Footnote_1649_1649"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1649_1649"><span class="label">[1649]</span></a></span> -Cf. H. H. Bancroft, iv. 703: Short, 125, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1650_1650" id="Footnote_1650_1650"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1650_1650"><span class="label">[1650]</span></a></span> -Dr. Brinton concludes that since the region is one of a -rapid deposition of strata, the tracks may not be older than -quaternary. The track here figured was 9½ inches long; -some were 10 inches. The maximum stride was 18 inches. -Cf. Dr. Earl Flint in <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i> (vi. 112), Mar., -1884, and (vii. 156) May,1885; <i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i>, -1884, p. 356; 1885, p. 414; <i>Amer. Ant. Soc. Proc.</i>, 1884, -p. 92.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1651_1651" id="Footnote_1651_1651"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1651_1651"><span class="label">[1651]</span></a></span> -<i>Story of the Earth and Man.</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1652_1652" id="Footnote_1652_1652"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1652_1652"><span class="label">[1652]</span></a></span> -<i>The Great Ice-Age, and its Relations to the Antiquity -of Man</i> (1874).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1653_1653" id="Footnote_1653_1653"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1653_1653"><span class="label">[1653]</span></a></span> -<i>Mammoth and the Flood.</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1654_1654" id="Footnote_1654_1654"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1654_1654"><span class="label">[1654]</span></a></span> -“We cannot fix a date, in the historical sense, for -events which happened outside history, and cannot measure -the antiquity of man in terms of years.” Dawkins in <i>No. -Am. Rev.</i>, Oct., 1883, p. 338. Tylor (<i>Early Hist. of -Mankind</i>, 197) says “Geological evidence, though capable -of showing the lapse of vast periods of time, has scarcely -admitted of these periods being brought into definite chronological -terms.” Prestwich (<i>On the geol. position and -age of flint-implement-bearing beds</i>, London, 1864,—from -the <i>Roy. Soc. Phil. Trans.</i>) says: “However we extend -our present chronology with respect to the first appearance -of men, it is at present unsafe and premature to count by -hundreds of thousands of years.” Southall (<i>Recent Origin -of Man</i>, ch. 33) epitomizes the extreme views of the advocates -of glaciation in the present temperate zone.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1655_1655" id="Footnote_1655_1655"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1655_1655"><span class="label">[1655]</span></a></span> -Cf. Louis Agassiz, <i>Geological Sketches</i> (1865), p. 210; -2d series (1886), p. 77.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1656_1656" id="Footnote_1656_1656"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1656_1656"><span class="label">[1656]</span></a></span> -J. Adhémer, <i>Revolutions de la Mer</i>, who advocates this -theory, connects with it the movement of the apsides, and -thinks that it is the consequent great accumulation of ice at -the north pole which by its weight displaces the centre of -gravity; and as the action is transferred from one pole to -the other, the periodic oscillation of that centre of gravity -is thus caused. The theory no doubt borrows something of -its force with some minds from the great law of mutability -in nature. That it is a grand field for such theorizers as -Lorenzo Burge, his <i>Preglacial Man and the Aryan Race</i> -shows; but authorities like Lyell and Sir John Herschel -find no sufficient reason in it for the great ice-sheet which -they contend for. Cf. H. Le Hon’s <i>Influence des lois -cosmiques sur la climatologie et la géologie</i> (Bruxelles, -1868). W. B. Galloway’s <i>Science and Geology in relation -to the Universal Deluge</i> (Lond., 1888) points out what he -thinks the necessary effects of such changes of axis. J. D. -Whitney (<i>Climatic changes of later geological times, -Mem. Mus. Comp. Zoöl.</i>, vii. 392, 394) disbelieves all -these views, and contends that the most eminent astronomers -and climatologists are opposed to them.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1657_1657" id="Footnote_1657_1657"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1657_1657"><span class="label">[1657]</span></a></span> -Of the manifold reasons which have been assigned for -these great climatic changes (Lubbock, <i>Prehistoric Times</i>, -391, and Croll, <i>Discussions</i>, enumerates the principal reasons) -there is at least some considerable credence given to the one -of which James Croll has been the most prominent advocate, -and which points to that reduction of the eccentricity -of the earth’s orbit which in 22,000 years will be diminished -from the present scale to one sixth of it, or to about half a -million miles. This change in the eccentricity induces -physical changes, which allow a greater or less volume of -tropical water to flow north. In this way the once mild -climate of Greenland is accounted for (Wallace’s <i>Island -Life</i>). Croll first advanced his views in the Philosophical -Mag., Aug., 1864; but he did not completely formulate his -theory till in his <i>Climate and time in their geological -relations, a theory of secular changes of the earth’s -climate</i> (N. Y., 1875). It gained the acquiescence of Lyell -and others; but a principal objector appeared in the astronomer -Simon Newcomb (<i>Amer. Jl. of Sci. and Arts</i>, -April, 1876; Jan., 1884; <i>Philosoph. Mag.</i>, Feb., 1884). -Croll answered in <i>Remarks</i> (London, 1884), but more -fully in a further development of his views in his <i>Discussions -on Climate and Cosmology</i> (N. Y., 1886). Whitney’s -<i>Climatic Changes</i> argues on entirely different grounds.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1658_1658" id="Footnote_1658_1658"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1658_1658"><span class="label">[1658]</span></a></span> -<i>Principles of Geology</i>, ch. 10-13, where he gives a -secondary place to the arguments of Croll.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1659_1659" id="Footnote_1659_1659"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1659_1659"><span class="label">[1659]</span></a></span> -Emile Cartailhac’s <i>L’Age de pierre dans les souvenirs -et superstitions populaires</i> (Paris, 1877).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1660_1660" id="Footnote_1660_1660"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1660_1660"><span class="label">[1660]</span></a></span> -Joly, <i>L’Homme avant les métaux</i>, or in the English -transl., <i>Man before Metals</i>, ch. 2. Nadaillac (<i>Les Premiers -Hommes</i>, i. 127) reproduces Mahudel’s cuts.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1661_1661" id="Footnote_1661_1661"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1661_1661"><span class="label">[1661]</span></a></span> -Foster, <i>Prehistoric Races</i>, 50, notes some obscure -facts which might indicate that man lived back of the -glacial times, in the Miocene tertiary period. These are -the discoveries associated with the names of Desnoyers and -the Abbé Bourgeois, and familiar enough to geologists. -They have found little credence. Cf. Lubbock’s <i>Prehistoric -Times</i>, 410, and his <i>Scientific Lectures</i>, 140; Büchner’s -<i>Man</i>, p. 31; Nadaillac’s <i>Les Premiers Hommes</i>, ii, -425; and <i>L’Homme tertiaire</i> (Paris, 1885); Peschel’s -<i>Races of Men</i>, p. 34; Edward Clodd in <i>Modern Review</i>, -July, 1880; Dawkins’ <i>Address</i>, Salford, 1877, p. 9; Joly, -<i>Man before Metals</i>, 177. Quatrefages (<i>Human Species</i>, -N. Y., 1879, p. 150) assents to their authenticity. Many of -these look to the later tertiary (Pliocene) as the beginning -of the human epoch; but Dawkins (<i>No. Am. Rev.</i>, cxxxvii, -338; cf. his <i>Early Man in Britain</i>, p. 90), as well as Huxley, -say that all real knowledge of man goes not back of -the quaternary. Cf. further, Quatrefages, <i>Introd. à l’étude -des races humaines</i> (Paris, 1887), p. 91; and his <i>Nat. Hist. -Man</i> (N. Y., 1874), p. 44.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Winchell (McClintock and Strong’s <i>Cyclopædia</i>, viii. 491-2, -and in his <i>Preadamites</i>) concisely classes the evidences of -tertiary man as “Preglacial remains erroneously supposed -human,” and “Human remains erroneously supposed pre-glacial;” -but he confines these conclusions to Europe only, -allowing that the American non-Caucasian man might, -perhaps, be carried back (p. 492) into the tertiary age.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Cf. on the tertiary (Pliocene) man, E. S. Morse in -<i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, xviii. 1001,—an address at the Philad. -meeting, Am. Asso. Adv. Science and his earlier paper -in the <i>No. Amer. Rev.</i>; C. C. Abbott in <i>Kansas City -Rev.</i>, iii. 413 (also see iv. 84, 326); <i>Cornhill Mag.</i>, li. 254 -(also in <i>Pop. Sci. Monthly</i>, xxvii. 103, and <i>Eclectic Mag.</i>, -civ. 601). Dr. Morton believed that the Eocene man, of -the oldest tertiary group, would yet be discovered. Agassiz, -in 1865 (<i>Geol. Sketches</i>, 200), thought the younger naturalists -would live to see sufficient proofs of the tertiary -man adduced. S. R. Pattison (<i>Age of Man geologically -considered in Present Day Tract, no. 13</i>, or <i>Journal of -Christ. Philos.</i> July, 1883) does not believe in the tertiary -man, instancing, among other conclusions, that no trace of -cereals is found in the tertiary strata, and that these strata -show other conditions unfavorable to human life. His -conclusions are that man has existed only about 8,000 years, -and that it is impossible for geological science at present to -confute or disprove it. In his view man appeared in the -first stage of the quaternary period, was displaced by -floods in the second, and for the third lived and worked on -the present surface.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1662_1662" id="Footnote_1662_1662"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1662_1662"><span class="label">[1662]</span></a></span> -Lyell’s <i>Antiquity of Man</i>, 4th ed., ch. 18. Daniel -Wilson, on “The supposed evidence of the existence of -interglacial man,” in the <i>Canadian Journal</i>, Oct., 1877. -Nadaillac’s <i>L’Amérique préhistorique</i>, ch. 1; <i>Les Premiers -Hommes</i>, ii. ch. 10; and his <i>De la période glaciaire et de -l’existence de l’homme durant cette période en Amérique</i> -(Paris, 1884), extracted from <i>Matériaux</i>, etc. G. F. Wright -on “Man and the glacial period in America,” in <i>Mag. -West. Hist.</i> (Feb., 1885), i. 293 (with maps), and his “Preglacial -man in Ohio,” in the <i>Ohio Archæol. and Hist. -Quart.</i> (Dec., 1887), i. 251. Miss Babbitt’s “Vestiges of -glacial man in Minnesota,” in the <i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, June, -July, 1884, and <i>Amer. Asso. Adv. Sci. Proc.</i> xxxii. 385.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1663_1663" id="Footnote_1663_1663"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1663_1663"><span class="label">[1663]</span></a></span> -Howorth, <i>Mammoth and the Flood</i>, 323, considers -them flood-gravels instead, in supporting his thesis.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1664_1664" id="Footnote_1664_1664"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1664_1664"><span class="label">[1664]</span></a></span> -<i>Pop. Science Monthly</i>, xxii. 315. <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, -1874-75. Reports of progress, etc., in the <i>Peabody -Museum Reports</i>, nos. x. and xi. (1878, 1879). Prof. N. -S. Shaler accompanies the first of these with some comments, -in which he says: “If these remains are really those -of man, they prove the existence of interglacial man on this -part of our shore.” He is understood latterly to have -become convinced of their natural character. J. D. Whitney -and Lucien Carr agree as to their artificial character -(<i>Ibid.</i> xii. 489). Cf. Abbott on Flint Chips (refuse work) -in the <i>Peab. Mus. Rept.</i>, xii. 506; H. W. Haynes in <i>Boston -Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc.</i>, Jan., 1881; F. W. Putnam in -<i>Peab. Mus. Rept.</i>, no. xiv. p. 23; Henry Carvell Lewis on -<i>The Trenton gravel and its relation to the antiquity -of man</i> (Philad., 1880); also in the <i>Proceedings of the -Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia</i> (1877-1879, -pp. 60-73; and 1880, p. 306). Abbott has also registered -the discovery of a molar tooth (<i>Peabody Mus. Rept.</i>, -xvi. 177), and the under jaw of a man (<i>Ibid.</i> xviii. 408, and -<i>Matériaux</i>, etc., xviii. 334.) On recent discoveries of -human skulls in the Trenton gravels, see <i>Peab. Mus. Rept.</i> -xxii. 35. The subject of the Trenton-gravels man, and of -his existence in the like gravels in Ohio and Minnesota, was -discussed at a meeting of the Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., of -which there is a report in their <i>Proceedings</i>, vol. xxiii. -These papers have been published separately: <i>Palæolithic -man in eastern and central North America</i> (Cambridge, -1888). <span class="smcap">Contents</span>:—Putnam, F. W. Comparison of -palæolithic implements.—Abbott, C. C. The antiquity of -man in the valley of the Delaware.—Wright, G. F. The -age of the Ohio gravel-beds.—Upham, Warren. The recession -of the ice-sheet in Minnesota in its relation to the -gravel deposits overlying the quartz implements found by -Miss Babbitt at Little Falls, Minn.—Discussion and concluding -remarks, by H. W. Haynes, E. S. Morse, F. W. -Putnam. Cf. also <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, Jan., 1888, p. 46; -Th. Belt’s <i>Discovery of stone implements in the glacial -drift of No. America</i> (Lond., 1878, and <i>Q. Jour. Sci.</i> -xv. 63; Dawkins in <i>No. Am. Rev.</i>, Oct., 1883, p. 347.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1665_1665" id="Footnote_1665_1665"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1665_1665"><span class="label">[1665]</span></a></span> -Cf. also <i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i>, xix. 492; <i>Science</i>, vii. 41; -<i>Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc.</i>, xxi. 124; <i>Matériaux</i>, etc. -xviii. 334; <i>Philad. Acad. Nat. Sciences, Proc.</i> (1880, p. -306). Abbott refers to the contributions of Henry C. -Lewis of the second Geol. Survey of Penna. (<i>Proc. Philad. -Acad. Nat. Sciences</i>, and “The antiquity and origin of the -Trenton gravels,” in Abbott’s book), and of George H. -Cook in the <i>Annual Reports</i> of the New Jersey state -geologist. Abbott has recently summarized his views on -the “Evidences of the Antiquity of Man in Eastern North -America,” in the <i>Am. Asso. Adv. Sci. Proc.</i>, xxxvii., and -separately (Salem, 1888).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1666_1666" id="Footnote_1666_1666"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1666_1666"><span class="label">[1666]</span></a></span> -Figuier, <i>Homme Primitif</i>, introd.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1667_1667" id="Footnote_1667_1667"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1667_1667"><span class="label">[1667]</span></a></span> -The references are very numerous; but it is enough to -refer to the general geological treatises: Vogt’s <i>Lectures -on Man</i>, nos. 9, 10; Nadaillac’s <i>Les Prem. Hommes</i>, ii. -7; Dawkins in <i>Intellectual Observer</i>, xii. 403; and Ed. -Lartet, <i>Nouvelles recherches sur la coexistence de l’homme -et des grands mammifères fossiles, réputés caractéristiques -de la dernière période geologique</i>, in the <i>Annales des -Sciences Naturelles</i>, 4<sup>e</sup> série, xv. 256. Buffon first formulated -the belief in extinct animals from some mastodon -bones and teeth sent to him from the Big Bone Lick in -Kentucky, about 1740, and Cuvier first applied the name -mastodon, though from the animal’s resemblance to the -Siberian mammoth it has sometimes been called by the -latter name. There are in reality the fossil remains of -both mastodon and mammoth found in America. On the -bones from the Big Bone Lick see Thomson’s <i>Bibliog. -Ohio</i>, no. 44.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1668_1668" id="Footnote_1668_1668"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1668_1668"><span class="label">[1668]</span></a></span> -Wilson’s <i>Prehist. Man</i>, i. ch. 2; <i>Proc. Amer. Acad. -Nat. Sciences</i>, July, 1859; <i>Amer. Journal of Sci. and -Arts</i>, xxxvi. 199; cix. 335; <i>Pop. Sci. Rev.</i>, xiv. 278; A. -H. Worthen’s <i>Geol. Survey, Illinois</i> (1866), i. 38; Haven -in <i>Smithsonian Contrib.</i>, viii. 142; H. H. Howorth’s -<i>Mammoth and the Flood</i> (Lond., 1887), p. 319; J. P. MacLean’s -<i>Mastodon, Mammoth and Man</i> (Cincinnati, 1886). -Cf. references under “Mammoth” and “Mastodon,” in -<i>Poole’s Index</i>. Koch represented that he found the remains -of a mastodon in Missouri, with the proofs about -the relics that the animal had been slain by stone javelins -and arrows (<i>St. Louis Acad. of Sci. Trans.</i>, i. 62, 1857). -The details have hardly been accepted on Koch’s word, -since some doubtful traits of his character have been -made known (Short, <i>No. Amer. of Antiq.</i>, 116; Nadaillac, -<i>L’Amérique préhistorique</i>, 37). There have been -claims also advanced for a stone resembling a hatchet, -found with such animals in the modified drift of Jersey Co., -Illinois. E. L. Berthoud (<i>Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad. Proc.</i> -1872) has reported on human relics found with extinct animals -in Wyoming and Colorado. Dr. Holmes (<i>Ibid.</i> July, -1859) had described pottery found with the bones of the -megatherium. Lyell seems to have hesitated to associate -man with the extinct animals in America, when the remains -found at Natchez were shown to him in an early visit to -America (<i>Antiquity of Man</i>, 237). Howorth, <i>Mammoth -and the Flood</i>, 317, enumerates the later discoveries, some -being found under recent conditions (<i>Ibid.</i> 278), and so -recent that the trunk itself has been observed (p. 299). In -the earliest instance of the bones being reported, Dr. -Mather, communicating the fact to the <i>Philosophical Trans. -Roy. Soc.</i> (1714), xxix. 63, says they were found in the -Hudson River, and he supposed them the remains of a -giant man, while the colored earth about the bones represented -his rotted body. Cf. <i>Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll.</i>, xii. -263.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1669_1669" id="Footnote_1669_1669"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1669_1669"><span class="label">[1669]</span></a></span> -See on this a later page. </p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1670_1670" id="Footnote_1670_1670"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1670_1670"><span class="label">[1670]</span></a></span> -Lyell’s <i>Antiq. of Man</i>, 4th ed., 236; Nadaillac’s <i>Les -premiers hommes</i>, ii. 13; Southall’s <i>Recent origin of -man</i>, ch. 30. Vogt (<i>Lectures on Man</i>) accepts the evidence.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1671_1671" id="Footnote_1671_1671"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1671_1671"><span class="label">[1671]</span></a></span> -Cf. Lyell’s <i>Antiq. of Man</i>, ch. 5; Huxley’s <i>Man’s -place in nature</i>; Le Hon’s <i>L’Homme fossile en Europe</i>; -Leslie’s <i>Origin and destiny of man</i>, p. 54, who passes in -review these early tentative explorations.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1672_1672" id="Footnote_1672_1672"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1672_1672"><span class="label">[1672]</span></a></span> -Cf. Lyell’s description in his <i>Antiquity of Man</i>, ch. 8; -Quatrefages, <i>Nat. Hist. Man</i> (N. Y., 1875), p. 41; Langel, -<i>L’homme antédiluvien</i>; Büchner’s <i>Man</i>, Eng. transl., ch. -1; Carl Vogt, <i>Vorlesungen über den Menschen</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1673_1673" id="Footnote_1673_1673"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1673_1673"><span class="label">[1673]</span></a></span> -Rigollot, of Amiens, who had doubted, finally came to -believe in De Perthes’s views.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1674_1674" id="Footnote_1674_1674"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1674_1674"><span class="label">[1674]</span></a></span> -Büchner’s <i>Man</i>, p. 26; Hugh Falconer’s <i>Palæontological -Memoirs</i>, London, 1868 (ii. 601). Falconer’s essay on -“Primæval Man and his Contemporaries,” included in this -work, was written in 1863, in vindication of the views which -Falconer shared with Boucher de Perthes and Prestwich, -and it is an interesting study of the development of the interest -in the caves.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1675_1675" id="Footnote_1675_1675"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1675_1675"><span class="label">[1675]</span></a></span> -Lyell, <i>Antiq. of Man</i>, ch. 8; Lubbock, <i>Prehistoric -Times</i>, ch. 11; Nadaillac, <i>Les Premiers Hommes</i>, ii. 122; -Leslie, <i>Origin, etc. of Man</i>, 56. Southall gives the antagonistic -views in his <i>Recent Origin of Man</i>, ch. 16, and -<i>Epoch of the Mammoth</i>, 126.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1676_1676" id="Footnote_1676_1676"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1676_1676"><span class="label">[1676]</span></a></span> -This is in dispute, however. That the older cave implements -and those of the drift may be of equivalent age -seems to be agreed upon by some.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1677_1677" id="Footnote_1677_1677"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1677_1677"><span class="label">[1677]</span></a></span> -Cf. also Geikie’s <i>Great Ice Age</i>; Lubbock’s <i>Prehistoric -Times</i>, ch. 10; Evans’s <i>Anc. Stone Implements of Gt. -Britain</i>; Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Annals of Scotland</i>; Nilsson’s -<i>Stone Age in Scandinavia</i>; Figuier’s <i>World before -the Deluge</i> (N. Y., 1872), p. 473; Joly, <i>Man before Metals</i>, -ch. 3; Cazalis de Fondouce’s <i>Les temps préhistoriques -dans le sud-est de la France</i>; Roujow’s <i>Etude sur les -races humaines de la France</i>; Peschel’s <i>Races of Men</i>, -introd.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The scarcity of human remains in the drift and in the -caves is accounted for by Lyell (<i>Student’s Elements</i>, N. Y., -p. 153) by man’s wariness against floods as compared -with that of beasts; and by Lubbock (<i>Prehist. Times</i>, 349) -through the vastly greater numbers of the animals in a hunters’ -age.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1678_1678" id="Footnote_1678_1678"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1678_1678"><span class="label">[1678]</span></a></span> -The present day is not without a cave people. See -<i>London Anthropolog. Rev.</i>, April, 1869, and Büchner’s -<i>Man</i>, Eng. transl., p. 270.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1679_1679" id="Footnote_1679_1679"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1679_1679"><span class="label">[1679]</span></a></span> -Haven, p. 86.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1680_1680" id="Footnote_1680_1680"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1680_1680"><span class="label">[1680]</span></a></span> -Cf. Florentino Amegluno’s <i>La Antigüedad del Hombre -en la Plata</i> (Paris, 1880), and Howorth’s <i>Mammoth -and the Flood</i>, 355, who cites Klee’s <i>Le Déluge</i>, p. 326, -and enumerates other evidences of pleistocene man in South -America, in connection with extinct animals.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1681_1681" id="Footnote_1681_1681"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1681_1681"><span class="label">[1681]</span></a></span> -The instances are not rare of mummies being found in -caves of the Mississippi Valley; but there is no evidence -adduced of any great age attaching to them. Cf. N. S. -Shaler on the antiquity of the caverns and cavern life of the -Ohio Valley, in <i>Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Mem.</i>, ii. 355 (1875); -and on desiccated remains, see the <i>Archæologia Amer.</i>, i. -359; Brinton’s <i>Floridian Peninsula</i>, App. ii. On the -American caves see Nadaillac’s <i>L’Amérique préhistorique</i>, -ch. 2.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1682_1682" id="Footnote_1682_1682"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1682_1682"><span class="label">[1682]</span></a></span> -Abbott’s <i>Primitive Industry</i>, ch. 30.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1683_1683" id="Footnote_1683_1683"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1683_1683"><span class="label">[1683]</span></a></span> -Lyell, <i>Antiq. of Man</i>, 4th ed. ch. 2; Lubbock, <i>Prehist. -Times</i>, ch. 7; Nadaillac, <i>Les premiers hommes</i>, i. -ch. 5; Joly, <i>Man before Metals</i>, ch. 4; Figuier, <i>World -before Deluge</i> (N. Y., 1872), p. 477. Worsaae, the leading -Danish authority, calls them palæolithic relics; Lubbock -places them as early neolithic. Southall, of course, thinks -they indicate the rudeness of the people, not their antiquity. -(<i>Recent Origin</i>, etc., ch. 12; <i>Epoch of the Mammoth</i>, -ch. 5.)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1684_1684" id="Footnote_1684_1684"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1684_1684"><span class="label">[1684]</span></a></span> - <i>Am. Naturalist</i>, ii. 397.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1685_1685" id="Footnote_1685_1685"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1685_1685"><span class="label">[1685]</span></a></span> - Cf. Lyell’s <i>Second Visit</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1686_1686" id="Footnote_1686_1686"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1686_1686"><span class="label">[1686]</span></a></span> -All the general treatises on American archæology now -cover the subject: Wilson, <i>Prehist. Man</i>, i. 132; Nadaillac, -<i>L’Amérique préhistorique</i>, ch. 2; Short, <i>No. Amer. -Antiq.</i>, 106; <i>Smithsonian Reports</i>, 1864 (Rau), 1866, 1870 -(J. Fowler); <i>Bull. Essex Inst.</i>, iv. (Putnam); <i>Peabody Mus. -Reports</i>, i., v., vii.; <i>Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Proc.</i> 1867, -1875; <i>Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci. Proc.</i> 1866; <i>Pop. Science -Monthly</i>, x. (Lewis); Lyell’s <i>Second Visit</i>, i. 252; Stevens, -<i>Flint Chips</i>, 194. For local observations: J. M. Jones in -<i>Smithsonian Ann. Report</i>, 1863, on those of Nova Scotia. -S. F. Baird in <i>Nat. Museum Proc.</i> (1881, 1882), on those -of New Brunswick and New England. For those in -Maine see <i>Peabody Mus. Reports</i>, xvi., xviii.; <i>Central Ohio -Sci. Assoc. Proc.</i>, i. 70; that at Damariscotta, in particular, -is described in the <i>Peabody Mus. Reports</i>, xx. 531, 546; and -in the <i>Maine Hist. Soc. Col.</i>, v. (by P. A. Chadbourne) -and vi. 349. Wyman’s studies are in the <i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, -Jan., 1868, and <i>Peabody Mus. Rept.</i>, ii. Putnam (<i>Essex -Inst. Bull</i>., xv. 86) says that those at Pine Grove, near -Salem, Mass., were examined in 1840. The map which is -annexed of those on Cape Cod, taken from the <i>Smithsonian -Report</i> (1883, p. 905), shows the frequency of them -in a confined area, as observed; but the same region -doubtless includes many not observed.</p> -<p class="pfc4">For those on the New Jersey coast see Cook’s <i>Geology of -New Jersey</i> (Newark, 1868), and Rau in the <i>Smithsonian -Reports</i>, 1863, 1864, 1865. The Lockwood collection from -the heap at Keyport is in the Peabody Museum (cf. <i>Rept.</i>, -xxii. 43). Francis Jordan describes the <i>Remains of an -Aboriginal Encampment at Rehoboth, Delaware</i> (Philad., -1880). Elmer R. Reynolds reported on “Precolumbian -shell heaps at Newburg, Maryland, and the aboriginal -shell heaps of the Potomac and Wicomico rivers” at the -<i>Congrès des Américanistes</i> (Copenhagen, 1883, p. 292). -Joseph Leidy describes those at Cape Henlopen in the -<i>Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci.</i>, 1866. Those on the Georgia coast, -St. Simon’s Island, etc., are pointed out in C. C. Jones’s -<i>Antiquities of the Southern Indians; Smithsonian Repts.</i>, -1871 (by D. Brown); in Lyell’s <i>Antiq. of Man</i>, and in his -<i>Second Visit to the U. S.</i> (N. Y., 1849), i. 252.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The shell heaps of Florida have had unusual attention. -Wyman has indicated the absence of objects in them, showing -Spanish contact. Dr. Brinton’s first studies of them -were in his <i>Notes on the Floridian Peninsula</i> (Philad., -1859), ch. 6, and again in the <i>Smithsonian Report</i> (1866), -p. 356. Prof. Wyman’s first reports (St. John River) were -in <i>The American Naturalist</i>, Jan., Oct., Nov., 1868. He -also described them in the <i>Peabody Mus. Report</i>, i., v., vii., -and in his <i>Fresh Water Shell Heaps of the St. John River, -Florida</i> (Salem, 1875), being no. 4 of the <i>Memoirs of the -Peabody Acad. of Science</i>. There are other investigations -recorded in the <i>Smithsonian Reports</i>, 1877, by S. P. Mayberry, -on St. John River; 1879, by S. T. Walker, on -Tampa Bay; also by A. W. Vogeler in <i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, -Jan., 1879; by W. H. Dall in the <i>American Journal of -Archæology</i>, i. 184; and by A. E. Douglass in the <i>Amer. -Antiquarian</i>, vii. 74, 140. On those of Alabama, see <i>Peabody -Mus. Rept.</i>, xvi. 186, and <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, 1877.</p> -<p class="pfc4">On those of the great interior valleys, see the <i>Second Geological -Report of Indiana</i>, and Humphrey and Abbott’s -<i>Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi Valley</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4">For the California coast, there is testimony in Bancroft’s -<i>Native Races</i>, iv. 709-712; <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, 1874 (by -P. Schumacher); <i>American Antiquarian</i>, vii. 159; and -<i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, v. 489. Schumacher -covers the northwest coast in the <i>Smithsonian -Rept.</i>, 1873. Those in Oregon are reported to be destitute -of the bones of extinct animals, in the <i>Bull. U. S. Geol. -Survey</i>, iii. Bancroft, <i>Nat. Races</i>, iv. 739, refers to those -on Vancouver’s Island. W. H. Dall describes those on the -Aleutian Islands in the <i>Contributions to No. Amer. Ethnology</i>, -i. 41.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1687_1687" id="Footnote_1687_1687"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1687_1687"><span class="label">[1687]</span></a></span> -This branch of archæological science began, I believe, -with the discovery by Sir Wm. R. Wilde of some lacustrine -habitations in a small lake in county Meath. R. Monro’s -<i>Ancient Scotch lake Dwellings</i> (Edinburgh, 1882) has -gathered what is known of the remains in Great Britain. -There are similar remains in various parts of the continent -of Europe; but those revealed by the dry season of 1853-54 -in the Swiss lakes have attracted the most notice. Dr. -Keller described them in <i>Reports</i> made to the Archæological -Society of Zurich. A. Morlot printed an abstract -of Keller’s Report in the <i>Smithsonian Report</i>, 1863. In -1866, J. E. Lee arranged Keller’s material systematically, -and translated it in <i>The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland -and other parts of Europe, by Ferdinand Keller</i> (London, -1866), which was reissued, enlarged and brought down to -date, in a second edition in 1878. The earliest elaborated -account was Prof. Troyon’s <i>Habitations lacustres</i> (1860), -of which there was a translation in the <i>Smithsonian Reports</i>, -1860, 1861. Troyon and Keller have reached different -conclusions: the one believing that the traces of development -in the remains indicate new peoples coming in, -while Keller holds these to be signs of the progress of the -same people. A paper by Edouard Desor, <i>Palafittes or -Lacustrian Constructions</i>, appeared in English in the -<i>Smithsonian Report</i>, 1865. There is a large collection of -typical relics from these lake dwellings in the Peabody -Museum (<i>Report</i>, v.).</p> -<p class="pfc4">These evidences now make part of all archæological treatises: -Lyell’s <i>Antiq. of Man</i>; Lubbock, <i>Prehist. Times</i>, -ch. 6; Nadaillac, <i>Les premiers hommes</i>, i. 241; Stevens, -<i>Flint Chips</i>, 119; Joly, <i>Man before Metals</i>, ch. 5; -Figuier, <i>World before the Deluge</i> (N. Y., 1872), p. 478; -Southall, <i>Recent Origin</i>, etc., ch. 11, and <i>Epoch of the -Mammoth</i>, ch. 4; <i>Archæologia</i>, xxxviii.; Haven in <i>Amer. -Antiq. Soc. Proc</i>., Oct., 1867; Rau in <i>Harper’s Monthly</i>, -Aug., 1875; <i>Poole’s Index</i>, p. 718, and <i>Supplement</i>, p. 246. -The man of the Danish peat-beds and of the Swiss lake -dwellings is generally held to belong to the present geological -conditions, but earlier than written records.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1688_1688" id="Footnote_1688_1688"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1688_1688"><span class="label">[1688]</span></a></span> -<i>Senate Doc.</i>; also separately, Philad., 1852. Cf. Bancroft, -<i>Native Races</i>, iv. 652; Domenech’s <i>Deserts</i>, etc., -i. 201; <i>Annual Scient. Discovery</i>, 1850; Short, <i>No. Am. -of Antiq.</i>, 293. A photograph of the Casa Blanca is given -in <i>Putnam’s Report, Wheeler’s Survey</i>, p. 370. Cf. -Haven in <i>Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, 1855, p. 26.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1689_1689" id="Footnote_1689_1689"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1689_1689"><span class="label">[1689]</span></a></span> -<i>Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey of the territories</i>, -2d series, no. 1 (Washington, 1875), and its <i>Annual Rept.</i> -(Washington, 1876), condensed in Bancroft, iv. 650, 718, -and by E. A. Barber in <i>Congrès des Américanistes</i>, 1877, -i. 22. Cf. Short, 295, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1690_1690" id="Footnote_1690_1690"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1690_1690"><span class="label">[1690]</span></a></span> -<i>Bulletin</i>, etc., ii. (1876). Hayden’s <i>Survey</i> (1876). -Cf. Short, p. 305; <i>Kansas City Rev.</i>, Dec., 1879 (on their -age); James Stevenson in <i>Fourth Rept. Bureau of Ethnology</i>, -pp. xxxiv, 284; Nadaillac’s <i>Les Premiers Hommes</i> -(ii. 61), and <i>L’Amérique préhistorique</i>, ch. 5; <i>Scribner’s -Mag.</i>, Dec., 1878 (xvii. 266); <i>Good Words</i>, xx. 486; -<i>Science</i>, xi. 257. Those of the Cañon de Chelly are described -by James Stevenson in the <i>Journal Amer. Geo. -Soc.</i> (1886), p. 329. It is generally recognized that the -cliff dwellers and the Pueblo people were the same race, -and that the modern Zuñi and Moquis represent them. -Bandelier in <i>Archæol. Inst. of Am., 5th Rept.</i> J. Stevenson -(<i>Second Rept. Bur. of Ethnol.</i>, 431) describes some -cavate dwellings of this region cut out of the rock by hand. -There is no evidence that these remains call for any association -with them of the great antiquity of man.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1691_1691" id="Footnote_1691_1691"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1691_1691"><span class="label">[1691]</span></a></span> -Cf., for instance, Short, 331.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1692_1692" id="Footnote_1692_1692"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1692_1692"><span class="label">[1692]</span></a></span> -Morgan (<i>Systems of Consanguinity</i>, 257) finds correspondence -to the roving Indian in physical and cranial character, -in linguistic traits, and in the similarity of arts and -social habits. Their connection with the moundbuilder -and cliff-dwelling race is traced in H. F. C. Ten Kate’s -<i>Reizen en Onderzolkingen in Nord America</i> (Leyden, -1885). Cushing thinks (<i>Fourth Rept. Bur. Ethnol.</i>, 481) -they got their habit of building in stories from having, as -cliff-dwellers, earlier built on the narrow shelves of the -rocks. Morgan (<i>Peab. Mus. Rept.</i>, xii. 550) thinks their -architectural art deteriorated, since the ruined pueblos are -finer constructions than those inhabited now. Cf. on the -origin of Pueblo architecture V. Mindeleff in <i>Science</i>, ix. -593, and S. D. Peet in <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, iv. 208, and -<i>Wisconsin Acad. of Science</i>, v. 290.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1693_1693" id="Footnote_1693_1693"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1693_1693"><span class="label">[1693]</span></a></span> -See chapter vii. of Vol. II.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1694_1694" id="Footnote_1694_1694"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1694_1694"><span class="label">[1694]</span></a></span> -Cf. lesser accounts of these earlier notices in E. G. -Squier’s paper in the <i>Amer. Rev.</i>, Nov., 1848; and G. M. -Wheeler in the <i>Journal Amer. Geog. Soc.</i> (1874), vol. vi.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1695_1695" id="Footnote_1695_1695"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1695_1695"><span class="label">[1695]</span></a></span> -The book is rare. There is a copy in Harvard College -library. Cf. Sabin, ii. 4636-38; Ternaux, 518; Carter-Brown, -ii.; Leclerc, no. 813 (200 francs). There is a -French version, Brussels, 1631; and a Latin, Saltzburg, -1634.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1696_1696" id="Footnote_1696_1696"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1696_1696"><span class="label">[1696]</span></a></span> -Not to be confounded with the Casas Grandes, farther -south in the Mexican province of Chihuahua, which is of a -similar character. Cf. Bancroft, iv. 604 (with references); -Short, ch. 7; Bartlett’s <i>Personal Narrative</i>, ii. 348. It -was first described in Escudero’s <i>Noticias de Chihuahua</i> -(1819); and again in 1842, in <i>Album Mexicano</i>, i. 372.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1697_1697" id="Footnote_1697_1697"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1697_1697"><span class="label">[1697]</span></a></span> -From that day to the present there have been very -many descriptions: <i>Documentos para la historia de Mexico</i>, -4th ser., i. 282; iv. 804; Bancroft, <i>Nat. Races</i>, iv. -621; Short, 279; Schoolcraft, <i>Ind. Tribes</i>, iii. 300; Bartlett, -<i>Personal Nar.</i>, ii. 278, 281; Emory, <i>Reconnaissance</i>, -81, 567; Humboldt, <i>Essai politique</i>; Baldwin, <i>Anc. America</i>, -82; Mayer, <i>Mexico</i>, ii. 396, and <i>Observations</i>, 15; -Domenech, <i>Deserts</i>, i. 381; Ross Browne, <i>Apache Country</i>, -114; Jametel in <i>Rev. de Géog.</i>, Mar., 1881; Nadaillac, -<i>Prehist. Amér.</i>, 222. Bancroft groups many of the -descriptions, and best collates them.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1698_1698" id="Footnote_1698_1698"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1698_1698"><span class="label">[1698]</span></a></span> -Gregg, in his <i>Commerce des Prairies</i> (N. Y., 1844), examined -the Pueblo Bonito in 1840.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1699_1699" id="Footnote_1699_1699"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1699_1699"><span class="label">[1699]</span></a></span> -Washington, 1848,—30th Cong., Ex. Doc. 41. This -includes Lieut. J. W. Abert’s <i>Report and Map of the Examination -of New Mexico</i>. He visited two pueblos. This -and other material afforded the base for the studies of -Squier and Gallatin, the former printing “The ancient -monuments of the aboriginal semi-civilized nations of New -Mexico and California” (<i>Amer. Rev.</i>, 1848), and the latter -a paper in the <i>Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans.</i>, ii., repeated in -French in the <i>Nouv. Ann. des Voyages</i>, 1851, iii. 237.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1700_1700" id="Footnote_1700_1700"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1700_1700"><span class="label">[1700]</span></a></span> -This is perhaps the most important of all the ruins. -Bancroft, iv. 671. Bandelier’s studies are the most recent. -<i>Congrès des Amér., Compte Rendu</i>, 1877, ii. 230, and his -<i>Introd. to studies among the sedentary Indians of New -Mexico and Report of the ruins of Pecos</i> (Boston, 1881,—Archæol. -Inst. of America).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1701_1701" id="Footnote_1701_1701"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1701_1701"><span class="label">[1701]</span></a></span> -Also in <i>Rept. of Sec. of War, 1st Sess. 31st Cong.</i> -Cf. Bancroft, iv. 652, 655, 661; Baldwin’s <i>Anc. America</i>, -86; Domenech’s <i>Deserts</i>, i. 149, 379; Short, 292. The -Chaco cañon was visited by W. H. Jackson in 1877, and -his report is in the <i>Report of Hayden’s Survey</i>, 1878, p. -411. Morgan gives a summary, with maps (see Nadaillac, -229), in his <i>Houses and House Life</i>, etc., ch. 7, 8,—holding -(p. 167) them to be the seven cities of Cibola seen -by Coronado. Cf. on this mooted question our Vol. II. -501-503; and Simpson’s paper in the <i>Journal Amer. Geog. -Soc.</i> vol. v.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1702_1702" id="Footnote_1702_1702"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1702_1702"><span class="label">[1702]</span></a></span> -<i>32d Cong., 2d sess., Sen. Ex. Doc., No. 59.</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1703_1703" id="Footnote_1703_1703"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1703_1703"><span class="label">[1703]</span></a></span> -On the Zuñi region see Bancroft, iv. 645, 667, 673 (with -ref.); Short, 288; Möllhausen, <i>Reisen in die Felsengebirge -Nord Amerikas</i> (ii. 196, 402), and his <i>Tagebuch</i>, -283; Cozzen’s <i>Marvellous Country</i>; <i>Tour du Monde</i>, i.; -<i>Harper’s Monthly</i>, Aug., 1875; J. E. Stevenson’s <i>Zuñi -and the Zunians</i> (Washington, 1881). Of F. H. Cushing’s -recent labors among the Zuñi, see Powell’s <i>Second</i>, <i>Third</i>, -and <i>Fifth Reports, Bur. of Ethnology</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1704_1704" id="Footnote_1704_1704"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1704_1704"><span class="label">[1704]</span></a></span> -The <i>Report</i> of Lieut. W. H. Emory, directly in charge -of the survey (<i>Ho. Ex. Doc. 135, 34th Cong., 1st sess.</i>), -was printed separately in 3 vols. in 1859.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1705_1705" id="Footnote_1705_1705"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1705_1705"><span class="label">[1705]</span></a></span> -<i>Report upon U. S. Geol. Surveys, west of the one -hundredth meridian in charge of First Lieut. Geo. M. -Wheeler, vol. vii., Archæology</i> (Washington, 1879). Ernest -Ingersoll, a member of the survey, published some -papers on the “Village Indians of New Mexico” in the -<i>Journal Amer. Geog. Soc.</i>, vi. and vii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1706_1706" id="Footnote_1706_1706"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1706_1706"><span class="label">[1706]</span></a></span> -Cf. L. H. Morgan on this ruin in the <i>Peab. Mus. Rept.</i>, -xii. 536, and in a paper in the <i>Trans. Amer. Ass. Adv. -Sci.</i> (St. Louis, 1877).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1707_1707" id="Footnote_1707_1707"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1707_1707"><span class="label">[1707]</span></a></span> -His notes form a good bibliography. He intends as a -supplement an account of the different explorations prior -to the seventeenth century.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1708_1708" id="Footnote_1708_1708"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1708_1708"><span class="label">[1708]</span></a></span> -Bancroft (<i>Native Races</i>, i. 529, 599; iv. 662, etc.) -gives the best clues to authorities prior to 1875. Short (ch. -7) condenses more, and Baldwin (p. 78) still more. Nadaillac, -<i>L’Amérique préhistorique</i> (ch. 5) also summarizes. -Morgan studies the social condition of this ancient people -(<i>Systems of Consanguinity</i>, Part ii. ch. 6; <i>Houses and -House Life</i>, ch. 6; <i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i>, xii.). Cf. James -Stevenson’s “Ancient Habitations of the Southwest” in -<i>Journal Amer. Geog. Soc.</i>, xviii. (1886), and his illustrated -<i>Catalogue of Collections</i> in Powell’s <i>Second Rept. -Bureau of Ethnol.</i>; E. A. Barber on “Les anciens pueblos” -in <i>Cong. des Américanistes,</i> 1877, i. 23, in which he -traces a gradation from the moundbuilders through the -old pueblo peoples to the Toltecs; C. Schoebel’s account of -an expedition in the <i>Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France</i>, -nouv. ser. i., and the references in <i>Poole’s Index</i>, i. 1063; -ii. 359.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Dividing the remaining references into localities, we note -for New Mexico the following: J. H. Carleton in the -<i>Smithsonian Rept.</i> (1854); W. B. Lyon (<i>Ibid.</i> 1871); J. -A. McParlin (<i>Ibid.</i> 1877); Turner in <i>Am. Ethnol. Soc. -Trans.</i>, ii.; and A. W. Bell in <i>Journal of the Ethnol. -Soc.</i> (London), Oct., 1869. Carleton describes the ruins -also in the <i>Western Journal</i>, xiv. 185. Clarence Pullen -describes the people in <i>Journal Amer. Geog. Soc.</i>, xix. 22. -For Colorado: E. L. Berthoud in <i>Smithsonian Repts.</i>, 1867, -1871. G. L. Cannon in <i>Ibid.</i> 1877; H. Gannett in <i>Pop. -Sci. Monthly</i>, xvi. 666 (Mar., 1880); <i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, -x. 31; <i>Lippincott’s Mag.</i>, xxvi. 54. For Arizona: F. E. -Grossmann, J. C. Y. Lee, and R. T. Burr in <i>Smithsonian -Repts.</i>, respectively for 1871, 1872, 1879, with other references -in Poole under “Moqui.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1709_1709" id="Footnote_1709_1709"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1709_1709"><span class="label">[1709]</span></a></span> -This scope of treatment is manifest in the large number -of papers contained in the <i>Smithsonian Reports</i>. See -W. J. Rhees’ <i>Catal. of Publ. of Sm. Inst.</i> (Washington, -1882), pp. 252-3.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1710_1710" id="Footnote_1710_1710"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1710_1710"><span class="label">[1710]</span></a></span> -<i>Beschreibung der Reise</i> (Göttingen, 1764; Eng. transl., -Lond., 1772).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1711_1711" id="Footnote_1711_1711"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1711_1711"><span class="label">[1711]</span></a></span> -<i>Journal of two visits</i>, etc., Burlington, 1774 (Thomson’s -<i>Bibl. of Ohio</i>, no. 657).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1712_1712" id="Footnote_1712_1712"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1712_1712"><span class="label">[1712]</span></a></span> -His account is copied in the <i>Mass. Mag.</i>, Oct., 1791.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1713_1713" id="Footnote_1713_1713"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1713_1713"><span class="label">[1713]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Amer. Mag.</i>, Dec., 1787; Jan., Feb, 1788.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1714_1714" id="Footnote_1714_1714"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1714_1714"><span class="label">[1714]</span></a></span> -Repeated in Gilbert Imlay’s <i>Topog. Descrip. West. -Territory</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1715_1715" id="Footnote_1715_1715"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1715_1715"><span class="label">[1715]</span></a></span> -<i>Journal of a Tour.</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1716_1716" id="Footnote_1716_1716"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1716_1716"><span class="label">[1716]</span></a></span> -<i>Voyage dans Louisiane</i> (Paris, 1807).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1717_1717" id="Footnote_1717_1717"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1717_1717"><span class="label">[1717]</span></a></span> -<i>Sketches of Louisiana</i> (1812).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1718_1718" id="Footnote_1718_1718"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1718_1718"><span class="label">[1718]</span></a></span> -<i>Views of Louisiana</i> (Pittsburg, 1814).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1719_1719" id="Footnote_1719_1719"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1719_1719"><span class="label">[1719]</span></a></span> -<i>Account of the History, Manners and Customs of the -Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and -the neighboring States</i>, in the <i>Transactions Amer. Philos. -Soc.</i> (1819), and later repeated in other editions and versions -(P. G. Thomson’s <i>Bibliog. of Ohio</i>, no. 533, etc., -and Pilling’s <i>Eskimo Bibliog.</i>, 43). Louis Cass’s criticism -on Heckewelder is in <i>No. Am. Rev.</i> Jan., 1826. Cf. -Haven, <i>Archæol. U. S.</i>, 43.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1720_1720" id="Footnote_1720_1720"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1720_1720"><span class="label">[1720]</span></a></span> -<i>Description of the Antiquities discovered in the State -of Ohio and other Western States, with engravings from -actual surveys</i> (Worcester, Mass., 1820). This was reprinted -in the <i>Writings of Caleb Atwater</i> (Columbus, -1833). This volume also included his <i>Observations made on -a tour to Prairie du Chien in 1829</i> (Columbus, 1831), where -Atwater was sent by the Federal government to purchase -mineral lands of the Indians (P. G. Thomson’s <i>Bibl. of -Ohio</i>, no. 52; Pilling, <i>Bibl. of Siouan Lang.</i>, p. 2). The -part originally published in the <i>Archæol. Amer.</i> was translated -by Malte Brun in <i>Nouv. Annales de Voyages</i>, xxviii., -who added a paper on “L’origine et l’époque des monumens -de l’Ohio.” Cf. Haven’s <i>Archæol. U. S.</i>, 33, and the -memoir of Atwater in <i>Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, Oct., 1867.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1721_1721" id="Footnote_1721_1721"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1721_1721"><span class="label">[1721]</span></a></span> -Including those of Newark, Perry County, Marietta, -Circleville, Paint Creek, Little Miami, Piketon, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1722_1722" id="Footnote_1722_1722"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1722_1722"><span class="label">[1722]</span></a></span> -Haven, 117. This publication was anticipated by a -condensed statement in Squier’s <i>Observation on the Aboriginal -Monuments of the Mississippi Valley</i>, in the -second volume of the <i>Trans. Amer. Ethnol. Soc.</i> (N. Y., -1847), and in his <i>Observations on the Uses of the Mounds -of the West, with an attempt at their Classification</i> (New -Haven, 1847). Cf. also <i>Harper’s Mag.</i>, xx. 737; xxi. 20, -165; <i>Amer. Jour. Science</i>, lxi. 305.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1723_1723" id="Footnote_1723_1723"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1723_1723"><span class="label">[1723]</span></a></span> -These went in 1863 to the Blackmore collection in Salisbury, -Eng., and are described in Stevens’ <i>Flint Chips</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1724_1724" id="Footnote_1724_1724"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1724_1724"><span class="label">[1724]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Trans. Amer. Asso. Adv. Sci.</i>, 1873, and a paper -“On the weapons and military character of the race of the -mounds” in the <i>Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Mem.</i>, i. 473 -(1869).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1725_1725" id="Footnote_1725_1725"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1725_1725"><span class="label">[1725]</span></a></span> -<i>Proceedings</i>, Oct. 23, 1852, where are plans of those -at Crawfordsville, and of others in the dividing ridge between -the Mississippi and the Kickapoo rivers. Cf. <i>Ibid.</i> -Oct., 1876.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1726_1726" id="Footnote_1726_1726"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1726_1726"><span class="label">[1726]</span></a></span> -P. G. Thomson’s <i>Bibliog. of Ohio</i>, no. 925.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1727_1727" id="Footnote_1727_1727"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1727_1727"><span class="label">[1727]</span></a></span> -As, for instance, Conant’s <i>Footprints of Vanished -Races</i> (1879). Cf. T. H. Lewis in the <i>Amer. Journal of -Archæology</i>, Jan., 1886 (ii. 65).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1728_1728" id="Footnote_1728_1728"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1728_1728"><span class="label">[1728]</span></a></span> -<i>Archæology of the U. S.</i> (1856).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1729_1729" id="Footnote_1729_1729"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1729_1729"><span class="label">[1729]</span></a></span> -M’Culloh in 1829 had come to a similar conclusion, and -Gallatin and Schoolcraft have somewhat followed him.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1730_1730" id="Footnote_1730_1730"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1730_1730"><span class="label">[1730]</span></a></span> -<i>Hist. Mag.</i>, Feb., 1866. Cf. Charlevoix.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1731_1731" id="Footnote_1731_1731"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1731_1731"><span class="label">[1731]</span></a></span> -This was Dr. J. C. Warren’s view in 1837, in a paper -before the <i>Brit. Asso. Adv. Science</i>. Cf. also Blumenbach, -Morton, Nott, and Gliddon.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1732_1732" id="Footnote_1732_1732"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1732_1732"><span class="label">[1732]</span></a></span> -Bancroft (<i>Nat. Races</i>, v. 539) thinks they were connected -in some obscure way with these southern nations, -and in 1875 could write (p. 787) that “most and the best -authorities deem it impossible that the moundbuilders were -ever the remote ancestors of the Indian tribes.” Dawson -(<i>Fossil Men</i>, 55) deems the modern Pueblo Indians to be -their representatives. Brasseur supposes the Toltecs came -from them. (Cf. also Short, 492; and S. B. Evans, in -<i>Kansas City Rev.</i>, March, 1882.) John Wells Foster, -who had for some years written on the subject, gathered his -results in a composite volume, <i>Prehistoric Races of the -United States</i> (Chicago, 1873, 1878, 1881, etc.), in which -he held to the theory of their migrating south and developing -into the civilization of Central America. Cf. his -paper in the <i>Trans. Chicago Acad. Nat. Sci.</i>, vol. i., and -his abstract of it in his <i>Mississippi Valley</i> (1869, p. 415). -J. P. MacLean’s <i>Moundbuilders</i> (Cincinnati, 1879) takes -similar ground. Morgan (<i>Peab. Mus. Rept.</i>, xii. 552) holds -that they cannot be classed with any known Indian “stock,” -and that the “nearest region from which they could have -been derived is New Mexico.” Wills de Haas takes exception -to this view in the <i>Trans. Anthropological Soc. -of Washington</i> (1881). Cf. R. S. Robertson in <i>Compte -Rendu, Congrès des Américanistes</i> (1877), xi. 39.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1733_1733" id="Footnote_1733_1733"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1733_1733"><span class="label">[1733]</span></a></span> -Major Powell says, that years ago he reached the conclusion -that the modern Indians must have raised at least -some of the mounds in the Mississippi Valley (<i>Bur. of -Ethnol. Rept.</i>, iv. p. xxx). Cf. also Powell’s paper in -<i>Science</i>, x. 267. In the second of these reports (p. 117) -Henry W. Henshaw sets forth the views, which the Bureau -maintained; and he defended these views in the <i>Amer. -Antiquarian</i>, viii. 102. The leading member, however, of -the Bureau staff, who is working in this field, is Cyrus -Thomas. In the <i>Nat. Mus. Report</i> (1887) he defined the aim -and character of the <i>Work in Mound Exploration of the -Bureau of Ethnology</i>, also issued separately. In this it -was stated that over 2,000 mounds had been opened, and -38,000 relics gathered from them; but nothing to afford any -clue to the language which the moundbuilders spoke. The -conclusions reached were:—</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>First</i>, the mounds are as diversified as the Indian tribes -are.</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>Second</i>, they yield no signs of a superior race.</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>Third</i>, their builders and the Indians are the same.</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>Fourth</i>, the accounts of the early European visitors of -the Indians found here correspond to the disclosures of -the mounds.</p> -<p class="pfc4"><i>Fifth</i>, certain kinds of mounds in certain localities are -the work of tribes now known; and there are no signs about -the mounds to connect them with the Pueblo Indians or -those farther south.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Thomas, in the <i>Fifth Report</i> (1888) described the “Burial -Mounds of the northern sections of the U. S.” He says -that the character of the mounds and their contents indicate -the possibility of dividing the territory they occupy -roughly into eight districts, each with some prominent -characteristic, and he roughly distinguishes these -sections as of Wisconsin; the Upper Mississippi; Ohio; -New York; Appalachian; the Middle Mississippi; the -Lower Mississippi and the Gulf. He holds that the -moundbuilding people existed from about the fifth or -sixth century down to historic times.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Taking for his texts the mounds of the Appalachian districts, -he has presented anew his grounds for believing -this region at least to have had the red Indian race for -the constructors of its mounds, and that the Cherokees -were that race. Carr had already (1876), from investigating -a truncated oval mound in Virginia, and comparing it -with Bartram’s (<i>Travels</i>, 365) description of a Cherokee -council-house (<i>Peabody Mus. Rept.</i>, x. 75), reached the -conclusion that that particular mound was built by the -Cherokees. Thomas further undertakes to prove that the -Cherokees once occupied the Appalachian region, and -that implements of the white men are found in some of -the mounds, bringing them down to a period since the -contact with Europeans. The habits of the builders of -these mounds are, as he affirms, known to correspond to -what we know from historic evidence were the habits of -the Cherokees.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Thomas has also communicated the views of the Bureau -in other ways, as in the <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, vi. 90; vii. -65; <i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, May, 1884, p. 396; 1887, p. 193; -July and Sept., 1888. In these papers, among other points, -he maintains that the defensive enclosures of northern -Ohio are due to the Iroquois-Huron tribes, and he accepts -the view of Peet and Latham, that the animal mounds -are more ancient than the simpler forms. Other investigators -have adopted, in some degree, this view. Horatio -Hale thinks the Cherokees of Iroquois origin, and that they -may have mingled with the moundbuilders. C. C. Baldwin -holds the Allegheni, Cherokees, and the moundbuilders to -be the same.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Prominent among those who have adopted this red-Indian -theory are Judge M. F. Force and Lucien Carr. -In 1874 Force published at Cincinnati a paper, which he -read before the literary club of that city; and in 1877 he -prepared a paper on the race of the moundbuilders, which -appears in French in the <i>Compte Rendu, Congrès des -Américanistes</i> (1877, i. p. 121), and in English, <i>To what -Race did the Moundbuilders belong</i> (Cincinnati, 1875). -He maintains that the race, which shows no differences from -the modern Indians, flourished till about 1,000 years ago, -and that some of them still survived in the Gulf States in -the sixteenth century, and that their development was about -on the plane of the Pueblos, higher than the Algonquins -and lower than the Aztecs.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Carr’s <i>Mounds of the Mississippi Valley historically -considered</i> makes part of the second volume of Shaler’s -<i>Kentucky Survey</i>, and was also issued separately (1883). -It is the most elaborate collation of the accounts of the -early travellers, and of others coming in contact with the -Indians at an early day, which has yet been made, and his -foot-notes are an ample bibliography of this aspect of the -subject. He holds that these early records prove that -nothing has been found in the mounds which was not -described in the early narratives as pertaining to the Indians -of the early contact. He aims also particularly to -show that these early Indians were agriculturists and sun-worshippers. -Brinton, reviewing the paper in the <i>American -Antiquarian</i> (1883, p. 68), holds that Carr goes too far, -and practises the arts of a special pleader. Brinton’s own -opinions seem somewhat to have changed. In the <i>Hist. -Mag.</i>, Feb., 1866, p. 35, he considers the moundbuilders as -not advanced beyond the red Indians; and in the <i>American -Antiquarian</i> (1881), iv. 9, in inquiring into their probable -nationality, he thinks they were an ancient people who -were driven south and became the moundbuilding Chahta.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Other supporters of the red Indian view are Edmund -Andrews, in the <i>Wisconsin Acad. of Science</i>, iv. 126; P. -R. Hoy, in <i>Ibid.</i> vi.; O. T. Mason, in <i>Science</i>, iii. 658; -Nadaillac, in <i>L’Amérique préhistorique</i>; E. Schmidt, in -<i>Kosmos</i> (Leipzig), viii. 81, 163; G. P. Thurston, in <i>Mag. -Amer. Hist.</i>, 1888, xix. 374.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1734_1734" id="Footnote_1734_1734"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1734_1734"><span class="label">[1734]</span></a></span> -This is denied in Fred. Larkin’s <i>Anc. Man in America</i> -(N. Y.).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1735_1735" id="Footnote_1735_1735"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1735_1735"><span class="label">[1735]</span></a></span> -J. D. Baldwin’s <i>Anc. America</i> (N. Y., 1871). D. -Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, i. ch. 10, etc., who holds that -“the moundbuilders were greatly more in advance of the -Indian hunter than behind the civilized Mexican;” and he -claims that the proof deduced from the Indian type of a -head discovered in a moundbuilder’s pipe (i. 366) is due -to a perverted drawing in Squier and Davis. Short, <i>No. -Amer. of Antiq.</i>, believed they were of the race later in -Anahuac. Gay, <i>Pop. Hist. U. S.</i>, i. ch. 2, believes in the -theory of a vanished race. In 1775 Adair thought the -works indicated a higher military energy than the modern -Indian showed.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1736_1736" id="Footnote_1736_1736"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1736_1736"><span class="label">[1736]</span></a></span> -<i>Antiq. of Man</i>, 4th ed. 42.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1737_1737" id="Footnote_1737_1737"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1737_1737"><span class="label">[1737]</span></a></span> -Putnam’s papers and the records of his investigations -can be found in his <i>Peabody Mus. Reports</i>, xvii., xviii., -xix., xx., etc. <i>Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.</i>, xv.; <i>Amer. -Naturalist</i>, June, 1875; <i>Kansas City Rev.</i>, 1879, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1738_1738" id="Footnote_1738_1738"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1738_1738"><span class="label">[1738]</span></a></span> -<i>No. Am. Rev.</i>, cxxiii., for “houses of the moundbuilders,” -and also in his <i>Houses and Home Life</i>, ch. 9. -Cf. on the other hand C. Thomas in <i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, -Feb., 1884, p. 110.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1739_1739" id="Footnote_1739_1739"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1739_1739"><span class="label">[1739]</span></a></span> -Rhee’s <i>Catalogue</i>, p. 252-3.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1740_1740" id="Footnote_1740_1740"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1740_1740"><span class="label">[1740]</span></a></span> -S. D. Peet, who edits this journal, has advanced in -one of his papers (vii. 82) that some of these earthworks -are Indian game drives and screens. (He also contributed -a classification of them to the <i>Congrès des Américanistes</i>, -1877, i. 103.) The paper by J. E. Stevenson (ii. 89), and -that by Horatio Hale on “Indian Migrations” (Jan.-April, -1883), are worth noting. The <i>Compte Rendu, Congrès -des Américanistes</i>, 1875 (i. 387), has Joly’s “Les Moundbuilders, -leurs Œuvres et leurs Caractères Ethniques,” and -that for 1877 has a paper by John H. Becker and Stronck. -That by R. S. Robertson in <i>Ibid.</i> (i. p. 39) is also reprinted -in the <i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i> (iv. 174), March, 1880; -while in March, 1883, will be found some of T. H. Lewis’s -personal experiences in exploring mounds. Some other -periodical papers are: W. de Haas, in <i>Trans. Am. Asso. -Adv. Science</i>, 1868; D. A. Robertson, in <i>Journal Amer. -Geog. Soc.</i>, v. 256; A. W. Vogeles and S. L. Fay, in <i>Amer. -Naturalist</i>, xiii. 9, 637; E. B. Finley in <i>Mag. Western -Hist.</i>, Feb., 1887, p. 439; <i>Science</i>, Sept. 14, 1883; Squier, -in <i>American Journal Science</i>, liii. 237, and in <i>Harper’s -Monthly</i>, xx. 737, xxi. 20, 165; C. Morris, in <i>Nat. Quart. -Rev.</i>, Dec. 1871, 1872, April, 1873; Ad. F. Fontpertius on -“Le peuple des mounds et ses monuments” in the <i>Rev. de -Géog.</i> (April and August, 1881); E. Price, in the <i>Annals -of Iowa</i>, vi. 121; Isaac Smucker, in <i>Scientific Monthly</i> -(Toledo, Ohio), i. 100.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Some other references, hardly of essential character, are: -H. H. Bancroft, <i>Nat. Races</i>, iv. ch. 13; v. 538; Gales’s -<i>Upper Mississippi, or Historical Sketches of the Moundbuilders</i> -(Chicago, 1867); Southall’s <i>Recent Origin of -Man</i>, ch. 36; Wm. McAdams’s <i>Records of ancient races -in the Mississippi valley; being an account of some of the -pictographs, sculptured hieroglyphs, symbolic devices, -emblems and traditions of the prehistoric races of America, -with some suggestions as to their origin</i> (St. Louis, -1887); Brühl’s <i>Culturvölker des alten Amerika</i>; J. D. -Sherwood, in Stevens’s <i>Flint Chips</i>, 341; E. Pickett’s -<i>Testimony of the Rocks</i> (N. Y.).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1741_1741" id="Footnote_1741_1741"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1741_1741"><span class="label">[1741]</span></a></span> -<i>Hist. Mag.</i>, Feb., 1866.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1742_1742" id="Footnote_1742_1742"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1742_1742"><span class="label">[1742]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Congrès des Amér.</i>, 1877, i. 316; C. Thomas in -<i>Amer. Antiq.</i>, vii. 66; Warden’s <i>Recherches</i>, ch. 4; Baldwin’s -<i>Anc. America</i>, ch. 2.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1743_1743" id="Footnote_1743_1743"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1743_1743"><span class="label">[1743]</span></a></span> -Cf. Short, p. 158.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1744_1744" id="Footnote_1744_1744"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1744_1744"><span class="label">[1744]</span></a></span> -Force, <i>To what Race</i>, etc., p. 63.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1745_1745" id="Footnote_1745_1745"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1745_1745"><span class="label">[1745]</span></a></span> -Cf. Henry Gillman’s “Ancient Men of the Great -Lakes” in <i>Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci.</i> (Detroit, 1875), pp. -297, 317; <i>Boston Nat. Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, iv. 331; <i>Smithsonian -Rept.</i>, 1867, p. 412; C. C. Jones’s <i>Antiq. Southern -Indians</i>; <i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i>, iv., vi., xi.; Jos. Jones’s -<i>Aborig. Remains of Tennessee</i>; Jeffries Wyman in <i>Am. -Journal of Arts</i>, etc., cvii. p. i.; W. J. McGee in <i>Ibid.</i> -cxvi. 458; and Dr. S. F. Landrey on “A moundbuilder’s -brain” in <i>Pop. Science News</i> (Boston, Oct., 1886, p. 138).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1746_1746" id="Footnote_1746_1746"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1746_1746"><span class="label">[1746]</span></a></span> -Cf. Holmes’s “Objects from the Mounds” in Powell’s -<i>Bur. of Ethnol. Repts.</i>, iii.; C. C. Baldwin’s “Relics of -the Moundbuilders” in <i>West. Reserve Hist. Soc. Tract</i>, -no. 23 (1874); Foster on their stone and copper implements -in <i>Chicago Acad. Science</i>, i. (1869); objects from the Ohio -mounds in Stevens’s <i>Flint Chips</i>, 418; images from them -in <i>Science</i>, April 11, 1884, p. 437. In the mounds of the -Little Miami Valley, native gold and meteoric iron have -been found for the first time (<i>Peab. Mus. Rept.</i>, xvi. 170).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1747_1747" id="Footnote_1747_1747"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1747_1747"><span class="label">[1747]</span></a></span> -See, on such impositions in general, MacLean’s <i>Moundbuilders</i>, -ch. 9; C. C. Abbott in <i>Pop. Sci. Monthly</i>, July, -1885, p. 308; Wilson’s <i>Prehist. Man</i>, ii. ch. 19; Putnam in -<i>Peab. Mus. Repts.</i>, xvi. 184; <i>Fourth Rept. Bur. Ethnol.</i> -247.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The best known of the disputed relics are the following: -The largest mound in the Ohio Valley is that of the Grave -Creek, twelve miles below Wheeling, which was earliest described -by its owner, A. B. Tomlinson, in 1838. It is seventy -feet high and one thousand feet in circumference. (Cf. -Squier and Davis, Foster, MacLean, <i>Olden Time</i>, i. 232; -and account by P. P. Cherry—Wadsworth, 1877.) About -1838 a shaft was sunk by Tomlinson into it, and a rotunda -constructed in its centre out of an original cavity, as a showroom -for relics; and here, as taken from the mound, appeared -two years later what is known as the Grave Creek -stone, bearing an inscription of inscrutable characters. -The supposed relic soon attracted attention. H. R. Schoolcraft -pronounced its twenty-two characters such “as were -used by the Pelasgi,” in his <i>Observations respecting the -Grave creek mound, in Western Virginia; the antique -inscription discovered in its excavation; and the connected -evidence of the occupancy of the Mississippi valley during -the mound period, and prior to the discovery of America -by Columbus</i>, which appeared in the <i>Amer. Ethnological -Soc. Trans.</i>, i. 367 (N. Y., 1845). Cf. his <i>Indian Tribes</i>, -iv. 118, where he thinks it may be an “intrusive antiquity.” -The French savant Jomard published a <i>Note sur une -pierre gravée</i> (Paris, 1845, 1859), in which he thought it -Libyan. Lévy-Bing calls it Hebrew in <i>Congrès des Amér.</i> -(Nancy, i. 215). Other notices are by Moïse Schwab in -<i>Revue Archéologique</i>, Feb., 1857; José Perez in <i>Arch. de la -Soc. Amér. de France</i> (1865), ii. 173; and in America in the -<i>Amer. Pioneer</i>, ii. 197; Haven’s <i>Archæol. U. S.</i>, 133, and -<i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, April 29, 1863, pp. 13, 32; <i>Amer. -Antiquarian</i>, i. 139; Bancroft’s <i>Nat. Races</i>, v. 75.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Squier promptly questioned its authenticity (<i>Amer. Ethnol. -Soc. Trans.</i>, ii.; <i>Aborig. Mts.</i>, 168). Wilson laughed -at it (<i>Prehistoric Man</i>, ii. 100). Col. Whittlesey has done -more than any one to show its fraudulent character, and to -show how the cuts of it which have been made vary (<i>Western -Reserve, Hist. Soc. Tracts</i>), nos. 9 (1872), 33 (1876), -42 (1878), and 44 (1879.) Cf. on this side Short, p. 419; -and <i>Fourth Rept. Bur. Ethnol.</i>, 250. Its authenticity is, -however, maintained by MacLean (<i>Moundbuilders</i>, Cinn., -1879), who summarizes the arguments <i>pro</i> and <i>con</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4">What is known as the Cincinnati tablet was found on -the site of that city in 1841 (<i>Amer. Pioneer</i>, ii. 195). Squier -accepted it as genuine, and thought it might be a printing-stone -for decorating hides (<i>Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans.</i>, ii.; -<i>Aborig. Mts.</i> (1847), p. 70). Whittlesey at first doubted it -(<i>West. Res. Hist. Tracts</i>, no. 9), but was later convinced of -its genuineness by Robert Clarke’s <i>Prehistoric Remains -found on the site of Cincinnati</i> (privately printed, Cinn., -1876).</p> -<p class="pfc4">The so-called Berlin tablet was found in Ohio in 1876. -S. D. Peet believes it genuine (<i>Amer. Antiq.</i>, i. 73; vii. -222).</p> -<p class="pfc4">On the Rockford tablet, see Short, 44.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The Davenport tablets, found by the Rev. J. Gass in a -mound near Davenport, in Jan., 1877, are described in the -<i>Davenport Acad. Proc.</i>, ii. 96, 132, 221, 349; iii. 155. Cf. -further in <i>Amer. Asso. Adv. Science Proc.</i> (April, 1877), by -R. J. Farquharson; <i>Congrès des Amér.</i> (1877, ii. 158, with -cut). The <i>American Antiquarian</i> records the controversy -over its genuineness. In vol. iv. 145, John Campbell -proposed a reading of the inscription. The suspicions are -set forth in vii. 373. Peet, in viii. 46, inclines to consider -it a fraud; and, p. 92, there is a defence. Short (pp. 38-39) -doubts. In the <i>Second Amer. Rept. Bur. of Ethnol.</i>, H. -W. Henshaw, on “Animal Carvings,” attacked its character. -(Cf. <i>Fourth Rept.</i>, p. 251.) A reply by C. E. Putnam -in vol. iv. of the <i>Davenport Acad. Proc.</i>, and issued -separately, is called <i>Vindication of the Authenticity of the -Elephant pipes and inscribed tablets in the Mus. of the -Davenport Acad.</i> (Davenport, Iowa, 1885). Cf. Cyrus -Thomas in <i>Science</i>, vi. 564; also Feb. 5, 1886, p. 119. The -question of the elephant pipes is included in the discussion, -some denying their genuineness. Cf. also <i>Amer. Antiq.</i>, -ii. 67; Short, 531; Dr. Max Uhle in <i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i>, -1887.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1748_1748" id="Footnote_1748_1748"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1748_1748"><span class="label">[1748]</span></a></span> -It has been found convenient to follow an advancing -line of geographical succession, but the affiliations of the -peoples of the mounds seem to indicate that those dwelling -on both slopes and in the valleys of the Appalachian ranges -should be grouped together, as Thomas combines them in -his section on the mounds of the Appalachian District. -(<i>Fifth Rept. Bur. Ethnol.</i>)</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1749_1749" id="Footnote_1749_1749"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1749_1749"><span class="label">[1749]</span></a></span> -<i>Proc.</i>, Oct. 23, 1849, p. 13; Belknap’s <i>New Hampshire</i>, -iii. 89; Haven’s <i>Archæol. U. S.</i>, 42.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1750_1750" id="Footnote_1750_1750"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1750_1750"><span class="label">[1750]</span></a></span> -D. A. Robertson, <i>Journal Amer. Geog. Soc.</i>, vol. v., -contends that the North American mounds were built by a -colony of Finns long before the Christian era.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1751_1751" id="Footnote_1751_1751"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1751_1751"><span class="label">[1751]</span></a></span> -It was also issued, with some additional matter, at -Buffalo (1851) as <i>Antiquities of New York State, with -supplement on Antiquities of the West</i> (1851). Squier -has also at this time a paper on these mounds in <i>N. Y. -Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, Jan., 1849, p. 41. Cf. <i>Am. Journal of -Science</i>, lxi. 305, and <i>Harper’s Monthly</i>, xx. and xxi. His -conclusions, distinct from those pertaining to the Ohio -mounds, were that the N. Y. earthworks were raised by -the red Indians.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1752_1752" id="Footnote_1752_1752"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1752_1752"><span class="label">[1752]</span></a></span> -Cf. W. M. Taylor on a Pennsylvania mound in <i>Smithsonian -Rept.</i>, 1877.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1753_1753" id="Footnote_1753_1753"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1753_1753"><span class="label">[1753]</span></a></span> -A few minor references may be given. The <i>Smithsonian -Reports</i> have papers by D. Trowbridge (1863); and -by F. H. Cushing on those of Orleans County (1874). W. -L. Stone held them to have been built by Egyptians, who -afterward went south (<i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, Sept., 1878, ii. -533). Cf. <i>Ibid.</i> v. 35, and S. L. Frey in the <i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, -Oct., 1879. A small book, <i>Ancient Man in America</i> -(N. Y., 1880), by Frederic Larkin, takes issue with -Squier, and believes the builders were not the modern Indians. -He says he found in one of the N. Y. mounds, in -1854, a copper relic, with a mastodon, evidently in harness, -scratched upon it! H. G. Mercer’s <i>Lenape Stone</i> describes -a “gorget stone” dug up in Buck’s County, Penn., -in 1872, which shows a carving representing a fight between -Indians and the hairy mammoth, which we are also -asked to accept as genuine. What is recognized as an -ancient burial mound of the Senecas is described at some -length in G. S. Conover’s <i>Reasons why the State should -acquire the famous burial mound of the Seneca Indians</i> -(1888).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1754_1754" id="Footnote_1754_1754"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1754_1754"><span class="label">[1754]</span></a></span> -Contributions to a bibliography and lists of the Ohio -mounds are found as follows: Mrs. Cyrus Thomas’s -“Bibliog. of Earthworks in Ohio” in the <i>Ohio Archæol. -and Hist. Quarterly</i>, June, 1887, et seq.; a lesser list is -in Thomson’s <i>Bibliog. of Ohio</i>, p. 385. Lists of the works -are given in the <i>Ohio Centennial Rept.</i> and in MacLean’s -<i>Moundbuilders</i>, pp. 230-233. J. Smucker, in the <i>Amer. -Antiquarian</i>, vi. 43, describes the interest in archæology -in the State, and instances the results in the numerous -county histories, in the Western Reserve Hist. Soc. publications, -in those of the Nat. Hist. Soc. of Cincinnati, of -the Archæological Soc. at Madisonville, of the Central -Ohio Scientific Association (begun 1878), and of the District -Hist. Society (beginning its reports in 1877. Cf. P. -G. Thomson, <i>Bibl. of Ohio</i>, no. 328). The course of the -West. Reserve Hist. Soc. is sketched in the <i>Mag. West. -Hist.</i>, Feb., 1888 (vol. vii.).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1755_1755" id="Footnote_1755_1755"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1755_1755"><span class="label">[1755]</span></a></span> -<i>Life of Cutler</i>, ii. 14, 252.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1756_1756" id="Footnote_1756_1756"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1756_1756"><span class="label">[1756]</span></a></span> -<i>Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc.</i>, iv.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1757_1757" id="Footnote_1757_1757"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1757_1757"><span class="label">[1757]</span></a></span> -Their survey is used in Stevens’s <i>Flint Chips</i> by Sherwood.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1758_1758" id="Footnote_1758_1758"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1758_1758"><span class="label">[1758]</span></a></span> -Cf. no. 11, 23, 41.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1759_1759" id="Footnote_1759_1759"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1759_1759"><span class="label">[1759]</span></a></span> -Some minor references: Whittlesey in <i>Fireland’s -Pioneer</i> (June, 1865), and in his <i>Fugitive Essays</i> (Hudson, -O., 1852). C. H. Mitchener’s <i>Ohio Annals</i> (Dayton, 1876). -<i>Hist. Mag.</i>, xii. 240. C. W. Butterfield in <i>Mag. West. -Hist.</i>, Oct., 1886 (iv. 777). I. Dille in <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, -1866, p. 359; and Hill and others in <i>Ibid.</i> 1877. C. Thomas -in <i>Science</i>, xi. 314. Thomas J. Brown on artificial terraces -in <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, May, 1888. Howe’s <i>Hist. Collections -of Ohio</i>, as well as the numerous county histories, -afford some material.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1760_1760" id="Footnote_1760_1760"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1760_1760"><span class="label">[1760]</span></a></span> -The annexed map of the vicinity of Chillicothe will -show their abundance in a confined area. E. B. Andrews -on those in the S. E. in <i>Peabody Mus. Rept.</i>, x. MacLean’s -<i>Moundbuilders</i> (Cincinnati, 1879) is of no original value -except for Butler County. Squier and Davis give a plan of -the fortified hill in this county. Walker’s <i>Athens County</i>. -Isaac J. Finley and Rufus Putnam’s <i>Pioneer Record of -Ross County</i> (Cincinnati, 1871). A plan of the High Bank -works in this county is given in the <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, -v. 56. The Highland County works, called Fort Hill, are -described in the <i>Ohio Arch. & Hist. Q.</i>, 1887, p. 260. G. -S. B. Hampstead’s <i>Antiq. of Portsmouth</i> (1875) embodies -results of a long series of surveys. Cf. <i>Journal Anthropological -Institute</i>, vii. 132.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1761_1761" id="Footnote_1761_1761"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1761_1761"><span class="label">[1761]</span></a></span> -D. Drake’s <i>Picture of Cincinnati</i> (1815); Harrison in -<i>Ohio Hist. & Philos. Soc.</i>, i.; Squier and Davis; Ford’s -<i>Cincinnati</i>, i. ch. 2.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1762_1762" id="Footnote_1762_1762"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1762_1762"><span class="label">[1762]</span></a></span> -The best known of the ancient fortifications of this -region is that called Fort Ancient, about 42 miles from Cincinnati. -It was surveyed by Prof. Locke in 1843. Cf. L. -M. Hosea in <i>Quart. Journal of Science</i> (Cinn., Oct., 1874); -Putnam in the <i>Amer. Architect</i>, xiii. 19; <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, -April, 1878; Force’s <i>Moundbuilders</i>; Warden’s -<i>Recherches</i>; Squier and Davis, with plan reduced in MacLean, -p. 21; Short, 51; and on its present condition, <i>Peab. -Mus. Rept.</i>, xvi. 168. There is an excellent map of the -mounds in the Little Miami Valley, in Dr. C. L. Metz’s -<i>Prehistoric Monuments of the Little Miami Valley</i>, in the -<i>Journal of the Cincinnati Soc. of Nat. Hist.</i>, vol. i., Oct., -1878. The explorations of Putnam and Metz are recorded -in the <i>Peab. Mus. Repts.</i>, xvii., xviii. (Marriott mound), -and xx. Cf. Putnam’s lecture in <i>Mag. West. History</i>, -Jan., 1888. There are explorations at Madisonville noticed -in the <i>Journal of the Cinn. Soc. Nat. Hist.</i>, Apr., 1880. -Others in this region are recorded in L. B. Welch and J. -M. Richardson’s <i>Prehistoric relics found near Wilmington</i> -(Sparks mound), and by F. W. Langdon in the appendix -of Short.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1763_1763" id="Footnote_1763_1763"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1763_1763"><span class="label">[1763]</span></a></span> -M. C. Read’s <i>Archæol. of Ohio</i> (Cleveland, 1888), with -cut. Col. Whittlesey made the survey in Squier and Davis, -and it is copied by Foster. O. C. Marsh in <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, xii. -240; and in <i>Amer. Journal of Science</i>, xcii. (July, 1866). -Isaac Smucker, a local antiquary, in <i>Newark American</i>, -Dec. 19, 1872; in <i>Amer. Hist. Record</i>, ii. 481; and in -<i>Amer. Antiq.</i>, iii. 261 (July, 1881). Cf. Nadaillac, 99, and -view in Lossing’s <i>War of 1812</i>, p. 565.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Other antiquities of the central region are described in -no. 11 <i>Western Res. Hist. Soc. Tracts</i> (Hardin Co.); in -<i>Ohio Arch. Hist. Quart.</i>, March, 1888 (Franklin Co.); -<i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, April, 1863 (Fairfield Co., etc.).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1764_1764" id="Footnote_1764_1764"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1764_1764"><span class="label">[1764]</span></a></span> -R. W. McFarland in <i>Ohio Arch. Hist. Quart.</i>, i. 265 -(Oxford).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1765_1765" id="Footnote_1765_1765"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1765_1765"><span class="label">[1765]</span></a></span> -Cox in <i>Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci.</i>, 1874 (fort in Clarke Co.).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1766_1766" id="Footnote_1766_1766"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1766_1766"><span class="label">[1766]</span></a></span> -<i>West. Res. Hist. Soc. Tracts</i>, no. 41 (1877); and for the -Cuyahoga Valley in no. 5 (1871), both by Whittlesey. The -works on the Huron River, east of Sandusky, were described, -with a plan, by Abraham G. Steiner in <i>Columbian -Mag.</i>, Sept., 1789, reprinted in <i>Fireland’s Pioneer</i>, xi. 71. -G. W. Hill in <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, 1874; E. O. Dunning -on the Lick Creek mound in <i>Peab. Mus. Rept.</i>, v. p. 11; -S. D. Peet on a double-walled enclosure in Ashtabula Co. -in <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, 1876. Cf. Cornelius Baldwin on -ancient burial cists in northeastern Ohio in <i>West. Res. -Hist. Tracts</i>, no. 56, and Yarrow on mound-burials in <i>First -Rept. Bur. Ethnol.</i></p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1767_1767" id="Footnote_1767_1767"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1767_1767"><span class="label">[1767]</span></a></span> -Cf. Putnam in <i>Bull. Essex Inst.</i>, iii. (Nov., 1871), and -<i>Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc.</i> (Feb., 1872); Foster, p. 134, -with plan. The <i>Smithsonian Repts.</i> cover notices by W. -Pidgeon (1867), by A. Patton in Knox and Lawrence counties -(1873), and by R. S. Robertson (1874).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1768_1768" id="Footnote_1768_1768"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1768_1768"><span class="label">[1768]</span></a></span> -<i>Peabody Mus. Reports</i>, xii. 473 (1879). For Illinois -mounds see Thomas in <i>Fifth Rept. Bur. Ethnol.</i>; Davidson -and Struve’s <i>Illinois</i>; E. Baldwin’s <i>La Salle Co.</i> (Chicago, -1877); W. McAdams’s <i>Antiq. of Cahokia</i> (Edwardsville, -1883); H. R. Howland in the <i>Buffalo Soc. Nat. Hist. -Bull.</i>, iii.; and in <i>Smithsonian Repts.</i>, by Chas. Rau (1868); -largely on agricultural traces; by Dr. A. Patton (1873); by -T. M. Perrine on Union Co. (1873); by T. McWhorter and -others (1874); by W. H. Pratt on Whiteside Co. (1874); by -J. Shaw on Rock River (1877); and by J. Cochrane on -Mason Co. (1877).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1769_1769" id="Footnote_1769_1769"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1769_1769"><span class="label">[1769]</span></a></span> -His papers are in the <i>Smithsonian Repts.</i>, 1873, 1875; -<i>Peabody Mus. Reports</i>, vi. (1873), on the St. Clair River -mounds; <i>Am. Journal of Arts, etc.</i>, Jan., 1874; <i>Am. -Assoc. Adv. Sci. Proc.</i>, 1875; on bone relics in <i>Congrès -des Amér.</i>, 1877, i. 65; and on the Lake Huron mounds, in -<i>American Naturalist</i>, Jan., 1883. Cf. other accounts in -<i>Michigan Pioneer Collections</i>, ii. 40; iii. 41, 202; S. D. -Peet in <i>Amer. Antiq.</i>, Jan., 1888; and on the old fort near -Detroit, <i>Ibid.</i> p. 37; and Bela Hubbard’s <i>Memorials of a -half century</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1770_1770" id="Footnote_1770_1770"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1770_1770"><span class="label">[1770]</span></a></span> -The copy in Harvard College library has some annotations -by George Gale. Lapham’s survey of Aztlan is reproduced -in Foster, p. 102. Lapham’s book is summarized -by Wm. Barry in the <i>Wisconsin Hist. Soc. Coll.</i>, iii. 187. -These <i>Collections</i> contain other papers on mounds in Crawford -Co. by Alfred Brunson (iii. 178); on man-shape mounds -(iv. 365); J. D. Butler on “Prehistoric Wisconsin” (vii.); -on Aztalan (ix. 103).</p> -<p class="pfc4">The <i>Transactions</i> of the Wisconsin Acad. of Science -are also of assistance: vol. iii., a report of a committee on -the mounds near Madison, with cuts; vol. iv., a paper by -J. M. DeHart on the “Antiquities and platycnemism [flat -tibia bones] of the Moundbuilders.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1771_1771" id="Footnote_1771_1771"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1771_1771"><span class="label">[1771]</span></a></span> -S. D. Peet has discussed this aspect in the <i>Amer. -Antiquarian</i> (1880), iii. p. 1; vi. 176; vii. 164, 215, 321; -viii. 1; ix. 67. He also examines the evidence of the village -life of their builders (ix. 10). Cf. his <i>Emblematic -Mounds</i>; and his paper in the <i>Wisconsin Hist. Coll.</i>, ix. 40.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1772_1772" id="Footnote_1772_1772"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1772_1772"><span class="label">[1772]</span></a></span> -None of the bones of extinct animals have been found -in the mounds; nor has the buffalo, long a ranger of the -Mississippi Valley, been identified in the shapes of the -mounds. (Cf. Peet on the identification of animal mounds -in <i>Amer. Antiq.</i>, vi. 176.) Peet holds they followed the -mastodon period (<i>Ibid.</i> ix. 67). The elephant mound, so -called, has been often shown in cuts. (Cf. <i>Smithsonian -Rept.</i>, 1877, accompanying a paper by J. Warner, and Powell’s -<i>Second Rept. Bur. of Eth.</i>, 153.) Henshaw here discredits -the idea of its being intended for an elephant. The -evidence of elephant pipes is thought uncertain. Cf. article -on mound pipes by Barber in <i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, April, -1882.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1773_1773" id="Footnote_1773_1773"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1773_1773"><span class="label">[1773]</span></a></span> -<i>Second Rept. Bur. of Ethnol.</i>, p. 159, where Henshaw -thinks it may just as well be anything else. Cf. Isaac -Smucker in <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, vii. 350.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1774_1774" id="Footnote_1774_1774"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1774_1774"><span class="label">[1774]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Amer. Antiq.</i>, vi. 254.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1775_1775" id="Footnote_1775_1775"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1775_1775"><span class="label">[1775]</span></a></span> -<i>Peab. Mus. Rept.</i>, xvii., and <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, -Oct., 1883. He points out that the Ohio effigy mounds -have a foundation of stones with clay superposed; the -Georgia mounds are mainly of stone; while the Wisconsin -mounds seem to be constructed only of earth.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Further references on the Wisconsin mounds: <i>Smithsonian -Repts.</i>, by E. E. Breed (1872); by C. K. Dean (1872); -by Moses Strong (1876, 1877); by J. M. DeHart (1877); -and again (1879).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Also: Haven’s <i>Archæol. U. S.</i>, p. 106; W. H. Canfield’s -<i>Sauk County</i>; DeHart in <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, April, 1879; -their military character in <i>Ibid.</i>, Jan., 1881; also as emblems -in <i>Ibid.</i> 1883 (vi. 7); Nadaillac and other general -works. There is a map of those near Beloit—some are in -the college campus—in the <i>American Antiquarian</i>, iii. 95.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1776_1776" id="Footnote_1776_1776"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1776_1776"><span class="label">[1776]</span></a></span> -They have been described in the <i>Smithsonian Reports</i> -by T. R. Peale (1861); and in <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, July, -1888, by S. D. Peet. Other mounds and relics are described -in the <i>Smithsonian Repts.</i> (1863) by J. W. Foster; -(1870) by A. Barrandt; (1877) by W. H. R. Lykins; and -(1879) by G. C. Broadhead; in <i>Peab. Mus. Repts.</i>, viii., by -Professor Swallow; in <i>Missouri Hist. Soc. Publ.</i>, no. 6, -by F. F. Hilder; in <i>Cinn. Quart. Jour. of Sci.</i>, Jan., 1875, -by Dr. S. H. Headlee; in the <i>Kansas City Rev.</i>, i. 25, -531; in the <i>St. Louis Acad. of Science</i> (1880) by W. P. -Potter; Mr. A. J. Conant has been the most prolific writer -in <i>Ibid.</i>, April 5, 1876; in W. F. Switzler’s <i>History of -Missouri</i> (St. Louis, 1879), and in C. R. Burns’s <i>Commonwealth -of Missouri</i> (1877). Cf. also Poole’s <i>Index</i>, -p. 858.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1777_1777" id="Footnote_1777_1777"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1777_1777"><span class="label">[1777]</span></a></span> -T. H. Lewis in <i>Science</i>, v. 131; vi. 453. On other -Iowa mounds, see <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, by J. B. Cutts -(1872); by M. W. Moulton (1877), and again (1879); -<i>Annals of Iowa</i>, vi. 121; and W. J. McGee in <i>Amer. -Journal Science</i>, cxvi. 272.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1778_1778" id="Footnote_1778_1778"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1778_1778"><span class="label">[1778]</span></a></span> -<i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, 1863; and for mounds, 1879. -Cf. L. C. Estes on the antiquities on the banks of -Missouri and Lake Pepin in <i>Ibid.</i>, 1866.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1779_1779" id="Footnote_1779_1779"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1779_1779"><span class="label">[1779]</span></a></span> -<i>Kansas Rev.</i>, ii. 617; Joseph Savage and B. F. -Mudge in <i>Kansas Acad. Science</i>, vii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1780_1780" id="Footnote_1780_1780"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1780_1780"><span class="label">[1780]</span></a></span> -<i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, by A. J. Comfort (1871) and by A. -Barrandt (1872); W. McAdams in <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, -viii. 153.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1781_1781" id="Footnote_1781_1781"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1781_1781"><span class="label">[1781]</span></a></span> -<i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, x. 410, by E. Palmer; Bancroft, -<i>Nat. Races</i>, iv. 715.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1782_1782" id="Footnote_1782_1782"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1782_1782"><span class="label">[1782]</span></a></span> -App. to Gleeson’s <i>Hist. of the Catholic Church in -California</i> (1872), ii., and Bancroft’s <i>Nat. Races</i>, iv. 695.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1783_1783" id="Footnote_1783_1783"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1783_1783"><span class="label">[1783]</span></a></span> -P. W. Norris in <i>Smithsonian Report</i>, 1879.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1784_1784" id="Footnote_1784_1784"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1784_1784"><span class="label">[1784]</span></a></span> -Cf. George Gibbs in <i>Journal Amer. Geogr. Soc.</i>, iv.; -A. W. Chase in <i>Amer. Jour. Sci.</i>, cvi. 26; <i>Amer. Architect</i>, -xxi. 295; and Bancroft, <i>Nat. Races</i>, iv. 735.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1785_1785" id="Footnote_1785_1785"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1785_1785"><span class="label">[1785]</span></a></span> -Cf. S. H. Locket in <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i> (1872), and T. -P. Hotchkiss in the same, and a paper in 1876; <i>Amer. -Journal Science</i>, xlix. 38, by C. G. Forshey, and lxv. 186, -by A. Bigelow.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1786_1786" id="Footnote_1786_1786"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1786_1786"><span class="label">[1786]</span></a></span> -T. H. Lewis, with plan, in <i>Amer. Journal Archæol.</i>, -iii. 375; previously noted by Atwater and by Squier and -Davis.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1787_1787" id="Footnote_1787_1787"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1787_1787"><span class="label">[1787]</span></a></span> -Cf. Filson’s <i>Kentucke</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1788_1788" id="Footnote_1788_1788"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1788_1788"><span class="label">[1788]</span></a></span> -<i>Amer. Philos. Soc. Trans.</i>, iv., no. 26.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1789_1789" id="Footnote_1789_1789"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1789_1789"><span class="label">[1789]</span></a></span> -Thomas E. Pickett contributed this part (1871) to Collins’s -<i>Hist. Kentucky</i> (1878), i. 380; ii. 68, 69, 227, 302, -303, 457, 633, 765. Pickett’s contribution was published -separately as <i>The testimony of the Mounds</i> (Marysville, -Ky., 1875). Prof. Shaler, as head of the Geological Survey -of Kentucky, included in its Reports Lucien Carr’s -treatise on the mounds, already mentioned; and touches -the subject briefly in his <i>Kentucky</i>, p. 45. Cf. also Maj. -Jona. Heart in Imlay’s <i>Western Territory</i>; S. S. Lyon -in <i>Smithsonian Repts.</i>, 1858, 1870, and R. Peter, in 1871, -1872; F. W. Putnam in <i>Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc.</i>, -xvii. 313 (1875); and <i>Nature</i>, xiii. 109.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1790_1790" id="Footnote_1790_1790"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1790_1790"><span class="label">[1790]</span></a></span> -The aboriginal remains of Tennessee have successively -been treated in John Haywood’s <i>History of Tennessee</i> -(Nashville, 1823); by Gerard Troost in <i>Amer. Ethnol. -Soc. Trans.</i> (1845), i. 335; by Joseph Jones in <i>Smithsonian -Contributions</i>, xx. (1876), who connected those who erected -the works, through the Natchez Indians, with the Nahuas. -Edward O. Dunning had described some of the Tennessee -relics in the <i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i>, iii., iv., and v.; but -Putnam in no. xi. (1878) gave the results of his opening of -the stone graves, with his explorations of the sites of the -villages of the people, and described their implements, nothing -of which, as he said, showed contact with Europeans. -Cyrus Thomas deems these remains the works of the Indian -race (<i>Amer. Antiq.</i>, vii. 129; viii. 162). The <i>Smithsonian -Repts.</i> have had various papers on the Tennessee antiquities: -I. Dille (1862); A. F. Danilsen (1863); M. C. Read (1867); -E. A. Dayton, E. O. Dunning, E. M. Grant, and J. P. -Stelle (1870); Rev. Joshua Hall, A. E. Law, and D. F. -Wright (1874); and others (in 1877).</p> -<p class="pfc4">L. J. Du Pré, in <i>Harper’s Monthly</i> (Feb., 1875), p. 347, -reports upon a ten-acre adobe threshing-floor, preserved -two feet and a half beneath black loam, near Memphis.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1791_1791" id="Footnote_1791_1791"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1791_1791"><span class="label">[1791]</span></a></span> -Col. Jones’s papers are: <i>Indian Remains in South -Georgia, an address</i> (Savannah, 1859); <i>Ancient tumuli on -the Savannah River; Monumental Remains of Georgia</i>, -part i. (Savannah, 1861); <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, April, -1869; <i>Antiquities of Southern Indians</i> (1873); on effigy -mounds in <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i> (1877); and on bird-shaped -mounds in <i>Journal Anthropological Soc.</i>, viii. 92. Cf. also -the early chapters of his <i>Hist. of Georgia</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Other writers: H. C. Williams and Geo. Stephenson in -<i>Smithson. Rept.</i> (1870); and Wm. McKinley and M. F. -Stephenson (1872). Cf. <i>Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans.</i>, iii., -on Creeks and Cherokees; and on the great mound in -the Etowah Valley, <i>Amer. Asso. Adv. Sci.</i> (1871). Thomas -(<i>Fifth Rept. Bur. Ethnol.</i>) supposes the Etowah mound to -be the one with a roadway described by Garcilasso de la -Vega as being on De Soto’s route. Thomas describes other -mounds of this group, giving cuts of the incised copper -plates found in them, which he holds to be of European -make. This forces him to the conclusion that the larger -mound was built before De Soto’s incursion and the others -later; and as they differ from those in Carolina, he determines -they were not built by the Cherokees.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1792_1792" id="Footnote_1792_1792"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1792_1792"><span class="label">[1792]</span></a></span> -Cf. S. A. Agnew in <i>Smithsonian Reports</i> (1867), and -J. W. C. Smith (1874, cf. 1879); Jas. R. Page in <i>St. Louis -Acad. Science Trans.</i>, iii., and <i>Cinn. Q. Journal of Sci.</i>, -Oct., 1875; Haven, p. 51; and Edw. Fontaine’s <i>How the -World was peopled</i>, 153.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1793_1793" id="Footnote_1793_1793"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1793_1793"><span class="label">[1793]</span></a></span> -E. Cornelius in <i>Amer. Journ. Sci.</i>, i. 223; Pickett’s -<i>Alabama</i>, ch. 3.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1794_1794" id="Footnote_1794_1794"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1794_1794"><span class="label">[1794]</span></a></span> -Schoolcraft, <i>Indian Tribes</i>, iii., and in <i>N. Y. Hist. -Soc. Proc.</i>, 1846, p. 124. Brinton’s <i>Floridian Peninsula</i>, -ch. 6. <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, iv. 100; ix. 219. <i>Smithsonian -Reports</i> (1874), by A. Mitchell, and 1879.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1795_1795" id="Footnote_1795_1795"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1795_1795"><span class="label">[1795]</span></a></span> -J. M. Spainhour on antiquities in North Carolina, in -<i>Smithson. Rept.</i>, 1871; T. R. Peale on some near Washington, -D. C. (<i>Ibid.</i>, 1872); Schoolcraft, on some in Va., in -<i>Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans.</i>, i.; with Squier and Davis, and -<i>Peabody Mus. Rept.</i>, x., by Lucien Carr. There is a plan -of a fort in Virginia in the <i>Amer. Pioneer</i>, Sept., 1842, and -a paper on the graves in S. W. Virginia in <i>Mag. Amer. -Hist.</i>, Feb., 1885, p. 184.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1796_1796" id="Footnote_1796_1796"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1796_1796"><span class="label">[1796]</span></a></span> -W. E. Guest on those near Prescott, in <i>Smithsonian -Rept.</i>, 1856. T. C. Wallbridge describes some at the bay -of Quinté in <i>Canadian Journal</i> (1860), v. 409, and Daniel -Wilson for Canada West in <i>Ibid.</i>, Nov., 1856. T. H. -Lewis on the remains in the valley of the Red River of the -North, in <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, viii. 369; and for those in -Manitoba papers by A. McCharles in the <i>Amer. Journal -of Archæology</i>, iii. 72 (June, 1887), and by George Bryce -in <i>Manitoba Hist. and Sci. Soc. Trans., No. 18</i> (1884-85). -Bancroft’s <i>Nat. Races</i>, iv. 738, etc., for British Columbia.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1797_1797" id="Footnote_1797_1797"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1797_1797"><span class="label">[1797]</span></a></span> -Cf. for garden beds <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, i. and vii.; -Foster, 155; Bela Hubbard’s <i>Memorials of a half century</i> -(Detroit). Shaler (<i>Kentucky</i>, 46) surmises that it was the -buffalo coming into the Ohio Valley, and affording food -without labor, that debased the moundbuilders to hunters.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1798_1798" id="Footnote_1798_1798"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1798_1798"><span class="label">[1798]</span></a></span> -Cf. Col. Whittlesey on rock inscriptions in the United -States in <i>West. Res. Hist. Soc. Tract No. 42</i>. Col. Garrick -Mallory’s special studies of pictographs are contained -in the <i>Bull. U. S. Geological Survey of the territories</i> -(1877), and in the <i>Fourth Rept. Bur. Ethnol.</i> Wm. McAdams -includes those of the Mississippi Valley in his -<i>Records of ancient races in the Mississippi Valley</i> (St. -Louis, 1887). Cf. <i>Hist. Mag.</i>, x. 307. Those in Ohio are -enumerated in the <i>Final Rept. of the State Board of Centennial -Managers</i> (1877), by M. C. Read and Col. Whittlesey. -Cf. also the <i>West. Res. Hist. Soc. Tracts Nos. 12, -42, 53</i>; the <i>Amer. Asso. Adv. Sci. Proc.</i> (1875); and <i>The -Antiquary</i>, ii. 15. Those in the Upper Minnesota Valley -are reported on by T. H. Lewis in the <i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, -May, 1886, and July, 1887. J. R. Bartlett in his <i>Personal -Narrative</i> noted some of those along the Mexican boundary, -and Froebel (<i>Seven Years’ Travel</i>, Lond., 1859, p. -519) controverts some of Bartlett’s views. Cf. Nadaillac, -<i>Les premiers hommes</i>, ii.; J. G. Bruff on those in the -Sierra Nevada in <i>Smithson. Rept.</i>, 1872. A. H. Keane -reports upon some in North Carolina in the <i>Journal Anthropological -Inst.</i> (London), xii. 281. C. C. Jones in his -<i>Southern Indians</i> (1873) covers the subject. Some in Brazil -are noted in <i>Ibid.</i>, Apr., 1873.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1799_1799" id="Footnote_1799_1799"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1799_1799"><span class="label">[1799]</span></a></span> -The first session of the International Congress of Prehistoric -[Anthropology and] Archæology was held at Neuchâtel, -and its proceedings were printed in the <i>Materiaux -pour l’histoire de l’homme</i>. The second session was at -Paris; the third at Norwich, England; the fourth at -Copenhagen; and there have been others of later years. -Cf. A. de Quatrefages’ <i>Rapport sur le progrès de l’anthropologie</i> -(Paris, 1868). Quatrefages himself is one of the -most distinguished of the French school, and deserves as -much as any to rank as the founder of the present French -school of anthropologists. Cf. his <i>Hommes fossiles et -hommes sauvages</i> (1884). The English reader can most -easily get possessed of his view, conservative in some respects, -in Eliza A. Youman’s English version of his most -popular book, <i>Nat. Hist. of Man</i> (N. Y., 1875).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1800_1800" id="Footnote_1800_1800"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1800_1800"><span class="label">[1800]</span></a></span> -Founded in Paris in 1864 by Gabriel de Mortillet, and -edited after vol. v. by Eugène Trutat and Emile Cartailhac.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1801_1801" id="Footnote_1801_1801"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1801_1801"><span class="label">[1801]</span></a></span> -Cf. C. Rau’s <i>Articles on anthropol. subjects contributed -to the Annual Repts. of the Smithson. Inst., 1863-1877</i> -(Smiths. Inst., no. 440; Washington, 1882). The <i>Smithson. -Rept.</i>, 1880 (Washington, 1881), also contains a bibliography -of anthropology by O. T. Mason. A considerable -list of books is prefixed to Dr. Gustav Brühl’s <i>Culturvölker -des alten Amerika</i>, which is a collection of tracts -published at different times (1875-1887) at N. Y., Cincinnati, -and St. Louis.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1802_1802" id="Footnote_1802_1802"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1802_1802"><span class="label">[1802]</span></a></span> -He had surveyed the condition of the science in 1867 -in his introduction to Nilsson’s <i>Stone Age,—Primitive inhabitants -of Scandinavia</i>. Cf. also <i>Smithsonian Report</i>, -1862.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1803_1803" id="Footnote_1803_1803"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1803_1803"><span class="label">[1803]</span></a></span> -Figuier’s books are nearly all accessible in English. -His <i>Human Race</i> and his <i>World before the Deluge</i> cover -some parts of the subject.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1804_1804" id="Footnote_1804_1804"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1804_1804"><span class="label">[1804]</span></a></span> -A few minor references: Dawson’s <i>Story of Earth -and Man</i>, ch. 14, 15. Foster’s <i>Prehistoric Races of the -U. S.</i>, ch. 1, 2. Clodd’s <i>Childhood of the World</i>. Gay’s -<i>Pop. Hist. U. S.</i>, ch. 1. Principal Forbes in the <i>Edinburgh -Review</i>, July, 1863; Oct., 1870. <i>London Quarterly -Rev.</i>, Apr., 1870. <i>Contemp. Rev.</i>, xi. <i>Bibliotheca Sacra</i>, -Apr., 1873. <i>Brit. Q. Rev.</i>, Ap., Oct., 1863. <i>Lond. Rev.</i>, -Jan., 1860. <i>Lippincott’s Mag.</i>, vol. i. <i>Nat. Q. Rev.</i>, -Mar., 1876. <i>Lakeside Monthly</i>, vol. x., etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1805_1805" id="Footnote_1805_1805"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1805_1805"><span class="label">[1805]</span></a></span> -Translated by N. D’Anvers and edited by W. H. Dall, -with some radical changes of text (N. Y., 1884). Cf. -Lucien Carr in <i>Science</i>, 1885, Feb. 27, p. 176. Dall discusses -the evidences of the remains of the later prehistoric -man in the United States in the <i>Smithsonian Contributions</i>, -vol. xxii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1806_1806" id="Footnote_1806_1806"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1806_1806"><span class="label">[1806]</span></a></span> -A few other references of lesser essays: D. G. Brinton’s -<i>Review of the data for the study of the prehistoric -chronology of America</i> (Salem, 1887,—from the <i>Proc. -Amer. Ass. Adv. Sci.</i>, xxxvi.); his <i>Recent European Contributions -to the study of Amer. Archæology</i> (Philad. -1883); and his <i>Prehistoric Archæology</i> (Philad., 1886). -Seth Sweetzer on prehistoric man in the <i>Am. Antiq. Soc. -Proc.</i>, Apr., 1869, and Haven’s <i>Prehistoric Amer. Civilization</i> -in <i>Ibid.</i>, April, 1871. J. L. Onderdonck in <i>Nat. -Quart. Rev.</i> (April, 1878), xxxvi. 227. Ernest Marceau’s -“Les anciens peuples de l’Amérique” in the <i>Revue Canadienne</i>, -n. s., iv. 709. E. S. Morse in <i>No. Amer. Rev.</i>, -cxxxii. 602, or <i>Kansas Rev.</i>, v. 90. H. Gillman’s <i>Ancient -men of the Great Lakes</i> (Detroit, 1877).</p> -<p class="pfc4">The principal work on the South American man is Alcède -d’Orbigny’s <i>L’Homme Américaine</i> (Paris, 1837). There -are some local treatises, like Lucien de Rosny’s <i>Les Antilles: -étude d’ethnographie et d’archéologie Americaines</i> -(Paris, 1886,—<i>Am. Soc. d’Ethnographie</i>, n. s., ii.), and -papers by Nadaillac and others in the <i>Materiaux</i>, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1807_1807" id="Footnote_1807_1807"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1807_1807"><span class="label">[1807]</span></a></span> -By Theo. Lyman and Hr. de Schlagintweit.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1808_1808" id="Footnote_1808_1808"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1808_1808"><span class="label">[1808]</span></a></span> -The long article on the Races of America in Cassino’s -<i>Standard Nat. Hist.</i> (Boston, 1885), vol. vi., is based on -Friedrich von Hellwald’s <i>Naturgeschichte des Menschen</i>, -but it is widely varied in places under the supervision of -Putnam and Carr. Cf. also J. C. Prichard’s <i>Researches -into the physical history of mankind</i> (Lond., 1841), 4th -ed., vol. v., “Oceanic and American nations.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1809_1809" id="Footnote_1809_1809"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1809_1809"><span class="label">[1809]</span></a></span> -Bandelier, in his several essays in the 2d volume of the -<i>Peabody Museum Reports</i>, speaks of his neglecting such -compilations as Bancroft’s in order to deal solely with the -original sources, and the student will find the references in -his foot-notes of those essays very full indications of what -he must follow in the study of such sources.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1810_1810" id="Footnote_1810_1810"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1810_1810"><span class="label">[1810]</span></a></span> -Harrisse, <i>Bib. Am. Vet.</i>; Rich, <i>Bibl. Nova</i>; Leclerc, -nos. 350, 351; Pilling, p. xxviii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1811_1811" id="Footnote_1811_1811"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1811_1811"><span class="label">[1811]</span></a></span> -Pilling, p. xii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1812_1812" id="Footnote_1812_1812"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1812_1812"><span class="label">[1812]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II. p. 429.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1813_1813" id="Footnote_1813_1813"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1813_1813"><span class="label">[1813]</span></a></span> -<i>Bib. Mex. Guat</i>., p. 24; Pinart, no. 161. Cf. Icazbalceta -on “Las bibliotecas de Eguiara y de Beristain” in -<i>Memorias de la Académia Méxicana</i>, i. 353.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1814_1814" id="Footnote_1814_1814"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1814_1814"><span class="label">[1814]</span></a></span> -Vol. II. p. 430.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1815_1815" id="Footnote_1815_1815"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1815_1815"><span class="label">[1815]</span></a></span> -Also in Eng. transl., ii. 256.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1816_1816" id="Footnote_1816_1816"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1816_1816"><span class="label">[1816]</span></a></span> -Cf. Brinton’s <i>Aborig. Amer. Authors</i>, Philad., 1883.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1817_1817" id="Footnote_1817_1817"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1817_1817"><span class="label">[1817]</span></a></span> -See Vol. II p. 430.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1818_1818" id="Footnote_1818_1818"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1818_1818"><span class="label">[1818]</span></a></span> -Pilling, p. xxxi.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1819_1819" id="Footnote_1819_1819"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1819_1819"><span class="label">[1819]</span></a></span> -A school book, Marcius Willson’s <i>Amer. History</i> (N. -Y., 1847), went much farther than any book of its class, or -even of the usual popular histories, in the matter of American -antiquities, giving a good many plans and cuts of ruins.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1820_1820" id="Footnote_1820_1820"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1820_1820"><span class="label">[1820]</span></a></span> -For bibliog. detail regarding the <i>Nat. Races</i>, see Pilling’s -<i>Proof Sheets</i>, p. 9. Reviews of the work are noted -in <i>Poole’s Index</i>, p. 956.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1821_1821" id="Footnote_1821_1821"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1821_1821"><span class="label">[1821]</span></a></span> -Cf., for instance, Dall’s strictures on the tribes of the -N. W. in <i>Contrib. to Amer. Ethnol.</i>, i. p. 8.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1822_1822" id="Footnote_1822_1822"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1822_1822"><span class="label">[1822]</span></a></span> -Sabin, ii. 7233; Field, no. 169.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1823_1823" id="Footnote_1823_1823"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1823_1823"><span class="label">[1823]</span></a></span> -Bare mention may be made of a few other books of a -general scope: Jean Benoit Scherer’s <i>Recherches historiques -et géographiques sur le nouveau monde</i> (Paris, 1777); -D. B. Warden’s <i>Recherches sur les Antiquités de l’Am. -Sept.</i> (Paris, 1827) in <i>Recueil de Voyages, publié par la -Soc. Géog.</i> (Paris, 1825, ii. 372; cf. Dupaix, ii.); Ira Hill’s -<i>Antiquities of Amer. Explained</i> (Hagerstown, 1831); Louis -Faliès’ <i>Etudes historiques et philosophiques sur les civilisations -européenne, romaine, grecque, des populations primitives -de l’Amérique septentrionale, les Chiapas, Palenqué -des Nuhuas ancêtres des Toltèques, civilisation Yucatèque, -Zapotèques, Mixtèques, royaume du Michoacan, populations -du Nord-Ouest, du Nord et de l’Est, bassin du -Mississipi, civilisation Toltèque, Aztèque, Amérique du -centre, Péruvienne, domination des Incas, royaume de -Quito, Océanie</i> (Paris, 1872-74); Frederick Larkin’s <i>Ancient -man in America. Including works in western New -York, and portions of other states, together with structures -in Central America</i> (New York, 1880),—a book, -however, hardly to be commended by archæologists; and -Charles Francis Keary’s <i>Dawn of History, an introduction -to prehistoric study</i> (N. Y., 1887).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1824_1824" id="Footnote_1824_1824"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1824_1824"><span class="label">[1824]</span></a></span> -It is not necessary to enumerate many titles, but reference -may be made to the summary of prehistoric conditions -in Zerffi’s <i>Historical development of art</i>. It may be worth -while to glance at A. Daux’s <i>Etudes préhistoriques. L’industrie -humaine: ses origines, ses premiers essais et ses -légendes depuis les premiers temps jusqu’au déluge</i> (Paris, -1877); Dawson’s <i>Fossil men</i>, ch. 5; Joly’s <i>Man before -Metals</i>; Nadaillac’s <i>Les Premiers Hommes</i>, ii. ch. 11; -Dabry de Thiersant’s <i>Origine des indiens du Nouveau -Monde</i> (Paris, 1883); and Brühl’s <i>Culturvölker alt-Amerika’s</i>, -ch. 14, 16.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1825_1825" id="Footnote_1825_1825"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1825_1825"><span class="label">[1825]</span></a></span> -Cf., particularly for California, Putnam’s <i>Report</i> in -Wheeler’s Survey.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1826_1826" id="Footnote_1826_1826"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1826_1826"><span class="label">[1826]</span></a></span> -There is some question if the early Americans ever carried -on the heavier parts of the quarrying arts, as for building-stones. -Cf. Morgan’s <i>Houses and House Life</i>, 274. -They did quarry soap-stone (Elmer R. Reynolds, Schumacher -and Putnam, in <i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i>, xii.) and -mica (<i>Smithsonian Report</i>, 1879, by W. Gesner; C. D. -Smith in <i>Ibid.</i> 1876; Dr. Brinton in <i>Proc. Numism. and -Antiq. Soc. of Philad.</i>, 1878, p. 18). That they quarried -pipe-stone is also well known, and the famous red pipe-stone -quarry, lying between the Missouri and Minnesota -rivers, was under the protection of the Great Spirit, so that -tribes at war with one another are said to have buried their -hatchets as they approached it. Wilson, in the last chapter -of the first volume of his <i>Prehistoric man</i>, examines this -pipe-carving and tells the story of this famous quarry. He -refers to the tobacco mortars of the Peruvians in which they -ground the dry leaf; and to the pipes of the mounds in -which it was smoked. Cf. J. F. Nadaillac’s <i>Les pipes et -le tabac</i> (Paris, 1885), taken from the <i>Materiaux pour -l’histoire primitive de l’homme</i> (ii. for 1885); and Lucien -de Rosny on “Le tabac et ses accessoires parmi les indigènes -de l’Amérique,” in <i>Mémoires sur l’Archéologie -Américaine</i>, 1865, of the Soc. d’Ethnographie.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1827_1827" id="Footnote_1827_1827"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1827_1827"><span class="label">[1827]</span></a></span> -It should be remembered that the recognition of the -Flint-folk as occupying a distinct stage of development is -a modern notion. For a century and a half after European -museums began to gather stone implements they were -reputed relics of Celtic art. Treatment of American art -necessarily makes part of the works of Squier and Davis; -Schoolcraft; Foster’s <i>Prehistoric Races</i>, ch. 6; Lubbock’s -<i>Prehistoric Times;</i> Joly’s <i>Man before Metals</i>. Cf. references -in <i>Poole’s Index</i> under “Stone Age” and “Stone -Implements.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1828_1828" id="Footnote_1828_1828"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1828_1828"><span class="label">[1828]</span></a></span> -Cf. S. D. Peet in <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, vii. 15.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1829_1829" id="Footnote_1829_1829"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1829_1829"><span class="label">[1829]</span></a></span> -Rau is an authority on stone implements. See further -his paper on stone implements in the <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, -1872; one on drilling stone without metal in <i>Ibid.</i> 1868; -and one on cup-shaped and other lapidarian sculpture in -the <i>Contributions to No. Amer. Ethnology</i>, vol. v. (Powell’s -<i>Rocky Mountain Survey</i>, 1882). These carved, cup-like -cavities in rocks are also discussed in Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric -Man</i>, vol. i. ch. 3, where it is held that they were -formed by the grinding process in shaping the rounded end -of tools. H. W. Henshaw in the <i>Amer. Jour. of Archæology</i> -(i. 105) discusses another enigma in the stone relics, -called sinkers or plummets. Foster (<i>Prehist. Races</i>, 230) -believes they were used as weights to keep the thread taut -in weaving.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1830_1830" id="Footnote_1830_1830"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1830_1830"><span class="label">[1830]</span></a></span> -Cf. also Stevens’s <i>Flint Chips</i>, 292, and Charnay, Eng. -transl., p. 70.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1831_1831" id="Footnote_1831_1831"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1831_1831"><span class="label">[1831]</span></a></span> -Cf. G. Crook “on the Indian method of making arrow-heads” -in the <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, 1871, and C. C. Jones, -Jr., on “the primitive manufacture of spear and arrowpoints -along the Savannah River” in <i>Ibid.</i> 1879. A paper -by Sellers in a later report is of importance. Cf. Stevens’ -<i>Flint Chips</i>, pp. 75-85, and Schumacher in <i>Smithsonian -Report</i>, 1873. True flint was not often, if ever, used in America, but -rather chert or hornstone, and quartz, though implements -are found of jasper, chalcedony, obsidian, quartzite, and -argillite. Cf. Rau on the stock in trade of an aboriginal -lapidary in <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i> (1877); and Rosny’s “Recherches -sur les masques, le jade et l’industrie lapidaire -chez les indigènes de l’Amérique” in <i>Arch. de la Soc. -Amér. de France</i>, n. s., vol. i. Jade or jadite implements -and ornaments have been found in Central America and -Mexico, and others resembling them in northwestern America; -but it is not yet clear that the unworked material, such -as is used in the middle America specimens, is found in -America <i>in situ</i>. Upon the solution of this last problem -will depend the value of these implements when found in -America as bearing upon questions of Asiatic intercourse. -Cf. Dr. A. B. Meyer in the <i>Amer. Anthropologist</i> (vol. i., -July, 1888, p. 231), and F. W. Putnam in the <i>Mass. Hist. -Soc. Proc.</i>, Jan., 1886, and in the <i>Proc. Amer. Antiq. -Society</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1832_1832" id="Footnote_1832_1832"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1832_1832"><span class="label">[1832]</span></a></span> -Wilson (<i>Prehistoric Man</i>, i. 200) points out that philology -confirms it, the word for copper meaning “yellow -stone.” On the question of their melting metal see letter of -Prof. F. W. Putnam in <i>Kansas City Rev. of Science</i>, Dec. -1881; Wilson (i. 361); Foster’s <i>Prehistoric Races</i>, 293.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1833_1833" id="Footnote_1833_1833"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1833_1833"><span class="label">[1833]</span></a></span> -Wilson (i. 209, 227) thinks the arboreal and other -evidences carry the time when these mines were worked -back, at latest, to a period corresponding to Europe’s -mediæval era. The earliest modern references to copper -in this region are in Sagard in 1632 (Haven, p. 127) and in -the <i>Jesuit Relation</i> of Allouez in 1666-67. Alexander -Henry (<i>Travels and Adventures in Canada</i>) in 1765 is -the earliest English explorer to mention it. Wilson holds -to the belief that the present race of red Indians had no -knowledge of these mining practices, but that they knew -simply chance masses or exposed lodes. Wilson (i. 362) -also gives reasons for supposing that the Lake Superior -mines may have been a common meeting ground for all -races of the continent.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1834_1834" id="Footnote_1834_1834"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1834_1834"><span class="label">[1834]</span></a></span> -Wilson, i. 205. MacLean’s <i>Moundbuilders</i>, ch. 6, -gives a section of the shaft as when discovered.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1835_1835" id="Footnote_1835_1835"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1835_1835"><span class="label">[1835]</span></a></span> -Of the Lake Superior mines, the earliest intelligent -account we have is in C. T. Jackson’s <i>Geological Report -to the U. S. Gov’t</i>, 1849; but a more extended and connected -account appeared the next year in the <i>Report on -the Geology of Lake Superior</i> (Washington, 1850), by -J. W. Foster and J. D. Whitney, which is substantially -reproduced in Foster’s <i>Prehistoric Races</i> (1873), ch. 7. -Meanwhile, Col. Charles Whittlesey had published in vol. -xiii. of the <i>Smithsonian Contributions</i> his <i>Ancient Mining -on the shores of Lake Superior</i> (Washington, 1863, -with a map), which is on the whole the best account, -to be supplemented by his paper in the <i>Memoirs</i> of the -Boston Society of Natural History. Jacob Houghton -supplied a description of the “ancient copper mines of -Lake Superior” to Swineford’s <i>History and Review of -the mineral resources of Lake Superior</i> (Marquette, 1876). -Cf. also <i>Annals of Science</i> (Cleveland), i. for 1852; Dawson’s -<i>Fossil Men</i>, 61; Baldwin’s <i>Ancient America</i>, 42; -Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, i. 204; Dr. Harvey Read in -the <i>Dist. Hist. Soc. Report</i>, ii. (1878); Joseph Henry in -the <i>Smithsonian Reports</i> (1861; also in 1862); and Short, -p. 89, with references.</p> -<p class="pfc4">On the mines at Isle Royale, see Henry Gillman’s “Ancient -works at Isle Royale” in <i>Appleton’s Journal</i>, Aug. -9, 1873; <i>Smithsonian Repts.</i>, 1873, 1874, by A. C. Davis; -the <i>Proceedings</i> of the Amer. Asso. for the Advancement -of Science, 1875; and Professor Winchell in <i>Popular -Science Monthly</i>, Sept., 1881.</p> -<p class="pfc4">See further, on the copper implements of these ancient -workers: Abbott’s <i>Primitive Industry</i>, ch. 28; Foster’s -<i>Prehistoric Races</i>, 251; P. R. Hoy’s <i>How and by whom -were the copper implements made?</i> (Racine, 1886, in <i>Wisconsin -Acad. of Science</i>, iv. 132); J. D. Butler’s address -on “Prehistoric Wisconsin” in the <i>Wisconsin Hist. Coll.</i>, -vol. vii. (see also vol. viii.), with his “Copper Age in Wisconsin” -in the <i>Proc. of the Amer. Antiquarian Society</i>, -April, 1877, and his paper on copper tools in the <i>Wisconsin -Acad. of Science</i>, iii. 99; H. W. Haynes on “Copper implements -of America” in <i>Proc. Amer. Antiq. Soc.</i>, Oct., -1884, p. 335; Putnam on the copper objects of North and -South America preserved in the Peabody Museum (<i>Reports</i>, -xv. 83); Read and Whittlesey in the <i>Final Report, Ohio -Board Cent. Managers</i>, 1877, ch. 3; and <i>Poole’s Index</i>, -p. 300. Reynolds has recently in the <i>Journal of the Anthropol. -Soc.</i> (Washington) claimed copper mining for the -modern Indians.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1836_1836" id="Footnote_1836_1836"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1836_1836"><span class="label">[1836]</span></a></span> -Clavigero (Philad., Eng. transl., i. 20); Prescott, i. 138; -Folsom’s ed. of Cortes’ letters, 412; Lockhart’s transl. of -Bernal Diaz (Lond., 1844, i. 36).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1837_1837" id="Footnote_1837_1837"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1837_1837"><span class="label">[1837]</span></a></span> -Cf. on copper implements from Mexico: P. J. J. Valentini’s -<i>Mexican copper tools: the use of copper by the -Mexicans before the Conquest; and The Katunes of Maya -history, a chapter in the early history of Central America. -From the German, by S. Salisbury, jr.</i> (Worcester, 1880), -from the <i>Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, Apr. 30, 1879; F. W. -Putnam in <i>Ibid.</i>, n. s., ii. 235 (Oct. 21, 1882); Charnay, -Eng. transl., p. 70; H. L. Reynolds, Jr., on the “Metal -art of ancient Mexico” in <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, Aug., -1887 (vol. xxxi., p. 519).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1838_1838" id="Footnote_1838_1838"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1838_1838"><span class="label">[1838]</span></a></span> -Cf. St. John Vincent Day’s <i>Prehistoric use of iron -and steel: with observations</i> (London, 1877). This book -grew out of papers printed in the <i>Proc. Philosoph. Soc. of -Glasgow</i> (1871-75).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1839_1839" id="Footnote_1839_1839"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1839_1839"><span class="label">[1839]</span></a></span> -Cf. Dr. Washington Matthews on the “Navajo silversmiths” -in the <i>2d Rept. Bureau of Ethnol.</i> (Washington, -1883), p. 167.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1840_1840" id="Footnote_1840_1840"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1840_1840"><span class="label">[1840]</span></a></span> -The chief European collections are in the British Museum, -the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, the Louvre, -and at Copenhagen, Vienna, Brussels, not to name others; -and among private ones, the Christy and Evans collections -in England and the Uhde in Heidelberg.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1841_1841" id="Footnote_1841_1841"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1841_1841"><span class="label">[1841]</span></a></span> -<i>Transactions</i>, n. s., iii. 510.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1842_1842" id="Footnote_1842_1842"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1842_1842"><span class="label">[1842]</span></a></span> -Cf. Lucien de Rosny’s “Introduction à une histoire de -la céramique chez les indiens du nouveau monde” in the -<i>Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France</i>, n. s., vol. i., and -Stevens’ <i>Flint Chips</i>, 241. Further references: Wilson’s -<i>Prehist. Man</i>, ii. ch. 17; Catlin’s <i>N. A. Indians</i>, ch. 16; -F. V. Hayden’s <i>Contrib. to the Ethnog. of the Missouri -Valley</i>, 355; A. Demmin’s <i>Hist. de la Céramique</i> (Paris, -1868-1875); Nadaillac’s <i>Les Premiers Hommes</i>, and his -<i>L’Amérique préhistorique</i>, ch. 4.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1843_1843" id="Footnote_1843_1843"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1843_1843"><span class="label">[1843]</span></a></span> -For the Atlantic coast, papers by Abbott (<i>American -Naturalist</i>, Ap. 72, etc.), later more comprehensively -treated in his <i>Primitive Industry</i>, ch. 11; and for the -middle Atlantic region, a paper by Francis Jordan, Jr., in -the <i>Amer. Philosoph. Soc. Proc.</i> (1888, vol. xxv.). For -Florida, <i>Schoolcraft in the New York Hist. Soc. Proc.</i>, -1846, p. 124. For the moundbuilders, Foster’s <i>Prehistoric -Races</i>, p. 237, and in <i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, vii. 94 (Feb., -1873); Nadaillac, ch. 4; and Putnam in <i>Amer. Nat</i>., ix. -321, 393, and <i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i>, viii. For the Mississippi -Valley in general, Edw. Evers in <i>The Contributions to -the archæology of Missouri</i>; W. H. Holmes in the <i>Fourth -Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</i>, an improvement of a -paper in the <i>Proc. of the Davenport Acad. of Sciences</i>, -vol. iv. Joseph Jones in the <i>Smithsonian Contrib.</i>, xxii., -and Putnam in the <i>Peabody Mus. Repts</i>., have described the -pottery of Tennessee. The <i>Pacific R. R. Repts/</i> yield us -something; and Putnam (<i>Reports</i>) was the first to describe -the Missouri pottery. J. H. Devereux treats the pottery -of Arkansas in the <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, 1872. On the Pueblo -pottery, see papers of W. H. Holmes and F. H. Cushing -in the <i>Fourth Rept. Bur. of Ethn</i>. (pp. 257, 743); and -James Stevenson’s illustrated catalogue in the <i>Third Rept.</i>, -p. 511. F. W. Putnam (<i>Amer. Art Review</i>, Feb., 1881), -supplementing his work in vol. vii. of Wheeler’s Survey, -thinks that the present Pueblo Indians make an inferior -ware to their ancestors’ productions. The pottery of the -cliff-dwellers is described in Hayden’s <i>Annual Rept.</i> (1876). -Paul Schumacher explains the method of manufacturing -pottery and basket-work among the Indians of Southern -California in the <i>Peabody Museum Rept.</i>, xii. 521. O. T. -Mason’s papers in recent <i>Smithsonian Reports</i> and in the -<i>Amer. Naturalist</i> are among the best investigations in this -direction.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1844_1844" id="Footnote_1844_1844"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1844_1844"><span class="label">[1844]</span></a></span> -For some special phases, see S. Blondel’s <i>Recherches -sur les bijoux des peuples primitifs ... Méxicains et -Péruviens</i> (Paris, 1876); F. W. Putnam’s <i>Conventionalism -in Ancient American Art</i> (Salem, 1887, from the -<i>Bull. Essex Inst.</i>, xviii., for 1886); Mexican masks in -Stevens’ <i>Flint chips</i>, 328; S. D. Peet on “Human faces -in aboriginal art,” in the <i>American Antiquarian</i> (May, -1886, or viii. 133); the description of terra-cotta figures -in Herman Strebel’s <i>Alt-Mexico</i>. A terra-cotta vase in -the Museo Nacional is figured in Brasseur’s <i>Popol Vuh</i> -(1861).</p> -<p class="pfc4">It is not known that stringed instruments were ever -used, notwithstanding the suggestion of the twanging of -the bow-string; but museums often contain specimens of -musical pipes used by the aborigines. The opening chapter -of J. F. Rowbotham’s <i>Hist. of Music</i> (London, 1885) -gives what evidence we have, with references, as to kinds -of music common to the American aborigines, and their -fictile wind instruments. Cf. A. J. Hipkins’ <i>Musical instruments, -historic, rare, and unique. The selection, -introduction, and descriptive notes by A. J. Hipkins; -illustrated by William Gibb</i> (Edinburgh, 1888); H. T. -Cresson on Aztec music in the <i>Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences</i> -(Philad., 1883); and Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i> (ii. 37), with -the references in Bancroft’s index (v. p. 717).</p> -<p class="pfc4">In Nott and Gliddon’s <i>Indigenous Races of the Earth</i> -(Philad., 1857) there is a section by Francis Pulszky on -“Iconographic researches on human races and their art.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1845_1845" id="Footnote_1845_1845"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1845_1845"><span class="label">[1845]</span></a></span> -Mrs. Zelia Nuttall’s essay on some Mexican feather-work -preserved in the Imperial Museum at Vienna appeared -in the <i>Archæol. and Ethnolog. Papers of the Peabody -Museum</i>, vol. i. no. 1 (Cambridge, 1888), and here she discusses -the question if this is a standard or head-dress, and -holds it to have been a head-dress. The contrary view is -taken by F. von Hochstetter in his <i>Ueber Mexicanische -Reliquien aus der Zeit Montezuma’s</i> (Vienna, 1884), who -supposes it to have been among the presents sent by Cortes -in 1519 to Charles V., in the possession of whose nephew -it is known to have been in 1596.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1846_1846" id="Footnote_1846_1846"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1846_1846"><span class="label">[1846]</span></a></span> -Cf. Horatio Hale on <i>The Origin of Primitive Money</i> -(N. Y., 1886,—from the <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, xxviii. -296); W. B. Weedon’s <i>Indian Money as a factor in New -England Civilization</i> (Baltimore, 1884),—Johns Hopkins -(University Studies); Ashbel Woodward’s <i>Wampum</i> (Albany, -1878); Ernst Ingersoll in the <i>Amer. Naturalist</i> (May, -1883); and the cuts of wampum belts in the <i>Second Rept. -Bur. Ethnology</i> (pp. 242, 244, 246, 248, 252, 254).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1847_1847" id="Footnote_1847_1847"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1847_1847"><span class="label">[1847]</span></a></span> -Cf. D. G. Brinton’s <i>The lineal measures of the Semi-civilized -nations of Mexico and Central America. Read -before the American Philosophical Society, Jan. 2, 1885</i> -(Philadelphia, 1885).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1848_1848" id="Footnote_1848_1848"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1848_1848"><span class="label">[1848]</span></a></span> -<i>Wilson’s Prehistoric Man</i>, i. ch. 6.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1849_1849" id="Footnote_1849_1849"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1849_1849"><span class="label">[1849]</span></a></span> -Wilson, i. 168. See <i>post</i>, Vol. II. 508, for an old cut -of a raft under sail.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1850_1850" id="Footnote_1850_1850"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1850_1850"><span class="label">[1850]</span></a></span> -<i>Peabody Mus. Rept.</i>, ii. 602-8.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1851_1851" id="Footnote_1851_1851"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1851_1851"><span class="label">[1851]</span></a></span> -<i>Chips</i>, ii. 248. Cf. Dabry de Thiersant’s <i>Origine des -indiens</i> (Paris, 1883), p. 187.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1852_1852" id="Footnote_1852_1852"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1852_1852"><span class="label">[1852]</span></a></span> -It has been a question whether the palæolithic man -talked, and it has been asserted and denied, from the character -of certain inferior maxillary bones found in caves, that -he had the power of articulate speech. Dr. Brinton has -recently, from an examination of the lowest stocks of linguistic -utterances now known, endeavored to set forth “a -somewhat correct conception of what was the character of -the rudimentary utterances of the race.” Cf. Brinton, -<i>Language of the Palæolithic Man</i>, Philadelphia, 1888; -Mortillet, <i>La préhistorique Antiquité de l’Homme</i> (Paris, -1883); H. Steinthal, <i>Der Ursprung der Sprache</i> (Berlin, -1888). Horatio Hale, on “The origin of languages and -the antiquity of speaking man,” in the <i>Am. Assoc. Adv. -Sci. Proc</i>., xxxv. 279, cites the views of some physiologists -to show that the pre-glacial man could not talk, because -there are only rudimentary signs of the presence of important -vocal muscles to be discovered in the most ancient -jaw-bones which have been found. Rau inferred -that the totally diverse character, as he thought, of the -American tongues indicated strongly that the earliest man -could not articulate (<i>Contrib. to N. A. Ethnology</i>, v. 92). -For other somewhat wild speculations, see Col. E. Carette’s -<i>Etude sur les temps antéhistoriques, La Langage</i> (Paris, -1878).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1853_1853" id="Footnote_1853_1853"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1853_1853"><span class="label">[1853]</span></a></span> -Morgan thought he had found a test in his <i>Systems of -consanguinity and affinity of the Human Family</i> (Washington, -1871).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1854_1854" id="Footnote_1854_1854"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1854_1854"><span class="label">[1854]</span></a></span> -<i>Journal Anthropological Inst.</i>, v. 216.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1855_1855" id="Footnote_1855_1855"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1855_1855"><span class="label">[1855]</span></a></span> -<i>Science of Language</i>, i. 326.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1856_1856" id="Footnote_1856_1856"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1856_1856"><span class="label">[1856]</span></a></span> -For recognition of it in American philology, see Bancroft, -iii. 670, and Short, 471.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1857_1857" id="Footnote_1857_1857"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1857_1857"><span class="label">[1857]</span></a></span> -Cf. Waitz, <i>Introd. to Anthropology</i> (Eng. transl.), p. -238; Wedgwood, <i>Origin of Language</i>; Lubbock, <i>Origin -of Civilization</i>, ch. 8; Tylor’s <i>Anthropology</i>, ch. 6; Topinard’s -<i>Anthropologie</i>; J. P. Lesley’s <i>Man’s Origin and -Destiny</i> (who considers the test so far a failure); William -D. Whitney’s “Testimony of language respecting the unity -of the human race,” in the <i>North American Review</i>, July, -1867.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1858_1858" id="Footnote_1858_1858"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1858_1858"><span class="label">[1858]</span></a></span> -The “Lenguas y naciones Americanas” forms part -of the first volume of Lorenzo Hervas’s <i>Catálogo de las -Lenguas de las Naciones Conocidas, y numeracion, division, -y clases de estas segun la diversidad de sas idiomas -y dialectos</i> (Madrid, 1800-1805, in 6 vols.), which served in -some measure Johann Severin Vater, and J. C. Adelung in -their <i>Mithridates, oder Allgemeine Sprachenkunde</i> (Berlin, -1806-17, in 4 vols.) and his <i>Analekten der Sprachenkunde</i> -(Leipzig, 1821).</p> -<p class="pfc4">There has more been done so far to map out the ethnological -fields of middle America than to determine those of -the more northern parts. Cf. the map in Orozco y Berra’s -<i>Geografía de las lenguas de Mexico</i> (1864), and that in -V. A. Malte-Brun’s paper in the <i>Compte Rendu, Cong. -des Américanistes</i>, 1877, ii. 10. The maps in Bancroft’s -<i>Native Races</i>, ii. and v., will serve ordinary readers. For -the broader northern field, see the papers by L. H. Morgan -and George Gibbs in the <i>Smithsonian Reports</i>, 1861, 1862. -The Bureau of Ethnology have in preparation such a map, -and they mark on it, it is understood, about seventy distinct -stocks.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Cf. Horatio Hale on “Indian migrations as evidenced -by language,” in the <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, v. 18, 108 (Jan., -April, 1883), and issued separately, Chicago, 1883. Lucien -Adam criticised the views of Hall in the Copenhagen -<i>Compte Rendu, Cong. des Amér.</i>, 1883, p. 123.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1859_1859" id="Footnote_1859_1859"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1859_1859"><span class="label">[1859]</span></a></span> -<i>Nat. Races</i>, iii. 558.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1860_1860" id="Footnote_1860_1860"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1860_1860"><span class="label">[1860]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, April, 1879.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1861_1861" id="Footnote_1861_1861"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1861_1861"><span class="label">[1861]</span></a></span> -<i>Fossil Men</i>, 310.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1862_1862" id="Footnote_1862_1862"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1862_1862"><span class="label">[1862]</span></a></span> -A prominent feature is the process of uniting words -lengthwise, so to speak, which gives a single utterance the -import of a sentence. This characteristic of the American -languages has been called polysynthetic, incorporative, -holophrastic, aggregative, and agglutinative. H. H. Bancroft -instances the word for letter-postage in Aztec as being -“Amatlacuilolitquitcatlaxtlahuilli,” which really signifies -by its component parts, “payment received for carrying a -paper on which something is written.” Cf. Brinton’s <i>On -polysynthesism and incorporation as characteristic of -American languages</i> (Philad., 1885).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1863_1863" id="Footnote_1863_1863"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1863_1863"><span class="label">[1863]</span></a></span> -Hayden says: “The dialects of the western continent, -radically united among themselves and radically distinguished -from all others, stand in hoary brotherhood by -the side of the most ancient vocal systems of the human -race.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1864_1864" id="Footnote_1864_1864"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1864_1864"><span class="label">[1864]</span></a></span> -Morgan, in his <i>Systems of Consanguinity</i>, contends -for this linguistic unity, though (in 1866) he admits that -“the dialects and stock languages have not been explored -with sufficient thoroughness.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1865_1865" id="Footnote_1865_1865"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1865_1865"><span class="label">[1865]</span></a></span> -Gallatin says of them: “They bear the impress of -primitive languages, ... and attest the antiquity of the -population,—an antiquity the earliest we are permitted to -assume.” This was of course written before the geological -evidences of the antiquity of man were understood, and -the remoteness referred to was a period near the great dispersion -of Babel.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1866_1866" id="Footnote_1866_1866"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1866_1866"><span class="label">[1866]</span></a></span> -The appendix of this work has a good general summary -of the Ethnography and Philology of America, by A. H. -Keane.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1867_1867" id="Footnote_1867_1867"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1867_1867"><span class="label">[1867]</span></a></span> -The interlinking method of communication between -tribes of different languages is what is called sign or gesture -language, and the study of it shows that in much the same -forms it is spread over the continent. It has been specially -studied by Col. Garrick Mallery. Cf. his papers in the -<i>Amer. Antiquarian</i>, ii. 218; <i>Proc. Amer. Asso. Adv. -Science</i>, Saratoga meeting, 1880; and at length in the -<i>First Annual Rept. Bur. of Ethnology</i> (1881). He notes -his sources of information on pp. 395, 401. He had earlier -printed under the Bureau’s sanction his <i>Introduction to -the Study of Sign Language</i> (Washington, 1880). The -subject is again considered in the <i>Third Rept.</i> of the Bureau, -p. xxvi. Cf. also W. P. Clark’s <i>Indian Sign-language, -with Explanatory Notes</i> (Philad., 1885). Morgan -(<i>Systems of Consanguinity</i>, 227) expresses the opinion that -it has the germinal principle “from which came, first, the -pictographs of the northern Indians and of the Aztecs; -and, secondly, as its ultimate development, the ideographic -and possibly the hieroglyphic language of the Palenqué and -Copan monuments.”</p> -<p class="pfc4">In addition to languages and dialects, we have a whole -body of jargons, a conventional mixture of tongues, adduced -by continued intercourse of peoples speaking different -languages. They grew up very early, where the French -came in contact with the aborigines, and Father Le Jeune -mentions one in 1633 (<i>Hist. Mag.</i>, v. 345). The Chinook -jargon, for instance, was, if not invented, at least developed -by the Hudson Bay Company’s servants, out of French, -English, and several Indian tongues (whose share predominates), -to facilitate their trade with the natives, and does not -contain, at an outside limit, more than 400 or 500 words. -There is some reason to believe that the Indian portion of -this jargon is older, however, than the English contact -(Bancroft, iii. 632-3; Gibbs’s <i>Chinook Dictionary</i>; Horatio -Hale in Wilkes’ <i>U. S. Explor. Exped.</i>).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1868_1868" id="Footnote_1868_1868"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1868_1868"><span class="label">[1868]</span></a></span> -See the section on “Americana,” with a foot-note on -linguistic collections. Haven summed up what had been -done in this field in 1855 in his <i>Archæology of the U. S.</i> -p. 53.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1869_1869" id="Footnote_1869_1869"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1869_1869"><span class="label">[1869]</span></a></span> -There is a less extensive survey, but wider in territory, -in Short’s <i>North Americans of Antiquity</i>, ch. 10.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1870_1870" id="Footnote_1870_1870"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1870_1870"><span class="label">[1870]</span></a></span> -Vol. III. p. 355.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1871_1871" id="Footnote_1871_1871"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1871_1871"><span class="label">[1871]</span></a></span> -See Pilling’s <i>Proof-sheets</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1872_1872" id="Footnote_1872_1872"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1872_1872"><span class="label">[1872]</span></a></span> -Duponceau’s report in Heckewelder, <i>Hist. Acc. of the -Indian Nations</i>, 1819, is in the <i>Mass. Hist. Coll.</i>, 1822. -Pickering says that Duponceau was the earliest to discover -and make known the common characteristics of the American -tongues.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1873_1873" id="Footnote_1873_1873"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1873_1873"><span class="label">[1873]</span></a></span> -These are enumerated in the appendix of <i>The Calendar -of the Sparks MSS.</i>, issued by the library of Harvard -University. They are also cited with some in other depositories -by Pilling in his <i>Proof-sheets</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1874_1874" id="Footnote_1874_1874"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1874_1874"><span class="label">[1874]</span></a></span> -Also in J. B. Scherer’s <i>Recherches historiques et géographiques -sur le Nouveau Monde</i> (Paris, 1777).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1875_1875" id="Footnote_1875_1875"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1875_1875"><span class="label">[1875]</span></a></span> -We know little of what Jefferson might have accomplished, -for his manuscripts were burned in 1801 (Schoolcraft’s -<i>Ind. Tribes</i>, ii. 356). As early as 1804 the U. S. -War Department issued a list of words, for which its agents -should get in different tribes the equivalent words. Gallatin -used these results. Different lists of test words have -been often used since. George Gibbs had a list. The Bureau -of Ethnology has a list.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1876_1876" id="Footnote_1876_1876"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1876_1876"><span class="label">[1876]</span></a></span> -Cf. synopsis in Haven’s <i>Archæol. U. S.</i>, p. 65.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1877_1877" id="Footnote_1877_1877"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1877_1877"><span class="label">[1877]</span></a></span> -For Hale’s later views see his <i>Origin of language and -antiquity of speaking man</i> (Cambridge, 1886), from the -<i>Proc. Amer. Ass. Adv. Science</i>, xxxv.; and his <i>Development -of language</i> (Toronto, 1888), from the <i>Proc. Canadian -Inst.</i>, 3d ser., vi.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1878_1878" id="Footnote_1878_1878"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1878_1878"><span class="label">[1878]</span></a></span> -Among other workers in the northern philology may be -named Schoolcraft in his <i>Indian Tribes</i> (ii. and iii. 340), -who makes no advance upon Gallatin; W. W. Turner in -the <i>Smithsonian Report</i>, vi.; R. S. Riggs adds a Dacota -bibliography to his <i>Grammar and Dictionary of the Dacota -language</i> (Washington, Smiths. Inst., 1852); George -Gibbs in the <i>Smithsonian Repts.</i> for 1865 and 1870, and as -collaborator in other studies, of which record is made in -J. A. Stevens’ memoir of Gibbs, first printed in the <i>N. Y. -Hist. Soc. Coll.</i>, and then in the <i>Smithsonian Report</i> for -1873; F. W. Hayden’s <i>Contributions to the ethnography -and philology of the Indian tribes of the Missouri Valley</i> -(Philad., 1862), being vol. xiii. of the <i>Trans. Amer. Philosophical -Soc.</i></p> -<p class="pfc4">A contemporary of Gallatin, but a man sorely harassed, -as others see him, with eccentricities and unstableness of -head, was C. F. Rafinesque, who had nevertheless a certain -tendency to acute observation, which prevents his books -from becoming wholly worthless. His first publication was -an introduction to Marshall’s <i>History of Kentucky</i>, which -he printed separately as <i>Ancient History, or Annals of -Kentucky, with a survey of the ancient monuments of -North America, and a tabular view of the principal languages -and primitive nations of the whole earth</i> (Frankfort, -Ky., 1824). In this he makes a comparison of four -principal words from fourteen Indian tongues with thirty-four -primitive languages of the old world. In 1836 he -printed at Philadelphia <i>The American Nations, or outlines -of their general history, ancient and modern, including the -whole history of the earth and mankind in the western -hemisphere; the philosophy of American history; the annals, -traditions, civilization, languages, etc., of all American -nations, tribes, empires and states</i> (in two volumes).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1879_1879" id="Footnote_1879_1879"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1879_1879"><span class="label">[1879]</span></a></span> -It embraces:</p> -<p class="pfc4"><span class="smcap">First Series</span>: No. 1. J. G. Shea, <i>French Onondaga -Dictionary</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4">2. G. Mengarini, <i>Selish or Flat-head Grammar</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4">3. B. Smith, <i>Grammatical Sketch of the Heve language</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4">4. F. Arroyo de la Cuesta, <i>Grammar of the Mutsun -language</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4">5. B. Smith, <i>Grammar of the Pima or Névome language</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4"> -6. M. C. Pandosy, <i>Grammar and Dictionary of the -Yakama language</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4">7. B. Sitjar, <i>Vocabulary of the language of the San -Antonio Mission</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4">8. F. Arroyo de la Cuesta, <i>Vocabulary or phrase-book -of the Mutsun language</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4">9. Abbé Maillard, <i>Grammar of the Micmaque language</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4">10. J. Bruyas, <i>Radices Verborum Iroqæorum</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4">11. G. Gibbs, <i>Alphabetical Vocabularies of the Clallam -and Lummi</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4"> -12. G. Gibbs, <i>Dictionary of the Chinook jargon</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4"> -13. G. Gibbs, <i>Alphabetical Vocabulary of the Chinook -language</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4"><span class="smcap">Second Series</span>: 1. W. Matthews, <i>Grammar and Dictionary -of the language of the Hidatsa</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4">2. W. Matthews, <i>Hidatsa-English Dictionary</i>.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The first series was printed in New York, 1860-63; the -second, 1873-74. There is full bibliographical detail in -Pilling’s <i>Proof-sheets</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1880_1880" id="Footnote_1880_1880"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1880_1880"><span class="label">[1880]</span></a></span> -The following are already published:</p> -<p class="pfc4">1. <i>The Chronicles of the Mayas</i>, ed. by Brinton.</p> -<p class="pfc4">2. <i>The Iroquois Book of Rites</i>, ed. by Horatio Hale.</p> -<p class="pfc4">3. <i>The Comedy-ballet of Gueguence</i>, ed. by Brinton.</p> -<p class="pfc4"> -4. <i>The National Legend of the Creeks</i>, ed. by Albert S. -Gatschet.</p> -<p class="pfc4">5. <i>The Lenâpé and their Legends.</i></p> -<p class="pfc4">6. <i>The Annals of the Cakchiquels</i>, ed. by Brinton.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1881_1881" id="Footnote_1881_1881"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1881_1881"><span class="label">[1881]</span></a></span> -This series contains:</p> -<p class="pfc4"> -1. Juan de Albornoz, <i>Arte de la lengua Chiapaneca y -Doctrina Cristiana por Luis Barrientos</i> (Paris, 1875).</p> -<p class="pfc4">2. P. E. Pettitot, <i>Dictionnaire de la langue Dènè-Dindjie</i> -(Paris, 1876).</p> -<p class="pfc4">3. P. E. Pettitot, <i>Vocabulaire Français-Esquimau</i> -(Paris, 1876).</p> -<p class="pfc4">4. P. Franco, <i>Noticias de los Indios del Departamento -de Veragua</i>, etc. (San Francisco, 1882).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Pilling (<i>Proof-sheets</i>, 589, 1042-1044) gives an account of -Pinart’s published and MS. linguistic collections, as well -as (p. 587) of Francisco Pimentel’s <i>Las Lenguas indígenas -de México</i> (Mexico, 1862-65).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1882_1882" id="Footnote_1882_1882"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1882_1882"><span class="label">[1882]</span></a></span> -It embraces:</p> -<p class="pfc4">1. E. Uricoechea, <i>Lengua Chibcha</i> (Paris, 1871).</p> -<p class="pfc4">2. Eujenio Castillo i Orozco, <i>Vocabulario Paéz-Castellano</i>, -etc. (Paris, 1877).</p> -<p class="pfc4">3. Raymond Breton, <i>Grammaire Caraïbe, ed. par L. -Adam et Ch. Leclerc</i> (Paris, 1878).</p> -<p class="pfc4">4. <i>Ollantai, drame, trad. par Pacheco Zegarra</i> (Paris, -1878).</p> -<p class="pfc4">5. R. Celedon, <i>La Lengua goajra, con una introd. -por E. Uricoechea</i> (Paris, 1878).</p> -<p class="pfc4">6. L. Adam et V. Henry, <i>La Lengua Chiquita</i> (Paris, -1880).</p> -<p class="pfc4">7. Antonio Magio, <i>La Lengua de los Indios Baures</i> -(Paris, 1880).</p> -<p class="pfc4">8. J. Crevaux, P. Sagot, et L. Adam, <i>Langues de la -région des Guyanes</i> (Paris, 1882).</p> -<p class="pfc4">9. J. D. Haumonté, Parisot, et L. Adam, <i>La Langue -Taensa</i> (Paris, 1882). This has been pronounced a deception.</p> -<p class="pfc4">10. Francisco Pareja, <i>La Lengua Timuquana</i>, 1614 -(Paris, 1886).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1883_1883" id="Footnote_1883_1883"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1883_1883"><span class="label">[1883]</span></a></span> -Cf. Pilling’s <i>Proof-sheets</i>, pp. 217-218.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1884_1884" id="Footnote_1884_1884"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1884_1884"><span class="label">[1884]</span></a></span> -Brinton (<i>Amer. Hero Myths</i>, 60), referring to Father -Cuoq’s <i>Lexique de la langue Iroquoise</i>, speaks of that -author as “probably the best living authority on the -Iroquois.” Pilling, <i>Proof-sheets</i>, 185, etc., gives the best -account of his writings. Cf. Mrs. E. A. Smith on the Iroquois -in <i>Journal Anthropolog. Inst.</i>, xiv. 244.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1885_1885" id="Footnote_1885_1885"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1885_1885"><span class="label">[1885]</span></a></span> -The languages covered are: Dakota, Chibcha, Nahuatl, -Kechua, Quiché, Maya, Montagnais, Chippeway, -Algonquin, Cri, Iroquois, Hidatsa, Chacta, Caraïbe, Kiriri, -Guarani. Adam has been one of the leading spirits in the -Congrès des Américanistes. There was published in 1882, -as a part of the <i>Bibliothèque linguistique Américaine, a -Grammaire et Vocabulaire de la langue taensa, avec -textes traduits et commentés par F. D. Haumonté, Parisot, -L. Adam</i>. It was printed from a manuscript said to -have been discovered in 1872, in the library of Mons. Haumonté. -Dr. Brinton, finding, as he claimed, that Adam -had been imposed upon, printed in the <i>American Antiquarian</i>, -March, 1885, “The Tænsa Grammar and Dictionary, -a Deception Exposed,” the points of which were -epitomized by Professor H. W. Haynes in the <i>American -Antiquarian Society Proceedings</i> (April, 1885), and Adam -answered in <i>Le Tænsa, a-t-il été forgé de toutes pièces</i> -(Paris, 1885).</p> -<p class="pfc4">The languages of the southern and southwestern United -States have been particularly studied by Albert S. Gatschet, -among whose publications may be named <i>Zwölf Sprachen -aus dem Südwesten Nord Amerikas</i> (Weimar, 1877); <i>The -Timucua language</i> of Florida (Philad., 1878, 1880); <i>The -Chumeto language</i> of California (Philad., 1882); <i>Der -Yuma Sprachstamm</i> of Arizona and the neighboring regions -(Berlin, 1877, 1883); <i>Wortverzeichniss eines Viti-Dialectes</i> -(Berlin, 1882); <i>The Shetimasha Indians of St. -Mary’s Parish, Louisiana</i> (Washington, 1883); but his -most important contribution is the linguistic, historic, and -ethnographic introduction to his <i>Migration Legend of the -Creek Indians</i> (Philad., 1884), in which he has surveyed -the whole compass of the southern Indians. The extent -of Mr. Gatschet’s studies will appear from Pilling’s <i>Proof-sheets</i>, -pp. 285-292, 955.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1886_1886" id="Footnote_1886_1886"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1886_1886"><span class="label">[1886]</span></a></span> -<i>Contents</i>.—1. Sur quelques familles de langues du -Méxique. 2. Sur différents idiomes de la Nouvelle-Espagne. -3. Sur la famille de langues Tapijulapane-Mixe. -4. Sur la famille de langue Pirinda-Othomi. 5. Sur les -lois phonétiques dans les idiomes de la famille Mame-Huastèque. -6. Sur le pronom personnel dans les idiomes -de la famille Maya-Quiché. 7. Sur l’étude de la prophétie -en langue Maya d’Ahkuil-Chel. 8. Sur le système de numération -chez les peuples de la famille Maya-Quiché. 9. -Sur le déchiffrement des écritures calculiformes du Mayas. -10. Sur les signes de numération en Maya.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Pilling (<i>Proof-sheets</i>, pp. 145-148, 904-906) enumerates -many of the separate publications.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1887_1887" id="Footnote_1887_1887"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1887_1887"><span class="label">[1887]</span></a></span> -Brinton has printed <i>The philosophical grammar of -the American languages as set forth by Wilhelm von -Humboldt, with a translation of an unpublished memoir -by him on the American verb</i> (Philad., 1885). The great -work of A. von Humboldt and Bonpland, <i>Voyage aux -régions équinoxiales du nouveau continent</i> (Paris, 1816-31), -gives some linguistic matter in the third volume.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1888_1888" id="Footnote_1888_1888"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1888_1888"><span class="label">[1888]</span></a></span> -These are enumerated in the list in Bancroft, i.; in -Field, nos. 208-218; and in Leclerc, <i>Index</i>; with more detail -in Pilling’s <i>Proof-sheets</i>, pp. 102-110, 894-896. Cf. also -Sabin, iii. nos. 9,521 etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1889_1889" id="Footnote_1889_1889"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1889_1889"><span class="label">[1889]</span></a></span> -Brinton, who possesses his papers, published a Memoir -of him in the <i>Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, 1884. His publications -and MS. collections are given in Pilling’s <i>Proof-sheets</i>, -PP. 72, 73, 879-881.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1890_1890" id="Footnote_1890_1890"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1890_1890"><span class="label">[1890]</span></a></span> -He cites (iii. 725-26) many opinions; and quotes Sahagún -as saying that the Apalaches were Nahuas and spoke -the Mexican tongue (<i>Ibid</i>. iii. 727). Is this any evidence -of the Floridian immigration?</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1891_1891" id="Footnote_1891_1891"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1891_1891"><span class="label">[1891]</span></a></span> -A considerable body of literature in this language has -come down to us. Bancroft (iii. 728) enumerates a number -of the principal religious manuals, etc. Icazbalceta in the -first volume of his <i>Bibliografia Mexicana</i> (Mexico, 1886), -in cataloguing the books issued in Mexico before 1600, includes -all that were printed in the native tongue. Brinton -gives some account of such native authors in his <i>Aboriginal -American authors and their productions, especially those -in the native languages. A chapter in the history of literature</i> -(Philad., 1883). Cf. his paper in the <i>Congrès des -Amér.</i>, Copenhagen, 1883, p. 54. Bancroft (iii. 730) gives -some citations as to its literary value. Brinton has illustrated -this quality in some of his lesser monographs, as in -his <i>Ancient Nahuatl Poetry</i> (Philad., 1887); and in his -<i>Study of the Nahuatl language</i> (1886), in which he gives -specimens and enumerates the dictionaries and texts. He -says there are more than a hundred authors in it (<i>Amer. -Antiquarian</i>, viii. 22). Icazbalceta has collected many -Nahua MSS., and his brother-in-law, Francisco Pimentel, -has used them in his <i>Cuadro descriptivo y comparativo -de las Lenguas indigenas de México</i> (1862), of which there -is a German translation by Isidor Epstein (N. Y., 1877). -This is based on a second augmented edition (Mexico, -1874-75), in which the tongues of northern Mexico are -better represented, and a general classification of the languages -is added. Pimentel (i. 154) asserts that it is a mistake -to suppose that the Chichimecs spoke Nahua. Cf., -however, Bancroft (iii. 724) and Short, 255, 480. Pimentel’s -opinions are weighty, and follow in this respect those -of Orozco y Berra, Sahagún, Ixtlilxochitl; but later, Veytia -had maintained the reverse.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Lucien Adam includes the Nahua in his <i>Etudes sur six -langues Américaines</i> (Paris, 1878). Aubin wrote “Sur -la langue Méxicaine et la philologie Américaine” in the -<i>Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France</i>, n. s., vol. i. Brasseur -contributed various articles on Mexican philology to -the <i>Revue Orientale et Américaine</i>. Dr. C. Hermann -Berendt formed an <i>Analytical Alphabet for the Mexican -and Central America languages</i> (N. Y., 1869). Buschmann -has a study in the <i>Mémoirs de l’Académie de Berlin</i>, -and separately, <i>Ueber die Astekischen Ortsnamen</i> (Berlin, -1853). Henri de Charencey in his <i>Mélanges de Philologie</i> -(Paris, 1883) has a paper “Sur quelques familles de langues -du Méxique.” V. A. Malte-Brun gave in the <i>Compte -Rendu, Cong. des Américanistes</i>, 1877 (vol. ii. p. 10), a paper -“La distribution ethnographique des nations et des langues -au Méxique.” Reference has been made elsewhere to the -important publication of Manuel Orozco y Berra, <i>Geografia -de las lenguas y carta etnográfica de México, precedidos -de un ensayo de classificacion de las mismas lenguas y de -apuntes para las inmigraciones de las tribus</i> (Mexico, 1864). -The work is said to be the fruit of twelve years’ constant -study, and to have been based in some part on MSS. belonging -to Icazbalceta, dating back to the latter part of the -sixteenth century (enumerated in <i>Peab. Mus. Repts.</i>, ii. 559). -There is some adverse criticism. Peschel (<i>Races of Men</i>, -438) thinks the linguistic map of Mexico in Orozco y Berra’s -work the only good feature in the book, since the author -spreads old errors anew in consequence of his unacquaintance -with Buschmann’s researches. A series of linguistic -monographic essays on the Aztec names of places is embraced -in Dr. Antonio Peñafiel’s <i>Nombres Geografico de -Mexico. Catalogo alfabetico de los nombres de lugar pertenecientes -al idioma “Nahuatl” estudio jeroglifico de la -matricula de los tributos del codice Mendocino</i> (Mexico, -1885). In the <i>Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France</i>, n. s., -179, iii. there is an essay by Siméon, “La langue Méxicaine -et son histoire.”</p> -<p class="pfc4">The affiliation of the Aztec with the Pueblo stocks is -traced by Bancroft, iii. 665, who follows out the diversities -of those stocks (pp. 671, 681). Cf. for various views Morgan’s -<i>Systems of Consanguinity</i>, 260; Buschmann’s <i>Die -Völker und Sprachen Neu Mexico’s</i>, and <i>First Rept. Bur. -of Ethnology</i>, p. xxxi.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1892_1892" id="Footnote_1892_1892"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1892_1892"><span class="label">[1892]</span></a></span> -Some authorities give fourteen dialects of the Maya. -Cf. the table in Bancroft, iii. 562, etc., and the statements -in Garcia y Cubas, translated by Geo. F. Henderson as <i>The -Republic of Mexico</i>. It is still spoken in the greatest -purity about the Balize, as is commonly said; but Le Plongeon -goes somewhat inland and says he found it “in all its -pristine purity” in the neighborhood of Lake Peten. Le -Plongeon, with that extravagance which has in the end deprived -him of the sympathy and encouragement due to his -noteworthy labors, says, “One third of this Maya tongue -is pure Greek,” following Brasseur in one of his vagaries, -who thought he found in 15,000 Maya vocables at least 7,000 -that bore a striking resemblance to the language of Homer.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1893_1893" id="Footnote_1893_1893"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1893_1893"><span class="label">[1893]</span></a></span> -The bibliographies will add to this enumeration. The -<i>Pinart Catalogue</i> (pp. 98-100) gives a partial list. Only -some of the more important monographs upon features of -the Maya language can be mentioned: Father Pedro Beltran -de Santa Rosa’s <i>Arte del idioma Maya</i> (Mexico, -1746) was so rare that Brasseur did not secure it, but Leclerc -catalogues it (no. 2,280), as well as the reprint (Merida, -1859) edited by José D. Espinosa. There is a study of the -Maya tongues included in a paper printed first by Carl -Hermann Berendt in the <i>Journal of the Amer. Geog. Soc.</i> -(viii. 132, for 1876), which was later issued separately as <i>Remarks -on the centres of ancient civilization in Central -America and their geographical distribution</i> (N. Y., 1876). -It is accompanied by a map. (Cf. also his “Explorations in -Central America” in the <i>Smithsonian Rept.</i>, 1867.) Brasseur -included in his <i>Manuscrit Troano</i> (Paris, 1869-70), and -later published separately, a <i>Dictionnaire, Grammaire et -Chrestomathie de la langue Maya</i> (Paris, 1872); the dictionary -containing 10,000 words, the grammar being a translation -from Father Gabriel de Saint Bonaventure, while -the chrestomathy was a gathering of specimens ancient and -modern, of the language. Brasseur, in his mutable way, -found in the first season of his studies the Greek, Latin, -English, German, Scandinavian, not to name others, to -have correspondences with the Maya, and ended in deriving -them from that tongue as the primitive language. (Cf. -Short, 476.) Dr. Brinton has a paper on <i>The Ancient -Phonetic Alphabet of Yucatan</i> (N. Y., 1870), and he read -at the Buffalo meeting (1886) of the Amer. Assoc. for the -Advancement of Science a paper on the phonetic element -of the graphic system of the Mayas, etc., which is printed -in the <i>American Antiquarian</i>, viii. 347. In the introduction -of his <i>Maya Chronicles</i> (Philad., 1882) he examines -the language and literature of the Mayas. He refers to a -“Disertacion sobre la historia de la lengua Maya o Yucateca” -by Crescencio Carrello y Ancona in the <i>Revista de -Merida</i>, 1870. Charencey has printed various special papers, -like a <i>Fragment de Chrestomathie de la langue -Maya antique</i> (Paris, 1875) from the <i>Revue de Philologie -et d’Ethnographie</i>, and a paper read before the Copenhagen -meeting of the Congrès des Américanistes (<i>Compte Rendu</i>, -p. 379), “De la formation des mots en lengua Maya.” -Landa’s <i>Relation</i> as published by Brasseur (Paris, 1864) is -of course a leading source.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Of the Quiché branch of the Maya we know most from -Brasseur’s <i>Popul Vuh</i> and from his <i>Gramatica de la -lengua Quiché</i> (Paris, 1862), in the appendix of which he -printed the <i>Rabinal Achi</i>, a drama in the Quiché tongue. -Father Ildefonso José Flores, a native of the country, was -professor of the Cakchiquel language in the university of -Guatemala in the last century, and published a <i>Arte de la -lengua metropolitana del Reyno Cakchiquel</i> (Guatemala, -1753), which was unknown to later scholars, till Brasseur -discovered a copy in 1856 (Leclerc, no. 2,270). The literature -of the Cakchiquel dialect is examined in the introduction -to Brinton’s <i>Grammar of the Cakchiquel language</i> -(Philad., 1884), edited for the American Philosophical Society. -Cf. Brinton’s little <i>treatise On the language and -ethnologic position of the Xinca Indians of Guatemala</i> -(Philadelphia, 1884); his <i>So-called Alaguilac language of -Guatemala</i> in the <i>Proc. Am. Philosoph. Soc.</i>, 1887, p. 366; -and Otto Stoll’s <i>Zur Ethnographie der Republik Guatemala</i> -(Zurich, 1884).</p> -<p class="pfc4">We owe to Brinton, also, a few discussions of the Nicaragua -tongues, both in their Maya and Aztec relations. He -has discussed the local dialect of this region in the introduction -of <i>The Güegüence; a comedy ballet in the Nahuatl-Spanish -dialect of Nicaragua</i> (Philadelphia, 1883), and in -his <i>Notes on the Mangue, an extinct dialect formerly -spoken in Nicaragua</i> (Philadelphia, 1886).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1894_1894" id="Footnote_1894_1894"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1894_1894"><span class="label">[1894]</span></a></span> -Notwithstanding this commonness of origin, if such be -the case, there is a striking truth in what Max Müller says: -“The thoughts of primitive humanity were not only different -from our thoughts, but different also from what we -think their thoughts ought to have been.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1895_1895" id="Footnote_1895_1895"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1895_1895"><span class="label">[1895]</span></a></span> -See Vol. IV. p. 295.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1896_1896" id="Footnote_1896_1896"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1896_1896"><span class="label">[1896]</span></a></span> -Such are Sagard’s <i>Histoire du Canada</i> (1636); Nicolas -Perrot’s <i>Mémoire sur les Mœurs, Coutumes et Religion -des Sauvages</i>, involving his experience from 1665 -to 1699; Lafitau’s <i>Mœurs des Sauvages</i> (1724), and the -like.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1897_1897" id="Footnote_1897_1897"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1897_1897"><span class="label">[1897]</span></a></span> -Bancroft (iii. 136) says: “It does not appear, notwithstanding -Mr. Squier’s assertion to the contrary, that the -serpent was actually worshipped either in Yucatan or -Mexico.” Cf. Brinton’s <i>Myths</i>, ch. 4; Chas. S. Wake’s -<i>Serpent Worship</i> (London, 1888); and J. G. Bourke’s -<i>Snake-dance of the Moquis of Arizona; being a narrative -of a journey from Santa Fé, New Mexico, to the villages -of the Moqui Indians of Arizona, with a description -of the manners and customs of this peculiar people, to -which is added a brief dissertation upon serpent-worship -in general, with an account of the tablet dance of the -Pueblo of Santo Domingo, New Mexico, etc.</i> (London, -1884).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1898_1898" id="Footnote_1898_1898"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1898_1898"><span class="label">[1898]</span></a></span> -Brinton (<i>Myths</i>, etc., 141) declares sun-worship, which -some investigators have made the base of all primitive -religions, to be but a “short and easy method with mythology,” -and that “no one key can open all the arcana of -symbolism.” He refers to D’Orbigny (<i>L’Homme Américain</i>), -Müller (<i>Amer. Urreligionen</i>), and Squier (<i>Serpent -Symbol</i>) as supporting the opposing view. We may find -like supporters of the sun as a central idea in Schoolcraft, -Tylor, Brasseur. Cf. Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i> (iii. 114) in -opposition to Brinton.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1899_1899" id="Footnote_1899_1899"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1899_1899"><span class="label">[1899]</span></a></span> -This monotheism is denied by Brinton (<i>Myths of the -New World</i>, 52). “Of monotheism, either as displayed in -the one personal definite God of the Semitic races, or in -the dim pantheistic sense of the Brahmins, there was not a -single instance on the American continent,”—the Iroquois -“Neu” and “Hawaneu,” which, as Brinton says, have deceived -Morgan and others, being but the French “Dieu” -and “Le bon Dieu” rendered in Indian pronunciation -(<i>Myths of the New World</i>, p. 53). The aborigines instituted, -however, in two instances, the worship of an immaterial -god, one among the Quichuas of Peru and another at -Tezcuco (<i>Ibid.</i> p. 55).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Bandelier (<i>Archæol. Tour</i>, 185), examining the <i>Hist. de -los Méxicanos por sus Pinturas</i> (<i>Anales del Museo</i>, ii. 86), -Motolinía, Gómara, Sahagún, Tobar, and Durán, finds no -trace of monotheism till we come to Acosta. Torquemada -speaks of supreme <i>gods</i>; and Bandelier thinks that Ixtlilxochitl, -in conveying the idea of a single god, evidently distorts -and disfigures Torquemada.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Bancroft (iii. 198) accords honesty to Ixtlilxochitl’s account -of the religion of the Tezcucan ruler Nezahualcoyotl, -as reaching the heights of Mexican monotheistic conception, -because he thinks his descendants, if he had fabled, -would never have ended his description with so pagan a -statement as that which makes the Tezcucan recognize the -sun as his father and the earth as his mother.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Max Müller tells us that we should distinguish between -monotheism and henotheism, which is the temporary preeminence -of one god over the host of gods, and which was -as near monotheism as the American aborigines came.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1900_1900" id="Footnote_1900_1900"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1900_1900"><span class="label">[1900]</span></a></span> -He also masses the evidence which shows, as he thinks, -that “on Catholic missions has followed the debasement, -and on Protestant missions the destruction, of the Indian -race.” <i>Amer. Hero-Myths</i>, pp. 206, 238.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1901_1901" id="Footnote_1901_1901"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1901_1901"><span class="label">[1901]</span></a></span> -Unfortunately, Brinton enforces this view and others -with a degree of confidence that does not help him to convince -the cautious reader, as when he speaks of the opinions -of those who disagree with him as “having served long -enough as the last refuge of ignorance” (<i>Amer. Hero-Myths</i>, -145).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1902_1902" id="Footnote_1902_1902"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1902_1902"><span class="label">[1902]</span></a></span> -The whole question of comparative mythology involves -in its broad aspects the subject of American myths. The -literature of this general kind is large, but reference may be -made to Girard de Rialle’s <i>La Mythologie Comparée</i> (Paris, -1878); for the idea of God, Dawson’s <i>Fossil Men</i>, ch. 9 and -10; Lubbock’s <i>Origin of Civilization</i>, ch. 4, 5, 6; J. P. -Lesley’s <i>Man’s origin and destiny</i>, ch. 10; and for the -geographical distribution of myths, Tylor’s <i>Early Hist. of -Mankind</i>, ch. 12; Max Müller’s <i>Chips</i>, vol. ii.; and in a -general way, Brinton’s <i>Religious sentiment, its source and -aim</i> (N. Y., 1876). Reference may also be made to Joly’s -<i>Man before Metals</i>, ch. 7; Dabry de Thiersant’s <i>Origine -des indiens</i> (Paris, 1883); and G. Brühl’s <i>Culturvölker Alt-Amerikas</i> -(Cincinnati, 1876-78), ch. 10 and 19. -Brinton (<i>Myths</i>, 210) tracks the Deluge myth among the -Indians, and Bancroft gives many instances of it (<i>Native -Races</i>, v., index). Brinton thinks a paper by Charencey, -“Le Déluge d’après les traditions indiennes de l’Amérique -du Nord,” in the <i>Revue Américaine</i>, a help for its extracts, -but complains of its uncritical spirit.</p> -<p class="pfc4">We find sufficient data of the aboriginal belief in the -future life both in Bancroft’s final chapter (vol. iii. part i.) -and in Brinton’s <i>Myths</i>, ch. 9. Brinton delivered an address -on the “Journey of the soul,” which is printed in the <i>Proceedings</i> -(Jan., 1883) of the Numismatic and Antiquarian -Society of Philadelphia.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1903_1903" id="Footnote_1903_1903"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1903_1903"><span class="label">[1903]</span></a></span> -In studying the mythology of these tribes we must -depend mainly on confined monographs. Mrs. E. A. Smith -treats the myths of the Iroquois in the <i>Second Annual -Rept. Bureau of Ethnology</i>. Charles Godfrey Leland has -covered <i>The Algonquin legends of New England; or, -myths and folk-lore of the Micmac, Passamaquoddy, and -Penobscot tribes</i> (Boston, 1884). Brinton has a book on -<i>The Lenâpé and their legends</i> (Philad., 1885); and one may -refer to the <i>Life and Journals of David Brainard</i>. S. D. -Peet has a paper on “The religious beliefs and traditions -of the aborigines of North America” in the <i>Journal of the -Victoria Institute</i> (London, 1888, vol. xxi. 229); one on -“Animal worship and Sun worship in the east and west compared” -in the <i>American Antiquarian</i>, Mar., 1888; and a -paper on the religion of the moundbuilders in <i>Ibid.</i> vi. 393. -The <i>Dahcotah, or life and legends of the Sioux around -Fort Snelling</i> (N. Y., 1849) of Mrs. Mary Eastman has -been a serviceable book. S. R. Riggs covers the mythology -of the Dakotas in the <i>Amer. Antiquarian</i> (v. 147), and in -this periodical will be found various studies concerning other -tribes.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1904_1904" id="Footnote_1904_1904"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1904_1904"><span class="label">[1904]</span></a></span> -Bandelier, <i>Archæol. Tour</i>, 185, calls it the earliest -statement of the Nahua mythology.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1905_1905" id="Footnote_1905_1905"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1905_1905"><span class="label">[1905]</span></a></span> -There is more or less of original importance on the -Aztec myths in Alfredo Chavero’s “La Piedra del Sol,” -likewise in the <i>Anales</i> (vol. i.). Cf. also the “Ritos Antiguos, -sacrificios e idolatrias de los indios de la Nueva -España,” as printed in the <i>Coleccion de doc. ined. para -la hist. de España</i> (liii. 300).</p> -<p class="pfc4">Bancroft (vol. iii. ch. 6-10), who is the best source for -reference, gives also the best compassed survey of the entire -field; but among writers in English he may be supplemented -by Prescott (i. ch. 3, introd.); Helps in his <i>Spanish -Conquest</i> (vol. ii.); Tylor’s <i>Primitive Culture</i>; Albert -Réville’s <i>Lectures on the origin and growth of religion as -illustrated by the native religions of Mexico and Peru</i>, -translated by P. H. Wicksteed (London, 1884, being the -Hibbert lectures for 1884); on the analogies of the Mexican -belief, a condensed statement in Short’s <i>No. America of -Antiq.</i>, 459; a popular paper in <i>The Galaxy</i>, May, 1876. -Bandelier intended a fourth paper to be added to the three -printed in the <i>Peabody Mus. Repts.</i> (vol. ii.), namely, one on -“The Creeds and Beliefs of the Ancient Mexicans,” which -has never, I think, been printed.</p> -<p class="pfc4">Among the French, we may refer to Ternaux-Compans’ -<i>Essai sur la théogonie Méxicaine</i> (Paris, 1840) and the -works of Brasseur. Klemm’s <i>Cultur-Geschichte</i> and -Müller’s <i>Urreligionen</i> will mainly cover the German -views. Of the Mexican writers, it may be worth while to -name J. M. Melgar’s <i>Examen comparativa entre los signos -simbolicos de las Teogonias y Cosmogonias antiguas y -los que existen en los manuscritos Méxicanos</i> (Vera Cruz, -1872).</p> -<p class="pfc4">The readiest description of their priesthood and festivals -will be found in Bancroft (ii. 201, 303, with references). -Tenochtitlan is said to have had 2,000 sacred buildings, and -Torquemada says there were 80,000 throughout Mexico; -while Clavigero says that a million priests attended upon -them. Bancroft (iii. ch. 10) describes this service. There -is a chance in all this of much exaggeration.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The history of human sacrifice as a part of this service is -the subject of disagreement among the earlier as well as -with the later writers. Bancroft (iii. 413, 442) gives some -leading references. Cf. Prescott (i. 77) and Nadaillac (p. -296). Las Casas in his general defence of the natives -places the number of sacrifices very low. Zumárraga says -there were 20,000 a year. The Aztecs, if not originating -the practice, as is disputed by some, certainly made much -use of it.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1906_1906" id="Footnote_1906_1906"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1906_1906"><span class="label">[1906]</span></a></span> -<i>Anales del Museo Nacional</i>, ii. 247; Bancroft, iii. 240, -248.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1907_1907" id="Footnote_1907_1907"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1907_1907"><span class="label">[1907]</span></a></span> -Bandelier thinks Durán the earliest to connect St. -Thomas with Quetzalcoatl. Cf. Bancroft, iii. 456.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1908_1908" id="Footnote_1908_1908"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1908_1908"><span class="label">[1908]</span></a></span> -Müller agrees with Ixtlilxochitl that Quetzalcoatl and -Huemac were one and the same, and that Ternaux erred in -supposing them respectively Olmec and Toltec deities. Cf. -Brasseur’s <i>Palenqué</i>, 40, 66. Cf. D. Daly on “Quetzalcoatl, -the Mexican Messiah” in <i>Gentleman’s Mag.</i>, n. a., -xli. 236.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1909_1909" id="Footnote_1909_1909"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1909_1909"><span class="label">[1909]</span></a></span> -For the later views in general see Clavigero, Tylor, -Brasseur (<i>Nations Civil.</i>, i. 253), Prescott (i. 62), Bancroft -(iii. 248, 263; v. 24, 200, 255, 257), and Short (267, -274).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1910_1910" id="Footnote_1910_1910"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1910_1910"><span class="label">[1910]</span></a></span> -The god Paynal was a sort of deputy war-god. See -H. H. Bancroft’s <i>Native Races</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1911_1911" id="Footnote_1911_1911"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1911_1911"><span class="label">[1911]</span></a></span> -Cf. references in <i>Peabody Mus. Rept.</i>, ii. 571; Short, -p. 206.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1912_1912" id="Footnote_1912_1912"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1912_1912"><span class="label">[1912]</span></a></span> -Cf. <i>Relacion de las ceremonias y Ritos de Michoacan</i>, -a manuscript in the library of Congress, of which there is -a copy in Madrid, which is printed in the <i>Coleccion de doc. -ined. para la hist. de España</i>, liii.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1913_1913" id="Footnote_1913_1913"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1913_1913"><span class="label">[1913]</span></a></span> -For further modern treatment see Schultz-Sellack’s -“Die Amerikanischen Götter der vier Weltgegenden und -ihre Tempel in Palenque” in <i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i>, -xi.(1879); Brasseur’s Landa, p. lx; Ancona’s <i>Yucatan</i> -(i. ch. 10); Powell’s <i>First Report Bureau of Ethnology</i>; -for sacrifices, Nadaillac (p. 266); and for festivals and -priestly service, Bancroft (ii. 689). For Yucatan folk-lore, -see Brinton in <i>Folk-lore Journal</i> (vol. i. for 1883).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1914_1914" id="Footnote_1914_1914"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1914_1914"><span class="label">[1914]</span></a></span> -<i>First series</i>: vol. iv., W. Sargent on articles from an old -grave at Cincinnati, exhumed in 1794; vol. v., G. Turner -on the same; vol. vi., W. Dunbar on the Indian sign language; -J. Madison on remains of fortifications in the west; -B. S. Barton on affinities of Indian words. <i>New series</i>: -vol. i., H. H. Brackenridge on Indian populations and -tumuli; C. W. Short on an Indian fort near Lexington, -Ky.; vol. iii., D. Zeisberger on a Delaware grammar; vol. -iv., J. Heckewelder on Delaware names, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1915_1915" id="Footnote_1915_1915"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1915_1915"><span class="label">[1915]</span></a></span> -It celebrated its centennial in 1880, when an impromptu -address was delivered by R. C. Winthrop, which is printed -by this society, and is also contained, with a statement of -the occasion of it, in his <i>Speeches and Addresses</i>, 1878-1886. -For a record of the interest in archæological studies -about 1790, see <i>Reports</i> of the American Philosophical Society, -xxii. no. 119.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1916_1916" id="Footnote_1916_1916"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1916_1916"><span class="label">[1916]</span></a></span> -<i>First series</i>: vol. i., S. H. Parsons on discoveries in -the western country; vol. iii., E. A. Kendall and J. Davis -on an examination of the much controverted inscription of -the so-called Dighton Rock; E. Stiles on an Indian idol. -<i>New series</i>: vol. i., Rasle’s Abenaki dictionary; vol. v., -W. Sargent’s plan of the Marietta mounds, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1917_1917" id="Footnote_1917_1917"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1917_1917"><span class="label">[1917]</span></a></span> -This society published the original edition of S. G. -Morton’s <i>Inquiry into the distinctive characteristics of -the aboriginal race of America</i> (2d ed., Philadelphia, 1844), -which glances at their moral and intellectual character, their -habits of interment, their maritime enterprise, and their -physical condition.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1918_1918" id="Footnote_1918_1918"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1918_1918"><span class="label">[1918]</span></a></span> -Field’s <i>Ind. Bibliog.</i>, no. 1564.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1919_1919" id="Footnote_1919_1919"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1919_1919"><span class="label">[1919]</span></a></span> -Vol. ii., S. S. Haldeman on linguistic ethnology; vol. -iii., J. C. Nott and L. Agassiz on the unity of the human -race; vol. v., Col. Whittlesey on ancient human remains in -Ohio; vol. vi., J. L. Leconte on the California Indians; -vol. xi., Whittlesey on ancient mining at Lake Superior; -Morgan on Iroquois laws of descent; D. Wilson on a uniform -type of the American crania; vol. xiii., Morgan on -the bestowing of Indian names; vol. xvii., Whittlesey on the -antiquity of man in America; W. De Haas on the archæology -of the Mississippi Valley; W. H. Dall on the Alaska -tribes; vol. xix., Dall on the Eskimo tongue, etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1920_1920" id="Footnote_1920_1920"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1920_1920"><span class="label">[1920]</span></a></span> -<i>Abstracts of the Transactions prepared by J. W. -Powell</i> (Washington, 1879, etc.).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1921_1921" id="Footnote_1921_1921"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1921_1921"><span class="label">[1921]</span></a></span> -The student will find some general help, at least, from -the publications of such as these: the Peabody Academy -of Science (Salem, Mass.), <i>Memoirs</i>, 1869, etc.; Essex Institute -(Salem, Mass.), <i>Bulletin</i>, 1869, and <i>Proceedings</i>, -1848, etc.; Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, -<i>Memoirs</i>, 1810-16; <i>Transactions</i>, 1866, etc.; the Lyceum -of Natural History, became in 1876 the New York Academy -of Sciences, <i>Annals</i>, 1823, etc.; <i>Proceedings</i>, 1870, etc.; -Transactions; the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society -of Philadelphia, <i>Proceedings</i>; Wyoming Historical and -Geological Society, <i>Proceedings and Collections</i> (Wilkes-Barre, -Pa., 1884, etc.); the Cincinnati Society of Natural -History, <i>Journal</i> and <i>Proceedings</i>, 1876; Indianapolis -Academy of Sciences, <i>Transactions</i>, 1870, etc.; Wisconsin -Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, <i>Bulletin</i>, 1870, -and <i>Transactions</i>, 1870; Davenport (Iowa) Academy of -Science, <i>Proceedings</i>, 1867; St. Louis Academy of Science, -<i>Transactions</i>, 1856; Kansas Academy of Science, <i>Transactions</i>, -1872; California Academy of Sciences, <i>Proceedings</i>, -1854, etc., and <i>Memoirs</i>, 1868, etc.; Geographical -Society of the Pacific, its official organ <i>Kosmos</i>,—not to -name others.</p> -<p class="pfc4">In British America we may refer to the Natural History -Society of Montreal, publishing <i>The Canadian Naturalist</i>, -1857, etc.; the Canadian Institute, <i>Proceedings</i>; the -Royal Society of Canada, <i>Proceedings</i>; the Nova Scotia -Institute of Natural Science, <i>Proceedings and Transactions</i>, -1867,—not to mention others; and among periodicals -the <i>Canadian Monthly</i>, the <i>Canadian Antiquarian</i>, -and the <i>Canadian Journal</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1922_1922" id="Footnote_1922_1922"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1922_1922"><span class="label">[1922]</span></a></span> -The tendency of general periodicals to questions of this -kind is manifest by the references in <i>Poole’s Index</i>, under -such heads as American Antiquities, Anthropology, Archæology, -Caves and Cave-dwellers, Ethnology, Lake Dwellings, -Man, Mounds and Moundbuilders, Prehistoric Races, -etc.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1923_1923" id="Footnote_1923_1923"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1923_1923"><span class="label">[1923]</span></a></span> -The history of its incipiency and progress can be -gathered from the <i>Reports</i> of the Museum, with summaries -in those numbered i., xi. and xix.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1924_1924" id="Footnote_1924_1924"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1924_1924"><span class="label">[1924]</span></a></span> -Cf. Waldo Higginson’s <i>Memorials of the Class of 1833, -Harvard College</i>, p. 60, and the contemporary tributes -from eminent associates noted in <i>Poole’s Index</i>, p. 1434.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1925_1925" id="Footnote_1925_1925"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1925_1925"><span class="label">[1925]</span></a></span> -The documentary history, by W. J. Rhees, of the -Smithsonian Institution, forms vol. xvii. of its <i>Miscellaneous -Collections</i>. Cf. J. Henry on its organization in the <i>Proceedings</i> -of the Amer. Asso. for the Adv. of Science, vol. i. -A <i>Catalogue of the publications of the S. I. with an -alphabetical index of articles</i>, by William J. Rhees (Washington, -1882), constitutes no. 478 of its series.</p> -<p class="pfc4">The early management of the Smithsonian decided that -the “knowledge” of its founder meant science, and from -the start gave not a little attention to archæology as a -science. When the Bureau of Ethnology became a part of -the Institution, and its <i>Reports</i> included papers necessarily -historical as well as archæological, the way was prepared -for a broader meaning to the term “knowledge,” and as -a significant recognition of the allied field of research the -present government of the Smithsonian gave hearty concurrence -to the act of Congress which in Dec., 1888, made -also the American Historical Association, which had existed -without incorporation since 1884, a section of the -Smithsonian Institution.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1926_1926" id="Footnote_1926_1926"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1926_1926"><span class="label">[1926]</span></a></span> -Its mound explorations have been conducted by Cyrus -Thomas; those among the Pueblos of the southwest by -James Stevenson (d. 1888); while Major Powell himself -has controlled personally the body of searchers in the linguistic -fields (<i>American Antiquarian</i>, viii. 32). It would -seem that its profession “to organize anthropological research” -is not to its full extent true, since the physiological -side of the subject seems to be left in Washington to the -Army Medical Museum.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1927_1927" id="Footnote_1927_1927"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1927_1927"><span class="label">[1927]</span></a></span> -Cf. Charles Rau’s <i>Archæological Collections of the -United States National Museum</i> (1876) in <i>Smithsonian -Contributions</i>, xx., with many illustrative woodcuts; and -a paper by Ernest Ingersoll in <i>The Century</i>, January, -1885. Cf. also F. W. Putnam’s contribution on American -Archæological Collections in the <i>American Naturalist</i>, -vii. 29.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1928_1928" id="Footnote_1928_1928"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1928_1928"><span class="label">[1928]</span></a></span> -B. P. Poore’s <i>Descriptive Catal. Govt. Pub.</i>, p. 593; -Field’s <i>Ind. Bibliog.</i>, no. 1379; Allibone’s <i>Dictionary</i>, -iii. p. 1952, for references and opposing criticisms. Some -of the condemnation of the book is too sweeping, for -amid its ignorance, confusion, and indiscrimination there -is much to be picked out which is of importance. Cf. -Parkman’s <i>Jesuits</i>, p. lxxx; Wilson’s <i>Prehistoric Man</i>, -ii. ch. 19; Brinton’s <i>Myths</i>, p. 40. Cf. on Schoolcraft’s death -(with a portrait) <i>Historical Mag.</i>, April, 1865; <i>Amer. -Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, April, 1865.</p> -<p class="pfc4">F. S. Drake’s <i>Indian Tribes of the United States</i> -(Philad., 1884) is, with some additional matter, a rearrangement -of Schoolcraft, the omission to acknowledge -which on the title-page being an unworthy bibliographical -deceit. Schoolcraft’s rivalry of Geo. Catlin and his ignoring -of Catlin’s work is commented on at some length by -Donaldson in the <i>Smithsonian Inst. Report</i>, 1885, part -ii. pp. 373-383.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1929_1929" id="Footnote_1929_1929"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1929_1929"><span class="label">[1929]</span></a></span> -For full details of this and other publications mentioned -in this paper, see S. H. Scudder’s <i>Catalogue of Scientific -Serials, 1633-1876</i>, published by the library of Harvard -University in 1879.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1930_1930" id="Footnote_1930_1930"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1930_1930"><span class="label">[1930]</span></a></span> -Sabin, xvii., no. 70354. The Congrès Archéologique -de France began its Séances générales in 1834, but the interest -of its <i>Comptes rendus</i> for Americanists is for comparative -illustration. The two volumes of <i>Mémoires de la -Société Ethnologique</i> (Paris, 1841-45) contain nothing bearing -directly on American archæology. Much the same may -be said of the <i>Annales Archéologiques fondées par Didron -aîné</i>, in 1844, and continued to 1870; of the <i>Bulletin Archéologique</i> -(1844-46) of the Athénæum Français, and of its continuation, -the <i>Bulletin Archéologique Français</i> (1846-56); -and of the <i>Annales</i> of the Institut Archéologique (1844, -etc.).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1931_1931" id="Footnote_1931_1931"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1931_1931"><span class="label">[1931]</span></a></span> -<i>Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, April, 1876.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1932_1932" id="Footnote_1932_1932"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1932_1932"><span class="label">[1932]</span></a></span> -A <i>Revue Ethnographique</i> was begun in 1869. A Societé -Ethnologique, publishing <i>Bulletin</i> (1846-47) and <i>Mémoires</i> -(1841-45), is a distinct organization.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1933_1933" id="Footnote_1933_1933"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1933_1933"><span class="label">[1933]</span></a></span> -S. H. Scudder, in his <i>Catalogue of Scientific Serials</i>, -no. 1528, endeavors to put into something like orderly -arrangement the exceedingly devious devices of duplication -of this and allied publications.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1934_1934" id="Footnote_1934_1934"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1934_1934"><span class="label">[1934]</span></a></span> -A <i>Revue d’Anthropologie</i> was begun at Paris, under -the direction of Broca, in 1872. A Société d’Anthropologie -began two series, <i>Bulletins</i> and <i>Mémoires</i>, in 1860. -Mortillet conducted <i>L’Homme</i> from 1883 to 1887, when he -and his associates in this work suspended its publication to -devote themselves to a <i>Dictionnaire des Sciences Anthropologiques</i> -and to a <i>Bibliothèque Anthropologique</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1935_1935" id="Footnote_1935_1935"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1935_1935"><span class="label">[1935]</span></a></span> -Rosny died April 23, 1871.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1936_1936" id="Footnote_1936_1936"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1936_1936"><span class="label">[1936]</span></a></span> -Its publications began in 1665. Cf. synopsis in Scudder’s -<i>Catalogue</i>, pp. 26-27. Cf. C. A. Alexander on the -origin and history of the Royal Society, in <i>Smithsonian -Rept.</i>, 1863.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1937_1937" id="Footnote_1937_1937"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1937_1937"><span class="label">[1937]</span></a></span> -Some of the local societies deal to some extent in American -subjects; <i>e. g.</i>, the <i>Journal of the Manchester Geographical -Society</i>, begun in 1885.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1938_1938" id="Footnote_1938_1938"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1938_1938"><span class="label">[1938]</span></a></span> -Not to be confounded with <i>The Ethnological Journal</i>, -vol. i., 1848-49, and vol. ii., 1854, incomplete; and <i>The -Ethnological Journal</i>, 1 vol., 1865-66.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1939_1939" id="Footnote_1939_1939"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1939_1939"><span class="label">[1939]</span></a></span> -Cf. J. R. Bartlett on an Antwerp meeting, in <i>Amer. -Antiq. Soc. Proc.</i>, 1868.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1940_1940" id="Footnote_1940_1940"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1940_1940"><span class="label">[1940]</span></a></span> -Such periodicals as <i>Nature</i> and <i>Popular Science Review</i> -show how anthropological science is attracting attention.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1941_1941" id="Footnote_1941_1941"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1941_1941"><span class="label">[1941]</span></a></span> -See Scudder’s <i>Catalogue</i>.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1942_1942" id="Footnote_1942_1942"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1942_1942"><span class="label">[1942]</span></a></span> -The third volume of Bastian’s <i>Culturländer des Alten -America</i> (Berlin, 1886) comprises “Nachträge und Ergänzungen -aus den Sammlungen des Ethnologischen Museums.”</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1943_1943" id="Footnote_1943_1943"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1943_1943"><span class="label">[1943]</span></a></span> -<i>Congrès des Américanistes, Compte Rendus</i>, Nancy, -ii. 271.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1944_1944" id="Footnote_1944_1944"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1944_1944"><span class="label">[1944]</span></a></span> -Cf. Oscar Montelius, <i>Bibliographie de l’archéologie -préhistorique de la Suède pendant le 19e siècle, suivie d’un -exposé succinct des sociétés archéologiques suédoises</i> (Stockholm, -1875).</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1945_1945" id="Footnote_1945_1945"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1945_1945"><span class="label">[1945]</span></a></span> -It is described by Tylor in his <i>Anahuac</i>, ch. 9; by -Brocklehurst in his <i>Mexico to-day</i>, ch. 21; by Bandelier in -the <i>American Antiquarian</i> (1878), ii. 15; in Mayer’s -<i>Mexico</i>; and in the summary of information (fifteen years -old, however) in Bancroft’s <i>Mexico</i>, iv. 553, etc., with references, -p. 565, which includes references to the Uhde collection -at Heidelberg, the Christy collection in London -(Tylor), that of the American Philosophical Society in -Philadelphia (<i>Trans.</i>, iii. 570), not to name the Mexican -sections of the large museums of America and Europe. -Henry Phillips, Jr. (<i>Proc. Amer. Philosophical Soc.</i>, xxi. -p. 111) gives a list of public collections of American Archæology. -There are some private collections mentioned in -the <i>Archives de la Soc. Amér. de France, Nouv. Ser.</i>, -vol. i. A. de Longperier’s <i>Notice des Monuments dans la -Salle des Antiquités Américaines</i> (Paris, 1880) covers a -part of the great Paris exhibition of that year. Something -is found in E. T. Stevens’s <i>Flint Chips, a guide to prehistoric -archæology as illustrated in the Blackmore Museum</i> -[at Salisbury, England], London, 1870.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1946_1946" id="Footnote_1946_1946"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1946_1946"><span class="label">[1946]</span></a></span> -There is an account of Mendoza in the <i>Amer. Antiq. -Soc. Proc.</i>, April, 1888, p. 172.</p> - -<p class="pfn4"><span class="ln1"><a name="Footnote_1947_1947" id="Footnote_1947_1947"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1947_1947"><span class="label">[1947]</span></a></span> -<i>Coleccion de las Antigüedades Mexicanas que ecsisten -en el Museo Nacional, litografiadas por Frederico Waldeck</i> -(Mexico, 1827—fol.); Sabin, iv. 15796. See miscellaneous -references on Mexican relics in Bancroft’s <i>Nat. -Races</i>, iv. 565.</p></div></div> - -<p> </p> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p> </p> -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="transnote p4"> -<p class="pc large">TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE:</p> -<p class="ptn">—Obvious print and punctuation errors were corrected.</p> -<p class="ptn">—The transcriber of this project created the book cover image -using the title page of the original book. 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